Flow Measurement

Ain Shams University
Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Power Engineering Department
Second Year
Course Title: MEP 281 Measurements
Flow Measurements
Prepared by :
Prof. Dr. Nabil Abdel Aziz MAHMOUD
Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD
3/23/2014
Table of Contents
Conversion Factors
Flow Rate Measurement
1. Constant Area, Variable Pressure Drop Meters. [ obstruction Meters ]
1.1. The Sharp Edge Orifice.
1.1.1. Orifice Disadvantages and Advantages.
1.2. The Nozzle Flow Meter and The Venturi Flow meter.
1.2.1. Effect of Compressibility.
1.2.2. Expansion Factor for Compressible Flow.
1.3. The Sonic Nozzle.
1.4. The Laminar Flow Element ( LFE).
1.5. Factors Affecting Obstruction Meter Selection.
2. Constant Pressure Drop, Variable area Meters.
2.2. Rotameters.
3. Turbine Flow Meters.
4. Electromagnetic Flow Meters.
5. Positive Displacement Meters.
5.1. The Rotary Vane Flow Meter.
5.2. The Lobed Impeller Flow Meter.
5.3. Domestic Water Flow Meters
6. Flow Meter Calibration.
6.1
Sources of Errors in Flow Meter Calibration.
7. Other Types of Flow Meters
7.1
Nutating Disc
7.2
Piston water flow meter
7.2.1 Oscillating Piston Flow Meter
7.2.2 Rotary Piston Flow Meter
7.3
Vortex Flow Meter
7.4
Ultrasonic Flow Meter
7.4.1 Time of Flight Flow Meter
7.4.2 Doppler Flow Meter
7.5
Elbow Flow Meter
7.6
Target Flow Meter
7.7
Mass Coriolis Flow Meter
7.8
Thermal Mass Flow Meter
8. Selecting a Flow Meter
9. Working with Flow Meters
10. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Different Flow Measuring Techniques
11. Flow meter Selection Guide
References.
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Conversion Factors
MASS
1.0 lbm
1.0 slug
1.0 kg
=
=
=
453.59237 g
32.174 lbm
2.2046 lbm
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
2.54 cm
3.208 ft = 39.37 inches
0.01 m = 0.3937 in = 0.0323 ft
0.001 m = 1*10-3 m
0.000001 m = 1*10-6 m
0.000000001 m = 1*10-9 m
1000 m = 0.612 miles
5280 ft
=
=
=
60 s
60 min
8.64*104 s
POWER
1.0 w
1.0 hp
1.0 kW
1.0 BTU/hr
LENGTH
1.0 inch
1.0 m
1.0 cm
1.0 mm
1.0 m
1.0 nm
1.0 km
1.0 miles
=
=
=
=
1 .0 J/s = 860.42 cal/hr

745.7 W = 550.0 ft.lb/s
1*103 W = 3412 BTU/hr
778.16 ft.lb/hr
ENERGY
1.0 J
1.0 erg
1.0 cal
1.0 BTU
TIME
=
=
=
=
=
1.0 N.m = 1*107 ergs

I dyne.cm
4.1855 J
778.16 ft.lb
252.16 cal = 1055.06 J
VISCOSITY
1.0 min
1.0 h
1.0 day
1.0 N.s/m2
= 0.672 lbm /ft.s
SPECIFIC HEAT
1.0 kJ/kg.C
= 0.23884 BTU/lbm.F
FORCE
1.0 N
1.0 lb
=
=
1 kg.m/s2 = 1*105 dynes

4.44822 N
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
1.0 W/m.C
= 0.5778 BTU/hr.ft.F
PRESSURE
1.0 Pa
2
1.0 lb/in
1.0 atm
1.0 bar
1.0 inch Hg
1.0 inch H2O
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1 N/m2
1.4504*10-4 lb/in2
6894.76 N/m2
14.696 lb/in2 = 760 Torr
14.505 lb/in2
1*105 N/m2
1*108 dynes/cm2
3376.8 N/m2
248.8 N/m2
0.0362 lb/in2
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

1.0 W/m2.C
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
AREA
1.0 m2
1.0 cm2
=
=
10.76 ft2
1*10-4 m2 = 0.155 in2
VOLUME
1.0 cm3*103
1.0 gallon
1.0 ft3
=
=
=
=
=
1 Liter
1*10-3 m3
0.2642 galons
231.0 in3
0.0283 m3
= 0.1761 BTU/hr.ft2.F
Standard Acceleration of Gravity

g = 9.80665 m/s2 = 32.1742 ft/s2
Speed of Light
c = 2.998*108 m/s
Plank's Constant
hp = 6.626*10-38 J.S
Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
= 5.673*10-8 W/m2.K4
= 0. 1712*10-8 BTU/lbm.mole.R
Universal Gas Constant
R = 8.3143 J/gmole.K
= 1.9859 BTU/lb.mole.R
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FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT

1. Constant - Area, Variable Pressure Drop Meters :
[ Obstruction meters ]
This method is involving placing a fixed area flow restriction of some type in the
pipe carrying the fluid. This flow restriction causes a pressure drop which varies
with the flow rate; thus measurement of the pressure drop by means of a suitable
differential pressure pick - up allows the flow rate measurement.
The most common practical devices that utilize this principle:
- The sharp edge orifice flow meter.
- The nozzle flow meter.
- The venturi flow meter.
- The sonic nozzle.
- The laminar flow element.
1.1 The Sharp - Edge Orifice:
This is the most widely used flow metering element because of its simplicity, low
cost and the great volume of research data available for predicting its behavior,
figure (1).
There are different types of this meter such as:
- Flanged taps
- Corner taps
- Vena contraction taps (D & D/2 taps)
- Pipe taps (2 1/2 D & 8D taps)
If we assumed one - dimensional flow, incompressible (Constant ), frictionless
fluid and no heat transfer or elevation change, the theory gives the volume flow
rate as ; See the Appendix :
Qth
A2 f
1 A2 f
A1f
2 P1 P2
[m3/sec]
(1)
Where:
Qth
: Theoretical mass flow rate
A1f , A2f : Cross-section flow areas where pressure P1, P2 are measured, [ m2 ]
: Flow density, [kg / m3]
: Static pressures, [N / m2]

P1, P2
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Actually, the real situation deviates from the assumption of the theoretical model,
and this requires experimental correction factors, for example:
A1f , A 2f : Are areas of the actual flow cross-section which are not the
same as those of the pipe and orifice.
Usually there is a friction effect which affects the measured pressure
drop.
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Therefore, a discharge coefficient may be defined as:

Cd
Where
Qa
(2)
Q th
Cd : Discharge coefficient of the orifice meter
Qa : Actual flow rate
[m3 / sec]
And thus :
Qa
C d A2
1 A2 A
1
2P1 P 2
[m3/sec]
(3)
Or
Qa Cd
A2
2 P1 P 2
1 4
Qa Cd A 2 F
2 P
d
m Cd A 2 F
a
2 P
d
Where:
d
: Diameters ratio < 1.0
D
d
: Pipe diameter, [m]

: Orifice diameter , [m]
: Velocity appreach factor 1 / 1 4

: Pipe cross - section area
[m2 ]
: Orifice cross - section area
[m2 ]
: Fluid density usually measured upstream the orifice, i.e. 1
: Differential pressure drop across the orifice, [N/m2]
A1
A2
P
d
To determine the discharge coefficient, cd, an experimental calibration is

necessary. The discharge coefficient varies mainly with the Reynolds number, R N,
based on orifice diameter, figure (2). This calibration can be carried with a single
fluid, such water, and the results can be used for any other fluids as long as
Reynolds numbers are the same.
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Based on Orifice
diameter
1.1.1 Orifice disadvantages and advantages

The orifice has the largest permanent pressure loss of any of the obstruction meters
(other than the laminar flow element). This is one of its main disadvantages since it
represents a power loss that must be replaced by whatever pumping machinery is
causing the flow. This permanent pressure loss is given approximately by:
Pressure loss, (P)Loss (P) d 1 2

(4)
Where:
P : is the differential pressure drop used for flow measurement.
d
It should be noted that, the standard calibration data assume no significant flow
disturbances such as elbows, bends, tees, valves, etc. for a certain minimum
distance upstream of the orifice. The presence of such disturbances can invalidate
the standard data.
Standard data available requires:
- Pipe diameter
2 inches or greater
- (Diameters ratio) (0.2 - 0.7)
- RN
Above 10000
- Upstream pipe length 10 D
- Downstream pipe length 5 D
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Also, orifice discharge coefficients are quite sensitive to the condition of the
upstream edge of the hole. The standard orifice design requires that this edge be
very sharp, and also that the orifice plate be sufficiently thin relative to its
diameter.
1.2 The Nozzle Flow Meter And The Venturi Flow Meter:
Nozzle and venturi flow meters are shown in figures ( 3 and 4 ). The nozzle and
venturi flow meters are all operate on exactly the same principle as the orifice.
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The significant differences laying in numerical values of certain characteristics:

- Discharge coefficients for nozzle and venturi are larger than those of the
orifice plate.
- For the same diameter ratio, A 2
A1
, these devices give a lower
value for the pressure loss, (P)Loss, compared to that of the orifice plate
as shown in figure (5) .
Due to the lower value of the pressure loss in the venturi meter, it gives a definitive
improvement in power losses over an orifice and is often indicated for measuring
very large flow rates. The initial higher cost of a venturi over an orifice may be
offset by reducing operating costs.
Note that for orifice, venturi and nozzle:
A2
2(P) d
Q C d
1 4
or
Q (P) d
Where (P)d is the differential pressure across the meter
(P)d = P1 P2
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This indicates that the measured discharge is proportional to the square root of the
differential pressure.
In the previous analysis, we assumed that the flow is incompressible, ( constant).
Actually this is not true in cases where the fluid has higher velocities. In these
cases, pressure and therefore density are changed through the flow. Therefore,
compressibility effect should be taken into consideration.
1.2.1 Effect of compressibility:
For a steady, compressible, isentropic flow between two sections 1 and 2, one can
prove that:
P1 P 2
2 V 2
2 2
M4
1
2 k 2 .....
4
24
M2
2
(5)
Where:
The conditions at section 1, assumed to be stagnation conditions at inlet,
(V1 = 0), M2 is the Mach number at section 2 and k is the specific heat
ratio Cp/Cv .
The term
P1 P2
2 V22 2
called the compressibility factor
M 2 0.3
For
M 2 = 0.4
1.02
1.04
Equation (5) shows that for M 0.3 , the compressibility factor 1

Or
P1 P2 2 V2
2
(6)
Or
2 V2
2
P1 P2
2
(Eulars equation for incompressible flows)
Thus for M 0.3 , the flow may be considered incompressible flow and equation
(3) is valid for all the above mentioned three devices, orifice, nozzle and venturi
meters. If M > 0.3, compressibility effects will appear and can be represented by a
factor called expansion factor.
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3/23/2014
1.2.2 Expansion factor for compressible flow

When the flow of an ideal compressible gas is considered, the following
equations may be applied :
- State equation.
P RT
- Energy equation. h01 = h02
(7)
V2
V2
C p T1 1 2 C p T 2 2 2
(8)
p v k cte
- Assuming isentropic flow
(9)
If V1 0, the mass flow rate, m, can be calculated from the following equation:
2/k
2k
P P2 P1
k 1 1 1
A2
1 4 P 2
2/k
P1
i.e m = f ( P2 /P1 , . k )
P2
k 1
P1 k
(10)
For certain inlet conditions.
But for a venturi meter for incompressible flow equation (3) gives :
2 P P
1 2
C A
d 2
1 A / A
2
1
Or
m Q
1
2 P P
1 2
C A
d 1 2
1 A / A
2
1
So for compressible flow, the mass flow rate may be calculated from :
m C
Y A
d
1 A / A
2
1
2 P P
1 2
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3/23/2014
Where:
Y is the expansion factor and is equal to :
1 4
2/k
1 4 P2
P1
k P2

k 1 P
1
1l2
k 1
P2 k
1
P1
1 P2
P1
2/k
Thus Y = f (P2 /P1 , , k )

Thus, for all the three devices, orifice, venturi and nozzle, flow rate calculations
are made on the basis of equation (3) with appropriate empirical constants:
Q a C d A 2 F Y
2 P1 P2
1
Or
ma Cd A 2 F Y
2 1 ( P1 P2 )
Where
F = velocity approach factor
1
F
1
(11)
1 4
A
1
DIAMETER RATIO = d
A2 / A1
(12)
Y : is the expansion factor

So when flow measurements of a compressible fluid are made an additional
parameter, the expansion factor Y, is used.
12
3/23/2014
For venturi and nozzle flow meters, the expansion factor Ya could be calculated
from the following equation :
Y
a
( k 1) / k
P
1 2 P
1
P
2
1
P
1
2/k
P2
k
P1
k 1
1/ 2
1 4
P
1 4 2 P
1
2 / k
(13)
While for orifices with flanged taps or vena-contracta taps, the following empirical
expression of Yb is given by:
Y
b
1 0.41 0.35 4
P P
1 2
P
1
1
k
(14)
For orifice with pipe taps, the following relation applies :
Y 1 0.333 1145
.
2 0.7 5 12 13
1
P P 1
1
2
P
k
1
(15)
Figure (6) and figure (7) give the variation of Ya and Y1 , for air (k=1.4) and for
different values of .
Thus, we have the following semi-empirical equation which is conventionally
applied to venturi, nozzle and orifice flow meters:
Y F
2 1 P P
1
2
13
[kg /sec]
(16)
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14
3/23/2014
1.3 The Sonic Nozzle :

All the obstruction meters discussed above may be used with gases or liquids. In
gases flow, when the flow rate is sufficiently high, the pressure differential
becomes quite large, and eventually sonic conditions may be achieved at the
minimum flow area. Under these conditions, the flow is said to be choked and
the flow rate takes its maximum value for the given inlet conditions. For an ideal
gas with a constant specific heat, the pressure ratio for this choked conditions,
assuming isentropic flow is :
15
3/23/2014
P*
P
1
where
P*
P1
k / ( k 1)
2
k 1
(17)
: critical pressure at throat

: stagnation pressure at inlet
This ratio is called the critical pressure ratio. By inserting this ratio in equation (10)
gives the mass flow rate for choked nozzle :
1/ 2
2
k
2 2 /(k 1)
mC d A 2 P1
(18)
RT1
k
1
k
i.e.
m = f ( P1 , T1 , k )
The above equation is frequently applied to a nozzle when the pressure ratio
(P2 / P1) is less then the critical value. Under these conditions, the flow is
dependent only on the inlet stagnation conditions P1 and T1 .
The ideal sonic-nozzle flow rate given by equation (18) must be modified by an
appropriate discharge coefficient, Cd, which is a function of the geometry of the
nozzle and other factors. This coefficient is usually about 0.97.
Exercises
1-
For an orifice flow meter, show that the mass flow rate is proportional to the
square root of the measured differential pressure.
16
3/23/2014
Example:
Air at 18 oC flows through a 7.5 cm pipe diameter. A sharp edge orifice plate
with = 0.6 is chosen to meter the flow. A differential pressure of 10 cm H 2O is
measured at flange taps with an upstream pressure of 3.95 bar abs. If the kinematic
viscosity of the air is 10.56x10-2 m2/hr, find the air mass flow rate in kg/s.
Take R = 288 kJ/kg K , the expansion factor equals 0.92 , and you may use the
figure shown below.
As a first trial take Cd = 0.648
Make TWO Trials.
Given:
T = 273+18 = 291 K, D=0.075 m , = 0.6 = d/D , P = 10 cm water,
P = 3.95 bar abs, = 0.1056 m2/hr , R = 288 kJ/kg K , Y = 0.92, Cd = 0.684
Solution:
= 0.6 = d/D Thus d = 0.045 m
m2
F = Velocity approach factor =
For air
P = 10 cm water = 0.1x1000x9.81 N/m2 = 981 N/m2
For orifice meter
17
3/23/2014
Take Cd = 0.684
Thus
From chart the new value of Cd corresponding to Re = 0.652

m. = 0.09833 kg/sec
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Example:
In calibrating an orifice flow meter using air the following data are given:
Pipe Inside Diameter D1
Orifice Diameter do
Inlet Pressure P1
Inlet Temperature t1
Orifice Differential Head hd,O
Orifice Expansion Factor
Actual Measured Mass Flow Rate
2.54
cm
8.38 mm
150 kPa
24 oC
32 cm H2O
0.95
0.004 Kg/s
Calculate the orifice discharge coefficient.

Given:
T = 273+24= 297 K, D1=0.0254 m , do = 0.00838 , P = 32cm water,
P1 = 150 kPa, ,
Y = 0.95,
ma = 0.004 kg/s
Solution:
= do /D1 Thus = 0.32992126
5.51541E-05
F = Velocity approach factor =
For air
m2
1.005977113
1.759757857
P = 32 cm water = 0.32x1000x9.81 N/m2 = 3139.2 N/m2

For orifice meter
0.005540388
= 0.721971056
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3/23/2014
1.4 The Laminar Flow Element : (LFE)

Laminar flow element, LFE, is an obstruction meter where the primary element is a
cylindrical matrix composed of a large number of parallel channels of a very small
equivalent diameter. These channels maintain the velocity the same as in the pipe
(theoretically) but reduce the Reynolds number so the flow becomes laminar. This
results in a linear relationship between the differential pressure and flow rate.
Figure (8) shows the construction details of a laminar flow element.
These types of meters are differing from the metering devices discussed above in
that they are generally designed to operate in the laminar flow regime. Pipe flows
generally are considered laminar if RN < 2000.
The relationship between flow rate and pressure drop across a length of pipe, L, of
diameter d1 and containing a laminar flow follows a linear relationship. The energy
equation for such case is :
P
1
V2
1
2g
P
2
V2
2
2g
(19)
L,1 2
where hL,1-2 is the pressure loss from inlet, section 1, to exit, section 2.
The head loss term, hL,1-2 , can be estimated using the Darcy equation:
20
3/23/2014
L,1 2
L
d
1
V2
1
2g
(20)
Where L is the distance between pressure taps, d1 is inside pipe diameter and f is
the friction factor, which for a laminar flow is :
f
64
Re d1
(21)
Where:
Red1 is Reynolds number based on diameter d1.
d 12
And as
QV
1
And this gives
V1 = V2
Q
Thus
d12
4
d 12
V
2
4
V
1
And from energy equation (19) and as V1 = V2 ;

P
P
g
2
L V1
h
f
L,1 2
d 2g
1
2
64 L V1
or
P
V d d 2g
11 1
2
64
L V1
Re d d 2g
1 1
64 L 1 4Q
d
d 2 d 2
1
1
1
Therefore,
Q
d14
128
P
L
m3/sec
(23)
or,
Q = K P
or
Q P
Where:
Q
d1
: Volume flow rate, m3/sec

: tube inside diameter, m
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: Tube length between pressure taps, m

: Fluid viscosity, in [N sec/m2 ] kg/m.sec
: Pressure drop = ( P1 P2 ); N/m2
: Meter Constant
The above equation reveals that volume flow rate is linear with pressure drop in a
laminar flow element.
Q P
Note that for orifice, venturi and nozzle:
Q C
A
d
1 4

2 P
or
Q P
Thus for orifice, venturi and nozzle, the volume flow rate is linear to the square
root of the differential pressure.
The simplest type of laminar flow element consists of two pressure taps separated
by a length of piping. However the Reynolds number constraint for laminar flow
restricts the size of pipe diameter that can be used. This limitation is overcome in
commercial unit through the use of laminar flow elements which consist of a
bundle of small diameter tubes, or some proprietary design of geometric passages
(small spherical balls, honey comb, etc.) placed in parallel. The strategy of a
laminar flow element is to divide up the flow by passing it through the tube bundle
so as to reduce the flow rate per tube such that the individual Reynolds number in
each tube remains below 2000. Pressure drop is measured between the entrance
and the exit of the laminar flow element. Because of the additional entrance and
exit losses associated with the laminar flow element, a flow coefficient is used to
modify the above equation. This coefficient must be determined by calibration.
So;
d4
Q Cd
128
P
L
or
Q = Cd K (P/)
Where K is the meter constant.
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For any given meter there will exist a flow rate above which laminar flow will no
longer exist in the laminar flow element.
The main disadvantage of this meter is that the pressure loss is equal to the
differential pressure because it is completely the result of viscous friction.
Laminar flow elements offer some distinct advantages over other pressure
differential meters. These advantages include:
1- A high sensitivity even at extremely low flow rates.
2- The ability to measure pipe system flow in meter direction, as Q P
3- A wide usable flow range.
4- The ability to indicate an average flow rate in pulsating flows.
Disadvantages of the meter:
1. Their use is restricted to clean fluids or the tubes will be clogged by dirty.
2. The entire pressure drop measured remains a system pressure loss.
1.5 Factors Affecting Obstruction Meter Selection :
- Meter placement.
- Overall pressure loss.
- Accuracy and overall costs.
Exercises:
1- Derive an equation to calculate the mass flow rate using a laminar flow
element. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of this meter?
2- Derive an equation to calculate the mass flow rate using a laminar flow
element meter . For such meter, show that the mass flow rate is
proportional to the differential pressure.
prove that Q = Cd K p
3- For a Laminar Flow Element (LFE)
3
Where: Q is the discharge [m /s] , p is the differential pressure across the

meter [Pa] , K is the meter constant and Cd is the discharge coefficient.
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Example:
When a calibrated LFE is used to measure air discharge, it was found K = 11.6
x10-3 . If the LFE is used to measure the discharge of water, what will be the value
of K given that:
For air: Density = 1.17 [kg/m3] and dynamic viscosity = 1.86x10-4 [Poise]
For water: Density = 995.7 [kg/m3] and dynamic viscosity = 2.886 [kg/m hr]
Note: 1 [Poise] = 1 [gm/cm s]
Given:
K meter constant = Kair = 11.6x10-3
air = 1.17 kg/m3 & air = 1.86x10-5 [Poise] = 1.86x10-5
kg/m s
3
-4
water = 995.7 kg/m
& water = 2.886
[kg/ m hr] = 8.01667x10 kg/m s
Solution:
For LEF
Or
meter constant
For air
For water
Thus
or
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2. Constant - Pressure Drop, Variable Area Meters:

2.1 Rotameters:
The rotameter remains a widely used insertion meter for flow rate indication. As
depicted in figure (9), the meter consists of a float within a vertical tube, tapered to
an increasing cross sectional area at its outlet. Flow entering through the bottom
passes over the float, which is free to move. The basic principle of the device is
based on the simple balance between the weight of the float Fw and both the
buoyancy forces FB acting on the float in the moving fluid and drag force FD.
The force balance in the vertical direction gives:

FD
F
F
B
W
U2
Cd A b f m f V b b V b
2
F
D
(24)
(25)
Where:
Cd : Drag coefficient
Ab : Frontal area of the body (float)
f ,f : Density and specific weight of the passing fluid
b : Specific weight of the float
Vb : Volume of the float
Um : Mean flow velocity in the annular space
FB
25
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Note that:
= g and from the above equation:
1
Cd
2g V
b
A
b
1/ 2
b f
f
(26)
The drag coefficient, Cd , is dependent on the Reynolds number and hence on the
viscosity. However special floats may be used that have an essentially constant
drag coefficient and thus offer the advantage that the meter reading will be
independent of the viscosity.
It must be noted from the above equation, as (Vb , Ab , b , f and Cd are constants;
Um = constant
i.e. It is not function of the discharge Q .
And
1
Q AU A
m
Cd
2 gV b f
b
A
f
b
1/ 2
(27)
Where A is the annular space between the taper glass tube and the float.
From the above equation, as

Um is constant therefore;
Q A
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So, to get a variable measured value for Q, the area A must be vary with
the variation of the discharge Q, so a taper tube must be used.
Where:
A
is the annular area and is given by:
A D ay d 2
4
D
d
y
a
2
: is the taper tube diameter at inlet

: is the maximum body (float) diameter
: is the vertical distance measured from the entrance of the tapered tube
: is a constant depending on the tube taper, a = 2 tan
: is the total taper angle of the tube
Thus the discharge can be calculated as:

Q = Um x A
Q =
Cd
2 gV b f
b
A
f
b
1/ 2
D ay d 2
This is called the exact discharge.

Now as;
A D 2 2 D a y a 2 y 2d 2
4
Since D d
and as a = 2 tan
and very small, so;
is constant
a2 y2 may be neglected ;
Therefore ; A D a y
and as ( a and D ) are constants,
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A y
(linear relation between A and y)
It may be noted that for many practical meters, the quadratic area relation given
above becomes nearly linear for the actual dimension of the tube and the float.
Assuming such a linear relation, the equation for mass flow rate becomes:
Q y
1
Cd
2g V
b
A
b
b f
f
1/ 2
or,
m f Q C1 y
b f f
(28)
Where:
C1
: Is now an appropriate constant for the meter =
And if f and b are constants,

Both (Q & m )
1
C
d
2g Vb
Ab
12
Thus the floats vertical position, y, gives a direct measure for the flow rate which
can be read from a graduated scale.
The tubes of the rotameters are made often of high strength glass to allow direct
observation of the float position. Where greater strength is required, metal tubes
can be used and the float position detected magnetically throughout the metal wall.
Exercises:
1- Show that the mass flow rate measured by a rotameter is function of the
height of the pop in the glass tube. Can we use a straight glass tube in a
rotameter? Why?
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Example:
A rotameter is designed to measure a maximum flow rate of 40 lit/min of
water. The bob has 25 mm diameter, a total volume of 15 cm3 and a frontal
area of 20 cm2. The bob constructed so that its density is double that of
water. The total length of the rotameter tube is 40 cm and the diameter of
the tube at inlet is 25 mm. Determine the tube taper for a drag coefficient of
0.08.
Assume a linear relation between the annular area of the rotameter, and
the bob height, determine the meter constant.
Given:
Q = 40 lit/min of water, d = D = 0.025 mm, Vb = 15 cm3 , Ab = 20 cm2 , b
= 2 f
Y = 0.4 m , Cd = 0.08
Solution:
Vb / Ab = (15x10-6) / (20x10-4) = 0.75 x 10-2
[
where A is the annular space
{(
{(
or
)
or
)
where a = 2 tan
= tan-1 (a/2) = 0.7425 deg
total taper tube angle = 2 = 1.485 deg
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C1 = meter Constant = 1.6667
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Example:
A rotameter is to be used for measure air flow rate at 7 bar abs and 20 oC. The
maximum measured air flow rate is 0.015 kg/s, the inlet diameter of the meter is 25
mm and the length of the meter is 30 cm. The bob is constructed so that its density
is five times that of the air and its frontal area to its volume is 350 m-1. Calculate
the exact total tube taper angle if the drag coefficient is 0.5 and the bob diameter is
equal to the taper tube inlet diameter.
Given:
P = 7 bar abs., T = 20 oC., m. = 0.015 kg/s, D = d = 0.025 m, y = .3 m
b = 5 f , Ab/Vb = 350 , Cd = 0.5
Solution:
[
{(
{(
or
)
or
)
where a = 2 tan
= tan-1 (a/2) = 3.685 deg
Exact total taper tube angle = 2 = 7.37 deg
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Example:
In a laboratory test, a rotameter is used to measure liquid refrigerant R12 flow rate
at 12.14 bar abs, 50o C and density 1.21kg/dm3. The maximum measured
refrigerant flow rate is 20 gm/s, the inlet diameter of the meter is 12 mm and the
total taper tube angle is 2 deg. The bob is constructed so that its density is 1.05
times that of the refrigerant and its frontal area to its volume is 420 m-1. If the drag
coefficient is 0.3 and the bob diameter is equal to the taper tube inlet diameter.
Calculate:
i.
ii.
The exact maximum glass tube length.

Assume a linear relation between the annular area of the rotameter, and the
bob height, determine the meter constant.
Given:
P = 12.14 bar abs, T = 50o C, f = 1.21kg/dm3 = 1210 kg/m3 ,
m' = 20 gm/s = 0.02 kg/s, D=d= 12 mm = 0.012 m, 2 = 2 deg, b = 1.05 f
Ab/Vb = 420 m-1 , Cd = 0.03
Solution:
i)
Um : Velocity in the annular space
[
a = 2 tan = 2 tan 1o = 0.03491

[
or
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y = (0.019557- 0.012) / 0.03491

y = 0.2165 m
or y = 21.65 cm
ii)
if A y
C1 = meter Constant = 3.414 x 10-3
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3. Turbine Flow Meters :

If a turbine wheel is placed in a pipe containing a flowing fluid, its rotary speed
depends on the flow rate of the fluid. By reducing bearing friction and other losses
to a minimum, one can design a turbine whose speed varies linearly with the flow
rate. Thus a speed measurement allows flow rate measurement. In the turbine wheel body a permanent magnet is enclosed so that it rotate with the wheel. The
speed can be measured with great accuracy by counting the rate at which turbine
blades pass a given point, using a magnetic pick up to produce voltage pulses. By
feeding these pulses to an electronic - pulse rate meter, one can measure the flow
rate, and by accumulating the total number of pulse during a timed interval, the
total flow is obtained. These measurements can be made very accurately because
of their digital nature, figure (10).
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Dimensional analysis of the turbine flow meters, shows that ( if bearing friction
and shaft power output are neglected) the following relation should hold :
Flow coefficient =
nd 2
f

nd 3
Where:
Q : volume flow rate,
n : rotor angular velocity,
d : meter bore diameter,
: Kinematics viscosity,
= f (Re )
(29)
[m3/sec]
[rps]
[m]
[m2/sec]
For negligible viscosity effects, a simplified analysis gives that:

Q=kn
Where:
k : is a constant for a given meter and is independent of the fluid
properties
n : is rotor angular velocity or pulse rate
(30)
Turbine meter can follow transient flow accurately since their fluid mechanical
time constant is of the order of 2 - 10 msec.
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4. Electromagnetic Flow Meters :

The operating principle of an electromagnetic flow meter, figure (11) is based on
the fundamental principle that an electromotive force (emf) of electric potential, E,
is induced in a conductor of length, L, when moves with a velocity, u, through a
magnetic field of magnetic flux .
E = u L x 10-8
[V]
Magnetic Field
(31)
Where:
u
u : velocity of the conductor, [cm/s]

: Flux density,
[gauss]
L : length of conductor,
[ cm]
Magnetic
Field
Electrode
Electrode
A magnetic flow meter (mag flow meter), Fig. 11, is a volumetric flow meter
which does not have any moving parts and is ideal for wastewater applications or
any dirty liquid which is conductive or water based. Magnetic flow meters will
generally not work with hydrocarbons, distilled water and many non-aqueous
solutions). Magnetic flow meters are also ideal for applications where low pressure
drop and low maintenance are required.
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In general, electrodes are embedded in the pipe wall in a diametrical plane that is
normal to the known magnetic field, and the flow rate is found by :
Q u
d2
4
E d2
L 4
K1 E
(32)
The static sensitivity K1 is a meter constant found by calibration and supplied by

the manufacturer. The relation between flow rate and measured potential is linear.
The electromagnetic flow meter comes commercially as a package flow device,
which is installed directly in line and connected to an external electronic output
unit.
Units are available as
- Dc units, using permanent magnets.
- Ac units, using variable flux strength magnets.
The magnetic flux strength of an Ac unit can be increased on site to produce a
strong signal at low flow rates of low conductivity fluids, such as water. Special
designs include a flow sensor unit which actually can clamp over (not in line with)
a non magnetic pipe, a design favored to monitor blood flow rate through major
arteries during surgery.
The electromagnetic flow meter has
a very low pressure loss associated
with its use due to its open tube, no
obstruction design. This absence of
internal parts is very attractive for
metering corrosive and dirty fluids.
The
operating
principle
is
independent of fluid density and
viscosity, responding only to
average velocity. The use of any
meter is limited to fluids having a
reasonable value of electrical
conductivity. The addition of salt to
a fluid will increase its conductivity.
Inline Electromagnetic Flow meter
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To apply this principle to flow measurement with a magnetic flow meter, it is

necessary first to state that the fluid being measured must be electrically
conductive for the Faraday principle to apply. As applied to the design of magnetic
flow meters, Faraday's Law indicates that signal voltage (E) is dependent on the
average liquid velocity (V) the magnetic field strength (B) and the length of the
conductor (D) (which in this instance is the distance between the electrodes).
Advantages
Disadvantages
No moving parts.
Limited for fluids with reasonably
Can be used with dirty fluids.
value for electric conductivity.
Can measure transition flow.
Low pressure drop (No obstruction).
No maintenance.
No contact between fluid and the
meter.
Not function of or (fluid prop.)
Exercises:
1- Sketch an electromagnetic flow meter and derive its equation used to calculate
the mass flow rate. State the main types and advantages of such meter.
2- What are the advantages and disadvantages of an Electromagnetic Flow Meter?
3- Show that the single voltage (E) measured by an Electromagnetic flow meter is
independent of the fluid properties and .
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5. Positive Displacement Meters (Volume flow meters):

Positive displacement meters contain mechanical elements that define a known
volume. The free moving elements are displaced by the action of the moving fluid.
A counting mechanism counts the number of elements displacement to provide a
direct reading of volume of fluid passed through the meter. These meters usually
used as volume meters. Volume per unit time can be discerned in conjunction with
a timer. This metering method is common to water, gasoline and natural gas
meters, where steady flow is exist. Obviously it is not suited for transient flow
measurements. Several types of these flow meters can be used.
5.1 The Rotary - Vane Flow Meter :
One type of the positive displacement flow meter is the rotary - vane type flow
meter shown in figure (12). The vanes are spring loaded so that they continuously
maintain contact with the casing of the meter. A fixed quantity of fluid is trapped
in each section as the eccentric drum rotates, and this fluid finds its way out from
the exit port. An appropriate register connected to the shaft of the eccentric drum to
record the volume of the fluid displaced. The uncertainty of the rotary vane meter
is of the order of 0.5%, and the meters are insensitive to viscosity since the vanes
always maintain good contact with the inside of the casing.
Fixed Casing
This type usually used for oil or fuel metering in gas stations.
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5.2 The Lobed - Impeller Flow meter :

This meter, shown in figure (13) may be used for either gas or liquid flow
measurements. The impeller and case are carefully machined so that accurate fit is
maintained. In this way, the incoming fluid is always trapped between the two
rotors and is conveyed to the outlet as a result of their rotation. The number of
revolutions of the rotors is an indication of the volumetric flow rate.
Three lobed flow meter
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5.3 Gas Bellow Meter

A gas bellow meter is a specialized flow meter, used to measure the volume
of fuel gases such as natural gas and propane. Gas meters are used at residential,
commercial, and industrial buildings that consume fuel gas supplied by a
gas utility. Gases are more difficult to measure than liquids, as measured volumes
are highly affected by temperature and pressure. Gas meters measure a defined
volume, regardless of the pressurized quantity or quality of the gas flowing through
the meter. Temperature, pressure and heating value compensation must be made to
measure actual amount and value of gas moving through a meter.
Several different designs of gas meters are in common use, depending on the
volumetric flow rate of gas to be measured, the range of flows anticipated, the type
of gas being measured and other factors.
Diaphragm/bellows meters
These are the most common type of gas meter, seen in almost all residential and
small commercial installations. Within the meter there are two or more chambers
formed by movable diaphragms. With the gas flow directed by internal valves, the
chambers alternately fill and expel gas, producing a near continuous flow through
the meter. As the diaphragms expand and contract, levers connected
to cranks convert the linear motion of the diaphragms into rotary motion of a crank
shaft which serves as the primary flow element. This shaft can drive an odometerlike counter mechanism or it can produce electrical pulses for a flow computer.
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Diaphragm gas meters are positive displacement meters.

Any type of gas meter can be obtained with a wide variety of indicators. The most
common are indicators that use multiple clock hands (pointer style) or digital
readouts similar to an odometer, but remote readouts of various types are also
becoming popular.
Diaphragm or Bellows meters are the most common type of gas meter. They are
used in almost all residential and small commercial installations. The meter
contains two bellows assemblies which alternately fill and expel gas, producing
nearly continuous flow through the meter.
For bellows meter animations, see:
http://www.actechelp.com/gasfitterbasics/meters.htm
The animation shows how the bellows meter operates. A small portion of the
working pressure of the gas is used to operate the instrument.
At first bellows 2 is filling which simultaneously expels gas out of chamber 1.
When bellows 2 is full, a mechanical linkage slides the valving system to a new
position. This allows bellows 3 to start filling which simultaneously expels gas
from chamber 4.
When bellows 3 is full, a mechanical linkage slides the valving system to another
new position. This allows chamber 1 to start filling which simultaneously expels
gas from bellows 2.
When bellows 2 is empty, a mechanical linkage slides the valving system to a new
position. This allows chamber 4 to start filling which simultaneously expels gas
from bellows 3.
When chamber 4 is empty, a mechanical linkage slides the valving system to a new
position completing the cycle.
This cycle continues so long as gas is being consumed by an appliance. Diaphragm
gas meters are positive displacement meters. A known quantity of gas is measured
as the meter aspirates. As the diaphragms expand and contract, levers connected to
cranks convert the linear motion of the bellows into the rotary motion of a crank
shaft. This shaft can drive an odometer-like counter mechanism, a set of dials or it
can produce electrical pulses for a flow computer.
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Exercises:
a) What is meant by positive displacement flow meters? Sketch a domestic water
flow meter and explain how it works.
b) Describe one of the positive displacement flow meters? Sketch this meter and
explain how it works.
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5.3 Domestic Water Flow Meters:
Single jet Dry water flow meter

Multi-jet Dry water flow meter
Single jet Super Dry water flow meter
Multi-jet Super Dry water flow meter
These types of flow meters are usually used for domestic water flow measurement.
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Single jet dry water flow meter

Operation
A tapered inlet creating a single jet of water that is projected into the
measuring chamber where it strikes the blades of the impeller.
The impeller rotation speed is in relation to the velocity of water flow
A magnet and gear train converts the number of rotations into a volume
which is displayed on the indicating device (register dial face)
Body has only single water entry and exit
While water flows only one wing of the impeller is being touched
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1- Cover
2- Totalizer
3- Ring nut
4- Pressure plate
5- Impeller wheel
6- Housing
Single jet dry water flow meter
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Multi jet dry water flow meter

Operation
Multi jet meters use multiple ports surrounding the internal measuring
chamber, to create a jet of water against the impeller
The impeller rotation speed is in relation to the velocity of water flow
A magnet and gear train converts the number of rotations into a volume
which is displayed on the indicating device (register dial face)
Water flows via tangential entries and push the impeller
All impeller wings are in touch with water simultaneously while water
flows.
Some models equipped with an adjusting port to allow for recalibration,
compensate for inaccuracy in older meters.
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1- Cover
2- Totalizer
3- Pressure plate
4- Impeller wheel
5- Housing
Multi jet dry water flow meter
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Comparaison: Multi-jet vs. Single-jet
Multi-jet
Single-jet
High resistance to flow

Longer life expectancy
Many parts
More expensive
Less sensitive to installation conditions
Most utilized meter worldwide
50
Limited resistance to flow

Shorter life expectancy
Economic solution
Sensitivity to installation conditions
Popular for sub-metering applications
3/23/2014
Single jet super dry water flow meter

Used for water with higher rates of dust and impurities may be flow in the water
and have the same concept of the single jet dry meter but with more filters to
decrease impurities effect on the meter readings.
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Multi jet super dry meter

Used for water with higher rates of dust and impurities may be flow in the water
and have the same concept of the single jet dry meter but with more filters to
decrease impurities effect on the meter readings.
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6. Flow Meter Calibration:

Calibration is, in general, based on the establishment of steady flow through the
flow meter to be calibrated and subsequent measurement of the volume or mass
of flowing fluid that passes through in an accurately timed interval. As in any
other calibration, significant deviations of the conditions of use from those at
calibration will invalidate the calibration.
A typical calibration setup is shown :
A constant head tank maintains a fixed inlet pressure to the flow meter under
test, irrespective of the flow rate. The flow rate through the meter is adjusted to
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the various desired values with a flow - control valve. Until a constant flow rate
is established, the liquid is diverted from the weigh or volume tank which must
be emptied before flow into it is started. When a constant flow rate is
established, the flow diverter is suddenly moved to the tank position and a
switch starts the electronic timer as the diverter passes the mid position. Flow is
continued until the tank is filled, at which the motion of the diverter through the
mid - position to the return position stops the timer. The weight or volume of the
accumulated liquid during the timed interval is then determined to calculate the
volume or mass flow rate.
The calibration of flow meters to be used with gases can often be carried out
with liquids as long as the similarity relations ( Reynolds number) are
maintained.
6.1 Sources Of Errors In Flow Meter Calibration :

There are many sources of errors in flow meter calibration. Some of these
sources of errors are:
- Variation in fluid properties (density, viscosity and temperature). In this
case, it is better to use dimensionless groups ( Re, Cd, .. ext.).
- Orientation of the meter (horizontal, vertical or inclined).
- Pressure level.
- Flow disturbance upstream & downstream of the meter.
Exercises
1- Describe
a method for calibrating a venture meter for liquid

measurement. Could the calibration data be adapted to measure gas flow?
If so, how?
2-
What are the error sources in flow meter calibration?
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7. Other Types of Flow Meters

7.1 Nutating Disc
7.2 Piston water flow meter
7.2.1 Oscillating Piston Flow Meter
7.3 Vortex Flow Meter
7.4 Ultrasonic Flow Meter
7.5 Elbow Flow Meter
7.6 Target Flow Meter
7.7 Mass Coriolis Flow Meter
7.8 Thermal Mass Flow meter
The following are some examples of these meters
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7.1 Nutating Disc:

A typical nutating disk is shown in the figures below. Nutating-disk meters have
a moveable disk mounted on a concentric sphere located in a spherical sidewalled chamber. The pressure of the liquid passing through the measuring
chamber causes the disk to rock in a circulating path without rotating about its
own axis. It is the only moving part in the measuring chamber.
A pin extending perpendicularly from the disk is connected to a mechanical
counter that monitors the disk's rocking motions. Each cycle is proportional to a
specific quantity of flow. As is true with all positive-displacement meters,
viscosity variations below a given threshold will affect measuring accuracies.
Many sizes and capacities are available. The units can be made from a wide
selection of construction materials.
This type of flow meter is normally used for water service, such as raw water
supply and evaporator feed. The fluid enters an opening in the spherical wall on
one side of the partition and leaves through the other side. As the fluid flows
through the chamber, the disk wobbles, or executes a nutating motion. Since the
volume of fluid required to make the disc complete one revolution is known, the
total flow through a nutating disc can be calculated by multiplying the number
of disc rotations by the known volume of fluid.
The top of the shaft operates a revolution counter, through a crank and set of
gears, which is calibrated to indicate total system flow.
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7.2 Piston Water flow meter

7.2.1 Oscillating Piston flow meter
Application:
Provide a cost effective and reliable solution for a
wide range of industrial flow measurement
applications.
Oscillating piston flow meters typically are used in
viscous fluid services such as oil metering on engine
test stands where turndown is not critical. These
meters also can be used on residential water service
and can pass limited quantities of dirt, such as pipe
scale and fine (viz,-200 mesh or -74 micron) sand,
but not large particle size or abrasive solids.
Construction:
An oscillating piston flow meter, comprising:
A measuring chamber having a bottom, a cylindrical jacket, a central journal a
guide ring, a separating wall, an inlet and outlet openings; and a piston located
in the measuring chamber and having a bottom, a cylindrical skirt, a pilot
journal engage-able with and rotatable about the central journal of the measuring
chamber, and a guiding slot extending in the skirt and the bottom and up to
separating wall of the measuring chamber, where in at least one of the central
journal of the measuring chamber and the pilot journal of the piston is formed as
a resiliently pliable thin-wall cylinder.
The figure shows: the parts of an Oscillating Piston Flow meter.

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Working principle:
Liquid enters a precision-machined chamber containing an oscillating (rotating)
piston. The position of the piston divides the chamber into compartments
containing an exact volume. Liquid pressure drives the piston to oscillate and
rotate on its center hub. The movements of the hub are sensed through the meter
wall by a follower magnet. Each revolution of the piston hub is equivalent to a
fixed volume of fluid, which is indicated as flow by an indicator/totalizer. Close
clearances between the piston and the chamber ensure minimum liquid slip for
highly accurate and repeatable measurement of each volume cycle. Maximum
viscosity allowed: 4,000 centi-poise.
The figure shows: the working principle of the oscillating flow meter.
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Application:
Measuring the volume of cold
potable water passing through the
pipeline.
Working conditions:
Water temperature 50 oC
Water pressure 0.6 MPa
Working principle:
The working principle is based on a
calibrated chamber of a known
capacity and a Rotary Piston
activated by the energy of the flow
passing through.
The water flowing through the meter
drives the circular piston (not
perfectly circular) in an eccentric
path around the measuring chamber,
the piston rotates while the chamber
fills up and empties with a constant
volume of water. Each revolution
represents the transfer of a known
quantity of water. The rotary action
of the piston is transferred to a drive
coupling from which it is transmitted
to the combined gear and dial unit.
The combined gear and dial unit which has a simple straight reading display
counts these revolutions, indicating the total volume of water.
Solid particles are gathered by a strainer preventing damage. Partial obstruction
of the strainer will have no adverse effect on the accuracy of the meters
registration.
A body O ring seal between the measuring chamber and the meter body
ensures that internal leaks which could by-pass the measuring chamber are
eliminated.
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7.3 Vortex Flow Meter

Application:
Vortex flow meters are flow sensors that detect
the frequency of vortices shed by a bluff body
placed in a flow stream. The frequency of the
vortices is proportional to the flow velocity.
Vortex flow meters are used to measure the flow
of liquids and/or gases.
Vortex-shedding flow meters are best used in turbulent flow with a Reynolds
number greater than 10,000. One advantage of using this type of flow meter is
its insensitivity from temperature, pressure, and viscosity. The major
disadvantage to using this method is the pressure drop caused by the flow
obstruction.
Construction:
All vortex shedding meter designs consist of two main components, the bluff
body
and
the
sensing
device.
There are many different
of
bluff body configurations. In some instances multiple struts are incorporated
into the design.
Bluff Bodies:
Though the shape differs, actual dimensions of the bluff body are determined by
the relationship between the diameters of the pipe, the viscosity of the fluid and
the flow rate. The strut must have non-streamlined edges so that the vortex
formation will occur.
Sensors:
There are four types of sensors commonly used to detect vortices developed by
the bluff body and shed into the downstream flow. These sensors are strain
gauge, magnetic pickup, ultrasonic detector and piezoelectric element.
Working principal:
An obstruction in a fluid flow creates vortices in a downstream flow. Every
obstruction has a critical fluid flow speed at which vortex shedding occurs.
Vortex shedding is the instance where alternating low pressure zones are
generated in the downstream.
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These alternating low pressure zones cause the obstruction to move towards the
low pressure zone. With sensors gauging the vortices the strength of the flow
can be measured.
The figure shows the working principal of the vortex shedding.
Vortex flow meters, also known as vortex shedding flow meters or oscillatory
flow meters, measure the vibrations of the downstream vortexes caused by a
barrier in the moving stream.
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The vibrating frequency of the vortex shedding is related to the velocity of the
flow.
The number of vortices formed is directly proportional to the flow velocity and
hence the flow rate. The vortices are detected downstream from the blunt body
using an ultrasonic beam that is transmitted perpendicular to the direction of
flow.
As the vortices cross the beam, they alter the carrier wave as the signal is
processed electronically, using a frequency-to-voltage circuit. The following
diagram shows the basic principle of the vortex-shedding flow meter:
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7.4 Ultrasonic Flow Meter

Transient time and Doppler flow meters are two types of ultrasonic flow meters
that have been extensively used in liquid applications around the world. The use
of ultrasonic flow meters where they apply to liquid measurement and
particularly transient time method yields much greater accuracies.
The electronics unit will measure internally the time it takes for signals to
transmit from one transducer to another. At zero flow, we see no difference in
time, but when flow is introduced, time for the transmission of signal from the
downstream transducer to the upstream transducer will take longer than the
upstream to downstream. Hence we will see a time differential which has a
relationship with the velocity of the fluid being measured. Knowing the internal
diameter of the pipe, we can now calculate the flow rate.
Transient Time Ultra Sonic Flow Meter
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The transient time ultrasonic transducers can be mounted in one of two modes.
The upstream and downstream ultrasonic transducers can be installed on
opposite sides of the pipe (diagonal mode) or on the same side (reflect mode).
Diagonal and reflect modes for transient time ultrasonic flow meter
It is important when installing an ultrasonic transit time flow meter to select a
location where we would find the most fully formed flow profile; this means
that we should avoid bends and try to install our meters on straight runs of pipe.
A rule of thumb in the industry is to give at least 10 diameter lengths upstream
and 5 lengths downstream.
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The Doppler method relies on the existence of solid particles or bubbles in the
liquid being measured. Doppler ultrasonic flow meters operate on the Doppler
effect, whereby the transmitted frequency is altered linearly by being reflected
from particles and bubbles in the fluid. The net result is a frequency shift
between transmitter and receiver frequencies that can be directly related to the
flow rate.
One Doppler meter design mounts both the transmitting and the receiving
transducers in the same case, attached to one side of the pipe. Reflectors in the
flowing liquid return the transmitter signals to the receiver, with a frequency
shift proportional to the flow velocity.
Doppler ultrasonic flow meter

Now more updated signal processing is being used in many transient time flow
meter designs, battery power up to 15 hours and flow readings obtained within
seconds. This has considerably eased the job of the flow survey company and
increased customer confidence in ultrasonic meters.
Both transient time and Doppler ultrasonic flow meters may use clamp-on
sensors with their associated assemblies and detect flow rate from the outside of
the pipe without stopping the process or cutting through the pipe. The
applications for this type of technology are manifold because now we are able to
make sure our old or new pump is working to its capacity, gather data for flow
balancing, and check if our permanently installed meters are measuring
incorrectly or are in need of maintenances. Simply clamp on a flow meter where
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there is no flow meter or where other flow meters make it impractical for
installation.
The ultrasonic meter can measure water, waste water, hydrocarbon liquids,
organic or inorganic chemicals, milk, beer, lube oils and the list goes on. The
basic requirement is that the fluid is ultrasonically conductive and has a
reasonably well formed flow. Clamp-on ultrasonic flow meters measure flow
through the pipe without any contact with the process media, ensuring that
corrosion and other effects from the fluid will not affect the workings of the
sensors or electronics.
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7.5 Elbow Flow m\Meter

Elbow meters are based on the principle of "conservation of
momentum." Momentum conservation requires that the momentum flux
(momentum per unit time) remain unchanged as steady flow occurs through an
isolated system of fluid. Since momentum is a vector quantity, a change in
direction of the flow causes a reduction of momentum in the original direction
which is offset by an increase in the new direction. In an elbow, such as the
mitered elbow shown in the figure below, the momentum in the horizontal
direction is changed by the pipe turning down. This change in direction causes
the flow to exert a force on the pipe elbow.
A differential pressure exists when a flowing fluid changes direction due to a

pipe turn or elbow, as shown in the figure below. This pressure difference
results from the centrifugal force. Since pipe elbows exist in plants, the cost for
these meters is very low. However, the accuracy is very poor; there are only
applied when reproducibility is sufficient and other flow measurements would
be very costly.
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The volume flow rate can be calculated from:

F=
Q (V2-V1)
[Momentum Equation]
Where,
F = Force
= the fluid density
Q = the discharge (flow)
V = the velocity vector
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7.6 Target Flow Meter

Construction for Target Flow Meter:
A sharp-edged disk is set at right angles to the direction of flow. The drag force
exerted on the disk is measured and is related to the flow rate of the fluid.
The drag force in this case is analogous to the frictional force exerted by the
fluid on wall of a conduit.
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Theory of Operation and Calibration of Target flow meters:

Target meters can be calibrated using the same principal as that of frictional
force exerted on a wall of a conduit.
Flow rate = Fluid density* (drag force) 2
The drag force in this case is equivalent to the frictional force exerted by the
fluid on the wall while flowing through a conduit.
The deflection of the target and the force bar is measured in the instrument, or
by electronic sensors.
The force on the target can be expressed as:

F = cd v2 At / 2
Where:
F = force on the target
(N)
cd = overall drag coefficient obtained from empirical data

= density of fluid (kg /m3)
v = fluid velocity (m /s)
At = target area (m2)
Advantages of Target Flow meter:
They are kind of expensive and rugged, BUT it can be used with a wide variety
of fluids, and useful for dirty or corrosive fluids. Target meters require no
external connections, seals, or purge systems.
Target flow meters are commonly used to for liquid flow measurement and less
commonly applied to steam and gas flow. Target Meters offer turndowns up to
20:1 with accuracy around 1%.
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7.7 Mass Coriolis Flow Meter

This meter uses the Coriolis effect to
measure the amount of mass moving
through the element. The substance to be
measured runs through a U-shaped tube
that is caused to vibrate in a
perpendicular direction to the flow.
Fluid forces running through the tube
interact with the vibration, causing it to
twist. The greater the angle of the twist,
the greater the flow.
Coriolis meter consists of sensor two flow tubes that are vibrated in opposition
to each other and a transmitter. The frequency of oscillation of the sensor tubes
is detected by coil assemblies called pick-offsone on the inlet side of the tubes
and one on the outlet side of the tubes.
When the tubes are filled with fluid, but there is no flow, the inlet and outlet
sides of the tubes are subject to the same force operating in the same direction.
The inlet and outlet pick-offs register oscillations at the same time. However,
when there is flow through the tubes, it is accelerating (changing direction) on
the inlet side and decelerating on the outlet side. This produces a slight twist in
the flow tubes, which causes the inlet pick-off to register before the outlet pickoff. The magnitude of the time delay between the inlet and outlet sides of the
tubes is directly proportional to the mass flow of the fluid.
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The Coriolis meter can also be used to measure density, temperature, volume
flow and concentration.
Density Measurement:
The density of the fluid can be directly determined by changes in the natural
frequency of the tubes' oscillations. The natural frequency is based on the mass
of the flow tubes themselves, plus the mass of the fluid. When the total mass
increases, the natural frequency decreases.
Because the volume of fluid contained within the flow tubes is constant, and
because the mass of the flow tubes is constant, the only cause of a change in
total mass (and by extension the natural frequency) is a change in fluid density.
Temperature Measurement:
Most Coriolis meters include an RTD for process temperature measurement.
The temperature value can be used to compensate measurement for the effect of
temperature on flow tube stiffness. This effect is typically measured at the
factory and included in the factory calibration.
Volume Flow Measurement:
Coriolis meters can calculate a highly-accurate volume flow measurement based
on the direct mass flow, density, and temperature measurements.
Concentration Measurement:
Coriolis meters can also calculate a highly-accurate concentration measurement
when the concentration of one or two components has a dominant effect on the
fluid density.
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7.8 Thermal Mass Flow Meter

Theory of Operation:
This device operate either by introducing a known amount of heat into the
flowing stream and measuring an associated temperature change, or by
maintaining a probe at a constant temperature and measuring the energy
required to do so.
The components of a basic thermal mass flow meter include a flow tube, an
upstream and downstream temperature sensor and a heat source as illustrated in
figure.
The heater can protrude into the fluid stream or can be external to the pipe.
The mass flow is calculated as follows:
m=
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8. Selecting a Flow Meter:
Experts claim that over 75 percent of the flow meters installed in industry
are not performing satisfactorily and improper selection accounts for 90
percent of these problems. Obviously, flow meter selection is no job for
amateurs.
The most important requirement is knowing exactly what the instrument is
supposed to do. Here are some questions to consider:
Is the measurement for process control (where repeatability is the
major concern), or for accounting or custody transfer (where high
accuracy is important)?
Is local indication or a remote signal required? If a remote output is
required, is it to be a proportional signal, or a contact closure to start
or stop another device?
Is the liquid viscous, clean, or slurry?
Is it electrically conductive?
What is its specific gravity or density?
What flow rates are involved in the application?
What are the processes' operating temperatures and pressures?
Accuracy, range, linearity, repeatability, and piping requirements
must also be considered.
It is just as important to know what a flow meter cannot do as well as what
it can do before a final selection is made. Each instrument has advantages
and disadvantages, and the degree of performance satisfaction is directly
related to how well an instrument's capabilities and shortcomings are
matched to the application's requirements. Often, users have expectations
of a flow meter's performance that are not consistent with what the supplier
has provided. Most suppliers are anxious to help customers pick the right
flow meter for a particular job. Many provide questionnaires, checklists,
and specification sheets designed to obtain the critical information
necessary to match the correct flow meter to the job.
Technological improvements of flow meters must be considered also. For
example, a common mistake is to select a design that was most popular for
a given application some years ago and to assume that it is still the best
instrument for the job. Many changes and innovations may have occurred
in recent years in the development of flow meters for that particular
application, making the choice much broader.
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9. Working With Flow Meters:
Although suppliers are always ready to provide flow meter installation

service, estimates are that approximately 75 percent of the users install
their own equipment. But installation mistakes are made. One of the most
common is not allowing sufficient upstream and downstream straight-run
piping for the flow meter.
Every design has a certain amount of tolerance to nonstable velocity
conditions in the pipe, but all units require proper piping configurations to
operate efficiently. Proper piping provides a normal flow pattern for the
device. Without it, accuracy and performance are adversely affected. Flow
meters are also installed backwards on occasion (especially true with
orifice plates). Pressure-sensing lines may be reversed too.
With electrical components, intrinsic safety is an important consideration
in hazardous areas. Most flow meter suppliers offer intrinsically safe
designs for such uses.
Stray magnetic fields exist in most industrial plants. Power lines, relays,
solenoids, transformers, motors, and generators all contribute their share of
interference. Users must ensure themselves that the flow meter they have
selected is immune to such interference. Problems occur primarily with the
electronic components in secondary elements, which must be protected.
Strict adherence to the manufacturer's recommended installation practices
will usually prevent such problems.
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10. Advantages And Disadvantages

Of Different Flow Measuring Techniques:
Type
Orifice Plate
Venturi Tube
Advantage
Simple concept
Not expensive
Simple concept
Expensive
Disadvantage
Non linear output
Creates head loss
Non linear output
Expensive
Creates head loss (less
than orifice)
Creates head loss
Variable area
(Rotameter)
Laminar Flow
Element
(LFE)
Visual output
Linear scale
A high sensitivity
Their use is restricted
even at extremely
to clean fluids or the
low flow rates.
tubes will be clogged
by dirty.
The ability to
measure pipe system The entire pressure
flow in meter
drop measured
direction.
remains a system
pressure loss.
A wide usable flow
range.
The ability to indicate
an average flow rate
in pulsating flows.
Ultra sonic
Time of flight
No moving parts
Non intrusive
No head loss
Ultra sonic
Doppler
No moving parts
Non intrusive
No head loss
Suitable for fluids
contains solids or gas
bubbles
76
Flow profile affects

accuracy
Unsuitable for fluids
with more than 4%
solids or gas bubbles
Liquid density affects
accuracy
Liquid density affects
accuracy
Poor accuracy
Flow profile affects
accuracy
3/23/2014
Type
Magnetic
Turbine meter
Positive
displacement
meter
Advantage
Accurate
No moving parts
No head loss
Linear output
Accommodate solids
in suspension
Accurate
Suitable for low flow
usage
Suitable for high
viscosity usage
Accurate
77
Disadvantage
Expensive
Expensive
Create head loss
Expensive
3/23/2014
11. Flow Meter Selection Guide:

Flow Meter
Element
Recommended Pressure Typical

Service
Loss
Accuracy
percent
Clean, dirty
liquids; some
slurries
Venturi Clean, dirty
and viscous
meter
liquids; some
slurries
Flow nozzle Clean and
dirty liquids
Medium
Clean liquids
Very low
Orifice
Pitot tube
Low
Medium
Elbow meter Clean, dirty

liquids; some
slurries
Target meter Clean, dirty
Viscous liquids;
some slurries
Variable area Clean, dirty
(Rotameter) viscous liquids
Very low
Positive clean, viscous

Displacement liquids
Turbine Clean, viscous
liquids
Clean, dirty
Vortex
liquids
Electro- Clean, dirty
magnetic viscous conductive liquids
and slurries
High
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
None
2 to 4
of full
Scale.
1 of full
scale
Required
Upstream
pipe,
diameters
10 to 30
Viscosity
effect
Relative
Cost
High
Low
5 to 20
High
Medium
1 to 2
of full
scale
3 to 5
of full
scale
5 to 10
of full
scale
1 to 5
of full
scale
1 to 10
of full
scale
0.5 of
rate
0.25 of
rate
I of rate
10 to 30
High
Medium
20 to 30
Low
Low
30
Low
Low
10 to 30
Medium
Medium
None
Medium
Low
None
High
Medium
5 to 10
High
High
10 to 20
Medium
High
0.5 of
rate
None
High
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Flow Meter
Element
Recommended Pressure Typical

Service
Loss
Accuracy
percent
Ultrasonic Dirty, viscous

(Doppler) liquids and
slurries
Ultrasonic Clean, viscous
(Time-of- liquids
travel)
Clean, dirty
Mass
(Coriolis) viscous
liquids; some
slurries
Clean, dirty
Mass
(Thermal) Viscous liquids;
some slurries
Clean, dirty
Weir
(V-notch) liquids
None
5 of full
scale
None
1 to 5
of full
scale
0.4 of
rate
Required
Upstream
pipe,
diameters
5 to 30
Relative
Viscosity
Cost
effect
None
High
5 to 30
None
High
None
None
High
1 of full
scale
None
None
High
Very low 2 to 5
of full
scale
None
Low
Low
Very Low Medium
Source : Omega
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REFERENCES:
1. Richard S. Figliola and Donald E. Beasley, Theory and Design for
Mechanical Measurements, Jhon Wiley & Sons, 1991.
2. J. P. Holman and W. J. Gajda, Expeimental methods for Engineers ,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1978.
3. William C. Dunn, Fundamental of Industrial Instrumentation and
Process Control, McGraw-Hill, 2005
4. Roger C. Baker, Flow Measurement Handbook, Cambridge University
Press, 2000
5. E.L. Upp, Paul J. LaNass, Fluid Flow Measurement, A Practical Guide to
Accurate Flow Measuirement, Second Edition, Gulf Professional
Publishing,2002
6. OMEGA, Transactions in Measurement and Control, Flow and Level
Measurement , Volume 4, WWW.Omega.Com
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APPENDIX
Orifice Meter
For frictionless and incompressible flow,
m 1A1u1 2 A 2 u 2
2
2
P1 u1 P 2 u 2
1 2
2 2
for incompressible flow
(frictionlessflow)
2 1
2
u 22
A 2
1
p1 p 2
2
A1
OR
u2
1 A2
2P1 P 2
A1
AS
Q A2 u
2
A2
1 A2
A2
1 4
2P1 P 2
m3 s
A1
2P1 P 2
m Q
IF
A2
1 4
2P1 P 2
1 2
m A 2 F 2 1P1 P 2
1
F
velocity approach factor
4
1
81
3/23/2014

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Ain Shams University

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abdel Aziz MAHMOUD

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

1 .0 J/s = 860.42 cal/hr

1.0 N.m = 1*107 ergs

= 0.672 lbm /ft.s

1 kg.m/s2 = 1*105 dynes

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

Standard Acceleration of Gravity

FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT

: Static pressures, [N / m2]

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

Therefore, a discharge coefficient may be defined as:

Cd : Discharge coefficient of the orifice meter

Qa : Actual flow rate

: Diameters ratio < 1.0

: Pipe diameter, [m]

: Velocity appreach factor 1 / 1 4

To determine the discharge coefficient, cd, an experimental calibration is

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

1.1.1 Orifice disadvantages and advantages

Pressure loss, (P)Loss (P) d 1 2

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

The significant differences laying in numerical values of certain characteristics:

, these devices give a lower

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

called the compressibility factor

Equation (5) shows that for M 0.3 , the compressibility factor 1

(Eulars equation for incompressible flows)

1.2.2 Expansion factor for compressible flow

- Assuming isentropic flow

For certain inlet conditions.

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

Thus Y = f (P2 /P1 , , k )

Y : is the expansion factor

For orifice with pipe taps, the following relation applies :

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

1.3 The Sonic Nozzle :

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

: critical pressure at throat

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

From chart the new value of Cd corresponding to Re = 0.652

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

Calculate the orifice discharge coefficient.

F = Velocity approach factor =

P = 32 cm water = 0.32x1000x9.81 N/m2 = 3139.2 N/m2

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

1.4 The Laminar Flow Element : (LFE)

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

And this gives

And from energy equation (19) and as V1 = V2 ;

: Volume flow rate, m3/sec

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

: Tube length between pressure taps, m

Where K is the meter constant.

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

Where: Q is the discharge [m /s] , p is the differential pressure across the

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

Prof. Dr. Nabil Abel Aziz MAHMOUD

2. Constant - Pressure Drop, Variable Area Meters: