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Copyright 2014 by Marko A. Jankovi5, Vladimir D. Mihajlovi5, Staa Babi5 and contributors
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ISBN (10): 1-4438-5899-4, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-5899-1
Table of contents
List of illustrations
List of tables
vii
ix
Introduction
Tkejctf"Jkping{
33
48
vi
Dgkpi"Tqocp"cpf"Itggm<"Nqecn"tgurqpug"vq"vjg"kpwgpeg"htqo"Tqog"kp"
northern Asia Minor
Lgurgt"Ocldqo"Ocfugp"
145
On the rtghgevwtc"qtcg"octkvkocg on the western coast of the Black Sea
Nkikc"Twuew"
159
Gpgo{"cv"vjg"icvguA"Kpvgtcevkqpu"dgvyggp"Fcekcpu"cpf"Tqocpu"kp"vjg"
1st century AD
Octkcpc"Gitk"
172
Objects in action: Towards the anthropology of exchange of Roman
bronze vessels in the middle Danube region
Xncfkokt"F0"Okjclnqxk5"
194
The formation of early Imperial peregrine ekxkvcvgu in Dalmatia: (Re)
constructing indigenous communities after the conquest
Fcpklgn"Fkpq"
219
The Batavians between Germania and Rome: The emergence of a
soldiering people
Pkeq"Tq{ocpu"
232
Afterword: When empires colapse
Uvcc"Dcdk5"
List of contributors
Index
252
257
261
34
of the Western civilization and the starting point for the evolution of our
distinctive history (Shanks 1996; Dietler 2005; Diaz-Andreu 2007: 105110; Morley 2009). Undoubtedly, both narratives are Eurocentric; they are
also Hellenocentric and Romanocentric. Consequently, the theories related
to the ancient Hellenization should be perceived as European scholarly
vtcfkvkqpu" vjcv" oquvn{" tggev" oqfgtp" eqnqpkcn" dgnkghu" kpvq" vjg" eqpuvtwevgf"
images and representations of the ancient past (Cartledge 2002; Hodos
2006).
By scrutinizing the academic and wider social constructions and
political usage of the Hellenization concept in the case of the Balkan
Iron Age archaeology, this paper deals only with some of the socio-political
and interpretative issues related mostly to the south-eastern European
context. However, it also aims to position these local scholarly traditions
within the wider European intellectual background. Simultaneously with
the introduction and employment of the Romanization concept, which
is a more prominent and widely known Eurocentric academic tradition
kp" vjg" tgikqp" *Okjclnqxk5" 4234+." vjg" qvjgt" eqnqpkcn" cpf" gorktg" dwknfkpi"
perspectives have found their way into the culture-historical archaeology
of the south-eastern Europe, sometimes quite directly and sometimes
altered and adjusted for the local academic and political consumption. The
Hellenization concept is just one of the examples.
Kxcp"Xtcpk5
35
identities may have existed in a more-or-less stable form for millennia prior
vq" vjgkt" tuv" tgeqtfgf" gpeqwpvgtu" ykvj" vjg" Greeks and Romans, and that
culture-historical archaeology retains the proper methodological tools for
following and documenting these changes (Garaanin 1988). Within the
former Yugoslavias archaeological traditions, the Iron Age was perceived as
a period when the ethnogenesis of numerous archaeological cultures/the
ancient peoples had reached a point when their differences became strict
and easy to recognize in ocvgtkcn"ewnvwtg"*g0i0"Xcuk5"3;;3+0"Uwdugswgpvn{."
the main objective for most researchers in the region remains to search
for the ethnonyms of the Iron Age cultures and to argue their supposed
origins, previous phases and cultural continuity, deriving at the very least
from the Bronze Age (e.g. Illyrian Autariatae the Glasinac-Mati complex,
Dardani the Brnjica culture, Triballi the supposedly united Early Iron
Age culture in the Velika Morava valley).
Cpqvjgt" rtqokpgpv" hgcvwtg" qh" vjg" crrtqcej" ku" c" urgeke" vjgqtgvkecn"
perspective on cultural changes alterations in the material culture of the
supposed ethnicity, which, unsurprisingly, have been constantly reoccurring
over this long period. Traditionally, archaeologists have interpreted these
ejcpigu" cu" kpwgpegu" cpf" okitcvkqpu" urtgcfkpi" dgvyggp" vjg" PaleoBalkan peoples from some more developed cultures and centres. Hence,
vtcekpi" vjg" qtkikp" qh" vjgug" kpwgpegu" cpf" guvcdnkujkpi" uqog" uwrrqugf"
historical references that may lead to the introduction of the material
culture of a new style has become another important element of culturehistorical archaeology in the Balkans. As a direct consequence, some early
1st millennium BC changes that are documented as the emergence of the
incrusted pottery in the Danube region (i.e. Basarabi complex), are often
rgtegkxgf" cu" gcuvgtp" *Vjtceq/Ekoogtkcp+" okitcvkqpu" *Vcuk5" 3;93="
1983: 109-136), whereas the middle 1st millennium BC changes, which
ctg" pqvkegcdng" cu" vjg" crrgctcpeg" qh" urgeke" hqtou" qh" ogvcn" ctvghcevu." ctg"
ncdgnngf" cu" Ue{vjkcp" kpwgpegu*Rctqxk5/Rgkmcp" 3;;6+0" Vjg" material
culture changes that are stylistically comparable to the pre-Roman Iron Age
Italy, which are also visible in the Western Balkans from the 7th century BC,
ctg"kpvgtrtgvgf"cu"Kvcnq/Gvtwuecp"*Rctqxk5/Rgkmcp"3;:7+."yjkng"uwrrqugf"
Itggm"kpwgpegu"ctg"urqvvgf"kp"vjg"Jgnngpk|gf"ocvgtkcn"ewnvwtgu"qh"vjg"
southern and costal parts of the peninsula. This Hellenized regions are
located in the modern-day FYR Ocegfqpkc" *Uqmqnqxumc" 3;:8=" Okmwn7km"
3;;;+."vjg"uqwvjgtp"egpvtcn"Ugtdkc"cpf"Mquqxq"cpf"Ogvqjklc"*Rctqxk5/Rgkmcp"
3;:7="R0"Rqrqxk5"4225+"cpf"c"pcttqy"uvtkr"qh"ncpf"kp"vjg"Adriatic hinterland
neighbouring the Greek colonies from the 4th century BC (Papazoglu 1967;
Wilkes 1992: 156-180). A similar process of Hellenization is visible on
the territory of modern-day Bulgaria (e.g. Archibald 1998) and Albania (e.g.
Wilkes 1992: 156-180).
Hellenization: an evolutionary
and civilizing perspective
Researchers interested in the Balkan Iron Age have ultimately managed to
construct one more-or-less widely accepted but not thoroughly consistent
culture-historical narrative that considers different intensity levels of the
36
urtgcfkpi"qh"vjg"Itggm"kpwgpegu0"Vjg"eqooqp"vjtgcf"qh"vjku"crrtqcej"
ku" vjcv" vjg" uwrrqugf" korcev" qh" kpwgpegu" wrqp" vjg" uvtkevn{" fgpgf" Iron
Age cultures, which should be archaeologically measurable according to
vjg"rtgugpeg"qh"nqqugn{"fgpgf"Itggm"cpf"Itggm/nkmg"material culture,
varies considerably depending, in most cases, on the distance from the Greek
sources. Other factors can include a regional historical context or some
urgeke" *cpf" fgvgtokpgf+" ejctcevgtkuvkeu" qh" vjg" Iron Age archaeological
ewnvwtgu"cpf"vjgkt"uwrrqugf"tgcfkpguu"vq"ceegrv"vjg"kpwgpegu0"Wnvkocvgn{."
most culture-historical authors agree that some cultures have only begun
the process, which should be similar and archaeologically comparable in
all regions and cultures, while others have reached the level of the fully
developed Hellenized early states (Papazoglu 1967; 1988; Delev 1998).
Consequently, disagreements emerge about the level of Hellenization.
The common thread of the approach, most certainly due to the general
importance of Greek culture in the western European intellectual traditions
(see Shanks 1996; Morley 2009), is that traditional researchers have been
very keen to regard Hellenized cultures of the south-eastern Europe as if
they had reached the level of civilization and stepped into the historic
gtc"*Xtcpk5"4234c+0"
Traditional archaeology explores different ways of spreading of the
Itggm"kpwgpegu" qp"vyq"htqpvu<"cu"c"fktgev"tguwnv"qh"vjg"Ctejcke"qt"uqog"
later colonial endeavours on the Adriatic and the Black Sea shores, or
through contacts taking place in the continental regions neighbouring
Greece from the north. Beside the colonies of Grkfcopqu (F{ttjcejkqp)
and Crqnnqpkc founded in the late 7th century BC in modern-day Albania
(Wilkes, Fischer-Hansen 2004: 324), the question of the elusive Archaic
period settlements on the eastern Adriatic shores produced very little results
(see Wilkes 1992: 109-116; Wilkes 1969: 1-8). Most researchers argue that
vjg"tuv"eqnqp{"kp"Dalmatia is the 6th century BC settlement on the island
Ognckppc" Mqtm{tc" *oqfgtp/fc{" Mqt7wnc+" *Nkuk7ct" 3;73=" Yknmgu" 3;;4<"
114; Wilkes, Fischer-Hansen 2004: 325). Even though there are some rare
examples of Corinthian, Attic and Apulian pottery from this period, found
in the Dalmatian cost (ael-Kos 2005:185; Kirigin gv"cn. 2009: 140) and
recognized as the material representation of the beginning of the process
of Hellenization through some small-scale contacts in this early stage,
vjg" oquv" pwogtqwu" pfu" rgtvckp" vq" vjg" 6th century colonization of the
middle Dalmatian islands of Pharos (Hvar) and Kuuc" *Xku+" *Nkuk7ct" 3;73="
Dzino 2010b: 31-43). Related to the political interests of Dionysios I of
Syracuse, this second wave of colonization stands for a different social,
economic and historical context that is usually considered as the beginning
of the wider Hellenization process of the Illyrian communities on the
littoral (Papazoglu 1967; 1988). Some similar small-scale impact of the
Archaic period colonization on neighbouring communities is also visible in
the region of modern-day Bulgaria that neighbours the colony of Crqnnqpkc"
Rqpvkec (Tzochev 2011).
Interestingly, the earliest appearance of a more substantial number of
artefacts produced in Ctejcke"Itggeg."wuwcnn{"dncem/iwtg"Eqtkpvjkcp"cpf"
Athenian pottery or some Ionian forms, is in the continental region of the
Iron Age Pelagonia, region of the N{jpkf (Ohridsko) lake and the Lower
Vardar Valley, all of which are located in modern-day FYR Macedonia
*Okmwn7k5"3;88<"52+0"Uvctvkpi"htqo"vjg"9th century BC, the Iron Age sites in
Kxcp"Xtcpk5
37
***
It is widely believed that the intensity of the process grew over time,
subsequently enlarging the Hellenized territories. From the middle of
the 5th century BC in the Upper and the Middle Vardar course a region
neighbouring the already Hellenized Pelagonia and the Lower Vardar
valley the locally produced material culture begins to imitate the
uwrrqugf" Itggm" tqng" oqfgnu" *Rctqxk5/Rgkmcp" 3;:7=" Uqmqnqxumc" 3;:8="
Okmwn7km"3;;;="Rqrqxk5"4225+0"Eqpvtct{"vq"vjg"rtgxkqwu"gnkvg"ecugu"htqo"
the Glasinac-Mati complex in the north, these middle-5th century changes
are characterized by the emergence of the locally produced Greek-like
material culture for everyday use. These new forms include a very elaborately
dwknv"cujnct"cpf"owfdtkem"tcorctvu"*Okmwn7km"3;;;="Dkvtcmqxc/Itq|fcpqxc"
2006), wheel-made Hellenized pottery (Sokolovska 1992) and a substantial
increase in imported material, i.e. the North Aegean transport amphorae, Attic
cpf"Ejcnekfkeg"Rgpkpuwnc"tgf/iwtg"*Rctqxk5/Rgkmcp"3;;4+"cpf"Uv"Xcngpvkpg"
yctgu" *Rctqxk5/Rgkmcp" 3;;4=" Mtuvk5" 4227+0" Hqnnqykpi" vjg" kpvtqfwevkqp"
of new styles in Athens, some other changes are also visible but the entire
material culture setting remains Greek-like in appearance. The most visible
38
of these later changes are the introduction of the 4th and early 3rd century BC
black and red glazed Athenian pottery followed by the 3rd and 2nd century
BC Hellenistic imports, including the moulded Megarian bowls and the
West Slope ware (Bitrakova-Grozdanova 1987). This vast continental region,
which became Hellenized starting from the 5th century BC, encompasses
the territories supposedly belonging to the Paeonians and the Thracians.
These territories extend beyond the Vardar valley all the way to the central
parts of the modern-day Bulgaria (Maritza and Tundza valleys) (Archibald
1998) at the same time leaving aside the entire Glasinac-Mati complex
embedded in prehistoric traditions.
Most traditional authors argue that Hellenization leads toward
civilization and perceive these changes as the end of the Iron Age and
the beginning of the historic era (Papazoglu 1967; 1980; 1988; Sokolovska
3;:8="Xcuk5"3;;3="Okmwn7km"3;;;+0"Vjg"uwrrqugf"jkijnkijvu"qh"vjg"rtqeguu"
are visible in the territory conquered and incorporated in the Mediterranean
political sphere of interest by Philip II in the middle of the 4th"egpvwt{"DE"&"
regions which interestingly correspond to the area of the earlier (5th century)
Hellenization. The ultimate outcome, or as culture-historical archaeology
yqwnf"jcxg"kv."vjg"pcn"rtqqh"qh"ekxknk|kpi"cevkxkvkgu"kp"vjg"jkpvgtncpf."ku"
the Hellenistic-like socio-political context in this area which is established
during the middle of the 4th" egpvwt{" DE" &" ugxgtcn" fgecfgu" gctnkgt" vjcp"
Alexanders Persian campaign. Perceived as the result of the large-scale
Ocegfqpkcp" rqnke{." vjku" urgeke" korgtkcn" eqpvgzv" ngcfu" vq" cp" codkxcngpv"
idea that Philip IIs conquest could be labelled as the beginning of the
Hellenistic period in the Balkans (Delev 1998). This historical landscape
is often compared with the situation emerging in the East after Alexanders
conquest. It is important to emphasize that this academic discourse and
theoretical position strikingly resembles the culture-historical perspective
on the local identity changes resulting from the Roman conquest a few
centuries later. This short-term imperial domination of the Macedonian
cto{."gxgp"yjgp"kpwgpekpi"vjg"nqecn"eqoowpkvkgu."ku"c"urgeke"cpf"xgt{"
elusive historical context structurally different from the Hellenism in the
East and from the later Roman imperial endeavours in the Balkans.
The consequences of the traditional theoretical perspective, when
yg" eqpukfgt" vjg" jkuvqtkecn" tcokecvkqpu" qh" vjg" ujqtv/nkxgf" Ocegfqpkcp"
domination as the unquestionable beginning of the civilization and the
end of prehistory, are especially visible in the interpretation of the social
context emerging after the collapse of Alexanders empire. Local sociopolitical Paeonian and Thracian entities emerging in the late 4th and early
3rd century in these parts of the Balkans, are usually interpreted as barbarian
Hellenized or even Hellenistic monarchies or kingdoms (Papazoglu
1967; Delev 1998). Researchers in the south-eastern Europe are very
mggp" vq" ctiwg" vjcv" vjgug" gpvkvkgu" ctg" hwnn{" ciigf" uvcvg/ngxgn" uqekgvkgu" dwknv"
after the supposed Hellenistic role-models, which is an opinion that needs
to be approached from another perspective bearing in mind the numerous
Jgnngpqegpvtke"kpvgtrtgvcvkxg"rqukvkqpu."urgeke"nqecn"eqpvgzvu"cpf"vjg"tggzkxg"
nature of the archaeological work. Paeonian, Illyrian or Odrisian kingdoms
ctg" xgt{" urgeke" uqekq/rqnkvkecn" gpvkvkgu" qh" vjg" ncvgt" Dcnmcp" rtgjkuvqt{" cpf"
their appearance has still not been comprehended to a satisfactory level (see
Papazoglu 1988; Wilkes 1992: 156-180; Archibald 1998).
Kxcp"Xtcpk5
39
40
Kxcp"Xtcpk5
41
ewnvwtcn" qpgu." ujqwnf" dg" rgtegkxgf" cu" wgpv." ejcpigcdng" cpf" fgxgnqrkpi"
within some local habitus (Graves-Brown gv" n. 1996; Diaz-Andreu gv" n.
2005; Insoll 2007). As a result, examples of the imported Archaic and Early
Classical Greek pottery and subsequent expansion of the Hellenized
material culture in the 5th and 4th century BC in some parts of the Balkans
are manifestations of conscious activities of the agents who are habituated
within the local Iron Age contexts. Consequently, the Hellenized material
culture does not necessarily represent the introduction of Greek customs; it
does not have the same role and meaning as it may hold within the Classical
or Hellenistic Greek world. Even though there is an increasing number of
korqtvu" &" oquvn{" htqo" vjg" ncvg" Encuukecn" cpf" Gctn{" Jgnngpkuvke"Cvjgpkcp"
yqtmujqru" &" vjg" oclqtkv{" qh" vjg" pgy/uv{ng" Jgnngpk|gf" material culture
is produced locally, and for the local consumption. This expansion of the
similar Hellenized material culture within the previously distinctive Iron
Age cultures speaks about contacts and social changes that may not be
related to ethnicity at all, but to construction of some new hybrid forms of
different identities.
The European Iron Age in general is a prehistoric period when the most
visible form of identity is status kfgpvkv{"*Ygnnu"3;:2="Dcdk5"4227+."cpf"vjg"
case from the Balkans is no exception (Palavestra 1995; Archibald 1998;
Dcdk5" 4224+0" Vjg" tuv" crrgctcpeg" qh" vjg" Itggm" cpf" Kvcnke" korqtvu" kp" vjg"
Princely graves in the hinterland symbolizes the importance of these
foreign artefacts in the construction of the local Iron Age status identities.
Subsequently, the appearance of the vast amount of Hellenized and
imported material in the regions that during the 4th century BC became
rctv" qh" Cpekgpv" Ocegfqpkcp" rqnkvkecn" kpwgpeg" fqgu" pqv" fkokpkuj" vjg"
prominence of this form of identities. Today, more researchers point out
the importance of status identity and its transformations emerging from the
old warrior elites new practice of enrolling into the Greek and Macedonian
mercenary activities and creating a new form of Hellenized status group
*Pcpmqx"4233="Xtcpk5"4234d+0""
This new hybrid form of identity may be the most probable agency
behind the process of Hellenization. The developed taste for Greek
products including vine and glazed pottery is an appropriate context for the
widespread appearance of the Greek material culture. The emergence of
the Mediterranean forms of architecture may be explained in the same way.
This form of local consumption does not necessarily denote the introduction
qh" vjg" Itggm" ewnvwtcn" eqpvgzv." yjkej" ku" vjg" oquv" rtqokpgpv" cy" qh" vjg"
culture-historical archaeology. In addition, the traditional perspective has
placed enormous importance on the cultural and ethnic identities which
are supposedly becoming Hellenized and Greek-like, at the same time
keeping their previous ethnic distinctiveness, whereas other forms of group
and individual identities remain a neglected topic.
***
The traditional concept of Hellenization in the Balkans, which pertains to
the process of civilizing the strictly determined ethnicities and cultures,
is a theoretical perspective that has developed locally, but in accordance
with the modern European colonial and national narratives. Adjusted to the
42
local historic but also modern socio-political context, this concept continues
to serve as an interpretative framework in the traditional archaeological
practices designed for understanding the process of identity changes during
the Iron Age. It is informative about the modern nation building, global
image of the Balkans and the positioning of the local nations and their
heritage within the wider European political history.
This is by no means the only western perspective incorporated into
the local archaeological traditions. Numerous conceptual similarities with
the traditional theoretical perspective of Romanization, which plays an
even more prominent role in the local academic discourse and derives
from the same European socio-political context of the development of the
discipline, speak about the importance of shared practices of archaeology as
a discipline on the continent. As two sides of the same coin, both concepts
are modern, colonial, imperial, Eurocentric, evolutionistic narratives related
to contemporary picture of the Classical past, and they have both found
their way into the local archaeological practices. A possible deconstruction
of social aspects related to the application of these two narratives into the
archaeological discipline of the different Balkan countries should shed
different light on the past identities in the region, but also on the establishing
of local academic practices.
The region, which is already perceived by that same Western world as
the other, semicolonial, incomplete self, ambiguous, or a bridge
and crossroad toward the Orient (Todorova 2009), abounds in Greek,
Hellenized or Roman material culture, leading the local scholars
kp" c" rqukvkqp"vq" vt{" vq" pf" c" rtqrgt" vjgqtgvkecn"rgturgevkxg"yjkej" yknn"dg"
understandable to a wider European community. Therefore, it comes as
no surprise that the local researchers apply the same modernist thoughts
and European narratives. However, these are local perspectives and they
focus primarily on the classical Greek and Roman stereotypes about the
Paleo-Balkan people as barbarian and uncivilized other pointing out
that these peoples are more developed than they have been given credit
for. At the same time, these viewpoints try to show the Western world that
valuable and civilized heritage exists in the Balkans, even in regions
far away from Greece and in a period prior to the Roman conquest. It is fair
to say that Western narratives about Romanization, Hellenization and
the emergence of the European ekxknk|cvkqp" jcxg" uwduvcpvkcnn{" kpwgpegf"
the local archaeological schools in a manner that appropriates some heritage
as more valuable and presentable to the global and local audience. To put it
differently, maybe western Balkanism has shaped the local archaeological
responses in a way to prioritize the question of when and how the
civilizing process of the different local Iron Age cultures takes place,
supposedly allowing their admittance into the wider European history
and heritage. A question remains, though, whether the western and local
cultural histories are really confronted in this case (cf. Morris 2000). We
should consider whether this civilizing position appears solely as an
outcome of the western prejudices, or the reason for the strong endurance
of these approaches lies in the fact that local researchers were educated
in western universities, or according to western academic traditions, and,
consequently, they were keen to use the same approach. The most accurate
answer to these questions would require, I believe, accounting for and
considering both of these perspectives.
Kxcp"Xtcpk5
43
Acknowledgments
The paper is a result of the research project of the Institute of Archaeology
Serbian Archaeology: Ewnvwtcn"kfgpvkv{."kpvgitcvkqp"hcevqtu."vgejpqnqikecn"
rtqeguugu"cpf"vjg"tqng"qh"Egpvtcn"Dcnmcpu"kp"vjg"fgxgnqrogpv"qh"Gwtqrgcp"
Rtgjkuvqt{ (OI177020), funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.
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