Detail About

Memory
PRIMERY MEMORY

A primary storage device is a component in your computer that stores information for
a short period of time. A primary storage device should not be confused with a
"primary storage drive," which would be a hard drive that holds the operating system
in your computer, like "Local Disk (C:)."
Primary memory is storage where your computer stores instructions and information
about programs it is currently running.
Primary storage is much faster than Secondary Memory, but it cannot be used to
store information in the long term.
Primary storage is volatile (unstable); as soon as the power is turned off, all of the
information in it is lost.

Examples of Primary Storage Devices

A primary storage device is a component in your computer that stores information for a
short period of time.

RAM

RAM is a primary storage Device. RAM, or random access memory, stores

information that is being processed.
RAM, also called read/write memory, is like a chalkboard. You can write
notes, read them, and erase them when you no longer need them.

Processor Cache

The processor, also known as the CPU (central processing unit), processes
information on your computer.
In order to do this, it needs somewhere to store the information, which in this
case is the "cache memory."
The cache memory transfers data at fast speeds so it can be processed by the
cores in the processor.
The cache memory holds a lot less space than RAM, however. For example, a
processor will usually have around 12 MB of cache memory, whereas RAM may
have up to 4 GB.
However, the cache memory makes up for that in sheer speed. For instance, RAM
will have a speed of 800 Mhz, while the cache memory can operate at 2.4 Ghz.

Processor Registers

The processor registers are the smallest and fastest of all primary storage
devices.
Typically, they hold around 32 to 64 bits, which is good enough for very simple
processes such as math calculations.
They are primarily used by the processor to handle calculations used to operate
the programs.
The larger processes involving software and operating system files are handled
by the cache memory.

SECONDARY MEMORY

The last type of memory we briefly introduce here is called secondary storage or
auxiliary storage.
This is memory outside the main body of the computer where we store programs and
data for future use.
Secondary (auxiliary) storage media extends the storage capabilities of the
computer.
We need secondary storage for two reasons. First, because the primary storage is
limited in size and it cannot always hold all the data we need. Second, in secondary
storage, data and programs do not disappear when power is turned off.
Secondary storage media are nonvolatile memories. This means the
information is lost only if you or the users intentionally erase it.

Secondary storage device

Secondary storage is a storage medium that holds information until it is

deleted or overwritten.
For example, a floppy disk drive and hard disk drive are both good examples
of secondary storage devices.
As can be seen by the below picture there are three different storage on a
computer, although primary storage is accessed much faster than secondary
storage.
Finally, although off-line storage could be considered secondary storage,
we've separated these into their own category because this media can be
easily removed from the computer and stored elsewhere.

Types of Secondary Storage Devices

Secondary storage is defined as a storage medium that is separate from the processor and
holds data even with no power passed to it. An example is a hard drive or an optical drive.
USB Drives
1.

A USB flash drive is a type of flash memory storage device integrated with a
universal serial bus interface. Usually portable and rewritable, some can hold up to 300
GB.
Floppy Disks

2.

Floppy disks are a storage medium made of a thin magnetic disk. They were widely
used from the 1970s to the 1990s. Storage capabilities ranged from 1.5 Mb to 200 MB on
some versions.
CD-R

3.

A CD-R (compact disc- recordable) is an optical secondary storage device invented by

Sony and Philips. It is also known as a WORM (write once read many) medium. Usually
has a storage capacity of 700 MB.
DVD-R

4.

DVD-R (Digital Video Disk- recordable) has a storage capacity of usually 4.1 GB. There
is also an 8.54-GB dual-layer version, called DVD-R DL.
Magnetic Tape

5.

Magnetic tape has been in use for more than 50 years. It is (in recent years)
packaged in cartridges/cassettes. The average amount of storage is 5 MB to 140 MB for
every standard-length reel (2,400 feet).

UNITS OF MEMORY
1 bit (binary digit*) = the value of 0 or 1
8 bits = 1 byte
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte
1024 kilobytes = 1 megabyte
1024 megabytes = 1 gigabyte
1024 gigabytes = 1 terabyte
1024 terabytes = 1 petabyte

Detail About

Hardware and Software

Hardware
Hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system. Computer
hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as
the monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD), system unit (graphic
cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of which are physical objects that can
be touched (known as tangible). In contrast, software is instructions that can be stored and run by
hardware.
Software is any set of machine-readable instructions that directs a computer's processor to perform
specific operations. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system.

Types of Hardware:
Motherboard
The motherboard is the main component of computer. It is a large rectangular board with integrated
circuitry that connects the other parts of the computer including the CPU, the RAM, the disk drives
(CD, DVD, hard disk, or any others) as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or
the expansion slots.
Expansion cards
The [expansion card] in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion
slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the
expansion bus.
Storage devices
Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components and
recording media that retain digital data. Data storage is a core function and fundamental component
of computers.
Fixed media
Data is stored by a computer using a variety of media. Hard disk drives are found in virtually all older
computers, due to their high capacity and low cost, but solid-state drives are faster and more power
efficient, although currently more expensive than hard drives, so are often found in more expensive
computers. Some systems may use a disk array controller for greater performance or reliability.
Removable media

To transfer data between computers, a USB flash drive or Optical disc may be used. Their
usefulness depends on being readable by other systems; the majority of machines have an optical
disk drive, and virtually all have a USB port.
Input and output peripherals
Input and output devices are typically housed externally to the main computer chassis. The following
are either standard or very common to many computer systems.
Input
Input devices allow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most
personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typically use
a touchpad instead of a mouse. Other input devices include webcams, microphones, joysticks,
and image scanners.
Output device
Output devices display information in a human readable form. Such devices could
include printers, speakers, monitors or a Braille embosser.

Software
Software is any set of machine-readable instructions that directs a computer's processor to perform
specific operations. Computer software contrasts with computer hardware, which is the physical
component of computers. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be
realistically used without the other. If you compare computers to music and musical instruments you
can think of hardware as being the instruments and software being the musical notes.
Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and their associated documentation. The
word software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only.
Software is stored in computer memory and cannot be touched i.e. it is intangible.
At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an
individual processor typically a central processing unit (CPU). A machine language consists of
groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from
its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a particular storage
location inside the computer an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may
also (indirectly) cause something to appear on a display of the computer system a state change
which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out the instructions in the order they are
provided, unless it is instructed to "jump" to a different instruction, or interrupted.

Software written in a machine language is known as "machine code". However, in practice, software
is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans
to use (closer to natural language) than machine language.[2] High-level languages are translated,
using compilation or interpretation or a combination of the two, into machine language. Software
may also be written in a low-level assembly language, essentially, a vaguely mnemonic
representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language is
translated into machine code using an assembler.

Types of Software:
Based on the goal, computer software can be divided into:

Application software, which uses the computer system to perform special functions or
provide entertainment functions beyond the basic operation of the computer itself. There are
many different types of application software, because the range of tasks that can be performed
with a modern computer is so large - see list of software.

System software, which is designed to directly operate the computer hardware, to provide
basic functionality needed by users and other software, and to provide a platform for running
application software. System software includes:

Operating systems, which are essential collections of software that manage

resources and provides common services for other software that runs "on top" of
them. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are core parts of
operating systems. In practice, an operating system comes bundled with additional software
(including application software) so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer
that only has an operating system.

Device drivers, which operate or control a particular type of device that is attached to
a computer. Each device needs at least one corresponding device driver; because a
computer typically has at minimum at least one input device and at least one output device,
a computer typically needs more than one device driver.

Utilities, which are computer programs designed to assist users in maintenance and
care of their computers.
Malicious software or malware, which are computer programs developed to harm and

disrupt computers. As such, malware is undesirable. Malware is closely associated with

computer-related crimes, though some malicious programs may have been designed
as practical jokes.