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EDRM 700
Gredler

Introduction to Variables and Hypotheses

A prior discussion (Research Problems and Purpose Statements) introduced research
problems. They identify the topic of the study to be conducted. As stated in that
discussion some research problems address the thoughts, beliefs, or behaviors of a
particular group of people. Examples are What do the third-year teachers in District X
think of the districts mentoring program for first-year teachers? and What do secondsemester freshmen think of University 101 as an orientation to university life? These
questions are answered with descriptive research.
Other research problems, in contrast, ask about the relationship(s) between two or
more terms named in the problem. Examples are Do 10-year-old boys and girls differ in
linguistic ability? and Do study habits, prior grades, and college major predict
achievement in university freshmen?

Definition of variables
The terms in the relationships in research problems and hypotheses are referred to as
variables. The above examples are gender, linguistic ability, study habits, prior grades,
college major, and achievement. A variable is a concept or construct that takes on
different values or conditions in a study. Gender, for example, has two conditions.
Research participants in the study are either female or male. Linguistic ability in the
study is also a variable. Childrens scores on some measure of linguistic ability will
differ from each other. (The question in the research problem is whether the scores of
boys will differ significantly from the scores of girls.)
Nature of variables. Some variables, such as gender, are referred to as categorical;
they are not measured quantitatively. These variables consist of different qualitative
categories. Other examples of categorical variables are instructional method, college
major, occupation, religious preference, and ethnicity. The categories are mutually
exclusive; that is, they do not overlap. Instructional method, for example, may include
such categories as peer tutoring, computer-assisted instruction, small group discussions,
and others. Categorical variables also are referred to as nominal variables.
Other variables can be measured on a range of values from less to more.
Included are I.Q., linguistic ability, height, student achievement in various areas, and
attitudes.
Manipulated, non-manipulated, and outcome variables. The research problem (and
the related research hypothesis) addresses relationships between two or more variables.
All the situations include at least one outcome variable. In the above two examples, the

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outcome variables are linguistic ability and achievement. The two research questions are
asking about the relationships between specified non-manipulated variables and the
outcome variable. In the question, Do 10-year-old boys and girls differ in linguistic
ability?, the non-manipulated variable is gender. The researcher will identify a sample of
10-year-old children, measure their linguistic ability, and analyze the differences between
boys and girls.
Similarly, in the question, Do study habits, prior grades, and college major predict
achievement in university freshmen?, the non-manipulated variables are study habits,
prior grades, and college major. The researcher will obtain a sample of university
freshmen and measure their study habits, prior grades, college major, and achievement.
As indicated by the two examples, the researcher is unable to manipulate the variables
that are proposed to be related to the outcome variable. That is, the researcher cannot
change the childrens gender. Also, in the second example, students study habits, prior
grades, and college major are givens. The researcher simply investigates the relationship
between these variables and the outcome variable, achievement.
In other types of studies, referred to as experimental research, the researcher can
manipulate the variables that are proposed to be related to the outcome variable. An
example is instructional method. For example, in the question, Does peer tutoring
produce a greater understanding of science for 6th graders than small-group discussions?,
the researcher (a) decides which instructional methods will be included in the study, and
(b) decides who will get which method. The researcher will divide the sample for the
study into two groups and decide which group receives which method (hopefully, by
using a coin toss). The methods will be implemented in the study and science
achievement is measured at the end of the study. Manipulated variables also are
sometimes referred to as treatment variables.
In other words, instructional method is a manipulated variable. In this study,
instructional method has two conditions or levels (peer tutoring and computer-assisted
instruction). In other studies, different instructional methods may be used, depending on
the focus of the research.
Independent and dependent variables. The goal in experimental research is to test
cause-effect relationships. In the prior example, the question is whether peer tutoring is
the cause of higher achievement in 6th grade science. In experimental research, the
suggested cause is a variable that is manipulated and the researcher conducts the study so
that other variables do not muddle the interpretation of effects1. When the study is well
planned and well conducted, the researcher can be confident that peer tutoring is
responsible for the outcome of higher achievement if the students in peer tutoring score
higher than the students in small group discussions. Given these requirements in
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Variables that get in the way of clear interpretations of cause-effect relationships are
referred to as extraneous variables.

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experimental (cause-effect) research, the manipulated and outcome variables are
legitimately referred to as independent and dependent variables.
Studies reported in the literature often refer to both manipulated and non-manipulated
variables are independent variables and outcome variables as dependent variables. It is
important to remember that, in these situations, the terms do not indicate cause-effect
relationships. (More about this later when correlational and causal-comparative research
are discussed).
Research hypotheses2
The research problem asks a question about likely relationships between two or more
variables. The research hypothesis is a proposed answer to the research problem. It is
derived from the research problem and provides a framework for data collection and
analysis.
Examples are as follows:
Research Problem
Do 10-year-old boys and girls differ in
linguistic ability?

Research Hypothesis
Ten-year-old girls score higher in
linguistic ability than boys.

Variables: Gender (non-manipulated variable)

Linguistic ability (outcome variable)
Notice that the variables are not boys and girls; the variable is gender. Boys and girls are
levels of the categorical variable gender.

Research Problem
Does peer tutoring produce a greater
understanding of science for sixth
graders than small-group discussions?

Research Hypothesis
Sixth graders who receive peer tutoring
will score higher on a standardized
science test than those who participate
in small-group discussions.

Variables: Instructional method (manipulated variable)

Science achievement (outcome variable)
Notice in this example that the variables are not peer tutoring and small-group discussion.
The variable in the research problem and the research hypothesis is instructional method.
Peer tutoring and small-group discussions are levels of the categorical variable
instructional method.
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The null or statistical hypothesis will be discussed later.

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Do study habits, prior grades, and college
major predict achievement in university
freshmen?

Study habits, prior grades, and college

major predict achievement in
university freshmen.

Variables: Study habits, prior grades, college major (non-manipulated)

Achievement (outcome variable)
Criteria for hypotheses:
They must (a) state an expected relationship,
(b) be testable,
(c) exclude value-laden terms, and
(d) be simple and concise.
Notice in the example about instructional methods in sixth-grade science, the research
problem asks if peer tutoring will produce a greater understanding of science than
small-group discussions. The phrase a greater understanding is not precise. The
research hypothesis clarifies the phrase by substituting higher achievement on a
standardized science test. Also, value-laden terms, such as better, best, and others
disqualify a potential research hypothesis from meeting the criteria.