Lectures on Reinforced Concrete Design: Lecture 1

INTRODUCTION
BY
Dr.A.W.HAGO

Reinforced Concrete
ReinforcedConcrete

Reinforcedconcreteisastrongdurablebuildingmaterialthatcanbeformedinto
many varied shapes and sizes (flexible in shaping)
manyvariedshapesandsizes(flexibleinshaping).
Itsutilityandversatilityareachievedbycombiningthebestfeaturesofconcrete
andsteel.
C
Comparingthedifferingpropertiesofthesetwomaterials:
i th diff i
ti
f th
t
t i l

Property

Concrete

Steel

strength in tension
strengthintension

poor

good
good

strengthincompression

good

good,butslenderbarswillbuckle

strengthinshear
g

fair

ggood

Durability

good

corrodesifunprotected

fireresistance

good

poor suffersrapidlossofstrengthathigh
temperatures

It can be seen from this list that the materials are complementary.
when theyy are combined, the steel is able to provide the tensile strength
g and
probably some of the shear strength, while the concrete, strong in compression,
protects the steel to give durability and fire resistance.

CompositeAction
1. The tensile strength of concrete is about 10 %of its compressive strength.
2. For this reason, reinforced concrete structures are designed assuming
concrete does not resist any tensile forces.
3. Reinforcing steel bars are designed to carry tensile forces, which are
transferred by bond between the two materials (composite action).
4. Inadequate bond causes reinforcing bars to slip (no composite action).
5. Bond improves by compacting concrete around the the reinforcement, and
some bars are ribbed or twisted so that there is an extra mechanical grip.
6. with perfect bond, the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the strain in the
adjacent
dj
t concrete.
t
7. when tension occurs, cracking of concrete will take place. Reinforcement will
restrain the cracking of concrete
8 When compressive or shearing forces exceed the strength of the
8.
concrete, steel reinforcement must also be provided to supplement the loadcarrying capacity concrete.

Stress Strain Relations

StressStrainRelations
Stress

0.67 f cu

Steel
0.002

Concrete

Strain

IdealizedStressstrainCurveforConcrete
Fordesignpurposes,thetypicalstressstraincurveforconcreteisgiven
below

f cu Compressive strength
E Young ' s mod ulus

m Material safety
f y ffactor 1.5

Ec
o=

Stress strain relations for Steel

StressstrainrelationsforSteel

SSteelhasequalpropertiesintensionandcompression
lh
l
i i
i
d
i
YoungsmodulusEs=200kN/mm2
Becauseofitsgoodductility,itisassumedfordesignpurposestohavenolimiting
strain.
Gradesofsteelare:460N/mm2 and250N/mm2

Es
f y Yield strength
E Young ' s mod ulus

m Material
M t i l safety
f t factor
f t 1.05

MaterialsSpecificationforDesign:Concrete

Theselectionofthetypeofconcreteisgovernedbythestrengthrequired.
Theconcretestrengthisassessedbymeasuringthecrushingstrengthofcubesor
cylinders of concrete made from the mix These are usually cured and tested
cylindersofconcretemadefromthemix.Theseareusuallycured,andtested
aftertwentyeightdaysaccordingtostandardprocedures.
Concreteofagivenstrengthisidentifiedbyits'grade'.AgradeC25 concretehas
a characteristic cube crushing strength of 25 N/mm2
acharacteristiccubecrushingstrengthof25N/mm
TheTablebelowshowsalistofcommonlyusedgradesandalsothelowestgrade
appropriateforvarioustypesofconstruction.
Exposureconditionsanddurabilitycanalsoaffectthechoiceofthemixdesignand
thegradeofconcrete,e.gastructuresubjecttocorrosiveconditionsinachemical
plantwouldrequireadenserandhighergradeofconcretethantheinterior
membersofaschoolorofficeblock.
b
f
h l
ffi bl k
Grade

Lowestgradeforuseasspecified

C7.5,C10

Plainconcrete

C15,C20

Reinforced concretewithlightweightaggregate

C25,C30

Reinforced concretewithdenseaggregate

C35

Concretewithposttensionedtendons

C40,C50,C60

Concretewithpretensionedtendons

MaterialsSpecificationforDesign:Steel
1. Reinforcingsteelissuppliedinformofbars.Thesecanbeclassified
accordingtotheirmanufacturingprocessinto:
2
a)) Mildsteelbars(Hotrolled)withyieldstrengthf
Mild
l b (H
ll d) i h i ld
h fy =250N/mm
250 N/
b) Highyieldbars(Hotrolled&coldworked)withyieldstrengthfy =
2
460N/mm
/
2. Thenominalsizeofabaristhediameterofanequivalentcirculararea.
3. Hotrolledmildsteelbarsusuallyhaveasmoothsurface.
4. Highyieldbarsaremanufacturedeitherwitharibbedsurface(Type2)or
intheformofatwistedsquare(Type1).Squaretwistedbarshaveinferior
bondcharacteristicsandaremoreorlessobsolete.
5. Floorslabs,walls,shellsandroadsmaybereinforcedwithawelded
fabricofreinforcement,suppliedinrollsandhavingasquareor
rectangular mesh
rectangularmesh.
6. Thebartypesarecommonlyidentifiedindesignsbythefollowingcodes:
R=mildsteel;Y=highyielddeformedsteel,typeI;
T=highyielddeformedsteel,type2;

Objectives oftheDesignofReinforcedConcrete
Structures
Everystructurehasitsform,functionandaesthetics.
y
f
,f
Normallythearchitects willtakecareofthemandthe
structuralengineers willbesolelyresponsibleforthe
strengthandsafetyofthestructure.However,therolesof
architectsandstructuralengineersareverymuchinteractive
to produce a good design
toproduceagooddesign.
The objectives of the design are as follows:
Theobjectivesofthedesignareasfollows:

Objectives of the Design of R.C. Structures

1 The
1.
Thestructuressodesignedshouldhaveanacceptableprobabilityof
structures so designed should have an acceptable probability of
performingsatisfactorilyduringtheirintendedlife.
2. Thedesignedstructureshouldsustainallloadsanddeformwithinlimits
forconstructionanduse.Adequatestrengthsandlimiteddeformations
arethetworequirementsofthedesignedstructure.Thestructuresshould
givesufficientwarningtotheoccupantsandmustnotfailsuddenly.
3. Thedesignedstructuresshouldbedurable.Thematerialsofreinforced
concretestructuresgetaffectedbytheenvironmentalconditions.The
designed structures therefore must be checked for durability
designedstructures,therefore,mustbecheckedfordurability.
4. Thedesignedstructuresshouldadequatelyresisttotheeffectsofmisuse
andfire.Properlydesignedstructuresshouldallowsufficienttimeand
saferouteforthepersonsinsidetovacatethestructuresbeforethey
actuallycollapse.

Methods of Design
MethodsofDesign

Designobjectivescanbefulfilledbyunderstandingthestrengthanddeformation
characteristics of the materials used in the design as also their deterioration
characteristicsofthematerialsusedinthedesignasalsotheirdeterioration
underhostileexposure.
Thenecessaryinformationregardingpropertiesandstrengthofthesematerials
are available in the standard codes of practices It is necessary to follow these
areavailableinthestandardcodesofpractices.Itisnecessarytofollowthese
clearlydefinedstandardsformaterials,production,workmanshipand
maintenance,andtheperformanceofstructuresinservice.Thecodeofpractice
used in this course is BS8110 The structural use of concrete
usedinthiscourseisBS8110Thestructuraluseofconcrete.
Theknownmethodsofdesignofreinforcedconcretestructuresare:
1. Thepermissiblestressmethodinwhichultimatestrengthsofthematerials
are divided by a factor of safety toprovidedesignstresseswhichareusually
aredividedbyafactorofsafety
to provide design stresses which are usually
withintheelasticrange.
2. Theloadfactormethodinwhichtheworkingloadsaremultipliedbyafactor
ofsafety.
f f t
3. Thelimitstatemethodwhichmultipliestheworkingloadsbypartialfactors
ofsafetyandalsodividesthematerials'ultimatestrengthsbyfurtherpartial
f
factorsofsafety
f f
BS8110isbasedontheLimitstatemethod.

Design Steps
DesignSteps
Inanymethodofdesign,thefollowingarethecommonstepsto
b f ll
befollowed:
d
1. Toassessthedeadloadsandotherexternalloadsand
f
forceslikelytobeappliedonthestructure,
lik l t b
li d
th t t
2. Todeterminethedesignloadsfromdifferent
combinations of loads Initial member sizing is needed
combinationsofloads.Initialmembersizingisneeded
forthisstep,
3 Toestimatestructuralresponses(bendingmoment,shear
3.
To estimate structural responses (bending moment shear
force,axialthrustetc.)duetothedesignloads(Analysis),
4. Todeterminethecrosssectionalareasofconcrete
sectionsandamountsofreinforcementneeded.
5. Preparationofdrawings showingthedetailsofthe
designedstructure

LOADSANDFORCES
The following are the different types of loads and forces acting on the structure. Their values
can be assessed based on earlier data and experiences (provided by Codes of Practice):
1 Dead loads: These are the self weight of the structure to be designed.
1.
designed The
dimensions of the cross section are to be assumed initially which enable to estimate
the dead loads from the known unit weights of the materials of the structure. The
values of unit weights of the materials are provided by the Code of Practice.
Practice
2. Imposed loads: They are also known as live loads and consist of all loads other
than the dead loads of the structure. The values of the imposed loads depend on the
functional requirement of the structure.
structure Residential buildings will have comparatively
lower values of the imposed loads than those of school or office buildings.
3. Wind loads: These loads depend on the velocity of the wind at the location of the
structure permeability of the structure,
structure,
structure height of the structure etc.
etc
4. Snow loads: These are important loads for structures located in areas having snow
fall, which gets accumulated in different parts of the structure depending on
projections height,
projections,
height slope etc.
etc of the structure.
structure
5. Earthquake forces: Earthquake generates waves which move from the origin of its
location (epicenter) with velocities depending on the intensity and magnitude of the
earthquake.
th k The
Th impact
i
t off earthquake
th k on structures
t t
depends
d
d on the
th stiffness
tiff
off the
th
structure, stiffness of the soil media, height and location of the structure etc.

Analysis of Structures
AnalysisofStructures
Structureswhensubjectedtoexternalloads(actions)have
internalreactionsintheformofbendingmoment,shear
force axial thrust and torsion inindividualmembers.
force,axialthrustandtorsion
in individual members
Thestructuredevelopsinternalstressesandundergo
deformations.
deformations.
Essentially,weanalysethestructureelastically replacingeach
memberbyaline(withElvalues)andthendesignthesection
y
(
)
g
usingconceptsoflimitstateofcollapse.
Theexternalloadstobeappliedonthestructuresarethe
designloadsandtheanalysesofstructuresarebasedon
linearelastictheory.

LimitStateMethodofDesign
What are limit states?
Limit states are the acceptable limits for the safety and
serviceability requirements of the structure before failure
occurs.
The design of structures by this method will thus ensure
that they will not reach limit states and will not become
unfit for the use for which they are intended.
intended
It is worth mentioning that structures will not just fail or
collapse by violating (exceeding) the limit states. Failure,
therefore, implies that clearly defined limit states of
structural usefulness has been exceeded.
exceeded

Therearetwomainlimitstates:
There
are two main limit states:
(i)limitstateofcollapse (Ultimatelimitstate)and
( )
(ii)limitstateofserviceability.
y

MainLimitStates
1. Limit state of collapse deals with the strength and
stability of structures subjected to the maximum design
loads out of the possible combinations of several types of
loads. Therefore,, this limit state ensures that neither anyy
part nor the whole structure should collapse or become
unstable under any combination of expected overloads.
2. Limit state of serviceability deals with deflection and
crackingg of structures under service loads, durabilityy
under working environment during their anticipated
exposure conditions during service and stability of the
structure as a whole.

Other Limit States

OtherLimitStates
1. Excessivevibrationswhichmaycausediscomfortoralarmor
damage
2. Fatigue: mustbeconsideredifcyclicloadingislikely
3. Fireresistance thismaybeconsideredintermsof
resistancetocollapse,flamepenetrationandheattransfer
4 Specialcircumstanceslikeearthquakeresistance
4.
S i l i
t
lik
th
k
it

The usual procedure is to decide which is the crucial limit

state and base the design on it, then check to ensure that
other limit states are satisfied.

Characteristic Material Strength

CharacteristicMaterialStrength
Thestrengthsofmaterialsuponwhichdesignisbasedarecalled
characteristicstrengths. Acharacteristicstrengthisonebelowwhich
resultsareunlikelytofall.
l
lk l
f ll
Assumingnormaldistribution,thecharacteristicstrengthforconcreteis
takenasthatvaluebelowwhichitisunlikelythatmorethan5
y
ofthe
resultswillfall,andthatisgivenby:

f k f m 1.64 s
where :
fk = the characteristic strength,
fm = the mean strength and
s = the standard deviation.

CharacteristicLoads
Whatismeantbycharacteristicload?
Characteristicloadisthatloadwhichhasa95%probabilityofnotbeing
exceeded during the life of the structure.
exceededduringthelifeofthestructure.
Theloadsarepredictedbasedonstatisticalapproach,whereitis
assumedthatthevariationoftheloadsactingonstructuresfollowsthe
normaldistributionCharacteristicloadshouldbemorethanthe
l di ib i Ch
i i l d h ld b
h
h
average/meanload

Characteristicload=Averageload+1.64(standarddeviationforload)
The characteristic dead, imposed and wind loads have the notation Gk, Qk, Wk
respectively.

Design Strengths of Materials

DesignStrengthsofMaterials

We obtain the design strengths of the materials by dividing the

characteristic strengths
g
by
y the p
partial safety
y factor m , i.e.

design strength f k / m

m takes account of possible differences between the material in the actual

structure and the strength derived from test specimens.
specimens In concrete,
concrete this
would cover such items as insufficient compaction, differences in curing,
etc. For reinforcement it would cover such items as the difference between
assumed and actual cross
cross-sectional
sectional areas caused by rolling tolerances,
corrosion, etc.
The values of m for each material will be different for the different limit
states by virtue of the different probabilities that can be accepted
accepted.
The recommended values for m are as follows :Limit state
Ultimate:

m for
Concrete

m for Steel

Flexure

1.5

1.05

Shear

1 25
1.25

1 15
1.15

Bond

1.4

Serviceability

1.0

1.0

DesignLoads
g

We obtain the design load by:

Design loads characteristic load x partial safety factor f
f is introduced to take account of:
1. possible unusual increases in the load
2. inaccurate assessment of effects of loading
3. variations in dimensional accuracy in construction
4. the importance of the limit state being considered.
i ffor different
diff
t limit
li it states
t t and
d also
l ffor diff
differentt combinations
bi ti
off
f varies
loading. Values of f for ultimate limit state are given the following Table:

Load
Combination

Ultimate

Serviceability
w

Earth, Wind
Water

(g,q,w)

1.6 (or 0.0)

1.4

1.0

1 4 (or 11.0)
1.4
0)

14
1.4

14
1.4

10
1.0

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.0

Dead

Imposed

Water

Dead Imposed
(Earth Water)

1.4 (or 1.0)

Dead Imposed
Wind
Dead Imposed
Wind (Earth
Water)

ALL

The arrangement of loads should be such as to cause the most

severe effects, i.e. the most severe stresses.

BASIC REQUIREMENT OF DESIGNED STRUCTURES

1. The structure must fulfil its intended function
throughout its intended(design) life and it shall do so
without abnormal maintenance costs.
2. The structure must be safe. The consequences of
collapse can be extremely serious and the possibility of
collapse
ll
mustt b
be negligible.
li ibl The
Th structure
t t
mustt be
b
designed so that if loads very much greater than the
normal design loads are applied then adequte
warning of the danger of collapse shall be given(e.g.
g of cracks and large
g deflections)) to permit
visible signs
appropriate action to be taken.
3. The structure must be of least cost (economical).