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SOFT SOIL ENGINEERING

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

BALKEMA Proceedings and Monographs


in Engineering, Water and Earth Sciences

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SOFT SOIL


ENGINEERING, VANCOUVER, CANADA, 46 OCTOBER 2006

Soft Soil Engineering


Editors

Dave Chan
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

K. Tim Law
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton University,
Ottawa, Canada

LONDON / LEIDEN / NEW YORK / PHILADELPHIA / SINGAPORE

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Copyright 2007 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK


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ISBN13: 978-0-415-42280-2

Printed in Great Britain

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Table of Contents
Preface

XI

Organizing Committee

XIII

Keynote papers
Stability analysis accounting for macroscopic and microscopic structures in clays
K.Y. Lo & S.D. Hinchberger

Soft soil stabilisation with special reference to road and railway embankments
B. Indraratna, C. Rujikiatkamjorn, V. Wijeyakulasuriya, M.A. Shahin & D. Christie

35

Modelling and numerical simulation of creep in soft soils


P.A. Vermeer, M. Leoni, M. Karstunen & H.P. Neher

57

Experimental study on shear behavior and an improved constitutive model of saturated sand
under complex stress condition
M. Luan, C. Xu, Y. He, Y. Guo, Z. Zhang, D. Jin & Q. Fan

73

Embankment and dams


Sensitivity analysis of magnetic extensometers for measuring vertical movement
of earth dams on soft soils
R.J. Chenari

95

Building an embankment with simultaneous vacuum loading


B.T. Wang & K.T. Law

105

Failure of a column-supported embankment over soft ground


W.M. Camp III & T.C. Siegel

117

Performance of highway embankments on Bangkok clay


S. Apimeteetamrong, J. Sunitsakul & A. Sawatparnich

123

Geogrid-reinforced roadway embankment on soft soils: A case study


R. Vega-Meyer, R.S. Garrido, A.R. Piedrabuena, I.N. Larios & R.P. Lapuente

129

Monitoring the staged construction of a submerged embankment on soft soil


W.F. Van Impe, R.D. Verstegui Flores, J. Van Mieghem, A. Baertsoen & P. Meng

139

Optimal design of grillage supporting structures for stabilizing slopes


Y. Zhu & Y. Zhou

145

Measured settlements of the Srmin high embankment


P. vanut, M.R. Turk & J. Logar

153

Joint calculation of a foundation and soil of the large-scale


structure in view of creep
S. Aitalyev, N. Ter-Emmanuilyan, T. Ter-Emmanuilyan & T. Shmanov

159

Foundation
Pile resistance variations over time for displacement piles in young alluvium
A.A. Hanifah, M.N. Omar, N.F.A. Rahman & T.K. Ong

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

171

Group effect on model piles under axial monotonic loading


A.L. Kouby, J. Canou & J.C. Dupla
2D numerical modeling of Pile-net composite foundation of high-speed
railway embankment in soft soils
J.-D. Niu, L.-R. Xu, B.-C. Liu & D.-W. L

179

189

Study on the influence of pile foundation due to excavation


Y. Zhang, J. Zai & K. Qi

199

Study on long-term settlement behavior of driven pile foundation in soft soil


H.-B. Zhou, Z.-C. Chen & N.-F. Hong

205

Analyzing the static tests of boring piles through CFA technology


A.Zh. Zhusupbekov, Y. Ashkey, V.N. Popov, A.J. Belovitch & G.A. Saltanou

213

Large scale experiment and case study


Design and performance of a combined road-channel-dike structure founded on very
soft Bangkok clay
P. Boonsinsuk

219

Improvement of a very soft dregded silty clay at the port of Valencia (Spain)
M. Burgos & F. Samper

231

Study of geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway in Taiwan


S.-J. Chao

237

A study on dynamic shear modulus ratio and damping ratio of recently deposited soils
for southern region of Jiangsu province along Yangtze River, China
G.-X. Chen, X.-Z. Liu & D.-H. Zhu

245

Investigations on improvement of soft ground treated by various vertical drains


under embankment on soft clay foundation
H.I. Chung & J. Yu

251

Static and seismic stability of geogrid reinforced-soil segmental bridge abutments


constructed on soft-soil
K. Fakharian & I.H. Attar

257

Geotechnical behavior of organic soils of North Sarawak


S.R. Kaniraj & R.R. Joseph

267

Behavior characteristics of unreinforced and reinforced lightweight soils


Y.-T. Kim & H.-J. Kim

275

A case study of building damage risk assessment due to the multi-propped deep excavation
in deep soft soil
S.-J. Lee, T.-W. Song, Y.-S. Lee, Y.-H. Song & J.-K. Kim

281

Study on jackup spudcan punch-through


C.F. Leung, K.L. Teh & Y.K. Chow

291

Apparent earth pressure of soft soils overlying hard bedrock at South Link in Stockholm
J. Ma, B.S. Berggren, P.-E. Bengtsson, H. Stille & S. Hintze

299

Performance of stone column encased with geogrids


S.N. Malarvizhi & K. Ilamparuthi

309

Strength distribution of soft clay surround lime-column


A.S. Muntohar & J.-L. Hung

315

The investigation of mud tailings and a comparison of different test methods


with 3rd world constraints
W. Orsmond

VI

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

321

A geotechnical data base development and applying data mining techniques to extract
the common trendes of offshore geotechnical properties of South Pars
Gas Field/Persian Gulf IR-IRAN
H. Shiri GJ. & M.H. Pashnehtala
Inaccurate interpretation of offshore geotechnical site investigation results and risk
associated: A case study of conductors collapse in driving
H. Shiri GJ. & B. Molaei

327

333

Behaviour of plate anchors under short-term cyclic loading


S.P. Singh & S.V. Ramaswamy

341

Dissipation process of excess pore water pressure caused by static pressed pile in soft soil
W. Wang, J. Zai & T. Lu

347

Research on control of settlement and stabilization of high subgrade beside


hill and above soft foundation in Wenzhou expressway
H.-L. Yao, Y.-Q. Zhou, Z. Lu & Q. Zhou
Engineering performances of soil disturbed by underground mining and its application
G.-Y. Yu, P. Sheng & L.-B. Wang

351
357

Material behaviour
Compressibility properties of reconstituted organic soils at Khulna Region of Bangladesh
M.R. Islam, M. Alamgir & M.A. Bashar

367

Temperature effects on engineering behaviour of soft Bangkok clay


D.T. Bergado, H.M. Abuel-Naga & A. Bouazza

373

Discharge capacity of vertical drains installed in soft ground with time


by laboratory small and large tests
H.I. Chung, Y.S. Lee & Y.M. Park

381

Study of preconsolidation pressure values derived by the modified Casagrande method


I.N. Grammatikopoulos

385

Modeling sand behavior in constant deviatoric stress loading


R. Imam & N. Morgenstern

389

Identification of a general poro-viscoelastic model of one-dimensional consolidating soft soil


C.J. Leo

397

Characterisation of peat using full flow penetrometers


N. Boylan & M. Long

403

Experimental study of ageing effect on the undrained shear strength of silty soil
M. Ltifi

415

New relationships to find the hydraulic conductivity and shear wave velocity of soft Pusan clays
K.G. Rao & M. Suneel

421

Geotechnical characteristics of a very soft dredged silty clay and a soil-cement mix
in Valencia Port (Spain)
M. Burgos & F. Samper

427

Consolidation behavior of a soft clay composite


A.P.S. Selvadurai & H. Ghiabi

437

Laboratory testing of a soft silty clay


H. Ghiabi & A.P.S. Selvadurai

447

Effect of heating on pore water pressure of soft bentonite


A.N. Sinha & O. Kusakabe

457

VII

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Undrained strength and compressibility of mixtures of sand and coal


C. Stamatopoulos & A. Stamatopoulos

463

The assessment of destructuration of Bothkennar clay using bender elements


J. Sukolrat, D. Nash, M. Lings & N. Benahmed

471

Softening characteristics of soil cement on the condition of soaking


C.-J. Yin, X.-H. Wang & S.-C. Ma

481

Progressively destructurated undrained strength of natural soils


C. Zhou

485

Numerical modelling and theoretical development


Numerical modeling of interaction between flexible retaining wall and saturated
clayey soil in undrained and drained conditions
A.M. Bazrafshan & A. Pak

493

Numerical modeling for ground settlement due to two-tunnel shielding construction


Y. Bian, F. Zhuo, Y. Zhu & X. Ji

499

Numerical modeling of an embankment on soft ground improved by vertical rigid piles


O. Jenck, D. Dias & R. Kastner

505

Numerical simulation of passively loaded piles adjacent to embankment constructed


on soft Bangkok clay
R. Katzenbach & S. Pokpong

515

Three dimensional nonlinear finite element analyses for horizontal bearing capacity
of deeply-embedded large-diameter cylindrical structure on soft ground
Q. Fan, M. Luan & Q. Yang

521

Numerical modelling of a very soft dredged silty clay improvement in Valencia port (Spain)
F. Samper & M. Burgos

531

Slope stability and landslide


A new method for slope stability analysis of foundation pit due to groundwater seepage
G. Chen, C. Li & Y. Fan

541

A simplified method for stability analysis of reinforced embankments


Y.H. Chen, T. Zhang, X.H. Ma, Y.Q. Zhou, M.J. Gao & C.C. Gu

547

Stability analysis of expansive soil slope and its slope remedeations


R.Q. Huang & L.Z. Wu

553

Determination of non-circular critical slip surface by harmony search algorithm in


slope stability analysis
L. Liang, C. Shichun & Y.M. Cheng

557

Simple critical state model predicting the response along slip surfaces
C. Stamatopoulos

563

The other soil parameters in stability limit analysis of soil-nailed walls in soft soil
Y. Yang

573

Soil improvement
Centrifuge study on assessment of geological barrier of soft ground with floating type sand drains
B.L. Amatya, J. Takemura, T. Ashida & O. Kusakabe
The use of dynamic compaction in liquefaction hazards mitigation at reclaimed lands in Assalouyeh
petro-chemical complex-Iran
S.S. Yasrobi & M. Biglari

VIII

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

581

587

Optimization of strength and ductility of Class C fly ash stabilized soft subgrade soils
S. Bin-Shafique, A. Senol, C. Benson & T. Edil

595

Stabilization of soft clay site for development using Rammed Aggregate PiersTM
W. Sheu, E.M. Vlaeminck, B.T. FitzPatrick & J. Bullard

601

Improvement of soft soils by static SCP using a hydraulically-operated rotary penetration


R. Shiozaki, K. Uehara, S. Ikenoue, K. Ookori, Y. Umeki, M. Mori & M. Fukue

611

Promotion of consolidation for dredged soft sediments using permeable bags


M. Fukue, K. Kita, C. Mulligan, K. Uehara, Y. Umeki & T. Inoue

619

Estimation of the settlement of improved ground with floating-type cement-treated columns


R. Ishikura, H. Ochiai, K. Omine, N. Yasufuku & T. Kobayashi

625

Improvement for soft soil by soil-cement mixing


S. Jaritngam & S. Swasdi

637

Improving engineering properties of soft clayey soils using electrokinetics: A laboratory


based investigation
S. Jayasekera & S. Hall

643

3D modelling of deep mixing


H. Krenn, M. Karstunen & A. Aalto

649

Trafficability evaluation of PTM treated dredged soil deposit


S.-R. Lee, W.-Y. Byeon, H.-G. Park & S.-H. Jee

657

Comparison of performance between the dry and wet Deep Mixing method in soft
ground improvement
S. Liu, L. Chen & Y. Deng

667

A fundamental study on the remediation of contaminated soil with heavy metals based
on electrokinetic and magnetic properties
K. Omine, H. Ochiai & N. Yasufuku

673

Effect of zeolite and bentonite on the mechanical properties of cement-stabilized soft clay
A.A.-M. Osman & A. Al-Tabbaa

681

Enhancement of strength of soft soils with fly ash and lime


P.V. Sivapullaiah, B. Katageri & R.N. Herkal

691

Soil improvement using compaction grouting a laboratory investigation on the confining


pressure and injection rate in completely decomposed granite
S.Y. Wang, D. Chan, K.C. Lam, S.K. Au & L.G. Tham

697

The physical and mechanical properties of lime stabilized high water content expansive soil
B. Wang, X. Ma, W. Zhang, H. Zhang & G. Chen

703

Combined preloading compaction and composite ground to treat the soft subgrade of highway
G. Zheng, S. Liu & H. Lei

709

Theoretical analysis and constitutive modelling


The use of statistic analysis in predicting of ground and wall movements in soft clay
P. Chaichi & N. Shariatmadari

717

Analytic solutions of consolidation of fine-grained compressible soils by vertical drains


C.J. Leo

723

Improved stress-strain model of soft soil based on energy dissipation theory


T. Lu & W. Wang

731

Application of BP neural network in identifying soil strata by CPTU


S.-Z. Ma, H.-B. Jia, G.-T. Meng & S.-L. Liu

735

IX

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

A simplified plastic hysteretic model for multi-directional nonlinear site response in soft soils
J.M. Mayoral, J.M. Pestana, M.P. Romo & R.B. Seed

741

Mathematical description of consolidation test


G.-X. Mei, J.-M. Zai & J.-H. Yin

749

Back analysis of three case histories of braced excavations in Boston Blue Clay
using MSD method
A. Osman & M. Bolton

755

Effect of ratio of influence zone and type of vertical drain on consolidation of soft clay
due to radial flow
A.V. Shroff, M.V. Shah, T. Khan & N. Joshi

765

Study on the depth of crack propagation of unsaturated expansive soils


Q. Yang, P.-Y. Li & M.-T. Luan

775

Elastic viscoplastic modeling of two cases involving PVD improved Hong Kong marine clay
Z. Fang, J.H. Yin, C. Zhou & J.G. Zhu

779

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Preface

Soft soil is found in many places in the world and especially in coastal cities like Shanghai, Tianjin and Vancouver.
Soft sensitive clay, such as the Quick Clay along the St. Lawrence Seaway and in the Ottawa region in Canada,
provides many challenges to geotechnical engineers when building in or on this material. In many instances, soft
soil has to be treated using a variety of soil improvement techniques to improve its strength, deformation and
hydraulic properties.
The Fourth International Conference on Soft Soil Engineering provided an opportunity for geo-professional,
geotechnical engineers, academic and researchers, to share their experiences and research results on soft soils.
It was a continuation of previous three conferences held in Guangzhou, Nanjing and Hong Kong. The Fourth
International Conference on Soft Soil Engineering was held in Vancouver where there are soft soil problems
since Vancouver is situated at the river delta of the Fraser River. Delegates from over 20 countries gathered in
Hotel Vancouver between October 4 and 6, 2006 to discuss soft soils engineering. The conference dealt with
many technical issues of soft soil engineering such as soft soil construction, ground improvements, constitutive behaviour of soft soils, numerical modeling, hazard mitigation and post hazard ground investigation and
improvements. There were four keynote lectures given by leading professors/engineers from Canada, Germany,
Australia and China who shared their research findings and experiences in dealing with soft soils.

XI

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Organizing Committee

Conference Chair
Prof. Dave Chan
Steering Committee
Prof. D. H. Chan Prof. C. F. Lee
Dr. C. K. Lau,
Prof. L. G. Tham
Prof. K. T. Law
Prof. J.H. Yin
International Advisory Committee
Prof. Dave Chan
Dr. H. L. Liu
Dr. Dennis Becker
Dr. Charles Ng
Dr. Dennis Bergado
Prof. Pieter Vermeer
Prof. Buddhima Indraratna Prof. Richard Wan
Dr. Suzanne Lacasse
Dr. H. S. Yu
Dr. K. C. Lam
Prof. Askar Zhusupbekov
Prof. Serge Leroueil
Local Organizing Committee
Dr. Ranee Lai (Chair) Mr. Makram Sabbagh
Dr. Reza Iman
Mr. Daniel Yang
Mr. Gavin Lee
Dr. Mustapha Zerguon
Mr. Howard Plewes
Technical Program Committee
Prof. Tim Law (Chair)
Prof. Julie Shang
Prof. Masaharu Fukue
Prof. Siva Sivathayalan
Dr. Kai Sing Ho
Prof. Keizo Ugai
Prof. Jean-Marie Konard Prof. Baotian Wang
Prof. Maotian Luan
Dr. Quentin Yue
Organized by
The University of Alberta
The University of Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Supported by
The Canadian Geotechnical Society

XIII

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Keynote papers

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Stability analysis accounting for macroscopic and microscopic


structures in clays
K.Y. Lo & S.D. Hinchberger
Geotechnical Research Centre, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Western Ontario, London,
Ontario, Canada

ABSTRACT: Geotechnical Engineering has advanced to the present stage that various types of earth structures
can be designed and constructed safely and economically in most instances. However, in some cases, difficulty
arises either in the form of failure during construction or after many years in existence. The soils in which these
problems occur include but are not limited to highly sensitive clays and stiff fissured clays of various geological
origins. These clays possess pronounced macroscopic and microscopic structures that control the strength and
deformation properties. Macroscopic structures are visible features that include fissures, joints, stratifications
and other discontinuities in an otherwise intact soil mass. Microscopic structures would include soil fabric
and cementation bonds. A typical soft clay deposit usually is composed of a weathered crust at the top that is
fissured and thus macroscopic structures are dominant and soft clay at depth in which microscopic structures
are significant. The properties of these clays are complex, having a stress-strain relationship that exhibits a peak
strength and a post peak decrease in strength, a non-linear failure envelope, strength anisotropy and a significant
decrease in strength with a slower rate of testing or longer time to failure.
This paper explores the implications of microscopic and macroscopic structure on stability problems and the
conditions under which difficulties arise. Results of laboratory and field tests together with case histories show
that the dominant effect of a macroscopic structure is exhibited in the reduction of undrained and drained strength
with the sample size. The mass strength, whether in the undrained or drained condition, is only a fraction of the
intact strength. Design analysis for stability conditions should therefore start with the mass strength at initial
time followed by a reduction in strength as time progresses. A case history of an embankment founded on stiff
fissured clay on which it failed after 32 years is analyzed in detail to illustrate progressive development of plastic
zones with construction details and time. The effect of cementation bonds in influencing the strength properties
of soft clays is studied by artificially deposited bonds using the electro-kinetic process and examination with the
electronic microscope. It is shown that in addition to the classical increase in strength with decrease in water
content, a strength increase occurred with time due to the deposition of cementation bonds by diffusion. An
important bonding agent is identified and its effect on bond strength is compared with bonding in natural clays.
As the height of an embankment founded on a sensitive clay deposit is increased, a plastic zone will develop and
increase in size. The pore pressures at a point will increase at a greater rate when the point is engulfed by the
plastic zone as a result of bond breakage. Concurrently, the strength will drop to the post-peak state. Case histories
of embankments on these clays are analyzed to illustrate the propagation of the plastic zone in controlling the
foundation behaviour at imminent instability. The difference in performance of embankments with different
geometries in the same clay deposit is investigated. It is shown that the stability and subsequent strength changes
are controlled by the loading geometry and extent of the plastic zone. Finally, design considerations are suggested
to accommodate the effects of the macroscopic and microscopic structures in these clays.

INTRODUCTION

that had been carried out. The soils in which these


problems occurred include but are not limited to stiff
fissured clays and highly sensitive clays, as exemplified by the following two well-documented case
records.
The first case involved an embankment constructed
at Nanticoke, Ontario, on a deposit of stiff fissured
clay after extensive field and laboratory investigations.

At present, soft clay engineering has advanced to the


stage that earth structures can be designed economically and constructed safely in most cases. There are,
however, circumstances in which failure has occurred
during construction or after many years in existence in
spite of the detailed field and laboratory investigations

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

Properties of some clays.

Site

LL

PI

LI

Undrained
Strength (kPa)

Sensitivity

References

Nanticoke
Wallaceburg (depth 4.2 m)
Sarnia Till
St. Vallier
St. Louis
St. Alban
Olga
Vernon

55
46
38
60
50
50
60
65

31
18
26
37
23
23
32
40

0.06
1.0
0.16
0.97
1.83
2.4
1.6
1.14

380
37
150
43
43
11
10
30

1
6
2
20
50
14
13
4

Lo et al. (1969)
Becker (1981)
Quigley and Ogunbadejo(1976)
La Rochelle and Lefebvre (1970)
La Rochelle and Lefebvre (1970)
La Rochelle et al. (1974)
Dascal et al. (1972)
Crawford et al. (1995)

The embankment was originally designed for a maximum height of 17 m (locally) with 2:1 slopes. It was
constructed in 1969 as a containment dyke for fly
ash disposal. Surficial instability occurred at various
periods after construction with time to failure of several months to several years. The downstream slope
was flattened in 1977 to 2.75:1. However, instability
occurred at 32 years after construction.
The second case involved a dramatic and most
instructive case record presented by Crawford et al.
(1995) who described two consecutive failures of an
embankment on soft clay, in spite of the fact that two
test embankments were already constructed on either
side of the failures and that the test embankments were
higher than the embankments that failed.
The conditions under which these problems
occurred are explored in this paper. Additional considerations to conventional design methodology are
suggested.

Figure 1. Effective strength envelope of Nanticoke Clay


from 4.5 m depth.

clays. The following discussion covers the behaviour


of relatively insensitive intact stiff clays, and a few
additional observations are also made on the behaviour
of sensitive clays. In order to avoid the effects of sample disturbance, only results of tests from specimens
trimmed from block samples or high quality large
diameter samples are considered.

BEHAVIOUR OF INTACT CLAYS

Highly sensitive clays and stiff fissured clays of various


geological origins possess pronounced macroscopic
and microscopic structures that control the strength
and deformation properties.
Macroscopic structures are visible features that
include fissures, joints, stratifications and other discontinuities in an otherwise intact soil mass. Microscopic
structures would include soil fabric and cementation
bonds identifiable, for example, using electron microscope techniques. A typical soft clay deposit usually is
composed of a weathered crust at the top that is fissured
and thus macroscopic structures are dominant and soft
clay below the crust wherein microscopic structures
are significant.
The properties of these clays are complex, having a
stress-strain relationship that exhibits a peak strength
and a post peak decrease in strength, a non-linear
failure envelope, strength anisotropy and a significant
decrease in strength with a slower rate of testing or
longer time to failure. Leroueil (2005) has presented
a comprehensive review of the behaviour of sensitive

2.1 Non-Linearity of Mohr-Coulomb envelope


Traditionally, engineers have adopted a linear relationship for the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope. In reality,
test results have invariably shown that the envelope is
intrinsically nonlinear. However, the details of nonlinearity are markedly different between highly sensitive
and relatively insensitive clays. Properties of the clays
discussed in the following paragraphs are shown in
Table 1.
Figure 1 shows the Mohr-Coulomb envelope determined from intact specimens trimmed from block
samples of insensitive stiff fissured clay taken at the
Nanticoke Generation Station, Ontario (Valle 1969).
It can be seen that the envelope is mildly nonlinear over
a wide stress range with the strength increasing with
effective stresses. This behaviour is also exhibited in
other materials such as intact rock and concrete.
Figure 2 shows the results of tests on Wallaceburg
Clay (Becker 1981) near Sarnia, Ontario. The clay is

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 4. Results of CIU tests at different i on St. Vallier


Clay. (after Lo and Morin 1972)
Figure 2. Effective strength envelope of firm Wallaceburg
Clay. (after Becker 1981)

Figure 3. Stress condition at failure and stress paths, CIU


tests at i = 0 on St. Louis Clay. (after Lo and Morin 1972)

firm at the depth of testing with a liquidity index of


about one and a sensitivity of six by field vane tests.
It can be seen that the envelope is nonlinear. However,
over the stress range from 70 kPa to 90 kPa straddling
the preconsolidation pressure, there is little increase in
strength with increasing effective stress.
Figure 3 shows the results of CIU tests on St. Louis
Clay (St = 50) (Lo and Morin 1972). The envelope
is strongly nonlinear. The remarkable feature is that
there is a significant decrease in strength with an
increase in effective stress as the consolidation pressure approaches the preconsolidation pressure. Similar
behaviour can be seen for St. Vallier Clay (St = 20) in
Figure 4.

Figure 5. Stress-strain relationship of St. Vallier Clay from


drained triaxial tests. (after Lo 1972)

in which the strength loss due to bond breakage


overshadows the strength gain due to effective stress
increases until most of the bonds are broken, whereupon their effects are obliterated. At effective stresses
that exceed the preconsolidation pressure, the envelope enters into the unstructured portion where the
strength increases linearly with effective stress. Further study of cementation bonds will be discussed in
Section 5.

2.2 Anisotropy
The results of triaxial compression tests on specimens
from St. Vallier with their axes trimmed at i = 0 , 45
and 90 from the vertical are shown in Figure 4. The
apparent anisotropy of the strength envelope is evident although the trend of decreasing strength with
an increase in effective stress is less distinct. The
decrease in strength with an increase in effective stress
may be attributed to bond breakage, a progressive
process of damage to the microscopic soil structure

2.3 Effect of time


The stress-strain relationship of specimens from block
samples of St. Vallier Clay measured in isotropically
consolidated drained triaxial tests at consolidation
pressures below the vertical preconsolidation pressure
are shown in Figure 5 (Lo 1972). One series of tests
was performed at the conventional axial stain rate of

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Figure 7. Influence of different physical factors on stress


conditions at failure in sensitive clays. (after Lo and Morin
1972)

Figure 6. Effect of strain rate on the peak strength of


St. Vallier Clay (after Lo and Morin 1972)

0.1% per hour while the other series was performed


40 times slower. It may be seen that both strength and
stiffness decreased with the slower rate of testing. The
dependence of the failure envelope on the rate of testing, including CIU tests, are shown in Figure 6 (Lo and
Morin 1972). Since the strain rates of laboratory tests
are vastly different from the strain rates in the field,
the results of these tests indicate that the effect of time
to failure is a significant factor to be considered in the
design of earth structures.
2.4

Post-Peak envelope

It has often been found that in most natural soils, the


strength decreases after the peak strength has been
reached. For sensitive clays, it was recognized that an
envelope defined by the state of stresses at strains in the
order of 6% to 10% is of particular engineering significance for the analysis of slope stability (Lefebvre and
La Rochelle 1974, Lo and Morin 1972). It was considered that the effect of anisotropy, time rate and the
potential for progressive failure all tend to reduce the
peak strength envelope towards the post-peak strength
as shown in Figure 7 (for details see Lo and Morin
1972). Analyses of natural slope failures in Champlain
Clays showed that the results lie close to the post-peak
envelope as shown in Figure 8 (Lo and Lee 1974). For
first time slides of cut slopes, the results lie above the
post-peak envelope (see points for Orleans (Lo 1972),
Lachute 1 and Lachute 2 (Lefebvre 1981)) as expected,
since the progression of progressive failure can satisfy
the limiting equilibrium condition before the post-peak
strength is reached over the entire slip surface.
An important contribution to the verification of
the concept of the post-peak strength was made by
Law (1981). A comprehensive series of tests on specimens prepared from 100 mm Osterberg samples from
Rockcliffe in the Ottawa region was performed using
different stress paths. The results showed that:

Figure 8. Summary plot for natural slope failures in Champlain Sea Clay. (after Lo and Lee 1974, with additional
cases)

p test to constant 1 test. However, the brittleness


of both clays is still manifested (see Figure 9).
(b) The post-peak envelope is independent of the stress
path and is remarkably similar to that deduced by
Lo and Lee (1974) (see Figure 10).
It appears, therefore, that the concept of post-peak
envelope remains valid since its inception as a basis
for the evaluation of the stability problem.
3 THE MASS STRENGTH OF FISSURED
CLAYS
In soil deposits that are essentially free of discontinuities, the properties of intact specimens measured in the
laboratory would be representative of field behaviour,
apart from accounting for their complex behaviour.
In a soil mass populated by features such as fissures
and joints, the properties measured in small intact
specimens in conventional sampling and testing can
be misleading.

(a) The brittleness of both a sensitive clay and a stiff


clay decreases from a constant 3 test to constant

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(b) syneresis: the colloidal process in which particles


are drawn together, forming honeycomb patterns
of cracking during aging;
(c) one-dimensional swelling due to removal of overburden such that the strain required to reach
passive failure is attained (Skempton 1961);
(d) tectonic stresses;
(e) stress relief and valley rebound due to erosion;
(f) slumps on steep rock valleys during deposition,
forming large scale discontinuities;
(g) glacial shear;
(h) temperature effects.
While joints, shear zones and faults affect the
directional stability of an earth structure, the most
ubiquitous discontinuities are fissures prevalent in stiff
fissured clays and the crust of soft or firm clay deposits.
An example of the large difference in undrained
strength between fissures and intact material of Nanticoke Clay is shown in Figure 11. Because of the large
difference in strength, whether in the undrained (Figure 11) or drained (Table 2) condition, the presence of
fissures considerably weakens the otherwise intact soil
mass. The degree of weakening would depend on the
difference between the intact strength and the fissure
strength as well as the density and size distribution of
the fissures. An example of a decrease in strength with
sample size (area of potential failure surface) is shown
in Figure 12.
The impact of macroscopic structures on the stability of earth structures such as cut slopes is substantial.
Table 3 summarizes some case histories of failure
in stiff fissured clays. The quantities Su and Su,m
represent the strengths from conventional unconsolidated undrained tests and the mass strength from back
analysis of failure, respectively. Fu is the factor of
safety computed from conventional U-U strength. It
can be seen that these conventional factors of safety
considerably exceed one. It follows, therefore that a
design approach without consideration of macroscopic
structure could be unsafe.

Figure 9. Effect of stress path on brittleness index of clays.


(after Law 1981)

Figure 10. Summary of results of stress path tests on


Rockcliffe Clay. (after Law 1981)

It has been recognized that the macroscopic structures of a clay can dominate its strength behaviour and
that the strength of the soil mass is only a fraction
of that of the intact material (e.g. Bishop and Little 1967, Lo 1970). Macroscopic structures include
fissures, joints and other discontinuities in an otherwise intact soil mass. For comparison, the effective
stress parameters of some stiff clays in the intact state,
along natural surfaces of weakness, and in the residual state are given in Table 2. It may be seen that
the strength along the discontinuities is much lower
than the intact material but distinctly higher than the
residual strength.
Many hypotheses for the mechanisms of formation
of discontinuities in clays have been put forward that
include but are not limited to:

It is often found in soft or firm clay deposits that


a stiffer crust exists of one to several metres thick.
The crust is typically fissured with high vane strength.
The strength decreases through the transition zone
and from there to the soft layer where the strength
increases again (see, for example, Figure 28 and 40).
The assumption of the value of undrained strength for
the crust has a significant effect on the design factor
of safety for embankments on soft clays.
The field vane test is commonly used for the measurement of undrained strength in field investigations.
However, the failure surface is cylindrical in the field

(a) weathering: one of the generally accepted mechanisms, including cycles of deposition, desiccation,
erosion and redeposition;

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

UNDRAINED STRENGTH OF THE CRUSTS


OF SOFT CLAY DEPOSITS

Table 2.

Strength of clays along discontinuities.

Clay

Index
Properties
WL WP WN
%
%
%

Type of
Discontinuities

Strength Parameters
Intact
DisconMaterial
tinuities
Residual


Nanticoke Clay
Ontario
Upper Siwalik
Clay Sukian
Blue London
Clay Wraysbury
Barton Clay
Hampshire
Magho District
Northern Ireland
Shale

cw

w

cr

Reference

r

c
kPa

( )

kPa

( )

kPa

( )

31

36

13

18

15

58

22

17

16

14

58

24

26

60

28

16

Fissure
(depth = 6 m)
Minor Shear

70

27

28

Joint and Fissure

31

20

18.5

16

83

32

30

Fissure

26

38

18

13

Bedding Joint

25

18

Lo & Valle
(1970)
Skempton and Petley
(1967)
Skempton et al.
(1969)
Marsland & Butler
(1967) and Corbett (1967)
Prior and Fordham (1974)

Figure 12. Strength-size relation, Nanticoke Clay from 6 m


depth. (after Lo 1970)

during insertion and the effects of strength anisotropy.


The effect of macroscopic structure therefore would
require the field vane strength to be reduced to correspond to the mass strength of the crust. Field results of
crust mass strength are scarce but the work of Quigley
and Ogunbadego (1976) and Lefebvre et al. (1987) are
discussed below.
4.1 Sarnia till
In a comprehensive study of the properties of Sarnia Till in connection with pollutant migration in a
Sarnia landfill site, Quigley and Ogunbadejo (1976)
performed large in situ shear box tests on the SarniaTill
using the same equipment and similar procedure as Lo
et al. (1969). The tests were performed at three depths
of 1.5, 3.0 and 4.5 metres. The first two levels correspond to the crust and the third level corresponds to
the transition zone below the crust. The results, shown
in Table 4, indicated that the ratio of mass strength
to intact strength increases with depth, reflecting the
decreasing intensity of fissuring with depth. It is also

Figure 11. Stress-strain relation of intact and fissure samples-unconsolidated-undrained tests. (after Lo 1970)

vane test while fissures are approximately planar.


Therefore, the likelihood of containing fissures in the
vane test is small and the vane test measures essentially
the intact strength (Lo 1970) apart from disturbance

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 3.

Some case records of failure on fissured clays and rock.

Case Record
Bradwell 1
(England)
Bradwell 2
(England)
Wravsbury
(England)
Durgapur
(India)
Dunvegan
(Alberta)
South
Saskatchewan
Witbank
Colliery (South
Africa)
Houston (Texas)

Soil
Type

WL
Structure (%)

Wp
(%)

WN
(%)

Brown
London Clay
Brown
London Clay
Blue
London Clay
Blue
Silty Clay
Clay
Shale
Clay
Shale
Coal

Cut

95

30

33

0.05 97

1.8 54

Cut

95

30

33

0.05 97

1.9 50

Cut

73

28

28

0.0

118

3.3 36

Simons (1967)

Cut

58

20

23.4

0.09 113

8.7 13

Dastidar (1967)

Fill

50

24

22

0.04 217

2.6 83

Hardy et al. (1962)

Cut

80150 1827 1935

70

2.5 28

Peterson et al. (1960)

Pillar

7.4 4300

Bieniawski (1968)

Fissured
Clay

Anchored 65
Sheet
Pile Wall

Su
kPa

IB

Fu

Su,m
kPa

Reference
Skempton and
La Rochelle (1965)

31 900

22

22

97217* 2.2 2497 Daniel & Olson


(1982)

Note: IB = Brittleness Index; Su = Undrained Strength from Conventional UU tests; Fu = Factor of Safety used on Su
Su,m = Mass Strength Computed from Failure
* Increases with depth
Table 4.

Effect of fissures on the intact undrained strength of clays.

Soil Deposit

Depth (m)

Sui (kPa)

Su,m (kPa)

Su,m
Sui

Sarnia Till

1.5 (Crust)
3.0 (Crust)
4.5 (Transition)
0.21.2 (Crust)

280
250
150
75 (25)
80 (40)
333
390
371
77

55
104
85
18
18
56
95
97
31

0.20
0.41
0.56
0.24 (east trench)
0.23 (north trench)
0.17
0.24
0.26
0.40

Olga Sensitive Clay


Nanticoke G.S.
Fissured Clay
Brown London Clay, Maldon

3.3
4.8
6.1
1.42.0

Note: Sui = intact undrained strength from UU tests or vane test


Su,m = undrained mass strength from in situ shear box tests

number of the vane strength profiles were performed


both in two test trenchs (east and north) and there was
substantial variability of the vane strength. The results
of in situ shear box tests, however, were quite consistent. The ratio of the undrained strength from in situ
shear box tests to the field vane strength was about
one quarter and is shown in Table 4.

interesting to note that there is very little post-peak


drop in strength for this clay from the in situ shear box
test with the brittleness index being about 0.07.
4.2

Olga embankment

An embankment was loaded to failure at the Olga site,


in Mattagami, in Quebec (Dascal et al. 1972). The
factor of safety computed was 1.6. Trak et al. (1976)
re-analyzed the failure using the concept of undrained
post-peak strength. However, because of the uncertainty of the crust strength, an investigation was carried
out in the crust by Lefebvre et al. (1987). In situ shear
box tests and plate loading tests were performed in the
1.2 m thick crust but no tests were done in the transition zone which extended to about 3 m depth. A large

4.3

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Observations on mass strength of crusts

It is apparent from the results of the in situ tests


described in the preceding paragraphs and the study on
stiff fissured clays at Nanticoke (Lo et al. 1969) and at
Maldon (Bishop and Little 1967; also shown in Table
4) that the macroscopic structure of fissuring could
reduce the mass strength to about one quarter to one

third that of the intact material; the value would depend


on the intensity of fissuring at a particular site. As a
guideline, the vane strength in the crust of a soft clay
deposit should conceivably be reduced to this range.
It is of interest to note that in the planning and execution of the Gloucester Embankment at the National
Test Site near Ottawa, the impact of the crust of the
sensitive clay was recognized by Dr. M.M. Bozozuk
(Bozozuk and Leonards 1972) and it was removed
prior to the construction of the test embankment.

5
5.1

MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE
Conceptual view of microstructure

Investigations into the microscopic structures of soils


have been carried out by numerous authors (see e.g.
Mitchell 1976, Rosenquist 1966). As early as 1966,
Quigley and Thompson (1966) using the X-ray diffraction technique showed that for a block sample of Leda
Clay, soil fabric underwent a large change once the preconsolidation pressure as determined in an oedometer
test was exceeded. It was hypothesized that cementation bonding was predominantly destroyed at yield
and greater anisotropic loading led to an increased
parallel arrangement of clay particles in the oedometer tests. More recently, Leroueil and Vaughan (1990)
reviewed the strength behaviour of many natural soils
and weak rocks and considered that the effects of
structure (microstructure) on engineering behaviour
should be treated as a basic concept in geotechnical
engineering.
A conceptual view of the microstructure of clays is
shown in Figure 13. The structure, consisting of the
fabric and the cementation bonds, was developed during and after deposition of the soil under a field stress
system and physico-chemical environment. The fabric
of sensitive clays may be conceived as a highly complex space frame and derives its resistance to shear
by displacements and deformations of its constituent
members and joints. The cementation bonds at the contacts of clay platelets are randomly distributed, and
are brittle in behaviour requiring little deformation to
rupture. For a given physico-chemical system, the relative contribution of the bonds and fabric to the overall
mobilized resistance of the soil to deformation would
predominantly depend on the intensity and strength of
the cementation bonds.
Starting from an equilibrium state, an increase in
applied stresses will be transmitted through the soil
skeleton (fabric) producing the deformations arising
from (a) the elastic deformation of the soil skeleton,
(b) deformation and sliding at points of contact, and
(c) deformation of the soil particles. Component (c)
may be neglected since the compressibility of the soil
skeleton is orders of magnitude greater than that of the

Figure 13. Conceptual view of change of microstructure


with shearing in sensitive clays.

soil particles. The vectoral summation of these microscopic deformations are observed as strain in a given
direction.
As the applied stresses are increased, the external stresses are transferred to the points of contact.
Since there is a lack of symmetry in the fabric and
the distribution of bonds, the distribution of normal
and shear forces at the contact points is not uniform.
In addition, distortion of the soil fabric would induce
tensile stress in some contact points. The criteria of
rupture, whether in shear or in tension, will be satisfied at some contact points leading to bond breakage.
The failure at points of contact leads to some particle
re-arrangement (see Figure 13), observed externally
as plastic (irrecoverable) deformation. The stresses
originally carried at the contact points will partly be
transferred to the pore water, increasing the pore pressure and partly to the neighbouring points of contact.
The shearing resistance of the broken contacts would
reduce to that similar to the post-peak strength of the
clay. Therefore, even at external stresses well below
macroscopic failure of a test specimen, bond breakage occurs and produces some plastic deformation
and slight re-arrangement of soil fabric as shown in
Figure 13.
This process was well illustrated by incremental
stress-controlled CIU tests on normally-consolidated
sensitive clays in which both plastic deformation
(creep) and pore pressure at a constant applied stress
increased simultaneously with time (Lo 1961). The
progressive nature of bond rupture during shear can
also be illustrated by Figure 14 in which the modulus of deformation of St. Louis Clay in CIU and CID
tests are plotted against consolidation pressure. It can
be seen that at half of the failure stress, the trend of

10

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5.3 Artificial bonding by electrokinetic process

Figure 14. Variation of modulus of deformation with consolidation pressure for St. Louis Clay (after Lo and Morin
1972).

modulus variation with consolidation pressure reflects


that of the curved strength envelope shown in Figure 3.
As the applied stress increases in a triaxial test
towards the peak stress, localization of deformation
occurs due to the formation of a failure zone. Within
the failure zone at the peak stress, the bond strength is
fully mobilized. The test specimen then softens and
exhibits a decrease in strength with further strain (more
correctly, further displacement in the failure zone).The
post-peak strength is reached at a moderate nominal
strain in the range of 6%10% in sensitive clays. However, particle parallelism can only be approached at
much larger displacement in the region of the residual
strength in natural clays.

5.2

Following the discussion in the preceding section,


the contribution of cementation bonds to the strength
behaviour of soft clays will firstly be examined
using artificial bonding achieved by electrokinetic processes. The bonding agent will be iron compounds
derived from the iron electrodes during the treatment.
The soft clay used in the experiment is a marine
clay from Yulchon, South Korea. The liquid limit of
the clay is 59%, the plasticity index is 27%, and the
water content ranges from 80% to 110%. The clay is
normally consolidated. The undrained shear strength
is between 1 and 6 kPa.
Briefly, the test procedure involved the following
steps:
(i) Establish the classical relationship of the undrained
shear strength and water content for normallyconsolidated clays.
(ii) Set up two identical clay samples under the same
pressure and boundary conditions. One sample acts
as the control test.
(iii) Treat electrokinetically (EK) the test sample at the
applied voltage of 6.2 V using the direct current for
seven days, after consolidation at 15 kPa.
(iv) Allow the test to continue for diffusion to take place
for a further 45 days after EK treatment.
The test set-up for EK treatment of theYulchon Clay
is shown in Figure 15. Details of the test procedure
have been presented in Micic et al. (2002).
Tests were performed before and after the electrokinetic treatment to investigate the changes in the
physical, mechanical and chemical properties of the
Yulchon Clay due to electrokinetic treatment. The testing program included undrained shear strength and
water content measurements, soil chemistry analyses
(x-ray fluorescence or XRF, specific surface and cation
exchange capacity) and soil surface analyses using a
scanning electron microscope (SEM) including energy
dispersive x-ray (EDX) analyses for identification of
the elemental composition of the soil. Based on the
results of the tests, the contribution of cementation
bonds to the strength behaviour of the Yulchon Clay
was evaluated.

Laboratory study of cementation bonds

Studies on the source and nature of cementation bonds


in sensitive clays in Eastern Canada have been undertaken by Kenny et al. (1967), Yong et al. (1979)
and Quigley (1980), among others. While there was
some difference of opinion regarding the details of
the methods of these mineralogical and geochemical
investigations, there appears to be a general agreement that calcium carbonate and amorphous materials
including SiO2 , Fe2 O3 and Al2 O3 are the most likely
cementing agents in these sensitive clays.
To proceed from qualitative to more quantitative
assessment of the contribution of cementation bonds to
the overall shear strength of soft clays, one difficulty is
the lack of baseline reference for natural clays. It seems
appropriate therefore to artificially induce cementation
bonds by employing only one potential cementation
agent in natural clays, using an untreated sample as
a control test throughout the long duration of experimentation, so that their contribution to strength can
be ascertained and the possible mechanism of bonding
identified.

5.4 Results of artificially-induced bonding


Analyses of the relationship between the undrained
shear strength and water content of the normallyconsolidated (7-15 days of consolidation) Yulchon
Clay show that the undrained shear strength and water
content of Yulchon soil yield an exponential relationship as shown in Figure 16. Results of isotropicallyconsolidated undrained triaxial (CIU) tests shown in
Figure 17 indicate the ratio su /pc of 0.3, where p is
the consolidation pressure. This value is similar to the
in situ value of su /p = 0.26 at theYulchon site in South

11

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

40
p'=45 kPa
35

yield

30
p'=30 kPa

1-3, kPa

25

yield
2su

20

15
Shear Strength vs Consolidation
Pressure

40
10
su, kPa

30
20
p'

10

su

0
0

su/p'=0.3

10 20 30 40 50
p', kPa

0
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

Axial Strain , %
Figure 17. Results of CIU triaxial tests on natural Yulchon
Clay
Figure 15. Experimental apparatus (All dimensions in mm;
not to scale).

The results of undrained shear strength changes


after EK treatment of the Yulchon Clay are shown in
Figure 18. Figures 18(a) and (b) present the relationship between the water content and undrained shear
strength after electrokinetic treatment and diffusion
phases in the vicinities of the anodes and cathodes,
respectively. The change in strength may be attributed
to the processes operating in the tests, including:

Undrained Shear Strength (su), kPa

100

10

su = 551e-0.05w
UUp'=15 kPa)
CIU(p'=15 kPa)
CIU(p'=30 kPa)
CIU(p'=45 kPa)
Vane tests

p' - Consolidation pressure


UU - Unconfined compression test
CIU - Isotropically consolidated undrained triaxial test

0.1
50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

Water Content (w), %

(a) aging a process of bond growth with time without introduction of external agents (Leonards and
Ramiah 1959, Bjerrum and Lo 1963);
(b) electroosmotic consolidation a process of electrically induced water flow from anode to cathode
(see e.g. Casagrande 1949, Mitchell and Wan 1977,
Lo and Ho 1991); and
(c) deposition of cementation bonds under ionic diffusion.
The small increase in strength in the control samples
after 52 days may be attributed to the process of aging
under the constant applied stress of 15 kPa. During
electrokinetic treatment, all three processes would be
operating but the dominant mechanism is electroosmosis as can be seen by the large decrease in water
content at the anode region and little change in water
content at the cathode region. Finally, after the current
is switched off, the mechanism operating would be

Figure 16. Undrained shear strength of untreated Yulchon


soil versus water content

Korea reported by Hyundai Engineering and Construction Co. Ltd. (HDEC) in 1996. As expected, the
stress-strain curves in Figure 17 showed no post-peak
decrease in strength.

12

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

100
(a) Anode Region

Undrained Shear Strength (su), kPa

Undrained Shear Strength (su), kPa

100

After diffusion (45 days)

10

After EK treatment
(7 days)

After 52 days

EK treated-immediately after EK traetment of 7 days


EK traeted-45 days after EK treatment (diffusion)
Control-after 52 days
(pc=15 kPa; Uo=6.2 V)

1
40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

Water Content (w), %

Untreated Yulchon clay


(normally consolidated)

Anode
Cathode

-0.05w

su=551e

D
EK

D
EK

10

Cathode
Anode
Untreated
soil

1
65

Undrained Shear Strength (su), kPa

100

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

Water Content (w), %

(b) Cathode Region

Figure 19. Development of the undrained shear strength and


water content changes of the Yulchon Clay during and after
EK treatment.

After diffusion (45 days)

10

After EK treatment
(7 days)

30
After 52 days

28

cathode region - sample 1

26
(pc=15 kPa; Uo=6.2 V)

24

1
40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

22

Axial Stress, kPa

Water Content (w), %

Figure 18. Undrained shear strength versus water content:


(a) at anode and (b) at cathode

ionic diffusion with a small contribution from aging.


During this period, deposition of cementation bonds
predominately occurs.
Figure 19 illustrates the development of strength
during the entire experiment by following the strengthwater content paths starting from an initial water
content of 95%. At the anode region, the shear strength
increased from 4.5 kPa to 16.5 kPa immediately after
electrokinetic treatment along with a decrease in
water content from 95% to 74%. The undrained shear
strength further increased from 16.5 kPa to 21 kPa after
a diffusion phase of 45 days in spite of an increase in
the soil water content from 74% to 85%. At the water
content of 85%, consolidation alone as indicated by
the results of the control test would yield a strength
value of 7 kPa. Thus, the strength contribution from
bonding amounts to 67% of the total strength.
At the cathode region, the undrained shear strength
increased from 4.5 kPa to 11.5 kPa immediately after
electrokinetic treatment along with a decrease in water
content from 95% to 91%. The shear strength further increases from 11.5 kPa to 15 kPa after 45 days
of the diffusion phase along with a slight decrease in
water content from 91% to 87%. At a water content
of 87%, consolidation only would yield an undrained

anode region - sample 2

18
16

anode region- sample 1

14
12
10

untreated

8
6
4
2
0
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

Axial Strain, %

Figure 20. Results of unconfined compression tests.

strength of 5.4 kPa. Thus, the strength from bonding


would constitute 64% of the total strength.
The stress-strain curves from unconfined compression tests on treated soil are presented in Figure 20. As
can be seen, the results of compression tests are consistent with the results of vane tests discussed earlier,
showing that the undrained shear strength increased
due to EK treatment. In addition, brittleness developed in the soil as a result of electro-cementation. It is
also noted that the brittleness is more prominent at the
cathode than at the anode region, which is consistent
with the strength development paths in Figure 19.

13

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

cathode region - sample 2

20

Table 5.

2.4
pc'=40 kPa

2.3

pc'=16 kPa pc'=42 kPa

2.2

Void Ratio

2.1
2
1.9

Cathode

1.8
1.7

Anode

1.6
1.5
1

10

100

1000

Results of XRF analyses of Yulchon Clay.

Oxides (%)

Control

EK Treated Soil

SiO2
TiO2
Al2 O3
Fe2 O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
K2 O
Na2 O
P2 O5
Cr2 O3
L.O.I.
Total

56.55
0.72
16.70
5.74
0.09
2.41
1.23
2.96
1.67
0.10
0.01
11.60
99.78

49.90
0.64
14.61
11.78
0.13
1.82
2.50
2.60
1.39
0.95
0.02
13.10
99.45

Applied Pressure, kPa


Table 6.

Figure 21. Results of consolidation tests on Yulchon Clay.

Oedometer tests were performed on specimens


from the anode and cathode region as well as from the
control test. The results are shown in Figure 21. It may
be seen that a preconsolidation pressure of approximately 40 kPa has developed in both the anode and
cathode region as a result of electro-cementation. The
control test gives a preconsolidation pressure of 16 kPa
compared with the applied pressure of 15 kPa. It may
therefore be observed that an overconsolidation ratio
of about 2.5 has been induced by cementation bonding.
The mechanism of this electro-cementation may be
attributed to selective sorption and ionic exchange of
ionic species on clay particle surfaces and precipitation of amorphous chemical compounds such as iron
oxide/hydroxide and calcium carbonate which serve
as cementation agents (Quigley 1980). X-ray fluorescence (XRF), specific surface and cation exchange
capacity (CEC) analyses were performed on the soil
samples to detect the chemical changes in the soil due
to electrokinetic treatment and to identify cementing
agent(s) involved. The XRF analyses provide the major
element composition of the soil. The results of the
analyses shown in Table 5 show that the percentage
of iron oxide (Fe2 O3 ) increased significantly in the
soil after electrokinetic treatment while the percentages of other oxides (e.g. SiO2 , TiO2 , Al2 O3 , MnO,
MgO, CaO, K2 O, Na2 O, P2 O5 , Cr2 O3 ) only slightly
changed. In particular, the percentage of iron oxide
increased from 5.7% up to 11.8% while the percentage
of other potential bonding agents of SiO2 and Al2 O3
showed no increase. The increase in iron oxides is also
confirmed by the change in the soil colour from grey
to yellowish-brown in the zone of influence of electrokinetic treatment. The source of the iron was from
the steel electrodes, which corroded during the electrokinetic treatment. The released iron precipitated as
oxide or hydroxide due to the extremely low solubility

Properties

Control

EK Treated Soil

Iron Oxide Fe2 O3 (%)


Specific Surface (m2 /g)
CEC (meq/100g soil)
Iron Fe (Wt%)

5.7
23
6.7
8

11.8
34
26.4
36

of iron in the normal pH range of soils. The iron


oxide that adsorbed on soil particle surfaces induced a
cementation effect that led to the consequent development of strong aggregation of soil particles and thus
an increase in the soil shear strength.
The results of specific surface and CEC analyses
of the treated soil are listed in Table 6. For comparison, the corresponding values of untreated soil are also
included in the table. It can be seen from the table that
the values of specific surface and CEC of the electrokinetically treated soil particles were higher than those of
untreated soil. This increase in specific surface area,
and thus in the CEC, also indicates the presence of
the higher content of iron oxides in the treated soil
because it is known that iron oxides have high specific surface area amenable to act as coating on other
particles (Dixon et al. 1977).
In addition, Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses were performed to identify the elemental composition of the soil. The average of the percentage of
iron per total weight of the untreated soil was approximately 8 Wt%, while the percentage of iron after
treatment was about 36 Wt%.
The microscopic structure of the Yulchon Clay
before and after EK treatment was studied using a
scanning electron microscope (SEM). The SEM analyses were undertaken in order to visually identify the
occurrence of cementation in the soil due to electrokinetic treatment. Figures 22(a) and (b) show the
surfaces of the untreated (control) and treated soils,

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Results of post-treatment chemical tests.

Figure 23. CIU-OC tests, i = 0 , Initial c = 210 kPa, St.


Vallier Clay.

5.5 Estimate of bond strength in some natural


materials
Although the existence of bonds in soft clays has
been accepted by some researchers for some time (e.g.
Crawford 1963, Kenney et al. 1967), direct measurement of bond strength in natural soils is difficult and
their order of magnitude can only be inferred. In the
case of St. Vallier Clay, the drained tensile strength
is only about 3 kPa. This would represent the minimum bond strength under tensile stress induced at the
contact points.
In an attempt to evaluate the bond strength under
shear, three series of CIU tests were performed on St.
Vallier Clay by isotropically consolidating specimens
trimmed from block samples to pressures of 140, 210
and 280 kPa and then reducing the consolidation pressure to achieve OCRs up to eight (see Morin 1975).
The results of one of the series are shown in Figure 23
in which the post-peak envelope from Figure 8 is also
shown. It may be observed that for OCR exceeding
three, the shear strengths lie close to the post-peak
envelope but not on the extension of the unstructured
envelope. Similar observations may be made on results
from the St. Louis Clay. The results of these tests are
an additional indication of the robustness of the postpeak envelope. Using this envelope as the baseline
reference, the maximum bond strength under shear for
St. Vallier Clay would be about 20 kPa and represents
about 30% of the shear strength in the effective stress
region considered. Similar results were also obtained
for St. Louis Clay.
Substantially higher bond strength may exist in stiff
quick clays in the lower St. Lawrence region. The soil
involved in the Toulnustouc Slide (Conlon 1966) has
a liquid limit of 22, plasticity index of 4, with a high
liquidity index of 3.4. The undrained shear strength
is 400 kPa. A drained tension test indicated that the
minimum tensile bond strength is about 17 kPa. The
bond strength in shear may be interpreted to be as
much as 350 kPa.

Figure 22. Electron microscopy images of Yulchon Clay:


(a) Control samples; (b) EK treated samples.

respectively. It is evident that some amorphous cementation compound(s) were formed and precipitated on
the clay particles.
Finally, it is noted that the iron oxide (Fe2 O3 ) has
been measured in natural St. Alban and Gatineau Clay
(Yong et al. 1979) with values of 5% and 6%, respectively. These values are comparable to that of Yulchon
Clay used in the experiments as shown in Table 6. In
addition, the authors suggested that the oxides would
coat the particles. The EM image in Figure 22 lends
support to this hypothesis.
From this study on electrokinetically induced
cementation bonds, the following observations may
be made:
(1) Iron oxides can act as an effective cementing agent
in soft clays.
(2) Cementation bonds can contribute up to approximately 60% to 70% of the undrained strength of
the clay with brittle behaviour.
(3) Similarly, an overconsolidation ratio of about 2.5
can be induced by electro-cementation.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

to 12 m. The test fills were well instrumented. Pore


pressures and settlements were measured during the
construction of the test fills and the road embankment.
Construction of the road embankment started in
early December 1988 and slowly filled to 7 m to 9.5 m
along the alignment by June 30, 1989, when the first
failure occurred on the north side encompassing a portion of the east test fill, as shown in Figures 25 and 26.
The test fill had been in place since 1986, and according
to the results of monitoring, all excess pore pressures
had dissipated (see Fig. 12 of Crawford et al. 1992).
The failure was deep-seated and probably circular. It
appears that the only significant warning sign was that
the ratio of the pore pressure increase to the applied
loading increase u/p approached one within the
failure zone. The pore pressure response to embankment load within the failure area is shown in Figure
27.
Reconstruction of the embankment was carried out
by adding 5 m thick and approximately 30 m wide
berms on both sides of the failure. Filling started
in August 1989 and progressed at a very slow rate.
On March 10, 1990, a second failure, much larger in
extent and including most of the first failure, occurred
between the two test fills that had been in existence
since 1986 (Figures 25 and 26). The height of the fill
at the time of the second failure was 11.2m, which is
somewhat higher than that of the first failure. The road
was eventually completed with berms and lightweight
fill.
This case record, with test fills and well executed
instrumentation and monitoring, led to several obvious
but perplexing issues.

Quigley (1968) performed a mineralogical analysis on a small block sample of the clay and reported
the strong bonding exhibited by the Toulnustouc Clay
is also related to aluminium and iron hydroxide precipitates in the soil. These materials probably form
bonds in two ways: (1) by direct precipitation to form
a cement linking the soil grains together, and (2) by
growing in the mineralogical continuity at the edges
of the clay crystals, thus increasing their size. The
latter would result in increased Van der Waals attractive forces as crystals grow closer together and could
even form cementation bonds if the crystals came into
contact with one another. The reasonableness of this
hypothesis has been supported by the results of the
artificial cementation study in Section 5.4.
An example of very large bond strength is described
in Leroueil and Vaughan (1990) for a mudstone in
Japan (Ohtsuki et al. 1981). An examination of their
data shows that in the normal stress range from 1500
to 3000 kPa, the friction angle  is only 8 with the
shear strength of about 1800 kPa. In this stress range,
the shear strength mobilized is therefore mostly bond
strength.
It can be observed from these cases that while the
bond strength in tension is low, the bond strength in
shear of natural material may differ by three orders of
magnitude and may constitute the major component of
the total shearing resistance that are measured in conventional tests in some natural materials. The degree
to which it can be mobilized depends on the nature of
the engineering problem under consideration.
6 ANALYSIS OF THE VERNON
EMBANKMENT
6.1

1. Why was the observational approach, which is generally accepted and now a time-honoured method,
not successful in preventing either the first or
second failure?
2. In what way are the results of the two test fills
misleading? Is the degree of natural horizontal variation of soil properties sufficient to cause the results
of the test fills to be inapplicable?
3. Why did the designed provision of berms not
prevent the second failure?

Brief description of failures

A dramatic and most instructive case history was


presented by Crawford et al. (1995) who described
two consecutive failures of an embankment on soft
clay, in spite of the fact that two test embankments
were already constructed on either side of the failures
and that the test embankments were higher than the
embankments that failed. The site is at Vernon, British
Columbia. The subsoil conditions shown in Figure 24
consisted of approximately 4 m of interlayered sand,
silt and clay, followed by a 5 m thick stiff to very stiff
clay crust, then by a deep deposit of soft to firm silty
clay. The undrained shear strengths measured by field
vane tests were approximately 80 kPa in the stiff clay
and 30 to 40 kPa in the soft to firm clay. The plasticity
index was about 35 and the natural moisture contents
varied from 60% to 80%. Figure 25 shows the locations of the test embankments and the embankment
that failed twice. The west test embankment was constructed to approximately 11.5 m thickness. The east
test embankment with wick drains was constructed

To investigate these issues, a series of limit equilibrium and finite element analyses were performed
and the results of these analyses are discussed in the
following sections.
6.2

Crawford et al. (1995) performed stability analyses for


the first failure assuming a uniform undrained strength
in both the crust and in the soft clay layer below the
crust. The results of their study showed that a factor
of safety of approximately one could be obtained for
a crust strength of 50 kPa and a strength of 30 kPa in
the soft clay layer below the crust.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Limit equilibrium analyses

Figure 24. Profiles of water contents, Atterberg limits and shear strengths (after Crawford et al. 1995)

Figure 25. Site plan showing location of test fills and failure zones (after Crawford et al. 1995)

to 9 m depth from which the strength increases linearly with depth. Bearing in mind that the depth of
the slip surface lay within the first 15 m depth, three
strength profiles are shown in Figure 28, together with
the 1960 and 1985 measured vane strength. It is considered that the middle profile marked M appears to
be the most representative of the vane strength data

A more detailed representation of the subsoil


strength profiles was used in this paper based on the
vane strength data shown in Figure 24. In accordance
with the observations on the effect of fissures on the
mass strength discussed in Section 4, the strength of
the crust was corrected to 40 kPa down to a depth of
6 m where the strength decreases in the transition zone

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 26. Longitudinal section through the embankment (after Crawford et al. 1995)

Figure 27. Height of fill, settlement, and piezometric surface at centre line of station 27+80 during
construction (after Crawford et al. 1995)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

while the higher (by 20%) strength profile marked


H and the slightly lower (by 10%) strength profile
marked L are obviously within reasonable limits of
interpretation of the strength data. The material parameters of the fill used were unit weight of 20.4 kN/m3
and c = 0,  = 33 , as in Crawford et al. (1995).
Table 7 summarizes the material parameters used in
the analysis.
The results of stability analysis are shown in Table 8.
It may be seen that, for the first failure, both the Mprofile and the L-profile yield a factor of safety not far
from one. As discussed earlier, both profiles are within
reasonable limits of interpretation of measured vane
strength data. Without correcting the crust strength to
account for fissures, the factor of safety would be 1.3.
The factors of safety for the second failure are slightly
higher than the corresponding ones of the first failure
but are still within the limits of reliability of = 0
analysis. It is recognized that part of the fill would have
settled into the subsoil rendering the results somewhat
difficult to interpret. Nonetheless, the results of the
second failure may be considered as supplementary

evidence, which is consistent with results of analysis


of the first failure.
From the discussions in the preceding paragraphs,
it is apparent that the instability condition of the Vernon Embankment is similar to other embankments in
soft to firm sensitive clays. While limit equilibrium
analysis might have (from hindsight) predicted the
instability of the two failures, conventional stability
analysis alone would not have addressed the questions
in Section 6.1.
6.3 Finite element analysis of vernon embankment
It has been recognized that the development of an overstressed zone (plastic region) in soft clay controls the
development of high pore pressures and thus the stability of embankments with low factors of safety (Lo
1973; Law 1975). In order to explore the behaviour of
the Vernon Embankment in more detail, finite element
analyses were performed.
6.3.1 Method of analysis
The first series of analyses carried out involved elastoplastic total stress analysis under plane strain condition
using the program AFENA (Carter and Balaam 1995)
for the two successive failures. The parameters used
are the same as those used in the limit equilibrium analysis (Table 7). Additional parameters required are the
coefficient of earth pressure at rest, Ko , which is taken
to be 1.04 in the crust and 0.84 in the soft clay. The
undrained elastic modulus, Eu , was evaluated assuming an Eu /Su ratio of 500 and Su from the M-profile in
Figure 28. The fill strength used was c = 10 kPa and
 = 33 .
The construction of the embankment was simulated
by activating the elements of fill material layer by layer,

20

Fill

0
Crust

Depth (m)

-6
-9 Transition Layer

-20 Clay Layer

-40

Table 8.

H Strength Profile
M Strength Profile
L Strength Profile
Measured Vane Strength 1985
Measured Vane Strength 1960

Factor of safety with different strength profiles.

-60
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Undrained Strength, Su (kPa)

H Strength Profile
M Strength Profile
L Strength Profile

Figure 28. Distribution of vane strength with depth (adapted


from Crawford et al. 1995)

The First failure

The Second failure

FS

FS

1.19
1.07
1.00

1.29
1.13
1.04

Table 7. Material properties used in the limit equilibrium analysis of the Vernon
Embankment.
Depth
(m)

Crust Layer
Transition Layer
Soft-Stiff Clay Layer

06
69
940

Strength Profile (kPa)


H

40
4035
3575

40
4028
2860

40
4024.5
24.552.5

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Unit Weight,
(kN/m3 )

20
17
17

The centre line of the embankment

Unit: Meter
55.0

11.5

11.2
9.4

Step11
Step10
Step9
Step8
Step7
Step6
Step5
Step4
Step3
Step2
Step1

(0.9m)
(0.9m)
(1.1m)
(1.1m)
(1.1m)
(1.1m)
(1.0m)
(1.0m)
(1.0m)
(1.0m)
(1.0m)

9.3

26.7

7.5

1.5
1.0

1.5
1.0

5.0

Figure 29. The numerical construction scheme (The shaded area represents the construction after the first failure).

Crawford et al. 1995) is also shown. From this figure,


the following observations may be made:
(a) The plastic zone starts to form in the soft clay
below the crust and engulfs the location of the
piezometer at 10 m depth when the embankment
height reaches 4 m at Stn. 27 + 80. Subsequent to
the yielding of the soil at this moment, an increase
in rate of pore pressure rise may be expected. Figure 33 shows the measured pore pressure with an
increase in embankment height. It can be seen that
the yielding of the clay is well indicated by the
results of pore pressure measurements.
(b) The depth and the overall location of the velocity
field boundary are in general agreement with the
slip surface deduced by Crawford et al. (1995); and
(c) The horizon of maximum deflection at failure
agrees well with the location indicated by the
results of inclinometer measurements.

80

Smooth Boundary

Soomth Boundary

Unit:meter

Rigid Boundary
300

Figure 30. FEM mesh and boundary conditions

nine layers for the first failure and eleven layers for the
second layer as shown in Figure 29. The mesh used is
shown in Figure 30.

The effect of strength profiles on the prediction of


the critical height of the embankment is shown in Figure 34. It can be seen that the H-profile over predicts,
the L-profile under predicts slightly and the M-profile
yields good agreement with the observed critical
height of 9.4 m for the first failure. The computed
settlement with embankment height relationships are
compared with the measured settlements in Figure 35.
Bearing in mind there would be some effect of partial
consolidation, it can be seen that there is overall consistency between the results of the M-profile and the
observed settlements.
From the discussion in the preceding sections, it
is apparent that there is overall general agreement
between the results of analysis and the observed field
behaviour including critical height, pore pressure, lateral deflection, settlement and position of the slip
surface.

6.3.2 Results of analysis


The incremental simulation of the embankment construction portrays the development of the plastic zone
and velocity field. Figure 31 illustrates the extent of
the plastic zone and velocity field at an embankment
height of 8.3 m (prior to failure) and 9.4 m (at failure), respectively. The distinct changes in the plastic
zone and velocity field when the fill height reached
9.4 m can be observed. As the embankment height
approaches the collapse load, the plastic region extends
to the ground surface outside the embankment and a
kinematic collapse mechanism develops as shown in
the velocity field. At 9.4 m, both the plastic zone and
velocity field indicate a failure state is imminent or has
been reached.
The propagation of the plastic zone with an increase
in embankment height is shown in Figure 32 together
with the velocity field boundary. The measured lateral
deflection close to the toe at Station 27 + 80 (Figure 11,

6.3.3 Results of analysis of second failure


Similar analyses were carried out for the second failure
using the same parameters as for the first failure. The

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 31. Plastic Zones and Velocity Fields at embankment heights of H = 8.3 m and H = 9.4 m
20

20

40

60

80

100

Location of the piezometer

Measured Lateral Defection

10

Calculated Velocity Field Boundary (H=9.4m)


Crawford's Deduced Slip Surface

0
Su=40kPa
-6m
-9m

-10

Su=28kPa

M-Profile

-20

8.3
7.2

H=3.7m

-30

9.4

4.0

Depth, m

6.1
5.0

-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
0

20

40

60

80

Distance from the centre line, m

Figure 32. Development of the plastic zone in the foundation at increasing embankment height

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

100

20
18
16
14
The beginning of yielding
in FEM analysis

PWP, m

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

10

Embankment Height,m
Figure 33. Measured pore water pressure on 10 m depth at centre line of station 27+80.
Settlement at Centre Line of Embankment, m

Settlement at Centre Line of Embankment (m)

0.0
Observed critical height
of the first failure=9.4m

-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0

Calculated settlement with H strength profile


Calculated settlement with M strength profile
Calculated settlement with L strength profile

0.0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
Calculated settlement with H strength profile
Calculated settlement with M strength profile
Calculated settlement with L strength profile
Measured settlement

-1.0

-1.2

-1.2
0

10

11

12

Embankment Heigh (m)

9.4

10

11

12

Embankment Heigh,m

Figure 34. Settlement of embankment centre vs embankment height with different strength profiles at station 27 + 80
(the first failure).

Figure 35. Measured and calculated settlements of the


embankment centre station 27 + 80 (the first failure).

be consistent with the factors of safety computed in


Table 8.
results of computed embankment height versus settlement relationships for the three strength profiles are
shown in Figure 36. The results for the L-profile yield
agreement with the observed critical height of 11.2 m.
One interpretation would be that this might indicate
an overall loss of strength of about 10% after the first
failure due to disturbance. This interpretation would

6.3.4 Analysis of waterline test fill


Two test fills were successfully constructed on the
west (Waterline Test Fill) and east (West Abutment
Test Fill) of the two failures as shown in Figure 25.
Because the performance of the West Abutment Test
Fill was affected by the installation of prefabricated

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

20
Observed critical height of
the second failure=11.2m

-0.2

20

40

60

80

100

H=11.4m

10

Equivalent Axisymmetric Geometry of Waterline Test Fill

-0.4

1.0
1.4

0
-0.6

-6m
-9m

-10

-0.8

Depth, m

Settlement at Centre Line of Embankment, m

0.0

-1.0
-1.2
Calculated settlement with H strength profile
Calculated settlement with M strength profile
Calculated settlement with L strength profile

-1.4
-1.6
0

Su=40kPa
Su=28kPa
M-Profile

-20
-30
-40

10

11

12

13

-50

14

Embankment Heigh,m
-60

Figure 36. Vertical displacement of embankment centre vs


embankment height with different strength profiles at station
27 + 80 (the second failure).

H=9.00m Waterline test fill (Axisymmetric Strain)


H=9.40m Waterline test fill (Axisymmetric Strain)
H=11.4m Waterline test fill (Axisymmetric Strain)

-70
-80
0

40

60

80

100

Distance from the centre line, m

vertical (wick) drains, only the Waterline Test Fill


will be analyzed so as to investigate the difference
in behaviour between the failed embankment and the
stable condition of the Waterline Test Fill.
An examination of the geometries of the Waterline
Test Fill shows that the problem is closer to threedimensional than a plane strain condition. Therefore,
any plane strain analysis (including limit equilibrium
analysis) based on plane strain conditions may be misleading. Although a 3-D elastoplastic analysis would
be preferable, a simpler axi-symmetric analysis was
performed so as to obtain some insight, as a first
approximation, into the impact of geometry on the
vast difference in behaviour of the embankments. The
rectangular geometry of the Waterline Test Fill was
idealized to a circular load with its diameter equal to
the average dimension of the two sides.
Figure 37 shows the progress of the plastic zone
from 9 m to 11.2 m to which the test fill was successfully completed. It is evident that at 11.2 m, the
condition is that of a contained plastic zone and the
test fill is stable. (A conventional limit equilibrium
analysis with the M-profile would have shown that the
factor of safety would be well below unity. In contrast, a back analysis assuming a factor of safety of
one would have indicated high strength. Both results
would be misleading.)
The plastic zones at H = 9.0 m and H = 9.4 m for a
strip and circular embankment are shown in Figure 38.
The large difference in extent of the plastic zones due
to different geometries of loading is evident. In addition, the propagation from 9.0 to 9.4 m is quite small
for the circular load. In contrast, the increment 0.4 m
of loading for the strip embankment results in a continuous plastic zone that has propagated to the ground
surface leading to collapse.
It is therefore suggested that observations at the
Waterline Test Fill may not be directly applicable to

Figure 37. Development of plastic zone under Waterline test


fill (Axi-symmetric strain assumption).

Equivalent Axisymmetric Geometry of Waterline Test Fill

20
10
0

Cross-section of Road Embankment on Station 27+80

1.5
1.0
1.0
1.4

Plane Strain H=9.0m (Strip Embankment)


Plane Strain H=9.4m (Strip Embankment)
Axisymetric Strain H=9.0m (Waterline Test Fill)
Axisymetric Strain H=9.4m (Waterline Test Fill)

Depth, m

-6m
-9m

Failure

-10

Su=40kPa
Su=28kPa
M-Profile

-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
0

20

40

60

80

100

Distance from the centre line, m


Figure 38. Development of plastic zones under Waterline
test fill and strip embankment at station 27 + 80.

the road embankment due to the difference in development of the plastic zone under different loading
configurations.
In a subsequent section, case records of well defined
loading geometries will be analyzed to verify the
findings discussed for the Vernon case records.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

20

EFFECT OF EMBANKMENT GEOMETRY ON


BEHAVIOUR OF FOUNDATION CLAY

This section examines the Sk-Edeby Test Field in


order to verify the effect of embankment geometry
on the behaviour of underlying soft clay deposits as
seen in the Vernon embankment and test fills.
The Sk-Edeby case involved construction and
monitoring of embankments with well defined geometries. The test fills were monitored over a period of
more than 10 years. Lo (1973) and Law (1975) have
both studied the impact of embankment geometry on
the behaviour of the foundation clay in this case.
7.1

Sk-edeby test field

In 1957, the Swedish Geotechnical Institute constructed a series of test fills at the Sk-Edeby test field
situated 25 km west of Stockholm Sweden. Figure 39
shows a plan of the test site showing the locations and
dimensions of each test fill. Originally, four circular
fills were constructed at Sk-Edeby of which three fills,
Areas I, II and III, were provided with sand drains
at different spacing to accelerate primary consolidation of the underlying foundation clay; a fourth test
fill, Area IV, was built without sand drains. In 1961,
four years after construction of the original circular
fills, a 40 m long test embankment was constructed
at Sk-Edeby by unloading Area III (see Figure 39).
The test embankment had a crest width of 4 m and
it was built without sand drains permitting comparison of its performance with that of Area IV. Holtz and
Broms (1972) provide a detailed account of the performance and assessment of the circular test fills whereas
the plane strain embankment is described by Holtz
and Lindskog (1972). For both the embankment and
Area IV, the height was 1.5 m with an applied surface
loading of 27 kPa, giving a factor of safety of 1.5.
Based on the case record, the foundation conditions
at Sk-Edeby comprise an upper deposit of postglacial clay underlain by a lower deposit of normally
consolidated glacial clay. Figures 40 and 41 summarize the natural moisture content, Atterberg limits and
the field vane strength profile (SGI vane) for the soils
encountered below the embankment and test Area IV.
For both the test fills, the field vane strength profiles
were measured prior to construction, in 1957 for Area
IV and in 1961 for the embankment, and again in 1971.
Referring to Figure 40, before construction, the
undrained strength of the clay below the test embankment was only 12 kPa near the ground surface decreasing to about 8 kPa at a depth of 3.8 m. Below 3.8 m, the
undrained strength increased from 8 kPa to 14 kPa at
10 m and to 25 kPa at a depth of 14 m. Below test Area
IV (Figure 41), the undrained strength of the clay was
found to decrease from 25 kPa near the ground surface
to about 8 kPa at a depth of 3 m. The strength then

Figure 39. Plan of the Sk-Edeby test field (after Holtz and
Broms 1972).

increased from 8 kPa at 3 m to 14 kPa at 8 m and finally


25 kPa at a depth of 12 m. Thus, the initial strength
profiles of both areas are very similar.
However, the changes in strength with time below
the two embankments are very different. Based on the
case records (see Figures 40 and 41), the field vane
strength below Area IV increased by about 5 kPa after
14 years of sustained loading. However, for the plane
strain embankment, there is virtually no increase in the
undrained strength of the foundation after 10 years of
loading even though the depth of the deposit and duration of loading are comparable. Consistently, there is
also little reduction in water content in the case of the
embankment while there is a more discernable reduction of water content in Area IV. To investigate the
possible cause of this behaviour, the test embankment
and Area IV fill were analyzed using the finite element
method.
The undrained shear strength profile for the
embankment and Area IV adopted for the analyses
are shown in Figures 40 and 41, respectively. For each
case, the foundation and embankment soils were modeled as linear elastic-perfectly-plastic materials with
an undrained strength governed by Mohr-Coulombs
failure criteria, a Poissons ratio of 0.49 (e.g. constant
volume deformation) and an Eu /Su ratio of 500. The
finite element analysis was performed using the program PLAXIS taking care to ensure enough elements
and load increments were used to obtain reliable solutions. For the test embankment, plane strain conditions
were assumed since the length of the embankment

24

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Natural Moisture Content


Atterberg Limits

2.0m

Vane Shear Strength


(average value)
Stress, kPa

Moisture Content (%)

1
1

20

1.5m

60

80 100 120 140

10

15

20

25

30

35

1961

UPPER POST
GLACIAL CLAY

LOCAL
FAILURE

40

-2

LOWER GLACIAL
VARVED CLAY

1971
(Solid) PLASTIC
ZONE

1961
(Hollow)

-4

Depth (m)

-6
1961
(Light)

-8

Used in Analysis

1971
(Solid)

-10

-12

1971
(Dark)

-14

-16

ROCK OR MORAINE

Figure 40. Sk-Edeby Test Field Zones of local failure and subsurface profile from the plane strain test embankment (soil
properties from Holtz and Lindskog 1972).
Natural Moisture Content
Atterberg Limits

15.3m
1.5
0

UPPER POST
GLACIAL CLAY

NO ZONES OF
LOCAL FAILURE

Stress, kPa

Moisture Content (%)

1.5m

Vane Shear Strength


(average value)

20
1961
(Light)

40

60

80 100 120 140

10

15

20

25

30

35

1971
(Solid)

-2
1961
(Hollow)

-4

LOWER GLACIAL
VARVED CLAY

1971
(Solid)

-6
1961
(Hollow)

-8

-10
Used in
Analysis
-12
1971
(Dark)
-14

ROCK OR MORAINE

Figure 41. Sk-Edeby Test Field Zones of local failure and subsurface profile for the circular test fill area IV (soil properties
from Holtz and Broms 1972)

It is concluded from this study that the main difference in behaviour of Area IV compared with that
of the test embankment is due primarily to the loading geometry and its consequent effect on stresses and
zones of failure in the embankment foundation (see
also Law 1975). Given the sensitivity of the Sk-Edeby
Clay which was generally in the range of 7 to 20, it
is most probable that the effect of the microstructure
is significant. Therefore, the absence of strength gain
below the embankment fill after ten years of sustained
loading may be attributed to the process that the clay
was destructured within the zone of local failure. In
contrast, no plastic zone exists below the circular fill
Area and the behaviour of the clay follows the classical concept of strength increase with time of sustained
loading.

was approximately ten times the crest width. Axisymmetric conditions were assumed for theArea IV fill
which was circular. The construction of each embankment was simulated in six lifts and the results of the
analyses are summarized in Figures 40 and 41 which
show the calculated zones of failure in the foundation
after construction. It is noted that the results of the
present analysis are very similar to the results obtained
by Law (1975).
It can be seen by comparing Figures 40 and 41 that
there is a significant extent of plastic zone in the foundation of the Sk-Edeby test embankment whereas
there is no plasticity in the foundation of the Area
IV fill. This illustrates the importance of the loading geometry on embankment performance as in the
Vernon case described previously.

25

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

7.2

Observations from the study of the vernon and


sk-edeby embankments

From the results of analyses of the two embankments, it


is evident that the behaviour of embankments founded
on soft clay depends not only on the properties of
the foundation soil but also on the configuration of
the applied loading. With respect to the issues raised
in Section 6.1 regarding the failures of the Vernon
Embankment, it may be observed that:

DYKE
PRIMARY
LAGOON

1997 FAILURE
B

2002
FAILURE
S2
SECONDARY ASH
A

S2

FLY ASH
SETTLING

D
DYKE

(AIR PHOTO: OCTOBER 1987)


LAYOUT:
A - Secondary Ash Settling Pond 1 (normal water level el. 193.3m)
B - Secondary Ash Settling Pond 2 (normal water level el. 192.2m)
C - Secondary Ash Settling Pond 3 (normal water level el. 192.2m)
D - Bottom Ash Settling Pond (max. water level el. 195.4m)

Figure 42. Layout of the Nanticoke Ash Lagoon and Dyke.

of years after construction (Peterson et al. 1960; Kuluk


1974; Graham 2003 and Man et al. 2003).
It is therefore of interest to examine the long term
stability of a section of the Nanticoke dyke which
failed 32 years after construction. The Nanticoke case
is of interest because the soil properties were comprehensively investigated in the original design, the
post-construction change in the dyke geometry and
pore pressure conditions were reasonably known, and
the geometries of the failed and stable sections were
clearly defined.

LONG TERM FAILURE UNDER LOADING


CONDITIONS

8.1 Description of the case

In clays with pronounced macrostructures mainly constituted by fissures, first time slides of excavated slopes
under long term conditions are well documented. For
example, in cuttings in Brown London Clay, Skempton
(1977) documented twelve cases with time to failure
varying from immediately after excavation (Bradwell
shown in Table 3) to 65 years after construction. The
slopes varied in height from 5 m to 17 m and inclinations from 0.5:1 (Bradwell) to 3.75:1. However, long
term failures of embankments on clay foundations are
relatively infrequent. Perhaps the best known examples
are the Seven Sisters dykes in Manitoba on the banks
of the Red River. Large movements of these dykes, of
heights between 7 to 8 m and downstream slopes of
2:1 to 2.5:1 founded on Lake Agassiz Clay had been
occurring for long periods of time in the order of tens

The Nanticoke Ash Lagoon dyke was built in Nanticoke, Ontario, between 1969 and 1970 on a deposit of
stiff fissured clay. The dyke was constructed to provide containment for the storage of bottom ash and fly
ash produced by the Nanticoke Thermal Generating
Station. Figure 42 shows an air photograph of the ash
storage area.
The Nanticoke Ash Lagoon dyke is an earthfill
embankment comprising predominantly clay fill, a
thin downstream granular shell comprising crushed
rock and a thin zone of rockfill slope protection on
the upstream slope (see Figure 44). The embankment
crest width is 4m, the dyke height varies from 6 m to
locally 17 m and the dyke has a total length of about
2130 m. Initially, the Nanticoke dyke was designed and
built with 2:1 upstream and downstream slopes. The

26

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SECONDARY
LAGOON

INTERCEPTER
DITCH

(a) Results of observations on test fills should be


based on geometrically similar surface loading and
accompanied by appropriate analyses before the
results thus verified are applied to the full scale
structure.
(b) Examination of the available information in Crawford et al. (1995) shown in Figures 24 and 25
indicates there is no definite trend of variation of
vane strength or water content between the 1960,
1985 and 1990 investigations for the soft to firm
clay layer. While there is some variation in the stiff
to very stiff crust, the reduction of vane strength
in the crust to account for fissures in the analyses
rendered the effect of variation on the results of
analyses negligible.
(c) Design for remedial measures of embankments at
locations of previous slides should be based on
some degree of loss of strength. A slow rate of
construction does not necessarily ensure stability.
(d) For embankments (plane strain) loaded close to
failure, the rate of propagation of plastic zone at fill
heights approaching failure is very rapid (see Figure 38 for plastic zones at fill heights 9.0 to 9.4 m).
At this meta-stable state, as the critical height is
approached, it is difficult to arrest an imminent
instability.

DYKE

AS-BUILT DYKE WITH


2:1 SLOPES (1970)

4m
El. 197m
2
1

El. 189m (ORIGINAL DESIGN)


2
1

El. 185m
CRITICAL SLIP SURFACE
(Limit Equilibrium Analysis)

2A

El. 177m
El. 175m

2B

El. 174m

ZONE 1
2A
2B
3
4
5

CLAY FILL
UPPER NANTICOKE CLAY (FISSURED)
LOWER NANTICOKE CLAY (INTACT)
BASAL TILL
LIMESTONE BEDROCK
CRUSHED ROCK

Figure 43. Original as-built geometry of the Nanticoke Ash Lagoon dyke Section S2-S2.
AS-BUILT DYKE WITH
2:1 SLOPES (1970)
FLATTENED TO 2.75:1
IN 1977

4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
TENSION
CRACK
El. 193.3m (Raised in 1984)

2.75
1

El. 189m (Original Design)

INTERCEPTOR DITCH
(ADDED IN 1971)
El. 185m

2
1

2A

APPROXIMATE FAILURE SURFACE (2002)

El. 182m
El. 179m
El. 177m

2B

El. 176m

ZONE 1
2A
2B
3
4
5

CLAY FILL
UPPER NANTICOKE CLAY (FISSURED)
LOWER NANTICOKE CLAY (INTACT)
BASAL TILL
LIMESTONE BEDROCK
CRUSHED ROCK

Figure 44. Summary of modifications made to the Nanticoke Ash Lagoon dyke geometry and operation after construction.

2.75:1 using crushed rock. This modification or repair


was required at all locations of the perimeter dyke due
to wide spread shallow slumping of the downstream
slope between 1970 and 1977. Finally, the third modification involved raising the upstream pond level from
el. 189 m to 193.3 m in 1984 (see Section S2-S2 near
Secondary Ash Settling Pond 1 in Fig 42).
After the final modifications, the Nanticoke Ash
Lagoon Dyke performed satisfactorily from 1984 to
1997. However, in November 1997, a 100 m long section of the dyke slumped adjacent to Secondary Ash
Settling Pond 2. The location of the failure is shown on
Figure 42. The dyke was subsequently repaired in 1997
by locally flattening the downstream slope to 3:1 and
lowering the crest from el. 197 m to 194 m. Although
the incident was not well documented, based on the
nature of the repairs it is inferred that this might be the
first incident of deep-seated moment of the dyke.

dyke foundation comprises a deposit of overconsolidated (OCR 6) stiff fissured clay overlying basal till
and limestone bedrock. The clay deposit is on average about 8m thick. Figure 43 shows the as-built dyke
geometry and the results of limit equilibrium analysis
to assess the design factor of safety, which was 1.26
for the dyke section considered below.
Since construction of the Nanticoke dyke, there
have been three significant modifications made to the
as-built dyke geometry and its operating conditions.
These changes, not known at the time of the original
design, are summarized in Figure 44. First, in 1971
a 3 m deep interceptor ditch was added 6 m downstream of the original embankment but only adjacent
to the Ash Settling Ponds (see Figures 42 and 44).
The ditch was built to divert runoff from fields to the
west of the storage area. Then, in 1977, the downstream slope of the dyke was flattened from 2:1 to

27

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

N-Values (blows/ft)
0

204

06

Moisture Content (%)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70

TOPSOIL

wP

Hydraulic Conductivity (cm/s)


10-8

10-7

10-6

10-5

wL

NANTICOKE CLAY (CH) Very stiff, brown to grey,


fissured, moist, high
plastic clay.
(ZONE 2a)
Fissured clay

Depth (m)

(AVERAGE DEPTH)

6 (ZONE 2b)
Predominantly intact
clay.

10

(AVERAGE DEPTH)

BASAL TILL (MH) Hard to very stiff, grey,


clayey silt to silt,
trace of sand, occ. silty
sand layers.
(AVERAGE DEPTH)

Figure 45. Subsurface conditions at the Nanticoke site.

In 2002, a 150 m long section of the embankment


slumped adjacent to Secondary Ash Settling Pond 1
(see Figure 42). This slump was relatively well documented with photographs and some displacement
monitoring. The approximately shape of the failure
surface is shown on Figure 44. The time-dependent or
viscous nature of the 2002 failure is of particular interest. In January 2002, the first signs of distress appeared
when a 50 mm wide crack was discovered on the crest
of the dyke adjacent to Secondary Ash Settling Pond 1.
Between January 2002 and April 2002, vertical deformations of the crest increased from initially 50 mm to
nearly 1 m. Horizontal deformations at the toe of the
embankment increased similarly over the same period.
From the observed deformations, the 2002 failure was
deep seated and of a circular nature. The rate of movement during the failure, however, was relatively slow
compared with documented failures in sensitive clays
(for example see the Vernon case). It is interesting that
the time to failure was approximately 32 years post
construction making this a relatively unique case. In
the following sections, the engineering properties of
Nanticoke clay are discussed and theAsh Lagoon Dyke
is analyzed using limit equilibrium analysis and finite
element analysis to investigate the factors leading up
to the 2002 failure.
8.2

300

Shear Stress, (kPa)

250
PRESENT STUDY
50mm dia. Samples
'= 28o
c' = 20 kPa

150
100
MASS STRENGTH
(Vallee 1969)
100mm dia. Samples
'm=18o
c'm=13kpa

50
0
0

50

100

150
200
250
300
350
Effective Normal Stress,'N (kPa)

RESIDUAL STRENGTH
(All sample sizes)
'r= 15o
c'r= 13 kpa

400

450

500

Figure 46. The effect of sample size on the effective strength


envelope of Nanticoke clay (from Valle 1969, Lo et al. 1969,
and Liang 2006).

zones. The upper zone, Zone 2A, is heavily fissured


whereas the lower zone, Zone 2B, is less fissured. The
impact of the relative frequency of the fissures can
be seen in the variability of such parameters as the in
situ Hydraulic Conductivity and the Standard Penetration Test N-Values (see Figure 45). The basal till and
limestone encountered below the clay, although well
characterized, are of lesser importance in assessing the
failure.
The strength and deformation behaviour of stiff fissured clay were comprehensively investigated by Lo
et al. (1969) and Lo et al. (1971). It has been shown
in Figure 12 that for fissured clay there is a significant
reduction of undrained strength from that of the intact
material to that of the material mass as the specimen
size and consequent size of the failure plane increases.
Similarly, as shown in Figure 46, sample size also

Properties of the Nanticoke Foundation and Fill

The subsurface conditions at the Nanticoke site are


summarized in Figure 45. The foundation of the Nanticoke dyke at Section S2-S2 comprises 8 m of stiff
fissured clay underlain by a very stiff to hard basal
till and then limestone bedrock. In general, the stiff
fissured Nanticoke clay can be divided into two basic

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

INTACT STRENGTH
(Vallee 1969)
'p=32o
c'p=22kpa

200

Table 9.

Material parameters used to analyze the Nanticoke dyke.

Soil Layer

Hydraulic
Conductivity used
in the Analysis (cm/s)

Unit Weight
(kN/m3 )

Cohesion
Intercept
(kPa)

Effective
Elastic
Friction Angle Parameters
(degrees)
(E in kPa and )

Dyke Fill (compacted Nanticoke clay)


Upper Nanticoke clay (Zone 2a)
Lower Nanticoke clay (Zone 2b)
Basal Till
Bedrock

kv = kh = 5 108
kv = kh = 5 108
kv = kh = 1 108
kv = kh = 5 107
kv = kh = 5 105

19
19.5
19.5
NA
NA

14
13
13
NA
NA

24
18
18
NA
NA

25000 0.4
30000 0.4
30000 0.4
NA
NA

NA Not modeled because a rigid boundary was assumed at the bottom of the Nanticoke clay deposit.
Peak strength parameters
Mass strength parameters

Table 9. The initial stresses in the overconsolidated


Nanticoke foundation clay were calculated assuming
Ko = 1.5 with the initial groundwater table at a depth
of 5.4 m. In the analysis, peak strength parameters were
used for the fill and mass strength parameters for the
foundation.
The solution scheme involved the repeated usage
of finite element seepage analysis and elasto-plastic
analysis to establish the appropriate groundwater conditions and states of stress. At each stage, the results
of seepage analysis were checked against field observations of pore pressures which were monitored from
1988 to 2004. The results of the analysis are shown
in Figures 47a to 47d. Details of the solution can be
found in Liang (2006).
Limit equilibrium calculations were also performed
using the program Slope/W (Geoslope 2004) to complement the finite element analysis. The soil strength
and material parameters used in the limit equilibrium analysis were identical to those used in the finite
element calculations (see Table 9). For each of the
operating conditions considered, the piezometric head
in the dyke and its foundation was calculated by finite
element seepage analysis and imported into the limit
equilibrium analysis.

has an impact on the effective strength parameters of


Nanticoke clay. Figure 46 shows the Mohr Coulomb
envelop for Nanticoke clay as determined from drained
triaxial compression tests (peak strength) and multiple pass direct shear tests (residual strength). For
18mm diameter specimens, the effective peak strength
parameters of Nanticoke clay are c = 22 kPa and
 = 32 neglecting curvature of the failure envelop
at very low normal stresses: These are considered to
be the peak strength parameters of the intact material.
As the sample size is increased, the Mohr-Coulomb
strength parameters reduce to c = 13 kPa and  = 18
for 100 mm diameter samples, which is slightly above
the residual strength of Nanticoke clay as measured
using multiple pass direct shear tests (e.g. c = 13 kPa
and  = 15 ). The impact of macrostructures or fissures on the engineering behaviour of Nanticoke clay
is evident in Figure 46 and for stability analysis the
mass strength of the material should be used: in this

case cm = 13 kPa and m
= 18 .
Lastly, in order to assess the failure of the Nanticoke dyke in 2002, the strength parameters of the dyke
fill were also obtained from multiple pass direct shear
tests. Both peak and residual strength parameters were
obtained for the dyke material and the peak strength
parameters are summarized in Table 9. The dyke fill
comprised Nanticoke clay borrowed from within the
perimeter of the ash storage area and compacted at
the optimum moisture content (about 26%). The residual strength of the fill and the undisturbed foundation
material are identical, as would be expected.

8.4

The impact of the significant changes in geometry


and groundwater conditions since construction on the
stability of the dyke have been evaluated and are discussed below. Figure 47a shows the calculated zones
of plasticity or local failure in the Nanticoke case after
filling the head pond to el. 189 m and before excavating the downstream interceptor ditch in 1971. For
the condition of the original design, the factor of safety
determined from limit equilibrium analysis is 1.26 and
there are small zones of local failure in the foundation
near the toe of the dyke and in the centre of the fill.
Figure 47b shows the impact of excavating the interceptor ditch in 1971 6 m downstream of the dyke. For

8.3 Analysis of the 2002 Nanticoke failure


To gain insight into the stress changes in the Nanticoke
case, the 2002 failure was assessed using finite element
analysis. The procedure of analysis followed the stress
history generated by construction and operation of the
facility, so as to determine the states of effective stress
and groundwater conditions at a particular stage. The
material parameters used in the analysis are shown in

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Discussion of results

PEAK STRENGTH
FOR THE FILL

AS-BUILT DYKE WITH


2:1 SLOPES (1970)

4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
2

El. 189m (Original Design)


2
1

El. 185m

K'o = 1.5

CRITICAL SLIP SURFACE


(LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS)

El. 177m
El. 175m

2A
2B

El. 174m

MASS STRENGTH FOR


THE FOUNDATION

ZONE 1

(a) Original design (FS=1.26)

CLAY FILL
2A UPPER NANTICOKE CLAY (FISSURED)
2B LOWER NANTICOKE CLAY (INTACT)
3 BASAL TILL
4 LIMESTONE BEDROCK
5 CRUSHED ROCK

PEAK STRENGTH
FOR THE FILL

AS-BUILT DYKE WITH


2:1 SLOPES (1970)

4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
TENSION CRACK
1
El. 189m (Original Design)
2
1

2
1
INTERCEPTOR DITCH
(ADDED IN 1971)
El. 185m

2002 FAILURE PLANE (APPROXIMATE)


El. 179m
El. 177m

El. 182m

2A

K'o = 1.5

2B

El. 176m

MASS STRENGTH FOR


THE FOUNDATION

(b) With the interceptor ditch, 1971 (F.S. = 1.21)


PEAK STRENGTH
FOR THE FILL
AS-BUILT DYKE WITH
2:1 SLOPES (1970)
FLATTENED TO 2.75:1
IN 1977

4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
TENSION CRACK
1
El. 189m (Original Design)
2

2.75
1

INTERCEPTOR DITCH
(ADDED IN 1971)
El. 185m

PLASTIC ZONES
El. 179m
El. 177m

2A

K'o = 1.5

2002 FAILURE PLANE (APPROXIMATE)

El. 182m

2B

El. 176m

MASS STRENGTH FOR


THE FOUNDATION

(c) After flattening the downstream slope (F.S. = 1.28)


PEAK STRENGTH
FOR THE FILL
AS-BUILT DYKE WITH
2:1 SLOPES (1970)
FLATTENED TO 2.75:1
IN 1977

4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
TENSION CRACK El. 193.3m (RAISED IN 1984)
1

2.75
1

INTERCEPTOR DITCH
(ADDED IN 1971)
El. 185m

2
1
PLASTIC ZONE

PLASTIC ZONES
El. 179m
El. 177m

El. 182m

2002 FAILURE PLANE (APPROXIMATE)

2B

El. 176m

MASS STRENGTH FOR


THE FOUNDATION

(d) After raising the pond level to el. 193.3m (F.S. = 1.20)
Figure 47. Zones of local failure in the Nanticoke dyke and foundation during its operation.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2A

K'o = 1.5

AS-BUILT DYKE WITH


2:1 SLOPES (1970)

4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)

FLATTENED TO 2.75:1
IN 1977

2.75

El. 193.3m (from 1984-2002)

INTERCEPTOR DITCH
(ADDED IN 1971)
El. 185m

El. 197m

2
1

FS=0.98 (LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS)


K'O = 1.5
PLASTIC ZONES (FE ANALYSIS)

El. 182m

2A
2B

Figure 48. Zones of local failure using residual strength parameters for the geometry and operating condition
from 1984 to 2002.

in significant zones of local failure in both the dyke


and the foundation. With more than 40% of the potential failure plane reached the peak strength or mass
strength of either the fill or foundation, respectively.
Such stresses significantly exceed the residual strength
of the dyke and foundation materials thereby inducing
the potential for softening and decrease of strength
from the peak or mass strength to the residual strength.
Figure 48 shows calculated zones of local failure based on the residual strength parameters of both
the foundation and the fill materials (cr = 13 kPa and
r = 15 ). The critical slip surface obtained from limit
equilibrium analysis is also plotted in Figure 48 for
the conditions considered. Base on this analysis, zones
of failure in the dyke and foundation are contiguous
and the dyke is on the verge of collapse (e.g. the factor of safety is about 1). In addition, the extent and
distribution of plastic zones from finite element analysis agree well with the results of limit equilibrium
analysis. Thus, the analysis summarized in Figure 48
indicates that the residual strength of the Nanticoke fill
and foundation was mobilized at the time of the 2002
failure. The time required for the failure to manifest
was 32 years after construction and about 18 years
after raising the level of the upstream pond.

this condition, there are no zones of local failure in


the dyke or the foundation. This is due primarily to the
positive effect of the ditch, which caused a reduction of
piezometric head in the dyke that counterbalanced the
removal of material from downstream of the dyke. For
this case, the calculated factor of safety of the dyke was
1.21, which is slightly lower than before excavating the
ditch.
In 1977, the downstream slope of the dyke was flattened from 2:1 to 2.75:1. The calculated zones of local
failure for this condition are plotted in Figure 47c.
Based on the finite element calculations, it appears
that flattening the downstream slope caused a stress
concentration and a zone of local plasticity near the
interceptor ditch. At this stage, the global factor of
safety of the dyke increased to about 1.28 based on
limit equilibrium analysis. Thus, a remedial measure
that was implemented to control shallow slumping of
the dyke fill caused a slight increase of the global factor
of safety; However, the remedial measure also created
a stress concentration near the downstream toe and
interceptor ditch.
The third and final change to the dyke geometry and
operation occurred in 1984 when the upstream pond
level was raised to el. 193.3 m. Figure 47d shows the
resultant zones of local failure and the eventual failure
surface for this condition.At the higher head pond level
(el. 193.3 m), there are extensive zones of local failure
in the fill and the foundation. Over 40% of the critical
slip surface has reached the peak strength of either the
dyke or foundation materials. From limit equilibrium
analysis, however, the global factor of safety was about
1.2, which at the time would probably not have caused
major concern.
Based on the preceding results and discussions, it is
concluded that changes to the Nanticoke dyke geometry and operating conditions had a significant impact
on the state of effective stresses in the Nanticoke dyke
and foundation. The impact of these changes did not
and could not be reflected on the global factor of safety
based on limit equilibrium analysis. The most significant change in the stress state occurred after raising the
upstream pond level to el. 193.3 m in 1984 resulting

This keynote address considers the implications of the


macroscopic and microscopic structures of clays on
the stability of earth structures. The microscopic structure consisting of the fabric and bonds of the clay
particles was studied by a review of the behaviour
of sensitive clays, experiments with electrokinetic
cementation and bonding in natural soils. The effects
of macroscopic structure which is mainly constituted by fissures in stiff clays and in the crust of
soft to firm clay deposits are examined using the
results of field tests and previous case histories. Two
recent case histories of failures, one in soft clay and
one in stiff-fissured clay, were analyzed in detail so
as to address some important issues relating to the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSIONS

capability to predict imminent instability using a conventional design method. From the results of this study,
the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) In sensitive clays, the concept of post-peak strength
developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s which
would allow for strength anisotropy time effects
and progressive failure and is independent of stress
paths remains valid. Design based on a post-peak
envelope would implicitly account for the effects
of microstructure.
(2) Electrokinetically-induced bonding tests showed
that iron compounds, and Fe2 O3 in particular,
are effective bonding agents capable of increasing the strength, inducing brittleness and producing pseudo-overconsolidation, all in substantial
amounts. An important mechanism of formation of
bonding is ionic diffusion.
(3) Mineralogical studies showed that iron compounds
are prevalent in Champlain Sea Clays both in the
soft and very stiff sensitive clays, acting as an
important bonding agent in these natural deposits.
(4) In clay deposits where fissuring is evident, it is
important to appreciate the difference in strength
of the intact material, along the fissures and the soil
mass (operational strength). The strength of stiff
fissured clays, whether in the undrained or drained
state, decreases with an increase in sample size
towards the mass strength in the field. Therefore,
strength determined from conventional U-U tests
on 50 mm samples would be on the unsafe side if
directly used for design.
(5) Field evidence indicates that the fissured crust of
soft to firm clay deposits showed similar behaviour
as stiff-fissured clay. The strength in the crust measured by the field vane test is close to the intact
strength and should therefore be reduced accordingly for the design of embankments on soft clay
deposits.
(6) Results of analysis of the Vernon Embankments and
Sk-Edeby Test Field emphasize the vast difference
in behaviour between different loading geometries
at the same surface loading. The key factor is the
generation and extent of the plastic zone which
delineates the region of damage to the microstructure of soft sensitive clays. Within the plastic zone,
pore pressure increases at a rapid rate and may continue to rise at constant loading due to an increase
in shearing strain causing further bond breakage.
Propagation of the plastic zone to the ground surface led to collapse (Vernon Embankment). For
stable embankments, no increase in strength with
time results within the plastic zone for long periods
(Sk-Edeby Embankment).
(7) As the critical height of the embankment is
approached, the stability of the embankment is
at a meta-stable state. The plastic zone increases

in extent at small increments of loading or by


progressive failure at constant loading. This state
of behaviour cannot be reflected in limit equilibrium analysis. Appropriate finite element or similar
stress analysis should be performed to delineate the
details of foundation behaviour.
(8) The use of mass (operational) strength in terms of
effective stress which accounts for the macrostructure of fissured clays appears to be able to capture
the development of plastic zones caused by postconstruction changes in geometric and groundwater conditions under long-term embankment
loading.
(9) Analogous to conclusion (7) relevant to soft clays,
factors of safety from limit equilibrium analysis
cannot reflect the subtle change in stability conditions for embankments in stiff-fissured clays. For
the evaluation of stability, the development of plastic zones due to minor changes in post-construction
condition should be investigated.
It is suggested that relevant sections of the above
conclusions may serve as additional design considerations for embankments on clay foundations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledgement the work
of Dr. Silvana Micic Trow International and Messrs.
Guangfeng Qu and Yi (George) Liang Graduate
Students at The University of Western Ontario. In addition, the research performed is supported by NSERC
Discovery Grant 7745-03. Appreciation is expressed
to Ontario Power Generation for the information on
the Ash Disposal Dyke of Nanticoke G.S.
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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Soft soil stabilisation with special reference to road and


railway embankments
Buddhima Indraratna & Cholachat Rujikiatkamjorn
University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia

Vasantha Wijeyakulasuriya
Dept. of Main Roads, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Mohamed A. Shahin
University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia

David Christie
RailCorp (Sydney), NSW, Australia

ABSTRACT: Much of Australian railway tracks traverse coastal areas containing soft soils and marine deposits.
Pre-construction stabilization of soft formation soils by applying a surcharge load alone often takes too long. The
installation of prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) can reduce the preloading period significantly by decreasing
the drainage path length, sometimes by a factor of 10 or more. The analytical solution based on actual radial
soil permeability is proposed considering the variation of vacuum pressure, and the Cavity Expansion Theory is
employed to predict the smear zone caused by the installation of mandrel driven vertical drains. The predicted
smear zone and the effect of drain unsaturation are compared with data obtained from a large-scale radial
consolidation tests and the results are explained. When a higher load is required to meet the desired rate of
settlement and the cost of surcharge is also significant, the application of vacuum pressure with reduced surcharge
loading can be used. In this method, an external negative load is applied to the soil surface in the form of
vacuum pressure through a sealed membrane system. The applied vacuum pressure generates negative pore
water pressure, resulting in an increase in effective stress and accelerated consolidation, also avoiding the need
for a high surcharge embankment. The analytical and numerical analyses incorporating the authors equivalent
plane strain solution for both Darcian and non-Dracian flow are conducted to predict the excess pore pressures,
lateral and vertical displacements and several selected case histories are analysed and presented. Cyclic loading
of PVDs is also examined in the laboratory in a manner appropriate for railway environments. It is shown that
short PVDs can dissipate excess pore pressure as fast as they are built up under repeated loading conditions. The
research findings verify that the impact of smear and vacuum pressure can significantly affect soil consolidation,
and these aspects need to be simulated properly in the selected numerical approach. Finally, the use of native
vegetation to stabilise soft soils in railway environment is discussed with the aid of preliminary suction models
developed on the basis of evapotranspiration mechanics applied to tree roots.

INTRODUCTION

deposits have very low bearing capacity and excessive


settlement characteristics, affecting major infrastructure including buildings, roads and rail tracks (Johnson
1970). Therefore, it is essential to stabilize the existing
soft soils before commencing any construction activities in order to prevent differential settlements. Also in
such low-lying areas it is necessary to raise the existing
ground level to keep the surface above the groundwater
table or flood level. A common practice to overcome
these problems is to support the structure on special

Due to the rapid increase in population and associated


development activities taking place, especially in the
congested coastal areas, construction activities have
become concentrated in low-lying marshy areas, which
are comprised of highly compressible weak organic
and peaty soils of varying thickness (Indraratna et al.
1992a). The entire coastal belt is dotted with very
soft clays up to significant depths. These soft clay

35

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

foundations, which could accommodate differential


settlement to a greater degree, or to support them on
pile foundations (Indraratna et al. 1992b, 2005a). In the
case of a deep strong bearing stratum foundation, costs
may become prohibitively high and not commensurate
with the cost of the super structure, for example in the
case of rail tracks subject to cyclic loads (Broms 1987).
Preloading is the most successful ground improvement technique that can be used in low-lying areas.
It involves loading of the ground surface to induce a
greater part of the ultimate settlement that the ground
is expected to experience after construction (Richart
1957; Indraratna and Redana 2000; Indraratna et al.
2005a). In order to control the development of excess
pore pressures, this surcharge embankment is usually
raised as a multi-stage exercise with rest periods provided between the loading stages (Jamiolkowski et al.
1983). Since most compressible soils are characterised
by very low permeability and considerable thickness,
the time needed for the required consolidation can be
long, and also the surcharge load required may be significantly high (Indraratna et al. 1994). Currently this
may not be possible with busy construction schedules.
Installation of sand drains and geosynthetic vertical
drains can reduce the preloading period significantly
by decreasing the drainage path length in the radial
direction, as the consolidation time is inversely proportional to the square of the length of the drainage
path (Hansbo 1981; Indraratna and Redana 1998;
Indraratna and Redana 2000). Due to the rapid initial
consolidation, vertical drains will increase the stiffness and bearing capacity of soft foundation clays (Bo
et al., 2003).
Application of vacuum load can further accelerate the rate of settlement, generally compensating
for the adverse effects of smear and well resistance
(Indraratna et al. 2005b). Sand compaction piles provide significantly increased stiffness to soft compressible soils (Indraratna et al., 1997). Geosynthetic drains
are usually composed of a plastic core (protected by
fabric filter) with a longitudinal channel. The filter
(sleeve) is made of synthetic or natural fibrous material
with a high resistance to clogging. Vertical drains are
applicable for moderately to highly compressible soils,
which are usually normally consolidated or lightly
over consolidated, and for stabilizing a deep layer of
soil having a low permeability. The above remediation
techniques allow coastal structures such as transport
systems, embankments and tall buildings to be more
stable under large static and cyclic loads.
In this paper, the effects of the compressibility
indices, the variation of soil permeability and the magnitude of preloading are examined through the consolidation process. The smear zone prediction based
on the Cavity Expansion Theory is discussed based
on the large scale laboratory results. The equivalent
(transformed) permeability coefficients for plane

band-shaped
cross section

dw = f(a,b)
Geotextile filter

equivalent circular
cross-section

Figure 1. Conceptual illustration of band-shaped PVD and


equivalent diameter of drain well (Indraratna et al., 2005f).

strain condition are incorporated in finite element


codes, employing the modified Cam-clay theory. A
case history is discussed and analysed, including the
site of the New Bangkok International Airport (Thailand) and the predictions are compared with the available field data. The use of native vegetation for stabilising rail tracks is described with a selected case history,
with the aim of achieving reduced track settlement.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VERTICAL DRAINS


SYSTEM

2.1 Purpose and application of vertical drains


Various types of vertical drains including sand drains,
sand compaction piles, prefabricated vertical drains
(geosynthetic) and gravel piles have been commonly
used in the past. Apart from increasing cost of sand
quarying in some countries and conventional sand
drains that can be damaged from lateral ground movement, the flexible prefabricated vertical drains (PVD)
systems with relatively more rapid installation have
replaced the original sand drains and gravel piles. The
most common band shaped drains have dimensions of
100 mm 4 mm. For design purposes, the rectangular
(width-a, thickness-b) section must be converted to an
equivalent circle (diameter, dw ) because, the conventional theory of radial consolidation assumes circular
drains (Fig. 1).
The following typical equation is used to determine
the equivalent drain diameter:
dw = 2(a + b)/

(Hansbo, 1979)

(1)

Atkinson and Eldred (1981) proposed that a reduction factor of /4 should be applied to Eq. 1 to take
account of the corner effect where the flow lines rapidly

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Polypropylene core

dw=0.5(a+b) Rixner et al.(1986)

dw=0.5a+0.7b
Long & Covo (1994)

Relatively
uniform soil
mass
a) uniform bending

Band drain
a

dw=2(a+b)/
Hansbo (1979)

b) sinusoidal bending

H
Weak
zones

Weak
zones

Assumed water
flow net
Pradhan et al. (1993)
de

c) local bending

d) local kinking

e) multiple kinking

Figure 3. PVD Deformation modes (after Holtz et al. 1991).


Figure 2. Assessment of equivalent diameter of band shaped
vertical drains (Indraratna et al., 2005f).

C
L

Benchmark and
Dummy piezometer

converge. From the finite element studies, Rixner et al.


(1986) proposed that:
dw = (a + b)/2

1 2
1
2a
d + a 2 2 de
4 e
12

 
Then, dw = de 2 s2 + b

Piezometer
Sub-surfacesettlementplate

(3)

Figure 4. System of PVDs with sand blanket and surcharge


preloading (Indraratna et al. 2005d).

(4)

macrofabric. The sand blanket system is employed to


expel water away from the drains and to provide a
sound-working mat for vertical drain rigs.
Before installing the vertical drains, general site
preparations including the removal of vegetation and
surficial soil, establishing site grading and placing a
compact sand blanket are required.
Field instrumentation for monitoring and evaluating
the performance of embankments is vital to examine
and control the geotechnical problems. Based on the
construction stages, field instrumentation can be separated into two categories (Bo et al., 2003). The first
category is employed to prevent sudden failures during construction (e.g. settlement plates, inclinometers
and piezometers), whereas the second group is used
to record changes in the rate of settlement and excess
pore pressure during loading stages (e.g. multilevel
settlement gauges and piezometers).

More recently, Long and Covo (1994) found that the


equivalent diameter dw could be computed using an
electrical analogue field plotter:
dw = 0.5a + 0.7b

(5)

The discharge capacity is one of the most important


parameter that controls the performance of prefabricated vertical drains. The discharge capacity depends
primarily on the following factors (Fig. 3): (i) the area
of the drain; (ii) the effect of lateral earth pressure; (iii)
possible folding, bending and crimping of the drain
and (iv) infiltration of fine particles into the drain filter.
In practice, static and dynamic methods can be used
to install vertical drains. Static procedure is preferred
for driving the mandrel into the ground, whereas the
dynamic methods seem to create a greater disturbance
to the surrounding soil during installation (e.g. drop
hammer impact or vibrating hammer). A typical installation rig is shown in Fig. 4. The degree of disturbance
during installation depends on several factors such as
the soil types, mandrel size, mandrel shape and soil

2.2 Principles of PVD with vacuum preloading


The vacuum preloading method was originally introduced in Sweden by Kjellman (1952) for cardboard
wick drains. It has been used extensively to accelerate

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Sand Blanket

Inclinometer

(2)

Pradhan et al. (1993) suggested that the equivalent


diameter of band-shaped drains should be estimated
by considering the flow net around the soil cylinder of
diameter de (Fig. 2). The mean square distance of their
flow net is calculated as:
s2 =

Surface settlement plate

Sealed

pa

CL

pa
time

u0

Membrane

Vacuum Pump

Sand Blanket
Peripheral slurry
Trench

pa

Impervious
Slurry Wall

time

u0 = pa
= pa (u0 u) = u

Figure 5. Spring analogy of vacuum consolidation process


(adopted from Chu and Yan, 2005).

0
Time

-100

100

Maximum excess
pore pressure

0
Time

Vertical effective
stress (kPa)

-100

100

0
Time

-100

(a)

100

p (preloading
pressure

p0 (Vacuum
pressure)

Time

-100

100

Maximum excess
pore pressure

0
Time

-100

100

0
Time

-100

(b)

Figure 7. Consolidation process: (a) conventional loading


(b) idealised vacuum preloading (Indraratna et al. 2005d).

movement to embankment toe should be carefully


monitored.
The vacuum head can be distributed to a greater
depth of the subsoil using the PVD system.
The extent of surcharge fill can be decreased to
achieve the same amount of settlement, depending
on the efficiency of the vacuum system in the field
(i.e., air leaks).
Since the surcharge height can be reduced, the maximum excess pore pressure generated by vacuum
preloading is less than the conventional surcharge
method (Fig. 7).

The effective stress related to suction pressure


increases equiaxially, and the corresponding lateral
movement is compressive. Consequently, the risk of
shear failure can be minimized even at a higher rate
of embankment construction. However, the inward

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

p (preloading
pressure

Excess pore
pressure (kPa)

Excess pore
pressure (kPa)

Stress/
Pressure (kPa)

100

Vertical effective
stress (kPa)

the consolidation process for improving soft ground,


such as Philadelphia International Airport, USA and
Tianjin port, China (Holtan, 1965 and Yan and Chu,
2003). When a higher surcharge load is required to
meet the expected settlement and this cost becomes
substantial, a combined vacuum and fill surcharge
can be employed. In very soft clay area, where a
high surcharge embankment cannot be constructed
without affecting stability, the vacuum application is
preferable. Recently, the PVD system has also been
employed to distribute vacuum pressure to deep subsoil layer, thereby increasing the consolidation rate
of reclaimed land from the sea (e.g. Indraratna et al.
2005d, Chu et al. 2000). The mechanism of the vacuum preloading can be described by the spring analogy
provided by Chu and Yan (2005) (Fig. 5). The effective
stress increases through vacuum load while the total
stress remains constant.
For vacuum-assisted preloading, the installation of
some horizontal drains in the transverse and longitudinal directions is compulsory after installing the sand
blanket. Subsequently, these drains can be connected
to the edge of a peripheral Bentonite slurry trench,
which is normally sealed by an impervious membrane
(Fig. 6). The trenches can then be filled with water to
improve sealing between the membrane and Bentonite
slurry. The vacuum pumps are connected to the prefabricated discharge system extending from the trenches,
and the suction head generated by the pump accelerates dissipation of excess pore water pressure in the
soil towards the drains and the surface.
The characteristics of vacuum preloading in comparison with conventional preloading are as follows
(Qian et al., 1992):

Stress/
Pressure (kPa)

Figure 6. Vacuum-assisted preloading system (Indraratna


et al. 2005d).

20

CL Smear zone

Settlement (cm)

Heave

-p0

-40

Measured

Predicted
Perfect drain

-80

Smear only

-120

Vacuum
pressure
distribution

-160
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Distance from centreline (m)

ks kh

Excess pore pressure (kPa)

Figure 8. Surface settlement profile after 400 days


(Indraratna & Redana, 2000; Indraratna & Chu, 2005).
Measured

80

60

-k1p0

Both smear and


well resistance

Undisturbed zone

40

ds/2

Perfect drain

20

de/2

Smear only

0
0

100

200

300

Figure 10. Cylindrical unit cell with linear vacuum pressure


distribution (modified after Indraratna et al., 2005d).

400

Time (days)

Figure 9. Excess pore water pressure variation at piezometer location, P6 (after Indraratna & Redana, 2000; Indraratna
& Chu, 2005).

the small strain theory, and for a given stress range, a


constant volume compressibility (mv ) and a constant
coefficient of lateral permeability (kh ) are assumed
(Barron 1948, Hansbo 1981). However, the value of
mv varies along the consolidation curve over a wide
range of applied pressure (p). In the same manner,
kh also changes with the void ratio (e). Indraratna
et al. (2005c) have replaced mv with the compressibility indices (Cc and Cr ), which define the slopes
of the e-log  relationship. Moreover, the variation of
horizontal permeability coefficient (kh ) with void ratio
(e) during consolidation is represented by the e-logkh
relationship that has a slope of Ck .
The main assumptions are given below (Indraratna
et al. 2005c):

With vacuum pressure, the inevitable unsaturated condition at the soil-drain interface may be
improved, resulting in an increased rate of consolidation.

2.3

Field observation of retarded pore pressure


dissipation

It has been observed in some case studies that in spite


of PVDs, excess pore water pressures sometimes do
not dissipate as expected. This is often attributed to
filter clogging, extreme reduction of the lateral permeability of soil, damage to piezometer tips etc. However,
recent numerical analysis suggests that very high lateral strains and corresponding stress redistributions
(e.g. substantial heave at the embankment toe) can also
contribute to retarded rate of pore pressure dissipation.
Some examples are shown in Figs. 8 and 9.

(1) Homogenous soil is fully saturated whereby


Darcys law is adopted. At the external periphery of the unit cell, flow is not allowed to occur
(Fig. 10). For relatively long vertical drains, only
radial (horizontal) flow is allowed (i.e. no vertical
flow).
(2) Soil strain is uniform at the upper boundary of the
unit cell (i.e. no differential settlement in a unit
cell). The small strain theory is valid.
(3) The relationship between the average void ratio
and the logarithm of average effective stress in
the normally consolidated range (Fig. 11) can be
expressed by: e = e0 Cc log (  /i ). If the current vertical effective stress (  ) is less than pc , then
for this overconsolidated range, the recompression
index (Cr ) is used rather than Cc .

3 THEORY OF RADIAL CONSOLIDATION


3.1 Axisymmetric unit cell analysis
Linear Darcian flow:
Conventional radial consolidation theory (including smear and well resistance) has been commonly
employed to predict the behaviour of vertical drains
in soft clay. Its mathematical formulation is based on

39

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

expressed as:

e
e0

Slope Cr

Ru =

Slope Cc




p0 (1 + k1 )
8Th
exp
p
2

p0 (1 + k1 )

p
2
1+

(6)

In the above expression,

ef

Th = Pav Th

'i

p'c

'i + p

Pav = 0.5[1 + (1 + pi + p0

log v

(1 + k1 )/2i )1Cc /Ck ]


Th = ch t/de2

Figure 11. Soil compression curve (after Indraratna et al.,


2005c).

= ln
e

Slope Ck
ef

Figure 12. Semi-log permeability-void


Indraratna et al., 2005c).

khi

log kh
ratio

(after

(4) For radial drainage, the horizontal permeability of soil decreases with the average void ratio
(Fig. 12). The relationship between these two
parameters is given by Tavenas et al. (1983):
e = e0 + Ck log (kh /khi ) The permeability index
(Ck ) is generally considered to be independent of
stress history (pc ) as explained by Nagaraj et al.
(1994).
(5) According to Indraratna et al. (2004), the vacuum
pressure distribution along the drain boundary is
considered to vary linearly from p0 at top of the
drain to - k1 p0 at the bottom of the drain, where k1
is a ratio between vacuum pressure at the bottom
and the top of the drain (Fig. 10)

(9)

n kh
+  ln s 0.75
s
kh

U p = 1 Ru

(10)

(11)

The average degree of consolidation based on settlement (strain) is defined by:


Us =

(12)

The associated settlements () are then evaluated by


the following equations:

The dissipation rate of average excess pore pressure ratio (Ru = ut /p) at any time factor (Th ) can be

40

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(8)

where, = a group of parameters representing the


geometry of the vertical drain system and smear
effect, n = de /dw , s = ds /dw , de = equivalent diameter
of cylinder of soil around drain, ds = diameter of smear
zone and dw = diameter of drain well, kh = average
horizontal permeability in the undistrubed zone (m/s),
and kh = average horizontal permeability in the smear
zone (m/s). p = preloading pressure, Th is the dimensionless time factor for consolidation due to radial
drainage.
Since the relationship between effective stress and
strain is non-linear, the average degree of consolidation can be described either based on excess pore pressure (stress) (Up ) or based on strain (Us ). Up indicates
the rate of dissipation of excess pore pressure whereas
Up shows the rate of development of the surface settlement. Normally, Up  = Us except when the effective
stress and strain is a linear relationship, which is in
accordance with Terzaghis one-dimensional theory.
Therefore, the average degree of consolidation based
on excess pore pressure can be obtained as follows:

e0

kh

(7)

 

HCr
log
,
1 + e0
i

i  pc

(13a)

 
  

p

H
Cr log c + Cc log 
,
1 + e0
i
pc
pc  i + p

 

HCc
log
1 + e0
i

where i1 =
(13b)

(13c)
t=

It is noted that can be obtained by substituting  = i + p into the above equations. In


the above equations, = settlement at a given
time, c = total primary consolidation settlement,
i = effective in-situ stress,  = effective stress,
Cc = compression index, Cr = recompression index
and H = compressible soil thiskness.
Depending on the location of the initial and final
effective stresses with respect to the normally consolidated and overconsolidated domains, the following is
a summary of the relavant computational steps.

v = k(i io ) for

i i1

(14)

n1 


1

1
(1 U h )n1

(18a)

1
n1

3n 1 n(3n 1)(5n 1)
(n 1)2
2
2n (5n 1)(7n 1)

  (1(1/n))
1
D
h
+
1
2n
s
ds

 
h D (1(1/n))

s dw

(18b)

For multi-drain simulation, the plane strain finite element analysis can be readily adapted to most field
situations (Hansbo 1981; Indraratna and Redana 1997;
Indraratna and Redana 2000). Nevertheless, realistic
field predictions require the axisymmetric properties
to be converted to an equivalent 2D plane strain condition, especially with regard to the permeability coefficients and drain geometry (Indraratna and Redana
1997). The plane strain analysis can also accommodate vacuum preloading in conjunction with vertical
drains (e.g. Gabr and Szabo 1997). Mohamedelhassan and Shang (2002) discussed the application of
vacuum pressure and its benefits, but without any vertical drains. Subsequently, Indraratna et al. (2005b)
proposed the equivalent plane strain approach for the
simulation of vacuum pressure for the vertical drain
system.

(15)
(16)

41

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Dw
uo

3.2 Equivalent plane strain approach for


multi-drain analysis

Non-Darcian flow:
Hansbo (1997) stated that at small hydraulic gradients,
conventional linear Darcys law may be replaced by a
non-Darcian flow condition defined by an exponential relationship. Based on non-Darcian flow, Hansbo
(1997) modified the classical axisymmetric solutions.
The pore water flow velocity, v caused by a hydraulic
gradient, i might deviate from the original Darcys
law v = ki, where under a certain gradient io below
which no flow occurs. Then the rate of flow is given
by: v = k(i io ), hence, the following relations have
been proposed:
i i1

When n 1 Eq. (18) gives the same result as the average degree of consolidation represented by Eq. (9),
provided that well resistance is neglected and assuming
= ch and h /s = kh /ks .

When the value of Cc /Ck approaches unity and p0


becomes zero, the authors solution converges to the
conventional solution proposed by Hansbo (1981):

for

D2

where the coefficient of consolidation = hwM ,


M = 1/mv is the oedometer modulus, D is the diameter of the drain influence zone, ds is the diameter of
smear zone, n = D/dw where dw is the drain diameter,
uo is the initial average excess pore water pressure, and
n2n n
is 4(n1)
n+1 where,

(1) If both the initial and final effective stresses are


in the normally consolidated range, Equations (6)
and (11) are employed to calculate Up , whereas
Equations (12) and (13c) are used to compute Us .
(2) If both the initial and final effective stresses are
in the overconsolidated range, Equations (6) and
(11) are employed to calculate Up , and Equations
(12) and (13a) are used to determine Us .
(3) If the initial effective stress falls on the overconsolidated domain and the final effective stress is
on the normally consolidated domain, then Equations (6) and (11) are employed to calculate Up ,
Equations (12) (13a) and (13b) are employed to
calculate Us .

v = in

(17)

In order to study the non-Darcian effects, Hansbo


(1979, 1997) proposed an alternative consolidation
equation. The time required to reach a certain average degree of consolidation including smear effect is
given by:

for normally consolidated clay

Ru = exp ( 8Th /)



io n
and = n1 i1n k
(n 1)

Darcian Flow:
Indraratna and Redana (1997, 1998, 2000) and
Indraratna et al. (2005b) converted the vertical drain
system shown in Fig. 13 into an equivalent parallel
drain wall by adjusting the coefficient of permeability
of the soil, and by assuming the plane strain cell (a
width of 2B). The half width of the drain bw and half
width of the smear zone bs may be kept the same as
their axisymmetric radii rw and rs , respectively, which
suggests bw = rw and bs = rs .
Indraratna et al. (2005b) proposed the average
degree of consolidation in plane strain condition by:
u
=
u0





p0p (1 + k1 )
8Thp
1+
exp
uo
2
p
p0p (1 + k1 )

u0
2

l z

ks

khp
p = + () 
khp

rs

(19a)



b2
bs
+ s2
1
B
3B

bs
1
(bs bw )2 + 3 (3b2w b2s )
B2
3B


khp

khp

(b) Plane strain

khp
kh

 

kh
n
ln s + k  ln (s) 0.75

(23)

(20a)

(20b)

khp
0.67
=
kh
[ln (n) 0.75]

(24)

For vacuum preloading, the equivalent vacuum pressure in plane strain and axisymmetric are the same.
Non-Darcian Flow:
Sathananthan and Indraratna (2005) determined the
solution for equivalent plane strain under non-Darcian
flow. The converted permeability relationship is
given by:

(21)


hp = 2h

n 1 p
2n2

n
(25)

Ignoring the smear effect in Eq. (25), the equivalent


plane strain permeability in the undisturbed zone is
now obtained as:
 
 n
fp n, bBw
hp
hp


=2
=
(26a)
h

2f n, rRw

(22)

Making the magnitudes of R and B to be the same,


Indraratna and Redana (2000) presented a relation
. The influence of smear
ship between khp and khp
effect can be modelled by the ratio of the smear

42

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

bs

If smear and well resistance effects are ignored in


the above expression, then the simplified ratio of
plane strain to axisymmetric permeability is readily
obtained, as also proposed earlier by Hird et al. (1992),
as follows:

Combining Equations (14) and (17) with equation


(14) of original Hansbo theory (Hansbo, 1981), the
time factor ratio can be represented by the following
equation:
khp R2
Thp
P
=
=

Th
kh B 2

bw

zone permeability to the undisturbed permeability, as


follows:

(19b)

At a given effective stress level and at each time step,


the average degree of consolidation for both axisymmetric (U p ) and equivalent plane strain (U p, pl)
conditions are made equal, hence:
U p = U p,pl

kwp
khp k'
hp

Figure 13. Conversion of an axisymmetric unit cell into


plane strain condition (after Indraratna and Redana, 2000).

where, u0 = initial excess pore pressure, u = pore pressure at time t (average values) and Thp = time factor in

plane strain, khp and khp
are the undisturbed horizontal
and the corresponding smear zone equivalent permeabilities, respectively. The geometric parameters and
, are given by:
2 2bs

3
B

(a) Axisymmetric

u =
0
z

rw

and


Drain
Smear
zone

kw

kh

SMEAR ZONE DETERMINATION


Excess pore pressure

Sathananthan (2005) made an attempt to estimate the


extent of smear zone, caused by mandrel installation using the Cylindrical Cavity Expansion theory
incorporating the modified Cam-clay model (MCC)
as explained elsewhere by Collins & Yu (1996) and
Cao et al. (2001). Only a summary is given below. For
soil obeying the MCC model, the yielding criterion is:

= M (pc /p ) 1
(27)

Horizontal/Vertical permeability ratio

(28)

q
2
p = rp +
3
3

(31)
rp
r

q
dr
r

(32)

Employing Equations (30)(32), the excess pore pressure due to mandrel driving (u) can be determined
by:
u = (p p0 ) (p p0 )

Mean Consolidation Pressure:


6.5 kPa
16.5 kPa
32.5 kPa
64.5 kPa
129.5 kPa
260 kPa

Smear zone

0.00

50

100

150

200

5 THE EFFECT OF DRAIN UNSATURATION


DURING INSTALLATION

(33)

where, p0 = initial total mean stress. The extent of the


smear zone can be suggested as the region in which the
excess pore pressure tends to exceed the initial over
burden pressure (v0
) (Fig. 14). This is because, in the

Unsaturation of soil adjacent to the drain can occur due


to mandrel withdrawal (air gap) or application of vacuum pressure through PVDs. Indraratna et al. (2004)
attempted to describe the apparent retardation of pore

43

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

drain
0.50

region surrounding the drains (r < rp ), the soil properties (permeability and soil anisotropy) are altered

severely at radial distance where u = v0
.
Based on laboratory tests conducted on a largescale consolidometer at University of Wollongong, the
smear zone extent can be quantified either by permeability variation or water content variation along
the radial distance (Indraratna and Redana, 1997;
Sathananthan and Indraratna, 2006). Fig. 15 shows the
variation of the ratio of the horizontal to vertical permeabilities (kh /kv ) at different consolidation pressures
along the radial distance, obtained from large-scale
laboratory consolidation. The variation of the water
content with radial distance is shown in Fig. 16. As
expected, the water content decreases towards the
drain, and also the water content is greater towards
the bottom of cell at all radial locations.

(30)

1.00

Figure 15. Ratio of kh /kv along the radial distance from the
central drain (after Indraratna and Redana 1995).



q = p

1.50

Radial distance, R (mm)

where, a = radius of the cavity, a0 = initial radius of


the cavity, = Poissons ratio, = slope of the overconsolidation line, = specific volume, OCR = over
consolidation ratio and  = 1 ( is the slope
of the normal consolidation line). Finally, the corresponding mean effective stress, in terms of deviatoric
stress, total stress and excess pore pressure, can be
expressed by the following expressions:
OCR
1 + (/M)2

Distance (r)

2.00

1
(M + )(1 OCR 1)
f (M, , OCR) = ln

2
(M )(1 + OCR 1)

(29)
+ tan1 ( OCR 1)
tan1
M

Smear
zone

Figure 14. Smear zone prediction by the Cavity Expansion


Theory.

where,

p = p0

u = ' v0

rp

where, pc : the stress representing the reference size of


yield locus, p = mean effective stress, M = slope of
the critical state line and = stress ratio. Stress ratio
at any point can be determined as follows:


(a2 a20 )
2(1 + )

ln 1
=
2
r
3 3(1 2)

f (M, , OCR)
2 3
M

Vertical drain

70

Smear zone

69

Soil Model Parameters

Values

Critical state void ratio, ecs


Critical state line slope, M
Permeability in undisturbed zone, khp (m/s)
Poissons ratio,

Permeability in smear zone, khp
(m/s)

0.15
0.05
1.55
1.1
9.1 1011
0.25
3.6 1011

68
Drain

Water content (%)

Table 1. Modified Cam-clay parameters used in consolidometer analysis (Indraratna et al., 2004).

(a)

67

Applied pressure (kPa)


25
50
100
200

66
65
64

(b)

Unsaturated elements

25
50
100
200

0.04
Drain

(wmax-w)/wmax

Applied pressure (kPa)

0.02

0
0

r/rm

Figure 16. (a) water content, and (b) normalized water content reduction with radial distance at a depth of 0.5 m (after
Sathananthan and Indraratna, 2006).

0.95m

pressure dissipation in large-scale laboratory testing


through a series of models, considering the effects of
unsaturation at the drain-soil interface.
The consolidation behaviour of soft clay in the
large-scale consolidometer under combined vacuum
and surcharge preloading was analysed using the
FEM programme ABAQUS, incorporating the modified Cam-clay theory (Roscoe and Burland 1968). Fig.
17 illustrates the plane strain finite element discretisation employing 8-noded linear strain quadrilateral
elements (CPE8RP) with 8 displacement nodes plus
4 pore pressure nodes. It is sufficient to analyse one
half of the cell due to symmetry. The soil moisture
characteristic curve (SMCC) including the effect of
drain unsaturation was captured by a thin layer of drain
elements governed by elastic properties. The converted permeability coefficients based on Indraratna
and Redana (2000) method and the apparent past
maximum pressure are listed in Table 1.
The following 3 models were analysed:
Model 1 fully saturated soil with linear vacuum
pressure distribution along the drain length. The soil
behaviour is based on the modified Camclay parameters (Table 1).
Model 2 The soil is initially fully saturated. With
the application of linearly varying vacuum pressure,
a layer of unsaturated elements is simulated at the
PVD boundary. The thin unsaturated layer is modeled
elastically (E = 1000 kPa, = 0.25).

Open
drain
boundary

Figure 17. FEM discritisation for plane strain analysis in


large-scale consolidometer (Indraratna et al. 2004).

Model 3 Conditions are similar to Model 2, but


the variation of vacuum pressure with time (vacuum
removal and reloading) is included.
Fig. 18 shows the surface settlement predicted from
the above described models. The predictions prove
that the assumption of unsaturated soil layer at the
drain-soil boundary with time dependent vacuum pressure variation (Model 3) is justified. Full saturation
represented by Model 1 over-predicts the settlement,
illustrating the effect of mandrel induced unsaturation.
The predicted and measured values of excess pore
water pressure (mid layer) are presented in Fig. 19,
and Models 2 and 3 agree well with the laboratory

44

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.225m

15 m

Stage 1
Surcharge load
=40kPa

Perforated Pipe

2.5 m

Settlement (mm)

S1

0.8 m

-20

5m

10 m

10 m

Geomembrane (LLDPE)
S3

S2

Vacuum Pump
S4

LBM

0.0 m

-3 m

Stage 2
Surcharge load
=100kPa

-40

Bentonite

Legend
Surface settlement plate
Stand-pipe piezometer
Extensometer
Electrical piezometer
Inclinometer

-6 m
-9 m

-12 m

PVD, S=1.00 m.

-15m

-60

Figure 20. Cross section of embankment TV2 and location


of monitoring system (Indraratna et al., 2005d).

-100
0

Measurements
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3

10

20

Depth (m)

-80

30

10

Figure 18. Predicted and measured settlement at the top of


consolidometer (Indraratna et al. 2004).

15
4

4.4

4.8

5.2

5.6

rs/rw

80

Excess pore water pressure (kPa)

Figure 21. Variation of smear zone with depth by the Cavity


Expansion theory (where, rs : radius of smear zone, and rw :
radius of drain) (Indraratna et al., 2005d).

60

6 APPLICATION TO CASE HISTORIES


Surcharge load
40 kPa

6.1 Second Bangkok International Airport

40

20
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Measurements
0

Site Characteristics and Embankment Details


The Second Bangkok International Airport (SBIA) has
been constructed since 1965 to replace the existing airport. The location of the airport is on a low-lying soft
clay. Ground improvement techniques are imperative
prior to the airport construction to prevent excessive settlement and lateral movement. Several trial
embankments were built at this site, one of them (TV2)
was built with PVDs and vacuum application (Asian
Institute of Technology, 1995). Fig. 20 illustrates the
vertical cross sections and the positions of field instruments, where 12m long PVDs with perforated and
corrugated pipes wrapped together in non-woven geotextile were used. The 0.8 m sand platform served as a
drainage blanket was constructed with an air and water
tight linear low density polyethylene (geomembrane)
liner placed on top of the drainage system. This liner
was sealed by placing its edges at the bottom of the
trench perimeter and covered with a 300 mm layer of
bentonite and then submerged with water.
The extent of the smear zone with depth was predicted using the cavity expansion theory as explained
in Section 4. The predicted smear zone variation with
depth for each soil layers is shown in Fig. 21.
A vacuum pressure up to 70 kPa (equivalent to 4 m
height of embankment) was applied using the available

Surcharge load
100 kPa

10

20

30

Time (Days)

Figure 19. Predicted and measured excess pore water pressure (Indraratna et al. 2004).

observations. As expected, Model 1 (fully saturated)


gives the lowest pore pressures, suggesting the unsaturated soil-drain boundary causing the retardation of
excess pore water pressure dissipation. In view of
both settlements (Fig. 17) and excess pore pressures
(Fig. 18), Model 3 provides the most accurate predictions in comparison with the laboratory measurements.
There is no doubt, the probable drain unsaturation is an
important aspect that should be captured in numerical
modelling, especially under vacuum pressure application. The adoption of correct SMCC in finite element
analysis is desirable.

45

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Vacuumpressure (kPa)

Embankment height (m)w

3
2
1
= 18kN/m3
0

0
-20
-40
-60
0

40

80
Time (days)

120

160

Time (days)
Figure 23. Time dependent vacuum pressure (Indraratna
et al., 2005d).

Figure 22. Multi-stage loading (Indraratna et al., 2005d).

vacuum equipment. The surcharge load was applied in


4 stages upto 2.5 m high (the unit weight of surcharge
fill is 18 kN/m3 ) as illustrated in Fig. 22. During the
application of vacuum pressure, the measured suction
head could not be constantly maintained as shown in
Fig. 23. This variation has been attributed to air leaks
through the surface membrane or the loss of suction
head beneath the certain depth for long PVD. Intersection of natural macro-pores with drains at various
depths also lead to suction head drops, at various times.
The settlement, excess pore water pressure, and lateral
movement were recorded 160 days.
Multi-drain analysis using FEM incorporating
proposed equivalent plain strain model
The consolidation behaviour was analysed using the
finite element software ABAQUS. The equivalent
plane strain model (Equations 1415) as well as the
modified Cam-clay theory (Roscoe and Burland, 1968)
were used in the analysis (Indraratna et al., 2005d). The
ratios of kh /ks and ds /dw determined in the laboratory are approximately 1.52.0 and 34, respectively,
however in practice these ratios can vary from 1.5 to
6 depending on the type of drain, mandrel size and
shape and installation procedures used (Indraratna and
Redana, 2000). The constant values of kh /ks and ds /dw
for this case study were assumed to be 2 and 6, respectively (Indraratna et al., 2004). For the plane strain
FEM simulation, the equivalent permeability inside
and outside the smear zone was determined using
Equations (14) and (15). The discharge capacity (qw ) is
assumed high enough and can be neglected (Indraratna
and Redana, 2000).
The finite element mesh contained 8-node biquadratic displacement and bilinear pore pressure
elements (Fig. 24). Only the right hand side of the
embankment was modeled due to symmetry, as shown
in Fig. 24. The incremental surcharge loading was
simulated at the upper boundary.
The following 4 distinct models were numerically examined under the 2D multi-drain analysis
(Indraratna et al., 2005d):
Model A: Conventional analysis (i.e., no vacuum
application);

Figure 24. Finite element mesh for plane strain analysis


(modified after Indraratna et al. 2005d).

Model B: Vacuum pressure varies according to field


measurement and decreases linearly to zero at the
bottom of the drain (k1 = 0);
Model C: No vacuum loss (i.e. 60 kPa vacuum pressure was kept constant after 40 days); vacuum pressure
diminishes to zero along the drain length (k1 = 0); and
Model D: Constant time-dependent vacuum pressure
throughout the soil layer (k1 = 1).
Fig. 25 compares surface settlement between prediction and measurement (centreline). Model B predictions agree with the field data. Comparing all the
different vacuum pressure conditions, a vacuum application combined with a PVD system is found to
accelerate the consolidation process significantly. With
vacuum application, most of the primary consolidation
is achieved around 120 days, whereas conventional
surchage (same equivalent pressure) requires more
time to complete primary consolidation (after 150
days). It is also apparent that a greater settlement can
be obtained, if any loss of vacuum pressure can be
minimised (Model C).
Fig. 26 presents the predicted and measured excess
pore pressures. The field observations are closest to
Model B, implying that the authors assumption of
linearly decreasing time-dependent vacuum pressure
along the drain length is justified. Excess pore pressure

46

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

lateral displacement (m)

-0.3

Inward
-0.2
-0.1

-0.4

Outward
0.1
0.2

Weathered crust layer

-0.8

Model A
Model B
Model C
Model D
Adjusted vacuum
Field measurement

4
Soft clay layer

Field measurement
Model A
Model B
Model C
Model D

-1.2

-1.6
0

40

80
Time (Days)

Depth (m)

Settlement (m)

0
0

8
10

120

160

12
14

Figure 25. Surface settlements (modified after Indraratna


et al., 2005d).

Figure 27. Calculated and measured lateral displacements


distribution with depth (modified after Indraratna et al.,
2005d).

0.00
0

-20

0.02

-40

Depth (m)

Excess pore water pressure (kPa)

20

Field measurement
Model A
Model B
Model C
Model D

-60

13 days
12

40

80
Time (Days)

120

16

Unstabilized

13 days
(Failure)

PVD stabilized

20

160

Figure 28. Curtailing lateral displacements due to PVDs


(after Indraratna et al., 1997).

Figure 26. Variation of excess pore water pressure at 3 m


below the surface and 0.5 m away from centreline (modified
after Indraratna et al., 2005d).

displacement divided by the maximum embankment


height.

generated from the vacuum application is less than the


conventional case, which enables the rate of construction of an embankment to be higher than conventional
construction.
The predicted and measured lateral displacements
(at the end of embankment construction) are shown
in Fig. 27. As described by Indraratan et al. (2005d),
the observed lateral displacements do not agree well
with all vacuum pressure models. In the middle of
the very soft clay layer (45 m deep), the predictions
from Models B and C are closest to the field measurements. Nearer to the surface, the field observations
do not agree with the inward lateral movements predicted by Models B and C. The discrepancy between
the finite element models and the measured results is
more evident in the topmost weathered crust (02 m).
As discussed by Indraratna et al., 1997, if vertical
drains are not provided and the surcharge embankment is raised quickly, it can fail in 13 days in the
absence of effective pore pressure dissipation. In contrast, the same clay formation stabilised with PVDs
shows insignificant lateral displacement after 13 days.
Even after 7 years, the normalised lateral displacements will be less than that without PVDs (Fig. 28).
Normalised lateral displacement is the absolute lateral

6.2 Ska-edeby embankment, Stockholm, Sweden


The practical application of non-Darcian plane strain
solution is demonstrated through a well documented
pilot study (Ska-Edeby, 25 km west of Stockholm,
Sweden). The site details including the construction
history and soil parameters are given elsewhere by
Hansbo, 1997; 2005. Here, for the purpose of discussion, Area II with an equivalent loading of 32 kPa is
selected. Sand drains of 180 mm diameter are installed
in an equilateral triangular pattern at 1.5 m spacing (i.e.
D = 1.58 m).
In Figure 29, the estimated degree of consolidation based on the Darcian axisymmetric, non-Darcian
axisymmetric (Hansbo, 1997) and non-Darcian plane
strain solutions (Sathananthan and Indraratna, 2005)
are plotted with the available field data at embankment
centerline. The predicted values based on non-Darcian
flow seem to agree better with the field data in relation
to the Darcian (conventional) analysis. However, in the
opinion of the authors, this difference is usually small,
and for all practical purposes the conventional Darcy
conditions are sufficient.

47

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.10

7 years

-80
0

Normalized Lateral Displacement E


0.04
0.06
0.08

non-Darcian equivalent plane strain (Authors)


non-Darcian axisymmetry (Hansbo, 1997)

Degree of consolidation (%)

Darcian axisymmetry (Hansbo, 1981)


Field Data

25

50

75

100

2
Consolidation time (years)

(a)

Figure 29. Degree of consolidation at the embankment centreline with time for Area II, Ska-Edeby field study (after
Hansbo, 2005; Sathananthan & Indraratna, 2005).

(b)

Figure 30. (a) Large-scale triaxial rig, (b) soil specimen.

7.1 Laboratory testing


7

PERFORMANCE OF SHORT VERTICAL


DRAINS SUBJECTED TO CYCLIC TRAIN
LOADS

A large-scale triaxial test was used to examine the


effect of cyclic load on the radial drainage and consolidation by PVDs (Fig. 30a). This testing chamber
is capable of accommodating specimens of 300 mm
diameter and 600 mm high (Fig. 30b). The excess pore
water pressure was monitored via miniature pore pressure transducers. These instruments were saturated
under deaired water with vacuum pressure, and then
fitted through the base of the cell to the desired sample
locations.
A reconstituted estuarine clay was tested. The sample was lightly compacted to a unit weight of about 17
to 17.5 kN/m3 . Ideally, testing requires the simulation
of k0 conditions that may typically vary in the range of
0.60.7 in many coastal regions of Australia. Most soft
clays will have natural water contents exceeding 75%,
and Plasticity Index above 35%. It is not uncommon
to find undrained shear strengths of softest estuarine
deposits to be less than 8 kPa. In Northern Queensland,
some very soft clays that have caused embankment
problems have been characterised by cu values less
than 5 kPa.
The tests could be conducted at frequencies of
510 Hz, typically simulating train speeds of say 60
100 km/h of 2530 tonnes/axle train loads. Fig. 31
shows an example of the excess pore pressure
recorded, which indicates that the maximum excess
pore water pressure beside the PVD during the cyclic
load application (T4) are significantly less compared to
that near the cell boundary (T3). Also as expected, the
excess pore pressures close to the outer cell boundary (e.g. T1 and T3) dissipated at a slower rate than
T4 and T2 closer to the PVD. The test results reveal
that PVDs decrease the maximum excess pore pressure
effectively even under cyclic loading.

Low-lying areas with high volumes of plastic clays


can sustain high excess pore water pressures during
both static and cyclic (repeated) loading. The effectiveness of prefabricated vertical drains (PVD) for
dissipating cyclic pore water pressures is discussed
here. In poorly drained situations, the increase in
pore pressures will decrease the effective load bearing capacity of the formation. Even if the rail tracks
are well built structurally, undrained formation failures
can adversely influence the train speeds apart from the
inevitable operational delays. Under circumstances of
high excess pore water pressures, clay slurrying may
be initiated pumping the slurried soil upwards under
cyclic loads, clogging the clean ballast and causing
poor drainage.
As described earlier, PVDs accelerate consolidation and curtail lateral movements. The stability of
rail tracks and highways built on soft saturated clays
is often governed by the magnitude of lateral strains,
even though consolidation facilitates a gain in shear
strength and load bearing capacity. If excessive initial settlement of deep estuarine deposits cannot be
tolerated in terms of maintenance practices (e.g. in
new railway tracks where continuous ballast packing
may be required), the rate of settlement can still be
controlled by: (a) keeping the drain length relatively
short, and (b) optimising the drain spacing and the
drain installation pattern. In this way, while the settlements are acceptable, the reduction in lateral strains
and gain in shear strength of the soil beneath the track
improve its stability significantly.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

104 kPa @2.5m width

Excess pore pressure (kPa)

T2 T1
15

8
4
6

T3

T4
End of cyclic loading

1117 9
66 51 23 20
14 10
68 53 25 22 19 16 13

T4

10

67 52 24 21 18 15

T1

26 12

T2
40

80

40 m

Soil layer 2 unstabilised

T3
0

Soil layer 1stabilized Crust


by PVDs

120

Time (mins)

Figure 31. Dissipation of excess pore pressure at various


locations from the PVD.
0

85 m

7.2

Numerical analysis

Figure 32. Vertical cross section of track and formation.

Attempts to consolidate deep estuarine soft clays (up to


3040 m) may take a very long time and often uneconomical, especially when relatively high surcharge
embankments cannot be raised rapidly due to obvious stability problems. Under railway tracks, where
the significant proportion of the applied load is usually sustained within the first several meters of the
formation, assuming sufficient ballast and subballast
depths are provided. In this regard, there is no need for
improving the entire depth of soft clay deposit, hence,
relatively short PVDs without prolonged preloading
may still be adequate in design. Short PVDs (58 m)
may still dissipate the cyclic pore pressures, curtail
the lateral movements and increase the shear strength
and bearing capacity of the soft formation to a reasonable depth below the sub-ballast. In other words,
this will provide a stiffened section of the soft clay
up to several meters in depth, supporting the rail
track within the predominant influence zone of vertical
stress distribution.
In railway engineering, repeated train loading is
usually modelled as a static load corrected by an
impact load factor (dynamic amplification factor). The
value of impact load factor may be changed according to the field conditions simulated on track (Esveld,
2001). In the following example, a static load of 80 kPa
with an impact factor of 1.3 is applied. A typical
cross-section of the formation beneath the rail track
is shown in Fig. 32, where a relatively shallow very
soft clay deposit is underlained by a deeper soft soil
layer of slightly higher stiffness. PVDs are only used
to stabilize the shallow soil layer immediately beneath
the track. A FEM, 2D plane strain model (Indraratna
and Redana, 2000) using triangular elements with
6 displacement nodes and 3 pore pressure nodes is
considered.
Soil Properties are summarised in Table 2. Top compacted soil crust including sub-ballast fill (1 m in thickness) and the ballast layer (300 mm thick) are modelled

Table 2. Assumed parameters for soft soil foundation and


ballasted track (300 mm of ballast thickness and 1m thick
compacted fill and crusted layer).
Depth
of
c

layer (m) Model (kPa) (degree) /(1 + e0 ) /(1 + e0 )


+0.3
0-1
1-10
10-30

5
29
10
15

45
29
25
20

0.15
0.12

0.03
0.02

Note: M-C = Mohr-Coulomb, S-S = Soft Soil

by Mohr-Coulomb theory. The two layers of soft normally consolidated clays are conveniently modelled
using the modified Cam-clay theory (Roscoe and Burland, 1968). For typical track conditions, unit weight of
artificially compacted granular fills is assumed around
16.517 kN/m3 with a deformation modulus not more
than 200 MPa. The saturated unit weights of the soft
clay layers is assumed to be 15.516 kN/m3 (deeper
soil layer having the higher unit weight).
The rapid dissipation of excess pore water pressure due to PVDs is clearly beneficial. More than 65%
excess pore pressure dissipation is seen within first
45 months (Fig. 33). In the absence of preloading
embankment or vaccum preloading, the corresponding initial settlements induced by short PVDs is less
than 0.5 m after about 3 months. This settlement can
still be acceptable over a routine maintenance period
by packing more ballast with time. More significant
is the considerable reduction of lateral displacement
in the PVD stabilised soil underlying the compacted
crust (Fig. 34). While long-term lateral displacements
at shallow depths (@ 3 m) could be as large as
250300 mm, the PVDs are shown to decrease the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

M-C
M-C
S-S
S-S

100

80
Excess pore pressure (kPa)

No PVD
With PVDs @ 1.5m spacing
Percentage Finer (%)

60

40

80

Unaffected Soilwith Uniformity


Coefficient = 1.6

60

Soil Disturbed by Tsunami


with Uniformity Coefficient = 4.6

40

Transported finer sediments


20

20
0
0.01

0.1

0
0

100

200
300
Time (days)

400

10

500

Figure 35. Particle size distribution curves of the tsunami


affected and unaffected soils.
Depth
(m)

Figure 33. Excess pore pressure dissipation at 2 m depth at


centre line of rail track.

qc(MPa) and fs (10kPa)


5

10

15

Frition Ratio (%)


20

Cone resistanse, qc
1

-4
Depth (m)

Particle Size (mm)

-8

Pore pressure (kPa)


2

50

100

Remolded sand and


finemarine sediments
Disturbed loose muddy sand
Loose silty sand
Medium dense sand with
mixture of silt

Reduction in
lateral displacement

3
Sleeve friction, fs
4

-12

No PVD
With PVDs @ 1.5m spacing

Loose silty sand

-16
7

-20

0.1

0.2

Lateral displacment (Sh,m)

Figure 34. Ultimate lateral displacement profiles near the


embankment toe.

from 1.6 to 4.6 in this particular location as a result of


considerable turbulent mixing.
Also near the same locations, standard cone penetrometer testing with pore pressure measurement
(CPTU) was conducted to re-examine the soil profile
up to about 10 m deep (e.g. Fig. 36). The friction ratios
determined for shallow depths (less than 1 m) confirm
remoulded, metastable sands and/or mixed fine grained
soils (marine silts and clays transported by waves) with
increased sensitivity. The presence of peat is identified
by the suddenly increased friction ratio. The test results
also indicated significantly increased water content of
the soil affected by the infiltration of water (Fig. 36).
The extreme remoulding by tsunami waters and the
blending of fine marine muds (transported) with fine
beach has resulted in a significant decrease in the original unit weight as well as causing relatively poor
drainage conditions (i.e. compared to the pre-tsunami
era, the surface soil is not free-draining anymore).
Increased degree of saturation now allows excess pore
pressures to be developed and sustained upon loading.
In such situations, the ground improvement benefits

Soil improvement for Tsunami devastated areas

The Boxing Day tsunami in December 2004 devastated


several South and Southeast Asian countries, including Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Thailand. The effect of
tsunami waves on the surface soils is briefly discussed
here, in view of the ground improvement needs for
reconstruction of infrastructure including roads and
railways. The first author was an invited expert in
the post-tsunami site investigations of the devastated
southern coast of Sri Lanka, and various soil testing
was conducted under his guidance. At a trial pit beside
a major rail disaster (more than 1000 casualties in the
overturned and damaged train carriages), the particle
size distributions (Fig. 35) indicated blended and significantly more well-graded nature of the fine sandy
soils close to the surface, in the areas where uniform
and relatively clean fine beach sand existed before
the tsunami. The uniformity coefficient has changed

50

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Loose silty sand

Figure 36. Cone penetration test with pore pressure (CPTU)


results of soil layers after tsunami occurrence.

lateral displacement by about 25%. This numerical


example demonstrates the role of short PVDs installed
beneath rail tracks.
7.3

Medium dense sand

0.3

Transpiration

Transpiration

Capony
Trunk

Assumed
root zone
or
uptake
volume
Root water uptake
(a)

Water flow
(b)

Figure 37. Schematic sketch of soilplantatmosphere


equilibrium: (a) transpiration; (b) soilplantatmosphere
interaction (Indraratna et al., 2006).

from conventional vibratory compaction and preloading to increase the shear strength. Particularly in
railway track areas, the use of short PVDs will be most
advantageous for dissipating cyclic pore pressures and
curtailing lateral displacements as described earlier.
The use of short PVDs to facilitate the dissipation
of cyclic pore pressures are imperative to consider
through sound research evidence.

Figure 38. Trench excavation to examine the root density


distribution of a native tree (Miram, VIC, Australia).

USE OF NATIVE VEGETATION ON THE


STABILISATION OF SOFT FORMATIONS

Soil suction
Soil suction retards the free water movement towards
the root zone and affects the transpiration rate. The root
water uptake (S(x, y, z, t)) is represented by a combined
function of the maximum possible root water uptake,
Smax , and matric suction, :

The tree roots provide an effective form of natural soil


reinforcement apart from dissipating the excess pore
water pressure, and generate sufficient matric suction
to increase the shear strength of the surrounding soil.
In Australia, various forms of native vegetation grow
along rail corridors. It is well recognised that such
biostablisation has a number of mechanical and hydrological effects on ground stability. The loss of moisture
from the soil due to uptake by tree roots may be categorized as: (a) water used for metabolism in plant tissues,
and (b) water transpired to the atmosphere from the
canopy (foliage). In order to quantify pore pressure dissipation and induced matric suction, Indraratna et al.
(2006) introduced an appropriate mathematical model
for considering soil suction, root density and potential
transpiration (Fig. 37).
8.1

S(x, y, z, t) = Smax (x, y, z, t)f ()

(34)

S(x, y, z, t) denotes the root water uptake at point


(x, y, z) at time t.
Root distribution
In the development of the model, the geometric slope
of the root zone has to be assumed, based on the field
observation of typical root cross sections. Trench excavation is one of the appropriate methods to map the
root density distribution (Fig. 38). The distribution of
transpiration within the root zone depends on the root
density, hence,

Conceptual modelling
S(x, y, z, t) = f ()G()F(TP )

The main variable for estimating the transpiration rate


is the rate of root water uptake, which is difficult to
assess because of the considerable variation of root
geometry from one species to another. In this section,
the key factors, such as soil suction, root distribution
and potential transpiration rate are briefly discussed.

where, G() is a function associated with the root density distribution, F(TP ) is a function to consider the
potential transpiration distribution, and (x, y, z, t) is
the root density.

51

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(35)

Table 3. Parameter used in the finite element analysis


(Indraratna et al., 2006)
Value

Reference

rmax
zmax
PI
an
w
d
e0

Cc
ks

9m
1.5 m
23
4.9 kPa
1500 kPa
40 kPa
0.60
21 kN/m3
0.13
1010 m/s

Biddle (1983)
Biddle (1983)
Biddle (1983)
Feddes et al. (1978)
Feddes et al. (1978)
Feddes et al. (1978)
Powrie et. al (1992)
Powrie et. al (1992)
Skempton (1944)
Lehane and Simpson (2000)

Figure 39. Geometry and boundary conditions (Indraratna


et al., 2006).
Change in soil matric suction (kPa)

Parameter

Potential transpiration
The potential transpiration is defined as evaporation
of water from plant tissues to the atmosphere, assuming that the soil moisture content is not restricted. The
potential transpiration is, therefore, estimated by:
TP = ETP EP

(36)

where, TP is overall transpiration, ETP is the potential


evapotranspiration (both plant and soil), and EP is the
potential evaporation from the soil surface.
The finite element program ABAQUS was used to
evaluate the soil suction generated by transpiration.
Equations (34)(36) are incorporated as a sub-routine
in ABAQUS supplementing the effective stress-based
equations.

0.5m depth

1200
1000

Line of maxima

800
600
1m depth

400
200

1.5m depth

0
0

Horizontal distance from the tree trunk (m)

Figure 40. Predicted soil matric suction in various depths


(Indraratna et al., 2006).

8.2 Verification of the proposed Root Water uptake


model
To verify the model for rate of root water uptake, a
case history reported by Biddle (1983) has been considered for a lime tree grown in Boulder clay. The
estimated parameters based on the available literature are shown in Table 3. Fig. 39 illustrates the mesh
and element geometry and boundary conditions of
the finite element model. A two-dimensional plane
strain mesh employing 4-node bilinear displacement
and pore pressure elements (CPE4P) was considered.
The maximum change in the soil matric suction from
the finite element analysis (fig. 40) is found at about
0.5m depth, which coincides with the same location of
the maximum root density.
A comparison between the field measurements and
the FEM predictions for moisture content reduction
around the lime tree is presented in Fig. 41. The
numerical model is in accordance with the field observations by Biddle (1983). The main differences noted
between field data and the predictions are observed at
68 m from the trunk. This discrepancy is attributed
to the simplicity of the assumed root zone shape. In
addition, the foliage prevents uniform distribution of

Figure 41. Contours of volumetric soil moisture content


reduction (%) close to a lime tree: (a) Biddle (1983), (b)
FEM predictions (Indraratna et al., 2006).

rainfall around the tree. As a result, moisture content can increase at the canopy edges, thereby further
contributing to this disparity
Fig. 42 shows the ground settlement at various
depths. In this analysis, only the suction related settlement was considered. On the surface, the predicted
80 mm settlement beside the tree trunk decreases to
less than 20 mm, at a distance 10 m away from the

52

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1400

predict accurately. This may be attributed to the complexity of evaluating the true magnitudes of soil
parameters inside and outside the smear zone, correct
drain properties as well as the aspects of soil-drain
interface unsaturation. Therefore, one needs to use
the most appropriate laboratory techniques to obtain
parameters, preferably using large-scale testing equipment. It was found that the smear zone radius was 23
times the radius of the mandrel. The soil permeability
in the smear zone is higher than that in the undisturbed
zone by a factor of 1.52.
For large construction sites, where many PVDs are
installed, the plane strain analysis is sufficient given the
computational efficiency. Recently developed conversion from axisymmetric to plane strain condition gives
good agreement with measured data. These simplified
plane strain methods can be rapidly employed in the
numerical analysis. A finite element code (ABAQUS)
was employed to analyse the behaviour of PVDs and
compared with field measurements. A conversion procedure based on the transformation of permeability
and vacuum pressure was also proposed to establish
the relationship between the axisymmetric (3D) and
equivalent plane strain (2D) conditions. The equivalent plane strain solution was applied for selected case
histories, demonstrating its validity in predicting the
real behaviour. Field behaviour as well as model predictions indicate that the efficiency of vertical drains
depends on the magnitude and distribution of vacuum
pressure as well as the degree of drain saturation during
installation.
The accurate prediction of lateral displacement at
shallow depths depends on the correct assessment of
soil properties including the overconsolidated surface
crust.This compacted layer is relatively stiff, and therefore it resists inward movement of the soil upon the
application of vacuum pressure. The modified Camclay model is inappropriate for modeling the behavior
of the weathered and compacted crust. This surface
crust is sufficient to be modeled as an elastic layer
rather than a soft elasto-plastic medium. The analysis of case histories proves that the vacuum application
via PVD substantially decreases lateral displacement.
As a result, the potential shear failure during rapid
embankment construction can be avoided.
There is no doubt that a system of vacuum-assisted
consolidation via PVDs is a useful and practical
approach for accelerating radial consolidation. Such a
system eliminates the need for a high surcharge load,
as long as air leaks can be prevented in the field. Accurate modeling of vacuum preloading requires both
laboratory and field studies to quantify the nature of
vacuum pressure distribution within a given formation
and drain system.
The ground improvement techniques including
PVDs prior to rail track construction can be applied
in coastal areas containing a high percentage of clayey

Horizontal distance from tree trunk (m)


0

10

40

60

Ma
set ximu
tlem m
line ent

Settlement (mm)

20

z=0m
z=1m

80
z=2m
z=6m
100

Figure 42. Ground settlement at various depths.

trunk. As shown in Fig. 42, the location of the maximum settlement is closer to the trunk at shallower
depths, which tends to coincide with the points of
maximum change in suction (Fig. 40).
It was shown that the numerical analysis incorporating the proposed model could predict the variation
of moisture content surrounding the tree trunk. Knowing the moisture content variation, the development of
matric suction can be predicted reasonably well using
the SMCC. Native biostabilisation improves the shear
strength of the soil by increasing the matric suction,
and also decreases the soil movements. This contribution from trees grown along rail corridors and rail slope
is of immense benefit for improving track stability in
problematic soil. In other words, native vegetation generating soil suction is comparable to the role of PVDs
with vacuum pressure, in terms of improved drainage
(pore water dissipation), and associated increase in
shear strength. In addition, the tree roots provide a
natural reinforcement effect, which the current model
has not simulated thus far.
9

CONCLUSIONS

For several decades, various types of vertical drains


have been used to accelerate the rate of primary consolidation. A revised mathematical model for soft
clay stabilised by vertical drains incorporating the
compressibility indices (Cc and Cr ) and vacuum surcharge has been introduced.The variation of horizontal
permeability coefficient (kh ) was represented by the elogkh relationship. The variables such as the slopes
of the e-log  relationship(Cc and Cr ), the slope of elogk h relationship(Ck ), vacuum pressure ratio (VPR)
and the loading increment ratio (p/i ) were explicitly integrated in the mathematical model to predict the
consolidation behaviour.
The lateral displacements and pore pressures dissipation associated with PVDs are often difficult to

53

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Chu, J., and Yan, S.W. 2005. Application of vacuum preloading method in soil improvement project. Case Histories
Book (Volume 3), Edited by Indraratna, B. and Chu, J.,
Elsevier, London, pp. 91118.
Chu, J., Yan, S.W. and Yang, H. 2000. Soil improvement by
the vacuum preloading method for an oil storage station.
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Collins, I. F. andYu, H. S. 1996. Undrained Cavity Expansion
in Critical State Soils. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, Vol. 20, pp.
489516.
Feddes, R.A., Kowalik, P. J. and Zaradny, H. 1978. Simulation
of field water use and crop yield. Simulation Monograph.
Pudoc, Wageningen, pp. 930
Gabr M.A., and Szabo D.J. 1997. Prefabricated vertical drains
zone of influence under vacuum in clayey soil. Proceedings of the Conference on In Situ Remediation of the
Geoenvironment, ASCE, 449460.
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Hansbo, S. 1981. Consolidation of fine-grained soils by prefabricated drains. In Proceedings of 10th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm, Balkema, Rotterdam, 3, pp. 677682.
Hansbo, S. 1997. Aspects of vertical drain design Darcian or non-Darcian flow. Gotechnique Vol. 47, No. 5,
pp. 983992.
Hansbo, S. 2005. Experience of consolidation process from
test areas with and without vertical drains. Ground
ImprovementCase Histories Book (Volume 3), Edited by
Indraratna, B. and Chu, J., Elsevier, London, Chapter 1.
pp. 349.
Holtz, R.D., Jamiolkowski, M., Lancellotta, R. and Pedroni,
S. 1991. Prefabricated vertical drains: design and performance, CIRIA ground engineering report: ground
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Holtan, G.W. 1965. Vacuum stabilization of subsoil beneath
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Proc. of 6th ICSMFE, 2.
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Indraratna, B., and Redana, I. W. 1998. Laboratory determination of smear zone due to vertical drain installation. J.
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Indraratna, B., Balasubramaniam, A. S. and Balachandran,
S. 1992a. Performance of test embankment constructed
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Y.K. 1992b. Development of Negative Skin Friction on
Driven Piles in Soft Clay. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 29, June issue, pp. 393404.

soils. It was shown that short prefabricated vertical


drains (PVDs) can be used under rail tracks to dissipate cyclic excess pore pressure and curtail lateral
displacements to improve stability. Native vegetation
can also be used close to the rail track to reduce settlement and lateral movement. The proposed root water
uptake and transpiration model verifies that the suction
induced by the tree roots contributes to a substantial
gain shear strength. Similar to PVDs, the tree roots
induce good drainage, pore water pressure dissipation
and in addition provide natural reinforcement of the
soil. As the influence zone of each tree can be several
meters in radius, the methodological planting of native
trees along rail corridors at a practical distance away
from the track is currently considered by rail organizations in Australia. Considering various soil conditions,
the type of vegetation and atmospheric conditions, the
proposed mathematical model for biostabilsation is
most useful to predict the formation behaviour in a
rail track environment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the CRC for Railway Engineering andTechnologies (Australia) for its continuous
support. Cyclic testing of PVD stabilised soft soil
forms a part ofAnaasAttyas doctoral thesis. Extensive
research on biostabilisation by native trees is currently conducted by doctoral student Behzad Fatahi.
A number of other current and past doctoral students,
namely, Redana, Bamunawita, and Sathananthan have
also contributed to the contents of this keynote paper.
More elaborate details of the contents discussed in
this paper can be found in previous publications of the
first author and his research students in ICE proceedings (Geotechnical Engineering), ASCE and Canadian
Geotechnical Journals, since mid 1990s.
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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Modelling and numerical simulation of creep in soft soils


P.A. Vermeer & M. Leoni
Institut fr Geotechnik, University of Stuttgart, Germany

M. Karstunen
University of Strathclyde, UK

H.P. Neher
Ed. Zblin AG, Technical Head Office, Germany

ABSTRACT: At Stuttgart University an isotropic creep model has been developed, in which Modified Cam
Clay type of ellipses are used to describe the contours of volumetric creep strain rate in p-q plane. Starting from
the simplest case of 1D creep, the 3D formulation of an isotropic creep model is given. This constitutive model has
been implemented in a finite element program and validated by simulating simple lab tests, as published in other
papers. In this paper the isotropic creep model is used to simulate a complex boundary value problem, namely
the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The isotropic model is able to capture many aspects of soil time-dependent behaviour,
but nevertheless further model development is necessary. Therefore a new anisotropic creep model is proposed,
based on the experimental observation of many natural soils. The anisotropic creep model is a straightforward
generalization of the IC model in which the anisotropic fabric tensor is adopted and the Modified Cam Clay
ellipses are replaced by rotated ovals in p-q plane.

INTRODUCTION

When a saturated clay is loaded one usually distinguishes between primary consolidation and secondary
compression. During consolidation excess pore pressures are transferred into effective stresses, whereas
all stresses are constant during secondary compression. Straining at constant stress is referred to as pure
creep.
Pure creep at constant effective stress occurs both
in the laboratory and in the field, but in the most
general situation stresses change with time. In such
general cases one cannot use the traditional logarithmic time-law of secondary compression. Instead, one
needs to express the rate of creep strain as a function
of stress in order to obtain a visco-elastic or a viscoplastic model. In this paper the traditional concept of
secondary compression will straightforwardly be converted into an elastic-visco-plastic model as illustrated
by Figure 1. The elastic strains are typically observed
in unloading and reloading of clays, whereas primary
loading of normally consolidated clays is dominated
by creep strains, i.e. by visco-plastic strains. Indeed,
viscous material behaviour does not only occur during secondary compression, but also during primary
consolidation of NC-clays.

Figure 1. Elastic-visco-plastic model.

In soil mechanics creep has primarily been studied for one-dimensional compression. The pioneering
results of Buisman (1936) and Garlanger (1972) have
established the logarithmic time law, whilst Bjerrum
(1967) added the concept of a creep dependent preconsolidation stress as also used in the present study.
In these early studies, however, the void ratio is a function of the creep time and such models cannot be used
when stresses vary with time.
The above pioneering research was continued by
various researchers as nicely reviewed by Leroueil
(1987). For one-dimensional compression an elasticviscoplastic model in the sense of Figure 1, has among
others been proposed by Yin and Graham (1999). The

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1D version of the models presented here are somewhat similar, but in contrast with Yin and Graham,
the concept of a preconsolidation stress as measured
in standard oedometer tests is retained. Fast constant
strain rate oedometer tests (Leroueil et al. 1985; Sllfors 1975) may give e-log  lines beyond the normal
consolidation line (NCL), but this does not mean that
one should drop the NCL-concept. Instead, it needs
further consideration as discussed later on. For this
reason the 1D version of the model is described in
detail.
On developing models for general states of stress
and strain, one generally begins with the simplifying
assumption of material isotropy. Similarly, the early
3D creep model by Adachi and Okano (1974) and the
one by Nova (1982) assume material isotropy. This
also applies to the models by Vermeer et al. (1998) and
Yin and Graham (1999). The isotropic creep model by
Stolle et al. (1997) forms the basis of a new anisotropic
creep model described in this paper. It is shown that
this is a viscoplastic version of the well-known Modified Cam Clay model. Moreover, the application of the
isotropic creep model to 3D modelling of the Leaning
Tower of Pisa is presented.
No doubt, natural clays are highly anisotropic and
the final aim of constitutive modelling must be to
describe anisotropic soil behaviour. Pioneering work
in that sense was done by Sekiguchi and Ohta (1977),
Gens and Nova (1993) and Wheeler et al. (2003). The
latter adopted a rotated yield surface in p-q plane which
is embraced as normal consolidation surface in the
present study. It is shown that this rotated oval matches
measured creep lines. Finally, it is demonstrated that
the new anisotropic creep model yields highly realistic stress paths in undrained triaxial extension, and
consequently realistic values for the undrained shear
strength.

Figure 2. Variation of the creep rate with OCR for = 27.

strain implies a change of void ratio and it is convenient to formulate the deformation in terms of void
ratio (e). Hence,
e = e e + e c
The elastic change of void ratio is formulated as:
e e =

e c =

(2)

C
ln 10


p


with =

Cc Cs
C

(3)

where is a particular reference time. In Section 2.5


it will be shown that can mostly be taken equal to
one day. C is the well-known secondary compression
index that is also referred to as the creep index and Cc
is the well-known compression index.
An important soil deformation characteristic, as
observed for states of normal consolidation, concerns
the normal consolidation line in Figure 2. On this line
we have the preconsolidation stress p , which increases
during creep according to the differential equation

1D CONSTITUTIVE MODEL

p
ln 10
e c
=
p
Cc Cs

Basic equations

(4a)

for a constant temperature. The influence of temperature on p will be considered in Section 2.7. The
integrated form of Eq. [4a] is

There are two components of strain that need to be


modelled. First of them is the more or less elastic deformation, as directly observed in an unloading path or
along a recompression branch. The other component
of strain is irreversible and time dependent. Volumetric

p = po exp

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Cs 
ln 10 

where  is the effective stress and Cs the swelling


index, which is sometimes called the unloadingreloading index and denoted as Cur .
The second deformation type is creep that is modelled by the power law

The constitutive description presented in this Section


relates to the one-dimensional version proposed by
Stolle et al. (1997) and Vermeer et al. (1998). As it
is tradition in soil mechanics, compression is taken
positive. A dot over a symbol implies differentiation
with respect to time, and the superscripts e and c refer
to the elastic and creep components, respectively.

2.1

(1)

ln 10 ec
, ec = ec eco
Cc Cs

(4b)

where po is the initial preconsolidation stress for


ec = eco . For numerical simulations of deformation, one
does not only need values for the material constants
Cc , Cs , C and the reference time , but also the initial
values of effective stress  and the state parameter p .
Hence po is an important input parameter, whereas
eco is not directly needed. Indeed, during computations
one may evaluate ec without explicitly knowing eco .
The creep Eq. [3] is rather similar to the well-known
creep law = ( 0 ) as introduced by Norton
(1929) for metals. Instead of Nortons threshold stress
0 the preconsolidation pressure p is used. In contrast
to Nortons law p is not a threshold stress, i.e. creep is
assumed to take place also in overconsolidated states.
To illustrate the tremendous effect of the overconsolidation ratio on the creep rate, let us consider a typical clay with Cc = 0.15, Cs = 0.015 and C = 0.005,
giving for the creep exponent in Eq. [3] the typical
value of = 27. The creep law [3] now gives
e c = e cnc

for OCR = 1

e c e cnc 103

for OCR = 1.3

e c e cnc 106

for OCR = 1.67

Figure 3. Standard oedometer test with stepwise loading.

Hence the creep rate is almost negligible for


OCR > 1.3. On the other hand the rate of creep is
notable for more or less normally consolidated clays.

2.2

Logarithmic creep for  = constant

The creep law [3] holds for general states of stress and
strain, as both the effective stress  and the preconsolidation stress p may vary as a function of time. In fact,
the latter increases monotonically with creep deformation and for a better understanding of the model it
is convenient to consider the creep law with p being
eliminated. To this end, one has to insert the evolution
Eq.[4b] for p into the creep law [3] to find:
C
e =
ln 10
c


po

ec eco
exp
C/ ln 10

Figure 4. Evolution of void ratio with time for test of


Figure 3. Time is reset to zero for every load step.

where t = 0 for e = eo and


(5)

The effective stress  may be either larger or smaller


than po and it does not need to be constant. In the
simplest case of creep at constant effective stress the
creep rate reduces monotonically due to the decreasing
void ratio in the exponential term.
For the special case of a constant effective stress, the
differential creep law [5] can be integrated analytically
to obtain


t
ec = ec eco = C log 1 +

po

= OCR o

(6b)

A logarithmic creep law was first proposed by Buisman (1936), but the above form with was first
introduced by Garlanger (1972). The reference time
depends completely on the initial state of overconsolidation. Consider for instance a standard oedometer
test in which the load is daily increased, as illustrated
Figure 3 and Figure 4. Depending on the permeability
of the sample, the end of consolidation may be reached
in one or more hours after loading, but for the remaining part of the day the sample will creep at a constant
effective stress. The logarithmic Eq. [5] is fully valid

(6a)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

throughout this creep period with t = 0 at the end of


(primary) consolidation. In oedometer testing time is
mostly reset to zero at the beginning of consolidation
rather than at the end, and therefore, the curves shown
in Figure 4 do not fully reflect Eq. [6a].
According to the classification of creep models by
Liingard et al. (2004) Eq. [6a] belongs to the family of
empirical relations, and he would classify the present
model as a constant C model. However, it is emphasized that the reference time varies with OCR, as
shown in Eq. [6b], being not discussed by Liingard et
al. As a result the slope of the final part of e/logt curves
varies with OCR in the overconsolidated range.
2.3

2000
1D creep model

time resistance rs

1600

0
0

Consider an overconsolidated soil sample being stepwise recompressed. During recompression the sample
is in a state of overconsolidation with OCR > 1. In
this case equation [3] predicts a very low creep rate
and consequently there is very little change of OCR.
This is also reflected by the logarithmic law [6a], as it
yields
C
dec
=
dt
ln 10

1
+ t

1.5

2.5

a relatively low reference time , as is discussed in


Section 2.6. Since the soil data were not available
to the Authors, typical soil data have been used for
this fitting: 0.0055 and 20 for C/(1 + eo)/ln10 and ,
respectively.
2.4 Normally consolidated states (t >> )
In standard oedometer tests, samples are recompressed
until the normal consolidation line is reached. Then the
load is increased beyond the NC-line and the sample
is left to consolidate and creep back to the NC-line, as
indicated in Figure 3.
As oedometer samples are relatively thin, consolidation is generally fast and most of the deformation
occurs at a constant effective stress. During such a
creep period, the overconsolidation ratio increases
from the low initial value of OCRo < 1 at the end
of consolidation up to OCR = 1. In a standard 24hour incremental test the load is daily doubled so that
OCRo0.5. In such a situation Eq. [6b] indicates that
is extremely small and and the testing is done on a
time scale with t >> . In this case Eq. [8] reduces to

(8)

It is only for t >> that this rate reduces to the constant value of C, but this is not relevant for the overconsolidated range.
Janbu (1969) introduced the so-called time resistance number rs and Eqs. [6b] and [8] can be used to
derive that

de
C for t >>
dlog t

(10)

Therefore, ec decreases linearly with logt and with


slope C, so that the creep index can directly be measured from load steps in the normally consolidated
range.

(9)

This equation was used to fit measurements on rs


by Claesson (2006). A very good fit is obtained for
/t = 0.1 as can be observed from Figure 5. This
ratio of 0.1 would seem to be realistic because Claessons definition of the preconsolidation stress implies

2.5 On the reference time


Up to now it has been indicated that the reference time
in Eq. [3] is mostly equal to one day, but as yet

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 5. Data for Hanhalsclay after Claesson (2006) and


comparison with 1D creep model.

Indeed, for overconsolidated states of stress, the reference time is very large and t is consequently
small with respect to . Hence, on a usual time scale
with t << , as relevant in laboratory testing, overconsolidated soils show a very small nearly constant
creep rate. This behaviour is reflected by the upper
set of curves in Figure 4. In soil mechanics it is often
suggested that even overconsolidated clays show logarithmic creep, but this is only true on a very large time
scale. Indeed, it follows from Eq. [6a] that the slopes
of the curves in Figure 4 satisfy the equation


1 + eo
d ln t

=
ln 10 1 + OCR o
rs
d
C
t

0.5

/po

C 1
for << (7)
ln 10

dec
t
= C
textdlogt
+t

800

400

Overconsolidated states with t <<

1200

we have neither motivated nor derived this particular


value. In this Section it is shown that the reference time
relates to the definition of the NC-surface and that the
usual definition of this surface implies a reference time
of one day. In order to show this, we consider the creep
in a particular load step of a conventional oedometer
test. According to Eqs. [6a] and [4b] we have


t
ec = C log 1 +

(11a)

p
po

(11b)

ec = (Cc Cs) log

respectively. The first expression for ec is the fundamental equation, whereas Eq. [9b] basically defines
the preconsolidation stress as a function of ec . On
eliminating the void ratio, the above two equations
yield
+ t
=

p
po

Figure 6. Comparison between stress-strain curves obtained


in conventional 24 h test and CRS oedometer test (from
Hanzawa 1989).

(12)

Together with Eq. [6b] for it is found that



OCR =

+ t

that resemble the ones of multi-stage loading tests. In


many cases CRS tests are done relatively fast and the
results overshoot the NC-line from a 24-hours test, as
can be seen in Figure 6. However, any CRS test line can
be adopted as NC-line, provided that an appropriate
reference time is assigned to this line, as will be
shown in the following.
Consider a CRS test with a particular constant rate
of void ratio, then it follows from Eq. [1], [2] and [4a]
that

1/
(13)

For normally consolidated states, is very small as


already argued in the previous section. Then Eq. [13]
reduces to the very simple expression
OCR (t/)1/

for t >>

(14)

e = e e + e c =

being first put forward by Mesri & Choi (1985). Hence,


OCR will rapidly increase from its initial small value
of OCRo up to OCR = 1.
Most often the load is increased every 24 hours and
consolidation takes typically one hour. In such a test
the creep time for reaching the normal consolidation
line would be 23 hours or roughly one day. On substituting OCR = 1 and t = 1 day into Equation [14],
one obtains = 1 day. No doubts, oedometer tests may
also be carried out with 12 or 48 hours load steps to
find somewhat shifted NC-lines with = 12 or = 48
hours respectively.
2.6

(15)

It can be shown that  /  = p /p and it follows that


the elastic strain rate is given by Cs /(Cc Cs ) times
the creep rate. This can be used to write
e =

Cc
C
Cc
e c =

Cc Cs
Cc Cs ln 10


p


(16)

For  = p , we are on the NC-line and it follows that


e cnc =

C
Cc

Cc Cs ln 10

(17)

If is assumed to be one day, the CRS test has to be carried out at the appropriate rate according to Eq. [17].
On the other hand, one may also adjust to any possible
CRS test. This is clear when writing Eq. [17] as

Constant rate of strain test

Instead of defining the normal consolidation line of a


particular clay on the basis of a multi-stage loading
test, one may use a constant rate of strain test. Data
by Hanzawa (1989) as shown in Figure 6 demonstrate
that these so-called CRS tests give oedometer curves

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Cs 
Cc Cs p

ln 10 
ln 10 p

Cc
C
1

Cc Cs ln 10 e nc

(18)

where T = T To and To a reference temperature. Following the observation by Leroueil it yields


= 0.01 per C. As an alternative to the above equation, one might also use ideas from Moritz (1995) to
obtain
 


T
ln 10 ec
p = po
exp
(21)
To
Cc Cs
where replaces as a temperature parameter. The
influence of temperature on the preconsolidation stress
is thus easily incorporated into the model by using an
extended equation for p .

2.8

Figure 7. Preconsolidation pressure from oedometer tests


at various temperatures (Eriksson 1989).

where C has to be measured in a real creep test with


constant effective stress. On taking the NC-line from a
CRS test, the applied deformation rate is assumed to be
e nc and one may compute the corresponding reference
time form Eq. [18].

2.7 Influence of temperature


Eriksson (1989) was probably the first to conduct
a systematic study on the effects of temperature on
the compressibility of clays. His CRS test results are
shown in Figure 7. With increasing temperature, the
soil becomes more compressible in the overconsolidated range and the preconsolidation stress decreases.
This is of great importance to practical applications of
creep models, as laboratory tests are usually performed
at a temperature close to 20 C, whereas in situ temperatures tend to be around 10 C. It can be derived from
the data in Figure 7 that the preconsolidation stress
of this particular clay drops from about 60 kPa down
to about 50 kPa when temperature raises from 10 C
to 20 C.
Leroueil (2006) reviewed data from eight different
sources and concluded that the change of the preconsolidation stress is essentially the same for all the clays
considered, being almost 1% per C between 5 and
35 C. This observation can directly be used to assess
the temperature parameter in the proposed equation

p = p

ln 10 c
e + T
Cc Cs

From void ratio to large strains

For large changes of void ratio, as resulting from


oedometer tests on peat and very soft natural clays,
e-log plots seldomly result in straight compression
curves, as assumed in previous sections of this paper.
Instead one tends to find slightly concave curves as
for instance shown in Figure 6. The concave form is
logic as there is a theoretical lower boundary of e = 0
to the void ratio, being asymptotically approached in
high-pressure oedometer tests. For this reason, several
authors, e.g. Butterfield (1979) and Den Haan (1994),
have advocated the use of bilogarithmic plots and they
define the NC-line by the equation
ln

1+e

= ln 
1 + eo
o

which implies Cc = (1 + e) ln 10 . Considering


as a true material constant, Cc is found to increase
with e, as observed in large strain oedometer tests. For
small strains, however, we have e eo and Cc reduces
to a fixed material constant. In the following will
be used rather than Cc .
The use of Eq. [22] complies to the concept of logarithmic strain as often used for large-strain problems in
mechanics. Within this concept the volumetric strain
is defined as
vol ln

V
V
= ln (1 +
)
Vo
Vo

(19)

or in integrated form
vol ln (1+

V
V
)
Vo
Vo

for

V << Vo(24)

(20)
which is the usual definition of infinitesimal strain.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(23)

where V is the volume of the material element considered and compressive strains are taken positive. Within
the range of small strains, V/Vo and Eq. [23] can be
linearised giving


ln 10 ec
p = po expT exp
Cc Cs

(22)

On substituting V = (1 + e) Vs in Eq. [23], where


Vs is the volume of the solid phase, and on assuming
this phase to be incompressible, one obtains together
with Eq. [22]
vol ln

1+e

= ln 
1 + eo
o

(25)

FROM MCC TO ISOTROPIC CREEP MODEL

On extending the 1-D model to general states of stress


and strain, the well-known stress invariants p and q for
mean and deviatoric stress are adopted. The summation convention is used throughout the paper unless
differently stated. Hence p = ii /3 and

q = 3/2 sij sij ,

sij = ij p ij

Figure 8. Ellipses of Modified Cam Clay (MCC).

(26)

The ellipses of Modified Cam Clay are taken as contours of volumetric creep rate in p-q plane. Hence the
same volumetric creep rate applies to all stress states
which lie on a particular ellipse. The ellipse which
intersects with the p-axis in pp is referred to as the
normal consolidation surface (NCS), as indicated in
Figure 8.
Just like the oedometric preconsolidation stress p ,
the isotropic one pp must be updated continually during
the analysis according to the evolution of the volumetric creep strain. The evolution of the preconsolidation
pressure is governed by temperature variations as well,
but for the sake of simplicity, the isothermal case will
be considered.

Figure 9. Overconsolidated and underconsolidated state.

where and are a modified compression index


and a modified swelling index respectively. It yields
for small strain
=

3.1 Volumetric creep in 3-D

and

Considering Modified Cam Clay ellipses as creep


potentials, one needs a suitable measure for these
ellipses. Stress invariants p and q are used to define
the scalar quantity
peq = p +

(27)

where peq is an equivalent stress defining a unique


Modified Cam Clay ellipse in p-q plane. A soil element
is overconsolidated for peq < pp and underconsolidated for peq > pp , as indicated in Figure 9. The
constant M represents the slope of the critical state
line.
The preconsolidation pressure changes during creep
according to the law
pp = ppo exp

cvol

eij = Cijkl kl

3.2 Plastic potential and flow rule


With the definition [27] in mind, Eq. [3] is modified to
become:


1
peq
C

, =
(29)
cvol = sign(d)

pp
ln 10 1 + eo

(28)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1
1
3 (1 ) Cs
2 Cs

1+
ln 10 1 + eo
ln 10 1 + eo

For a derivation of the approximate relation between


and Cs , the reader is referred to Vermeer and Neher
(1999). For soft soils the effective Poissons ratio has
typically a value of 0.2. This Poissons ratio is used
in the elastic compliance fourth-order tensor Cijkl in

q
M 2 p

1
Cc

ln 10 1 + eo

The variable d is introduced in the following. According to Eq. [29] the volumetric creep rate is driven by
peq /pp which is the inverse of the overconsolidation
ratio. This ratio can be considered as a measure of the
distance from the actual state of stress to the NCS.
As in classical elastoplasticity, the 3D creep model
has a flow rule giving the directionof the creep strain
rate. Similarly to the MCC model associated plasticity is assumed and ellipses are thus taken as plastic
potential surfaces. The rate of creep strain can hence
be written as
cij = 

peq
ij

(30)
Figure 10. NC-ellipses, Mohr-Coulomb failure line and
tension cut-off of IC model.

where  is a plastic multiplier. It follows that


=

cvol
peq
with d =
=1
d
p

q/p
M

2
(31)

The sign of the state variable d depends on the stress


ratio q/p . As long as this ratio is smaller than M, d
is positive and Eq. [29] predicts contractive creep. On
the other hand, stress paths above the critical state line
yield negative d-values and dilation. Similarly to the
MCC-model, soil contraction implies an expansion of
the NC surface and dilation causes shrinkage of the
NC-ellipse.
It now follows form Eqs. [29] and [30] that
cij =

|d|

peq
pp

peq
ij

(32)

The model above obviously deviates from the MCC


model in the sense that there is no truly elastic domain.
Well below the NC-surface creep rates are extremely
small, but just below this surface the creep rate is
significant. Moreover, stresses may exceed the NCsurface, so that it is not a yield locus in the sense of
plasticity. On the other hand, strain rates for stress
points around the NC-surface are so high that this
surface creates the effect of a yield surface.
4

Figure 11. Mohr-Coulomb yield surface and normal consolidation cap.

In order to remain within the framework of a classical continuum and to avoid numerical difficulties, the
dry side of critical state is modelled by a fixed Hvorslev
type failure surface as indicated in Figure 10. In this
way one obviously introduces two extra model constants, i.e. the cohesion c and the friction angle  .
It would be most realistic to make c density dependent, but for the sake of convenience the cohesion is
assumed to be constant. In principal stress state the
failure surface is of the Mohr-Coulomb type, as shown
in Figure 11. Because of the failure surface, the total
number of model constants now increases from five up
to eight, as listed in Table 1.
Rough estimates of , , and are also indicated inTable 1, to give an impression of the magnitude
of these constants. An important feature of the ICmodel is that relative steep NC-surfaces can be used
by adopting relatively large values for MNCS . On doing

ISOTROPIC CREEP MODEL (IC MODEL)

Just like the Modified Cam Clay model, the creep


model involves dilation and associated softening for
stress states on the dry side (left of the intercept of
the CSL). In numerical analyses softening cannot easily be simulated as it leads to mesh-dependency and
possible numerical instabilities. For a proper analysis
of softening problems, without such difficulties, one
would need to formulate the model in the framework
of a non-local or micropolar continuum theory.

64

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

Material parameters for isotropic creep model.

/5
/30
MNCS <=> Konc
0.2

a modified compression index


a modified swelling index
a modified creep index
height of the normal consolidation
surface
elastic Poissons ratio

c

0

effective Hvorslev cohesion


effective Hvorslev friction angle
Hvorslev angle of dilation

12721278. The height of the tower at that time was


51 m. The construction was finished between 1360 and
1370 with the bell chamber.
In 1838/1839 a circular ditch, the so-called Catino,
was dug around the tower to expose the column plinths
and foundation steps which had settled below the
ground surface level. From 1933 to 1935 the Catino
wall and the foundation were injected with cement
grout to stop water inflow into the Catino. In the 1990s
the northern side of the foundation ring was ballasted
with lead ingots, as a temporary stabilization measure.
In the years 1999-2001 soil was extracted from under
the same side using inclined drill holes, and the lead
ingots were removed.
The first known exact inclination measurements
were made in 1817. Since 1911 the inclination has
been measured regularly by different methods, while
the measurements of settlements started in 1965.

so, MNCS may well exceed the critical state ratio M. No


doubt, MNCS may be equal to M, but the model gives
the possibility to use MNCS values well beyond M.
On doing so we deviate from the Modified Cam
Clay model, as this model tends to give too large horizontal stresses in oedometric loading. In order to make
sure that the model predicts realistic Knc
o -values quite
large MNCS -values need to be used, and consequently,
relatively steep normal consolidation ellipses in p-q
plane.
5

5.2 Geological and geotechnical properties


The layers underneath the tower foundation (Figure 12)
are holocene sediments of the quaternary period. The
tower is founded on top of a 5.4 m thick layer of sandy
to clayey silt, which is covered by a 3 m thick fill layer.
The approximately 30 m thick formation B basically
contains clay layers and includes a sand layer. Formation C starts at a depth of 37 m below sea level
and consists of sand with a thickness of 2025 m.
The formations B and C are of marine origin. The
consistency range of the clays is between soft and
medium, hence showing a high compressibility. Soil
parameters were estimated upon several broad soil
investigations between 1907 to 1992. The sampling
quality was improved with time: the so-called Laval
block sampler has been used for the latest samples,
thus giving samples with a very low disturbance.

CASE STUDY: PISA TOWER STABILITY

In 2001The International Committee for the Safeguard


of the Leaning Tower of Pisa requested the Institute of
Geotechnical Engineering at Stuttgart University to
analyse the long-term behaviour of the tower after the
recent restauration measures. The numerical analyses
thereby performed were an important benchmark for
assessing the effectiveness of the proposed 3D creep
model in capturing the time-dependent behaviour of
soft soils.
The boundary value problem has been solved
via finite element analysis using PLAXIS code
(Brinkgreve and Vermeer 2001). The numerical algorithm and the implementation of the isotropic creep
model has been described in Stolle et al. (1997), and
this Section focuses on the description of the geometry
of the problem. For a more exhaustive description of
the FE analyses, refer to Neher et al. (2003)
5.1

5.3 Soil parameters and finite element model


The finite element analyses are performed with an
enhanced version of the Plaxis 3D Tunnel code allowing for consolidation analysis and large deformations
with updating of the mesh. The layering of the finite
element model and the soil parameter set are based
on Calabresi et al. (1996). In Table 2 and Table 3 the
parameter set of the soil layers are given. The Pre Overburden Pressure (POP), as referred to in Table 2, is
defined as p o . It is an input parameter for specifying the vertical preconsolidation stress (Brinkgreve
and Vermeer 2001).
The finite element model is calibrated on the basis
of the history of construction In the first construction
phase from 1173 to 1178 the tower is simulated up
to a height of 29 m. In the second stage of construction from 1272 to 1278 a height of 51 m was reached,

History and geometry of the Tower

The construction of the Leaning Tower of Pisa started


in 1173 and ended in 1370. The foundation of the
tower is a circular ring consisting of stones and mortar
with an outer diameter of 19.6 m and an inner diameter of 4.5 m. The height of the tower is 58 m, with
an estimated total weight of 140 MN. During the first
construction phase from 1173 to 1178 the foundation
and the first three and half storeys were built up to a
height of 29 m. After a break of nearly 100 years the
tower was erected up to the seventh storey in the years

65

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 2.

Soil parameters for fine-grained layers.

layer

[kN/m3 ]

[]

[]

[]

[ ]

c
[kN/m2 ]

k
[1010 m/s]

POP
[kN/m2 ]

A1N
A1S
B1
B2
B3
B4/B5
B7a
B7b
B8/B9/B10

19.1
19.1
17.3
17.8
16.7
20.0
19.6
17.8
19.0

0.045
0.065
0.15
0.12
0.15
0.07
0.1
0.12
0.1

0.0045
0.0065
0.015
0.012
0.015
0.007
0.01
0.012
0.01

0.0015
0.00217
0.005
0.004
0.005
0.0023
0.0033
0.004
0.0033

34.0
34.0
26.0
26.0
26.0
28.0
27.0
27.0
25.0

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

104
10
5
5
5
2
5
5
3

140
140
70
50
50
130/200
70
70
70

Table 3.

Soil parameters for coarse-grained layers.

Jamiolkowski (1999)
5

MG
A2
B6

18.0
18.2
19.1

8700
13700
11600

c
[]

k
[1010 m/s]

4
Settlement [m]


[ ]

layer [kN/m3 ] [kN/m2 ] []

st

0.33 34.0 20.0 104


0.33 34.0 0.0 104
0.33 34.0 0.0 104

AGI (1991)
nd

2 calibration analysis

calibration analysis

a)

3
2
1

height 1370

0
1000

height 1278

1500

2000

2500

Time [year]

5.5

Figure 13a. Settlement of the Tower over the centuries


(Neher et al. 2003).

58 m

height 1178
center of gravity

Jamiolkowski (1999)
8

st

1 calibration analysis

AGI (1991)
nd

calibration analysis

22.5 m

fill (MG)
sandy and clayey silt(A1)
wP=22%; wL=38%; IC=0.63
upper sand (A2)

3.0 m
-5.4 m
-7.4 m
19.6 m

Inclination []

+3.0 m
0.0 m

horizon A

upper clay (B1-B3)


wP=30%; wL=70%; IC=0.45

-17.8 m
-22.0 m
-24.4 m

middle clay (B4/B5)


wP=13%; wL=43%; IC=0.63
middle sand(B6)

b)

horizon B

horizon C

0
1000

lower clay (B7-B10)


wP=25%; wL=51%; IC=0.5
-37.0 m
lower sand (C1)

1500

2000

2500

Time [year]

Figure 12. Section of the Tower and soil profile.

Figure 13b. Inclination of the Tower over the centuries


(Neher et al. 2003).

then a second construction break of about 80 years follows. The subsequent construction of the bell chamber
is simulated by adding volume elements to the tower.
During the following consolidation and creep period
of overall 500 years, consolidation was the major process occurring in the first decade. Creep settlement
observed after such period increased moderately while
inclination almost doubled since the last loading step
(see Figure 13a,b). The simulation of the excavation

of the Catino performed by removing the elements


around the foundation within a circular crown 2.2 m
wide, has a substantial influence on the inclination
of the Tower. The application of counterweights on
the North side of the tower has been simulated, thus
showing a backward rotation of 0.07 whereas 0.02
were measured.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 13 shows how the numerical soil is softer


than the real one, as small strain stiffness is not modelled. This result is confirmed by the further step of soil
extraction, simulated by volume reduction of some of
the elements below the northern side in order to simulate the extraction of 25 m3 of soil, necessary to reach
the backward rotation of 0.05 . The amount of soil
actually extracted was considerably higher, thus showing again a softer soil behaviour due to neglecting the
small strain stiffness.
A second set of analyses were performed considering an increased stiffness for the soil, giving a
more realistic simulation of the settlement and of the
inclination. In the light of such reasonable results, a
settlement/inclination prediction has been carried out
thus allowing to estimate in 500 years the time necessary to reach the same settlement and inclination
measured before the intervention (Figure 13a,b).
5.4

Conclusions and further refinements


Figure 14. Contours of volumetric creep strain rate for a
natural soil (after Boudali 1995).

Even though the described analsyes are likely to give


realistic predictions for settlement and the evolution of
the inclination of the tower in the forthcoming years,
there are several aspects to be refined both in the
geometry of the mesh and in the constitutive modelling. First, the Catino has a width of only 2.2 m,
whilst around 3.5 m is the real width. Secondly, the
excavation of the Catino involved larger depths than
those considered within the first analysis. In the light
of those considerations and of the enhanced computational power of modern CPUs, a new set of FE analyses
will be performed, first with an improved mesh and
then with a further development of the creep model,
which is described in the next Section.

model by Wheeler et al. (2003) is adopted as normal


consolidation surface for the AC-model. On developing an anisotropic model, the use of classical stress
invariants for defining this surface is no more possible. However, as long as triaxial states of stress without
principal stress rotation and 2 = 3 are referred to
and the soil is assumed to be initially (and stay) crossanisotropic, it is still possible to make use of q and p
as defined in Section 3.
In this particular case, only a scalar quantity
(describing the inclination of the normal consolidation surface) is necessary to describe the orientation
of the surface and the equivalent mean stress peq is
defined as

2
q p

(33)
peq = p +  2
M 2 p

6 ANISOTROPIC CREEP MODEL (AC MODEL)


The isotropic creep model as considered so far is
based on MCC ellipses, which are symmetric with
respect to the p axis. This assumption was made for the
sake of simplicity, but it does not match experimental
evidences for natural soils, as shown in Figure 14.
Rotated yield surfaces have been observed for a
wide range of soft soils, and it is clear that it originates
from the mechanism of formation of natural soils and
the subsequent ageing. The natural anisotropy is erased
if the material is loaded isotropically or remoulded.
An advanced constitutive model must take the initial
anisotropy of the natural soil into account as it is possible by using a rotated ellipse. Both expansion and
rotation of the normal consolidation surface should be
related to the creep strain and the stress path.
6.1

Figure 15 illustrates the geometrical meaning of the


equivalent mean stress peq and scalar . It can easily be seen that this equation degenerates to Eq. [27]
for = 0. Hence, the anisotropic normal consolidation
surface incorporates the isotropic one of Figure 10 as
a special case. For NC-soils, the initial value for nc is
typically in the range between 0.5 and 0.6.
The scalar quantity acts like a hardening parameter. Its evolution is governed by creep strains according
to the equation
 


 
3q
q
=
cvol +

c
(34)
4p
3p

Extension to account for anisotropy

where c is the deviatoric creep strain rate and


and are soil constants that control the rate of

In order to match creep rate contours shown in Figure 14, the yield surface of the so-called S-CLAY1

67

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 16. IC model with Knc


o dependence on MNCS .

Figure 15. Anisotropic ellipse for S-CLAY1 model (after


Wheeler et al. 2003).

rotation. For triaxial states of stress it is defined as


c = 2/3|c1 c2 |. The constant is typically close to
unity and is mostly around 20.
6.2

Konc for evaluation of

As for the isotropic model, the function for peq is also


used as a plastic potential function, so that the AC
model is an associated visco-plastic model. For practical applications of this model, it should be made sure
that the model yields realistic horizontal stresses in
oedometer loading, including constant rate of strain
oedometer tests. In such tests on NC-soils, it yields
= nc and = 0.
It can be demonstrated that Knc
o is a function of M,
, , and the parameter as used in Eq. [34]. The
AC model offers the possibility to choose the value
such that the Knc
o -value matches the Jaky correlation
Ko 1
nc


sin cv

Figure 17. AC model with Knc


o dependence on .
Table 4.

nc

0.204

0.013

0.0017

0.3

1.6

20.0

1.02

0.533

All simulations are carried out starting from normally


consolidated state with Knc
o , and considering a strain
rate of 0.01/day. In Figure 18 two sets of simulations
are shown. The first set (solid line) shows a compression and an extension test using the AC model. For an
initial vertical stress of 50 kPa. The second set (broken
line) shows results for a compression and an extension
test using the IC model for an initial vertical stress of
70 kPa. The different initial stresses were chosen only
for the sake of clarity in visualising the stress paths.
It can easily be observed that the behaviour in compression is virtually the same for both models. This
is due to the small rotation of the NC-surface during
the simulation; from the initial value of nc = 0.533
to the final one of 0.537. On the other hand, in triaxial
extension major differences occur. In both simulations
the critical state line is reached, but along qualitatively
different paths. In the AC model case the rotation of
the NC-surface is evident since varies from the initial value of 0.533 to the final value of 0.44 at the end

Undrained shear strength

For further comparison between the IC model and the


AC model, undrained triaxial test simulations are considered. The material chosen for the simulations is
Murro clay with soil parameters as indicated in Table 4.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(35)

In the current preliminary implementation of the AC


model a Drucker-Prager type generalization has been
used, thus giving the same shear strength both in compression and in extension. This assumption must be
regarded as a simplification. For the future it is planned
to use a Matsuoka-Nakai type model (Matsuoka and
Nakai 1982).
Figure 16 and Figure 17 illustrate the difference
between IC model and AC model. In the former the
MNCS -line is not necessarily the critical state line. In
AC model, no distinction is made between the MNCS line and the CSL, and Knc
o value can be adjusted by the
parameter .
6.3

Soil parameters for Murro clay.

CSL

ACM
SCLAY-1
SSC
MCC

Konc

60

60

CSL

40
MNCS> M

40

20

0
02

20
40
AC model

60

20

MNCS= M
IC model
0
0

20

40

60

AC model
CSL
IC model

Figure 18. Undrained simulations for soil parameters of


Table 4 and MNCS = 2.1.

of the simulation. No doubt the AC model gives much


more realistic undrained shear strength values than the
IC model, at least in extension.
It should be emphasized that the same Knc
o -values
were used for all simulations. To this end the IC model
simulation was performed with MNCS = 2.1, rather
than MNCS = M. In this case the AC model and the
IC model have the same Knc
o line.
Another set of undrained simulations has been performed with MNCS = M, such that the models have
different Knc
o lines but the same critical state line. This
has the advantage that results can be compared to corresponding time-independent models. Results of the
IC model can be compared to the elastoplastic Modified Cam Clay model (MCC) and results from AC
model can be compared to the elastoplastic S-CLAY1
model (Wheeler et al. 2003). It appears from Figure 19
that the elastoplastic models behave very similar to
the creep models, at least when simulating undrained
tests with a strain rate of 0.01/day. No doubt, the creep
models yield steeper stress paths for faster loading and
flatter paths for slower tests (Vermeer and Neher 1999).
However, the present simulations are not meant to
show this effect. Instead, they are meant to demonstrate
that the IC model is an extension of MCC to include
creep and AC model is an extension of S-CLAY1 to
include creep.
Figure 18 and Figure 19 show significant differences between triaxial compression and triaxial extension. For undrained triaxial compression anisotropy
is not very important, but it is for extension paths.

CSL
Figure 19. Undrained simulations for soil parameters of
Table 4 and MNCS = M.

Both Figure 18 and Figure 19 demonstrate that extension needs to be modelled anisotropically, otherwise
the undrained shear strength is considerably overestimated.

In this paper a new anisotropic model for creep is proposed. The model is a straightforward extension of
the isotropic creep (IC) model, formulated at Stuttgart
University. First, a complete description of the framework is given, starting from the formulation of the 1D
model to extend then the analysis to the 3D model,
based upon a modified version of MCC to model time
dependent behaviour. A detailled explanation of the
meaning of the parameters involved is given, with particular reference to the time parameter . After a brief
description of the IC model, the analysis of the stability of the Leaning Tower of Pisa is presented as
an example of a 3D boundary value problem solved
through finite element method using the IC model.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSIONS

supported the European Community through the program Human Resources and Mobility.

The last part concentrates on the description of the


new anisotropic model which is under development at
Stuttgart University.
Some important conclusions can be already drawn:
as for the IC model, its capability to capture many
aspects of the time-dependent behaviour of soft soils,
such as the variation of C with OCR is demonstrated.
Moreover, it is worth stressing the possibility to define
the normal consolidation line even for a CRS oedometer test, setting the ratio t/ to a suitable value. The
model, in its most general formulation, is also capable to take into account temperature variations, which
have been proven to play a significant role in the
time-dependent behaviour.
The clear advantage of the IC model, built directly
on the structure of the 1D model, is the possibility to
analyse every kind of stress path, not just limited to 1D
compression. It has been shown that the Ko predicted
when simulating standard oedometer tests matches the
Jakys formula only if a suitable value is chosen for M ,
which has no link to the critical state stress ratio.
An anisotropic generalization of the model is then
proposed: the motivation for this work comes from
several experimental observations on natural soils
which show the effects of initial and strain induced
anisotropy. Besides, AC model overcomes the problem of Knc
o prediction restoring the physical meaning
of M value thanks to the formulation of the rotational
hardening law, as shown in Section 6.
As a first benchmark for the new model, four
sets of undrained tests have been simulated with the
anisotropic and the isotropic model. These are in good
agreement with the predictions by their corresponding
elastoplastic counterparts S-CLAY1 and MCC. This
fundamental result shows that both the creep models
give predictions which are consistent with those one
can get by using classical elastoplastic models, thus
confirming to some extent their reliability.
Nevertheless, the new anisotropic model needs
further development: in the current version a DruckerPrager failure criterium has been implemented, while
it is well-known how a different formulation, such as
the one proposed by Matsuoka-Nakai, is more suitable
for the modelling of soil behaviour.
In addition, the simple one-integration point routine used for this work must be enhanced to a full
implementation into a FE code in order to be able to
use the model to solve boundary value problems of
engineering interest.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented was carried out as part of a
Marie Curie Research Training Network Advanced
Modelling of Ground Improvement on Soft Soils
(AMGISS) (Contract No MRTN-CT-2004-512120)

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Experimental study on shear behavior and an improved constitutive


model of saturated sand under complex stress condition
Maotian Luan1,2 , Chengshun Xu1,2 , Yang He1,2 , Ying Guo1,2 , Zhendong Zhang1,2 ,
Dan Jin1,2 & Qinglai Fan1,2
1 State

Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology,


Dalian, Liaoning Province, P. R. China
2 Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering,
Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning Province, P. R. China

ABSTRACT: A variety of stress-controlled monotonic and cyclic shear tests on saturated loose sand under
various complex initial consolidation conditions and different variation patterns of shear stress are conducted by
using the soil static and dynamic universal triaxial and torsional shear apparatus. Through these experimental
tests, the followings are achieved: (1) Under the application of monotonic shear loading, orientation of principal
stress obviously influences effective stress path and stress-strain relationship. When the orientation of major
principal stress approaches to the vertical, loose sand displays the features of strain-hardening and shear dilatation.
Along with increase of deviation of orientation of major principal stress from the vertical, loose sand displays
obviously different features such as strain-softening and shear-contraction or others. Compared with the effect
of orientation of principal stress, It seems that the coefficient of intermediate principal stress do not remarkably
affect shear deformation behavior of sand. (2) Under the condition of cyclic loading, the influences of orientation
of principal stress at initial consolidation stage are appreciable. The pre-shearing effect of initial deviatoric stress
on application plane of dynamic stress imposes a considerable effect on cyclic behavior and accumulative mode
of residual deformation. (3) Cyclic shear behavior of sand is interrelated to monotonic shear characteristics.
The strain-hardening or/and softening features in monotonic shear test are closely related to cyclic mobility and
flow-slide deformation in cyclic shear test. And occurrence of cyclic mobility and flow-slide is dependent on
initial texture of sand. (4) In the paper, the steady-state concept of modern soil mechanics and the state-dependent
equation of stress-dilatancy are integrated with the empirical stress-strain relationship obtained from measured
data in tests, a refined elasto-plastic constitutive model is proposed and the related parameters are defined
accordingly. It is shown by experimental verification and numerical simulation or prediction of the model that the
proposed model is capable to well display influence of initial stress and physical states on shear behavior of sand.

INTRODUCTION

stress must be taken into consideration for prediction


of deformation and strength behavior of sands as stated
by Madsen (1978), Ishihara and Towhata, (1983) and
Nakata (1998). For this sake, it is practically significant to carry out studies on deformation and strength
properties and on constitutive model of marine and
ocean soils under loading conditions as induced in
seabed and foundations. However, the conventional
triaxial shear and torsional shear tests are incapable to
reproduce the above-mentioned complex initial stress
condition and cyclic loading pattern. An intensive and
systematic experimental study for such a special issue
had hardly been made due to lack of modern soil testing
technology in reality.
Undrained triaxial compression tests and triaxial
extension tests conducted in the field have shown

Liquefaction and shear failure are two main types of


loss of stability of sandy seabed under wave loading, and are closely related to the process of build-up,
development, diffusion and dissipation of excess pore
water pressure generated during cyclic loading. Practically the initial stress state in seabed usually is of
anisotropy. Moreover, the initial stress states of soil
elements located at different parts in structural foundations are all different. The orientation of initial
stresses of any point on a potential slip surface strongly
depends on the location of the point. Therefore, as an
essential issue in evaluation the stability of seabed and
structural foundations, the complex anisotropic initial
stress state and the complex variation pattern of cyclic

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

that the shear behavior of sands under the condition


of triaxial extension is characterized by more shear
contraction. If the maximum excess pore water pressure generated in monotonic shear test is taken as the
index indicating trigger of the flow feature, the highest flow potential is mobilized under triaxial extension
condition while the lowest flow potential is displayed
under triaxial compression condition, the flow potential is in middle under monotonic condition. Such
a difference in shear characteristics may closely be
associated with the combined influence of orientation
of principal stress and intermediate principal stress
on undrained shear behavior. In order to understand
shear behavior of sand under three-dimensional stress
condition, undrained monotonic shear tests were carried out by Yamada and Ishihara (1981) by using a
true triaxial apparatus and it was found that when the
vertical principal stress was minor principal stress,
the undrained shear behavior of sand presented more
remarkable contraction. Through hollow cylindrical
torsional shear tests, it was manifested by Symes et al
(1985), Yoshimine et al (1998) that the more the orientation of major principal stress deviated from the vertical or the more the coefficient of intermediate principal
stress was, the more remarkable shear contraction the
sand behaves. Under different combinations of sand
density and confining pressure, the shear tests conducted by Uthayakumar et al (1998) with unchanged
orientation of principal stress and coefficient of intermediate principal stress indicated that intermediate
principal stress and orientation of principal stress
affect both effective stress path and stress-strain relationship respectively in a certain extent. However, the
combination of the orientation of principal stress and
coefficient of intermediate principal stress is specified
in all the above experimental tests.
In order to perform the shear tests under complex initial stress and physical conditions, an intensive
effort has been made by the Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology
to establish the soil static and dynamic universal triaxial and torsional shear apparatus. By using this
advanced apparatus, a number of experimental tests
are conducted on saturated loose sands under various
complex stress conditions. Then a comprehensive and
systematic investigation on deformation and strength
characteristics of saturated loose sand under monotonic and cyclic shear loading is carried out. On the
basis of experimental results, improvements on conventional elasto-plastic constitutive models are made
and a refined model is proposed.

vh

( v - h )/2

(a)

vh

( v - h )/2

(b)

( v - h )/2

(c)

Figure 1. Stress paths displayed in soil experimental tests.

Figure 2. The main components of the apparatus.

includes direct shear box, simple shear apparatus, triaxial shear apparatus, torsional shear apparatus and
resonance column.
These test apparatus have been playing an irreplaceable important role in understanding of fundamental
deformation behavior and strength properties as well
as constitutive relationship of soils. However, conventional cyclic triaxial shear or/and torsional shear
apparatus are only capable to implement pure shear
state by imposing cyclic deviatoric stress or torsional
shear stress on soil sample and cyclic principal stress
axis changes abruptly for 90 in a cycle of loading
as shown in Figure 1(a) and 1(b) respectively. Both
apparatus can not be simulate complex initial stress
state with different combinations of the coefficient of
intermediate principal stress and orientation of initial
major principal stress and cannot fulfill complex variation pattern of cyclic stresses as induced by wave or
traffic loading.
The soil static and dynamic universal triaxial and
torsional shear apparatus was jointly designed by
Dalian University of Technology and Seiken Corp.,
Inc., Japan and independently manufactured by Seiken
Corp., Inc., Japan in 2001. This new apparatus enables
to simultaneously impose and individually control
both axial pressure W and torque MT as well as outer
chamber pressure p0 and inner chamber pressure pi .
And different combinations of these components can
be fulfilled. Therefore the consolidation and loading
paths under different complex stress condition of soils
can be implemented. This apparatus is composed of
five components including loading system, air-water
transfer system, analogue control system, data acquisition and computer control system, and hydraulic
servo-loading system, as shown in Figure 2.

2 A BRIEF ILLUSTRATION OF TEST


APPARATUS
Generally soil test apparatus in laboratory used for
investigating static and dynamic shear behavior of soils

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

vh

W
1.1.1

MT
pi

2=r

po

(a)

MT

pi

po

3
uo
ui

(b)

pi

po

2=r

(c)

Ri
Ro
(d)

Figure 3. Stress condition of soil element in hollow-cylinder soil sample.

d50 = 0.34 mm; uniformity coefficient is Cu = 1.542;


maximum and minimum void ratios are emax = 0.848
and emin = 0.519 respectively; maximum and minimum dry unit weight are dmax = 1.74 gcm3 , and
dmin = 1.43 gcm3 respectively.
Sand samples are prepared with layers filling in dry
state. Proper quantity of stoving-dried sand is weighted
out according to the assigned relative density. For sand
of Dr = 30%, naturally dropping stacking can meet the
requirements of sample preparation. After filling of
dry sand is finished, CO2 and deaerate water are successively poured into the sample and backpressure of
200kPa is pre-imposed in order to the sample fully
saturated. Pore water pressure parameter B of all the
prepared samples are required to gain a value over 0.98.
For the hollow-cylinder soil samples used in the
study, the outer- and inner-diameters of the sample
are 100 mm and 60 mm respectively and the height is
150 mm. Stress state of soil element in the sample is
shown in Figure 3.
In order to examine the effect of the orientation of
principal stress and intermediate principal stress on
soil behavior, the coefficient of intermediate principal
stress b and the orientation angle of major principal
stress with respect to the vertical direction defined
as following are employed in this paper

This advanced apparatus include the following main


functions: (1) static or/and dynamic vertical load
and torque can be imposed simultaneously. For static
loading, the rate of loading can be controlled. For
dynamic loading, the amplitude, frequency of vertical
load and torque and the phase lag between them can
be freely controlled. (2) Isotropic-, anisotropic- and
K0 -consolidation all can be fulfilled. For hollow cylindrical samples, three-dimensional anisotropic consolidation state can be fulfilled through adjusting innerand outer-chamber pressures together with various
combinations of the orientation of initial principal
stress and coefficient of intermediate principal stress.
(3) Both static loading and dynamic loading may be
controlled optionally in either load- or displacementcontrol manner.A closed-loop feedback control is used
during test process.
By this system, both inner- and outer-chamber
pressures, as well as individual components of static
or/cyclic torque or/and axial force can be independently imposed on soil sample and controlled. Accordingly, any types of complex consolidation stress states
of soil with an arbitrary combination of coefficient
of intermediate principal stress and orientation of initial principal stress can be simulated. In addition,
cyclic shear stress induced by cyclic toque and cyclic
deviatoric stress caused by cyclic axial force can be
simultaneously imposed on soil samples and therefore complex variation patterns of stress or stress paths
such as continuous rotation mode of dynamic principal
stress axis, as shown in Figure1(c) can be accomplished. A typical stress state of soil element in hollow
cylindrical sample is illustrated in Figure 3.

b=



2z
1
arctan
2
z

where z and are axial and circumferential mean


normal stresses while z is mean shear stress induced
by torque in the hollow cylinder sample. Furthermore,
mean effective stress p and deviatoric stress q as well
as deviatoric stress ratio are respectively defined as

SOIL SAMPLE PREPARATION AND


DEFINITION OF STRESS PARAMETERS

1
p = m = (1 + 2 + 3 )
3

1 
q=
[( 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + (3 1 )2 ]
2 1
q
= 
p

The material used for this experimental study is the


Chinese Fujian Standard Sand. The initial relative
density is made to be Dr = 30%. The basic physical properties of such a loose sand are measured. Its
specific gravity is Gs = 2.643; mean granular size is

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2 3
;
1 3

MONOTONIC SHEAR BEHAVIOR


OF SANDS

In order to investigate the influences of initial stress


state and monotonic shear stress paths, five patterns
of stress-controlled monotonic undrained shear tests
as defined as below are conducted.

b=0.22~0.2
5

b
0 0.22 0.5 0.8 1

0 30 45 60 90

(a) Pattern 1

(1) Pattern 1: Under the anisotropic consolidation


condition with mean principal stress of pm0 =
100 kPa and initial effective deviatoric stress ratio
of 0 = q/p = 0.43 as well as orientation angle
of principal stress of 0 = 0 , monotonic shear
tests are conducted for different values of coefficient of intermediate principal stress, e.g., b = 0,
0.22, 0.5, 0.8, 1.0 respectively in order to examine the independent influence of the coefficient of
intermediate principal stress.
(2) Pattern 2: Under the isotropic consolidation condition with mean principal stress of pm0 = 100 kPa
and initial effective deviator stress ratio of 0 =
q/p = 0, for a specified coefficient of intermediate principal stress such as b = 0, 0.22, 0.5, 0.8,
1.0 respectively, monotonic shear tests are conducted for different orientation angles of principal
stress, e.g., 0 = 0 and 0 = 45 , so that the influence of coefficient of intermediate principal stress
under isotropic consolidation condition can be
systematically investigated.
(3) Pattern 3: Under the anisotropic consolidation
condition with mean principal stress of pm0 =
100 kPa and initial effective deviator stress ratio of
0 = q/p = 0.43 as well as coefficient of intermediate principal stress of b = 0.220.25, monotonic
shear tests are conducted for different orientation angles of principal stress, e.g., 0 = 0 , 30 ,
45 , 60 , 90 respectively in order to examine the
independent influence of orientation of principal
stress.
(4) Pattern 4: Under the anisotropic consolidation condition with mean principal stress of
pm0 = 100 kPa and initial effective deviator stress
ratio of 0 = q/p = 0.43 as well as coefficient
of intermediate principal stress of b = 0.22
0.25, monotonic shear tests are conducted for a
specified orientation angles of principal stress
0 = 45 , the soil sample fully consolidated is
unloaded until a isotropic condition is gained, then
the sample is re-sheared in order to observe the
influence of stress path.
(5) Pattern 5: Under the condition with mean principal
stress of pm0 = 100 kPa and coefficient of intermediate principal stress of b = 0.220.25 as well as
orientation angle of principal stress of 0 = 90 ,
monotonic shear tests are conducted for a specified initial deviatoric stress ratio 0 = q/p = 0.6.
The test results are compared with those obtained
from the tests under the condition of = 90 and

(b) Pattern 3

Figure 4. Shear stress paths of monotonic loading under


anisotropic consolidation condition.
160

160

120

120
b=0.00
b=0.22
b=0.50
b=0.80
b=1.00

80
40
0

60

80

100 120

140

(a) Effective stress paths

b=0.00
b=0.22
b=0.50
b=0.80
b=1.00

80
40
0

40

p'

01

2
g(%)

(b) Stress-strain relationships

Figure 5. Effect of the coefficient of intermediate principal stress on undrained shear behavior under anisotropic
consolidation condition.

0 = q/p = 0.433 in pattern 3 in order to observe


the effect of initial deviatoric stress ratio.
All the above tests are implemented under stresscontrolled undrained condition. The stress paths of
pattern 1 and pattern 3 are shown in Figure 4.
4.1

Effect of coefficient of intermediate principal


stress on undrained shear behavior under
anisotropic consolidation condition

The effective stress paths and stress-strain relationships measured in shear tests with pattern 1 are
displayed in Figure 5 for different values of b, e.g.,
b = 0, 0.22, 0.5, 0.8, 1.0. The initial consolidation
ratios are all specified as 0 = q/p = 0.433 while the
orientation of major principal stress is in vertical, i.e.,
0 = 0 . It can be seen that under undrained condition for all these coefficients of intermediate principal
stress, the loose sand displays strain-hardening characteristics and obvious dialatancy feature through shear
loading and ultimately approaches to a steady state at
a certain deviatoric stress ratio. While the orientation
of major principal stress keeps unchanged, the coefficient of intermediate principal stress has no noticeable
influence on effective stress path and stress-strain
relationship as well as flow potential of sands.
4.2 Effect of coefficient of intermediate principal
stress on undrained shear behavior under
isotropic consolidation condition
For pattern 2 with different values of the coefficient of intermediate principal stress, e.g., b = 0, 0.22,

76

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0=0

160

40
0

30

60
p'/kPa

120

b=0
b=0.22
b=0.5
b=0.8
b=1.0

80
40

90

120

(a) 0=0

30

60
p'/kPa

90

120

(b) 0=45

2
3
g/%

b=0
b=0.22
b=0.5
b=0.8
b=1.0

120

b=0
b=0.22
b=0.5
b=0.8
b=1.0

80
40

80

=45

40
0

(a)

3
g/%

(b)

Figure 7. Effect of b on stress-strain relationship under


isotropic consolidation.

Figure 6. Effect of b on effective stress paths under isotropic


consolidation.

0.5, 0.8, and 1.0, the stress paths under isotropic


consolidation condition are shown in Figure 6 respectively for = 0 , = 45 . Through the experimentally
measured data, the combined influence of both the
coefficient of intermediate principal stress and orientation of principal stress on undrained monotonic shear
behavior can be observed.
It was proposed by Yoshimine and Ishihara (1998)
that the maximum pore water pressure generated during undrained shear loading is usually used to evaluate
flow potential. It can be found from Figure 6 that under
the same isotropic consolidation condition, sand samples subjected to shearing with different orientation
of resulting major principal stress exhibit different
flow potential with a somewhat remarkable difference.
The more the orientation of major principal stress deviates from the vertical, the more flow potential the sand
displays. However, similar to anisotropic consolidation condition, for a definite orientation of principal
stress, the coefficient of intermediate principal stress
does not affect effective stress paths remarkably. For
the condition of = 0 , pore water pressures generated
under the four cases of b = 0, 0.22, 0.5, 0.8 do not show
much difference each other while relatively higher
pore water pressure is developed at extension phase
(b = 1). For the condition of = 45 , however, under
the five cases of b = 0, 0.22, 0.5, 0.8, 1.0, the resulting
pore water pressure are rather close to each other and
the pore water pressure developed at extensioin phase
(b = 1) does not attain its maximum.
The Influence of the coefficient of intermediate
principal stress on stress-strain relationship is indicated in Figure 7 respectively for = 0 and = 45 .
For the case of = 0 which corresponds to an extension state, deformation of sand develops rather faster
with considerable strain-hardening feature. Through
the comparison between two cases of = 0 and
= 45 , it is implied that the coefficient of intermediate principal stress imposes a much less obvious effect
compared with the influence of orientation of principal
stress.
For a given orientation of principal stress under
either isotropic or anisotropic consolidation condition,
the influence of coefficient of intermediate stress on

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
20

160
140 =0
0
0=30
120
0=45
100
0=30
0=45
0=0
80
0=60
0=60
60
C
40
0=90
0=90
20
0
40
60
80 100 120
01
23
45
6 7
p'
(%)
g

(a) Effective stress path

(b) Stress-strain

Figure 8. Effect of orientation of principal stress on


undrained shear characteristics of sand.

both effective stress path and stress-strain relationship


is not remarkable. It seems that the flow potential is
not intimately related to the coefficient of intermediate
principal stress.
4.3 Effect of orientation of principal stress on
undrained shear behavior under anisotropic
consolidation condition
For pattern 3 with orientation angles of principal stress
of 0 = 0 , 30 , 45 , 60 , 90 respectively, the measured effective stress paths and relationships between
generalized deviatoric stress and generalized shear
strain are shown in Figure 8 in which the point C
denotes consolidation stress state. It can be found
that orientation of principal stress influences quite
remarkably on either effective stress path or stressstrain relationship. The more the orientation of major
principal stress deviates from the vertical, the more
remarkably the pore water pressure rises and the more
dilatant and heavier strain softening the loose sand
displays at transitional state. For example, when the
orientation of major principal stress is vertical, i.e.,
0 = 0 , build-up of pore water pressure is only up to
about 21% of the mean confining pressure while when
orientation of major principal stress is horizontal, i.e.,
0 = 90 , rise of pore water pressure may be up to 61%
of the mean confining pressure. Even for the sands
with the same initial physical conditions, difference
of orientation of principal stress results in obviously

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

160

=0

120
q/kPa

b=0
b=0.22
b=0.5
b=0.8
b=1.0

80

q/kPa

q/kPa

120

=45

q/kPa

160

=0

160

140

140
b=0.22

120

100

100

q PT

80

100
path5( 0=90)

80
60
40

60

20

path4( 0=90)
path3( 0=45)

0
40

40

60

path1( 0=45)

120

path1( 0=45)

80
p'm

120

80

60

40

path2
( 0=45)

100

120

path2( 0=45)
path4( 0=90)
path3( 0=45)

20
0

path5( 0=90)

b=0.22

3 4
g(%)

20
0

0.0

0.2

0.4
0.6
sin

0.8

Figure 10. The effect of effective stress ratio and shear stress
paths on stress-strain relations.

1.0

phase-transformation state. It can be seen that the


deviatoric stress at phase-transformation state almost
linearly descends with increase of orientation of major
principal stress. In general, the more the orientation
of major principal stress deviates from the vertical,
the more serious the shear contractive softening is
during undrained shear loading. In general the deviatoric stress at the phase-transformation stage is defined
as quasi-steady-state strength. Therefore the quasisteady-state strength reduces with the increase of
orientation of major principal stress with respect to
the vertical.
Presented in Figure 10 are the measured effective
stress paths and stress-strain relationships for different
test patterns indicating the influences of consolidation
condition and shear loading paths on undrained shear
behavior. The observations are given as following:

Figure 9. Correlation of PT at phase-transformation state


with orientation of principal stress .

different flow potential under undrained shear condition. Therefore the loose sand may present different
deformation features such as strain softening or strain
hardening. This may be related to the anisotropic state
of the sample formed in preparation of the sample. In
fact, the sample is prepared in layer and consolidated
due to gravity force. Water drainage in the sample is
downwards or upwards. It is easy to form horizontal
planes of deposition. Therefore, the larger the orientation angle of major principal stress is, or the closer to
horizontal layer plane the orientation of major principal stress is, the easier the sand is compressed and thus
pore water pressure generates rapidly and develops to
a large value.
Through observation of the test results shown
in Figure 8 and Figure 5 and Figure 6, it can be
seen that influence of orientation of major principal stress on flow potential is much more remarkable stronger than that of coefficient of intermediate
principal stress. The tests on undisturbed soil samples conducted by Yoshimine, Ishihara and Matsuzaki
(1995) demonstrated that saturated sand at triaxial extension condition behaves completely different
shear features from that at triaxial compression condition. Strain softening feature is manifested for loose
sand under undrained triaxial compression condition
( = 0 , b = 0). Under undrained triaxial extension
condition ( = 90 , b = 1), However, full static liquefaction is displayed. It was explained by Yoshimine,
Ishihara and Matsuzaki (1995) that such a characteristic is related to orientation of major principal stress
and coefficient of intermediate principal stress. However, experimental data given in this paper justifies the
fact that flow potential under triaxial extension is heavier than that under triaxial compression. Therefore the
effect of rotation of principal stress on shear behavior
of sands may be appreciable and cannot be overlooked
in engineering practice.
Shown in Figure 9 is the effect of orientation of
principal stress on generalized shear stress ratio at

(1) Under the same initial consolidation condition with the orientation of principal stress of
0 = 45 , a comparison of test results of pattern 3 and pattern 4 indicates that prior stress
history does almost not affect the following effective stress path and phase-transformation state
or ultimate steady state of the samples. It is
noted that in pattern 4, the same isotropic stress
state as the initial consolidation state in pattern
3 is attained through unloading from an initial
anisotropic consolidation state and thereafter the
samples in pattern 3 and pattern 4 undergo the
identical shear loading. During further shear loading, the samples reach phase-transformation state
and ultimately approach to stead state of deformation in the almost same way at a nearly identical
deviator stress ratio.
(2) Through the comparison between test data
under anisotropic consolidation condition of
0 = q/p = 0.433 in pattern 3 and under isotropic
condition of 0 = q/p = 0 in pattern 2 for the
same case of 0 = 45 , and comparison between
test results under 0 = 45 in pattern 3 and
under 0 = 90 in pattern 5 for the same case
of b = 0.220.25, it is demonstrated that if
both the orientations of principal stress and the
coefficients of intermediate principal stress are

78

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

20

20

10

-20

-10

20

10

20 -20

-10

-10

20 -20

10

-10

(z - )/2

(z - )/2

-20

10

20

(z - )/2

(b) 0

-6

-4

-2

20

d/kPa

10

10

-10
-20

(a) 90

6 -6

-4

-2

60

40

40
20

20

30

-20

(b) 0

6 -6

-4

-2

d/kPa

-40 -20
0

-20

50

60

0
0
-20

z/%

-40

30

40

50

-40 -20

20

40

-40 -20

0
0
-10

(z- )/2.0

-20

20

40

(z- )/2.0

(b) 0=90
40

40

20

40 -40 -20

0
0

20

40 -40 -20

(c) 0=90

-40

20

40

-20

-20
(z- )/2.0

20

20

-20

identical for different loading patterns, the effective stress paths and the stress-strain relationships
as well as strain-hardening or softening tendency
under undrained shear condition are basically
similar.
(3) Compared with the effect of fabric anisotropicy
caused by preparation of sample, anisotropic
effect induced by initial stress ratio imposes
relatively less influence on shear behavior of sand.

10

(a) 0=0

40

(c) 180

-40

(z- )/2.0

(d) 0=45

-40

(z- )/2.0

(e) 0=60

Figure 14. Cyclic shear loading patterns in torsional shear


tests.

rises up to the effective stress being zero finally with


increase of cyclic number of loading. Under isotropic
consolidation condition, time-history of pore water
pressure development for the case of 0 = 90 is shown
in Figure 13. It appears that the deformation is of symmetric mode and is not accumulated in a certain single
direction.

CYCLIC SHEAR BEHAVIOR OF SANDS


UNDER ISOTROPIC CONSOLIDATION
CONDITION

5.2 Under anisotropic consolidation condition


Under three-dimensional consolidation condition
which corresponds respectively to different orientation of initial principal stress of 0 = 0 , 30 , 45 , 60 ,
90 and coefficient of intermediate principal stress of
b = 0.5, different patterns of loading paths as shown in
Figure 14 are imposed in cyclic torsional shear tests.
Accordingly, the dynamic stress-strain relationships
measured from these tests are described in Figure 15.
When the initial orientation of principal stress is
0 = 0 or 0 = 90 , no pre-shear stress induced by
initial consolidation is imposed on the horizontal and
vertical planes. Residual component of shear strain
is rather less and cyclic deformation feature is rather
obvious relative to the accumulated residual deformation. Since pore water pressure can not rise to
the confining pressure under anisotropic consolidation
condition, effective stress will not drop to vanish.

Under isotropic consolidation condition

Displayed in Figure 11 are the measured loading paths


in the triaxial-and-torsioinal coupling shear tests under
isotropic consolidation condition with different phase
lags of 90 , 0 and 180 between cyclic axial load and
torque.
The stress-strain relationships achieved from various tests as given in Figure 11 are shown in Figure 12.
It can be seen that for whatever loading path, both
cyclic effect and accumulative effect are rather remarkable. When the sample has been pre-sheared before
subjected to cyclic shear, development of shear strain
follows basically symmetric cyclic mode and accumulative mode. Under isotropic consolidation condition,
the residual accumulative component of shear deformation develops rapidly since pore water pressure

79

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

20

20

Figure 12. Shear stress-strain relations in triaxial-andtorsional coupling shear tests under isotropic consolidation
condition.

5.1

10

20

20

-10
z/%

40

Figure 13. Time-history of pore water pressure development.

10

n
0

40

20

-10
z/%

60

(c) 180

d/kPa

80

Figure 11. Stress paths in vertical-and-torsional coupling


shear tests under isotropic consolidation condition.
20

u/kPa

80

20

-20

-20

(a) 90

u/kPa

-10

-10

100

100

10

10

Therefore the accumulated shear strain at failure


does not reach 0.5%, and it is obviously different
from the accumulative effect in isotropic consolidation condition. The typical time-history of pore water
pressure development under anisotropic consolidation condition with 0 = 0 is depicted in Figure 13.
However, when 0 = 30 , 45 , 60 , in fact, due to
pre-shearing effect of initial stress imposed on the
horizontal and vertical planes, in addition to the
cyclic component of deformation, the residual shear
strain progressively accumulates with the cycle number of loading and becomes rather substantial and
reaches rapidly a certain amount over than 5%. At
this moment, the accumulative effect of deformation is
rather remarkable compared with cyclic deformation.
Furthermore, shear deformation is accumulated in a

30

certain single direction and differs from that happened


under isotropic consolidation condition.
This observed feature is almost independent on
the coefficient of intermediate principal stress. This
is confirmed by Figure 16 where the test results of
0 = 0 or 0 = 60 for two cases with the coefficients
of intermediate principal stress of b = 0 and b = 0.85
are compared. On one hand, it can be observed by
comparing Figure 16(a) with Figure 16(b) that even
though the coefficients of intermediate principal stress
are not the same for both two cases, they display
similar feature since no pre-shear stress is acted on
the horizontal planes, i.e., cyclic effect is obviously
more significant than accumulative effect. On the other
hand, Comparison between Figure 16 (b) and Figure
16 (c) indicates that for the same coefficient of intermediate principal stress of b = 0.85, the stress-strain
relationships for 0 = 0 and 0 = 60 are noticeably
different. Under anisotropic consolidation condition
with 0 = 60 , an initial shear stress is pre-imposed
on the horizontal plane, the unidirectional accumulative effect obviously play a predominant role compared
with the cyclic effect, resulting in rapidly-increased
shear strain.
For the calcareous sand of Nansha Islands, the relationships between dynamic stress and strain measured
from torsional shear tests are manifested in Figure 17.
For both isotropic consolidation (IC) and anisotropic
consolidation (AC) conditions with 0 = 0 as shown
in Figure 17(a) and Figure 17(b), no pre-shear stress
is initially applied on the horizontal plane while a
certain initial shear stress is preloaded on the horizontal plane for anisotropic consolidation (AC) condition
with 0 = 30 as given in Figure 17(c). Shear behavior of this type of calcareous sand is quite similar to
the performance of Fujian standard sand subjected
to undrained cyclic shear under various consolidation conditions. Therefore, for both clean sand and
calcareous sand, it is consistently demonstrated by
experimental test data that pre-shear stress applied on
action plane of dynamic stress exhibits a considerable
effect on dynamic stress-strain relationship pattern.
The influence is almost independent on sand material and the coefficient of intermediate principal stress

d/kPa

15
0
-15

z /%

-30
-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

(a) 0=0
20

d/kPa

10
0

-10

z /%

-20
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

(b) 0=30
20

d/kPa

10
0
-10
-20

z /%

(c) 0=45
20
10

d/kPa

0
-10

z /%

-20
-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

(d) 0=60

30

10
5

20

30
20

20

/kPa
d

/kPa
d

10

d/kPa

10

10

0
0
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -6
-10
-10

0
-5
-10
-0.3

/kPa
d

z /%

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2

-10
-20

0.3

-30

(e) 0=90

z /%

(a) b=0.0( 0=0)

-20
-30

z /%

-20

z /%

(b) b=0.85( 0=0) (c) b=0.85( 0=60)

Figure 16. Stress-strain relations in cyclic torsional shear


tests under anistropic consolidation conditions.

Figure 15. Shear stress-strain relations in cyclic torsional


tests under anisotropic consolidation conditions.

80

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0
-3

while it is associated with the orientation of initial


principal stress in a certain extent.

shown and compared in Figure 18. It can be found


that under the same orientation of initial principal
stress, the sands may display following similar features
during monotonic and cyclic shear.

(1) With increase of the orientation of major principal stress relative to the vertical, development of
generalized shear strain becomes more remarkable and strain- softening feature gets more
noticeable.
(2) After undergoing strain softening stage, the sand
under any initial stress state exhibits strainhardening feature. As illustrated in Figure 18,
generalized shear strain develops rapidly within
the first three load cycles. The deformation during this stage is defined as flow-slide deformation
or the sand undergoes flow failure stage which
corresponds to strain-softening stage in monotonic shear. Then strain is alternatively varied
in both directions with no unidirectional accumulation. Consequently, the deformation progressively approaches to steady state which is
defined as cyclic mobility and corresponds to
stepping into the strain-hardening stage during monotonic shear as stated by Hyodo et al
(1994). Therefore, the flow-slide deformation and
cyclic mobility during cyclic shear are closely
related to strain-softening and strain- hardening features during monotonic shear respectively. When deviatoric stress amplitude during
cyclic shear is higher than the lowest strength
in strain-softening stage or in quasi-steady state
during monotonic shear, remarkable flow-slide

CORRELATION BETWEEN MONOTONIC


AND CYCLIC SHEAR FEATURES

Under the same initial consolidation condition, both


monotonic and cyclic torsional shear tests are conducted. The relationship between deviatoric stress and
generalized shear strain measured from these tests are
30

/kPa

/kPa

20

20

10
-6

-4

-2

10
0

-10

0
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
-10
z /%

4
6
z /%

-20

-20

-30

-30

(b) AC condition (0=0)

(a) IC condition
30

15

/kPa

-15

z /%

-30
01

23

(c) AC condition (0=30)


Figure 17. Shear feature of calcareous sand under various
initial consolidation conditions and loading patterns.

140
100

(a)

monotonic

80
60

cyclic

40
20

3 4
g/%

(b)

100

60

40

40
2

3 4
g/%

(d)

0=0

cyclic

monotonic

60

60

(e)

monotonic

40

40
20
0

20
0

0=0

80
/kPa
q

q/kPa

80

100

120
100

80 monotonic

60

3
g/%

20

cyclic
0

3
g/%

Figure 18. The stress-strain relations under monotonic shear and cyclic shear in torsional shear tests.

81

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(c)

100

cyclic

0=0

120

monotonic

80

20

140

0=0

120
q/kPa

q/kPa

140

0=0

120

q/kPa

30

cyclic

3 4
g/%

deformation may occur. Moreover, the effect of


orientation of principal stress on this feature is
substantial.

of initial principal stress, the deviatoric stress ratios


at phase-transformation state and at steady state in
monotonic shear tests are nearly equal to the partners respectively at the moment when obvious shear
dilatancy starts and at steady state in cyclic tests. It
is implied that the phase-transformation-state line and
steady-state or failure line under monotonic and cyclic
shear conditions are respectively identical.
Stress-strain relationships measured from monotonic tests and cyclic torsional shear tests are shown
in Figure 21 in term of deviatoric stress ratio and
genralized shear strain. Both monotonic and cyclic
shear loading tests exhibits a very similar pattern.
The variation feature of peak deviatoric stress and
strain in each cycle in cyclic loading test almost
approaches the model relating deviatoric stress and
strain in monotonic loading test. For any a given value
of the orientation of principal stress, the relationship
between deviatoric stress and generalized strain follows a fully strain-hardening type quasi-hyperbolic
model. Such an empirical model will offer a basic
support for establishing modern practical nonlinear
elasto-plastic constitutive model of sand.

Shown in Figure 19 is the relations between deviatoric stress and generalized shear strain observed from
triaxial-and-torsional coupling shear tests in the case
of 0 = 60 and b = 0.5. It can be seen that after the
triaxial-torsional coupling shear, stress path enters into
the strain-softening stage with a substantial deformation. This phenomenon is similar to what happens
in cyclic torsional shear tests. When the amplitude
of cyclic stress becomes larger, the flow feature of
deformation gets more obvious.
Under the same initial stress condition, the effective
stress paths measured in both cyclic and monotonic
shear tests are given in Figure 20. The enhanced stress
path for 0 = 45 is shown in Figure 20(f). During
monotonic or cyclic shear, the mean principal stress
keeps unchanged. Variation of pore water pressure
induced by shear-dilatancy or contraction leads to
change of effective stress. Under the condition with
the almost same coefficient of intermediate principal stress of b = 0.220.25 and a given orientation
120

1.5

0=60

1.2

monotonic

100

0.9

monotonic
cyclic

q/kPa

0.6

80

0.3
0

qcyc=15.1kPa
qcyc=13.4kPa

60

1.5
1.2

40

g/%

(a) 0=0

monotonic
cyclic

0.9

20

3
4
g/%

0.6

1.5
1.2

120
100

80

80

60

60

100

=90
0

80

monotonic
cyclic

g/%

0.3
0
1.5

=45
0

(c) 0=60

0.9

p'

(f)
40

60

80

100

monotonic
cyclic

0.6
0.3

1.2
q

0.6

60

40
40
40
20
20
p'
p'
(d)
(e)
0
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 20

(d) 0=90

g/%
5

Figure 21. Relations between deviatoric stress ratio and


generalized strain in monotonic and cyclic shear loading.

Figure 20. The effective stress paths in monotonic shearing


and cyclic torsional shear tests.

82

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.9

160
160
140
140 q
140 q =0
=30
120 q 0=45
0
0
120
120
100
100
100
80
80
80
60
60
60
40
40
40
p'
20
p'
p'
20
20
(b)
(a)
(c)
0
0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
q
100
0=60

(b) 0=30

Figure 19. The stress-strain relationships in monotonic and


cyclic torsional shear tests.

120

g/%

0.3
0

MODERN CONSTITUTIVE MODEL


CONSIDERING INITIAL ANISOTROPY

combined effect of mean confining pressure and initial


void ratio. On one hand, both confining pressure and
void ratio are taken into consideration by utilizing the
state parameter. On the other hand, the empirical quasihyperbolic equation relating deviatoric stress ratio and
generalized strain established on the basis of experimental data is directly used and its dependency on the
orientation of initial principal stress is duly considered.

It is commonly recognized that stress-strain behavior


of sands is indispensably dependent on initial states
such as initial relative density and effective confining
pressure. The sand may behave dilative or contractive
during shear dependent on the initial condition. On
one hand, loose sands are easy to be dilative while
dense sands easily tend to be contractive during shear
loading under the same confining pressure. On the
other hand, sands with the same initial relative density
may be shear dilative under lower confining pressure
and may be shear contractive under high confining
pressure (e.g., Luo and Zhang, 2004a and 2004b).
In fact, relative density of material or effective confining pressure during loading may alter, leading to
change of physical state of the material. In order to
represent the combined influence of change of physical state of material induced by change of relative
density and confining pressure on deformation and
strength behavior of sand, the state parameter proposed
by Been and Jefferies (1985) was introduced into constitutive model of sand based on the fundamental of
critical soil mechanics in recent year (e.g., Jefferies,
1993). The state parameter, = e ec , is defined as
the relative difference between the current void ratio e
and the critical void ratio ec at which the sand undergo
steady deformation under the same confining pressure
as that corresponds to the current void ratio. It is used to
describe the degree of denseness of material relative to
its reference density. Different types of elasto-plastic
constitutive models were successively developed by
Wood et al. (1994), Cubrinovski and Ishihara (1998),
Li (1997), Li and Ming (2000), Li and Dafalias (2000)
to simulate the state-dependent behavior of sands for a
wide range of material density and confining pressure
by virtue of the state parameter. In fact, in addition
to the combined effect of relative density and confining pressure, other parameters of initial physical and
stress state, such as the orientation of initial principal stress and the coefficient of intermediate principal
stress, may play a significant role in monotonic or/and
cyclic shear behavior of sands. Indeed, it is verified
by the experimental tests as illustrated above that the
orientation of initial principal stress profoundly affects
the shear- dilative or contractive and strain-hardening
or softening feature of sands. Under the initial condition with the same confining pressure and identical
relative density, the more the orientation of major
principal stress deviates from the vertical, the more
remarkable the shear contractive feature is. Relatively
the influence of the coefficient of intermediate principal stress is much minor.Therefore the state-dependent
elasto-plastic constitutive model is refined in the following in order to take account the influence of the
orientation of major principal stress in addition to the

7.1 Improvement of the state-dependent


elasto-plastic constitutive model of sands
Similar to the critical state given in critical-state soil
mechanics, as defined by Poulos (1981), the steady
state of deformation for any mass of particles is
that state in which the mass is continuously deforming at constant volume, constant normal effective
stress, constant shear stress, and constant velocity. It
is emphasized that the steady state of deformation can
be only achieved when both deviatoric stress ratio and
void ratio attain their critical values. The critical void
ratio is dependent on pressure and can be expressed as
below
  
p
ec = e c
pa
Accordingly, the state parameter defined by Been and
Jefferies (1985) can be given as following for a given
current stress p ,

  
p
(1)
= e ec = e e  c
pa

Void Ratio e

Thereafter, both influences of mean confining pressure


and corresponding relative void can be represented by
this unified state parameter. As shown in Figure 22,
from the viewpoint of relative density of sand, the
state parameter gives the measurement of how far the
current state is from the corresponding steady state.

(Dilative)

>0

(Contractive)
Steady state line

(p/pa)

Figure 22. Steady state line and state parameter.

83

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

<0

It is noted that the dependency of dilatancy on initial intrinsic state of material is overlooked in all the
above stress-dilatancy relations that therefore can not
authentically reproduce shear feature of sand. In fact,
it has been observed experimentally that dilatancy of
sand not only depends on deviatoric stress ratio, but
also is closely related to internal state of material.
Especially influence of density can not be ignored.
Based on experimental observation on the feature
of shear response of sand and simplified analysis
of microscopic deformation, a general mathematical
expression of dilatancy such as d = d(, e, Q, C) was
proposed by Li and Dafalias (2000) in order to take
account the dependency of dilatancy on material intrinsic state by using the common terms Q and C to
describe internal state of material excluding void ratio
e. Therefore, the dilatancy given by Li and Dafalias
(2000) is uniquely associated with the current state
including changes of both internal parameters, e and Q,
and external parameter, . This state-dependent dilatancy provides the basis of flow rule of plasticity and
is used in this paper to establish constitutive model
of sand.
The stress-dilatancy equation proposed by Li and
Dafaliad (2000) is expressed as

According to the position of the current state parameter with respect to the steady-state line, the soil is
divided into two types of states, i.e., shear dilative and
shear contractive.
Sand of shear-dilative type denotes the current
state parameter of which is located at left below the
steady-state or critical-state line and volume of the soil
displays expansive feature during shear failure. However, soil of shear contractive-type denotes the current
state parameter of which is located at right above the
steady-state line and volume of the soil displays the
contractive feature during shear failure.
As a fundamental element of elasto-plastic constitutive model of soils, the stress-dilatancy equation is
usually employed as flow rule to define the direction of
plastic flow. For the well-known Cam-clay model, the
original and improved dilatancy equations are given
respectively as
d =M
or
d=

(M 2 2 )
2

Where M is the stress ratio at steady state and the


dilatancy d is defined as the ratio of plastic volumetric
strain to plastic shear strain, i.e.,

d=

dv
d0
[Mc exp (m) ]
p =
Mc
dq

(2)

d=

dv
p
dq

where dvp and dqp are respectively volumetric and


shear components of incremental plastic strain while
Mc is the deviatoric stress ratio at steady state, i.e.,
= e ec = 0. at which dilatancy vanishes completely. When d0 = Mc , m = 0, the general form of
dilatancy relation of Eq. 2 can be reduced to the simplified dilatancy expression of the original Cam-clay
model, i.e., d = M .
Furthermore, when the orientation of major principal stress from the vertical gets larger, the sand displays
much more shear-contraction while strain-softening
takes place then, as shown in Figure 8. However,
no matter whether it is strain-hardening or softening, shear-dilatation or contraction, the relationship
between deviatoric stress ratio and generalized strain
all follows a hardening-type quasi-hyperbolic model,
as shown in Figure 21. It is indicated that development
of irrecoverable deformation is closely related to stress
ratio.
Therefore the following empirical relation between
deviatoric stress ratio and generalized strain similar to
that proposed by Cubrinovski and Ishihara (1998) is
used when elastic shear deformation is overlooked,

Therefore, the dilatancy is dependent uniquely on


stress ratio. The cam-clay model can successfully
reproduce shear behavior of normally consolidated
clay and slightly over-consolidated clay. For sands,
a constitutive model for sand under triaxial compression condition was proposed by Nova and Wood
(1979) in which the following stress-dilatancy relation
is employed
= M d
Where is a material constant. When = 1, the above
dilatancy equation is directly reduced to the original version of the Cam-clay model. The following
complex stress-dialtancy equation is utilized in the
constitutive model of sands developed by Jefferies
(1993)
d=

(M )
(1 N )

where N is a material constant. When N = 0, the above


equation is simplified to the original Cam-caly-type
stress-dilatancy relation.

G N g
0
GN q
=

p
M P + G N g
MP 0
MP + G N q

84

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(3)

GN
p + GN

q q
=
(M

)M
p
0
p
p
p
q
(Mp + GN q )2

Where Mp is the peak of deviatoric stress ratio and GN


is modulus of plasticity dependent on plastic deformation which decreases with increase of plastic strain as
below


p
q
GN = (GN,max GN,min ) exp f 0 + GN,min (4)
q

or


GN
f
p = 0 (GN GN , min )
q
q

where q0 is the plastic shear strain, GN,max and GN,min


are initial maximum and minimum generalized shear
modulus respectively at small strain and at large strain,
both of which depend on the orientation of major principal stress. The parameter, f, controls the extent of
shear modulus GN from GN,max to GN,min , is generally no less than 3. When assuming the plastic shear
strain is q0 = 0.01, f is almost unchanged. The effect
of orientation of principal stress on GN is usually represented by GN,min . The parameter f approaches to a
constant when GN attains to GN,min .
In conventional elasto-plastic model, the total incremental strain is usually composed of both elastic and
p
plastic components, i.e., dij = dije + dij . When it is
further assumed that elastic deformation is linear and
isotropic, the anisotropic component of deformation
response of sand is determined by plastic deformation.
The following loading function is assumed
f = q p = 0


2 

p
Mp 1 Mp
q

G
=

f
(G

G
)
N
N
N , min
p
(Mp 0 )
q0
q
(7b)
From which the plastic hardening modulus dependent
on deformation is given as
2 


p
Mp 1 Mp
q
GN f 0 (GN GN , min )
H p = p
(Mp 0 )
q
(8)
Then the incremental strain can be obtained as below


f
1
1 f
dp +
dq =
(dq dp)
dqp = L =
Hp p
q
Hp
(9a)
d
dvp = Ld =
(dq dp)
(9b)
Hp

(5)

Then the incremental plastic strain can be defined as


below based on the associated flow rule


1 f
f
f
p
dij = L
=
dij
ij
Hp ij
ij

Furthermore, the incremental plastic strains are added


to elastic strains to gain the total incremental strains
1
dq
+
(dq dp)
3G
Hp
d
dp
dv = dve + dvp =
+
(dq dp)
K
Hp

Where

dq = dqe + dqp =

L = dqp =

1 f
dij
Hp ij

The consistency condition of plasticity, i.e., df = 0,


yields

They can be respectively simplified as below




1
1

+
dp
dq
dq =
3G
Hp
Hp


1
d
d

dq +
dp
dv =
Hp
K
Hp

f
f p
f p
dij +
d = LHp +
d = 0
ij
qp q
qp q
Accordingly, the modulus of plasticity can be written as
Hp =

(7a)

f
qp

(10b)

where the elastic shear modulus G and elastic bulk


modulus K are given as following

(2.97 e)2 p
(11a)
G = G 0 pa
1+e
pa

(6)

The following terms can be gained by using Eq (4) and


Eq (3) respectively



p
GN
f
q

=
(G

G
)
exp
f
N , max
N , min
p
q0
q0
q

K =G

85

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(10a)

2(1 + )
3(1 2)

(11b)

12

1500

1- 3/kPa

1000

10
8
6

p=50kPa
p=200kPa
p=500kPa

2000

1.0

1.0

0.9

0.9

0.8

0.8
0.7

500

0.7

0.6

-4

600
p'/kPa

-6

(a)

-2

-500
Dr=30%

-1000

Dr=60%

-1500
-2000

Dr=80%

-2500
0

10

20

30

40

dq =

D
C
dq +
dv
A+B
A+B

(12a)

dp =

BD
AC
dq +
dv
A+B
A+B

(12b)

KHp
,
Hp Kd

1200

0.6

02

4
6
(p/pa)0.88

(b)

qss/kPa

1600
1200
800
400
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000 1200

p'ss/kPa

Where

C=

900

2000

Finally, the resulting relationship between incremental


stresses and incremental strains can be rewritten as

Hp + 3G
,
3G

300

Figure 24. Ultimate steady-state line in ep space.

-10
-12
50

Figure 23. Inter-relationships among deviatoric stress and


volumetric strain as well as axial strain in drained triaxial
shear tests.

A=

-8

z/%

Figure 25. Ultimate steady-state line in qss pss space.

B=

Kd
,
Hp Kd

D=

seems to depend on the initial fabric structure of. In


order to represent uniquely such an empirical relation,
the correction procedure as proposed by Luan, et al
(2000) is employed as following

Hp

It can be observed that the proposed model totally


includes 10 parameters to be defined.
7.2

e=0.81-0.01(p/pa)0.88

2500

e = e

(13)

where e and e are respectively the original and correlated void ratios at steady state while Rc and Rcr are
original and arbitrarily-chosen reference relative densities. It is noted that the relative density is defined as
the ratio of current dry density to its maximum dry density. In this paper, the reference relative density is given
at 89%. As shown in Figure 24(b), the steady-state
line correlated by relative density may be considered
to be unique. On the other hand, the measured steadystate line in qss pss space is given in Figure 25. It
can be seen that the steady state line expressed in
term of stress ratio is basically unique, and the stable
stress ratio is qss /pss = 1.386. It is nearly identical to
Mp = 1.4 of the ultimate stress ratio which is measured
from undrained shear tests at = 0 . The fact that the
steady-state line in e-pss space is not unique while the
steady-state line in qss pss space is unique is similar to
the observation for completely-decomposed granites
in Hong Kong area as stated by Luan et al (2000).

Calibration of the model parameters

Among the 10 parameters appearing in the constitutive


model, Mc , e , c and of steady state parameters may
be determined by conventional undrained or drained
triaxial tests. Presented in Figure 23 are the interrelationships among deviatoric stress and volumetric
strain as well as axial strain measured from drained triaxial tests under the conditions of mean consolidation
pressure of pm = 50 kPa, 200 kPa, 500 kPa and relative
density of Dr = 30%, 60%, 80% respectively. It can be
seen that when deformation reaches about 30%, the
deviatoric stress and volumetric strain approach nearly
a steady stage, i.e., a steady state is basically achieved
then. As shown in Figure 24(a), at steady state of deformation, the shear strength defined is correlated with
the initial void ratio under undrained shear.
It is found that such a steady-state line in the space
of void ratio and mean effective stress is not unique and

86

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Rc
Rcr

p=50kPa
p=200kPa
p=500kPa

1E-4

160
G0

600

120
80

GN, min

1/E0

800

200

2E-4

40
0

0
0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
z/%

200

400
p/kPa

600

400
200
0

Figure 26. Determination of elasticity parameters.

0.0

0.2

1.1
1.0

0.4 0.6
sin0

0.8

1.0

Figure 28. Determination of the parameter GN .

GN=GN,max

0.9

1.6

0.8

1.5

0.7
1.4
MP

GN =GN,min

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.0

1.3
1.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.1

g/%

1.0

0.0

0.2

Figure 27. Determination of the parameter GN .

0.8

1.0

Figure 29. Determination of the parameter Mp .

The parameters m and d0 are related to dilatancy


feature. m can be determined accordingly by Eq 2
when d is assumed to be zero on the basis of the
steady state defined from undrained torsional shear
tests. d0 is determined by the v q relationship measured from drained shear tests with elastic deformation
is overlooked.
The elasticity parameters include Poissons ratio
and maximum shear modulus G0 . When Poissons ratio
is given at 0.2, G0 can be determined from conventional drained triaxial tests. The test results of drained
triaxial tests under different combinations of confining
pressure and relative density as shown in Figure 26(a)
are used to define the Initial elasticity modulus which
is then converted through Eq 10 into the constant
G0 . The values of G0 defined in this manner are
given in Figure 26(b). It is found that G0 = 6065 is
appropriate.
The parameters in the hyperbolic-type empirical
relation between deviatoric stress ratio and generalized strain include GN,max , GN,min and Mp . GN,max
and GN,min correspond to module of plasticity at large
strain of 0.01% and small strain of 1% respectively. As
shown in Figure 27, in order to appropriately reproduce
full stress and strain response at both small and large
deformation stages, two parameters are specially used.
GN,max can be evaluated from the empirical correlation
Eq 11a according to initial consolidation stress. As
pointed out by Guo (2003), the dependency of initial

maximum shear modulus on orientation of principal


stress is not significant and is not taken into account
in this paper.
When deformation gets rather large, the minimum shear modulus is obviously dependent on initial
anisotropy of sand. It means that GN,min would depend
on orientation of principal stress. The parameters measured in tests are shown in Figure 28 by solid squares. It
can be seen that GN,min is related linearly to orientation
of principal stress as following
GN ,min = B1 B2 sin 0

(14)

For different orientation angles of major principal


stress with respect to the vertical, the value of Mp
obtained from undrained shear tests under complex
stress condition are shown in Figure 29. It seems that
Mp is related nearly linearly to orientation of principal
stress as following
Mp = C1 C2 sin 0

(15)

When orientation of major principal stress is in vertical, the value of Mp approaches to that obtained from
drained triaxial tests. Parameter f is used to describe
the extent of plastic strain and it is usually no less than
3 and f = 4 is given here.

87

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.4 0.6
sin0

Elasticity
parameter
State
parameter

G0

e
c
d0
M
B1 , B2
f
C1 , C2

65
0.2
0.88
0.81
0.01
1.07
2.8
630, 490
4
1.4, 0.18

800

800

Eq. 10
Eq. 11
Eq.1

160

40

0=90
0

0.2

40

0=90

0.0

(a) Effective stress path

4
g/%

10
g/%

15

20

(b) Stress ratio-strain relationships

(b) Stress-strain relationships

Figure 31. Undrained shear behavior of sands predicted


under different consolidation stress conditions.
160

0.9

120

200
150

q/kPa

1.2

0.6

e=0.70

80

e=0.75
e=0.78
e=0.80

40

0.3

e=0.70
e=0.75

100
e=0.78
50

e=0.80

e=0.82
0

4
g /%

Figure 30. Undrained shear behavior of sands predicted by


the improved constitutive model.

40

80
120
160
p'/kPa
(a) Effective stress paths

e=0.82
0

g/%

(b) Stress-strain relationships

and stress-hardening or softening features of sand


under anisotropic consolidation condition so that it can
well display the influence of the initial anisotropy on
undrained shear behavior of sands.
After shear modulus is defined by above-mentioned
equation, the parameter GN,max can be obtained by
dividing elastic shear modulus by confining pressure.
Then the parameter GN,min can be estimated initially
by a proper reduction of GN,max and then optimized
to match the full stress-strain relations. Under different confining pressure for a given identical relative
density of , and under different relative densities for a
given same confining pressure of , both effective stress
paths and stress-strain relationships are predicted by
the proposed model and are shown in Figure 31 and
Figure 32.

Listed in Table 1 are the values of parameters


obtained from measured data of tests with refereed
formulae.
Experimental verification

For the test cases, the effective stress paths and stressstrain relationships are simulated by the proposed
refined constitutive model with corresponding parameters as shown in Figure 30. It can be seen that
the proposed improved constitutive model can agree
well with the experimental data. The model is capable to reproduce fairly the effect of orientation of
major principal stress on shear- dilation or contraction

88

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 32. Undrained shear behavior of sands predicted


under different initial void ratios.

(c) Stress ratio-strain relationship

7.3

20

p=2000kPa

1.5

0.0

15

0.6

0=60

20 40 60 80 100 120
p'/kPa

10
g/%

p=100kPa

0.8

80

(b) Stress-strain relationships

q/kPa

0=0

q/kPa

q/kPa

80

1.0

0.4

0=0

120

1000 1500 2000


p'/kPa

1.2

0=30
0=45

160

0=30
0=45
0=60

500

(a) Effective stress paths

Eq. 2
Eq. 2
Eq.13
Eq. 4
Eq. 14

200

120

p=2000kPa
p=1000kPa
p=500kPa
p=200kPa
p=100kPa

400

400

Dilatancy
parameters
Stress-strain
relationship
parameter

Refereed
Equation

Value

1200

q/kPa

Parameter

1200

q/kPa

Table 1. The measured parameters of constitutive model.

160

q/kPa

120

=30

2: GN, max =650, G N, min =450


1

80

120

3: GN, max =650, G N, min =300


2

80

2
1: GN, max =800, G N, min =450

40

40

2: GN, max =650, G N, min =450

=30

20

40

3: GN, max =650, G N, min =300

60 80 100 120
p'/kPa

(a) Effective stress paths

0 0
g/%

(b) Stress-strain relationships

Figure 33. Effect of shear modulus parameters GN,max and


GN,min on undrained shear behavior of sands.
160

160
1: m=4, d0=1.07
1: m=2.8, d0=1.07
1: m=2.8, d0=2

80

2
3

40
0

80

1: m=4, d0=1.07
1: m=2.8, d0=1.07
1: m=2.8, d0=2

40

=30

=30
0

120

q/kPa

q/kPa

120

20

40

60

80 100 120

p'/kPa
(a) Effective stress paths

3
4
g /%

(b) Stress-strain relationships

Figure 34. Effect of dilatancy parameters m and d0 on


undrained shear behavior of sands.

the same value of GN,min = 450 while GN,max = 800


and 650, it can be seen that the influence of the parameter GN,max on the mode of both stress paths and
stress-strain relationships although the sand becomes
stiffer in shear rigidity and higher in strength with
increase of GN,max . However, it is observed through
comparison of the cases 2 and 3 with the same value
of GN,max = 650 while GN,min = 450 and 300 that the
influence of shear modulus GN,min is relatively more
appreciate than that of GN,max .

7.4 Effect of the related parameters


7.4.1

Effect of modulus parameters GN,max


and GN,min
As pointed out by Guo (2003), under the condition of
relatively small deformation, orientation of principal
stress does not remarkably influence initial shear modulus. however, it is found by Tong and Zhu (1998)
that initial shear modulus progressively reduces with
increase of orientation angle of major principal stress
with respect to the vertical. Since the initial shear modulus GN,max at small- strain amplitude is approximately
taken as the shear modulus at the strain level of about
0.01% in this paper, GN,max is somewhat dependent on
orientation of principal stress. Three cases with different groups of GN,max and GN,min are considered in
numerical simulations in order to examine the sensitivity of shear behavior on the parameters GN,max and
GN,min . Based on the given values of both parameters,
the main features of undrained shear behavior of sands
can be displayed by the proposed model as shown in
Figure 33. Through comparison of cases 1 and 2 with

7.4.2 Effect of dilatancy parameters m and d0


In order to examine the influence of the dilatancy
parameters m and d0 on undrained shear behavior
of sands, three cases with different values of both
parameters are considered and the predicted effective
stress paths and stress-strain relationships are given in
Figure 34. It can be seen through comparison between
cases 1 and 2 with the same value of d0 = 1.07 while
m = 4 and 2.8 that hardening feature gets stronger
with higher strength with increase of m. On the other
hand, for the cases 2 and 3 with the same value of
m = 2.8 and d0 = 1.07 and d0 = 2, with increase of d0 ,
the sand may undergo both strain-hardening and softening stages through the phase transformation state.
Then strength rises rapidly after a fair shear dilation
stage. Therefore the dilatancy parameters m and d0
should be given carefully in order to describe main
features of undrained shear behavior of sands.

89

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

160

1: GN, max =800, G N, min =450

q/kPa

It is found from Figure 30 that the sand sample


dilates at first and then contracts during undrained
shear. For samples with the same density, the sample
under higher initial confining pressure is at a relatively looser initial state, so it undergoes more amount
of shear contraction while the sample under lower
initial confining pressure is at a relatively denser initial state, so the amount of shear contraction is less.
Figure 31 indicates that except the case of consolidation pressure of p=2000kPa, the samples behave
basically strain-hardening with no obvious softening
observed. Moreover, the samples under the condition
of same initial void ratio finally approach to the same
steady state which is dependent on the initial confining pressures. It is manifested that the improved model
proposed in this paper is capable to reproduce the main
feature of sand behavior in a rather large extent of confining pressure.The sand under low confining pressure
is relatively easy to dilate while the sand under high
confining pressure tends to contract.
Shown in Figure 32 are undrained shear behavior
of sands with different void ratios of e = 0.7, 0.75,
0.78, 0.8, 0.82 respectively under the same confining pressure of pm0 = 100 kPa. It can be observed that
with increase of void ratio, the failure of sand turns
from the mode of partial contraction-partial dilation
progressively into the mode of fully static liquefaction. It agrees with main feature of undrained shear
behavior of loose sands and dense sands. It is also
demonstrated that when the parameters are given properly, the improved constitutive model proposed by this
paper is capable to reasonably simulate shear behavior of sands in a considerable range of initial relative
density or void ratio.

q/kPa

120

120

3: G0=150, =0.2

80

40

1: G0=65, =0.2
1

80

2
3

40

2: G0=65, =0.3
3: G0=150, =0.2

=30
0

20

40

(2) For the given orientation angle of principal stress


and initial relative density as well as coefficient
of intermediate principal stress, the effect of the
initial deviatoric stress ratio of consolidation on
undrained shear behavior is relatively insignificant. The strain-softening and strain-hardening of
sands under different initial consolidation stress
ratio seems to be basically equivalent.
(3) Initial shear stress applied on the plane of dynamic
stress profoundly affects the pattern of stressstrain relationship. Under anisotropic consolidation condition with the orientation angle of initial
principal stress of 0 = 0 or 0 = 90 , no initial
shear stress is imposed on the application plane of
cyclic stress while a certain initial shear stress is
pre-acted on the application plane of cyclic stress
under anisotropic consolidation condition with
0 = 30 , 45 and 60 . The pattern of stress-strain
relationships for two series of anisotropic consolidation conditions is obviously different. For
0 = 0 or 0 = 90 , cyclic effect of shear strain
is obviously more predominate than its accumulative effect and accumulative residual component
of shear strain is relatively small. The shear strain
at failure arises mainly from the axial deformation induced by deviatoric stress. On the other
hand, uni-directional accumulative effect of shear
strain is very considerable and accumulative residual component of shear strain is relatively large
compared with its cyclic component for 0 = 30 ,
45 and 60 . The deformation of sample at failure
is resulted basically from shear deformation. In
addition, such a pattern seems to be independent
on the coefficient of intermediate principal stress.
Therefore it is considered that the effect of initial
shear stress on cyclic shear behavior of sand under
undrained condition cannot be overlooked. Under
the isotropic consolidation condition, the accumulative effect is basically of symmetry and no
unidirectional accumulated strains since no preshearing effect exists. With increase of number
of load cycles, the shear strength against liquefaction or shear failure is reduced while residual
accumulated deformation develops rather rapidly.
The similar characteristics are demonstrated by the
experimental data of the tests conducted for the
calcareous sand of Nansha Islands.
(4) The orientation of initial major principal stress
exhibits a remarkable influence on shear-induced
volumetric- dilative or contractive characteristics
and strain-hardening or softening feature of saturated loose sand subjected to undrained monotonic
or cyclic shear. The strain-hardening or softening
features of loose sand displayed during monotonic shear are closely related to cyclic mobility
or flow-slide deformation features manifested during cyclic shear. When cyclic shear stress level is

160

1: G0=65, =0.2
2: G0=65, =0.3

q/kPa

160

60

80 100 120

p'/kPa
(a) Effective stress paths

=30
0

3
g/%

(b) Stress-strain relationships

Figure 35. Effect of elasticity parameter G0 and on


undrained shear behavior of sands.

7.4.3 Effect of elasticity parameters G0 and


For the given three cases, i.e., (1) G0 = 65, = 0.2; (2)
G0 = 65, = 0.3; (3) G0 = 150, = 0.2; the predicted
shear behavior are compared as depicted in Figure 35.
It appears that the influence of both elasticity parameters G0 and on both strain-gardening or softening
and shear-dilative or contractive feature of undrained
shear behavior of sand is noticeable.

CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, a variety of cyclic shear tests and


monotonic shear tests are conducted under complex
initial stress conditions with different combinations
of the coefficient of intermediate principal stress and
orientation of initial principal stress. Through a comprehensive comparative study of the experimental test
data, the individual or combined effects of the coefficient of intermediate principal stress and orientation of
principal stress on shear behavior are examined. The
conclusions can be summarized as below.
(1) Both effective stress path and stress-strain relationship of sand subjected to monotonic shear
loading are substantially affected by orientation of initial principal stress of consolidation.
When the orientation of major principal stress
approaches to the vertical, loose sand behaves
strain-hardening and shear-dilation. With increase
of the orientation angle of initial principal stress
with respect to the vertical, loose sand displays
complex compound feature including noticeable
strain-softening and accompanied volumetric contraction and then strain-hardening and accompanied volumetric dilatation. When orientation angle
of principal stress is in the vertical, i.e., 0 = 0 ,
pore water pressure at phase-transformation state
can only rise up to 20.9% of the mean confining
pressure while pore water pressure can attain to
61.3% of the mean confining pressure in the case
of 0 = 90 .

90

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

shear behavior of sands. Compared with the conventional state-dependent constitutive model, the
dependency of the orientation of principal stress
on both effective stress paths and stress-strain relationship are taken into consideration in addition to
the combined effect of both initial confining pressure and void ratio. Therefore it is shown that the
improved model proposed in the paper is capable to fairly reproduce full shear behavior of sand
under complex initial stress condition. The effects
of the orientation of principal stress and the coefficient of intermediate principal stress as well as
other related factors on main feature of undrained
shear behavior of sands can be examined.
Although the correlation of undrained shear
behavior of sands between under monotonic and
cyclic shear has been clarified through comparative experimental tests, the elasto-plastic constitutive model is limited for monotonic shear
and an improved constitutive model for cyclic
shear is required for dynamic analyses and
design of seabeds or marine or offshore structural
foundations.

higher than the lowest shear strength in strain- softening stage during monotonic shear, flow-slide
deformation will take place during cyclic shear.
Therefore cyclic stress level of dynamic design
should be not higher than the lowest strength
or quasi-steady-state strength in strain-softening
stage obtained from monotonic shear tests under
the same initial stress condition. In addition,
the occurrence of cyclic mobility and flow-slide
deformation is associated with initial texture of
sand sample in a certain manner.
(5) Under the condition with the same orientation of
major principal stress and coefficient of intermediate principal stress, the effective deviator stress
ratios respectively at phase-transformation state
and at ultimate steady state of sands during monotonic shear are nearly equal to the peak values of
the effective deviator stress ratio at first occurrence of obvious shear dilatation and at ultimate
steady state of sand subjected to cyclic shear.
Therefore for a specified initial state, both the
peak deviatoric stress ratios at steady-state and at
phase-transformation state can be regarded as two
fundamental characteristic parameters for representation of shear behavior of saturated loose sand
under monotonic or/and cyclic shear condition.
(6) Under the condition with the same initial stress
state, the development mode of peak deviatoric
stress ratio in one load cycle with generalized
shear strain is basically close to the variation pattern of deviatoric stress ratio with generalized
shear strain during monotonic shearing. Furthermore, for any initial stress condition, the measured
relationship between deviatoric stress and generalized shear strain can be well represented by a
hardening-type quasi-hyperbolic equation. Such
an empirical relation offers the physical basis
in establishing nonlinear elasto-plastic constitutive relationship of sands. Finally, combined with
the concept of steady state of deformation in
modern critical soil mechanics, a refined nonlinear elasto-plastic constitutive model of sands
is proposed by simultaneously using the statedependent stress-dilatancy equation and empirical
hyperbolic relation between deviatoric stress ratio
and generalized shear strain obtained from experimental data. The model is capable to take both
initial physical state and texture anisotropy into
account mutually. The model has totally 10 parameters including elasticity parameters, dilatancy
parameters, state parameters and quasi-hyperbolic
parameters. All the related parameters can be
determined or calibrated on the basis of experimental data. The performance of the proposed
model together with the related parameters is verified by comparing the shear response predicted by
the proposed model and experimentally-measured

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Professor Dahong Qiu of Dalian University of Technology
for his continuing support and invaluable advice for
the investigation. The financial support for this study
through the grant 50579006, 50179006 and 50439010
from National Natural Science Foundation of China is
mostly grateful.
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Embankment and dams

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Sensitivity analysis of magnetic extensometers for measuring vertical


movement of earth dams on soft soils
Reza Jamshidi Chenari
Persesanco Co., Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: Actual field conditions may vary markedly from those assumed in the design. The soil engineers
frequently can compensate for these differences by altering the design, changing the time required, etc., if
the actual field performance of the earth project is measured. In order to measure the settlement in soft soil
foundations, a specific type of instrument, namely magnetic probe extensometer is fixed in position into a
borehole backfilled with grout. In many situations, instrument observations may just reflect unstable backfill,
lack of backfill or backfill that is too stiff or too soft. A two dimensional finite element model, with an idealized
elastic-perfectly plastic interaction between the soil-mass and grout has provided insight into the behaviour and
interaction of the components. These extended finite element analyses of grout-soil mass composites revealed
that there is an optimum grout stiffness to minimize the measurement errors for a soft to medium soil.

INTRODUCTION

will be based on judgment in selecting the most probable values within the ranges of possible values for
engineering properties. As construction progresses
and geotechnical conditions are observed or behavior monitored, the design judgments can be evaluated
and, if necessary, updated. Thus, engineering observations during geotechnical construction are often an
integral part of the design process, and geotechnical
instrumentation is a tool to assist with this observation.
The behavior of embankments on soft ground tends
to be dominated by the properties of the soft ground.
A potential circular failure surface may develop, with
a large portion of the surface in the weak foundation
material as shown in Figure 1a. However, the loading
of the embankment may cause settlement and lateral
bulging of the foundation, as shown in Figure 1b, long
before the rotation failure occurs. The lateral bulging
of the soft ground transfers horizontal tension to the
embankment, which may experience tension cracking,
since it is less deformable than the soft foundation.
Many river sediments consist of soft ground, and a
dam constructed over these materials may behave as
shown in Figure 1.
Even if the design of the dam is adequate, the weight
of the embankment dam on the underlying soil or rock
must be considered. Heavily loaded soil under the dam
may settle, and there will be downward and lateral
movements of the base of the dam. Moreover, even
well-compacted fill material will experience settlements when loaded with overlying material, and poor
compaction procedures will result in greater settlements. If the crest of the dam is initially level, with

The term geotechnical construction can be used for


structures requiring consideration of the engineering
properties of soil or rock. In the design of a surface
facility, the ability of the ground to support the structure must be considered. In the design of a subsurface
facility, consideration must also be given to the ability of the ground to support itself or to be supported
by other means. In both cases, the engineering properties of the soil or rock are the factors of interest.
The designer of geotechnical construction works with
a wide variety of naturally occurring heterogeneous
materials, which may be altered to make them more
suitable, but exact numerical values of their engineering properties cannot be assigned. Laboratory or field
tests may be performed on selected samples to obtain
values for engineering properties, but these tests will
only provide a range of possible values.
The significance of these statements about geotechnical construction can be demonstrated by comparison
with steel construction. A designer of a steel structure
works with manufactured material. The materials are
specified, their manufacture is controlled, and fairly
exact numerical values of engineering properties are
available for design. An accurate analysis can be made
and design plans and specifications prepared. Then,
provided construction is in accordance with those
plans, the structure will perform as designed. There
will generally be no need to monitor field performance. Similar remarks apply to reinforced concrete.
In contrast, the design of geotechnical construction

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The pipe may be vertical, providing measurement of


settlement or heave, may be horizontal, providing lateral deformation measurements, or may be inclined.
Typical applications of probe extensometers are monitoring vertical compression within embankments or
embankment foundations, settlement alongside excavations, heave at the base of open cut excavations,
and lateral deformation of embankments. Various
mechanical and electrical probe extensometers are
available and comparative information is given elsewhere (Dunnicliff 1993). The preferred method of
installation and the borehole diameter depends mainly
on the predicted vertical compression, the stratigraphy,
other site-specific conditions and needs, instrument
availability, and experience of installation personnel
(Dunnicliff 1993).
2.1

Figure 1. Behavior of an embankment on soft ground:


(a) rotational slide along arc and (b) settlement and lateral
bulging of soft foundation.

Magnetic probe extensometer is based on British


Building Research technique (Marsland 1974). It consists of an access tube with a corrugated external
sheath installed vertically or horizontally. Magnetic
targets are fixed in the ground where movement is to
be monitored. The access tube passes through the
target rings. The target rings move together with surrounding soil movement along the axis of the tube.
A probe lowered through the tube detects the position
of the magnetic target rings. Comparison of surveys
taken over time provides profiles of ground settlement
or displacement. A schematic of a borehole installation
is shown in Figure 3.
Magnetic target rings have either springs or plate
anchor. Spring targets are suitable for borehole application and plate targets for embankments. A suspension head fitted to the column top supports the
magnetic detector probe during surveys. The bottom
end of the column is fitted with a telescopic system
to allow the extension of the access tube. It shall then
be lowered together with all magnets and necessary
accessories fixed in position into a 100 mm borehole
preferably backfilled with a bentonite: cement grout
(ASCE 2000)

Figure 2. Transverse cracking of an embankment.

time it will settle, and the centre of the dam will settle
the most. If the abutments are steep, the settlements
may put the crest of the dam in tension, as shown in
Figure 2, possibly causing cracks transverse to the axis
of the dam.
2

Magnetic probe extensometer

PROBE EXTENSOMETER
3

Probe extensometers are devices for monitoring the


changing distance between two or more points along
a common axis, by passing a probe through a pipe
(Dunnicliff 1993). Measuring points along the pipe are
identified mechanically or electrically by the probe,
and the distance between points is determined by
measurements of probe position. For determination
of absolute deformation data, either one measuring
point must be at a location not subject to deformation or its position with respect to a reference
datum must be determined by surveying methods.

The backfill for a borehole instrument is often an


item that receives a disproportionate lack of attention (Mikkelsen 2002). The major cause of concern
about such instrument is the deviation of results from
the real values arisen of improper filling around the
tubes during installation. The behaviour of the backfill, the material that is in the most intimate contact
with both the formation and the instrument, is critical for obtaining correct measurements. Clearly, if
the backfill is deficient in providing intimate, stable

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BACKFILLING OF BOREHOLES

3.1 Selection of backfill materials


Alternative backfill materials for boreholes include
grout, granular fills such as sand and pea gravel, and
bentonite pellets (Dunnicliff 1993). Use of sand or pea
gravel backfill is limited to downward boreholes, and
the borehole diameter should be large enough to discourage bridging, generally 2 in. (50mm) larger than
the outside diameter of the downhole components.
Rounded grains are less likely to bridge than angular grains. Sand, gravel and various bentonite products
have proven to be both too difficult to place and often
entirely inappropriate (Mikkelsen 2002). Experience
has shown that cement-bentonite grout is the most
universally applicable material for successfully backfilling a borehole instrument (Mikkelsen 2002). Grout
backfill is more likely than granular backfill to fill
the borehole completely but cannot be used if grout
would bleed into the surrounding ground (Dunnicliff
1993).
Single-component bentonite grouts have been used
in related industries a long time, and have been
adopted for borehole instrumentation with mixed success. Their uses are more involved and should be
avoided. The use of fly ash as a substitute for cement
promises to be a good way for reducing grout stiffness
when required (Mikkelsen 2002).

3.2 Backfilling borehole with grout


When selecting a mix for grout backfill, the first task
is to define the required engineering properties. As a
goal, the grout should ensure conformance between
the instrument and the surrounding soil or rock and
should not alter the value of the parameter being measured (Dunnicliff 1993). When probe extensometers
rely on grout to ensure conformance, the grout should
satisfy criteria for compressibility and shear strength.
Grout for fixed borehole extensometers in soft ground
should not have significant compressive or tensile
strength. Grout for inclinometer casing should satisfy
criteria for maximum and minimum strength. For these
reasons there is no universally suitable grout, and each
installation must be considered individually.
Little is known on the subject of grouting around
instruments in boreholes, presumably because this use
of grout represents such a tiny proportion of overall grout use (Dunnicliff 1993). Even if the perfect
grout mix can be determined, it probably will not
set as a uniform column throughout the borehole.
These realizations should color our reliance on grout
where properties and uniformity are critical. For example when a probe extensometer is to be installed to
monitor substantial vertical compression, reliance on
grout may be unwarranted, and conformance should
be ensured by using a positive anchorage at each
measuring point (Dunnicliff 1993).

Figure 3. Probe Extensometer Installation Fixed in Stable Ground (Courtesy of Soil Instruments Ltd., Uckfield,
England).

contact between the instrumented formation/fill and


the access casing, then disturbed measurements would
result (Mikkelsen 2004). In many situations, instrument observations may just reflect unstable backfill,
lack of backfill or backfill that is too stiff or too soft.

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3.3

Bentonite-cement grout

A bentonite grout backfill consisting of just bentonite


and water may not be volumetrically stable and introduces uncertainty about locally introduced pore water
pressures caused by the hydration process (Mikkelsen
2002). Introducing cement, even a small amount,
reduces the expansive properties of the bentonite component once the cement-bentonite grout takes an initial
set. The strength of the set grout can be designed to
be similar to the surrounding ground by controlling
the cement content and adjusting the mix proportions.
Controlling the compressibility (modulus) and the permeability is not so easy. Weaker cementitious grouts
tend to remain much stiffer than normally consolidated
clays of similar strengths. The use of fly ash as a substitute for cement promises to be a good way for reducing
grout stiffness when required. The bentonite solids
content has the greatest influence on the permeability
of cement-bentonite grout, not the cement content.
Cement-bentonite grouts are easier to use than bentonite grouts, provide a long working time before set
and are more forgiving should the user deviate from
the design recipe or mixing equipment and method
(Mikkelsen 2002). It is easier to adjust the grout mix
for variations in temperature, pH and cleanliness of
the water. Pure bentonite grouts must be mixed and
deployed by strictly following measured quantities
and procedures that are not common practice among
drillers doing test borings.

Figure 4. 28-Day Cement-Bentonite Grout Strength vs.


Water-Cement Ratio (after Mikkelsen, 2002).

fell into the range expected for clays, which shows


that addition of bentonite to cement does result in a
clay-like substance. This soil-like consistency allows
cement-bentonite grouts to be directly compared to
other earthen materials. The average E/Su ratio, calculated with tangent modulus, was 785 and ranged
from 67 to 826. The expected E/Su ratio falls between
l00 and 500 for clays, and 200 and 500 for sedimentary rock.
The general rule for grouting any kind of instrument
in a borehole is that the proportions of the mix shall
be such as to imitate as closely as possible the strength
or consistency of the natural subsoil present (Gue and
Partners 2001). However, while it is feasible to match
strengths, it is unfeasible with the same mix design to
match the deformation modulus of cement-bentonite
to that of clay for example. The practical thing to do
is to approximate the strength and minimize the area
of the grouted annulus. In this way the grout column
would only contribute a weak force in the situation
where it might be an issue (Mikkelsen 2002).
Strength data collected informally from various
sources by Mikkelsen (2002) over the years are summarized in Figure 4. A trend line drawn through the
data points illustrates the decrease in strength with
increasing water-cement ratio. The water-cement ratio
controls the strength of the set grout. The bentonite
does not add significant strength to the grout. The
background data for Figure 4 also suggests the amount
and type of bentonite or hydrated lime does not influence strength as long as the grout is non-bleeding and
pumpable.
Strength is often used to characterize a grout for
deformation-type instruments, but modulus of deformation should ideally be the basis for judging compatibility with ground conditions (Mikkelsen 2002).
The grout column in a borehole will carry a total axial
force smaller or greater than the material it replaced,
according to its stiffness. When there is too much stiffness or force, displacements will be diminished and

3.3.1 Strength and deformation


Marslands rule-of-thumb is to make the 7-day strength
of the grout to match one quarter that of the surrounding soil (Marsland 1973). Water and cement in
proportions greater than about 0.7 to 1.0 by weight
will segregate without the addition of bentonite or
some other type of filler material (clay or lime) to
suspend the cement uniformly. In all cases sufficient
filler is added to suspend the cement and to provide a
thick-creamy-but-pumpable grout consistency.
Will (1997) showed that the unconfined compressive strength is directly related to the cement content
and w/c ratio when the bentonite content remains
relatively fixed (between 1.8 and 6.9%).A best-fit relationship for 28-day strength as a function of w/c ratio
for the combined data of this and Aymard (1996)s
study follows a power law, which is consistent with
findings in the literature. To achieve 3-day compressive strengths in the range of 50 to 200-psi with
bentonite content between 1.8 and 6.9%, the w/c ratio
should lie between 1 and 2. Strength gains from 3 to
28 days shows an average strength increase factor of
3.2, ranging from 2.1 to 4.6. To reach strengths of 50
to 200-psi at 28 days, instead of 3 days, the w/c ratio
would have to be decreased by a factor of 1 to 2.
Values for Youngs tangent modulus measured by
Will (1997) ranged from 0.2 to 69-ksi. All values

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Table 1.
2002).

axial measurements can be less than displacements of


the surrounding ground. More care should be taken in
making a grout for axial borehole deformation measurements than for lateral deformation measurements
(Mikkelsen 2002). Most of the design and installation
challenge lies with deformation measurements in the
axial direction of the borehole where large volumes
of grout backfill must be placed. So, for settlement
measurement, it is better to err on the softer side of
the spectrum (Mikkelsen 2002). Lateral displacements
of an inclinometer casing are generally unaffected by
added grout stiffness. Where the grout column is too
stiff the displacements will be distributed over a greater
depth interval, but not be diminished in overall magnitude. The same is probably true if the grout is too soft,
but there is the additional concern for lack of lateral
confinement. Since inclinometer casings generally are
under compression, lack of backfill or confinement
can produce localized shifts in the borehole, masking
smaller actual displacements. So, for inclinometers,
it is better to err on the stiffer side of the spectrum
(Mikkelsen 2002).

Application

Grout for Medium


to Hard Soils1

Grout for Soft Soils2

Ratio by
Weight Weight

Materials

Weight

Water

30
2.5
gallons
94 lbs.
1
(1 sack)
25 lbs.
0.3
(as required)

Portland
Cement
Bentonite

Ratio by
Weight

75
6.6
gallons
94 lbs.
1
(1 sack)
39 lbs.
0.4
(as required)

1
The 28-day compressive strength of this mix is about 50 psi,
similar to very stiff to hard clay. The modulus is about
10,000 psi.
2
The 28-day strength of this mix is about 4 psi, similar to very
soft clay.

controlling the water-cement ratio. This is accomplished by mixing the cement with the water first.
When water and cement are mixed first, the watercement ratio stays fixed and the strength/modulus of
the set grout is more predictable. If bentonite slurry
is mixed first, the water-cement ratio cannot be controlled because the addition of cement must stop
when the slurry thickens to a consistency that is still
pumpable. Making cement-bentonite grout in the field
is a straightforward process. The most effective mixing is done in a barrel or tub with the drill-rig pump,
circulating the batch through the pump in 50 to 200
gallon quantities. The rig pump provides the kind of
jet-mixing required for getting the job done quickly.
Any kind of bentonite powder used to make drilling
mud combined with Type 1 Portland cement and water
can be used, but the appropriate quantity of bentonite will vary somewhat depending on grade of
bentonite, mixing sequence, mixing effort (agitation),
water pH and temperature (Mikkelsen 2002). Grout
mixes should be controlled by weight and proportioned
to give the desired strength of the set grout. The conversion factors contained in Appendix H.10 in Dunnicliff
(1988, 1993) are very helpful in mix design. Two mixes
are given in Table 1 that varies in 28-day strength from
50 psi to 4 psi for water-cement ratios of 2.5 to 6.6
respectively.
The amount of bentonite that is required for the
above mixing procedure would vary due to factors
mentioned earlier. The amount of bentonite shown in
Table 1 should only be used as a guide, but is also
handy for estimating material quantities to be shipped
to the site. With water and cement mixed first, more
bentonite is required than if water and bentonite were
mixed first. This is an advantage from the standpoint
of wanting a low permeability. When the bentonite
solids content increases, the density increases and the

3.3.2 Mix design rules


Some typical mixes are given in literature, but it is
emphasized that they should not be used as a cook
book. Trial mixes should be made for each application and judgment often made by visual observation
and supplemented with simple tests such as pressing
with a thumb or use of a Trovance (Dunnicliff 1993).
Where a more exact measurement of grout properties is
required, laboratory tests of trial mixes will be needed.
The properties of grout are often dependent on
the sequence of adding ingredients, and the sequence
should be standardized. As a general rule, liquids
should be mixed first, followed by the finest through
the coarsest materials. When using cement/bentonite
grout, bentonite should be added to the water first,
because if bentonite is added to a cement and water mix
an ion exchange takes place and the expansion of the
bentonite is reduced significantly. Properties are often
also dependent on the chemical constituents of the
mixing water, and water for trial mixes should be from
the same source as the field mix (Dunnicliff 1993).
Field mixing was simulated by Will (1997) to
determine the effects of bentonite prehydration and
slurry mixing time on grout properties. The closest
match to the 3-day strengths obtained by lab mixing
occurred when the bentonite was fully prehydrated
and the slurry was mixed for 30 minutes. With this
procedure, unconfined compressive strengths reached
56-psi compared to an average compressive strength
of 53-psi determined in the lab.
In contrary to the procedures used at more sophisticated grout plants for compaction grouting and sealing
purposes, Mikkelsen (2002) believes that to keep
field procedures simple the emphasis should be on

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Cement-bentonite grout mixes (after Mikkelsen

permeability is lowered. A lower permeability is generally preferred since cement-bentonite grouts have a
higher permeability than high-density bentonite grout
or chip seals. Thus, it is another good reason for mixing
water and cement before adding bentonite.
Old habits die hard, so that some users will insist on
mixing water and bentonite powder first. This is normally the way drilling mud is mixed and it yields more
slurry per sack of bentonite than the above method.
Also, use of hydrated bentonite with cement added last
is common practice in grouting technology for ground
improvement. Such mixes are highly thixotropic and
rely on industrial type mixing plants and methods. The
cement content is difficult to control under ordinary
borehole installation circumstances.

2D AXISYMMETRIC NUMERICAL
ANALYSIS

The displacement response of a series of spider magnet embedded in a grout column surrounded by clay
materials is investigated for loading in vertical direction using PLAXIS finite element code. PLAXIS is
used to create and to execute a finite element analysis
of the grout-soil composite. The settlement column
is embedded into a soil cylinder with the length of
8 m and radius of 4 m. The automatic mesh generation procedure in PLAXIS allows for local refinement
and generation of the mesh, in two dimensions, relative ease. The two-dimensional mesh consists of
fifteen-noded, triangular material elements and fivenoded, zero-thickness, interface elements. Interface
elements have no thickness, but have shear stiffness
and strength properties that can be specified separately
from the material elements. The settlement column
modeled as a concrete pile is 0.15 m in diameter, 8 m
in length and is embedded in a homogeneous clay
layer. PLAXIS 2D offers a variety of material models. The Mohr-Coulomb material model which allows
for plastic deformation after meeting the failure criteria (strength) is used for elements of intervening
fill, which employs a linearly elastic-perfectly plastic
stress-strain response while the elements within grout
column are considered linearly elastic. The model
geometry only consists of half of the actual geometry due to model axial symmetry. The roller boundary
conditions are applied on all sides of the axisymmetric
block. The PLAXIS model is shown in Figure 5. Properties of the clay materials are summarized in Table 2.
Mohr-Coulomb material parameters that are variable in this analysis are the modulus of elasticity (E),
the cohesion (C) of the clay material and the Poissons
ratio (). Parameter that remain constant is the friction angle ( = 0 ). The soil strengths represented: (1)
a soft to medium clay [C = 25 kPa], (2) a medium to
stiff clay [C = 50 kPa], and (3) stiff clay [C = 100 kPa].

Figure 5. The geometry of PLAXIS model utilized in


different analyses.
Table 2. Material properties of different clay material used
in simulations (assuming E/C = 500).
Medium
to Stiff Clay
C = 50 kPa

Stiff
Clay
C = 100 kPa

Parameters

Elasticity
modulus,
E (MPa)

Poissons
Ratio,

Density,
(kg/m3)

12.5
25.0
50.0

0.38
0.36
0.35

1800
1800
1800

Different grout stiffnesses are employed for soft to


medium, medium to stiff and stiff clays. For a given soil
strength and modulus of elasticity, incremental relative
values of grout stiffness are varied from 0.25 to 12 in

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Soil

Soft to
Medium Clay
C = 25 kPa

Table 3.

Ratio of / (after Potyondy, 1961).

Soil Type

Steel

Wood

Concrete

Sand
Silt & Clay

/ = 0.54
/ = 0.54

/ = 0.76
/ = 0.55

/ = 0.76
/ = 0.50

Figure 6. Mean Relative Error of Magnetic Probe Extensometer measurements versus relative stiffness for different
soil-grout interface properties. Constant parameters include:
all soil parameters (soft to medium clay) and grout Poisson
ratio ( = 0.35).

the composite model. Elastic material parameter of


grout that is variable in this analysis is the modulus of
elasticity (E). Parameter that remains constant is the
Poissons ratio ( = 0.35).
PLAXIS employs a multiplier coefficient Rinter
to assign the strength and stiffness of the interface
elements. The cohesion of the interface element is
assigned as a fraction of the cohesion of the surrounding soil, therefore the interface cohesion is equal
to Rinter times the soil cohesion (Cinter = Rinter *Csoil ).
Similarly, the shear modulus of the interface elements
(Ginter ) are equal to the shear modulus of the soil (Gsoil )
times Rinter squared (Ginter = (R2inter ) * Gsoil ).
The strength and stiffness for the interface between
the borehole grout cylinder and surrounding soils were
specified as a fraction of the soil properties. For example, the interface strength is assigned a value that is
0.66 times the soil strength. This fraction was held
constant for all analyses. Further parametric analysis
shows that the resulting slipping (relative movement
parallel to the interface) is significantly affected by
varying the interface strength and stiffness between
the grout and the soil from these values (see Figure 6).
In general, for real soil-structure interaction the
interface is weaker and more flexible than the associated soil layer, which means that the value of Rinter is
less than one. Suitable values for Rinter for the case of
the interaction between various types of soil and structures in the soil can be found in the literature (Potyondy
1961). Table 3 shows the smallest ratios between and
determined in an extensive series of tests. Assuming
/ = 0.50 from the table for interface between soft
clay and plastic concrete yields Rinter <0.5.
In the absence of detailed information it may be
assumed that Rinter is of the order or 2/3 for a sandsteel contact and of the order of 1/2 for clay-steel

Figure 7. Vertical displacement for soft to medium clay and


stiff Grout.

contact, whereas the interaction with rough concrete


usually gives a somewhat higher value. A value of
Rinter greater than one would not normally be used
(Plaxis, 1998).
After the model is brought to an equilibrium state
under the initial stresses, top of the model has been
subjected to a vertical stress of 1MPa. Figure 7 shows
the vertical displacement shadings in axisymmetric
model. The wide range of color spectrum and difference between measured and free-field settlement
indicates that the grout column as an inclusion in
embankments foundation significantly affects the displacement measured by magnet probe extensometers.
Vertical displacement is of major concern in this
study so a number of control points are specified
to track these important variables in the regions of
interest. Seven points in different depth of the grout
column representing the magnetic probe extensometer
measurement are monitored during the model execution. Mean Average Error (MAE) is the main criterion
employed to evaluate the performance of different

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Figure 8. Mean Relative Error of Magnetic Probe Extensometer Measurements versus Relative Stiffness for Different
Clays. Constant parameters include: grout Poisson ratio
( = 0.35) and grout-soil interface properties (Rinter = 0.66).

Figure 9. Mean Relative Error of Magnetic Probe Extensometer measurements versus relative stiffness for different
outer sheath conditions. Constant parameters include: all soil
parameters, grout Poisson ratio ( = 0.35), and soil-grout
interface properties (Rinter = 0.66).

models of grout columns surrounded by different


clay materials explained in preceding sections. Figure 8 shows the sensitivity of magnetic extensometer
measurements to the relative stiffness of grout and
intervening fill.
Different tube assemblies employed to investigate
the effect of outer sheath in measurements of vertical
displacement installing magnetic probe extensometer.
The outer sheath can be of either plain tube with flush
or telescopic coupling with different strain allowance
and greased or non greased skin or plain tube with
flush coupling and corrugated outer sheath with trivial axial stiffness. Figure 9 indicates that axial stiffness
of outer sheath emerges to be of paramount importance in measuring vertical displacement in probe
extensometer. Also greasing has a significant contribution on improving the accuracy of measurements.

Deviation of observed Magnetic Probe Extensometer


measurements in the foundation of embankments on
soft clay to what is expected, led to two dimensional
finite element analyses in order to determine the optimum grout mix to minimize these deviations. A two
dimensional finite element model, with an idealized
elastic-perfectly plastic interaction between the soilmass and grout has provided insight into the behaviour
and interaction of the components. The two dimensional model involved two different material types
(grout and soil), and two interfaces (grout-soil and
grout-tube). One hole size (similar in diameter for a
slope inclinometer), and three soil types are investigated. The model is loaded by a prescribed overburden
pressure on top. Grout stiffness is varied in order to
find out a grout which is sufficiently compliant to
imitate the behaviour of surrounding soil. This process and the associated sensitivity studies required
some 120 finite element model runs of the grout-soil
interaction. These extended finite element analyses
of grout-soil mass composites resulted the following
conclusions.
1) There is an optimum grout stiffness to minimize
the measurement errors for a given soil properties.
2) Magnetic probe extensometer declines as a result of
a material condition: the grout is stronger (stiffer)
than the surrounding soil, which prevents the soil
from adequately compressing the composite.
3) A ratio of grout stiffness to soil stiffness of less
than one will provide optimal conditions to avoid
smearing the slip surface in soft to medium and
medium to stiff soils.
4) Stiff clay is minimally affected by varying the
grout stiffness and is strong enough so as to compress the grout column. For all cases of varying
grout stiffness the measurement error remained
less than 10%.
5) Axial stiffness of outer sheath emerges to be
of paramount importance in measuring vertical
displacement in probe extensometer.
6) Greasing has a significant contribution on improving the accuracy of measurements.
7) Telescopic couplings which permit vertical and lateral movements of the inclinometer borehole are
recommended to be used for soft sub-soils when
installing combined inclinometer and probe extensometer as the use of corrugated outer sheath is not
possible in this case.
REFERENCES
ASCE (2000). Guidelines for Instrumentation and Measurements for Monitoring Dam Performance. American
Society of Civil Engineers, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Reston, Virginia 201914400.

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CONCLUSION

Aymard, N. (1996). Low Strength Grouts for Embedding


TDR Cables in Soil, M.S Thesis, Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA, December.
GUE & PARTNERS SDN BHD, (2001), Specification for
Instrumentation and Monitoring of Embankments.
Marsland, A. (1973), Discussion, Principles of Measurement, in Field Instrumentation in Geotechnical Engineering, British Geotechnical Society, Halsted Press, a
Division of John Wiley, pp. 531532.
Marsland, A. (1974), New Multipoint Magnetic Settlement
System,, in proceeding of the symposium on Field Instrumentation in Geotechnical Engineering, British Geotechnical Society, Butterworths, London, PP. 587589.

Mikkelsen, P.E. (2002). Cement-Bentonite Grout Backfill


for Borehole Instruments. Geotechnical News, Vol. 20,
No. 4, December: 3842.
Mikkelsen, P.E. (2004), Personal Communications.
Plaxis 2D, B.V. Users Manual-Version 7.2, (1998), TERRATEC, Inc.
Potyondy, J. G. (1961), Skin Friction between Various Soil
and Construction Materials, Geotechnique, Vol XI, No. 4,
pp 339353.
Will, D. (1997), Cement Bentonite Grouts Compatible
with Compliant TDR Cables, M.S Thesis, Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern
University, Evanston, IL, USA.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Building an embankment with simultaneous vacuum loading


B.T. Wang
College of Civil Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, P. R. China

K.T. Law
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada

ABSTRACT: A highway embankment over soft soils has been successfully constructed with the help of simultaneous application of vacuum loading. This method enables a short construction time and little post-construction
settlements. This paper describes a case study using this method of construction. Extensive laboratory tests have
been conducted before and after construction. Field testing and monitoring have also been made to help understand the performance of the foundation soils involved in this method of construction. The study shows that
(1) the installation of the prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) disturbed the soil and reduced its strength; (2) the
observed settlement is larger and faster than the estimated; (3) the vacuum load generated an inward horizontal
movement indicative of the increase in horizontal effective stress which in turn increased the soil strength quite
rapidly and (4) there would be little post-construction settlement resulting from additional load due to surface
paving and live traffic load.

INTRODUCTION

Construction of embankments on soft soils requires


the consideration of stability and settlement. In many
cases, the subsoils are either so weak or compressible
that some form of strengthening is needed. There are
many ways to strengthen soft soils. Vacuum preloading
has been used extensively in many parts of the world
to speedily strengthen or stiffen soft soils for support
of loads.
Vacuum preloading was first put forward as
a method to strengthen soft foundations in 1952
(Kjellman 1952). This method has been increasingly
used since 1980s as a result of improved membrane
material and pumping machines. The area of a membrane can now reach 3,000 m2 used in association
with a group of pumps (Ye 1983, Choa 1989, Shang
1988). The use of jet pumps makes it possible to
maintain a vacuum at or slightly higher than 80 kPa
during the pumping period. Recently, vacuum preloading is applied simultaneously with the construction of
embankments, further enhancing the usefulness of this
method in strengthening the soft soils and expediting
the construction process. In this way the vacuum in fact
is no longer a preload but part of the load during construction. While the vacuum is maintained, additional
fill might be added to compensate the settlement of
the fill that has occurred to meet the required final
embankment height. When the settlement has reached

the desired value, the vacuum can be released, leaving


the soil in a lightly over-consolidated state. Further
loading due to paving the road surface and live traffic
load will then occur in the over-consolidated state and
therefore will introduce little additional settlement.
Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) are used in this
method to transfer the vacuum to the subsoils and to
provide a shorter drainage path. Hence the consolidation process is accelerated, leading to a rapid increase
in the subsoil strength and a short duration for the
completion of primary consolidation is completed. As
soon as the vacuum is applied, there is an increase
in effective stress in the subsoil accompanied by an
almost immediate increase in the subsoil strength. This
will permit the placement of the initial embankment
to a substantial or even to the design height. The subsequent additional fill to compensate settlement can
be placed within a short time due to the accelerated
consolidation.
This new method has been used extensively in China
since 1990s, particularly in the eastern and southern provinces, because of numerous major expressway
constructions over soft soils (Liu et al. 1999). This
paper describes a case study for applying this method
in building an approach fill embankment for NingJing-Yan Expressway in Jiangsu, China. Extensive
laboratory testing as well as field testing and monitoring have been conducted to assess the performance
of this construction method.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

Engineering Characteristics of Subsoils before and after vacuum loading.


Coef. of comp
(MPa1 )

Depth (m)

Water content (%)

Dry density (g/cm3)

Void ratio

4.04.3
5.05.3
6.06.3
9.09.2
11.511.7
13.413.6
16.316.5
18.018.2
19.219.4
21.321.5
23.423.6
25.425.6
Average
Average change
27.527.7
29.329.5
31.331.5
35.535.7
37.337.5
Average
Average change

38.8
39.7
35.4
27.2
27.7
25.3
30.8
30.7
31.9
34.7
33.2
35.3
32.2
8.4%
36.0
34.1
32.0
22.9
21.3
29.7
2.7%

28.5
32.7
31.3
28.0
26.0
24.6
30.1
27.5
27.6
28.4
32.3
34.7
29.5

1.32
1.29
1.39
1.57
1.56
1.62
1.48
1.48
1.46
1.42
1.43
1.39
1.45
+4.8%
1.38
1.40
1.44
1.67
1.64
1.50
+2.0%

1.49
1.45
1.46
1.56
1.63
1.68
1.52
1.50
1.55
1.53
1.46
1.42
1.52

1.063
1.100
0.952
0.774
0.772
0.667
0.830
0.819
0.855
0.897
0.876
0.935
0.869
9.0%
0.970
0.919
0.897
0.631
0.623
0.819
3.9%

0.800
0.859
0.856
0.727
0.664
0.619
0.804
0.802
0.733
0.770
0.860
0.904
0.791

0.87
0.88
0.64
0.34
0.35
0.23
0.23
0.22
0.27
0.31
0.36
0.40
0.44
38.6%
0.39
0.39
0.25
0.20
0.24
0.30
13.0%

0.30
0.28
0.38
0.31
0.26
0.16
0.18
0.16
0.19
0.18
0.27
0.32
0.27

34.8
31.7
31.4
22.6
21.5
28.9

1.41
1.49
1.46
1.67
1.65
1.53

0.960
0.758
0.889
0.629
0.616
0.787

0.34
0.31
0.21
0.18
0.23
0.26

Sec. com. Index

0.021
0.016
0.010
0.009
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.020
0.010

Note: A = before construction B = after construction (vacuum released).

SITE CONDITIONS

According to site investigation, the compressible subsoils at the site is at least 40 m thick (maximum depth
of boreholes) and consist mainly of clay layers and
silty sand layers. The detailed subsoil profiles can be
divided into six main layers as given in Table 1 and
summarized in the following:
The top soil layer is clayey soil with low liquid
limit and with a thickness varying from 1.3 m to
3.2 m. Layers of silty sand and sand lenses are found
embedded in this top layer which has a water content ranging from 26% to 36%, an average void ratio
0.85, and an average coefficient of compressibility
0.38 MPa-1.
The second layer is soft clay with a thickness of
about 6 m. The average water content is 37% with
a maximum of 52%. Its average void ratio is 1.1,
reaching a maximum of 1.55. The coefficient of compressibility varies from 0.6 MPa1 to 0.9 MPa1 and
the consolidation coefficient from 5.7 104 cm2 /s to
1.3 103 cm2 /s. This layer is the most compressible
layer of the subsoils at this site.
The third layer is clay with low liquid limit with a
thickness ranging from 6 m to 8 m. The water content varies from 28% to 35%, the void ratio from
0.68 to 0.82, the coefficient of compressibility from
0.26 MPa1 to 0.35 MPa-1 , and the consolidation coefficient from 1.5 103 cm2 /s to 6.0 103 cm2 /s.

There are thin silty sand layers or lenses in this clay


layer.
The fourth layer is silty sand with a thickness ranging from 7 m to 12 m. The water content ranges mostly
from 27% to 35% with a maximum of 41.5%. The
void ratio ranges from 0.75 to 0.90, the coefficient of
compressibility from 0.22 MPa1 to 0.36 MPa1 , and
the consolidation coefficient from 7.8 103 cm2 /s
to 3.5 102 cm2 /s. There are thin clay layers in this
layer.
The fifth layer is lean clay with a thickness ranging
from 3.4 m to 8.3 m. The water content varies from
21% to 38.5%, the void ratio from 0.6 to 1.0, and
the coefficient of compressibility from 0.2 MPa1 to
0.44 MPa1 .
The sixth layer is silty sand of a thickness exceeding 10 m as the borehole stopped at 40 m in depth in
this layer. The water content ranges from 23% to 30%,
the void ratio from 0.60 to 0.90, the coefficient of
compressibility from 0.20 MPa1 to 0.34 MPa1 , and
the consolidation coefficient from 1.3 102 cm2 /s to
3.5 104 cm2 /s. Thin clay layers are found in this
layer.
3

The method of applying vacuum loading simultaneously with the embankment construction was applied

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING


PROCEDURES

to an area of 52 m in width and 60 m in length.


Field testing and monitoring have been undertaken
for assessing the usefulness of this method. The
construction and testing consist of the following main
steps in chronological order:
(1) The site was cleared by removing plants and other
organic matters. Existing holes and depressions
were filled.
(2) Crisscrossed ditches were dug at the site to collect
surface water that was then pumped away from the
site.
(3) Undisturbed soil sampling and field vane shear
tests (VST) were conducted in the natural soils.
Thin walled tube samplers of 70 mm diameter
were used for the sampling. The field vane was
100 mm high and 50 mm in diameter.
(4) A 50 cm thick pad of medium to coarse sand
was placed at the site to serve several functions: spreading the vacuum, collecting water and
transferring it to drain pipes.
(5) Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) were
installed. The effective length of the PVDs was
25 m and the cross-section of the PVD was in a
corrugated shape, 6 mm thick and 100 mm wide.
The grid of the PVDs was in rectangular shape
with a spacing of 1.5 m by 1.5 m.
(6) Another series of VST was conducted right after
the installation of the PVDs to study the effect of
soil disturbance caused by the PVDs installation.
The vane boring was carried out midway between
the PVDs.
(7) Deep magnetic settlement rings were installed
in two boreholes to measure the settlement profile with depth. A flexible pipe was inserted
through the rings in the borehole for the passage of the measuring probe. This flexible pipe
could compress readily with the settlement of the
subsoils.
(8) Pumping pipes were installed in the sand pad.
These were plastic pipes, 50 mm in diameter, perforated with 0.5 mm openings and wrapped with a
layer of non-woven geotextiles. The pipes crossed
each other at a spacing of 4.5 m in one direction
and 6 m in the other direction. The central pipe
was connected to a jet pump system.
(9) A polyethylene membrane was used to cover the
sand pad. A trench around the tested area was
dug to anchor the membrane. Normally the trench
depth would not exceed 1.0 m. For this case,
however, there were sandy layers or sand lenses
down to depths ranging from 1.3 m to 3.2 m as
mentioned earlier. Therefore the trench was dug
to 3.5 m in depth to ensure that the membrane
covered completely the freely draining sandy layers. This large depth for a membrane had rarely
been attempted before. This case study therefore

(10)
(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)
(17)

FIELD INSTRUMENTS AND FIELD


TESTING

The effectiveness of the vacuum loading is evaluated


by means of field testing and field monitoring. In this
case study, that includes observing the vacuum pressure, measuring the soil strength, and recording the
deformations of the tested area.
Vacuum gauges were used to measure the vacuum
in the sand pad under the membrane for evaluating
the efficiency of the pump system. The sensing part
of the gauge was embedded in the sand pad, which is

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

provided a good opportunity to assess the use of


a deep trench to anchor the membrane.
Two inclinometer casings were installed at the two
opposite edges of the tested area.
The membrane was tested by operating the jet
pump to a constant suction of 20 kPa to check for
leakage in the membrane. Any defects detected in
the membrane were repaired carefully.
A 50 cm thick silty soil layer was placed carefully
on top of the membrane to avoid damaging it.
Settlement plates were placed on this layer. The
initial elevations of these settlement plates were
measured after they were installed.
The jet pumps were operated at the maximum
power to reach a vacuum up to 80 kPa under
the membrane. This vacuum was maintained
throughout the entire test period of 90 days. The
fact that the vacuum was maintained without
problem showed that the relative deep anchoring
of the membrane was effective to envelope the
sand layers near the ground surface.
The fill of the embankment was placed to the
design height at a compaction of 95% of maximum dry density. The placement process began at
the same time of the vacuum loading and occurred
linearly with time over a period of 19 days. The
thickness of the fill for this stage was 3.0 m, giving
a vertical pressure of 56 kPa.
Surface settlements were measured daily in the
first week, then every three days in the next three
weeks, and every week for the rest of the testing
period. The horizontal deformations of the subsoils were measured with the inclinometer, and
the settlements at depths were measured using the
settlement rings at the same frequency.
At 56 days after the beginning of the vacuum loading, about a meter of fill (19 kPa) was added to
compensate the settlement.
Soil sampling and a final series of field vane shear
test were conducted at the end of the test after
the vacuum was released. Both were carried out
midway between PVDs in the general vicinity of
the central part of the loaded area.

Figure 2. Locations of settlement rings and inclinometers.


Note: 1, 2: holes for settlements rings
3, 4: inclinometers
(1) to (6): sub-soil layers

Figure 1. Locations of settlement plates.

connected through a plastic pipe to a vacuum gauge


above the membrane for ease of reading.
Surface settlements at nine points covering the
whole loaded area were measured using the settlement plates. The locations of these points are shown
in Figure 1 with Point 1 located at the centre of the test
area. The settlements were measured with a surveying
level.
Settlements at depth were measured by using the
settlement rings installed at different depths of the subsoils. Two holes for such measurements were installed
but one of them was destroyed during construction.
Horizontal deformations on two opposite edges
of the loaded area were measured by two inclinometers. Both inclinometers reached only a depth
of 30 m, which was still in the compressible layer.
Therefore the inclinometers were not fixed at their
bases as in the usual application. Additional measurements of the top of the inclinometer casings were
made by means of a theodolite to help determine the
precise horizontal movements. The locations of settlement rings and inclinometer casings are shown in
Figure 2.
Field vane shear tests were conducted before the
construction, after the installation of the PVDs, and
after the release of the vacuum. These tests were
carried out to examine the change of the vane strength
at the various stages of the construction.
Undisturbed soil samples were taken before construction and after the release of the vacuum load. The
soil samples were tested in the laboratory to provide
information on basic soil properties and change in void
ratio and compressibility due to the construction activities. The compressibility coefficients were measured
using a standard consolidometer of 30 cm2 in area and
20 mm in height.

The results of laboratory tests on soil samples obtained


before and after construction are shown in Table 1.
This table shows that there are measurable changes in
water content, dry density, void ratio and coefficient
of compression due to the construction process. The
changes in dry density and void ratio are related to
the change in water content, the specific gravity of
the soil particles and the degree of saturation. For the
results shown in Table 1, the specific gravity for the
various layers were determined and all the soil tested
were taken from below the watertable and hence were
fully saturated. Therefore the changes in dry density
and void ratio are functions of the change in water
content. The following discussion on the change in
water content therefore also applies to the changes in
dry density and void ratio.
In the zone where the PVDs were installed, the average decrease in water content amounts to 8.4%, with a
range from 22.0% for the softest layer (second layer)
to 2.2% at the bottom of this zone, which is largely a
sandy layer. This range corresponds to a reduction in
void ratio from 23.3% to 2.6%. These changes in water
content exceed those calculated for the fully consolidated state based on parameters obtained from the
consolidation tests. This is consistent with the observation based on measured settlements to be discussed
in the next section. Below the zone with the PVDs
(below 25 m depth), a similar observation is also made
that the measured reduction in water content exceeds
that computed based on parameters obtained from
consolidation tests.
Table 1 also lists the change in coefficients of compressibility measured from consolidation tests for the
working stress range. There is an average reduction of
38.6% in the zone with the PVDs and 13% below it.
These reductions reflect the compressibility is dependent on the void ratio. At lower void ratio caused by

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

LABORATORY TEST RESULTS

Figure 3. Time history of vacuum and embankment loads.

the vacuum and embankment load, the compressibility


becomes smaller.
In general, therefore, the vacuum and embankment
load has produced a marked beneficial effect in reducing the water content and the compressibility of the
subsoils.
6

Figure 4. Time history of surface settlements.

FIELD MONITORING AND TEST RESULTS

The beginning of the vacuum pumping was the time


reference for all the monitored items. The time history
of the application of vacuum and embankment loads
is shown in Figure 3. The vacuum under the membrane rose up sharply in three days and then it stayed
above 80 kPa during the entire field experiment. The
fill for the embankment was added linearly with time
and completed in 19 days. Additional fill was placed
to compensate settlement between day 56 to day 63.
6.1

Surface settlements

The surface settlements during the field test are shown


in Figure 4. During the construction of the sand pad
and the checking of the vacuum pumping for leakage,
it was not possible to measure the surface settlement.
Such surface settlement was estimated using the measured settlement at depths. The maximum settlement
of about 140 cm occurred at the centre of the test area
at the end of construction.
6.2

Settlements at depth and horizontal


deformations

Hole No.2 for settlement rings was destroyed during


the embankment construction. The measured settlements at depth with time from the surviving Hole No.1
are shown in Figure 5. The settlement recorded at the
end of construction for the different layers are summarized in Table 2. The compression with respect to
the original soil thickness ranges from 3.2% to 8.5%

Figure 5. Measured settlements at different depths.


Note: Numbers in brackets are depths in metres.

in the zone with the PVDs with the largest compression being noted in the soft layer. Beneath this zone,
the total compression is 36 cm. Since the boreholes
reached only 40 m in depth, the compression in this
zone is at most 2.4%.
The horizontal deformations measured with the two
inclinometers are similar to each other and the results
of one are shown in Figure 6. It is of interest to note that
when the vacuum was maintained, the top of the inclinometer moved slightly towards the tested area. After
that, when the surcharge and the vacuum were both

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 2. Consolidation time and the comparison of coefficient of consolidation.

soil
Soft soil

Depth
(m)

*Time of
primary
cons.
cv
cvr
cv /cvr
(day)
(m2 /day) (m2 /day)

2.55.5 66
5.58.5 62
8.515.5 44

0.008
0.008
0.033

0.021
0.030
0.072

2.63
3.75
2.18

38

0.067

0.154

2.30

Clay wit
low LL
Sity sand 15.525

Note: *deduced from settlement records from the field;


= coefficient of consolidation obtained from laboratory consolidation test;
= coefficient of consolidation obtained from back-analysis
of the settlement records using the method of Ossen (1977).

Figure 7. Field vane strengths measured at different times.

of the vacuum load has been small and the soils moved
outwards as in an ordinary embankment loading case
without the vacuum.
6.3 Field vane shear strengths

Figure 6. Measured lateral displacements.

operative, they produced a net effect so that the top of


the inclinometer did not move further. The directions
of lateral deformations were towards the inside of the
tested area within the zone with the PVDs. The maximum inward lateral deformations varied with time in
the vacuum application period with the average maximum lateral strain being 0.5%. At other locations, the
inward movement has been much smaller. The inward
horizontal movements suggest that there has been an
appreciable increase in the effective horizontal stress
during the vacuum loading in this zone. On the other
hand, the horizontal movements reversed in direction
below the zone with the PVDs. In this zone the effect

The vane shear strengths of the clay layers obtained


before loading, after the installation of PVDs, and at
the end of the vacuum loading are shown in Figure 7.
The results show that the vane strength decreased
significantly due to the disturbance of the installation
of the PVDs at which time the vacuum had not been
applied. For the soft layer, the drop in vane strength
was 26.3%. This drop reduced the safety factor of the
subsequent embankment to almost 1.0. However, the
embankment was built according to plan with no sign
of distress because the vacuum through the PVDs provided sufficient rise in effective stress to increase the
strength to prevent failure. At the end of construction,
the vane strength in the soft layer regained to almost
1.9 times higher than the original value before construction. This is remarkable as the increase in the clay
layers occurred in 90 days. According to Law (1985),
the increase of vane shear strength of normally consolidated clays is dependent on the vertical effective
pressure and the geometry of the loading. The geometry of this present case falls into those for which a
vane strength increase is possible.
The ratio of cu /po  at different depths is shown in
Figure 8. Initially before construction, the average
ratio of cu /po is 0.24. This is within the range for similar soils (Law 1985). The ratio falls to 0.21 with the
embankment load at the end of construction in spite of
the absolute strength increase. Such a lowered ratio is

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

by the 4.03 m high embankment that added another


75 kPa. By using the one-dimensional consolidation
model, the estimated surface settlement at the centre
of the loaded area is 93 cm. as calculated with Eq. 1.
s = Si = 

Figure 8. Profiles of cu /po with depth at initial state and at


end of construction.

also in line with other cases involving man-made load


(Law 1985).
7

COMPARISON OF MEASURED AND


ESTIMATED SETTLEMENTS

Vacuum preloading combined with the surcharge


embankment load in this case and PVDs causes the
soil to consolidate in a manner that is different from
a regular loading surcharge with PVDs. The vacuum
provides not only an equivalent vertical surcharge,
it also increases significantly the hydraulic gradient
for drainage into the PVDs. Furthermore, the vacuum reaching the soil at depth through the PVDs also
increases the effective horizontal stresses in the soil to
enhance the consolidation effect. Although traditional
analysis does not take into account of the effects of
increased hydraulic gradients and effective horizontal
stress, they are commonly used to interpret the measured results (Imai 1995, Shang 1998,). The traditional
method of analysis is also used in this study for comparing measured and traditionally evaluated results
in terms of the various aspects of the consolidation
process.
7.1 Total settlement
The computation for the total settlement is based on
soil characteristics such as the initial void ratios and
the coefficients of compressibility of sub-soils given
in Table 1. The load condition is given by the vacuum
preloading of 80 kPa acting on an the area of 48 m in
width and 60 m in length, and the surcharge supplied

(1)

where s is the settlement on at the ground surface; si


and Hi are settlement and thickness of soil layer i; avi
is the coefficient of compression; pi is the applied
additional pressure on soil layer i due to the vacuum
and the embankment loads. The prediction point of the
settlement is located at the centre of the test area. The
applied stresses are calculated based on the integration
of Bousssinesq solution.
Eq. 1 is based on one-dimensional settlement with
zero lateral deformation. Any lateral deformation will
increase or decrease the real settlement. For this case
study, inward horizontal movement has been observed
throughout the deformation in the top 25 m of subsoil
in which the PVDs were installed. The Poissons effect
of this inward movement would cause a reduction
in the vertical settlement. Such an effect is reversed
in the subsoil below the depth of 25 m in which the
horizontal movement is outward. These effects will
contribute to the discrepancy between the observed
and estimated settlements. The field measured settlement is about 140 cm, which is significantly higher
than the estimated value of 93 cm. Possible reasons
for this discrepancy will be discussed later.

7.2 Settlement-time relationship


The settlement-time relationship in this case is more
complex than the case of regular loading. In the zone
with the PVDs, the hydraulic gradient during vacuum
loading is quite different from that of regular loading
and the coefficient of consolidation in the horizontal
direction is not equal to that in the vertical direction.
In this analysis, pore pressure dissipation is considered
horizontal towards the PVDs in the top 25 m and vertical below this zone. In the zone with the PVDs, the
consolidation in vertical direction is neglected. The
solution by Barron (1948) is used to calculate the
consolidation in horizontal direction. The equivalent
radius of a PVD is 7 cm. The radius of the equivalent
circle is 84.6 cm for the PVDs installed in rectangular
grid with the spacing of 1.5 m 1.5 m. The settlement
of a layer of thickness H is given by:
S1 (t) = mv pH (1


2
ekmt )
2
M
m=1

(2)

where s1 (t) is the settlement at time t for a soil layer


of thickness H inside the zone with the PVDs. The

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

avi Pi
Hi
1 + e0i

vertical applied stress caused by both the vacuum and


the embankment loads is p .

7.4 Coefficient of consolidation

The measured and the estimated settlements at different depths have been compared. The comparison
shows that the measured settlement (36.0 cm) below
the depth of 25 m is much higher than the estimated
value (17.85 cm). This difference is caused partly by
the settlement of the subsoils below the depth of 40 m,
where there is no information on the compressional
characteristics. All settlements in the layers from the
ground surface to the depth of 25 m are also higher
than the estimated values, especially in the top layer
and the soft clay layer.

Using the settlement records obtained at different


depths, one can determine the observed consolidation
settlements for different layers in the zone with the
PVDs that transferred the vacuum. These settlements
are plotted with the logarithm of time (t) in Figure 10.
By means of Casagrandes log time method, the time
to reach primary consolidation has been evaluated and
the results are shown in Table 2. For these layers, the
time to complete primary consolidation varies from
38 to 66 days, remarkably short time that is beneficial to expedite the construction of the embankment.
The coefficient of consolidation has been obtained
using two different methods. The first, denoted by
cv , is determined from the laboratory consolidation
tests on vertical samples. The second, denoted by cvr ,
is obtained from the settlement records interpreted
using Ossens method (1977) on radial drainage. In
the application of this method, the vacuum is taken as
an instantaneously applied load and the embankment
load a linearly increasing load over a period of 19 days.
The results from both methods are listed in Table 2. A
comparison of these two sets of results shows that the
ratio of the coefficient of consolidation determined
from the observed settlement records to those determined from the laboratory tests range from two to four.
The ratio is not as high as those reported by Leroueil
(1988). The explanation probably lies in the fact that in
the present case, there are opposing factors affecting
the coefficient of consolidation in the field. Factors
that increase the field value are the higher permeability coefficient in the radial (horizontal) direction and
the high hydraulic gradient resulting from the vacuum.
On the other hand, smear effect caused by installing the
PVDs decreases the field permeability.
This is due partly to higher permeability coefficient
in the radial (horizontal) direction and partly to the
high hydraulic gradient resulting from the vacuum.

Figure 9. Estimated and measured settlements at the center


of the test area.

Figure 10. Vertical compressions of subsoil layers from the


surface to a depth of 25 m.

mv =

av
;
1 + e0

= f (kr,n );

M=
n=

(2m 1)
;
2

Km =

2Cvr
;
re2

re
= radius ratio.
rw

kr is the coefficient of conductivity in the radial


direction;
av is coefficient of compression in the vertical direction;
The smear effect due to installation of the drains is
neglected in Eq.2.
The consolidation settlement of the compressible
layer at the depths between 25 m and 40 m is calculated by the conventional Terzaghis one-dimensional
consolidation theory. The calculated consolidation settlements with time at the centre of the loaded area
are shown in Fig. 9. In general the observed settlement rate in the field is higher than the estimated
value.

7.3 Settlements at different depths

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7.5 Void ratio


The void ratio at the end of the field testing can be
estimated in three different ways: 1) laboratory determination of void ratio of soil samples taken at the end
of field testing, 2) theoretical consideration of the compressional characteristics measured in the laboratory
on soil samples taken before the construction, and 3)
analysis of the settlement records. The results obtained
from the three methods for soils within the zone with
PVDs are compared in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12 using the
void ratio determined from method 1 as reference. The
values of void ratio on the x-axis and the y-axis are
the same on the dashed lines in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12.
Fig. 11 shows that void ratio determined from the compressional characteristics measured on soil samples
taken before construction is higher than the actual
measured values. This is consistent with the observation that the measured settlement is higher than
the estimated settlement. Fig. 12 shows that the void

Figure 11. Relationship of void ratios obtained from laboratory tests and from estimated settlements.
Note: ee = void ratio estimated using av and change in effective vertical stress
ed = void ratio determined directly on samples taken after
construction

Figure 12. Relationship of void ratios obtained from laboratory tests and from settlement records.

ratio deduced from the settlement records is approximately equal to the directly measured void ratio. This
implies that the horizontal inward movement caused by
the vacuum load has negligible effect on the vertical
settlement.
8

8.1 Measured vs estimated settlement


The settlements calculated using Eq. [1] in this case are
appreciably lower than the measured settlements. This
observation is in line with those reported in a number of cases (Lou 1992, Shang et al. 1998, Mass et al
2001), except for the soft sensitive clay in Bangkok,
and the results are summarized in Table 3. Possible reasons for the calculated settlements being lower than the
observed values are as follows:
Soil disturbance due to the installation of PVDs
reduces the strength and increases the compressibility
of the subsoils. While this is rarely reported in the literature, the data in this present study show that there has
been a significant decrease (26%) in the vane strength
of the soft clay (Figure 7). The compressibility, though
not measured, must have increased appreciably and led
to settlement in the field larger than the calculated.
The cases with the same observation in Table 3 also
had PVDs installed and soil disturbance could also be
a contributing factor for the observed phenomenon.
The exception is the case in Bangkok featuring soft
sensitive clays. For this type of material, the soil disturbance during sampling and handling in the laboratory
produces a softening effect probably exceeding that of
the disturbance due to the installation of the drains.
Some secondary settlements could have occurred
during the application of the vacuum. According to
measurements by Tang and Shang (2000), and Ye
(1983), the pore pressure reaches a steady value in
10 days I n the subsoils during vacuum application.
Beyond the 10 days, the effective vertical stress therefore remained relatively constant. However, there was
an additional 33% (Tang and Shang 2000) settlement
from day 10 to day 90 beyond that measured in the
first 10 days, clearly indicating the significance of
secondary settlement.
A similar observation can be deduced in the present
study with soils similar to those of Tang and Shang
(2000), and Ye (1983). While no excess pore pressure
measurements have been made in the present study,
the field observed settlements as summarized in Figure 10 show that the consolidation process based on
Casagrandes logarithm time method was completed
before the release of the vacuum. The actual time
of the end of primary consolidation could have been
shorter than that estimated from the field records if
secondary compression had been accounted for. Taking this into consideration, there was ample time for

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DISCUSSION

Table 3.

Comparison on measured and estimated settlements involving vacuum loading.

Reference

Soil characterists

sm /sp

Note

This paper

Clay and silty soil, eo = 0.6 to 1.6,


av = 0.2 to 0.9 MPa1
Soft clay, silty clay to silty sand,

1.21 to 1.50

sm /sp varies with soil layers

1.55
1.11 to 1.37
1.26
1.27

Test area
Along runway
Average of 4 cases
Estimated settlements
obtained based on data
given in the paper

Shang et al. (1998)


Lou (1992)
Mass et al. (2001)
For 5 projects

CH, eo = 1.2 to 1.5


Clay and baymud with organic content,
cc = 0.31.1, eo = 1.031.87
Marine clay deposits cc = 1.2, e0 = 2
Alluvial silty clay cc = 0.9, e0 = 2.5
Bangkok soft clay* cc = 1.11.4, eo = 33.4
Alluvial deposits cc = 0.850.83, e0 = 1.72.1

1.26
1.33
0.82
1.03

Note: sm = measured settlement; sp = estimated settlement; vacuum is taken as 80 kPa

sensitive clay.

secondary compression to occur in the field, giving


a total observed settlement larger than that estimated
from laboratory tests without secondary compression.
Therefore the observed settlement being higher than
the estimated settlement involving vacuum loading
reported in this case is not without precedence. Soil
disturbance due to PVDs installation and secondary
compression are possible reasons for this discrepancy.
8.2

Post-construction settlement

After the construction of the embankment, there will be


additional loads to be applied. The first comes from the
paving materials to finish the road surface for traffic.
This would add about 20 kPa to the embankment. The
second comes from live traffic load, which amounts to
another 20 kPa. Therefore there will be a final addition
of stress of 40 kPa. This is less than the release of
the vacuum load of 80 kPa. Therefore the additional
loading will occur in the over-consolidated state and
hence will only give rise to a small settlement.
8.3 Advantages of the proposed construction
method
The construction of an embankment over soft soils
with simultaneous vacuum loading provides some
advantages over the method of regular surcharge loading. The advantages include speed of construction and
affordability.
The use of vacuum load speeds up the construction process. The application of the vacuum increases
the hydraulic gradient and expedites the consolidation
process. In addition, the application of the vacuum
induces immediate strength increase in the subsoils
in spite of some strength loss due to the installation
of the PVDs. This will enable the construction of the
embankment without delay. In the present case, it took
only 90 days to complete the embankment construction

with full consolidation and little subsequent settlement


due to minor load addition by surface paving and live
traffic load. Using the alternative method of surcharge
loading will take a much longer time.
The common view on vacuum loading is that it is
an expensive method. In reality it is competitive with
the surcharging method. The installation of the vacuum system and the electric power to run it does incur
some costs. In the surcharging method, there is need to
purchase a much larger volume of fill than is needed
for the final embankment. After the surcharging, there
are also expenses involved in disposing the extra fill.
A cost comparison has been made for the two methods for the present case. It has been found that the
cost for constructing the embankment with simultaneously vacuum loading is almost the same as that by the
surcharging method.

A 4-m highway embankment on soft ground with


marginal stability has been successfully constructed
using simultaneous application of vacuum loading.
This method allows the embankment to be built to its
final grade and shape within a short time. The consolidation settlement was complete in 38 to 66 days in
the different layers of the subsoils. Laboratory testing,
field vane shear tests and deformation monitoring have
been conducted to help understand the behaviour of the
subsoils subjected to embankment load with concomitant vacuum load and the following conclusions can be
drawn.
(1) The field vane shear strength decreases appreciably due to mechanical disturbance generated
during the installation of the prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs). For the softest clay layer, such
disturbance led to 26% decrease in the field vane

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CONCLUSIONS

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

shear strength. However, at the end of the embankment construction when the vacuum was released,
the field vane strength regained up to 1.9 times of
the original value.
The observed settlements in different layers are
21% to 50% larger than the estimated values
based on conventional laboratory consolidation
test results. The reason for this phenomenon is due
to softening of the subsoils as a result of mechanical disturbance due to the installation of the PVDs
and secondary compression.
The consolidation coefficients deduced from consolidation settlements under the embankment are
2 to 4 times higher than the values determined
in the laboratory. Three reasons have been suggested for the discrepancy. First, the high hydraulic
gradient created by the vacuum accelerates the
consolidation in the field. Secondly, the PVDs
enable consolidation in the horizontal direction
along which the permeability coefficient. Thirdly,
the smear in the soil caused by installing PVDs has
an opposing effect. The net results that the field
consolidation coefficients are higher than those in
the vertical direction as measured in the laboratory.
Inward horizontal movements have been observed
during the period of vacuum loading. This inward
movement indicates a significant increase in the
effective horizontal stress. This effective stress
increase has been immediate and hence the
strength increase is also immediate, leading to
favourable condition for rapid construction of the
embankment in spite of the decrease in strength
due to the disturbance by the installation of the
PVDs. This horizontal inward movement, however, does not appear to have significant effect
on the vertical settlement based on comparison
of the void ratio measured on soil samples taken
after the completion of the embankment construction and the void ratio deduced with the measured
settlements.
Future loading from paving the road surface and
from traffic will generate a pressure less than the
release of the vacuum.The future loading therefore
will occur in the over-consolidated state with little
further settlement.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial supports for this study from The General
Expressway Company of Jiangsu Province, China
and The Natural Science and Engineering Council of
Canada are gratefully acknowledged. Heartfelt thanks
are due to Ms H. X. Zhang and Ms Y. Yun for
conducting the laboratory experiment.

REFERENCES
Barron, R. A. 1948, Consolidation of the fine-grained soils
by drain wells, Transactions of the ASCE, 718742
Bergalo, D.T., Balasubramaniam, A.S., Fannin, R.J., and
Holtz, R.D. 2002, Prefab. Vert. drains (PVDs) in soft
Bankok clay: a case study of the new Bankok International
Airport Project, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.39,
304315
Choa. V. 1989, Drains and vacuum loading pilot test, Proc.
XII, Intl Conf. On Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, 13471350
Das, B.M., 2001, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering
(Fifth edition), Thomson Learning
Imai, G. 1995, Analytical examination of the foundations to
formulate consolidation phenomena with inherent timedependence, Proc. Int. Sym. Compaction and Consolidation of Clayey Soils, Hiroshima, Japan, Vol.2, 891935.
Kjellman, W. 1952, Consolidation of clayey soils by atmospheric pressure, Proc. Conference on Soil Stabilization,
Massachusettes Institute of Technology, Boston, 258263
Law, K. T. 1985, Use of field vane tests under earthstructures, 11th International Conference Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, San Francisco, 893898
Leroueil S., 1988, Tenth Canadian geotechnical colloquium:
Recent developments in consolidation of natural clays,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 25, 85107
Liu C. Y., Chen S. H., 1999, The application of vacuum combined with surcharge in the construction of expressway,
4th Conference of the Application of PVDs in the Soft
Foundations, Hohai University Press, 432438
Lou, Y. 1992, Improvement of soft clay by vacuum loading, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering (In Chinese), Vol.1,
No.2, 5659
Mass F., Spaulding C. A., Wong P. I. C., and Varaksin S.,
2001 Vacuum Consolidation A review of 12 years
of successful development, Geo-odyssey, ASCE, Virginia
Tech-Blacksburg, VA, USA
Ossen, R. E., 1977, Consolidation under time dependent loading, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division,ASCE,
Vol.103, No. GT1, 5560
Shang, J. Q., Tang, M., and Miao, Z. 1998, Vacuum loading
consolidation of reclaimed land: a case study, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 35, No.5, 740749
Shang, S. Z., 1988, Experimental study of vacuum loading
with surcharge in Shanghai Harbor,Transport Engineering
(In Chinese), No.3, 18
Tang, M. and Shang, J. Q. 2000, Vacuum loading consolidation of Yaoqiang Airport runway, Geotechnique, Vol. 50,
No. 6, 613623
Tsuchida, T. 2001, Settlement of pleistocene clay layer in
coastal area, the reason, prediction, and measure, Soft Soil
Engineering, edited by Lee, C.F., Lau, C.K., Ng, C.W.W.,
Kwong, A.K.L., Pang, P.L.R., Yin, J.H., and Yue, Z.Q.
Ye B. R., 1983, The improvement of soft foundations by vertical drains with vacuum loading, Harbor Engineering (In
Chinese), No.1, 2630

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Failure of a column-supported embankment over soft ground


William M. Camp III
S&ME, Inc., Mount Pleasant South Carolina, USA

Timothy C. Siegel
Berkel & Company Contractors, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA

ABSTRACT: As part of improvements to a roadway in coastal South Carolina, a portion of the road crossing
reclaimed marshland was widened. The new lanes were constructed on a column-supported embankment consisting of sand fill reinforced by geogrid and supported by vibro-concrete columns that penetrate through the
underlying very soft clays and into the local basement stratum. Shortly after construction, the roadway on the
column-supported embankment began to experience distress characterized by an irregular surface with humps at
the column locations and depressions in the areas between column locations. The differential vertical deformation
between the high and low points was sufficiently significant that the owner closed the roadway almost immediately after completion. Forensic study illustrated that the design applied state-of-practice design techniques;
however, certain design assumptions were not consistent with the fundamentals controlling the column-supported
embankment behavior. This paper describes the original design, construction, and the authors forensic study for
this failure.
1

INTRODUCTION

For more than two decades, column-supported


embankments (CSE) have been used to allow rapid
embankment construction over soft compressible
soils. A CSE consists of three components: (1)
embankment material, (2) a load transfer platform,
and (3) vertical elements extending from the load
transfer platform to a firm stratum. The load transfer platform typically consists of granular fill with
horizontal layers of a reinforcing geosynthetic. Conventional pile types were used as the vertical support
element (i.e., the columns) in the early use of columnsupported embankments. For more recent projects,
other types of vertical elements, including soil mix
columns and vibro-concrete columns, have been used
in lieu of conventional pile types. A column-supported
embankment is shown in cross-section in Figure 1.
2

REVIEW OF DESIGN METHODS

A comprehensive design and analysis of a CSE would


require the consideration of a very complicated threedimensional condition involving a complex geometry,
numerous interfaces, and non-linear materials. Considering this, the available design methods make use
of simplifying assumptions that need to be confirmed
as part of the design process.As a minimum, the design
should consider the transfer of the embankment load to

Figure 1. Column-supported embankment (after Collin,


2004).

the columns, the differential settlement at the surface,


and the capacity of the columns.
As illustrated by the numerous recent technical
papers on the subject (Collin, 2004; Collin et al., 2004;
Han and Collin, 2005), the CSE design methods are
still evolving within the engineering community. However, a review of published literature indicates that
there are two general principles common to the existing
design methods:

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soils have some ability to arch over soft zones or


voids (Terzaghi, 1943). The degree of arching is
related to the embankment geometry (i.e., the soil
thickness required to form an arch and the size of the
area that must be spanned by the arch), the strength
and stiffness of the soil, and the movement within

Figure 2. Ground conditions.

the soil mass (which is necessary to mobilize the


soil strength).
Geosynthetics can aid in the transfer of the embankment load to nearby vertical elements or columns
by: (a) promoting an increase in soil arching (Collin,
2004) or (b) acting as a tensioned membrane
(Giroud et al., 1990). The distinction between the
two different purposes of the geosynthetic is crucial to the proper application of the available design
methods.
3

SOUTH CAROLINA CSE CASE HISTORY

3.1 Project background


As part of the improvements to a roadway in coastal
South Carolina, a portion of the road crossing
reclaimed marshland was widened. The new lanes
were constructed on a column-supported embankment consisting of sand fill reinforced by geogrid
and supported by vibro-concrete columns that penetrate through the underlying very soft clays and into
the local basement stratum. Shortly after construction,
the roadway on the column-supported embankment
began to experience distress characterized by an irregular surface with humps at the column locations and
depressions in the areas between column locations
(i.e., dimpling). The differential vertical deformation
between the high and low points (>50 mm or 2 in.)
was such that the owner had to close the roadway
almost immediately after completion. The authors
were retained to review the design calculations and
plans, observe the roadway conditions, and determine
the events that led to roadway distress.

3.2

As illustrated in Figure 2, the ground conditions at


the site consist of the following (from the ground surface): (a) an upper sandy fill layer with a thickness
of approximately 2 m (6.6 ft), (2) very soft marsh clay
with occasional interbedded sand lenses, and (3) a firm
calcareous clay.
3.3

Design review

The basic CSE design is summarized in Figures 3


and 4. The length of the CSE is approximately 310 m
(1017 ft) and its width ranges from 7 to 20 m (23 to
66 ft). The vibro-concrete columns were installed in
a triangular pattern with a center-to-center spacing
of 2.5 m (8.2 ft). The 0.6 m (24 in.) diameter vibroconcrete columns are oversized to about 0.91 m (36 in.)
immediately below the load transfer platform.The load
transfer platform consists of 0.6 m (24 in.) of granular fill with three horizontal layers of Tensar BX 1200
geogrid vertically spaced at 0.2 m (8 in.). The typical
embankment fill thickness was 1.1 m (3.6 ft).
The authors were responsible for review of the CSE
design to determine the cause(s) of roadway distress.
The Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils
and other fills (British Standard 8006, 1995) provides a convenient summary of the failure modes
for column-supported embankments. The ultimate
limit states correspond to strength-related conditions
(e.g., pile capacity and side-slope stability) and the
serviceability limit states correspond to deformationrelated conditions. It is the authors conclusion that
the observed deformation-related condition was consistent with the reinforcement strain failure mode

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Ground conditions

Figure 3. Conceptual drawing of the subject CSE.

Figure 4. Detail of the subject CSE.

(i.e., a serviceability limit state failure) described by


the BS 8006 which is illustrate in Figure 5.
The various design methods attempt to prevent a
reinforcement strain failure by establishing limits on
the ratio of the embankment height to the column spacing and/or ensuring that the load transfer platform is
sufficiently stiff to limit differential vertical deformations. The embankment height-to-column relationship is related to the geometry required to fully develop

arching in the load transfer platform. For a given column spacing, there exists a critical embankment height
at which arching is fully developed. Above the critical height, any additional fill or surcharge loading is
expected to be distributed completely to the columns
with no additional loading of the subgrade between
the columns (Han and Gabr, 2002). Within the various design methods, the assumed critical height ranges
from a minimum of 70% of the edge-to-edge column

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Required Tension (kN/m)

500

Tension (kN/m)

35

Strain (%)

30

400

25

300

20
15

200

10
100

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Settlement Compatible Strain (%)

40

600

90

Surface Settlement, y (cm)

Figure 5. Reinforcement strain limit-state failure from BS


8006.

spacing to a maximum of the center-to-center column spacing (Collin, 2004). For the column geometry
of the subject CSE, the critical embankment height
would range from 1.1 to 2.5 m (3.6 to 8.2 ft) for the
various design methods. As designed and constructed,
the maximum embankment height was 1.1 m (3.6 ft)
and the majority of the embankment was too thin for
arching to fully develop.
In theory, regardless of the degree of arching, it is
possible to fully support the weight of the embankment
on a load-transfer platform that spans the columns.
Giroud et al. (1990) proposed a landfill design procedure that considers the ability of a geosynthetic
beneath a fill to span an underlying void. This tensioned membrane theory, as detailed in TTN:WM3
(Tensar, 1989) was used by the original designers of the
subject CSE. The intention of the design was to have
the horizontal layers of geosynthetic carry the embankment load in tension and transfer the load to the nearby
vibro-concrete columns. For such a design approach, it
is critical to recognize that the vertical displacement of
the embankment fill, the strain in the geosynthetic, and
the resulting tension in the geosynthetic are interrelated. As the fill between columns experiences downward vertical displacement, the geosynthetic begins
to elongate and a tensile stress is mobilized within
the geosynthetic to resist the elongation. For reasons related to geometry, the tensile stress decreases
as the vertical displacement (and the resulting elongation) increases. To avoid a reinforcement strain
failure, a design must achieve compatibility between
the tolerable vertical displacement and the computed
geosynthetic elongation and corresponding mobilized
tensile stress.
Within the original design calculations, the relationship between the strain within the tensioned membrane
and the vertical displacement (i.e., embankment settlement between the columns) was not recognized.
The computations of the geosynthetic strains, vertical displacements, and geosynthetic tension forces
were uncoupled from one another. Due to the strain
incompatibility, the actual CSE was designed and constructed with only three layers of Tensar BX 1200

Figure 6. Strain compatibility relationship in CSE.

geogrid with the expectation that the differential settlement would be less than 25 mm (1in.). According
to Tensar, the long term design strengths of BX 1200
are 3 kN/m (208 lbs/ft) and 6.7 kN/m (454 lbs/ft) in
the machine and cross-machine directions, respectively. Thus, the available combined tension in the
three geogrids would be a maximum of 20.1 kN/m
(1362 lbs/ft).
Figure 6 correctly illustrates the theoretical
behaviour of the tensioned membrane in this case.
The solid line is the relationship between surface
settlement and the corresponding required tension.
The dashed line is the relationship between surface
settlement and the geosynthetic strain (or deformed
shape). As the allowable surface settlement decreases,
the maximum reinforcement strain decreases and the
required geosynthetic tension increases. The design
objective for this project was a surface settlement of
25 mm (1in.) which corresponds to a required geosynthetic tension of 268 kN/m (36,750 lbs/ft). This tension
force is more than 10 times greater that the value used
in the original design. Considering that reinforcement
of this magnitude would not be practical (e.g., 88 layers
of BX1200 would be required), correct design calculations would likely have led to selection of a closer
column spacing.
3.4 Forensic exploration observations
The design deficiencies were sufficient to cause a
serviceability failure but construction deficiencies further exacerbated the distress. Construction documents
indicated that 25 of the 700 vibro-concrete columns
were not installed. The omission of a column means
that the design spacing was exceeded in some areas.
The 4% reduction in the number of vibro-concrete
columns likely increased surface settlement in localized areas, but the performance of the entire embankment was inadequate. Additional post-construction
test pit observations by the authors revealed several
conditions that probably did not reflect the designers
intentions. There was no cutoff elevation specified
for the top of the vibro-concrete columns and the

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as-built elevation of the top of adjacent vibro-concrete


columns varied as much as 0.36 m (1.2 ft). As a result,
the geosynthetic reinforcement was not planar nor
evenly spaced in some areas. While it is understood
that horizontal placement of the geosynthetic reinforcement is an important assumption of the design
method, the authors have not attempted to quantify
the influence of deviations for the subject project.
4

CONCLUDING REMARKS

A column-supported embankment (CSE) was constructed across reclaimed marshland. The embankment was relatively thin (maximum height of 1.1 m
(3.6 ft) and the vibro-concrete columns were spaced at
2.5 m (8.2 ft) center-to-center. Shortly after construction, the roadway surface began to deform with humps
at the column locations with depressions between
column locations. The distressed roadway surface distinctly appeared like the reinforced strain failure
mode described the Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills (British Standard
8006, 1995).
The authors forensic study revealed that the design
did not properly consider the embankment height-tocolumn spacing guidelines and the interrelationship
between embankment settlement and elongation (or
strain) of the tension membrane. Because of this, the
tensile resistance available within the geosynthetic
reinforcement that composed the tension membrane
was substantially under-designed. The authors conclude that the primary cause of the deformation-related
failure was that the embankment load exceeded the
tensile resistance available in the geosynthetic layers at
the elongation corresponding to the design settlement.
The authors were requested to consider mitigation measures following the forensic evaluation. Initial
consideration was given to modifying the existing
CSE structure. While the roadway geometry precluded substantial changes in the embankment height,
it could have been possible to add vibro-concrete
columns and/or re-build the load transfer platform
with a greater geosynthetic reinforcement. The owner
decided that a pile-supported structure would be a
more economical and reliable alternative. The distressed CSE is currently being removed and replaced
with a pile-supported, structural flat-slab structure.

willingness to support the preparation and presentation


of this paper.
REFERENCES
BS 8006:1995, 1999. Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills, British Standards
Institution, London.
Collin, J.G., 2004. Column supported embankment design
considerations. University of Minnesota, 52nd Annual
Geotechnical Engineering Conference.
Collin, J.G., Watson, C.H. & Han, J., 2005. Columnsupported embankment solves time constaint for new road
construction Geotechnical Special Publication No. 131,
ASCE.
Giroud, J.P., Bonapart, R., Beech, J.F. and Gross, B.A.,
1990. Design of soil layer-geosynthetic systems overlying
voids, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Elsevier Science
Publishers Ltd., England, 1150.
Han, J. & Akins, K. 2002. Use of geogrid-reinforced and
pile-supported earth structures, Geotechnical Special
Publication No. 116, ASCE, 668679.
Han, J. & Collin, J.G., 2005. Geosynthetic support systems
over pile foundations GRI-18-Geosynthetic Research
and Development in Progress, Geosynthetic Research
Institute.
Han, J. & Gabr, M.A., 2002., Numerical analysis of
geosynthetic-reinforced and pile-supported earth platforms over soft soils. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 128, No.1, 4453.
Kempton, G.T., Russell, D., Pierpoint, N. & Jones, C.J.P.F.,
1998. Two- and three-dimensional numerical analysis
of the performance of geosynthetics carrying embankment loads over piles. Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Geosynthetics,
Atlanta, Georgia.
Naughton, P.J. and Kempton, G.T., 2005. Comparison of
analytical and numerical analysis design methods for
piled embankments. Geotechnical Special Publication
No. 131, ASCE.
Rogbeck, Y., Gustavsson, S., Sodergren, & Lindquist, D.
1998. Reinforced piled embankments in Sweden-design
aspects. Proceedings of Sixth International Conference
on Geosynthetics, 755762.
S&ME, Inc. 2004. Report of Design Review Virginia
Avenue Roadway Widening. Charleston, South Carolina.
Stewart, M.E., Navin, M.P. & Filz, G.M. 2004., Analysis of
a column supported test embankment at the I-95/Route 1
interchange. Geotechnical Special Publication No. 126,
ASCE.
Terzaghi, K., 1943. Theoretical soil mechanics, John Wiley &
Sons, 510 p.
TTN:WM3 Tensar Technical Note. 1989. Design of Tensar
geogrid reinforcement to support landfill lining and cover
systems, Tensar Corporation, 24 p.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge S&ME, Inc.
and Berkel & Company Contractors, Inc. for their

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Performance of highway embankments on Bangkok clay


Satipong Apimeteetamrong, Jutha Sunitsakul & Attasit Sawatparnich
Bureau of Road Research and Development, Department of Highways, Thailand

ABSTRACT: Department of Highways, Thailand, reconstructed the highway route number 3117 (KlongDanBangbor), which connects two major highways to the eastern part of the country. The highway embankment
constructed on improved soft Bangkok clay; those soil improvement techniques are deep mixing cement column,
shallow cement stabilization, and preload methods. Soft Bangkok clay layer in the reconstruction area is about
1215 meters thick. Total pressure cells, piezometers, inclinometers, settlement plates, and rod extensometers,
have been installed in three soil improvement sections in order to monitor the highway embankment performance
evaluation during and after the reconstruction.

INTRODUCTION

Department of Highways, Thailand, constructed the


national highway route number 3117 (KlongDanBangBor) in 1963 to connect between the national
highways route number 3 (Sukumvith Rd.) and 34
(BangNa-BangPaKong) as shown in figure 1. Since
this highway is founded on the well known soft
Bangkok clay (see figure 2), an excessive settlement is expected; thus, Department of Highways
reconstructed this highway twice in 1988 and 2002,
respectively. The main contractor of the recent reconstruction is Thanasin (1991) Co., Ltd. On the latest reconstruction project, three ground improvement
techniques were introduced. These techniques are deep
mixing cement column, shallow cement stabilization, and preloaded methods. Thicknesses of highway

embankments on these three sections are 1.5, 1.0, and


1.0 meter, respectively (see figure 3 for more information). Due to expected high flood level and low
embankment elevation at shallow cement stabilization
and preloaded sections, small levees are constructed
on both sides of the highway.
In order to monitor the performance of the highway embankment during and after construction, total
pressure cells, piezometers, inclinometers, settlement
plates, and rod extensometers have been installed. In
addition, vane shear tests and soil borings are performed in Bangkok clay layers. Field measurement
data are thoroughly studied and compared with current
geotechnical applications. Recommendations regarding to both geotechnical design criteria and highway
construction on soft Bangkok clay are provided for
future highway construction in the soft Bangkok clay.
Depth
(m)
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32

Figure 1. Map shown the location of the construction site.

BH-6
4+975

BH-7 BH-8
6+300 7+250

Fill Sand Layer

Soft to Very Soft Clay

Medium Stiff Clay

Dense Silty Sand

Stiff
Clay

Figure 2. Soil profiles at the construction site (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

BH-1 BH-2 BH-3 BH-4 BH-5


0+250 1+000 2+000 3+000 4+000

STRIP SODDING

3.0 %

120

STRIP SODDING

3.0%

Plastic Limit (%)

Figure 3.1. Typical cross-section of the highway embankment on the soft Bangkok clay improved by the preloaded
method.
STRIP SODDING

3.0 %

STRIP SODDING

3.0 %

U-Line
PI=0.9(LL-8)

100

EXISTING ROADWAY
5 CM. WEARING COURSE (AC.60-70)
5 CM.BINDER COURSE (AC. 60-70)
20 CM. CRUSHED ROCK SOIL AGGREGATE TYPE BASE GRADE A OR B
ON C.B.R. 80 % (MIN.)
20 CM. SOIL AGGREGATE SUBBASE GRADE A, B OR C ONLY, C.B.R. 25% (MIN)
SAND EMBANKMENT C.B.R. 10 % (MIN.)

80
BKK Clay
PI=0.87(LL-16)
60
40

A-Line
PI=0.73(LL-20)

20
0

EXISTING ROADWAY
5 CM. WEARING COURSE (AC. 60-70)

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

5 CM. BINDER COURSE (AC. 60-70)

Liquid Limit (%)

20 CM. CRUSHED ROCK SOIL AGGREGATE TYPE BASE GRADE A OR B


OC.B.R. 80 % (MIN.)
20 CM. SOIL AGGREGATE SUBBASE GRADE A, B OR C ONLY, C.B.R. 25% (MIN)
SAND EMBANKMENT C.B.R. 10 % (MIN.)

Figure 3.2. Typical cross-section of the highway embankment on the soft Bangkok clay improved by the shallow
cement stabilization.

Figure 4. Plasticity Plots of the Bangkok clay at construction site (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006).
Undrained Shear Strength (10 kPa)
0

3.0 %

12

16

20

3.0 %

UCS: Sta. 0+250

Depth (m)

8
12

UCS: Sta. 2+000


UCS: Sta. 3+000
UCS: Sta. 4+000
UCS: Sta. 4+975

16

UCS: Sta. 6+300


UCS: Sta. 7+250

20
EXISTING ROADWAY
5 CM. WEARING COURSE (AC. 60-70)
5 CM. BINDER COURSE (AC. 60-70)
20 CM. CRUSHED ROCK SOIL AGGREGATE TYPE BASE GRADE
A OR B ON LC.B.R. 80 % (MIN.)
20 CM. SOIL AGGREGATE SUBBASE GRADE A, B OR C
ONLY, C.B.R. 25% (MIN)
SAND EMBANKMENT C.B.R. 10 % (MIN.)

UCS: Sta. 1+000

24

FVT: Sta. 1+000


FVT:Sta. 4+975
FVT: Sta. 6+300

28

Figure 3.3. Typical cross-section of the highway embankment on the soft Bangkok clay improved by the deep mixing
cement column.

Figure 5. Undrained shear strength of the Bangkok clay at


Construction site by unconfined compression and field vane
shear tests (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006).

Three In-situ field vane shear tests were tested on


this investigation in the following stations: 1+000,
4+975, and 6+300. Undrained shear strength profile
is shown in Figure 5. The undrained shear strength in
figure 5 is uncorrected undrained shear strength; however, strength tests by unconfined compression test
are approximately the same as those by field vane
shear tests. On the embankment stability evaluation,
the undrained shear strength obtained from field vane
shear tests is corrected by following the suggestion of
Bjerrum in 1972.

LABORATORY AND FIELD


INVESTIGATIONS

Most of the laboratory investigations were performed


by Pyramid Development International (PDI), Co.,
Ltd., in which laboratory investigations are Atterberg
limits, unconfined compression tests, and consolidation tests. Additional laboratory triaxial tests were
performed at the Bureau of Road Research and Development, Department of Highways. Atterberg limit
results and undrained shear strength from unconfined
compression tests are shown in figure 4 and 5, respectively. The liquidity index of the soft Bangkok clay is
almost indentity. Soil classifications of the Bangkok
clay are CH and CL for soft and medium stiff layers, respectively. The initial void ratio and compression
Index profiles from consolidation tests are shown in
figure 6 and 7 respectively.

Eight total pressure cells, six piezometers, six vertical inclinometers, four horizontal inclinometers, three
rod extensometers, and twelve settlement plates have

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GEOTECHNICAL INSTRUMENTATIONS

Initial Void Ratio


0

160
4

y = 111.4x
R2 = 0.4

140

0
120

E50 (MPa)

Depth (m.)

8
12

100
80
60

16
40
20
24

BH-2
BH-6

20

BH-7

28

0.25

0.5

0.75

1.25

1.5

UCS (MPa)

Figure 6. Inital void ratio profile of the Bangkok clay at


construction site (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006).
Initial Void Ratio
0

Figure 8. Secent modulus at 50 percent of the maximum


compressive strength of samples prepared in laboratory aged
28 days (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006).

0
80
4

y = 68.4x
R2 = 0.8

70
60
12

E50 (MPa)

Depth (m.)

16
20
24
28

BH-2
BH-6

50
40
30
20

BH-7

10

Figure 7. Compression Index profile of the Bangkok clay


at construction site (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006).

0
0

been installed in all three sections in order to surveil the


highway embankment performances during and after
construction. The instrumentation layouts for all three
stations is shown in Apimeteetamrong et al. (2006).
Department of highways contracted the geotechnical instrumentations and monitors to the PDI Co.,
Ltd. and Soil Testing Siam (STS) Co., Ltd. Horizontal inclinometer and settlement plate measurements
are performed by technical staffs from Department of
highways.
4

SOFT CLAY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Since the shear strength resistance of the soft Bangkok


clay is substantial low (see figure 5), three ground
improvement techniques are introduced to the reconstructed highway route number 3117. These ground
improvement techniques are deep mixing cement
column, shallow cement stabilization, and 270-day
preloaded methods.

0.5

0.75

1.25

UCS (MPa)

Figure 9. Secent modulus at 50 percent of the maximum


compressive strength of samples aged 28 days cored from
the construction site (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006).

The deep mixing cement column by dry process is


applied; moreover, the length, diameter, and spacing
of the cement columns are 14, 0.6, and 1.5 meters,
respectively. According to the DOH standard specification, the undrained shear strength of the improved
clay samples should be more than 300 kPa. Following
the trial mix design, the minimum required cement
content at the construction is 200 kg/m3 to achieve the
DOH standard (Hem et al, 2004). The secant moduli at
50 percent of the maximum compressive strength are
shown in figure 8 and 9.Testing results indicate that the
secant modulus of the samples prepared in laboratory
at age 28 days is almost twice of those cored from the
construction site.

125

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.25

40
1st Stage Fill

Soil Improvement Technique

Factor of Safety (F.S.)

Preload
Shallow Cement Stabilization
Deep Mixing Cement Column

1.7
3.9
3.4

Settlement at t (cm.)

Table 1. The safety factor of the slope stability analyses.

The preloaded embankment height is 0.5 meter


without PVD installation. Due to the construction
delay, the preloaded time was over the specified period.
For the shallow cement stabilization, this soil improvement technique has never applied to any constructions of highway embankments in Thailand before.
Following the DOH specification for the subgrade
stabilization, the unconfined compressive strength of
the cement stabilized samples should be more than
600 kPa. DOH engineers who supervised this construction project performed the trial mix design. Based
on the trial mix design, the required ratio between
cement and dry weight of soil aggregate at the construction site is 1.75 percent in order to achieve the
specified compressive strength (Hem et al., 2004).
5
5.1

1-1 Line
20

10

0
0

10

20

30

40

Settlement at t-1 (cm.)

Figure 10. Total settlement evaluation of the shallow stabilized section following the Asaoka method (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006).
Table 2. Total settlement evaluation from various methods.
Evaluation Methods

HIGHWAY EMBANKMENT
PERFORMANCES

Soil Improvement Technique

Terzaghi

Asaoka

FEM

Preload
Shallow Cement
Stabilization
Deep Mixing Cement
Column

63
51

50
35

50
48

21

22

Unit: cm

Stability evaluation analyses

The method of slides so called the Bishop method


is selected to evaluate the stability of the highway
embankments on the improved soft Bangkok clay.
Slope stability analysis results of each embankment
are shown in Table 1.
5.2

2nd Stage Fill

30

Table 3. Engineering properties for the Bangkok clay used


in finite element analyses.

Settlement evaluation

Three methods are chose to evaluate the total settlements of highway embankments. On the finite element
method, the model to calibrate the soft Bangkok clay
is Cam-Clay model, whereas the Asaokas method
(1978) is based on settlement measurements from
the construction site. The total settlement evaluation of the shallow stabilized section following the
Asaoka method is shown in figure 10. Total settlement
evaluation results are shown in Table 2.

Unit
Depth Weight
(m)
(kN/m3 )

eo

Cc

0-15
15-28

3
2

1.8 0.35 0.78 0.150 7*1010


1.2 0.15 0.52 0.065 7*1010

16
18

Cr

k
(m/sec)

and time rate settlement resulting from the finite element analysis for the deep mixing cement column. On
the deep mixing cement column, the permeability of
cement columns used in the finite element analysis is
1000 times that of the Bangkok clay.

5.3 Time rate settlement

5.4 Horizontal displacement

The engineering properties of the Bangkok clay


adopted in the finite element analyses are shown in
Table 3. Field measurements and theoretical evaluations from finite element analyses of the time
rate settlement due to the highway construction are
shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12 for the 270-day
preloaded and shallow cement stabilization sections,
respectively. Figure 13 shows the field measurement

Field measurements of horizontal displacements for


the 270-day preloaded section are shown in figure 14.
Maximum displacements for 270-day preloaded, shallow cement stabilization and deep mixing cement
column are around 120, 100, and 100 mm, respectively
(Field data at 17/08/2005). Maximum horizontal displacement is occurred at around 8 to 10 meters from
the previous embankment level for all sections. Finite

126

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Time (years)
0

Lateral Deformation (mm.)


4

10

100

150

20
Cv, lab
2Cv, lab

30

Depth (m.)

Settlement (cm.)

50

4Cv, lab
40

10Cv, lab
Monitoring Data

50

15

20

Figure 11. Time rate settlements from field measurements


and finite element analyses with various coefficient of
permeability for 270-day preloaded section.

25

8/1/2004

4/2/2004

2/3/2004

1/4/2004

8/5/2004

8/7/2004

8/10/2004

15/2/2005

22/4/2005

17/8/2005

30

Time (years)
0

Figure 14. Field measurement of the horizontal movement


at the 270-day preloaded section.

Settlement (cm.)

0
10

Pore Water Pressure (kPa)

20

30

100

150

200

250

4/2/2004

Monitoring Data
Cv, lab
2Cv, lab
4Cv, lab
10Cv, lab

40

1/4/2004
5

Depth (m.)

50

Figure 12. Time rate settlements from field measurements


and finite element analyses with various coefficients of
permeability for shallow cement stabilization section.

5/8/2004
10

3/11/2004
22/4/2005

15

Hydrostatic

25

Figure 15. Pore water pressure reading from dummy


piezometers of the shallow cement stabilization section.

4
8

5.5 Water pressure distribution

12
16

5/6/2004

20

Time (year)

Settlement (cm.)

50

Finite Element Analysis


Monitoring Data

20

Figure 13. Time rate settlements from field measurements


and finite element analyses for deep mixing cement column
section.

element analysis results under-predict the horizontal


displacement especially the deep mixing cement column section, since 2D finite element analysis is
applied on this study and the inclinometers was
installed between cement columns.

Due to the influence of stress distribution from the


flood protection levee to dummy piezometers for the
shallow cement stabilization and 270-day preloaded
sections, excess pore pressure from highway embankment cannot be estimated; however, promising data are
the hydrostatic pressure deduction due to ground water
pumping as shown in figure 15. Hydrostatic pressure
deduction is not found in the 270-day preloaded and
deep mixing cement column sections since there is no
dense silty sand layer in those area, see figure 2. Excess
pore pressure distribution for deep mixing cement column section is shown in table 4. The dissipation of
the excess pore pressure matches the recent settlement measurements indicating insignificant further
increase in settlement, see figure 13.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 4.

Excess pore water pressure dissipation.

Time (days)

Dissipation of excess pore water pressure


5 m 10 m.
15 m.
20 m.

0
38
105
198
262
351

0
47
57
73
84
98

5.6

0
57
79
88
92
98

0
20
47
62
64
67

0
59
88
98
98
99

Stress distribution on the cement columns

The highway embankment of this section is 1.5 meter


thick. Four Total pressure cells were installed on and
between cement columns. Stress distributions from
highway embankment thru cement columns are 66%
and 55% for the heads of cement columns at level
1 and 0 m, respectively. Low stress distributions to
cement columns coincide with high lateral movements
measured from vertical inclinometers. According to
stress distribution measurements, a stiff layer between
highway embankment and cement column heads is
required to sufficiently transfer embankment loads to
cement columns.

CONCLUSION

The performance of highway embankments with different soil improvement techniques including 270-day
preloaded technique, shallow cement stabilization and
deep mixing cement column is evaluated. The basic
soil properties used in the evaluation of embankment
performance were evaluated by using geotechnical
laboratories and in-situ soil testing techniques.
The relationship between plastic limit and the liquid limit for the Bangkok clay is bounded between the
U-line and A-line. The undrained shear strength of the
Bangkok clay in this area is around 20 kPa for the soft
Bangkok clay and increases with respect to depth for
stiff Bangkok clay. The initial void ratio is about 2.5
to 4 and tends to decrease with respect to depth. At
the depth of 0 to 20 m., the compressibility index is
about 1.5 to 2.8. The compressibility index tends to
decrease with depth when below 20 meters from the
ground level.
The measurements of total pressure cells, piezometers, inclinometers, settlement plates, and rod extensometers installed in the soils beneath the embankment were obtained. The highway embankment performances including stability analyses, settlement
evaluation, time rate settlement, horizontal displacement, water pressure distribution, and stress distribution were performed by comparing the results from

the filed measurement together with the results from


various methods including finite element analyses
(FEA). With some adjustments on the engineering
properties of the soft Bangkok, finite element analyses provide good estimated settlement of highway
embankment. From the slope stability analyses, it is
found that the factors of safety corresponded to three
soil improvement techniques are different. Shallow
cement stabilization tends to provide higher F.S. than
deep mixing cement column and 270-day preloads
techniques, respectively. Horizontal displacement is
expected to occur in the shallow cement stabilization and deep mixing cement column section even
though the safety factor is high. However, deep mixing
cement column method tends to provide the effectiveness in preventing the exceeded total settlement of the
highway embankment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This investigation report is entirely dedicated to Dr.
Teerachati Ruenkrairergsa, who devoted his entire life
for road research works in the Road Research and
Development Center, Department of Highways, before
his untimely passed away in 2003. He has done a lot of
valuable researches in Geotechnical Engineering especially in the area of soil improvement. The Authors
wish to express the profound gratitude to Dr. Teeracharti Ruenkrairergsa for his suggestion, guidance,
and recommendation during his time at Department
of Highways; Mr. Wanchai Mahaveera, KlogdanBangbor project engineer; Mr. Pattana Kopol; and
Mr. Komkrit Deejangpak, for their helps during the
geotechnical instrumentations and measurements. In
addition, the authors would like to thank Mr. Sawat
Srimuangnon for providing the finite element computer program on this study. The authors would like
to thank all the technical staffs at Bureau of Road
Research and Development, Department of Highways,
Thailand for their diligence work in field.
REFERENCES
Apimeteetamrong, S., Sunitsakul, J., and Wachiraporn, S.
2006. The engineering behavior of highway embankments on soft clay during construction of highway number
3117 KlongDan BangBor, Bureau of Road Research
and Development, Department of Highways, Thailand (In
preparation; In Thai).
Asaoka, A., 1978. Observational procedure of settlement
prediction, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 18, pp. 87101.
Bjerrum, L. 1972. Embankments on soft ground, ASCE Conf.
On Performance of Earth and Earth-Supported Structures,
Vol. 2, pp.154.
Hem, NG., Ploykragang, V., Kopol, W., and Janhiran, J., 2004.
Soil improvements at the KlongDan BangBor highway
construction project, Bureau of Materials, Analysis, and
Inspection, Department of Highways, Thailand (In Thai).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Geogrid-reinforced roadway embankment on soft soils: A case study


Reinaldo Vega-Meyer
M.ASCE, Member NAGS; Senior Project Manager-International Division; Tensar Earth Technologies,
Inc., Atlanta, Georgia (USA)

Roberto Sosa Garrido


QC and Pavement Director; Escopo, S.A. de C.V., Mexico City, Mexico

Alberto Ramrez Piedrabuena


Project-Studies Director; Escopo, S.A. de C.V., Mexico City, Mexico

Ignacio Narezo Larios


Customer Support; Tensar Earth Technologies, Inc., Mexico City, Mexico

Ramn Pico Lapuente


Highway and Special Projects Engineer; Obrascn Huarte Lain, S.A. (OHL), Madrid, Espaa

ABSTRACT: Building earth structures on soft soils is one of the toughest challenges in civil engineering.
Due to the fill embankment and surcharges, the settlements associated to the overburden pressures are one of
the major concerns in roadway embankment construction. Several methods of support improvement have been
in practice for years (e.g. excavation/fill replacement, stone filling, Corduroy, etc.), but recently, geosynthetic
reinforcement has been successfully incorporated as an efficient way to improve the weak soil conditions. This
paper focuses on a case study that introduces a geogrid-reinforced roadway embankment located in the Texcoco
Lake, near Mexico City, Mexico. The structure consists of an embankment with variable heights to be built in
two different conditions: dry and saturated. The most critical section was in the saturated zone (lake) where
the maximum embankment height was 2.80 m and the water level was at 1.80 m, leaving only 1.0 m of dry
embankment body. The embankment was built on highly compressible saturated clay layers up to 40.0 m deep,
and moisture of up to 300%.
The paper presents project design information, settlement observations, and performance evaluation. The performance of the embankment was observed during and after construction using inclinometers, and deep and surface
surveying equipment. A presentation of this performance and results about the predicted vs. actual embankment
settlements are included in the paper.

INTRODUCTION

Building embankment structures over weak soils have


always been an engineering challenge especially when
the subsoil is saturated or as water levels fluctuate and
raise several centimeters above the original subgrade
surface or base of the embankment.
A typical solution for providing a competent foundation structure is excavation and, in some cases, overexcavation and replacement with selected fill material.
This procedure translates into more construction time,
more equipment, more labor involved, and at the end,
is more expensive. This construction methodology has
been in practice for decades but in recent years this has
been gradually changing. Not only the stability of the

embankment has been an issue, its settlement has, as


well. Therefore, a competent support system must be
supplied in order to obtain controlled settlements and
appropriate internal and global stability.
A conventional embankment on soft soil has some
typical modes of potential failures (see Figure 1) such
as: bearing capacity, global stability, elastic deformation/settlement, pull-out or anchorage, and lateral
spreading.
The inclusion of geosynthetic reinforced materials
in civil works is now more common and is expanding
due to the research and development of MSE structures
and foundation improvement systems. Using materials with the proper characteristics to provide the
improvement needed is key. Therefore a structurally

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 1. Potential failure modes of embankments on weak


soils (after Koerner et al., 1987).

formed geosynthetic with high flexural rigidity and


aperture stability is most appropriate under critical
conditions of high stresses from the embankment and
low bearing capacity from the subgrade. The geosynthetic known as geogrid has different orientation
strengths: one direction (Uniaxial) or two directions
(Biaxial); the case presented in this paper was constructed using Biaxial Geogrids, BX1200 (Type I) and
BX1100 (Type II) as geosynthetic reinforcement.

2
2.1

CASE STUDY
General project information

As a consequence of Mexico becoming a member of


NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement), a
different vision on Export and Import issues emerged;
therefore it was necessary to plan a feasible way to provide a route for the increase of heavy trucks carrying
different type of goods.
The presented roadway project is called Circuito
Exterior Mexiquense, CEM, (Mexican Outer Circuit)
and is part of a large project where the government
is trying to facilitate and alleviate the heavy traffic
from the Atlantic to the northern part of the country.
This roadway is classified by the SCT (Secretara de
Comunicaciones y Transporte, or Communications
and Transport Secretariat) as a SCTA4, whereA stands
for High Specifications, and 4 stands for Four lanes.
The first stage of the project started in 2003 and this
case study was part of it beginning its construction at
the end of 2003 and finishing during the first half of
2004. The second stage of the project has been completed at the time this paper is being written, and it was
inaugurated at the end of June, 2004.
This part of the project (15 KM) is located between
the cities of Ecatepec and Texcoco inside the State of
Mexico, and the studied case is specifically located in
the surroundings of the Texcoco Lake (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Location of part of the CEM project (case study


location is circled).

2.2 Subsurface conditions


The conditions encountered on site were extremely difficult and not suited to support any kind of structure,
therefore the original solution was over-excavation and
replacement with imported-selected material. Looking at one of the boring logs (SM-3) supplied by the
soil laboratory and summarized in Table 1, it was
found a soft surficial frosted (desiccated as a consequence of long term sun exposure) clay layer from
0.0 m2.40 m deep, from 2.4 m24.8 m a soft clay
layer (CH), from 24.8 m30.0 m a stiff layer of clay
(CH), and from 30.0 m40.0 m it was found a layer of
clay (CH) with medium consistency. The exploration
stopped at 40.0 m deep where a better soil consistency
was found (N = 50).
Some zones were completely saturated (under
water), making the construction of the embankment
to support the roadway difficult. The option to relocate the new roadway was considered, but the costs
were excessive.
In the next pages the analyzed section will be presented, and how the final section was design in order to
build a reliable embankment on these very weak soils,
providing first a stable working platform allowing the
construction of the body of the embankment, and the
flexible pavement structure.
2.3 Analysis and design
Basically, three types of analyses were considered to
govern the stability of the embankment in this case:
bearing capacity, global stability, and settlements. The

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

Boring Log No. SM-3 Subsoil properties.

B.L
No.

DEPTH
m

AVG
N

SOIL TYPE
USCS

cfound
kPa

( )

Gw
%

SM-3

0.02.4
2.46.2
6.29.7
9.713.0
13.016.5
16.519.7
19.723.3
23.333.1
33.136.5

3
0
0
0
0
0
0
29.5
5.5

CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH

2.6
6.9
7
4.7
5.5
6.4
4.8
5.3
3.3

24.5
19.6
26.5
19.6
42.1
50
59.8
44.1
56.8

5.2
2.4
0.3
3.2
2.6
1
6.8
6.5
15.7

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

The analysis was done using commercial type software (G-Slope) that uses the Modified Bishop method
of analysis which takes into account this kind of circular failures throughout the system being analyzed.
Figure 3 shows the output screen graph for one of
the saturated sections analyzed and displaying the
minimum Factor of Safety of 1.169 related to the
potential failure circle for one of the analyzed sections
under seismic conditions with a horizontal acceleration design coefficient of 0.13 g. In the analysis
process two different conditions were considered: saturated (this condition controlled the design) where the
embankment is flooded, and dry (unsaturated) where
the embankment is above the water table.
Figure 3. Global stability analysis of a section in saturated
conditions.

original proposed maximum embankment height was


2.8 m (to reach the designed roadway elevation), with
3H:1V side slopes and a 23.0 m crest width.
Bearing Capacity: There is a limit of the embankment
height that can be placed on a given subgrade without
reinforcement (geogrid). Using conventional geotechnical engineering theory it was found that the existing
subgrade was unable to withstand the stresses generated by the embankment. Following is an illustrative
example of one of the preliminary analyses done on a
particular section based on boring log SM-3 (Table 1);
H = 2.8 m; FSreq = 2.0; Clay layer thickness, D = 7 m;
Fill Unit Weight, f = 17.5 kN/m3 ; cfoundation = 19.6 kPa
Bearing Capacity Factors: Unreinforced, Ncu = 4.25,
Reinforced, Ncr = 5.82 (Bonaparte & Christopher,
1987)
Then, FSu = c.Ncu /f . H = 1.7 < 2.0 (LOW), and
FSr = c.Ncr /f .H = 2.3; OK.
Global Stability: Deep seated circular failures are also
common in these types of structures due to the lack
of support from the foundation soil and the overburden stresses exerted by the new mass on top of it. The
embankment mass tends to rotate in part or as a whole
as a consequence of the poor resistance of the subsoil.

Settlements: In addition to the stability of the embankment, settlements were one of the most important
issues in this project because this new fill must support
an important highway.
Using conventional geotechnical methods (e.g. onedimensional analysis), and based on test results (e.g.
boring log SM-3 shown in table 3) it was estimated that
the settlements fluctuate approximately 40% to 70%
of the embankment height.
Due to different fill materials on site (Tezontle &
Gravelly soil), it was necessary to do the analyses
using a unit weightAverageValue of 17.5 kN/m3 for the
material identified as Tezontle (volcanic lightweight
material), that is an increase of 59% over the original
project specified value of 11.0 kN/m3 . The settlement
analyses were done based on boring log SM-3 (Table
1) and two specific sections:
a) KM137 + 520 Dry zone
b) Rama 600 (KM600 + 117 KM600 + 317) Saturated zone
Taking in account the above-mentioned variation,
settlement-time graphs were prepared to show four
different curves identified as follows:
1) Project Conditions: according to project requirements
2) Unfavorable Condition: unit weights are higher
than project specifications

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

t (years)
Settlement (cm)

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

20.0
70.0
120.0
170.0
Unfavorable Condition

Favorable Condition

Project Conditions

Average

Figure 6. Final designed and built section of the roadway


embankment.
Table 2.

Figure 4. Settlement vs. time for KM 137 + 520.

Fill material properties.

Material

, kN/m3

, deg

c, kPa

Tezontle
Gravelly soil

14.0
21.0

34.0
38.0

0.0
0.0

Settlement (cm)

t (years)
20.0
100.0
180.0
260.0
340.0

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

40.0

Unfavorable Condition

Favorable Condition

Project Conditions

Average

The designed and built section is shown in Figure 6


and It consists of variable height up to 2.8 m, a crest
width of 23 m, and side slopes from 3H:1V to 2H:1V,
containing the following materials:

2.4 Designed embankment section

a) A layer of Type I Biaxial Geogrid (BX) was placed


over a non-woven polyester geotextile, 270 gr/m2
(8.0 oz./sy) placed on top of the original subgrade. The geogrid overlaps were 1.0 m, and side
embankment slopes of 3H:1V.
b) A variable thickness layer of free draining granular
fill identified on-site as Black Tezontle (volcanic
lightweight material) was placed on top of the Biaxial Geogrid. This fill thickness depended on the
maximum water level (submerged fill).
c) A second layer of a Biaxial Geogrid (BX), Type
II, was placed on top of the compacted granular
Tezontle, with geogrid overlaps of 0.8 m.
d) A layer of Tezontle with variable thickness, was
placed on top of the biaxial geogrid (Type II) as
most part of the embankment body (about 70% of
the embankment body).
e) Gravelly material was then placed besides the
Tezontle to conform the lateral parts of the
embankment body. The purpose of placing this
material was to alleviate the normal embankment
deformation in its bottom center and help to it to
deform more uniformly by reducing differential
settlements below the embankment).

Several options were originally considered to enable


the embankment to be built on the very soft soil: excavating some of the soft soil and replacing it with select
fill, mixing cobles into the weak subsoil to improve
bearing capacity, driving wooden piles, and building an
embankment with fill having different unit weights in
order to control differential settlements. After a Value
Engineering (VE) process, it was determined that the
solution chosen should be the easiest, fastest and most
reliable.
Therefore, the proposed reinforced embankment
was submitted to the owners consultants for review.

Note that in the preliminary bearing capacity analysis


and for the global failure analysis of the embankment
section an average value of = 17.5 kN/m3 was used
taking into account the two types of fill used for construction (Tezontle + Gravelly soil as seen in Figure 6
above). The fill and geogrid material properties are
presented in Table 2 and Table 3 respectively.
The properties for the integrally formed geogrid
material used in the design are shown in Table 3; both
are biaxial oriented polypropylene grids.
The construction of the embankments started in
October, 2003, and finished in March, 2004. An

Figure 5. Settlement vs. time for Rama 600.

3) Favorable Condition: unit weights are lower than


project specifications
4) Average: unit weight average value between (2) and
(3)
The following Figure 4 shows the predicted settlements
over time for the monitored embankment section
identified as KM 137 + 520.. It was estimated that
settlements of 30 cm would occur in six months and
settlements of 41 cm in one year. Figure 5 shows
the predicted settlements over time for the monitored
embankment section identified as Rama 600. It was
estimated that settlements of 67.3 cm would occur in
six months and 97 cm in one year.
It is clearly noted from the above graphs/figures
that the adverse unit weight changes (taken herein as
an average value) directly affects the embankment
settlements where an increment of up to 32% for KM
137 + 520, and an increment of up to 27% for Rama
600 were calculated.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 3.

Geogrid reinforcement properties.

Table 4.

Property

Units

Type II

Type I

Aperture
Stability
Modulus at
20 cm-kg
Rib Shape

cm-kg/deg

3.2

6.5

Rib Thickness
Nominal
Aperture
Size
Junction
Efficiency
Flexural
Rigidity
Minimum
True Initial
Modulus in
Use
MD
CMD

BENCH MARKS
(BNF N )
EMBK KM

N/A
mm
mm

Rectangular
or Square
0.76
2533

Rectangular
or Square
1.27
2533

93

93

mg-cm

250,000

750,000

1
2
3

REINFORC.
TYPE
Center

146 + 085 BX Grid


146 + 135 BX Grid +
Geotextile
146 + 185 Unreinforced
146 + 235

1&2
3, 4 &
5
6, 7 & 8
9, 10 &
13

Shoulder
Right
Left
18 & 19

11 & 12

15

16 &
17

14 &

BNF1
BNF2

BNF19
BNF18
BNF3
BNF4
BNF5

BNF17
BNF16
Open Piezo.
Pneumatic Piezo.

kN/m
kN/m

250
400

410
620

BNF1
BNF11
BNF12

MD: Machine Direction of the roll


CMD: Cross Machine Direction of the roll

BNF9
BNF10
BNF13

additional embankment fill height of 0.40 m was taken


into account and at the end of September 2004 (six
months later), construction started on the pavement
structure.

Field instrumentation layout and


observations

Inclinometer

BNF15
BNF14

Figure 7. Locations of: BNF1 to BNF19, Piezometers EP1,


EP2, & EP3, and Inclinometers located on the Dry zone
embankments.

for dry zone followed by those for the saturated


zone.

To monitor the embankment behavior and performance


during and after construction, pore water pressures,
lateral displacements and settlements were monitored.
Some instrumentation used for these purposes was:
A. Surveying: to monitor settlements (Bench marks
identified hereto as BNF and BNF-RP) for dry and
saturated locations respectively.
B. Piezometers
C. Inclinometers
A. Bench marks (BNF) surveying
Some of the BNFs were removed/destroyed during
construction and their readings were taken for only
a short period of time. Therefore, the readings considered in this case study are:

BNF1 to BNF6 for the Dry zone readings taken


during 7.4 months.
BNF-RP4, BNF-RP6, and BNF-RP9 for the Saturated zone readings taken during 5.5 months.
The above-mentioned information will be presented
by zones, beginning with the information and results

Dry zone

Table 4 shows the instrumented embankments located


in the dry zone, their location (by stations), Bench
Mark (BNF) numbers, and type of reinforcement if
any. The BNFs reported in this case study are shown
in bold print.
Figure 7 shows the bench marks identified as
BNF, from BNF1 to BNF19 installed on the
embankment located on the dry zone, between
KM146 + 060 & KM146 + 260. The readings were
taken for a different number of days (e.g. BNF1-BNF6:
221 days; BNFs 7,8,10,13 & 15: 155 days; BNFs 9,
11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18 & 19: 141 days) from December
2003 to July 2004.
Figures 8 and 9 show the results of the survey readings done on Embankments 1, 2, and 3 from BNF1
through BNF6 at the locations shown on Table 4 previously. A summary of this data is presented in Table 5.

Saturated zone

Table 5 shows the instrumented embankments located


(by stations) in the saturated zone. The bench marks

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

BNF7
BNF8
BNF6

Bench Marks (BNF)

2.5

Instrumented embankments on dry zone.

2229.40
2229.30
2229.20

ELEVATION (m)

2229.10
2229.00
BNF2
2228.90
2228.80
2228.70
2228.60

Open Piezo.
Pneumatic Piezo.

2228.50
2228.40
BNF1

2228.30

2228.20
1-Dec-03 1-Jan-04 1-Feb-04 1-Mar-04 1-Apr-04 1-May-04 1-Jun-04 1-Jul-04 1-Aug-04 1-Sep-04

Inclinometer

DATE

Figure 10. BNF-RP1 to BNF-RP12, Piezometers EP4 &


EP5, and Inclinometers located on the Saturated zone
embankments.

Figure 8. Survey readings for BNF1 & BNF2.


2229.40
2229.30
2229.20
2229.10
BNF3

ELEVATION (m)

2229.00

2229.00

2228.90

BNF4

2228.90

2228.80

2228.80

2228.70
BNF5

2228.60

2228.70
BNFRP6

2228.50
2228.60
2228.30

ELEVATION (m)

2228.40
BNF6

2228.20
2228.10
2228.00
1-Dec-03

1-Jan-04

1-Feb-04 1-Mar-04

1-Apr-04 1-May-04

1-Jun-04

1-Jul-04

1-Aug-04

2228.50
BNFRP4

2228.40
2228.30
2228.20

1-Sep-04

DATE

2228.10
BNFRP9
2228.00

Figure 9. Survey readings for BNF3, BNF4, BNF5, &


BNF6.
Table 5.

2227.90
2227.80
1-Dec-03

EMBK KM

1-Feb-04 1-Mar-04

1-Apr-04 1-May-04
DATE

1-Jun-04

1-Jul-04

1-Aug-04

1-Sep-04

Instrumented embankments on saturated zone.


Figure 11. Survey readings for BNF-RP4, BNF-RP6 &
BNF-RP9.

BENCH MARKS
(BNF-RP N )

1-Jan-04

REINFORC.
TYPE
Center

600 + 174 BX Grid +


Geotextile
600 + 227 Unreinforced
600 + 288

Shoulder
Right
Left

6, 7, 8,
9 & 10
1, 2 & 3

There are some interesting findings derived from


previous Table 6:

4&5
11 &
12

(BNF-RPs) reported in this case study are shown in


bold print.
Figure 10 shows the bench marks identified as
BNF-RP, from BNF-RP1 to BNF-RP12 installed
on the embankment located on the saturated (flooded)
zone, between KM600 + 117 & KM600 + 317, (Rama
600).
The following Figure 11, shows the results of the
survey readings taken on Embankments 5 and 6 from
BNF-RP4, BNF-RP6, and BNF-RP9 at the locations
shown on Table 5. A summary of these curves are presented in Table 6 with an interpretation of the results
as well.
All of the above presented settlements from the surveying point readings are summarized and compared
between the theoretical, maximum average, and cumulative average values in Table 6 (embankment #4 was
not taken into account).

a. On the Dry zone, the maximum settlements


(between 12/02/03 and 7/09/04) that occurred at the
middle of the embankments are less on Embankment 2 (reinforced with BX grid and geotextile-as
a filter, than Embankment 1 (reinforced with BX
grid), and Embankment 3 (unreinforced). The difference is about 27% between the lower (10.7cm)
and the cumulative average settlements are slightly
less than the Maximum Average settlements.
b. On the Saturated (flooded) zone, the maximum
settlements (between 1/23/04 and 7/09/04) that
occurred at the middle of the embankments are
less for Embankment 5 (reinforced with BX grid
and geotextile-as a filter, than for Embankment 6
(unreinforced). The difference is about 4% between
the lower (14.6 cm) and the higher (15.2 cm) settlement. It is also noted that the cumulative average
settlements are slightly less than the maximum
average settlements.
c. The embankments located in the dry zone settled
less than those on the saturated zone even under a
shorter survey-reading period of time, as expected.
d. As this paper is being written, there is a good performance in Embankments 2 and 5 (reinforced with

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 6.

Summary of results from survey readings.

ZONE

EMBK

DRY

1
2
3
5
6

FLOODED

FROM
THEORET.
(%)

CUMULATIVE
AVG3 (cm)

FROM
THEORET.
(%)

11.4
10.7
14.7
14.6
15.2

27
25
34
34
35

10.1
10.5
14.7
13.5
15.2

23
24
34
31
35

Settlement calculated from standard consolidation theories. The effect of reinforcement is not considered.
Maximum average value from different survey readings (BNFs) of a certain embankment.
Average of settlement readings of an embankment, from data between the initial and final reading reported.

Pore Pressure (kg/cm2)

43

MAX.
AVERAGE2
(cm)

60.00

60

50.00

50
Pore Pressure (Kg/cm2)

THEORETICAL1
(cm)

40.00
30.00
20.00

40
30
20
10

10.00
0
0

0.00
0

50

100

150

200

Depth:14.55m

Time(days)
Depth:14.5m

Depth:38.5m

Depth:54.5m

Pore Pressure (kg/cm2)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
50

100

150

200

250

Time (Days)
Depth:14.5m

Depth:27m

Depth:38.5m

Depth:54.5m

Figure 13. Pore pressure data from piezometer EP2 Dry


zone.

BX Geogrid and geotextile the later as a filter).


Therefore, this type of reinforcement was chosen
as a standard to be used in this project.
B. Piezometers (EP)
There were five piezometric stations (open and pneumatic type) monitored (see locations in Figures 7 and
10). Three were in the dry zone (EP1, EP2, and EP3
Figures 12, 13 and 14), and two were in the saturated
zone (EP4 and EP5). Figures 15a & 15b show the pore

131

82
13
26
Time (Days)

Depth:22.65m

08

8 160 222

Depth:38.5m

Depth:53.45m

pressure behavior at different depths. The gaps in the


curves mean that no readings were taken on those days.
On January 12, 2004, the open piezometer stations
were cleaned (injecting pressured water through the
piezometer from the surface) ; this is the reason for
the change on the curve shape after the 66th day of
readings.
After June 8, 2004 (day 188), the pore pressure readings from EP2 to EP5 show an increase and then tend
to level off. It is also noted that this increase in the
pore pressure occurs as deep as 30.0 meters. Below
this depth, the pore pressure diminishes, probably due
to the presence of deep water pumps in the area.
Data is not available on site filling advance/progress.
It is known that the total embankment fill height plus
40 cm was placed (as a preload) with the intention of
leaving that section to settle for six months in order
to accelerate the initial consolidation. However, due to
time concerns the roadway embankment and pavement
structure was completed.
C. Inclinometers
Six Inclinometers were installed at the locations shown
in Figures 7 & 10, four on embankments located on dry
zone and two located on embankments on saturated

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 14. Pore pressure data from piezometer EP3 Dry


zone.

Figure 12. Pore pressure data from piezometer EP1 Dry


zone.

250

Pore Pressure (kg/cm2)

60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
0

50

100
150
Time (Days)

(a)
Depth:14.5m

Depth:22.7m

200

Depth:36.7m

250
Depth:54.5m

Pore Pressure (kg/cm2)

60.00
50.00
40.00

Photo 1. Placement of the non-woven geotextile and biaxial


grid on top of the existing subgrade.

30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00

50

100
150
Time (Days)

200

250

(b)
Depth:14.8m

Depth:29.75m

Depth:37.2m

Depth:54.5m

Figure 15. (a), (b). Pore pressure data from piezometer


EP5 Saturated zone.
Table 7.

Inclinometer Results based on 26 days of readings.


MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM
RATE OF
DISPLACEMENT MOVEMENT
(mm)
(mm/month)

EMBK #
D
S

D
S

1
2
3
5
6

STAT.

AXIS A AXIS B

AXIS A AXIS B

146 + 085
146 + 135
146 + 210
600 + 174
600 + 261

11.66 10.44
9.57 4.72
37.55 28.42
102.40 15.14
83.29 45.42

18.43
5.51
149.03
50.43
79.47

Photo 2. Construction progress in saturated conditions


(note the two-type of fill materials).

14.15
9.55
142.08
30.70
51.77

Embankments on Dry zone


Embankments on Saturated zone

zone. The readings shown in Table 5 were taken from


January 7, 2004 to June 16, 2004.
The Inclinometers were used to check for the
magnitude, direction, and rate (velocity) of displacements developed at different depths. The following
table reports the cumulative average displacements by
Axis (or Center Line), zone, embankment number,
date, and rate of movement.
From Table 7 it is noted that the embankments
located on the dry zone such as #2 (reinforced with
BX geogrid and geotextile-as a filter, had the lowest magnitude and rate of displacement, followed
by embankment #1 (reinforced with BX geogrid),
and embankment #3 (unreinforced) which had
displacements 4 to 6 times more than the other two. All

the displacements occurred toward the water channel


named Canal del Dren General del Valle as expected.
Embankments #5 and #6 located on the saturated
zone, showed greater magnitude of displacements
compared to the embankments from the dry zone, but
they do not show any potential problem that might
affect the stability of the embankments in terms of
lateral displacements.
2.6 Installation
The installation of the geogrid reinforcements had
a very important role in the construction process
since they supplied a stable working platform. Adequate overlaps, medium size equipment, appropriate
fill material, and closed supervision are crucial when
building these types of structures on soft soils. Pore
water pressure must be observed and controlled to
avoid dangerous situations and critical failures.
Photos 1 4 illustrate part of the installation process
under saturated conditions.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3. The embankment reinforced with a geogrid only,


experienced an intermediate level of behavior and
performance.
4. The embankment settlements compared with the
theoretical values are 25%34% less for the
embankments in the dry zone, and 34%35% less
for the embankments in the saturated zone.
5. The initial pore pressure was increased to a depth
of 30.0 m due to the stresses induced by the application of the embankment fill and construction
equipment. It was noted that beyond 30.0 m this
pressure decreased, mainly because of the presence
of deep well water pumps in the area.
6. The unreinforced embankment had horizontal displacements that were four to six times greater than
those in the embankment reinforced with two layers
of BX geogrid and geotextile (the later as a filter).
7. The embankments located in the saturated zone
experienced greater displacements compared to
those located in dry zones, however their behavior
and performance are within limits.
8. Monitoring the test sections and other sections
located in zones with similar conditions should
continue to fully determine long term performance secondary consolidation will influence the
behavior of the embankments.
9. The inclusion of the BX geogrid and geotextileas a filter), placed on the original subgrade, made
possible the access to the saturated (flooded) zones
and the construction of the embankments.
10. At the time this paper is written (April, 2006), the
performance and behavior of the reinforced section
is satisfactory even though the actual TPDA (Average Annual Daily Traffic) is three times higher than
the estimated in the design:

Photo 3. Geogrid and fill placement under saturated


conditions.

Photo 4. Finished embankment section.

2.7

Cost effectiveness

This section of the project consisted on 15 KM of roadway embankments on weak soils, was constructed in
70% of the allotted time, (3 months ahead of schedule).
Consequently considerable monetary savings were
realized.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Based on the results from the instrumented sections, the maximum settlement occurred at the
center of the embankment.
2. The reinforced section where Geogrid Type I and
geotextile (the later as a filter) and Geogrid Type II
(second layer of reinforcement at higher elevation)
were used, performed best in terms of settlement
and stability; this condition allowed to create a
working reinforced platform, improving the poor
bearing capacity of the existing foundation soil.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special acknowledgement to Geoproductos Mexicanos S.A. de C.V. (Mexico) for their contribution
in the geogrid/geotextile installation process and site
assistance during the first phase of the project that was
critical on the performance of the reinforced embankments; to the owners consultants Escopo, S.A. de C.V.
(Mexico), for taking the instrumentation readings and
for their efforts and help in providing all the data; and
to the contractor, Obrascn Huarte Lain (OHL), for
giving permission for the use of their proprietary information that helped in the preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES
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137

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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TPDA(actual) = 60,000/day

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138

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Monitoring the staged construction of a submerged embankment on soft soil


W.F. Van Impe & R.D. Verstegui Flores
Laboratory of Geotechnics, Ghent University, Belgium

J. Van Mieghem & A. Baertsoen


Ministry of Flanders, Belgium

P. Meng
Dredging International, DEME Group, Belgium

ABSTRACT: The present paper illustrates the outcome of the monitoring of the consolidation behavior of a soft
foundation soil under a large partially submerged sand embankment. Measurements of settlements and excess
pore water pressures showed a good agreement with predictions evaluated using the large strain consolidation
theory. The more conventional small strain theory was shown to overestimate the dissipation of pore water
pressure and underestimate settlements.

INTRODUCTION

As in many harbor areas all around the world, the harbor of Antwerp is experiencing an increasing need
of room for storing excavated soil or dredged material resulting from internal construction projects and
maintenance of its waterways.
Such need has encouraged the design and currently ongoing construction of a partially submerged
embankment, with an approximate height of 27 m,
to divide an existing dock (Doel) and to use the
available space behind the embankment to deposit
dredged material (Fig. 1). The challenge of this
project was the fact that the embankment had to
be built on a very soft soil deposit (not removable
because of geoenvironmental considerations) which
is the result of years of sedimentation and self-weight
consolidation.

Figure 1 illustrates the final design choice out


of an optimization in which numerous preliminary
design option were worked out. Given the soft consistency and very low bearing capacity of the foundation
soil, it became clear that some kind of foundation
layer reinforcement was required. Therefore ground
improvement by a novel deep mixing technology, SSI
(Soft Soil Improvement), was proposed. A detailed
description of this technology and properties of the
treated soil were studied in detail by Van Impe &
Verstegui (2006).
As illustrated in the figure, only foundation soil at
the toes of the embankment was improved by installing
SSI deep mixing columns. These improved zones were
meant not only to provide extra safety but also to
confine the soft soil under the embankment.
A slope stability analysis showed, as expected, that
short-term stability (that is the construction phase)

Figure 1. Scheme of the partially submerged embankment design.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

was the most critical. So, special measures had to be


taken to avoid early instability problems. Unavoidably,
a staged construction was implemented.
Since staged construction relies on the strength
increase of a foundation soil due to consolidation, an
accurate evaluation of the consolidation degree had to
be achieved. However, initial estimations of consolidation degree (at the design stage) showed a considerable
difference between the consolidation behavior of the
soft soil when implementing small strain consolidation
theories (e.g. Terzaghi) and large strain consolidation
(e.g. Gibson et al., 1967).
Before the initiation of construction works, instrumentation was mounted in the foundation layer to
allow the monitoring of excess pore water pressure
(PWP) and settlements due to the embankment load.
The outcome of these measurements during construction showed a good agreement with large strain
consolidation predictions.
The sand used for the construction of the embankment was mainly obtained from excavation works and
residues of the simultaneous construction of a dock
nearby. The sand was selected on the basis of its
grain size distribution and fines content so that optimum results of density and strength are obtained after
hydraulic placement. Up to now, about 70% of the total
height of the embankment has been reached and regular quality control by means of CPT has confirmed
the suitability of this material.

Physical properties of the soft soil.

Index

Value

Liquid limit (%)


Plastic limit (%)
Natural water content (%)
Organic matter (%)
Carbonate content (%)
Sand (%)
Wet density (g/cm3 )
pH of pore water

124.4
46.7
115.0
6.0
13.9
10.4
1.31.4
7.2

1.E-04
permeability
tests

Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)

1.E-05

1.E-06

1.E-07
CRS
1.E-08
Oedometer
tests

1.E-09

K = 6x10-12 e5.5174
R2 = 0.8812

1.E-10

1.E-11

SOIL PROPERTIES

10

15

Void ratio
(a)

1.E-07

1.E-08
Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)

The foundation soil of the embankment consists of a


8m layer of soft dredged material overlying a thin layer
of sand and a deep layer of Tertiary Boom clay (highly
overconsolidated).The foundation soil is located under
water at a depth of about 19 m.
The soft soil studied here is a soft deposit of
fine grained material, result of a prolonged sedimentation and self-weight consolidation process of
dregs removed from waterways within the harbor of
Antwerp. The consistency of the soil remained quite
soft even after attempts of accelerating its consolidation by means of vacuum. The natural water content of
the soil was of the order of 115%, the plasticity index
of the order of 77 and the organic content of about
6%. Table 1 summarizes more approximate physical
properties of this soil.
The initial in-situ undrained shear strength (cu ) of
this deposit of soft dredged material was estimated
by means of extensive laboratory and field testing. In
general, the average cu ranges from about 2 to 4 kPa
and it was observed to increase linearly with depth
suggesting that the deposit is mainly in a normally
consolidated state.
The consolidation behavior of the soft dredged
material was assessed by means of Constant Rate of

1.E-10

K = 6x10-8'v-1.1773
R2 = 0.7572
1.E-11
0

50

100

Vertical consolidation stress (kPa)


(b)

Figure 2. Consolidation properties of the soft soil.

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1.E-09

150

Strain (CRS) tests, hydraulic conductivity tests and


oedometer tests. Figure 2 summarizes the results of
all tests performed. Out of a fitting procedure, two
constitutive equations relating hydraulic conductivity
(K), void ratio (e) and effective stress (v ) could be
obtained (Eq. 1 & 2).
k = 6 108 v 1.18

(1)

k = 6 1012 e5.52

(2)

Although with some scatter (more pronounced in


the high void ratio zone), both equations attempt to
describe the consolidation behavior of the soil for
the full range of void ratio, starting from the freshly
sedimented situation.

Unconfined compressive strength (MPa)


0

10

IMPROVEMENT OF THE
FOUNDATION SOIL

The foundation soil (at the toes of the embankment)


was improved by implementing a novel deep mixing technique, the SSI (soft soil improvement). The
SSI technique could be classified as a wet deep mixing technique as it injects cement slurry. Moreover, it
makes use of pressurized mixing by means of a mixing tool provided with 2 sets of nozzles distributed all
along the full diameter of the column (Fig. 3). The mixing tool is fixed to a main drilling rod and each set of
nozzles is connected to independent injection systems.
A high-pressure injection system (of the order of 20
to 30 MPa) cuts the soil and allows for intense mixing
while the low pressure injection system (up to 5 MPa)
just adds the remaining amount of cement slurry to
fulfil the required dosage.
A quite important issue in the design of deep mixing
columns is the choice of cement. In order to do that an
extensive laboratory research was carried out aiming
at evaluating the improvement level of mixes with e.g.
Portland cements, Blast furnace cements and others
(Van Impe & Verstegui, 2006). Out of that research,
blast furnace cements were chosen as the most suitable for the improvement of the soft sludge. In fact,
portland cements were observed to quickly improve
the soil during the first month only. On the other hand,
blast furnace cement showed a slow but continuous
improvement that did not end even after about 2 years
reaching in the end a higher strength than Portland
cements. Blast furnace cements are also known to have
a better performance in marine environments.
The chosen cement was transformed into a slurry
(w/c ratio = 0.8) and injected during downwards and
upwards operation of the drilling rod to accomplish a
binder dosage of about 275 kg/m3 approximately.
The actual level of improvement in the site was
checked by testing of core specimens in the laboratory. The cores were sampled 56 days after installation

3
4

Dredged
material

5
6
7
8
Sand
9

Figure 4. Unconfined compressive strength of SSI column


core specimens (56 days after installation).

of the SSI columns. Figure 4 illustrates the results of


unconfined compression tests.
The actual improvement level proved quite satisfactory. The unconfined compressive strength in the
dredged material layer ranged from 1 to 5 MPa. Not
only the design strength was (by far) exceeded, but also
the strength out of laboratory tests which showed the
good performance of the implemented improvement
technique.
4

CONSTRUCTION OF EMBANKMENT

The underwater embankment is still under construction. Today, about 70% of the embankment height was
reached by staged construction. The embankment sand
was put in place in layers of about 2 m, allowing a
period of time in between (1 to 2 months). Currently,
a longer waiting period is being allocated to allow for
consolidation of the foundation soil.
The sand used for the filling operations was mainly
obtained from excavation works for the construction

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Depth (m)

Figure 3. SSI mixing tool.

Figure 5. Scheme in plan view of instrumentation location


(P: Pizometers; Z: Settlement profiles).
200

Construction
works
(Phase 1)

180

Excess pore water pressure


in the soft soil deposit under
the embankment

160
140
Excess PWP (kPa)

of a dock nearby in the harbor. The sand was selected


on basis of its grain size distribution and fines content. The selection of sand for the hydraulic filling
operations was very important to guarantee the shear
strength characteristics required for the stability of
the embankment. Tests and experience showed that
the execution procedure implemented here with the
selected sand would yield shear angles higher than 32
(cv
= 32 ).
As showed in figure 1, the embankment consists of
a geotextile reinforced sand. Moreover, the geotextiles
are anchored in geocontainers (3 m wide, 2 m high and
30 m long). The geocontainers were manufactured on
land nearby the dock with a sand-cement mixture.They
were transported and installed by means of a floating
crane. The geotextiles were fixed to the geocontainers
with steel reinforcement bars and then unrolled.
The hydraulic filling operations were carried out
with a fallpipe vessel provided with a 12 m-wide horizontal spreader beam. Sand mixed with water was
pumped from and on-land stock to the vessel. With this
system, depending on pumping flow rate and dynamic
positioning of the vessel, a sand layer with 1 m or 2 m
thickness can be uniformly applied.
The construction of the embankment was designed
in two main phases. Phase 1 (currently achieved) goes
up to the water level approximately (Fig. 1). Moreover,
Phase 2 goes up to 7 m above the water level approximately. Phase 2 can only be started as soon as an
adequate consolidation degree has taken place in the
foundation soil. Without any additional measures to
accelerate the consolidation rate of the foundation soil,
the waiting period for that may take a couple of years.

120
100

Consolidation

80

Excess PWP in the SSI improved


zone (between SSI columns) at
the toes of the embankment

60
40
20

MONITORING OF PWP AND SETTLEMENTS

Already before the initiation of construction works,


instrumentation was placed in the foundation layer to
allow the monitoring of excess pore water pressures
and vertical displacements under the embankment
load. This continuous monitoring was meant to provide
a means of following up the behavior of the foundation
soil at all times during the construction.
Piezometers (P) were installed mostly at 3 different
levels within the foundation layer at several locations
as illustrated by the plan view sketch in figure 5.
Piezometers in the SSI improved zones were installed
between SSI columns. Similarly, flexible tubes (Z1,
Z2, Z3 and Z4) filled with water were placed at 4
locations (on top of the foundation layer) across the
dock to monitor vertical displacements by measuring
hydraulic head changes with respect to a reference
level by means of a water pressure probe that is pulled
inside the tube along its full length.
Measurements of pore water pressure have been
automatically and continuously recorded, while

200

300

400

500

600

700

Time (days)

Figure 6. Excess pore water pressure measurements at


various locations under the embankment.

measurements of settlement profiles were performed


every 2 months approximately.
5.1 Excess pore water pressure measurements
Figure 6 summarizes the measurements of excess PWP
in the foundation soil during construction up to now.
As expected, there is a significant difference between
excess PWP measured in the soft soil deposit and
those measured in the SSI improved zone (between
stabilized columns). Such difference shows indeed
that columns in the improved zones are carrying a
significant portion of the load.
Looking at the measurements in the soft soil deposit
(Fig. 6) it is possible to clearly identify the loading
stages during the construction of Phase 1 that took

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

100

Time (days)
100

200

300

400

45
500

600

700
Average consolidation degree(%)

0
0

-0.5
Z4

Settlement (m)

-1
Z2
-1.5

Z2:Settlementofthesoft
soildepositunderthe
embankment

-2

Z4SettlementoftheSSIimprovedzoneunderthe
embankment

From Finite strain theories (settlements)


From Finite strain theories (PWP)
From Infinitesimal strain theories

40
35

Finite strain solution


(settlement)

30
25

Infinitesimal strain
solutions

20
15
10
Finite strain solution
(pore water pressure)

5
0
0

0.5

1
Time (year)

1.5

Figure 8. Large (finite) strain consolidation vs. small


(infinitesimal) strain consolidation solutions.

-2.5
Estimated final settlement under the current load
-3

Figure 7. Settlements under the current load.

about a year. During such period, the dissipation of


PWP was not that significant. Later, when all construction activities were stopped to allow for consolidation
of the foundation soil a more pronounced dissipation
was observed but still at a low level in the order of 10
to 15% only.
5.2

Settlements

Figure 7 illustrates the settlements along the settlement


tubes Z2 and Z4 (Fig. 5) on the soft soil deposit and
on the SSI improved zone respectively.
As expected, the largest settlements were observed
in the non-improved area where up to now settlements
in the order of 1.2 m to 1.3 m were measured. That is
already between 40 to 50% of the estimated final settlement under the current load. On the other hand, the
maximum measured settlements in the SSI improved
zone were in the order of 0.5 m.
5.3

Discussion on consolidation behavior

Out of measurements it was possible to establish that


the dissipation of pore water pressures and the progress
of settlements were not coupled.Almost two years after
the initiation of construction works, the observed dissipation level (consolidation degree) of PWP was in
the range of 10 to 15%, while in terms of settlements
40 to 50% of the final settlement occurred.
Such deviation of consolidation degrees evaluated
out of PWP and settlement do show that the consolidation behavior of this soft foundation layer cannot
be properly described by the simplified conventional
consolidation theory (e.g. Terzaghis theory).
However, when comparing the current measured consolidation degrees with those predicted
introducing the large strain theory (Gibson et al.,

1967), a much better match could be observed (Fig. 8).


The large strain consolidation theory is a more general
theory of one-dimensional consolidation.This analysis
overcomes the limitations that the conventional, small
strain, theory entails; but at the same time the problem becomes so complex that only numerical solutions
can be obtained for practical problems. The process of
large strain (finite strain) one-dimensional consolidation of a saturated porous medium is governed by:


e

e
e
=0
g(e)
b(e) +
z
z
z
t
where
k(e) d 
w (1 + e) de


 
k(e)
Gs d
b(e) =
w de 1 + e

g(e) =

in which e is the void ratio, s and w are the


solid and fluid phase weights per unit of their own
volume, respectively, and z is a reduced coordinate
encompassing a volume of solids (Gibson et al., 1967).
The function g(e) plays the role of consolidation
coefficient and b(e) introduces the effect of gravity.
If the gravity effect is neglected [i.e. b(e) = 0] and
g(e) is assumed to remain constant during the process,
then equation 3 simplifies into the classical theory
(i.e. Terzaghis). Equation 3, can be numerically solved
with appropriate boundary and initial conditions and
making use of the constitutive equations (Eq. 1&2) of
the soft soil.
To that end a finite difference based program (Van
Impe P.O., 1999) was used to perform calculations.
Results of large strain consolidation and small strain
consolidation evaluation are compared in figure 8.
In this simulation, a single load increment (equal
to the current load) was applied to the homogeneous

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

qc (MPa)
0

10

CSR, CRR
0

0.2

FoS against liquefaction


0.4

0
-2

-4

-4

-4

-6

-6

-6

-6

-6

-10

-8
-10

-8
-10

10

-2

TAW level

-10

-8

TAW level

-2

-4

TAW level

-2

-4

-8

0
CSR
CRR

-2

TAW level

TAW level

Shear angle p ()
20 25 30 35 40
0

Friction ratio F (%)


15

-8
-10

-12

-12

-12

-12

-12

-14

-14

-14

-14

-14

-16

-16

-16

-16

-16

-18

-18

-18

-18

-18

-20

-20

-20

-20

-20

Figure 9. Some properties of the hydraulically placed embankment sand.

8 m thick soft soil layer. Moreover, the output of small


strain analysis is showed as a range because there is a
range of consolidation coefficients that can be chosen
out of the constitutive equations of the soft soil for the
full range of stress levels it will be subjected to.
The outcome of the monitoring of the consolidation
behavior of the soft soil matches closely the estimations evaluated using the large strain consolidation
theory. In fact, figure 8 shows that the estimated consolidation degree out of settlements after 2 years of
loading is about 40% (close to 40 to 50% measured).
On the other hand, the consolidation degree out of
PWP dissipation is about 15% (close to 10 to 15%).
Moreover, it can be concluded that small strain consolidation predictions could give unsafe results when
designing a staged construction on soft soil since it
overestimates the consolidation degree out of pore
water pressures which could lead to overestimation of
strength gain due to consolidation.
6

QUALITY CONTROL OF THE


HYDRAULIC FILL

Quality control of the embankment sand was performed regularly at several stages during the construction by means of CPT tests. Moreover, parameters such
as shear angle () and relative density could be estimated to confirm the design requirements.An example
of typical CPT profile above the soft soil deposit is
given in figure 9. It can be observed that the cone pressure qc increases linearly with depth and an almost
uniform shear angle ranging from 32 to 35 was
evaluated.
Furthermore, the risk of liquefaction of this
hydraulic fill was assessed using the method proposed
by Robertson and Wride (1998). For characterizing the
local seismicity in the area, an earthquake magnitude
of M = 5.5 was assumed and a Peak Ground Acceler-

ation (PGA) of 0.05 g was obtained from the seismic


zonation map of Belgium. Making use of those data
a factor of safety (FoS) was evaluated (Fig. 9). In all
cases FoS against liquefaction did exceed 1, in fact
most factors ranged from FoS = 2.5 to 6. It can be concluded that liquefaction, for an earthquake magnitude
of 5.5, will not occur.
7

The monitoring of the consolidation behavior of a


soft foundation soil under a large partially submerged
sand embankment has shown that the large strain consolidation theory was successful to describe more
adequately such behavior. Measurements of settlements and excess pore water pressures showed a good
agreement with predictions evaluated using the large
strain consolidation theory. On the other hand, the
more conventional small strain theory was shown to
overestimate the dissipation of pore water pressure and
underestimate settlements.This could lead to an unsafe
design of staged construction.
REFERENCES
Gibson et al. 1967. The theory of 1D consolidation of
saturated clay: finite non-linear consolidation of thin
homogeneous layers. Geotechnique, Vol. 17, No. 3,
pp. 261273.
Robertson P.K., & Wride C.E. 1998. Evaluating cyclic liquefaction potential using the cone penetration test. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 35. pp.: 442459.
Van Impe W.F., Verastegui Flores R.D. 2006. Deep mixing
in underwater conditions: a laboratory and field study.
Ground Improvement , Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 1522.
Van Impe P.O. 1999. Consolidation of saturated, highly
compressible porous media. MsC thesis, Faculty of engineering, UGent (in dutch).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSIONS

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Optimal design of grillage supporting structures for stabilizing slopes


Yanpeng Zhu & Yong Zhou
School of Civil Engineering, Lanzhou Univ. of Tech., Lanzhou, China

ABSTRACT: The grillage supporting structure with pre-stressed anchors is a new type of supporting structure
in stabilizing loess slopes, which overcomes the disadvantages of traditional slope supporting structures, such
as restricted slope height, high cost and massive retaining structures. In this paper, the authors propose a new
design method for the optimal design for such supporting structures. The factors dealing with the characteristics
of the anchor bars include the horizontal and vertical spacings, the diameter and the inclination in the design
and these factors have been analysed. The results of analysis show that the construction cost of the anchors is the
most significant component of the total cost of the project. The analysis is consisted of the following steps. 1)
Assume an initial set of values for the spacing and diameter of the anchor bars, and the dimension of the beam
and plates. 2) Based on the contact pressure between the soil and the beams along with the plates, calculate the
internal forces in the beams and the tensile forces on the anchor bars. These forces permit the calculations for
a new set of values required for the dimensions of the beams and the diameter of the anchor bars. 3) Based on
the strengths of the beams and the anchor bars, and the prescribed safety factor for the slope, an optimization
procedure is conducted to obtain a design with the lowest cost. 4) Steps 2 through 3 are repeated until the
difference in cost between two successive calculations is within an acceptably small margin. This method of
design has been compared to the conventional design and it is concluded the spacing of the anchors are the most
important cost factor and that the new design produces a saving of 10 to 20% with the same factor of safety.

INTRODUCTION

Grillage supporting structure with pre-stressed


anchors is a new and rapid development in recent years.
This structure consists of grillage beams, thin retaining
plate, anchors and soil mass. It is considered a flexible
supporting structure, whose vertical plane is shown in
Figure 1. In this kind of supporting structure, the grillage beams and the anchors form a spatial structure
working with the reinforced concrete retaining plate
to bear the soil pressure. The anchors are embedded
in the resistance zone and bear the soil pressure on
the concrete plate produced by soil mass in the active
zone. It improves the working properties of soil mass
and changes the passive support of traditional supporting structures to the active supporting fully using the
self stability of soil mass. Therefore, this supporting
structure can effectively control the displacements of
the supporting structure and soil mass.
This type of supporting structure is particularly
suited to retaining loess deposit, frequently found in
the Northwestern part of China and stratified soft soil.
Loess is a wind-blown deposit of uniform grainsize in
the silt size range. In the natural state, loess possesses
cohesion derived from the bond between soil grains.
The bond is due mostly to a calcareous binder, which

can dissolve in water. Therefore, loess deposit is highly


susceptible to erosion and becomes quick when excessively wetted. A grillage supporting structure prevents
water from entering into the retained soil, and reduces
the potential for the loess slope to collapse.
For the current design of grillage supporting structure with pre-stressed anchors, the traditional design
method is to assume the vertical plane layout of

Figure 1. Vertical plane of grillage supporting structure


with pre-stressed anchor bars.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

anchors, design the lengths and diameters of anchors,


check the local and overall stability of the supporting structure and design the grillage members. In
most cases, this kind of design focuses on the structural safety and ignores economy, thus giving rise
to great material waste for some large-scale slopes.
The structural optimization design is a kind of design
method to apply the optimization theory of mathematics to structural design. This design method not
only satisfies the need for providing adequate bearing capacity, but also reaches the target for optimum
economy. At present, many in civil engineering are
actively advocating the optimum design, but in designing slope-supporting structures, little research work
has been done, especially there is no optimum design
about grillage supporting structure with pre-stressed
anchors. The basic design utilizing the optimal design
approach for this type of structures has been proposed
and conducted by the authors, whose work has now
been referred to in engineering practice (Zhu and Zhou
2004).

Figure 2. Soil pressure distribution of earth-retaining wall


with anchor bars.

BEARING CAPACITY AND STABILITY OF


GRILLAGE SUPPORTING STRUCTURE
WITH PRE-STRESSED ANCHORS

Soil pressure is the load acting on earth-retaining


plate. Because of the existence of anchors in the soil
behind the plate, the soil pressure distribution is relatively complicated and an effective solution is not
available up to now. In the proposed design, the Rankines soil pressure theory is commonly adopted to
approximate the soil pressure, but the calculation of
the soil pressure recommended by the Technical Code
for Building Slope Engineering (GB330-2002, China
national code) is more suitable for loess slopes. In this
case, the lateral soil pressure of earth-retaining wall
with a single anchor may be represented by the triangular distribution approximated by Rankines theory.
However, for slopes composed of hard soil, hard clay,
or dense or medium-dense sand, and if the retaining
wall involving multi-layer anchors is constructed by
using the top-to-down construction method, the soil
pressure distribution is determined approximately as
shown in Fig. 2. The lateral soil pressure, ehk , can be
calculated as:
ehk =

Ehk
0.875H

(1)

where ehk is the value of the lateral soil pressure at


the base, Ehk the resultant force of the Rankines soil
pressure and H the wall height.
In the analysis and design of grillage supporting
structures with pre-stressed anchors in multi soil layers, considering the relative uniformity of soil in loess

Figure 3. Model of finite element method of grillage beams.

regions, the weighted average method are used to


simplify the soil profiles.
2.1 Bearing capacity
(1) Analysis of retaining plate
Under general conditions, the soil pressure acting
on retaining plate will be transferred to the boundary
supports of grillage beams along two directions. The
retaining plate is similar to the floor slabs of buildings
and the internal forces may be calculated accordingly.
(2) Analysis of grillage beams
The finite element method can be used to analyse the grillage supporting structure (Fig. 3), with the
retaining plate and the grillage beams being regarded
as the reinforced concrete floor slab, the soil pressure
as the load, and the pre-stressed anchors as the supports
(Zhu & Zhou, 2004).
(3) Design of pre-stressed anchors
The anchors are generally either driven into the
ground or installed by placement in drilled boreholes
and grouted along their effective length in the resistance zone. When the anchor is embedded in soil

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 4. Calculation schematic diagram of the anchor bar


length.

layers, the frictional resistance of the interface between


the grout and the soil is generally less than the bond
strength between the grout and the anchor bar. Therefore, the pullout resistance of an anchor depends on
the frictional resistance of the interface between the
grout and is given by:
Tu = DLn qsk

(2)

where D is the diameter of the grouted anchor, qsk the


allowable unit shear resistance at the interface, determined by the field pullout tests; and Le the effective
length of the anchor in the resistance zone.
The shear strength qsk depends not only on the characteristics of soil layers, but also on such factors as
construction method, grouting quantity and so on. It is
better to carry out field pullout tests to determine the
ultimate resistance of the anchor. For loess slope, the
value, qsk is about 4060 kPa.
The tensile force of the anchor is the support reaction of the grillage beams at the position of the anchor.
The effective anchored length can be calculated from:
Lnj =

Fb T
Dj qsjk

(3)

where Fb is resistance factor for bearing capacity at


the anchor head, usually taken as 1.3, Lnj the effective anchored length of the jth anchor in the resistance
zone, Dj the diameter of grouted anchor bar, and
qsjk the allowable unit shear resistance at the grouted
anchor interface for the jth soil layer.
In Fig.4, OE is taken as the slip surface and Lfj
represents the length of the anchor in the active zone
given by Eq. (4).

Figure 5. Diagram of stability analysis.

The total length of the anchor can be calculated


using Eq. (5):
Lj = Lnj + Lfj

(5)

where Lj is the total length of the jth anchor.


The cross section area of thej th anchor can be
calculated by Eq. (6):
Ajs =

Fb Tj
fy

(6)

where Ajs is the cross section area of the jth anchor and
fy the tensile strength of anchor.
2.2

Stability analysis of grillage supporting


structure with pre-stressed anchors

The limit equilibrium analysis based on the method of


slices with a circular slip surface is used to determine
the factor of safety of the overall stability of the wall
and the retained soil (Fig. 5). The overall stability of
each stage of excavation has been examined by Zhu
et al. (2005). A computer program is developed that
includes an optimization routine for the most efficient
design of the anchors and grillage beams. The details
of this approach are described in details as follows.
The factor of safety for overall stability, Fs is
given by:
n

n


cik Li s + s (wi + q0 bi ) cos i tgik R
i=1
i=1


Fs =
n

s0 (wi + q0 bi ) sin i R
i=1

(H Hj ) tan (450 /2) sin (50 + /2)


Lfj =
sin (1350 /2 j )

(4)

Tnj [ cos (j + j ) + sin (j + j ) gjk ]

j=1

where H is the total height of the slope, Hj the distance


from the jth anchor to the top of the slope, the internal
friction angle and j the inclination of the jth anchor
from the horizontal.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

m


R + F(Y + H )

n

s0 (wi + q0 bi ) sin i R

i=1

(7)

where n is the number of slices in the sliding mass; m


the number of rows of anchors in the sliding mass; 0
the importance coefficient of the slope retaining wall,
and for the present case, 0 = 1;wi the weight of the
ith slice per unit run of wall; bi the width of the ith
slice; cik the cohesion of the soil at the base of the ith
slice; ik the internal friction angle of the soil at the
base of the ith slice; i the inclination of the base of
the ith slice from the horizontal; j the angle between
the jth anchor and the horizontal; Li the base length of
the ith slice; R the radius of the circular slip surface;
F the resistance force of the grillage footing; H the
height of the excavation; Y the vertical distance from
the ground to the center of the circular slip surface;
and Tnj the tensile resistance per unit run of the wall
of the jth row of anchors in the resistance zone.
Tnj can be given by

x'

O'

xj
xj

z'
O

where lni is the length of the jth row of anchors in the ith
soil layer in the resistance zone. Again the summation
is taken over all the soil layers in which the jth row of
anchors has a presence.
This section describes the searching of the critical surface taking into consideration of the dynamic
relationship between the length and diameter of the
anchors and the location of the critical slip surface.
Two assumptions are used based on some observations of actual failures (Zhu 2005):
a) The tangent to any point on the slip surface inclines
from the horizontal within the range of 0 to 90
degrees. Consequently, the centre of the circular
slip surface is located in a certain zone.
b) The slip surface passes through the toe of the
slope. Therefore, one centre location is associated
with only one slip surface for a given depth of
excavation.
After a large number of computations, it is found
that the centre of the critical slip surface lies in rectangle OCDE (Fig. 6). This rectangle has a height of h and
width of 2h, where h is the current depth of excavation.
Normally this rectangle is sufficient for locating the
critical centre. The software, however, automatically
expands the rectangle if the critical centre happens to
fall on any side of it. The right lower corner of the original rectangle is the intersection of the vertical erected
from the toe and the horizontal line extended from the
crest. This corner also serves as the origin (O) of the
co-ordinate system. Fig. 7 shows a typical slip surface
during the computation. The centre of the slip surface
is at O at (-x, -z). In the searching process, several
variables can be obtained as follows.
The radius of the slip surface, R, is given by:

R = (x )2 + (h + z  )2
(9)

lfj

Cl n j

z
A

Figure 7. Geometric parameters for grillage supporting


structure with anchors.

The inclination of the base of the slice from the


horizontal (Fig.7), i , is given by:
sin i =

x  + xi
R

(10)

The length of the anchor in the resistance zone is


denoted by lnj , and the total length of the anchor, lj
is:
lj = lfj + lnj

(11)

where lfj is the anchor length in the active zone and


can be defined from the position of the anchor and the
location of the slip surface.
3

MATHEMATICAL OPTIMIZATION MODEL

3.1 Optimal design aim


The traditional aim of optimal structural design is that
the cost is optimal, and the design is safe and reliable during construction and utilization. To do so, the
project cost is considered an objective function and
a mathematical model is established that includes the
objective function and constraint conditions that are
related to the performance indexes of safety and reliability of the structure expressed mathematically. The

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

B
zj

(8)

zj

qsik lni

Tnj = dnj

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of stability analysis.

design process is translated into a search of the design


scheme with the minimum project cost that meets all
the constraint conditions.
In the optimal design of grillage supporting structure with pre-stressed anchors, the minimum project
cost per unit run of wall is taken as the objective (including the costs of concrete, steel bars, and
anchors) that includes the global and local optimisation. Firstly, based on the calculated grillage internal
forces and stability of the supporting structure, the
anchors and the grillage beams are optimized locally.
Then, the geometric dimensions of grillage beams and
anchors with the meaning of optimal design can be
modified, and now the grillage beams and anchors
with current dimensions are taken as a new grillage
supporting structure with pre-stressed anchors. At the
second step, the bearing capacity and the stability of
the supporting structure are analyzed again, and then
the same optimal process is repeated. Finally, this is
repeated successively for the second step until the calculated results of two successive optimal results are
sufficiently close. The results from the final step can
be taken for the global optimization design results.
3.2

Mathematical model of optimal design

(1) Design Variables


Because of the important effects of anchors on the
bearing capacity and the stability of the supporting
structure, the factors affecting the total cost of the grillage supporting structure with pre-stressed anchors are
mainly the layout of anchors, the dimensions of the
grillage beams and the reinforcements. Therefore for
the cost per unit run of the supporting structure, the
following design variables are considered:
X = [x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , x7 , x8 , x9 , x10 , x11 ]T
where x1 , x2 , x3 are the distance of the first row of
anchors from the top of the slope, the horizontal and
vertical spacings of anchors, respectively; x4 , x5 , x6 , x7
are width, height, cross section area of reinforcing steel
bars and area of stirrups of horizontal grillage beam,
respectively; x8 , x9 , x10 , x11 are the width, height, area
of reinforcing bars and area of stirrups of the vertical
grillage beam, respectively.

composite structure with anchors and grillage beams.


Therefore, the objective function of the total cost per
unit run can be expressed as:
f0 (X ) = f1 (X ) + f2 (X ) + f3 (X )
where
f1 (X ) =

n


Lj Cm /x2

f2 (X ) = nx4 x5 Cc + 2x6 s Cg + 2x7


(x4 + x5 2as )s Cg 

(14)

f3 (X ) = (H + Hd )x8 x9 Cc + 2x10 s Cg + 2x11


(x8 + x9 2as )/x2

(15)

where f1 (X ), f2 (X ), f3 (X ) are the costs of anchors, horizontal and vertical grillage beams, respectively; Lj the
total length of the jth row of anchor; Cm the unit length
cost of anchor; Cc is the unit volume cost of concrete;
As1 the area of reinforcement of beam in one side; s
the density of reinforcement; Cg the unit cost of reinforcement; As2 the area of stirrups of horizontal beam
per unit length; as the thickness of concrete cover layer;
H the height of slope; Hd is the foundation depth of
structure; As3 is the area of reinforcement in the vertical beam in one side; and As4 the area of stirrups of
the vertical beam per unit length.
The constraint conditions of the grillage supporting
structure with pre-stressed anchors are divided into
four parts.
a. Strength constraints. The tensile force on the
anchor due to the earth pressure should be less than
the ultimate pullout capacity expressed as:
Tnj DLnj qsjk 0 (j = 1, 2, . . . , n)

(16)

where Tnj is the tensile force of the jth row of anchors;


D the diameter of borehole of anchor; Lnj the effective
length of the jth row of anchor bar; and qsjk the average shear strength at the interface between the grouted
anchor and the soil. The maximum moment on the
horizontal beam should satisfy Eq. (17) (CNC, 2001):
Mb fy x6 (x5 as )

1 (fy x6 )2
2 1 f c x 4

(17)

The maximum shear on the horizontal beam should


satisfy Eq. (18) (CNC, 2001):
Vb 0.7ft x4 (x5 as ) + 1.25fyv x7 (x5 as )

(18)

where Mb is the maximum moment on the horizontal beam; fy the tensile strength of reinforcement; 1

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(13)

j=1

(2) Mathematical Model of Optimal Design


Because the cross-sectional dimensions of the
beams are unknown at this stage, the height and the
width of the horizontal beam are taken as y1 and y1 ,
respectively, and the height and the width of the vertical beam are taken as y2 and y2 , respectively. In which
and are assumed as constants. The values of y1 and
y2 are determined by solving equations related to the
bending and the shear strength of the beams. Grillage
supporting structures with pre-stressed anchors are a

(12)

a concrete coefficient, when the concrete strength is


less than C50, 1 = 1.0 (CNC, 2001);fc the axial compressive strength of concrete; Vb the maximum shear
on the horizontal beam; and ft the axial tensile strength
of concrete.
Similarly, the constraint conditions of the vertical
beam can be given as follows:
Mz fy x10 (x9 as )

1 (fy x10 )2
2 1 f c x 8

Vz 0.7ft x8 (x9 as ) + 1.25fyv x11 (x9 as )

(19)
(20)

where Mz and Vz are the maximum moment and


maximum shear on the beam, respectively.
b. Stability constraint. The overall stability of the
grillage supporting structure with pre-stressed anchor
bars is closely related to the characteristics of the
anchor bars. Hence, the corresponding constraint condition is taken as:
n

n


cik Li s + s (wi + q0 bi ) cos i tgik R
i=1
i=1


Fs
+
n

s0 (wi + q0 bi ) sin i R
i=1
m


Tnj [ cos (j + j ) + sin (j + j ) gjk ]

j=1

R + F(Y + H )

n

s0 (wi + q0 bi ) sin i R

i=1

(21)
c. Limit constraints. According to Technical code for
building slope engineering (CNC 2002), the constraint conditions about the layout of anchors are
given by:
1.5 x1 H

(22)

2.0 x2 4.0

(23)

2.0 x3 H 1.5

(24)

d. Detailing constraints (CNC 2001)


min x8 (x9 as ) x11 max x8 (x9 as )

(25)

min x4 (x5 as ) x7 max x4 (x5 as )

(26)

where min and max are the maximum and the


minimum reinforcement ratio, respectively, and
min max (0.2, 45ft /fy ), max 5%.
4

OPTIMIZATION METHOD AND SOFTWARE

There are many methods in the optimal design of the


structures, which can be divided into indirect methods and direct methods. The indirect methods usually

require solving the partial derivatives of objective


function and constraint functions, so they are not convenient for designing appropriate software. The mesh
method, the random experiment method and the complex method belong to the direct methods, in which
the complex method is more effective when the constraint conditions are nonlinear and there are many
numbers of design variables. In view of the nonlinear characteristic the objective function and constraint
conditions, the complex method was adopted in this
study. Here the number of complex points k is more
than m+1, in which m is the number of design variables. In this paper, k is taken as m+2. The software
of optimal design of grillage supporting structure with
pre-stressed anchors is developed and its flow diagram
is shown in Figure 8.
The analysis consists of the following steps. 1)
Assume an initial set of values for the spacing and
diameter of the anchor bars, and the dimension of
the beam and plates. 2) Based on the contact pressure
between the soil and the beams along with the plates,
calculate the internal forces in the grillage beams and
the tensile forces on the anchors. These forces will
permit the calculations of a new set of values required
for the dimensions of the beams and the diameter of
the anchor bars. 3) Based on the strengths of the grillage beams and the anchors, and the prescribed safety
factor for the slope, an optimization procedure is conducted to obtain a design with the lowest cost. 4) Steps
2 through 3 will be repeated until the difference in
cost between two successive calculations are within
an acceptably small margin.
5

An 11 m height of slope was made for a highway in Lanzhou, China. The soil consists of a loess
deposit. The detailed profile is given by a unit weight
= 16.5 kN/m3 , the internal friction angle = 24 ,
and the cohesion c = 18kPa. The slope was stabilized by means of a grillage supporting structure with
prestressed anchors designed using the conventional
method and optimal method proposed here, respectively. The inclination of the wall was 80 from the horizontal and the anchor inclination was at 15 from the
horizontal. There was a uniform surcharge of 10 kPa
on the top of the slope behind the supporting structure.
According to the optimal design method proposed
in this paper, the design results are shown in Table 1.
Compared with the optimal design method and the
original design scheme, the proposal method saved
11.4% of total cost of the project.
This method of design has been compared to the
conventional design and it can be concluded the spacing of the anchors are the most important cost factor
and that the new design produces a saving of 10 to
20% with the same factor of safety.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

EXAMPLE OF THE OPTIMAL DESIGN

Start

Input initial parameters


Finite element analysis and stability
analysis

Generate the first point

Use random function and transfer the calculation


program to generate the other points to form
a complex
Calculate the function value of each point

No

Got rid of the worst point and replace it with a new point

No
No
Times of iterationm

Is complex convergence satisfied?

Yes

Yes

Is design convergence satisfied?


Yes
Output results

End

Figure 8. Calculation flow diagram of optimal design.


Table 1.

Comparison of the the original design and optimal design methods.

Design
variables

x1
(m)

x2
(m)

x3
(m)

x4
(mm)

x5
(mm)

x6
(mm2)

x7
(mm)

x8
(mm)

x9
(mm)

x10
(mm2)

x11
(mm)

Total cost
(yuan/m)

Original
design
Optimal
design

2.5

3.0

3.0

300

400

980.5

1.227

400

400

1106.8

1.131

5500

2.1

2.8

3.2

250

400

711.2

1.065

300

400

841.2

1.089

4875

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

A new method for the optimal design for the grillage supporting structure with pre-stressed anchors
is proposed in this paper. The factors dealing with
the characteristics of the anchor bars include the horizontal and vertical spacings, the diameter and the

inclination in the design and these factors have been


analyzed. The analysis is consisted of the following
steps. 1) Assume an initial set of values for the spacing and diameter of the anchor bars, and the dimension
of the beam and plates. 2) Based on the contact pressure between the soil and the beams along with the
plates, calculate the internal forces in the beams and

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

the tensile forces on the anchor bars. These forces permit the calculations for a new set of values required
for the dimensions of the beams and the diameter of
the anchor bars. 3) Based on the strengths of the beams
and the anchor bars, and the prescribed safety factor for
the slope, an optimization procedure is conducted to
obtain a design with the lowest cost. 4) Steps 2 through
3 are repeated until the difference in cost between two
successive calculations is within an acceptably small
margin. This method of design has been applied to an
actual slope in the loess deposit and the results are
compared with those from a traditional method. The
comparison shows that the spacing of the anchors are
the most important cost factor and that the new design
produces a saving of 10 to 20% with the same factor
of safety.
REFERENCES
China National Standard (2002). Technical code for building
slope engineering, Beijing: ChinaArchitecture & Building
Press.
China National Standard (1999). China technical specification for retaining and protection of building foundation excavations. Beijing: China Architecture & Building
Press.
Guo Y.H., Bai J.Y., and Gou L. (2003). Local optimal design
for a frame shear wall structure. Henan Science, 21(4),
471474.
Li S.P. (2002). The theory and application of optimal technology for grouting bolting in slope. Building Science
Research of Sichuan, 28(4), 4749.
Qin S.Q. (2000). Optimum design of soil nailing supporting
structure. Geological Exploration for Non-ferrous Metals,
1, 4144.

Sheahan, T.C., and Ho, C.L. (2003). Simplified trial wedge


method for soil nailed wall analysis, J. of Geotech. and
Geoenvirn. Eng., ASCE, 129(2), 117124.
Shi, L.H., He, W.M., and Sun. Y.F. (2002). Stability analysis
of deep excavation by lattice method of equidistant arc
and its viewdata program, Chinese J. of Rock Mech. and
Eng., 21(9): 15681572.
Turner, J.P. and Jensen, W.G. (2005). Landslide stabilization
using soil nail and mechanically stabilized earth walls:
Case study, J. of Geotech. and Geoenvirn. Eng., ASCE,
131(2), 141150.
Zhang, M.J., Song, E.X., and Chen, Z.Y. (1998). Method of
stability analysis in deep excavation and its application, J.
of Eng. Mech. (China), 15(3), 3643.
Zhu, Y.P., Wang, X.L., Zhang, G.W., and Song, Y. (2002).
Design, construction and experimental monitoring of
lengthy deep foundation in Zhongguanghigh rise building
of Lanzhou, J. of Eng. Mech. (China), 19(sup.), 336341,
2002.
Zhu, Y.P., and Li, Z. (2005), Improvement on stability analysis of soil nail in foundation excavations and its software
development design, Chinese J. of Geotech. Eng., 26(5),
8996
ZhuY.P., and ZhouY. (2004). Design and calculation of frame
supporting structure with pre-stressed anchor bar on loess
slope. J. of Eng. Mech. (China), 21(sup.), 393398.
Zhu Y.P., and Li Z. (2005). Improvement on stability analysis of soil nailing in foundation excavations and its
software development. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, 27(8), 939943.
Zhu Y.P., Yu J., and Wang X.L. (2000). Optimum design of
cantilever supporting piles. Journal of Gansu University
of Technology, 26(1), 9095.
Zhu Y.P., Wang L., & Wang X.L. (2004). Analysis and
design for grillage foundation with rigid area, Advances
in Mechanics of Structures and Materials, Proceeding of
18th ACMSM, Australia.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Measured settlements of the Srmin high embankment


Pavel vanut & Mojca Ravnikar Turk
ZAG Slovenian National Building and Civil Engineering Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia

Janko Logar
Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

ABSTRACT: A detailed study has been performed of the settlements which occurred in the subsoil beneath a
high motorway embankment (the Srmin high embankment), which was built in Slovenia over a two-year period,
between September 2002 and August 2004. This embankment, which had to be built on very compressible
subsoil of low bearing capacity and low permeability, is about 600 m long, and its height varies between 8.5 and
11.5 m. Two measurement methods, using conventional settlement plates and a hydrostatic profile gauge (HPG)
which could be placed in specially installed measuring tubes, were used to obtain settlement profiles at several
locations along the embankment. The results showed that the development of subsoil settlements at two selected
locations was very different, due to the heterogeneity and varying compressibility of the subsoil. The settlements
obtained by measurements using the HPG were very similar to those obtained using settlement plates, which
were located very close to the measuring tubes.

INTRODUCTION

Since the start of Slovenias National Motorway Construction Programme, a large number of high embankments, founded on soft soil, have been built. One of
them, the Srmin high embankment, is located on the
motorway section Klanec Srmin, close to the coastal
town of Koper (see Figure 1).
The Srmin embankment is situated in between the
new Bivje viaduct and an overpass which carries the

coastal road over the railway line. The total length


of the embankment is approximately 600 m, and its
height varies between 8.5 and 11.5 m. The embankment had to be built on very compressible subsoil,
with a low bearing capacity and low permeability, so
it was necessary to provide, in the design, adequate
measures to increase the stability and the consolidation rate of this subsoil. After several geotechnical
studies of the predicted performance of the embankment had been performed, stone columns were chosen
to reinforce the soft subsoil. A system for geotechnical monitoring of the embankment and the subsoil
beneath it (particularly settlements during and after

The Klanec - Srmin motorway section


Figure 1. The planned motorway network in Slovenia.

Figure 2. The Srmin high embankment under construction.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

HOR1

33

12

13

I-2
8

I-6

14

11
69.60

1
99.30

BIVJE
VIADUCT 2

79.50

4a

10

I- 4

79.50

2
HOR

7
I- 3

3a
I-1

1
HOR1

- SETTLEMENT PLATE
- MEASURING TUBE
- STONE COLUMNS

Figure 3. The situation of the discussed section of the Srmin high embankment, showing the system for monitoring its
settlements.

construction) was established in order to compare the


predicted and actual behaviour of the embankment.
2

GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS

The investigations showed that the subsoil beneath the


planned embankment consisted of alluvial deposits
of the Riana river. The following subsoil layers, described from the top downwards, were
distinguished:

a 5 to 5.5 m thick layer of firm brown clay, of high


plasticity,
a 4 to 5.5 m thick layer of soft grey to black organic
silty clay (this is the critical soil layer with regard to
bearing capacity and deformability),
a 2 to 4 m thick layer of dense silty gravel,
marl bedrock.
The total thickness of the two top layers of compressible cohesive subsoil was about 9.5 to 11 m.
3

SETTLEMENT MEASUREMENTS

measure the settlements by means of a hydrostatic profile gauge (HPG). The locations of measuring tubes
HOR-1 and HOR-2 are shown in Figure 3 (measuring tube HOR-3 unfortunately became inaccessible
during the construction works). The measuring tubes
HOR-1 and HOR-2 passed very close to the corresponding settlement plates SP-4 and SP-11, although
they were about 0.5 m higher than these two plates (for
their location, see Figure 3).
The first measuring tube HOR-1 was installed at
the cross-section where the largest settlements were
expected, whereas the second measuring tube HOR-2
was located at the widest cross-section of the embankment. Since the mouth of each of the measuring tubes
was accessible on both sides of the embankment,
the settlement probe was pulled, with a draw-cord,
through the tubes (this was the first time that such
measurements had been performed in Slovenia). The
measurement step was 1 m. The lengths of the two
measuring tubes were 75 m (HOR-1) and 68 m (HOR2). The tubes were installed in a 60 cm deep trench,
which was excavated when the embankment was 1.5
to 2 m high.
3.2 Operation of the hydrostatic profile gauge

3.1 Locations of the settlement plates and


measuring tubes
As part of the system for geotechnical monitoring of
the embankment, measurements of settlements were
performed, using two methods, in order to obtain settlement profiles at various locations along the embankment. Not only were conventional settlement plates
installed at numerous transverse profiles along the
embankment, but also three measuring tubes (designated HOR-1, HOR-2 and HOR-3) were installed at
three of the embankment cross-sections in order to

A hydrostatic profile gauge is a device which can be


used to measure the vertical displacement of structures such as road embankments and earth dams across
the entire width of the structure. It consists of a control unit, a readout unit, and a length of triple tubing
which is connected to a settlement probe that can be
pushed (with aluminium rods) or pulled (with a drawcord) through the measuring tube beneath the structure
(see Figures 4 and 5). Two of the three small tubes are
filled with water and are constantly back-pressurized

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

EMBANKMENT

SP- 4
HOR 1

DISTANCE ( m )
0
SETTLEMENT (cm)

10

10

30

40

50

60

70

80

(REFERENCE MEASUREMENT)

0
10
20

20
H EMBANKMENT ~
= 7,0 m

30

30
40

40

50

H EMBANKMENT ~
= 10,0 m

50

60

60

70

70

Figure 4. General arrangement of a hydrostatic profile


gauge being used beneath an embankment.

20

~ 2,0 m
H EMBANKMENT =

H EMBANKMENT ~
= 11,5 m

80

80

Figure 6. Settlement profiles, at different heights of


embankment construction, along the measuring tube HOR-1
(L = 75 m).

EMBANKMENT

SP- 11
HOR 2

DISTANCE (m)

SETTLEMENT (cm)

Figure 5. Settlement measurements being performed using


a hydrostatic profile gauge (the probe is being pushed into
the measuring tube).

in order to overcome surface tension effects, and to


prevent the formation of bubbles. Measurements of
elevation are taken at regular intervals along the measuring tube, which is laid in a sand-filled trench before
the start of embankment construction. The hydrostatic
head H is measured by means of a differential pressure transducer. The readings are related to a reference
pin outside the tube, and in this manner a complete
elevation profile of the tube can be established. By
comparing profiles taken at different times, the vertical displacement of the tube between any two readings
can be determined to an accuracy of 1.0 cm, which
is excellent for such applications.

4
4.1

RESULTS
Comparison of settlement development at two
different locations

The settlements obtained by measurements performed


using the HPG, at points 1 m apart, along the measuring tubes HOR-1 and HOR-2, are shown, for different
heights of the embankment construction, in Figures 6
and 7. The reference measurement (settlement = 0)
was performed in the middle of October 2002. The

20

30

40

50

60

(REFERENCE MEASUREMENT)

~ 1,5 m
H EMBANKMENT =
~ 7,0 m
H EMBANKMENT =

~ 9,0 m
H EMBANKMENT =

H EMBANKMENT ~
= 10,0 m

70

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45

Figure 7. Settlement profiles, at different heights of


embankment construction, along the measuring tube HOR-2
(L = 68 m).

final contour of the embankment is also shown in


these two figures. At the time of the installation of
the measuring tubes (and the reference measurement)
the height of the embankment was about 2.0 m (HOR1) and 1.5 m (HOR-2), so that some subsoil settlement
had already occurred.
In the case of profile HOR-1, embankment construction from a height of 2.0 to 11.5 m caused a 10 cm
settlement of the subsoil on the southeast side of the
embankment (geodetic measurements) and a 70 cm
subsoil settlement near the centre of the embankment
(HPG measurements) (see Figure 6). It can be seen
from this figure (the two lowest curves) that the gradual
reduction, as construction proceeded, in the width of
the embankment caused additional settlements mainly
in the middle of the measuring cross-section.
In the case of profile HOR-2, embankment construction from a height of 1.5 to 10.0 m caused a 12 cm
settlement of the subsoil on the northwest side of the
embankment (geodetic measurements), and a 41 cm
subsoil settlement near the centre of the embankment (HPG measurements) (see Figure 7). It can be

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45

10

sep.04

mar.05

Settlement (cm)

sep.05
18
16
14

Settlement plate SP4


Measuring tube HOR1
Construction of the embankment

30
40

12
10

50

60

70

80

Height of the embankment (m a.s.l.)

Date
mar.04

20

Figure 8. Settlement development measured at the location


of HOR-1, using two different methods, compared with the
progress of embankment construction.

sep.02
0

mar.03

sep.03

Date
mar.04

sep.04

mar.05

sep.05
18

10

16

20

14

30

12

40

10
8

50
60
70

Settlement plate SP11


Measuring tube HOR2
Construction of the embankment

80

6
4
2

Figure 9. Settlement development measured at the location


of HOR-2, using two different methods, compared with the
progress of embankment construction.

The settlement plates were not in fact installed at the


base of the embankment (i.e. directly on the foundation
subsoil), but somewhat later on the first (SP-11) and
second (SP-4) layers of the embankment, so that the
geodetic measurements of the vertical displacements
of the settlement plates were somewhat less than the
actual settlements of the foundation soil (measured
from the start of the construction works). It was estimated that the so-called missed settlement was 4 to
6 cm. Regarding the influence of the stone columns,
the expected time of 95% of consolidation of the subsoil is 1.5 years. Consolidation is still in progress, so
that this evaluation could not yet be confirmed.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of measuring tubes and a HPG, which do not


interfere with the construction works, has proved to be
an excellent practical solution. The results consist of
not just a single settlement (like those obtained when
a settlement plate is used), but of complete settlement
profiles along the measuring tube. Because of the relative values of vertical displacements measured by the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

sep.03

10

Comparison of settlement development using


two different methods

Figures 8 and 9 show a comparison of the settlement


development measured in the measuring tubes HOR-1
and HOR-2 with the settlements observed on plates
SP-4 and SP-11, which were located very close to
these two measuring tubes, and the progress of the
embankment construction at both profiles. The reference measurement of the vertical displacements of
the settlement plates was performed in the middle of
September 2002 (the reference measurement in the
tubes was performed one month later). For comparison
of the results of these two methods, the soil settlement
measured by optical levelling of the settlement plates
up until October 2002 (4 and 5 cm, respectively) was
taken into account. Because of construction reasons,
the last measurement of the vertical displacements of
the settlement plates was made before the pavement
was completed, so the increase in settlements up to the
finished surfacing layer was estimated on the basis of
measurements using the HPG (see the hatched lines
in Figures 8 and 9). After that a new system of optical
levelling was established, which enabled continuity of
the observation of the settlements.
It was shown that the values of the settlements, as
well as the settlement development measured by the
HPG, are very similar to those observed on the settlement plates, which were located very close to the
measuring tubes. At the time of the last measurements,
in July 2005, the difference between the settlements
obtained by the two different methods was 3 and 4 cm
respectively; the settlements measured using the HPG
were 68 and 46 cm, whereas the settlements measured using the settlement plates were 71 and 50 cm,
respectively.

mar.03

Height of the embankment (m a.s.l.)

4.2

sep.02
0

Settlement (cm)

seen from this figure (the two lowest curves) that the
construction of the connecting embankment caused
relatively larger settlements on the southeast side of
the embankment (i.e. on the right hand side of the
measuring cross-section). It can be also seen from this
figure that, similarly to the case of HOR-1, the gradual
reduction in the width of the embankment, as construction proceeded, caused additional settlements mainly
in the middle of the measuring cross-section.
It can be seen that the development of settlements at the two selected profiles was very different,
which is the consequence of the heterogeneity and
different compressibility of the subsoil beneath the
embankment at these two locations.
The last measurements using the HPG were performed in July 2005 (i.e. one year after the embankment had been completed). However, consolidation of
the subsoil has not yet finished, so that the presented
values of the settlements should not be assumed to be
equal to the ultimate values for the stated heights of
the embankment.

HPG, the absolute height of the reference pin at the


mouth of the tube should be determined by geodetic
measurements. When analyzing settlements and determining absolute values of settlements, the progress of
embankment construction before the reference measurement is made should be taken into consideration.
When the mouth of the measuring tube is accessible on both sides of the embankment the settlement
probe can be pulled through the tube with a draw-cord,
which was successfully performed for the first time in
Slovenia in the case of the settlement measurements of
the Srmin high embankment. This work is much less
time-consuming than when the probe has to be pushed
through the tube with aluminium rods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES
Logar, J. 2002. Geotechnical analysis of the performance of
the Srmin high embankment, founded on the soft soil
reinforced by the stone columns. University of Ljubljana,
Slovenia (in Slovenian) unpublished report, 22 pages.
Ravnikar Turk, M., vanut, P. and iberna, S. 2002. The use
of a hydrostatic profile gauge for settlement measurements
of the Drtijcica dam. Proc. of the 4th SLOCOLD Expert
Meeting, Fala, Slovenia (in Slovenian), pp. 18.
vanut, P. 2003. Settlements of an embankment founded on
a soft soil. Proc. of the 11th International Symposium on
Deformation Measurements, Santorini, Greece, pp. 335
340.
vanut, P., Ravnikar Turk, M. and iberna, S. 2004. Settlements of the Srmin high embankment. Proc. of the
4th Conference of the Slovenian Geotechnical Society,
Rogaka Slatina, Slovenia (in Slovenian), pp. 283288.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of Peter


Sheppard in the editing of this paper.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Joint calculation of a foundation and soil of the large-scale


structure in view of creep
Shmidt Aitalyev & Nicholas Ter-Emmanuilyan
National Academy of Science, Institute of the mechanics and mashines, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan

Tatyana Ter-Emmanuilyan
Ministry of Education and Science, Kazakhstan Academy of Architecture and Construction, Almaty, Republic of
Kazakhstan

Timur Shmanov
Ministry of Defense, Military Engineering Institute of Radio-electronics and Communication, Almaty, Republic of
Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: The paper consist of basis and practical application of the method of full discretization. This
method is a special modification of finite element method for the solving of problems of elastic creep. Practical
application of the method is illustrated with modeling and applied tasks. For example joint calculation of the
foundation of a high-altitude television tower near the city of Almaty (Republic of Kazakhstan) and soil in an
assigned time interval is solved. All of components of evolution of all vectors of displacements and stress tensors
of all elements with and without taking into account of technology of building are determined. Comparison of
the received results with the known date of natural supervision is performed.

INTRODUCTION

Method of full discretization (FDM) special modification of the finite element method (FEM) for the solving of various problems of the elastic creep, offered by
N.Ter-Emmanuilyan (Ter-Emmanuilyan N., 1975).
FDM universal, comparatively simple and obvious engineering method being not step-by-step in
time. It gives an opportunity to determine discrete values of displacements, deformations and stresses in
a calculated interval of time. The method is developed both in variant of displacements, and in variant
of forces. It can be combined with other engineering
numerical methods, such as a method of boundary
elements, a method of finite differences and others
(Ter-Emmanuilyan N., Ter-Emmanuilyan T., 2006).
The FDM allows to take into account: a heterogeneous creep and ageing of materials of any
constructions and foundation soils; physical and geometrical nonlinearity; plasticity; anisotropy; different
modular elastic creep; influence of temperature; presence stressed enforcement and normal armatures in
ferro-concrete; discrete diagrams of erection of constructions (increase or reduction of volumes, change
of operational loadings etc.).
The method is applied at the decision of a wide
class of engineering problems of a linear and nonlinear

elastic creep. For example: plane problems; axisymmetric; three-dimensional; single-layered and multilayered plates and envelopes; bar and thin-walled
systems; stability of plates and bars; contact problems; thermoelastic creep problems; a short-time
high-temperature creep of metals, etc.
The mathematical justification of a FDM as a
version of a method of weighted residuals and also
approximation and discretization error in numerical
solutions is considered. The appropriate algorithms
of the solutions of linear and nonlinear problems of
elasticity, elastic creep and plasticity are constructed.
The package of application software for engineers and
researchers is developed.
The wide class of modelling and applied engineering problems are solved: calculation of evolution of
stress-deformation state in the system tunnel lining rock; reinforced concrete pipe - backfilling;
a heterogeneous thick-walled shell with steel facing at loading and unloading; research of evolution
of stress-deformation state of the vertical supported
shaft at drivage with the preset speed; calculation
in time reinforced concrete wall panels with holes;
calculation of multilayered plates in view of a creep
of some layers; buckling of flexible plates; buckling
of a rod and cylindrical bend of a plate with initial
camber; research on model Shenly at conservative

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

and following loadings; calculation of prestressed ferroconcrete rods; combined calculations of growing
buildings and constructions and their bases (Aitaliev
Sh., Ter-Emmanuilyan T., 2003):
an evolution of stress-deformation state of a foundation ferroconcrete plate on a soil base;
a problem about of influence of non-simultaneity
of erection of buildings on evolution of the stressdeformation state in constructions and basis at the
constrained building of city territories;
calculations of the box-shaped substructure and the
basis of high-altitude television tower on mountain
Kok-Tyube near Almaty city in three variants of
statement of a task: plane, quasi-spatial and spatial;
calculation of a road embankment and its basis;
calculation in time four-level a ferro-concrete construction and its basis, etc.

Matrix Lt in usual designations is constructed on


the basis of the equations of a condition for linear
three-dimensional elastocreep the bodies, received by
N.H.Arutjunjan.
For the decision of system of the equations (Eq.1)
the numerical method of the decision based on full,
existential digitization (FDM) was offered.
Digitization of objects in FDM on geometry is carried out as well as in FEM at the decision elastic and
elastoplastic problems.
The limited time piece (day, years) digitize time
points.
For uniaxial the discrete form of the equation of a
condition looks like the intense condition:
tj
i

d()
i = i i1 +
i ()d,
d
j=2 t
j1

(i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , p), (j = 2, 3, . . . , p).

BASES OF THE METHOD

Stress-deformation state (SDS) the elastocreep, homogeneous and isotropic body loaded in the age of = 1
at small deformations in static problems completely is
determined, if all are known 15 components of a vector
f (xi , t, ) = [uT (xi , t, ) T (xi , t, ) T (xi , t, )],
(i = 1, 2, 3),

nT
0
0

J
J
0


0
u
0
Lt + 0 = 0

(1)

And to boundary conditions in movings on S1 and in


superficial forces on S2 . in system (Eq. 1) n (3 6)
a matrix of linear differential operators on coordinates; = [XYZ]T a vector of volumetric forces;
ns a matrix directing cosines an external normal to a
surface, but with replacement of operators of differentiation /xi , . . .. on cosines cos(, xi ), . . .; J a unit
matrix; Lt a matrix of integro-differentual operators
66

of an elastic creep with 12 nonzero elements Lij from


which Lt11 has the following kind:

Lt11

1
+ C (t, 1 ) +
=
E (1 )

d ...
= (t, 1 ) +
d

t 


1
+ C (t, )
E()

(t, )
1

d...
.
d

and vectors of discrete values.

11
0
... 0
1
21 22
... 0
22

E =

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.. ...
pp
p1 p2 p2 p3 . . . pp

(5)

the return square-bottom triangular matrix of matrix


module describing elasticity, hereditary creep and
ageing of a material, in which sizes ik are calculated
under the formula
ik =

1
tk tk1

tk
i ()d,

(6)

tk1

Or, is simplified,
ik =

ik + i,k1
,
2

(t, ) =
(2)

(7)

1
+ C(t, ).
E()

(8)

Generally triaxial the SDS, from six scalar integrated


equations of a condition making the second group of

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(4)

Thus

t

In (Eq.3) integral it is broken for the sum of integrals,


the derivative is replaced differential.
The formula (Eq. 3), after introduction of matrix
restrictions, gets a kind conterminous under the form
with Hookes law:
= E1 ,

as functions of coordinates and time, satisfying in each


point to system of the matrix-vector equations

(3)

the matrix equations (Eq.1) it is received, after sampling, the system of the algebraic equations having the
form of generalized Hookes law:

x = E1 x E1 ( y + z )

... ... ... ... ... ...


,
(9)
1
xy = 2E (J + )xy

... ... ... ... ... ...


where = 

1
0
0 0 ...
1
1
0 0 ...

1 0 ...
0 1
=
0 1 1 . . .
0
... ... ... ... ...
0
0
0 0 1

0
0

0
0

...
1

(10)

an auxiliary matrix,
the bottom triangular matrix generated from
sizes ij :
"
ij =

(ti , j ), (i j)
,
0, (i < j)

(t, ) =

(t, )
.
0 ()

(11)

At construction of matrixes and it is possible to


use theories of creep or the data of base experiments.
As a result of generalization of physical parities(ratio)
of the linear theory of creep and matrix Hookes law
[10], the matrix form of the law of a linear elastic creep
is received in a general view:
t = Dt t ,

(12)

Dt the generalized matrix of a linear elastic


creep having in scalars 6 the order, t and t
6-dimensional (3-dimensional in flat problems) on
components tensors and to time points of vectors of
stresses and deformations.
At a conclusion of the formula calculation of the
matrix of rigidity of a final element generalized in time
for quasistatic problems of an elastic creep the principle of possible movings Lagrange is used. In result the
formula is received:

k rt = BT1 Dt B1 dv,
(13)
V

where 1 a matrix of communication of components of movings and deformations in time in


FE:
rt = B1 q tr .

(14)

Looks like a rectangular matrix generally about


6p 3np (n number of units in FE).

Matrix 1 turns out from a usual matrix in way


of expansion of each scalar member k in diagonal
blocks matrixes of the order with constant diagonal
elements k .
The matrix k rt of rigidity generalized in time elastocreep a final element has the order in time the
greater, than the order kr matrixes of rigidity of an
elastic element due to replacement of scalar elastic
constants and bottom triangular matrixes and
the order .The generalized matrix of rigidity t of system elastocreep elements which is square, block, the
order, generally, 3Np (N the general(common) number of units of elements of system) further is resulted.
For uniformity on properties of an elastic creep of a
body, this matrix can be received very simply as well
as k rt by expansion of scalars and in matrixes
and the order.
At calculation of the designs consisting from nonuniform on properties or age of materials, blocks of
matrix t of system are calculated only by summation on the elements containing units i and j of global
numbering of the appropriate members of generalized
matrixes of rigidity of final elements:
K tij =

k rtij .

(15)

rij

Further allowing linear matrix algebraic equation concerning a required vector q t of components of movings
in time of all units of system is submitted:
K t q t = R t ,

(16)

where K t generalized stiffness matrix of system


(SMS) in which the kinematics boundary conditions
having an opportunity to change in a settlement interval of time are taken into account; R t a vector of a
variable or a constant in time of central loading.

RESULTS of NUMERICAL MODELLING

In building practice erection of any constructions is an


example ph growing in time. Depending on concrete
conditions, process of escalating of viscoelastic bodies
can occur both discretely, and is continuous.
The account of a time history of development and
loading bodies frequently results in qualitative changes
in their mechanical behaviour.
At designing large ground and underground constructions, it is especial in conditions of city building,
performance of stage-by-stage geotechnical calculation, since process of construction and finishing an
operation phase is expedient. Thus results of calculations can differ from usual on the order, and sometimes
and with change of a mark (Ilyichev V., 2004).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

television tower it was carried out by a number of


authors, however thus it was not taken into account
deformability the most base box.
Lets consider calculation of evolution is intense
deformed conditions of a box and the basis during last
period of operation of a construction due to creep of
concrete of a plate and the earth basis. Calculations are
executed in three variants of statement of a problem:
flat, quasi-spatial and spatial.
The behaviour elastocreep a material of constructions - concrete or ferro-concrete with the smeared
armature is described by the equations of the hereditary theory of ageing with a measure of creep of
S.V.Aleksandrovsky:
1
e A2
(1 e ) + () () t
E0
e A2
+ ()[1 e(1) ],
(17)

(t, ) =

where
() = C1 C3 +

Figure 1.

FDM allows to carry out joint calculations simultaneously and to investigate evolution is intense
deformed conditions in a time piece with the detailed
account of technology of all building and installation works, and also sequence of introduction of a
construction in operation. Thus, it is possible to predict evolution is intense deformed conditions of a
construction on any long term for definition of their
durability and reliability. It, in turn, results in economy
of materials and resources.
3.1

Modelling task

Lets consider joint calculation of a large-scale


base ferro-concrete box and the earth basis (TerEmmanuilyan T., 2006.).
On the western slope of mountain the Kok-Tube
in 1982 (figure 1), on an absolute mark of 1050 m
construction of a unique construction radiotelevision
transmitting station in height of 372 m and by weight
about 70 thousand tons was completed. The base of
a construction as an open monolithic ferro-concrete
box-shaped plate, the sizes in the plan (66 51) m
and depth location 16,6 m Figure 1.
Directly under a sole of the base of building television tower loams firm, dense, unsubsidence rocks
with the module of deformation of the top layer
(y = 6 m) 1 = 87 MPa, the bottom layer (y > 6 m)
2 = 93 MPa are deposited. Earlier settlement and
experimental estimations deposits of the basis of a

= C3 +

A3
,

0 the module of elasticity of old concrete,


a, , , 1 , 2 , 3 , 1 , 3 parameters of creep.
Parameters of creep of a ground with a measure of
creep of Z.S.Erzhanov:


1


(t, ) =
1 + (t ) ,
(18)
E

Received from differential nucleus


L(t ) = (t )1 ,

(19)

where , a parameters of creep.


In work the third variant of statement of a problem
is considered.
Loadings are the body weight of a base box and useful loading. Besides horizontal loading from pressure
of a ground upon retaining walls of a box is taken into
account.
Further, the results of calculations received by this
method are resulted.
For the decision of such class of problems the universal program FDM3D in which, except for the
basic nucleus of the program written in language FORTRAN, special modules are used, visualization the
entrance and target files developed in language Visual
Basic in AutoCAD 2004 environment was developed.
3.2

Spatial task

Lets consider calculation of evolution is intense


deformed conditions of a base box and the basis during
construction and operation of a construction in view
of creep of concrete of a plate and the earth basis.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

A1 A3
,

Figure 3. Design model.

Figure 4. The deformed scheme.

Figure 2. Stages of erection of a construction. a) Concreting


a plate and a zero circle; b) Concreting 1-st circle of a wall
with the subsequent backfill; c) Concreting 2-nd circle of a
wall and continuation backfill; d) Concreting 3-rd circle of a
wall and the ending backfill.

The body weight of a base box and weight located


above the part of a construction non-uniformly allocated on a plate, basically is taken into account, due to
presence of a basic cylinder.
Erection of a base box is carried out in four stages.
1-st stage concreting of a plate and a zero circle of
a wall; 2-nd stage - concreting of the first circle of
a wall with the subsequent 3aspkoa ground from
the external parties(sides); 3-rd stage - concreting of
the second circle of a wall and continuation 3aspkia
ground; 4-th stage - concreting of the third circle of

walls and the termination(ending) backfill a ground


Figures 2(a,b,c,d).
In calculations the body weight of the ground is
taken into account.
On Figure 3 the design model of a box on the earth
basis with the indication of boundary conditions is submitted. The settlement area has two vertical planes of
symmetry, only 1/4 part of area therefore is considered.
Calculation is carried out with use of the program
FDM-3D. In result the information on components
of central movings for all units, in all time points,
i.e. (n 3 p) is received. Components of vectors
of deformations and stresses for each time point, in
all FE (N 6 = 120 000) are counted up. Thus,
the full picture of evolution of vectors of movings,
deformations and stresses in space and in time is
received.
Further we shall illustrate some characteristic
results of calculation graphically. Thus the program
of construction isoareas and isolines was in addition
developed.
On Figure 4 the deformed scheme of settlement area
(the scale of deformation is increased in 30 times) is
submitted.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 5. Isolines of vertical movings


for times t3 (a), t5 (b), t7 (c), t20 (d).

Figure 6. Isoareas and isolines of components vertical


normal stresses for times t3 (a), t5 (b), t7 (c), t20 (d).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 7. Isoareas and isolines of components horizontal


normal stresses for t20 : a) x ; b) y

On Figure 5(a,b,c,d) are represented isolines of vertical movings for t3 = 70, t5 = 110, t7 = 160, t20 = 550
day which evidently show evolution of vertical
movings.
Isoareas and isolines components of vertical normal stresses (z ) for four time points are submitted on
Figure 6(a,b,c,d), and on Figure 7(a,b) isoareas and
isolines of components of horizontal normal stresses
(x ,y ) for last time point t20 .
Figure 8(a,b,c) isoareas and isolines of components of tangents of stresses (txy , txz , tzy ) for last time
point t20 .

Figure 8. Isoareas and isolines of components of tangents


of stresses for t20 : a) xy ; b) xz ; c) zy .

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1. Comparison of results of calculations vertical movings v (with the account and without taking into account
technology).
Time
points

Without taking
into account

With the
account

Divergence,
%

t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
t6
t7
t8
t9
t10
t11
t12
t13
t14
t15
t16
t17
t18
t19
t20

5,22E-02
6,34E-02
6,49E-02
6,60E-02
6,68E-02
6,78E-02
6,86E-02
6,92E-02
6,98E-02
7,03E-02
7,08E-02
7,12E-02
7,16E-02
7,19E-02
7,23E-02
7,26E-02
7,29E-02
7,32E-02
7,34E-02
7,37E-02

3,78E-03
4,79E-03
5,08E-03
5,30E-03
6,56E-03
7,31E-03
2,69E-02
3,22E-02
3,29E-02
4,73E-02
5,07E-02
5,12E-02
6,56E-02
6,90E-02
6,96E-02
7,01E-02
7,06E-02
7,11E-02
7,15E-02
7,18E-02

92,76%
92,44%
92,17%
91,97%
90,18%
89,22%
60,79%
53,47%
52,87%
32,72%
28,39%
28,09%
8,38%
4,03%
3,73%
3,44%
3,16%
2,87%
2,59%
2,58%

Figure 9. Isoareas and isolines of components of vertical


deformations for t20 .
w, m
0,00E+00

-1,00E-02

-2,00E-02

-3,00E-02

-4,00E-02

-5,00E-02

-6,00E-02

-7,00E-02

-8,00E-02
30

70

110

160

220

280

340

400

460

520

t, [days]

Without taking into account technology


In view of technology

16

24

32

37

45

0.00E+00
-1.00E-02

Figure 10. Diagrams of change in time vertical movings to


unit # 995.

-2.00E-02
-3.00E-02
-4.00E-02

On Figure 9 are shown isolines and isoareas of components of vertical deformations for last moment of
time t20 .
If necessary received results can be presented as
appropriate diagrams on any chosen planes of sections
for any time point.
Except for it, on Figure 10 diagrams of vertical movings for characteristic units of system are submitted,
and in Table 1 are resulted comparison of results of calculation in time of vertical moving of the central unit
of a box (#995) with the account and without taking
into account technology of construction.
Are constructed diagrams vertical movings to
planes of symmetry for two levels on depth (I-st a
level y = 1 m, II-nd a level y = 9 ) and four
time points (t3 , t5 , t7 , t20 ), appropriate to four stages of
erection Figure 11a,b.

-5.00E-02
-6.00E-02
-7.00E-02
-8.00E-02
t3I

t5I

t7I

t20I

t3II

t5II

t7II

t20II

a)
y

16

24

29

37

1.00E-02
0.00E+00
-1.00E-02
-2.00E-02
-3.00E-02
-4.00E-02
-5.00E-02
-6.00E-02
-7.00E-02
-8.00E-02
t3I

CONCLUSIONS

t7I

t20I

t3II

t5II

t7II

t20II

b)

The developed methods and results of work are used


at designing, calculations and operation of ground,

Figure 11. Diagrams of vertical movings for t3 , t5 , t7 , t20 .


a) In a plane x0y; b) in a plane y0z.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

t5I

underground, large-scale constructions as buildings,


dams, bridges and tunnels etc. objects in view of their
teamwork with the earth and rocky basis, time and spatial heterogeneity due to creep of materials. Besides
the developed packages of applied programs are convenient for users in view of their friendly interface,
optimum automation of input of the initial data and
processing of the received results.
The technique developed in work and the received
results allow to predict change in time of the SDS of
considered building objects with the big accuracy for
the long period of their operation, even in view of
possible reconstruction. This account can result in significant changes of the SDS (on the order and more)
for all period of operation.
In conclusion we shall note, that practically full concurrence of results of calculation of a base box by three
various ways is observed. For example, values of central movings in extreme points of contact of a plate
and a ground of the basis differ among themselves, for
the moment of time t20 , (2004), on 1.7%. Differences
of central movings in the same points from results of
natural supervision (t7 , 2002) make about 6% (Aitaliev Sh., Dostanova S., Isahanov E., Tokpanova K.,
Aldungarov M., 2004). Except for it, in out of contour
areas it is observed small buckling a ground.

REFERENCES

167

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1. Aitaliev Sh., Dostanova S., Isahanov E., Tokpanova K.,


Aldungarov M., 2004, Appraisal of settlments of high
television tower on the Kok-Tube mountain near by
Almaty city, Works of the international geotechnical
conference, Almaty, pp.132137.
2. Aitaliev Sh., Ter-Emmanuilyan T., 2003, Method of full
discretization in joint calculations of buildings and the
bases in view of creep, spatial and time heterogeneity,
Questions of applied physics and mathematics, Almaty,
pp.241246.
3. Ilyichev V., 2004, Experience of underground construction in Moscow. Works of the international geotechnical
conference, Almaty, pp.4142.
4. Ter-Emmanuilyan N., 1975, Method of spatially time
discretization for the decision of linear problems of the
theory of creep, On questions of mathematics and the
mechanics, No.7, KazNU. Alma-Ata, pp.1622.
5. Ter-Emmanuilyan N. Ter-Emmanuilyan T., 2006.
Method of full discretization for the decision problems
of an elastic creep, Almaty, p.416.
6. Ter-Emmanuilyan T., 2006., Application of the modified method full discretizations in engineering problems
with the account creep of materials and technology of
construction, Almaty, p.275.

Foundation

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Pile resistance variations over time for displacement piles in


young alluvium
Abdul Aziz Hanifah, Mohamad Nor Omar & Nor Fardzilah Abdul Rahman
Public Works Department, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Teh Kim Ong


Test Technical Laboratory, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

ABSTRACT: The results of a study of pile resistance variations over time by high strain dynamic pile tests
using Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) are presented. A total of twenty-eight prestressed concrete test piles were
driven in two sites of similar geological formation and carefully tested using PDA at various elapsed times after
installation. The variations in resistance of these piles over a maximum elapsed time of 29 days are discussed. The
test results from the two sites are combined and compared to produce a general trend of resistance variation over
time. A new term, resistance gain ratio is introduced to describe the ratio of pile resistance obtained at re-strike
to end-of-drive. Well defined trends are observed when plotting resistance gain ratios against logarithmic time
scale. Finally, general equations for total and shaft resistance gain ratios are derived from such plots. These
general equations form the basis for prediction of magnitude and rate of resistance variation over time after
pile installation in young coastal alluvium for moderate to long displacement piles. The findings provide useful
information for engineers in the planning and design of piled foundation works, and in deciding the minimum
waiting time for load testing of piles.

INTRODUCTION

The shearing of soil caused by the installation of piles


generates pore pressures which may reduce or increase
the strength of soil depending on the initial density of
the soil. Positive excess pore pressures are generated
in normally consolidated soils at the time of driving,
resulting in reduction in soil strength and vice versa for
over-consolidated soils. As a result, the installation of
displacement piles through relatively soft soils would
experience low driving resistance at the time of driving and gain of driving resistance over time, when the
soils recover from the disturbances of piling. Thus, the
long-term performance of displacement piles could be
significantly different from the performance obtained
at end-of-drive (EOD).
This research program was aimed at studying the
pile performance at EOD and various elapsed times
after piling for two selected sites namely KUITTHO
in Batu Pahat, Johor and Route 6 in Bayan Baru,
Penang.The effects of piling and resistance variation of
installed piles over time were anticipated to be dependent on the geological formation, pile type and pile
penetration length. In this research work, the large displacement piles were driven through soft/loose coastal
alluvium deposits with penetration length to diameter
ratios (L/D) of about 50 to 100.

Pile resistance or capacity is studied because it


is one of the main interests in any deep foundation
design and construction. Many researchers in the past
had also opted to quantify the change in pile performance by static load tests but often the required costs
and time are prohibitive. Fortunately, advances in the
application and measurement of pile dynamics enable
pile testing to be carried out in an affordable and
reliable manner using Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA).
The pile resistance in this research is determined by
high strain dynamic pile testing (HSDPT) outlined in
ASTM D4945-00 using PDA-W (2000) model PAK
and CAPWAP (1995) program
2
2.1

KUITTHO Project, Batu Pahat

The field trials were carried out in a test area of


about 30 meters 40 meters within a construction
site located in Kolej Universiti Teknologi Tun Hussein
Onn, Batu Pahat, Johor. The test pile group consisted
of ten numbers of 300 mm diameter 60 mm thick
prestressed concrete spun piles installed and tested
using a 5-ton single acting hydraulic drop hammer.
The installation details of the test piles (TP1-TP10)
are described in Table 1, showing some variations in

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CASE STUDY 1

Table 1. Installation details of test piles at KUITTHO,


Batu Pahat.
Pile Installation
Ref. Details

Final Set Measurements Approx.


and Observations At
Penetration
End-of-Drive
in Silt (m)

TP1 with shoe,


3.5 mm/blow @ 26.4m.
12 + 12 + 9 m.

16 ~ 23 m thick
SOFT CLAY
N = 0 4 blows/ft

3.0

TP2 no shoe,
2.5 mm/blow @ 29.1m. 6.4
12 + 12 + 9 m.
TP3 with shoe,
6.3 mm/blow @ 32.1 m. 8.7
12 + 12 + 9 m. badly damaged at 15 &
21 m at 28day restrike.

12 ~20 m thick
MEDIUM DENSE SILT
N = 10 35 blows/ft

TP4 with shoe,


3.6 mm/blow @ 28.2 m. 4.8
12 + 12 + 9 m.
TP5 with shoe,
3.2 mm/blow @ 30.5 m, 7.1
12 + 12 + 9 m. but broken at 15-minute
restrike using 1.2 m drop
at 21.0 and 13.0 m below
pile-top, badly damaged
at 9 m during EOD.
TP6 no shoe,
broken at about 7.0 m

12 + 12 + 9 m. above toe during


installation.
TP7 with shoe,
12 + 12 + 9 m.
TP8 drive to length.
with shoe,
12 + 12 m.
TP9 drive to length.
with shoe,
12 + 9 + 9 m.

7.0mm/blow @ 30.6 m.

7.2

final length @ 22.8 m.


pile toe in soft layer.

0.0

V. DENSE SILT
N > 50 blows/ft

Figure 1. Schematic soil profile at KUITTHO.

During EOD and re-strike testing, efforts were


made to mobilize the ultimate capacity of the piles
by increasing the hammer drop up to its maximum of
1.2 m if the measured set at pile-top was found to be
less than 2.5 mm/blow. Subsequent to field data collection, CAPWAP analyses were performed to determine
the mobilized pile resistance and the computed shaft
and toe resistances.

6.0 mm/blow @ 28.8 m. 5.8


pile toe in stiff layer

TP10 with shoe,


3.2mm/blow @ 24.7m.
12 + 12 + 9 m.

2.2 Test results

7.2

the driving, splice length, pile shoe and set condition


of the piles.
The site is located on a flat coastal alluvium plain
where the geological formation is of Quaternary age.
The subsoil profile shown in Figure 1 is characterized
by a 1623 meter soft clay layer underlain by a medium
dense silt layer which varies in thickness from 12 to
20 meters. This is followed by a very dense silt layer
where the SPT values exceed 50 blows/0.3 m.
Pile driving monitoring (PDM) was carried out for
all the test piles throughout the process of installation
to provide information on the various driving quantities pertinent to piling eg. compressive and tensile
stresses. High strain dynamic pile tests (HSDPT) were
carried out at the end of test pile installation i.e. at
the end of drive (EOD). Re-strike HSDPTs at various elapsed times after EOD were performed on the
test piles to study the variation of pile capacities with
time. A total of seventy-one (71) HSDPTs were carried out on nine test piles over a 29-day period. Test
pile, TP6 was damaged during installation and hence
not included in the following discussions.

Figure 2 shows the measured set of the pile head during


HSDPTs plotted versus the elapsed time from EOD for
eight piles driven into the stiff silt stratum. It is evident
that the set of all eight piles that were driven into the
stiff silt had greatly reduced to less than 2.5 mm/blow
after an elapsed time of about 10 days. This indicates
that the 5-ton hammer was not capable of mobilizing
the ultimate capacities of the piles even when the piling
rig operated at the maximum hammer drop of 1.2 m.
CAPWAP analyses were performed to determine
the mobilized pile resistances with separation of shaft
and toe resistances. The results of CAPWAP analyses on seventy-one numbers of HSDPT on nine test
piles are shown in Figures 3 and 4, which plot the
mobilized total resistance and shaft resistance versus
elapsed time from EOD respectively
Both the total and shaft resistances of the test piles
increased significantly with elapsed time from EOD.
The dominant gain in resistance occurred within a
short period of less than 5 days. It should be noted that
the pile resistances from re-strike tests conducted 10
days or later after EOD represent lower bound values
of the ultimate pile capacity as the achieved permanent
set at the pile head were all significantly less than

172

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GL

0m

12

250

11

225

10

200

Shaft Resistance (ton)

Set (mm)

8
7
6
5
4

175
150
125
100
75

3
50

2
25

1
0

0
0

12

16

20

24

28

32

TP2
TP7

TP3
TP9

TP4
TP10

Figure 2. Measured Pile Head Set vs Elapsed Time


from EOD.

12

16

20

24

28

32

TP1

TP2

TP3

TP4

TP5

TP7

TP9

TP10

Figure 4. Shaft Resistance vs Elapsed Time from EOD


for KUITTHO.

2.5 mm/blow. It is also of interest that the average


increase in total resistance from the 4th. to 28th. day
was only about 20%.
A review of the quake and pile displacement profiles estimated by the CAPWAP analyses suggests that
the shaft resistance was practically fully mobilized in
nearly all of the test piles. The trend of increase in shaft
resistance is broadly similar to the total resistance. The
increase in total and shaft resistances at any time can
be expressed as a ratio by normalizing with respect to
the resistance at EOD. A term, Resistance Gain Ratio
(RGR), is introduced as

250
225
200

Total Resistance (ton)

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)


TP1
TP5

175
150
125
100

RGR =

75

25
0
4

12

16

20

24

28

32

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)


TP1

TP2

TP3

TP4

TP5

TP7

TP9

TP10

Figure 3. Total Resistance vs Elapsed Time from EOD for


KUITTHO.

Total RGR = 0.11 Ln(day) + 1.71

(2)

Shaft RGR = 0.25 Ln(day) + 2.51

(3)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(1)

A RGR of 2 indicates that the resistance at re-strike is


twice the resistance at end of drive. The gain ratios for
total and shaft resistances of the test piles are computed and plotted with elapsed time from EOD on
a logarithmic scale in Figure 5 and Figure 6 respectively. The data show an increasing trend in a narrow
band and are generally bounded within 35% of the
best-fit trend line.
The equations of the trend line for both total and
shaft resistance gain ratios are as follows:-

50

Resistance at Restrike
Resistance at EOD

CASE STUDY II

3.1 Route 6 Project, Bayan Baru

Resistance Gain Ratio (RGR)

Total RGR = 0.11 Ln(day) + 1.71


4

+35%

+35%
-35%
1

-35%
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)


Figure 5. Total Resistance Gain Ratio vs Elapsed Time from
EOD for KUITTHO.

Resistance Gain Ratio (RGR)

Shaft RGR = 0.25 Ln(day)+ 2.51

The field works were carried out at a project site for a


viaduct along Route 6, Bayan Baru, Penang Island.
The site is located on a flat coastal alluvium plain
consisting of Quaternary deposits overlying granite
bedrock. The subsoil at the test section is made up
of 3 to 9 meters of soft clay/loose silt followed by 45
to 50 meters of layered medium dense silt and sand
overlying highly weathered to fresh granite. The soil
profile is shown in Figure 7
The proposed foundations of the bridge were
600 mm diameter x 100 mm thick open-ended prestressed concrete spun piles. The design specifications
required a 25-pile group at each pier location and an
ultimate pile capacity of 430 tons (working load of
215 tons). An extensive testing and monitoring program was carried out on two 9-pile groups totalling
18 test piles. Test piles, TP1 to TP9 was in one group
while the other group consisted of test piles, TP10 to
TP18. Due to space constraints at the site and equipment availability, the largest piling rig obtainable was
a Twinwood 10-ton single acting hydraulic drop hammer with a maximum hammer drop height of about 1.1
meter. It was initially anticipated that to achieve the
required capacities, the pile would have to be driven
to the very dense layer at a depth exceeding 50 m.
The details of the test pile installation are summarized in Table 2, showing some variations in the depth
of pre-bore, splice length, pile shoe and set condition
of the piles. Again, HSDPT were carried out on the test
piles at EOD and at various elapsed times after driving
to study the variation of pile resistance over time.

+35%

GL
0m

3 ~ 9 m thick
SOFT CLAY/LOOSE SILT
N = 0 10 blow s/ft
3

45 ~ 50 m thick
MEDIUM DENSE SILT/SAND
N = 10 30 blow s/ft

-35%

+35%

-35%
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

HIGHLY WEATHERED TO
FRESH GRANITE

100

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)


Figure 6. Shaft Resistance Gain Ratio vs Elapsed Time from
EOD for KUITTHO.

Figure 7. Schematic Soil Profile at Route 6, Bayan Baru.

174

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Installation Details of Test Piles at Route 6, Bayan


SPT-N
Value
Prebore at/near
(m)
toe

Total
Blow
Count
(no.)

Pile
Ref.

Installation Details and


Final Set Measurements

TP1

pipe shoe,
12 + 15 + 15 + 15 m
2.1 mm/blow @ 53.2 m.

30

2755

TP2

pipe shoe,
12 + 15 + 15 + 15 m
1.0 mm/blow @ 52.8 m.
pipe shoe,
12 + 12 + 15 + 15 m
0.9 mm/blow @ 52.3 m.

30

2572

30

2861

pipe shoe,
2
12 + 12 + 12 + 12 m
12.0 mm/blow @ 46.5 m.
pipe shoe,
2
12 + 12 + 12 + 12 m
final length @ 46.5 m.
pipe shoe,
2
12 + 12 + 12 + 12 m
final length @ 46.5 m.

25

1362

25

1654

25

2321

no shoe, 15 + 15 + 15 m
final length @ 43.8 m.
no shoe, 15 + 15 + 15 m
final length @ 44.3 m.

25

2263

25

2091

25

2018

15

1055

TP3

TP4

TP5

TP6

TP7
TP8
TP9

no shoe, 15 + 15 + 15 m
final length @ 43.5 m.

TP10 pipe shoe,


12 + 15 + 15 m
final length @ 39.0 m.

3.2 Test results


During testing, efforts were made to mobilize the ultimate capacity of the piles by increasing the hammer
drop to its maximum height of 1.1 m if the measured
set at pile head was found to be less than 2.5 mm/blow.
Figure 8 shows the measured set of the pile head during
HSDPTs plotted against the elapsed time from EOD
for the two pile groups.
At EOD, the four piles that were driven into the
dense to very dense completely weathered granite (i.e.
TP1, TP2, TP3 and TP18; shown in solid markings)
achieved a much lower set than the fourteen floating piles (i.e. TP4 to TP17). However, the measured
set of all the piles reduced substantially over time
and were generally lower than 2.5 mm/blow after an
elapsed time of about 10 days. This suggests the significant increases in driving resistance over time and
that the ultimate capacities of the piles were not fully
mobilized by the testing performed at later days even
at the maximum hammer drop of 1.1 m of the 10-ton
hydraulic hammer.
The mobilized total and shaft resistances from
CAPWAP analyses are plotted versus elapsed time
from EOD in Figures 9 and 10 respectively. Generally all the piles showed an increasing trend in total
and shaft resistances over time with dominant variations occurring within a duration of 10 days. For
some piles however, significant increases were still
recorded between re-strikes that were performed later
than 10 days after EOD. It is also observed that the
30

TP11 no shoe, 12 + 12 + 12 m 2
16.2 mm/blow @ 34.5 m.

15

948

TP12 plate shoe,


12 + 12 + 15 + 15 m
8.0 mm/blow @ 53.0 m.

0.6

25

2420

TP13 pipe shoe,


12 + 15 + 15 m
9.7 mm/blow @ 40.8 m.

TP14 pipe shoe,


12 + 12 + 12 + 15 m
7.2 mm/blow @ 50.0 m.

TP15 pipe shoe,


12 + 12 + 15 + 15 m
8.7 mm/blow @ 52.5 m.

25

20

18

25

Set (mm)

Table 2.
Baru.

1755

2282

10

23

2223
5

TP16 no shoe, 15 + 15 + 15 m 2
12.8 mm/blow @ 43.8 m.

18

1450

TP17 plate shoe,


12 + 12 + 12 + 12 m
8.0 mm/blow @ 46.8 m.

22

2196

TP18 plate shoe,


12 + 15 + 15 + 15 m
2.0 mm/blow at 54.3 m.

0
0

12

16

20

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)


30
>50

TP1

2260

TP2

TP3

TP4 - TP17 TP18

Figure 8. Measured Pile Head Set vs Elapsed Time from


EOD.

175

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

15

800

800

700

700

Shaft Resistance (ton)

Total Resistance (ton)

600

500

400

300

600

500

400

300

200

200
100

100
0
0

12

16

12

16

20

20

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)


TP1

TP2

TP3

TP4

TP5

TP6

TP7

TP8

TP9

TP10

TP11

TP12

TP13

TP14

TP15

TP16

TP17

TP18

TP2

TP3

TP4

TP5

TP6

TP7

TP8

TP9

TP10

TP11

TP12

TP13

TP14

TP15

TP16

TP17

TP18

piles driven into the very dense completely weathered granite generally showed a temporary decrease
in resistance during the course of the re-strike program. Such a decrease may be related to relaxation of
the over-consolidated soils at/near the pile toe.
Figures 11 and 12 show the gain ratios versus
elapsed time from EOD on a logarithmic scale for
total and shaft resistances respectively. The gain ratios
obtained at final re-strikes for total resistance ranged
from 1.4 to 3.7 and for shaft resistance, ranged from
2.3 to 5.9. The gain ratios for total resistance are lower
due to under mobilization of resistance or probable
soil relaxation at the pile toe. Similar to case study I,
the data are narrowly banded in an increasing trend and
bounded within 35% of the trend lines.The equations
of the best-fit trend lines for total and shaft resistance
gain ratios are:
Total RGR = 0.13 Ln(day) + 1.79

(4)

Shaft RGR = 0.25 Ln(day) + 2.45

(5)

These equations are almost identical to those derived


from Case Study 1.
DISCUSSIONS

The data from the two case studies are combined


in Figures 13 and 14 to compare the trends of the

Resistance Gain Ratio (RGR)

Total RGR = 0.13 Ln(day) + 1.79


4

+35%

+35%
-35%
1

-35%
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)

Figure 11. Total Resistance Gain Ratio vs Elapsed Time


from EOD for Route 6.

resistance gain ratios with elapsed time from EOD on


a logarithmic scale.
The plots clearly show that the data in both cases
exhibit a similar trend, i.e. increasing linearly in a

176

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

TP1

Figure 10. Shaft Resistance vs Elapsed Time from EOD for


Route 6.

Figure 9. Total resistance vs elapsed time from EOD for


Route 6.

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)

Shaft RGR = 0.25 Ln(day) + 2.45

Resistance Gain Ratio (RGR)

Resistance Gain Ratio (RGR)

+35%

-35%
+3 5%

Total RGR = 0.12 Ln(day) + 1.75


4

+35%

+35%
-35%

-35%
0
0.0001

0.001

-35%
0.01

0.1

10

0
0.0001

100

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)

0.01

0.1

10

100

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)

Figure 12. Shaft Resistance Gain Ratio vs Elapsed Time


from EOD for Route 6.

Figure 13. Total Resistance Gain Ratio vs Elapsed Time


from EOD for Both Case Studies.

narrow band with elapsed time on a logarithmic scale.


The data points generally fall within a band of 35%
from the best-fit trend line. This order of variation
is considered reasonably small in view of the spatial
and temporal variability of the factors affecting the
resistance.
In both case studies, the piles were driven through
similar geological formations, i.e. soft alluvial soils
into dense bearing strata with L/D ratios ranged from
50 to 100. The equations for the best-fit trend lines
derived from the combined data plotted in Figure 13
and Figure 14 are derived as follows:(6)

Shaft RGR = 0.25 Ln(day) + 2.48

(7)

It is observed from Figures 13 and 14 that the total


and shaft resistance gain ratios increased appreciably
within 10 days from EOD. Based on the best-fit trend
lines, the gain ratios for total and shaft resistances at
10 days from EOD are 2.0 and 3.0 respectively while
the gain ratios for total and shaft resistances at 28 days
after EOD are 2.1 and 3.3 respectively. This implies
that the pile resistance did not change appreciably
after 10 days subsequent to pile installation, keeping in
view that the toe resistance may not be fully mobilised
in cases after 10 days. Hence, load testing of piles
installed to the similar conditions of these studies may
be considered after an elapsed time of about 10 days.

Resistance Gain Ratio (RGR)

Total RGR = 0.12 Ln(day) + 1.75

+35%

Shaft RGR = 0.25 Ln(day) + 2.45


4

-35%
+35%

-35%
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Elapsed Time from EOD (day)


Figure 14. Shaft Resistance Gain Ratio vs Elapsed Time
from EOD for Both Case Studies.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.001

Further research is necessary to establish the trend


of resistance gain ratio for other geological formations,
pile types and longer elapsed time.

piling and to decide the suitable waiting period before


load testing a pile.
In general, the following guidelines may be considered for displacement piles driven through soft
alluvium into dense strata with L/D ratios of 50 to 100:-

CONCLUSIONS

The performance of twenty-eight large displacement


prestressed concrete piles of moderate to long penetration driven through thick coastal alluvium overlying
very dense strata are studied. High Strain Dynamic
Pile Tests (HSDPT) were carried out at end of drive
(EOD) and over a maximum elapsed time of 29
days. The results are analyzed using CAPWAP which
computes the pile shaft and toe resistances using a
signal-matching algorithm.
A new term, Resistance Gain Ratio (RGR) is
proposed which is expressed as a ratio of pile resistance obtained at restrike to pile resistance at EOD.
The Resistance Gain Ratio plotted against elapsed
time from end of drive on a logarithmic scale showed
distinct and similar trends in both case studies. The
equations for the best-fit tend lines for the Resistance
Gain Ratio for total and shaft resistances are derived
as follows:Total RGR = 0.12 Ln(day) + 1.75

(8)

Shaft RGR = 0.25 Ln(day) + 2.48

(9)

The resistance gain ratio relationships developed


above may be applied to predict the magnitude and rate
of pile resistance variation over time. The information
can be used to predict the long term resistance of piles
based on the driving resistance observed at the time of

The total and shaft resistance gain ratios at 10 days


after pile installation are 2.0 and 3.0 respectively
with a variation of 35%.
The total and shaft resistance gain ratios at 28 days
after pile installation are 2.1 and 3.3 respectively
with a variation of 35%.
The waiting period before carrying out pile load testing should be 10 days after installation of the pile.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Director General,
Public Works Department Malaysia for permission to
publish the paper.
REFERENCES
ASTM D4945-00 (2000), Standard Test Method for High
Strain Testing of Piles.
CAPWAP Manual, (1995) Goble, Rausche, Likins and Associates Inc., Cleaveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
Hanifah, A.A., Omar, M.N., Rahman, N.F.A. and Ong,
T.K. (2004). Dynamic Pile Testing Using Pile Driving
Analyzer (PDA) and Pile Integrity Test (PIT) Phase II,
Research Report, JKR 20601-LK-0086-GT-05, Public
Works Department Malaysia.
PDA-W Manual of Operation, (2000). Pile Dynamics Inc.,
U.S.A.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Group effect on model piles under axial monotonic loading


Alain Le Kouby
Department for Soil and Rock Mechanics and Engineering Geology, LCPC, Paris

Jean Canou & Jean Claude Dupla


Soil Mechanics laboratory, CERMES, Paris

ABSTRACT: We present in this paper the results of a parametric study carried out in a calibration chamber on
instrumented model piles. The aim is to point out group effect on piles within a group through their resulting shaft
friction and tip resistance. The methodology relies on the study of the influence of adjacent piles on a reference
pile. The soil used is a silica sand (Fontainebleau sand). The influence of parameters like pile spacing, number
of piles, and direction of loading are evaluated. The results show a positive effect on shaft friction of the group
effect and a negative effect on tip resistance. Efficiency factors are defined in order to have a better view on the
parameters influencing the response of the pile within a group.

INTRODUCTION

Soil improvement using the technique of piles is


commonly used in civil engineering. It consists in
transferring the load to the substratum through shaft
friction and tip resistance, both parameters controlling
the bearing capacity of the pile.
Besides micropiles are generally used in great number and close to each other showing a significant group
effect.
Therefore, it is important to study and try to quantify
the interaction between the piles on each inclusions
response which is called group effect. An experimental set-up has been developed at CERMES-LCPC,
a calibration chamber to study the vertical response of
single pile and groups through the head load, the shaft
friction and the tip resistance.
Within this context, a specific approach was chosen
to clarify these aspects (Francis, 1997). The objective
of the proposed paper is to present the results of an
experimental work aimed at studying the influence of
parameters like pile spacing, the number of piles and
the direction of loading on the response of piles.
2
2.1

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND TESTING


PROCEDURE
Experimental set-up

It is composed of a calibration chamber where we can


prepare a 700 mm high and 520 mm in diameter sample, with a controlled density ratio, using the pluviation

Figure 1. General view of a calibration chamber.

technique and a procedure close to the classical triaxial


procedure. It is possible to apply independent vertical
and horizontal consolidation stresses (K0 state). The
design of the upper part of the cell allows the installation and subsequent loading of the model pile. A
picture of the general view of the experimental set-up
is shown on Figure 1, with on the right the data acquisition system and on the left the loading test of a model
pile with the loading system
The latter is a servo-controlled hydraulic actuator
and can apply various types of loading (monotonic or
cyclic).
As far as the installation process is concerned, a
method by jacking has been chosen. The jacked piles

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are installed with the help of the long jack (at the top)
after the soil mass preparation.
The model pile is a metallic inclusion with a diameter of 20 mm, controlled shaft roughness and equipped
with a miniature force transducer for tip resistance
and instrumented shaft element for elementary shaft
friction measurement.
The tip is conical, the measurement shaft is 200 mm
long. After the installation process, the pile is centered
on the middle of the soil mass for the loading test i.e.
at equal distance from both end plates (250 mm) and
in order to minimize end plates effects.
In addition, Puech (1975) stated that it is necessary to allow a distance of about 5d between the tip
of the model and the bottom end plate to minimize its
influence on tip resistance mobilization. In our device,
the distance between the tip and the bottom plate is
200 mm (i.e. 10d) and the measurement shaft is at a
distance of 20 mm from the tip so that the tip will not
influence the shaft mobilization (Been et al., 1986 ;
Mokrani, 1991).
The ratio between the diameter of the cell and the
model pile diameter is 26, which is acceptable to minimize the effects of the sample size for the tested
inclusions in loose to medium sand (Been et al., 1986;
Foray, 1991).
2.2 Testing procedure
For the jacked pile, after preparation of the soil mass at
a given density and consolidation stresses (anisotropic
(K0 condition)), the pile models are installed using a
jacking rig; the soil around the pile is remoulded.
After the pile installation, the pile is embedded by
500 mm within the sand mass so that the 200 mm skin
friction gauge is not influenced by the top plate and
the tip is at a distance of 10 diameters from the bottom
plate. The behaviour of the model pile in this study
can be assimilated to the behaviour of a pile at those
initial soil conditions (relative density and confining
pressures).
Then, in the case of a single pile, the loading phase
is carried out to get the bearing capacity. As far as
the pile groups are concerned, the next phases depend
on the installation order (see paragraph 3). For example, in the case of an installation order C1 (soil mass
M2) (see paragraph 3), the testing procedure is as
follows:
Preparation of the soil mass
Installation by jacking of the center pile
Monotonic loading of the center pile until failure
in order to get the reference bearing capacity of the
single pile in terms of pile head load, shaft friction
and tip resistance. It will be compared to the bearing
capacity of the group
Installation of the 4 adjacent pile
Loading of the 5-pile group (test M2-G5)

Figure 2. Overview of a tension test on a 5-pile group (Le


Kouby, 2003).

Installation of the 4 corner piles


Loading of the 9-pile group (test M2-G9)
During the installation and the loading phases, data
acquisition is recorded for the pile head displacement and force measured as well as the tip and shaft
measurements.
The above testing procedure is valid for the case of
compression tests and the tension tests.
Besides, for the tensions tests an additional frame
has been developed in order to link the loading jack
and the loaded piles in tension (Figure 2).

3.1 Objectives
The scope of this work is to point out group effect
on piles through bearing capacity of a group and in
particular on the shaft friction and tip resistance of a
pile within a group.

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OBJECTIVES AND EXPERIMENTAL


PROGRAM

C1

Figure 3. Elementary cell chosen: (a) great number of piles


within a group; (b) 9-pile group cell and (c) 5-pile group cell
(center pile = generic pile).

The methodology used, developed by Francis


(1997) (Figure 3) can be described as follows: at first
we consider a group of piles characterized by a great
number of generic piles (i.e. submitted to the effect
of adjacent piles). In order to point out the effect of
these adjacent piles on the generic pile, it has been
decided to study the group of 9 piles with a central
inclusion submitted to the influence of the 8 adjacent
piles.
In addition, an other hypothesis has been made considering that the 4 closest piles have got the most
influence on the center pile (generic pile).
Elementary cells have been studied to check this
hypothesis. Tests on groups of 5 and 9 piles have been
carried out. An additional parameter has been considered; the direction of loading as the generic pile will
have a different behaviour according to the steps in the
piles installation.
For the 5-pile groups, 2 different cells have been
considered with their own installation order (C1); Figure 4). For C1, the center pile is installed at first and
the adjacent piles afterwards.
In the case of 9 pile group, again, one type of cell
has been considered with its own installation order
(C1) (Figure 4). For C1, the center pile is installed,
followed by the 4 closest adjacent piles and then by
the 4 last piles.
We study the influence of parameters such as pile
spacing, number of piles (1, 5 and 9) and direction
of loading for the case of 5-pile groups on the pile
group response. Besides, we focus on the mechanical
behaviour on the center pile (generic pile) representing the pile within a group through the shaft friction
and the tip resistance measured.
Then, we try to quantify group effect and get an idea
of the additional load taken by a pile within a group ;
through different group efficiency factors:
a group efficiency factor for the total load carried
by the group and two efficiency factor

C1
Figure 4. Elementary cells of 5 and 9 piles studied for an
installation order C1.

the shaft friction of the generic pile (center pile)


and,
the tip resistance of the generic pile.
3.2 Experimental program
The experimental program has been defined to point
out the influence of some parameters on the interaction
effects between piles within a group (table 1).
The tests have been carried out in dry Fontainebleau
sand (reference sand in France). This material has
got the following characteristics (D50 = 200 mm,
emax = 0.94 and emin = 0.54, s = 26.5 kN/m3 ) and is
sub-rounded.
The initial conditions chosen for those tests are: a
density ratio of 0.50 and consolidation stresses with a


K0 type (K0 = 0.40, v0
= 125 kPa and h0
= 50 kPa).
The first two tests are done to get the reference
bearing capacity in compression of the single pile (M1S1 and M2-S1) and in tension (M3-S1 and M4-S1)
(table 1).
Two separate sets of tests have been done: M1-G5,
M6-G5, M3-G5 and M4-G5 for the tests on 5-pile

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Table 1. Experimental program (test Mi-S1: test on single


pile in soil mass I; Mi-G5: test on 5-pile group in soil mass i;
Mi-G9: test on 9-pile group in soil mass I; Type: type of test
(T: tension or C: compression; eR : pile spacing ratio (ratio
distance between 2 piles on pile diameter)).
Test

eR

Type

M1
M2
M3
M4

M1-S1
M2-S1
M3-S1
M5-S1

1
1
1
1

C
C
T
T

M1
M6
M3
M4
M2
M11

M1-G5
M6-G5
M3-G5
M5-G5
M2-G9
M11-G9

5
5
5
5
9
9

2.83
4
2.83
4
2,83
2,83

C
C
T
T
C
C

Pile headload (kN)

Soil mass

0
Single jacked pile
ID = 0,50 v = 125 kPa h = 50 kPa

-1

Compression test (M1-S1)


(M3-S1)
Tension test

-2
-3

(a)

Unit skin friction (kPa)

4 TEST RESULTS ON SINGLE PILE

-1

Pile head displacement (mm)

40

20

-20

-40

-60
-3

-2

-1

(b)

Pile head load (mm)


8

Unit end bearing (MPa)

On Figures 5(a), (b) and (c), we show typical results of


the response of a single pile under monotonic loading
through the total load, the tip resistance and the shaft
friction.
The three maximum values obtained can be considered as reference values in comparison with the
response of a pile within a group.
In addition, according to the loading phase, a first
loading is carried out until a maximum load followed
by an unloading phase. Then, a re-loading is done and
the maximum values reached for the pile head load,
tip resistance and the shaft friction are similar to the
values obtained during the first loading phase.
This result shows, for compression, that the main
variations in the soil-pile interface occur during the
installation phase. A loading unloading re-loading
phase has less effect on the response of the pile. This
procedure validates the tests on groups. Indeed, for
instance, the center pile can be installed at first and
then loaded as a single pile in order to have the reference resistance and then the adjacent piles are installed
and the pile group is loaded.
These different phases of loading unloading and
re-loading will not have important effect on the center
pile response (order of installation C1).
In the case of tension test, one can notice that the
skin friction mobilised in the compression test is bigger than the skin friction mobilised in the tension test.

-2

60

groups and tests M2-G9 and M11-G9 for the tests on


the 9-pile groups.
In the case of 5-pile groups, we study the influence
of pile spacing (tests M1-G5 and M6-G5 for 5-pile
groups in compression and M3-G5 and M4-G5 for 5pile groups in tension). For the 9-pile group case, we
carried out 2 tests for repeatability.

0
0

(c)

Pile head displacement (mm)

Figure 5. Single pile response under monotonic loading,


Influence of the direction of loading on the loading model
jacked pile response on (a) pile head load and (b) shaft friction
and (c) tip resistance for compression test

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25

Pile head load (kN)

Pile head load (kN)

20

15
v = 125 kPa h= 50 kPa ID = 0,50
eR = 2,83 Installation order C1
Single pile
(testM1-S1)
Group of 5 piles(testM1-G5)
Group of 9 piles(testM2-G9)

10

ID = 0,50 v= 125 kPa h= 50kPa


eR = 2,83Installationorder C1
Single pile
(test M1-S1)
Group of 5 piles (test M1-G5)
Group of 9 piles (test M2-G9)

-1

0
0

12

16

20

Figure 7. Typical result of the pile head load on a single


pile, a center pile in the cases respectively of a 5-pile group
and a 9-pile group.

Figure 6. Typical result of the total load response on a single


pile, a 5-pile group and a 9-pile group.

It can be explained by the installation method as the


jacking phase provokes a remoulding of the zone of
soil around the pile.
Tension tests can be considered as a decompression
phase of the soil around the pile at the tip and on the
shaft. In addition to the changes in radial stresses along
the pile shaft relating to the loading path (compressive
versus tensile loading), this difference in skin friction
may also be attributed to residual loads induced by
driving and generating negative friction stresses along
the pile shaft.
5 TEST RESULTS ON PILE GROUP
5.1 Typical results
For the installation phase of a 5-pile group (case of C1),
as the number of jacked pile increases, the necessary
load to jack a pile within the group increases. Hence,
the pile head load increases from the first pile to the
5th (center pile).
The results of the loading of 1-pile, 5pile group
and 9-pile group through total load show an increasing load to reach the failure as the number of piles
increases (Figure 6). Such is also the case for pile head
load on the center pile, shaft friction and tip resistance
on the center pile (Figures 7 and 8 (a) and (b)).
In addition, in the case of the single pile, failure
is reached at a displacement of about 1mm (0.05d,
with d: diameter of the pile) and its limit resistance is
about 4 kN. In the case of the 5-pile group, the maximum load reaches 18 kN for a displacement of 2,5 mm
(about 12.5% d) and for the 9-pile group 24 kN after a
displacement of 22.5% d (not shown on Figure 6).

Besides, the center pile carries a short part of the


load applied on the group for the installation order
C1 (Figure 7). Indeed, the proportion of shaft friction
and tip resistance mobilized is low showing that the
corner pile carries most of the load until a maximum
settlement.
This settlement covers a range: [2.5 mm for a 5-pile
group and 6 mm for a 9-pile group]. The shape of the
shaft friction curve curves underlines this specificity
with a stiff response at the beginning of the loading
and then a small increased of the load carried by the
center pile and then the failure (Figure 8).
The shaft friction and the tip resistance increase as
pile spacing ratio decreases. In addition, the shaft friction of the center pile is bigger than the shaft friction
measured in the case of a single pile although the tip
resistance of the center pile is always smaller than the
tip resistance of the single pile. A first remark is that
the displacement required by the group to reach its
maximum value is much more important than in the
case of the single pile.
5.2 Parametric study on the pile group response
The influence of pile spacing ratio is shown on Figure 9
in the case of 5-pile groups and of the installation order
C1 with the tests M1-G5 and M6-G5.
At first, Figure 9(a) shows an interesting feature
with the pile group head load similar in the two cases
In this paragraph, we focus on the behaviour of the
center pile and especially the unit loads carried by this
pile (shaft friction and tip resistance).
On the center pile, for shaft friction (Figure 9(b)),
we notice similar shapes of the curves for the values

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Pile head displacement (mm)

Pile head displacement (mm)

100

25

20

Pile head load (kN)

Shaft friction (kPa)

80

60

40

20
v= 125 kPah
0

Center pile
h 50 kPa

15

5-pile group
v = 125 kPa

10

ID= 0,50

eR= 2,83Installation order C1


Single p
(teilest M1-S1)
Group of 5 piles (test M1-G5)
Group of 9 piles (test M2-G9)

eR= 2,83 (M1-G5)


eR= 4
(M6-G5)

-20
0

Pile head displacement (mm)

(a)

120

Shaft friction (kPa)

Tip resistance (MPa)

Pile head displacement (mm)

(a)

10

h = 50 kPa

Installation order C1

80

40
5-pile group
Central pile
v = 125 kPa h = 50 kPa
Installation order C1
eR= 2,83 (M1-G5)
(M6-G5)
eR=4

-40
0

0
0

(b)

Pile head displacement (mm)

of the pile spacing ratio (2.83 and 4) and similar maximum values obtained (81 and 85 kPa). For a pile
spacing ratio of 2.83, the displacements necessary to
reach the maximum values are 3 mm and the maximum values obtained are 85 kPa. For the tip resistance,
the differences are more important with a tip resistance which is decreasing as the pile spacing ratio is
increasing.
Therefore, the distribution of load on the adjacent
piles might be different as the pile head loads on
the central pile (shaft friction and tip resistance) are
different for the 2 pile spacing ratio studied in this
paper.
Besides, for the shaft friction, the residual stresses
(Figures 5(b) and 9(b)) measured for the pile group

Tip resistance (MPa)

Figure 8. Typical result of the shaft friction (a) and tip resistance (b) on a single pile, a center pile in the cases respectively
of a 5-pile group and a 9-pile group.

3
5-pile group
Central pile
v = 125 kPa h = 50 kPa
Installation orderC1
eR= 2,83 (M1-G5)
(M6-G5)
eR= 4

1
0

(c)

Pile head displacement (mm)

Figure 9. Influence of pile spacing on the total load on the


5-pile group (a) on shaft friction (b) and tip resistance (c).

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Pile head displacement (mm)

(b)

With QGlim : maximum total load obtained for the group


QT : bearing capacity of single pile
n: number of piles

Pile head displacement (mm)


-6

-4

-2

Shaft friction (kPa)

-40

5-pile group- Tension tests


Central pile
ID = 0,50 v = 125 kPa h = 50kPa
Installation orderC1
eR = 2,83
eR = 4

CE =

QPgroup
QP sin gle

(2)

With QPgroup : maximum total load obtained for the


center pile
QPsingle : bearing capacity of single pile

-80

CEPf =

fsgc
fS,max

(3)

-120

With fsgc : maximum shat friction


fs,max : maximum shaft friction of single pile
-160

CEPq =

Figure 10. Influence of pile spacing on shaft friction in the


case of tension tests on 5-pile group.

case are bigger than the ones measured on the single


pile.
This is probably due to the tension loading of the
installed pile through the installation process of the
adjacent piles.
For the tip resistance (Figures 5(c) and 9(c)), such
is also the case with residual stresses smaller in the
case of pile groups as if the pile was unloaded.
For tension tests (Figure 10), cells of 5-pile have
been studied. We focus, in this paper, on the response
of the center pile in terms of shaft friction mobilised
in the case of 2 pile spacing. The shapes of the curves
look similar to the compression curves showing the
same type of behaviour as the compression.
Besides, the biggest value of shaft friction is
obtained for the smaller pile spacing. The shaft friction measured are in the same order as the case of
compression with values of 134 kPa for eR = 2.83
and 97 kPa for eR = 4; values bigger than in the case
of compression loads.
6

QUANTIFICATION OF GROUP EFFECT

From the results obtained in the previous paragraph,


we are going to quantify the influence of the different
parameters on group effect.
In order to quantify group effects i.e. to compare the
behaviour of a pile within a group and a single pile, we
present 4 efficiency factors; relative to the total load
on the group (CE ), relative to the center pile head load
(CEP ), relative to the shaft friction of the center pile
(CEPf ) and relative to the tip resistance of the center
pile (CEPq ). They are defined as follows:
CE =

QG lim
n Q T

(1)

(4)

With qPgc : maximum shaft friction


qP,max : maximum tip resistance of single pile
In this paper, the study focuses on the efficiency factors relative to shaft friction (CEPf ) and tip resistance
(CEPq ).
Besides, the efficiency factors should be estimated
by comparing the load per pile in pile groups with the
load of a reference single pile at the same settlement.
A reference settlement could be chosen (2 mm: 10%
pile diameter). However, we choose the following definition: the efficiency factors are calculated using the
ratio between the maximum load of the pile within a
group and the maximum load of the single pile in order
to point out group effect in terms of load.
The settlement necessary to reach the maximum
loads is an other issue, we will not consider here.
The results show an efficiency factor relative to
shaft friction, nearly always bigger than 1 which means
a positive group effect. Nevertheless, for the tip resistance, the efficiency factor is smaller than one leading
to a negative group effect.
At first, we consider the influence of pile spacing
ratio on the efficiency factor relative to shaft friction
and tip resistance of the center pile.
Shaft friction : the efficiency factor decreases as pile
spacing ratio increases.
Tip resistance: the efficiency factor decreases as pile
spacing ratio increases.
As far as the 9-pile group is concerned, we analyze
the difference between the behaviour of the center pile
within a 5-pile group and a 9-pile group (Figure 11)
in the case of the installation order C1 for eR = 2.83.
Shaft friction: for the case of 2.83, values tend to
reach. The assumption that the behaviour of 5 and
9-pile groups are similar seems to be validated for

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qPgc
qP,max

Table 2. Results in terms of efficiency factors (test Mi-S1:


test on single pile in soil mass I; Mi-G5: test on 5-pile group
in soil mass i; Mi-G9: test on 9-pile group in soil mass I; T:
type of test (T: tension or C: compression; eR : pile spacing
ratio (ratio distance between 2 piles on pile diameter)) and
(md: medium dense). T: type.

Group efficiency factor CEPf

2.00

1.50

test

eR

ID

CEPf

CEPq

M1
M6
M3
M4
M2
M11

M1-G5
M6-G5
M3-G5
M5-G5
M2-G9
M11-G9

5
5
5
5
9
9

2.83
4
2.83
4
2.83
2.83

0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

C
C
T
T
C
C

1.6
1.55
2.27
1.61
1.18
1.22

0.66
0.57

0.50
0.60

Phung (1993)
T1
T1G
T2
T2
T3
T3

5
5
5

4
6
8

0.38
0.67
0.62

C
C
C

2.56
3.19
2.00

2.00
0.85
1.03

Al Douri (1992)
4PDC1 (v = 100)
4PDC2 (v = 200)

4
4

4
4

md
md

T
T

1.66
1.22

1.83

1.00

Center pile
Installation order C1
ID = 0,50
5-pile group v = 125 kPa h = 50 kPa
9-pile group v = 125 kPa h = 50 kPa

0.50

0.00
0

Pile spacing ratio eR


1.00

Group efficiency factor CEPq

Soil
mass

0.80

Briaud et al. (1989)


3

0.67

0.60

pile was driven at first and loaded until failure to


get the single pile capacity and then the 4 adjacent
piles are driven (order of installation C1)
Al Douri (1992) has done laboratory tension tests
on 4 jacked pile group in medium dense carbonate
sand.
Briaud et al. (1989) carried out in situ tests on a
5-driven pile group in sand.

0.40

0.20

0.00
0

Pile spacing ratio eR


Figure 11. Influence of the number of piles and of pile spacing, on the group efficiency factors relative to shaft friction
CEPf and tip resistance CEPq .

the behaviour of 5 and 9-pile group for a pile spacing


ratio of 2.83 and need to be checked for bigger pile
spacing.
Tip resistance: values are smaller than 1 and the
values obtained for the two values of pile spacing
are close. Again, our hypothesis on the behaviour of
5 and 9-pile groups seems to be validated.
The pile spacing ratio of 2.83 seem to show that the
behaviour of the center pile is close in a 5-pile group
and in a 9-pile group.
We can compare our data (table 2) with the results
of other authors. Their work is described as follows:
Phung (1993) has carried out in situ compression
tests in sand on groups of 5 driven piles, the center

For groups of 4 to 5 piles, the results relative to


shaft friction, for pile spacing ratios of 3 and 4, show
efficiency factors included in a range of 1.22 to 2.56
similar to our range of values.
In addition, the values relative to tip resistance are
included in a range of 0.67 and 2.00 which is far from
our results as we always get values smaller than 1.
7

The results presented in this paper allow us to rely


on some results. Indeed, based on the methodology
developed by Francis (1997), we focus our study on
the mechanical behaviour of the center pile (pile within
the group) surrounded by adjacent piles.
We then are able to show a positive group effect on
shaft friction and a negative one on tip resistance.
The parametric study shows that group effect is the
most favourable when pile spacing is small.
As far as the number of piles is concerned, we notice
that for a pile spacing ratio of 2.83, the results obtained
are similar in terms of efficiency factor. A specific

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSIONS

study could be carried out to check this hypothesis for


bigger pile spacing
Besides, we can notice the range of values for different pile spacing and number of piles is still important.
Complementary research can be defined to achieve the
influence of those parameters.
The hypothesis, considering that we can study the
behaviour of 5-pile group in the same way as a 9-pile
group, needs to be pursued for bigger pile spacing ratio
as it is only checked for one pile spacing ratio : 2.83
and as the pile spacing ratio of 2 is a particular case.
Our values are also compared with other authors
showing a good similarity in the case of shaft friction in terms of efficiency factors. However, for the
tip resistance some differences appear as efficiency
factors are found to be smaller than one.
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American Society Of Civil Engineers, ASCE, Vol. 108,
No. GT12.
ONeill, M. W., Hawkins, R.A. and Audibert, M. E. (1982).
Installation of pile group in overconsolidated clay. Journal
Of Geotechnical Engineering Division, Proceedings Of
The American Society Of Civil Engineers, ASCE, Vol.
108, No. GT11, pp. 13691386.
Phung, D. L. (1993). Footings with settlement-reducing piles
in non-cohesive soil. Ph.D. Thesis, Chalmers University
of Technology.
Puech, A., Foray, P., Boulon, M. & Desrues, J. (1975). Calcul
des pieux larrachement partir dun modle numrique
en contraintes effectives-premiers rsultats. Proceeding
of the 7th European Conference on Soils Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Brighton, Vol. 1, pp. 227233.

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

2D numerical modeling of Pile-net composite foundation of high-speed


railway embankment in soft soils
Jian-Dong Niu, Lin-Rong Xu, Bao-Chen Liu & Da-Wei L
School of Civil & Architecture, Central South Univ., Changsha, China

ABSTRACT: Sand columns have been commonly used to support embankments over soft soil. The inclusion
of geosynthetics reinforcement over sand columns is intended to enhance load transfer from soil to columns,
reduce total and differential settlements, and increase slope stability. Therefore, it creates a more economical
alternative. A constructed geosynthetics-reinforced embankment over sand columns at certain high-speed railway
trial embankment, Huaqiao, Kunshan, Jiangsu Province, China was selected for the numerical modeling and
analysis. This embankment was constructed to support railway over very soft soil. The sand columns were
installed in triangular arrangement and column types. A high strength woven geotextile was used above the sand
columns over the soft soil between columns. Instrumentation was installed to monitor the settlements of the
embankment and the strains in the geotextile over time. The computed settlements of the embankment and the
strains in geotextile reinforcement compared reasonably well with the measured results.

INTRODUCTION

The increasing occupation of the ground over the last


decades, due to economical and social development
of the populations, has led to the necessity of using
soils with bad geotechnical characteristics as foundation of multiple engineering works. Particularly, the
construction of embankments on soft soils, characterized by their low strength, high deformability and low
permeability, has become nowadays an increasing reality, despite the difficulties associated to these works,
generally related to overall stability deficiency and to
high settlements that develop slowly.
In recent years geotechnical engineers have developed several alternatives to solve these problems,
including preloading or stage construction, using lightweight fill, over excavation and replacement, geosynthetics reinforcement, soil improvement techniques,
and composite foundation.
Composite foundations have been used with or
without geosynthetics reinforcements. A system without geosynthetics reinforcements is referred to herein
as the conventional composite foundation while the
system with geosynthetics reinforcements is referred
as the pile-net composite foundation. Conventional
and pile-net composite foundations have been used
columnar systems, such as: vibro-concrete columns,
soil-cement columns by mixing or grouting, stone
columns or sand columns.
The pile net composite foundations have been used
for several applications. Reid and Buchanan (1984)

reported that this technique was used for preventing


differential settlement between an approach embankment constructed over soft soil and a bridge abutment
supported by long piles. A similar project was completed by using soil-cement mixing columns instead
of concrete piles, which were presented by Lin and
Wong (1999). Rao Wei-guo and Zhao Cheng-gang
(2002) have made some initial researches in the analysis of stress ratio of pile net composite foundation and
explained residue settlement by sheet plate theory.
Sand columns have been commonly used to support
embankments over soft soil. The inclusion of geosynthetics reinforcement over sand columns is intended
to enhance load transfer from soil to columns, reduce
total and differential settlements, and increase slope
stability. As a result, it creates a more economical
alternative. A constructed geosynthetics-reinforced
embankment over sand columns at certain high-speed
railway trial embankment, Huaqiao, Kunshan, Jiangsu
Province, China, was selected for the numerical modeling and analysis. This embankment was constructed
to support railway over very soft soil. The sand
columns were installed in triangular arrangement and
column types. A high strength woven geotextile was
used above the sand columns over the soft soil between
columns.
In order to verify the accuracy of the numerical
model used in this paper, this paper compared numerical and field results of reinforced embankments on soft
soils, The computed settlements of the embankment

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Depth(m)

Soil Profile
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

Vane Strength
Suv(kPa)

AtterbergLimits(%)

Unit Weight(kN/m3)
0

Clay

PL

Wn

LL

Mucky Clay

Clay

Silt clay

The silt mixture of


sand and clay

silt sand
0

25

25
5

15

16

17

18

19

25
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

20

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Figure 1. General soils profile and soil properties at the site.

and the strains in geotextile reinforcement compared


reasonably well with the measured results.
2

Embankment
Geosynthetic

reinforced sand cushion

EXPERIMENTAL PROJECT SURVEY

Pile
Soil

2.1

Site condition

Based on bore hole surveying and some in-situ measurements, the roadbed of the railway embankment
section, located from K0+711m mileage to K0+855m
mileage on Huaqiao, Kunshan, Jiangsu Province,
China, consists of artificial earth fill, mucky clay, silty
clay containing some stiff-plasticity clay and dust sand
and the general soil profile and the basic properties
are given in Fig. 1. The roadbed is composed of five
discrete stratigraphic units.
(1) A surface layer of artificial earth fill of brownyellow clay, loose, extending to approximately
3.0 m below ground surface.
(2) A mucky clay, extending approximately from 3.0 m
to 6.5 m below ground surface.
(3) A clay layer of white-grey stiff-plasticity clay,
mixed with brown-yellow clay, extending to
approximately from 6.5 to 12.0 m, and this may
divide into five sub-levels.
(4) The silt mixture of sand and clay layer, extending
approximately from 12.0 to 16.5 m.
(5) The silt clay layer of white-grey, center dense and
saturated, extending approximately from 16.5 to
23.5 m.

soft soil
Firm soil bedrock

Figure 2. Components of pile-net composition foundation


system.

1:1.5 V/H inclined slope. Soft embankment applied


preload ways such as sand column combination, which
is of 15 m length, 2 m spacing gap, 0.4 m diameter and
triangular arrangement. Sand column was constructed
by vibration way (repeated to pull and vibration) with
DZJ90 and DZJ175 construction equipments. The filling of Soft embankment includes sand cushion stage
and granular soil stage. Sand column and sand cushion
used middle rough sand and 0.6 m thickness of sand
cushion with a layer of geogrid in it.
Construction of the embankment started from May
25, 2003 to October 17, 2003; totally 145 days, and
the height of the embankment was 6.3 meter. The fill
thickness/time curve is also indicated in Fig. 3.

2.2 Trial embankment and instrumentation

2.3 Equipment layout and monitor

Trial embankment has 13.8 m section crest, 0.2 m extra


widen in both sides, 4.5 m field height,1.8 m over loading, 6.3 m total fill height, staged construction and

The instrumentation comprised magnetic settlement gauges (the deepest gauge is approximately
30 m below ground level), hydraulic profile gauges,

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Load (kPa)

160
120
80
40
0
03-5-18

03-7-17

03-9-15

03-11-14

04-1-13

04-3-13

04-5-12

Date
Figure 3. The fill thickness/time curve.

central left railway central right railway

(1)
(2)

piezometer
magnetic settlement gauges

(3) 3

inclinometers
Side pile
hydraulic settlement profile gauge

(3) 4

settlement plate
flexible displacement sensor

(3) 5

(4) 1

Figure 4. Sketch of instrument distribution.

inclinometers, settlement plate, piezometer, soil pressure sell, deep pressure cell, flexible displacement
sensor.
3
3.1

NUMERICAL MODEL AND PROBLEM


CONSIDERED
Numerical model

A 2D plane strain finite element method was employed


to model this embankment. The geometry of the test
embankment was assumed symmetric so that half
of embankment was selected for calculation. Sand
columns were modeled as 2-D continuous walls. The
water table was assumed to be 1m below ground level
and the initial pore pressures prior to embankment
construction were taken to be hydrostatic. The centerline of the embankment (a line of symmetry) and
the far field lateral boundary were taken to be smooth
and rigid with the lateral boundary located 50 m from

the centerline. The bottom of the finite element mesh


was assumed to be rough and rigid. The mesh consists of approximately 1667 6-noded elements, which
is refined in areas where high stress gradients can be
expected. The mesh was deliberately chosen to be relatively fine in order to minimize the discretisation error
(Figure 5.).
Increase and dissipate of excess pore press should
be considered in calculation because the effective
stress remains low during the construction of embankment. The excess pore pressure will dissipate because
the settlement will start to consolidate due to drain
behavior and very low permeability causes long time
consolidation after construction. The left will not drain
water because it is a line of symmetry. The right vertical boundary should also be closed because there is
no free outflow at the boundary. The upper foundation
surface and the bottom are drainage boundary. Model
was analyzed and simulated as real construction shown
in Fig. 2 in order to simulate real construction steps.

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3.3 The equivalent sand columns in a plane strain


problem
Strictly speaking, discrete sand piles should be considered as a 3-D analysis, whereas, most embankments
are modeled for plane strain conditions. To avoid the
necessity for a full 3-D analysis, some approximations are required to consider the sand columns in a
plane strains analysis. The equivalent sand columns in
a plane strain problem include stiffness matching and
permeability matching.

Figure 5. Finite element mesh subcomponents of pile-net


composition foundation system.

3.2

Material models and parameters

Nine different materials are involved in this complex


system: 5 layers of foundation soil, mat, embankment fill, sand columns, and geosynthetic. Due to
the complexity of the problem itself, some simplified constitutive models have been adopted in this
analysis within reasonable accuracy. Embankment fill,
soft soils, and sand columns were modeled as elastic perfectly plastic materials. Mohr-Coulomb failure
envelop was used as the failure criterion. The properties of all the materials in the case are summarized
in Table 1. The elastic module of soils were determined based on a common correlation of E = 100 qu
(qu = unconfined compression strength of soil) (for
example, Probaha, 2000; Bruce, 2001).
The geosynthetics was modeled by Geotextile elements, which can only sustaining axial tension but no
bending. Geosynthetics stiffness is 1000 kN/m. Interface can be placed at both sides of geosynthetics,
and this enables a full interaction between geosynthetics and sand mat. The stress-strain behavior at
soil-interface is simulated by elastic-perfectly-plastic
model. The model parameters at soil interface can be
generated from the soil using the interaction coefficient Rinter , defined as the ratio of shear strength of soil
structure interface to corresponding shear strength of
soil(Brinkgreve and Vermeer,1998).This calculation
Rinter = 0.8.
The elastic moduli of the Sand columns used CPT
data
E = 1ps

(1)

Where ps bearing of CPT.


Average value from the above CPT data,
Ps = 3.08 Mpa.
Therefore, E = 2 ps = 6.16 MPa.

3.3.1 Stiffness matching of sand column


Most embankments are modeled for plane strain conditions and sand columns are ranged triangularly. Sand
column should be computed from 3D to 2D. Area
matching was assumed because sand column have
drainage consolidation and composite foundation two
functions (XU Lin-rong and L Da-wei 2004). Sand
columns were modeled as 2-D continuous walls at the
same replacement ratio and stiffness (Fig. 6).
Triangular arranged sand columns,. Replacement
ratio of sand column
 

1 2
3 2
m = Ap /Ae = D /
l = 3D2 /(6l 2 )
4
2
= 0.0363

w 3l = m 3l 2
w = ml

3D2
3D2
w=
= 0.0725
l
=
2
6l
6l

(3)

Where m = replacement ratio, Ap = area pile, Ae =


area equivalent, D = pile diameter, l = pile spacing,
w = wall width.
3.3.2 Permeability matching
Hird, C.C. (1992) developed an equivalent plane strain
analysis considering a unit cell of the vertical drain
based on Hansbos theory.
The degree of consolidation in plane strain condition can be expressed as follows
U hp = 1



Thp
=
1

exp
8

p
u0

(4)

u the pore pressure at time t,


u0 the initial pore pressure,
Thp the time factor in plane strain,
pl the parameter including the factor of smear and
well resistance
Uhpl = Uhax
Thpl
Thax
=
pl
ax

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(2)

(5)
Or

Chpl t
Chax t
= 2
B2 pl
R ax

(6)

Table 1.

Mechanical parameters of soils.


Soil stratigraphy

Project

Sand
column

18.7

19

21.25

20

0.99
14
23.6

1
35

1
35

5
35

natural water content W

31.9

44.4

24.5

35.5

36.4

unit weight

kN/m3

19.2

17.8

20.3

18.7

kPa

0.89
14
15.5

1.23
3.7
18.9

21.6

0.98
3
23.2

kPa

92.9

34.3

248.7

Youngs modulus Es
Poissons ratio

MPa

9.29
0.31

Permeability

105 m/d

3.5

105 m/d

4.5

Table 2.

Horizontal
kh100200
Vertical
kv100200

0.69

3.43
0.33

24.9
0.3

12.4

9.67

5.87

5.44

34

Embankments
fill

void ratio e
Consolidated Cohesion C
quick
Friction angle 
direct shear
unconfined compression
strength qu

33

Mat

Unit

54

35

119.7

5.4
0.3

11.97
0.30

9
0.30

30
0.31

6.616
0.31

20.0

14.5

14.7

10.7

CPT data of sand piles.

Pile Number
Depth(m)

6415

6109

6111

0409

0909

1311

5716

5715

6315

5902

3.0
6.0
11.0
15.0

4.29
2.76
2.51
3.28

1.16
2.49
2.55
3.38

0.92
1.90
2.57
4.12

3.18
3.14
2.89
3.83

2.32
1.27
2.89
3.55

7.88
3.40
2.82
2.99

4.22
2.70
2.96
4.00

2.33
4.54
2.39
3.17

1.22
0.87
2.47
3.50

1.22
0.75
10.97
3.78

The permeability value in the plane strain analysis can


be changed while keeping the spacing between the
drains the same. Permeability matching when B = R.

kpl =

2kax

 
 
n
3 ln S + kkaxs ln(S) 34

(7)

For the sand columns used in this study having


diameter D = 0.4 m, spacing l = 2.0 m, the ratio S = 2,
kax /ks = 5, the calculated ratio of kpl /kax is equal to
0.164.
Figure 6. Stiffness matching.

FINITE ELELMENT RESULTS AND


COMPARISON WITH FIELD DATA

4.1 Settlement

The presentation of finite element results and the comparison with the field data are made in this section. The
data included vertical settlements, subsoil lateral displacements, excess pore pressures, and tension strain
in the reinforcements.

Statistic from settlement plate between the top of sand


column and soil has been compared with calculations
and the results are as follows.
Computed settlement curve are close to observed
curve, which shows parameters in model are accurate.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Time (d)
80

0.1

Excess pore
essure(kPa)Load(kPa)

Settlement (m) Load (MPa)

0.2

0
0.1

100

200

300

400

500

0.2
0.3
0.4
Load(d)
Observed TP

Observed MP

Calculated

Load

60
40
20 0

100

200

300

40
60
FEM Calculated

10

20

30

40

Observered 2.6m

Load

Figure 9. Comparison between observed and calculated


pore pressure curves.

Lateral Displacement (mm)


0

500

20

Figure 7. Comparison between observed and calculated


settlement curves.

10

400

50

60

70
0.025

Observed
Calculated

0.020

Strain

Depth (m)

0.015
10

15

20

0.010

0.005

0.000
FEM Calculated
Left day 383 q=136kPa

20

40

60

Right day 383 q=136kPa

Figure 8. Comparison between observed and calculated


lateral displacement curves.

4.2

100

120

140

Figure 10. Load reinforcement curve.

pressure dissipation, which shows permeability


matching is reasonable.

Lateral displacement

Figure 8 shows comparison between observed lateral displacement curves with calculated curve, which
small observed lateral displacement in the left side
embankment was affected by construction shortcut.
Figure 8 shows calculated curve in the top of subsoil
are closed to the observed curve but calculated curve in
the bottom of subsoil are bigger than the two observed
curve. The first reason is that PVC inclined tube is
stiff, which can not reflect real lateral displacement,
especially in the bottom. Secondly, the inclined tube
has so small size (70 mm) and the soil is so soft that
soft soil can not work on the tube.
4.3

80

Load (kPa)

25

4.4 Reinforcement strain


Figure 10 shows FEM calculated strain-load curve
is smaller than the real curve but have the same
change law.
The above comparison reflected the accuracy of
the model and the correction of parameters, which
can reflect the performance of pile-net composite
foundation.

PERFORMANCES OF PILE-NET
COMPOSITE FOUNDATION

Pore pressure

Figure 9 shows that calculated pore pressure curve is


similar with 2.6 m depth observed curve in the center line. Pore pressure dissipates while the effective
stress increases and consolidation settlement develops.
The FEM calculation is the same as real excess pore

5.1 Influence of pile module


5.1.1 Settlement
Pile can reduce settlement of composite foundation
effectively and the settlements in the center of embankment reduced with increased pile module.

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12

E=26464kPa
E=13232kPa
E=6616kPa

10

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500


Time (d)

Observed

Load

E=4466kPa

E=6616kPa

E=13232kPa

E=26464kPa

Axial Forces(kN/m)

Settlement (m) Load (MPa)

0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.05 0
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3

Figure 11. Influence of pile module on settlement.

Lateral displacement(mm)
10

10

30

10

12

14

16

Distance from Center of Embankment (m)


50

70

Figure 13. Influence of pile module on reinforcement axial


forces.

Settlement (m)

0.1
5

10

0
0.1

10

20

30

40

50

0.2

Depth (m)

0.3
Distance from Center of Embankment (m)
J=100kN/m
J=2000kN/m

J=500kN/m
J=10000kN/m

J=1000kN/m

15

Figure 14. Influence of reinforcement stiffness on surface


settlement.

Left day 383 q=136kPa


Right day 383 q=136kPa
20

5.2 Influence of reinforcement stiffness

E=6616kPa

5.2.1 Different settlement


Bigger reinforcement stiffness is, smaller different
settlement is, especially with high stiffness reinforcement, which shows high strength reinforcement is
useful to reduce different settlement.

E=13232kPa
E=26464kPa
25

Figure 12. Influence of pile module on lateral displacement.

5.1.2 Lateral displacement


Pile module effect lateral displacement very much.
Bigger module is, smaller lateral displacement is. Figure 12 shows pile effect on lateral displacement along
the whole pile length.
5.1.3 Reinforcement axial forces
The above figure shows pile module has different
effect on top of piles and the middle of piles. Bigger pile module is, bigger reinforcement axial forces
on the top of piles is. Oppositely, bigger pile module
is, smaller reinforcement axial forces in the middle
of piles is. Bigger pile module is, bigger Distribution
curve of axial forces waves. Smaller pile module is,
flatter Distribution curve of axial forces waves.

5.2.2 Lateral displacements


Bigger reinforcement stiffness is, bigger lateral displacement is, but the slope of the curve is reduce
slowly, which shows reinforcement stiffness can work
in certain lateral displacement and high stiffness reinforcement is effective. Reinforcement stiffness has
bigger effect on lateral displacement than settlement.
5.2.3 Reinforcement axial forces
Reinforcement stiffness is in direct ratio with reinforcement axial forces. Bigger reinforcement is, bigger
reinforcement axial forces are. At the same time, load
on the top of reinforcement can affect axial forces;
bigger load is, bigger axial forces are.
5.2.4 Pile soil stress ratio
Bigger reinforcement stiffness is, smaller pile soil
stress ratio is, which shows reinforcement in pile-net

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1.45

E=13232kPa
E=6616kPa

63

1.40

62

Pile soil stress ratio

Maximum lateral displacement(mm)

64

61
60
59
58
57

1.30
1.25
1.20
1.15

56

J=10000kN/m
J=1000kN/m

1.10

55

1.05

54
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

Figure 15. Influence of reinforcement on maximum lateral


displacement.
80

20

0
20

40

60

80

100

60

80

100

120

140

(2) Pile can reduce settlement of composite foundation effectively and the center settlements reduced
with increased pile module. Pile module effect lateral displacement very much. Bigger module is,
smaller lateral displacement is.
(3) Pile module has different effect on top of piles
and the middle of piles. Bigger pile module
is, bigger reinforcement axial forces on the top
of piles is. Oppositely, bigger pile module is,
smaller reinforcement axial forces in the middle
of piles is.
(4) Bigger reinforcement stiffness is, smaller different settlement is, especially with high stiffness
reinforcement, which shows high strength reinforcement is useful to reduce different settlement.
Bigger reinforcement stiffness is, bigger lateral
displacement is, but the slope of the curve is
reduce slowly, which shows reinforcement stiffness can work in certain lateral displacement
(5) Reinforcement stiffness is in direct ratio with reinforcement axial forces. Bigger reinforcement is,
bigger reinforcement axial forces are.
(6) Bigger reinforcement stiffness is, smaller pile soil
stress ratio is, which shows reinforcement in pilenet composite foundation can adjust stress on the
piles and soils.

40

40

Figure 17. Influence of reinforcement stiffness on pile soil


stress ratio.

Observed
Calculated J=1000kN/m
Calculated J=2000kN/m
Calculated J=10000kN/m

60

20

Load(kPa)

Reinforcement stiffness(kN/m)

Axial forces(kN/m)

1.35

120

140

Load (kPa)

Figure 16. Influence of reinforcement on reinforcement


axial forces.

composite foundation can adjust stress on the piles and


soils. Reinforcement can mobilize bearing capacity on
the soils, therefore pile, reinforced mat and soils work
together to bear above load.
Composite foundation can perform effectively by
the above factors. Pile spacing should be increased in
pile net composite foundation, which can reduce piles
and cut the cost of soft soil improvement in practice.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
6

CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, the structural behavior and a parametric study of a reinforced embankment on soft
soil are presented, allowing formulating the following
conclusions.
(1) In this study, FEM calculated results are close to
observed results, which prove the accuracy of the
model and the correction of parameters.

With deep appreciation and gratitude, the authors wish


to sincerely acknowledge Professor XU Lin-rong for
his instructions in the past. We also acknowledge
experts and technical personnel from the Fourth Survey and Design Institute of China Railway, China
Tiesiju Civil Engineering Group CO.LTD, Tongji University and Southwest Jiaotong University. They provided precious advice and assistance in field tests and
observations.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Study on the influence of pile foundation due to excavation


Yunjun Zhang, Jinmin Zai & Kejun Qi
Geotechnical Engineering Institute, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing, China

ABSTRACT: Based on the tunnel excavation engineering practice in Nanjing, finite element method is selected
to analysis the influence of building pile foundation induced by adjacent tunnel excavation according to the
different depths. The settlement of soil and building is studied. The bending moment, axial force, shear force and
displacement of the pile and subfloor are also analyzed. Then it draws some significant conclusions to practical
engineering.

INSTRUCTION

Nowadays many geotechnical subjects emerged with


the exploitation of urban underground space. There
are also lots of new problems in the tunnel construction. There is a subway project in Nanjing. There are
many buildings near the subway line, whose structural styles are brick or frame and whose foundation
styles are mostly pile foundations. It is the researching
emphasis in this paper about how to study the influence
of pile foundation induced by adjacent tunnel excavation. Based on the tunnel excavation engineering
practice in Nanjing, finite element method is selected
to analysis the influence of building pile foundation
induced by adjacent tunnel excavation according to
the different depths. The settlement of soil and building is studied. The bending moment, axial force, shear
force and displacement of the pile and subfloor are also
analyzed.

PHYSICAL DIMENSION AND PARAMETERS


OF NUMERICAL SIMULATION

The finite element software of Plaxis8.0, developed


by Delft Technical University, is selected in this paper.
This software is an finite element software package
which is special applied to deformation and stability
two-dimension analysis. Because it is convenient to
Table 1.

model building and has strong functions, It has been


applied to basic analysis as to pit excavation, tunnel
excavation and so on.
Supposing tunnel excavation is a plain stress problem, so two dimension model is built. The rectangle
district (60 m 80 m) is selected as soil strata physical zone in which soil body is even clay blanket.
The parameters are listed in Table 1. The diameter of
the tunnel is 4 m, the distance next to the building is
5 m and the tunnel depth is 530 m. This building is
a four-layers-and-two-spans frame construction. The
span length is 10 m and the layer altitude is 3 m. The
upper load of the building focuses on the floor and
the upright column and it is set as 20 KN/m. There are
three piles. Every piles length is 15 m and its diameter
is 1 m. The volume loss prescribed in all analyses is
approximately 2%.
Mohr-coulomb model is used in soil. Elastic model
are used in structure, pile and lining. Related parameters are listed in Table 1 and Table 2. The meshes are
divided into 1273 elements. When calculation, firstly
set the settlement produced by building to zero, then
calculate the stress and settlement produced by tunnel
excavation.
Fig. 1 shows the model of FEM. There are three
piles in the model and two observation points (A,B) of
settlement. Point A is upper the tunnel and Point B is
the building corner, shown in Fig. 1.
Table 3 shows the numbering and feature of numerical simulation.

Soil parameters.
dry
kN/m3

wet
kN/m3

kx
m/day

ky
m/day

Eref
kN/m2

cref
kN/m2

Parameters
Clay

17

19

106

106

20000

0.33

8.0

26

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3.1

Settlement of Point A and B after tunnel


excavation

Fig. 2 shows that the settlement of Point A decreases


with the depth of tunnel when there is no adjacent foundation. When the tunnel depth is in the extent of 15 m.,
the rate of settlement decrement is great, the most settlement is the vertical settlement and the horizontal
settlement is almost zero. Fig. 3 shows that when there
is adjacent foundation, the most settlement is also the
vertical settlement, but when in the depth of 10 m, there
is apparent horizontal displacement.
Table 2.

Structure parameters.

Material EA
Parameters type
kN/m
Structure
Pile
Tunnel

Fig. 4 shows the settlement of Point A. When there


is adjacent foundation, the settlement is smaller than
that of no adjacent if the tunnel depth is in the extent
of pile length (15 m). If the tunnel depth is out of the
extent of pile length (15 m), the settlement of point A
(there is adjacent foundation) is greater than that of
no adjacent foundation. The detailed data is listed in
Table 4.
It can be analysed that if the tunnel depth is in the
extent of pile length, the settlement is smaller because
of the retaining effect of pile and if the tunnel depth is
Depth of tunnel excavation(m)

3 ANALYSIS OF MODELLING RESULTS

EI
kNm2 /m

d
m

1.41 107 1.43 105 0.35 0.15


2.0 106 1.7 105 1.00 0.15
1.41 107 1.43 105 0.35 0.15

elastic
elastic
elastic

5
10
Total displacement
X-displacement
Y-displacement

15
20
25
30
0

10

15

20

25

Displacement of Point A(mm)

Depth of tunnel excavation(m)

Figure 2. Settlement variation of point A with excavation


depth excavation depth (without adjacent foundation).

5
10
Total displacement
X-displacement
Y-displacement

15
20
25
30
0

10

15

20

Displacement of Point A(mm)


Figure 3. Settlement variation of pointA with (with adjacent
foundation).

Figure 1. Model of FEM.


Table 3.

Numbering and feature of numerical simulation.

Numbering

Depth of tunnel
excavation (m)

Diameter of
tunnel (m)

structure

Distance to
building (m)

Type of foundation

TEST1
TEST2
TEST3
TEST4
TEST5
TEST6
TEST7

5
10
15
20
25
30
530

4
4
4
4
4
4
4

exist
exist
exist
exist
exist
exist
no

5
5
5
5
5
5

Pile foundation
Pile foundation
Pile foundation
Pile foundation
Pile foundation
Pile foundation

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

out of the extent of pile length, the settlement is greater


because of the stress diffusion from pile tip.
When there is adjacent foundation, the settlement
of Point B is decreasing with the depth of excavation
and the rate of decreasing is even. The horizontal displacement of Point B is also decreasing with the depth
of excavation, but it is apparent in the extent of pile

length (15 m). The vertical displacement of Point B is


increasing with the depth of excavation when the tunnel depth is in the extent of pile length (15 m), but
the vertical displacement of Point B is decreasing with
the depth of excavation when the tunnel depth is out
of the extent of pile length (>15 m). The detailed data
is listed in Table 5.

Depth of tunnel excavation(m)

3.2 Flexural moment variation of pile and subfloor


after tunnel excavation

5
10

Fig. 69 show that if the value of moment is less than


zero, it means that the flexural moment reduces, otherwise it means that the flexural moment increases.
Fig. 6 shows that if the tunnel depth is in the extent of
pile length (15 m), the moment of Pile A reduces above
the tunnel depth and the moment of pile A increases
below the tunnel depth. If the tunnel depth is out of
the extent of pile length (15 m), the moment of Pile A
almost increases, but recruitment is very small.
Fig. 7 shows that the flexural moment of Pile B
changes apparently when the tunnel depth is about 5
meters. While Fig. 8 shows that the flexural moment of
Pile C changes differently comparing with that of Pile
B. When the tunnel depth is about 10m, the moment
of Pile C reduces on the upper part of pile and the
change-zero of moment shifts up apparently.
Fig. 9 shows that the flexural moment of subfloor
changes antisymmetrically. The antisymmetric midpoint is the center of subfloor. The antisymmetric form
transits from left-high-and-right-low to left-low-andright-high by the tunnel depth of 10 m.

15
20

Settlement of Point A(without adjacent foundation)


Settlement of Point A(without adjacent foundation)

25
30
0

10

15

20

25

Total displacement of piont A(mm)

Depth of tunnel excavation(m)

Figure 4. Settlement variation comparison of point A


excavation depth.
5
10
15
Total displacement
X-displacement
Y-displacement

20
25
30
0

3.3 Axial force variation of pile and subfloor after


tunnel excavation

Displacement of Point B(mm)

Fig. 10 shows that if the tunnel depth is in the


extent of pile length (15 m), the axial force of Pile A
changes apparently and almost reduces, the position of

Figure 5. Settlement variation of point B with (with adjacent


foundation).
Table 4.

Settlement variation of point A.

Depth of tunnel excavation (m)

10

15

20

25

30

Total displacement (mm)


(without adjacent foundation)
Total displacement (mm)
(with adjacent foundation)

23.000

9.110

4.936

3.190

2.500

2.319

20.000

7.813

4.409

3.343

2.643

2.396

Table 5.

Settlement variation of point B.

Depth of tunnel excavation (m)

10

15

20

25

30

Total displacement (mm)


X-displacement (mm)
Y-displacement (mm)

6.42
5.939
2.438

5.202
3.325
4.001

4.638
1.991
4.189

3.986
1.314
3.763

3.058
0.8767
2.929

2.622
0.6163
2.548

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Depth of Pile A(m)

60
58
56

Moment variation of subfloor(kN.m/m)

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

62

54
52
50
48
46
44
-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

Moment variation of Pile A(kN.m/m)

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20

40

45

62

56
54

62

52

60

50

Depth of Pile A(m)

Depth of Pile B(m)

58

55

60

Figure 9. Moment variation of subfloor with excavation


depth.

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

60

50

Site of subfloor(m)

Figure 6. Moment variation of pile A with excavation depth.

48
46
44
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Moment variation of Pile B(kN.m/m)

58

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

56
54
52
50
48
46

Figure 7. Moment variation of pile B with excavation depth.

44

60
58
56

62

52

60

50
48
46
44
10 20 30 40 50 60

Moment variation of Pile C(kN.m/m)


Figure 8. Moment variation of pile C with excavation depth.

-40

-20

20

58
56

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

54
52
50
48
46
44
-140 -120 -100 -80

maximal variation is about in the depth of excavation.


When the tunnel depth is out of the extent of pile length
(15 m), the axial force of Pile A doesnt changes apparently and almostly increases, the increment reduces
with the tunnel depth.
Fig. 11 shows that the axial force of Pile B doesnt
changes apparently and almostly reduces, the position
of maximal variation is about in the depth of 10 m
to 15 m. Fig. 12 shows that the axial force of Pile B

-60

-40

-20

20

Axial force variation of Pile B(kN/m)


Figure 11. Axial force variation of pile B with depth.

doesnt changes apparently and almostly increases, but


the increment is very small.
Fig. 13 shows that the axial force of subfloor also
changes antisymmetrically. The antisymmetric midpoint is the center of subfloor. The antisymmetric form

202

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

-60

Figure 10. Axial force variation of pile A with depth.

54

-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0

-80

Axial force variation of Pile A(kN/m)

Depth of Pile B(m)

Depth of Pile C(m)

-140 -120 -100

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

62

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

Depth of Pile C(m)

60
58

60

56
54
52
50
48
46
44
-140 -120 -100 -80

-60

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

62

Depth of Pile A(m)

62

-40

-20

58
56
54
52
50
48
46
44

20

-100

Axial force variation of Pile C(kN/m)

-80

-60

-40

-20

20

40

Shear force variation of Pile A(kN/m)


Figure 12. Axial force variation of pile C with depth.

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

62

Depth of Pile B(m)

Axial force variation of subfloor(kN/m)

Figure 14. Shear force variation of pile A with depth.

60
58
56
54
52
50
48
46
44

40

45

50

55

60

-10

Site of subfloor(m)

-80

-60

-40

-20

20

40

Shear force variation of Pile B(kN/m)

Figure 13. Axial force variation of subfloor with depth.

Figure 15. Shear force variation of pile B with depth.

transits from left-high-and-right-low to left-low-andright-high by the tunnel depth of 10 m. When the tunnel
depth is in the extent of pile length (15 m), the axial
force changes greatly. When the tunnel depth is out
of the extent of pile length (15 m), the axial force of
subfloor doesnt changes greatly, the moment on the
left of symmetry reduces little and the moment on the
right of symmetry increases little.

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

62

Depth of Pile C(m)

60
58
56
54
52
50
48
46

3.4

Shear force variation of pile and subfloor after


tunnel excavation

44
-100

Fig. 14 shows that if the tunnel depth is in the extent


of pile length (15 m), the shear force of Pile A changes
apparently. When the tunnel depth is about 5 m, the
shear force of the pile top reduces most and the value
of reduced is 83.8 kN/m.
Fig. 15 shows that when the tunnel depth is about
5 m, the shear force of Pile B increases greatly. Fig. 16
shows that when the tunnel depth is in the extent of
pile length (15 m), the shear force of Pile C increases
greatly above 10 m, when the tunnel depth is out of the
extent of pile length (15 m), the change of the shear
force of Pile C is very small.

-60

-40

-20

20

40

Figure 16. Shear force variation of pile C with depth.

As shown in Fig. 17, the change form of the shear


force of subfloor is antisymmetric. The antisymmetric
mid-point is the center of subfloor. The antisymmetric
form transits from left-high-and-right-low to left-lowand-right-high by the tunnel depth of 7.5 m. When the
tunnel depth is in the extent of pile length (15m), the
shear force of subfloor changes apparently.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

-80

Shear force variation of Pile C(kN/m)

Shear force variation of subfloor(kN/m)

the vertical displacement of Point B is decreasing with the depth of excavation when the tunnel
depth is out of the extent of pile length.
(3) Tunnel excavation imports more influence on Pile
A than on Pile B and Pile C. When the tunnel
depth is in the extent of pile length, the flexural
moment, axial force and shear force of pile and
subfloor changes apparently. While when the tunnel depth is out of the extent of pile length, the
flexural moment, axial force and shear force of
pile and subfloor changes little. Accordingly, the
depth of pile length is a typical dividing boundary. So if the tunnel depth is in the extent of pile
length, it is necessary to protect the adjacent pile
foundation.
(4) The change form of the moment, axial force and
shear force of subfloor are antisymmetric and the
forms change with the depth of tunnel excavation
depth.

tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m

6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10

40

45

50

55

60

Site of subfloor(m)

Figure 17. Shear force variation of subfloor with depth.

CONCLUSION

(1) When there is adjacent foundation, the settlement


of ground surface is smaller than that of no adjacent if the tunnel depth is in the extent of pile
length. If the tunnel depth is out of the extent of
pile length, the settlement of ground surface (there
is adjacent foundation) is greater than that of no
adjacent foundation.
(2) When there is adjacent foundation, the settlement
of Point B(the corner point of building) is decreasing with the depth of excavation and the rate of
decreasing is even. The horizontal displacement
of Point B is also decreasing with the depth of
excavation, but it is apparent in the extent of pile
length. The vertical displacement of Point B is
increasing with the depth of excavation when the
tunnel depth is in the extent of pile length, but

REFERENCES
1. Chew, S. H., Yong, K. Y., and Lim, A. Y. K. (1997).
Three-dimensional finite element analysis of astrutted
excavation, Procc. 9th Int. Conf. on Computer Methods
and Advances in Geomechanics, Wuhan, China.
2. F.C. Schroeder, D.M. Potts and T.I. Addenbrooke (1994).
The influence of pile group loading on existing tunnels.
Geotechnique 54, No. 6, 351362
3. Liu K.X., Yong K.Y., Lee F.H (1996). A numerical study
on 3-D behavior of excavation-support system, Proc. 2nd
Int. Conf. on Soft Soil Engineering, Nanjing: 137145
4. H.G. Poulos, L.T. Chen (1996). Pile Response Due to
unsupported Excavation-Induced Lateral Soil Movement
[J]. Can. Geotech., 33: 670677.
5. Ou C.Y., Hsieh P.G., Chiou D.C (1993). Characteristics
of ground surface settlement during excavation [J]. Can.
Geotech. J., Ottawa, Canada, 30: 758767.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Study on long-term settlement behavior of driven pile foundation


in soft soil
Hong-Bo Zhou
Shanghai Jianke project management Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China

Zhu-Chang Chen
Department of geotechnical engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

Nan-Fu Hong
Department of city and county planning, QuanZhou, Fujian, China

ABSTRACT: Based on the comparison of settlement measurement data of high-rise buildings supported by
driven pile foundation, the effects of composition of compressible strata underlying pile tip and soil situation
surrounding pile on long-term settlement behavior of driven pile foundation are studied. The results show:
that the effects of existence of thick sand layers surrounding pile on settlement behaviors of pile foundation are
significantly dependent on the condition of compressible strata; when compressible strata are mainly composed of
quasi-sand layers (i.e. quasi-sand ratio > 75%), the function of existence of thick sand layer will lead to decrease
pile foundation settlements and improve settlement behaviors remarkably; when quasi-sand ratio is less than
50%,the function of that is disappeared. Therefore, it is a concept with widespeed significance that compositions
of compressible strata always play a leading role for basic characteristics of pile foundation settlement.

INTRODUCTION

The effects of condition of soil layers and construction factor on settlement of pile group of building
are difficult to be precisely simulated and calculated
(Prakoso et al. 2001, castelli et al. 2002). The investigation into the properties and regulations of pile group
settlement need to be combined in plenty of prototype
measured settlement data. Shanghai is typical soft soil
region, driven pile groups are widely used to support
high-rise buildings. Nowadays, the settlement control
is getting more and more strict in the city. To research
the long-term settlement behaviour is more important
according to the existing buildings supported by driven
pile group.
Considering the action of pile driving, people begin
to concern the influence of type of ground on settlement of driven pile group, as well as the influence of
the properties of soil deposits surrounding pile on settlement of driven pile group (Zhang et al. 1999, Dai
et al. 2000).
During the process of working out the calculated methods of pile group settlement of shanghai
standardFoundation Design Code (DBJ08-11-89), 28
prototype observations of buildings supported on pile
foundation were used to judge the applicability of the

calculated methods of pile group settlement. Based


on the comparison between observed and calculated
results it would be showed that for pile group in B
type of ground in which sand deposits were located
in shallow depths, the calculated settlement were significantly larger than the observed results. Since then,
engineer and technicians in shanghai have held a more
popular point of view that the existence of shallow
sand deposits surrounding pile will lead to decrease the
pile group settlement significantly. However, this point
of view seems neglect in determination of the condition in which only sand deposits surrounding pile are
concerned, and also neglect other conditions besides
soil situation surrounding pile. Meanwhile, many
instances which demonstrate that the existence of thick
sand layers surrounding pile will significantly reduces
the pile group settlement can be found, but sometimes
opposite instances also can be found. For example, in
one project, the ratio of the thickness of sand layers
around pile shaft to the pile length even reaches 100%
and the value of cone penetration resistance Ps for
sand layers is in the range of 4.15 MPa4.4 MPa, but
the pile group settlement behavior possesses the following characteristics, i.e. large settlement (119 mm),
low level of completion settlement ratio (18.1%), large
settlement after completion (97.5 mm) and long time

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

for settlement stabilization (7.7years) (Zhou 2004).


These characteristics have outstanding discrepancy in
comparison with those of settlement for pile group
in which compressible strata are mainly composed of
sand layers and the thick sand layers are located in
shallow depths.
As can be seen from mention previously, the effects
of the existence of thick sand layers around pile on
settlement behavior of driven pile group are closely
related to the condition of compressible strata underlying the pile tip. Various evidences show that it is
not completely rational that to discuss the effects of
the existence of thick sand layers around pile on settlement of characteristics of group is separate from
the condition of compressible strata. In fact there
arent independent relations between thick sand layers around pile and the behavior of driven pile group
settlement. Therefore it is more rational that the thick
sand layers in shallow depths surrounding pile are in
conjunction with the condition of compressible strata
to analyze their effect on driven pile group settlement
and its behavior.
25 long-term settlement measurement data of highrise building supported on driven pile group are collected and used to discuss the long-term effect of the
composition of compressible strata and soil condition
around pile on the behavior of pile group settlement in
the paper, especially to discuss the effect of the existence of thick sand layers around pile on the behaviour
of pile group settlement.
2

EXPRESSION THE COMPOSITION OF


COMPRESSIBLE STRATA

In order to properly indicate the effect of compressible strata under pile tip on the settlement behavior
for driven pile group, the composition of compressible strata is used as index to reflect the property of
compressibility of compressible strata in the paper.
In the composition of compressible strata, the proportion of plastic clay soil layer to the compressible
strata is expressed as an independent index, because
the plastic state of clay soil behaves the characteristics
of high compressibility and slow deformation speed,
and has quite a different effect on pile group settlement behavior from sand or firm-plastic clay soil in
shanghai region.
In order to further analyze that the influence of existence of thick sand layer surrounding pile on settlement
behavior for driven pile group is related to the composition of compressible strata, the soil layers which
usually appear as compressible strata of pile group in
shanghai region are divided into the following three
classes in the paper (Gao 1992).
(1) Sand soil including fine sand, silty sand, sandy silt,
clayey silt, and clay soil (which is composed of

clay sublayer and sand sublayer where the ratio of


thickness for the latter to thickness for the former
should be larger than 1/10).
(2) Firm-plastic clay soil including sixth layer and
sometime ninth layer (according to the denomination of foundation design code of shanghai).
(3) Plastic clay soil.
The above described classification of soil type for
compressible strata has been chosen, it is mainly considered that the permeability and consolidation ratio
for various soil types under superstructure static loading or vibration load of pile driving have greatly
difference, then we can investigate the dependence of
the composition of compressible strata and the existence of sand deposits surrounding pile on the driven
pile group settlement behavior. Here clay soil which
has relatively large thickness of sand sublayer in comparison with ordinary clay soil can be classified into
the type of sand soil. In general, to clay soil, when it
has much larger thickness of sand sublayer in comparison with ordinary clay soil, so it has much higher
permeability and drainability, in the circumstance this
specific clay soil is classified into plastic clay soil
rather than into sand soil. Besides, firm-plastic clay
soil need to be distinguished from plastic clay soil,
because deformation rate for the former is more fast
than that for the latter. It should be explained that the
following analysis and comparison are confined to the
building with 18 storeys and to the pile length at a
range of 20 m35 m.
The following indices are used to indicate the
compressible strata in the paper.
The sand ratio of compressible strata, 1 (%), is
given by
1 = thickness of sand layer/thickness of
compressible strata

The firm-plastic clay ratio of compressible strata,


2 (%), is given by
2 = thickness of firm-plastic clay layer/
thickness of compressible strata

(2)

The plastic clay ratio of compressible soil layer, 3 (%),


is given by
3 = thickness of plastic clay layer/
thickness of compressible strata

(3)

The quasi-sand ratio of compressible strata, (%),is


given by
= 1 + 2

(4)

The relation between and 3 is expressed as


+ 3 100%

(5)

The thickness of compressible strata underlying pile


tip is taken as 0.5Be, Be is the equivalent effective
width of pile group (Chen et al. 2003).

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(1)

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Sand Thick 20.95 m


50.2
3.5
88.3
44.3
Average

582

41.8
No.10

608

85.3

3.8

49.0

33.8

78.8

45.0

21.2

Sand Thick 8.8 m


0
34.6
100
65.4
51.3
3.2
91.2
46.8
No.4

556

Plastic clay
ratio 3 (%)
Quasi-sand ratio(%)
Sand ratio
Firm-plastic clay
1 (%)
ratio 2 (%)
Settlement at
stabilization
(mm)
Time for
settlement
stabilization (year)
Completion
settlement
ratio (%)
Time of
completion
(day)
Settlement
at completion
time (mm)
No. of
project

According to the measured data of driven pile group


settlement and the geological data, the condition of soil
layer surrounding pile are divided into two situations,
one is the existence of thick sand layer and the other
is soft clay and clay layers. Based on the value of of
the compressible strata are divided into two situations,
one is for the value of larger than 75%, the other is
for the value of less than 50%. From above described
classifications, No. 1No. 4 combination of the measured results of driven pile group settlement behavior
are given, as shown in Table 1Table 4.
Table 1 shows the measured results of driven pile
group settlement behavior for No.1 combination where
> 75% is in combination with the existence of thick
sand layer surrounding pile. As can be seen from the
table 1, the settlement at the time of completion is
41.8 mm46.8 mm, the average 44.3 mm; the completion settlement ratio is 85.3%91.2%, the average
88.3%; the time for settlement stabilization is 3.2
years3.8 years, the average 3.5 years; the settlement at stabilization is 49 mm51.3 mm, the average
50.2 mm.
Table 2 shows the measured results of driven pile
group settlement behavior for No.2 combination where
> 75% is in combination with the existence of
soft clay and clay around the pile. As can be seen
from the table 2, the settlement at the time of completion is 37.3 mm71.8 mm, the average 54.0 mm;
the completion settlement ratio is 62.1%86.9%, the
average 74.6%; the time for settlement stabilization
is 2.54 years5.58 years, the average 4.2 years; the
settlement at stabilization is 48.3 mm82.6 mm, the
average 72.6 mm.
Table 3 shows the measured results of driven pile
group settlement behavior for No.3 combination where
3 > 50% is in combination with the existence of
sand layer surrounding pile. As can be seen from the
table 3, the settlement at the time of completion is
32.8 mm40.7 mm, the average 36.7 mm; the completion settlement ratio is 32.5%36.8%, the average
34.7%; the time for settlement stabilization is 8.2
years8.3 years, the average 8.3 years; the settlement
at stabilization is 101 mm110.7 mm, the average
105.9 mm.
Table 4 shows the measured results of driven pile
group settlement behavior for No. 4 combination
where 3 > 50% is in combination with the existence
of soft clay and clay around the pile. As can be seen
from the table 4, the settlement at the time of completion is 29.2 mm67.3 mm, the average 51.3 mm;

Composition of compressible strata

Condition of
soil layers
surrounding pile

MEASUREMENT SETTLEMENT BEHAVIOR


OF PILE GROUP IN DIFFERENT
COMBINATION OF COMPOSITION OF
COMPRESSIBLE STRATA WITH THE
CONDITION OF SOIL LAYERS
SURROUNDING PILE

Table 1. Pile group settlement behavior under No. 1 combination.

Table 2. Pile group settlement behavior under No. 2 combination.


Composition of compressible strata
No. of
project

Settlement
at completion
time (mm)

Time of
completion
(day)

Completion
settlement
ratio (%)

Time for
settlement
stabilization (year)

Settlement at
stabilization
(mm)

No.3

71.8

556

86.9

2.54

82.6

Quasi-sand ratio(%)
Sand ratio
Firm-plastic clay
1 (%)
ratio 2 (%)
100
83.6

No.9(1)

56.6

773

72.1

4.75

78.5

50.2

631

62.1

5.58

100

80.8

37.3

584

77.2

4.1

100

48.3

54.0

636

74.6

4.2

Sand Thick 0 m

Sand Thick 0 m

Sand Thick 2.63 m

0
75.3

61
Average

0
9.6

100
No. 19

Condition of
soil layers
surrounding pile

16.4

90.4
No.9(2)

Plastic clay
ratio 3 (%)

25.4

Sand Thick 0 m

14.3

72.6

208
Table 3. Pile group settlement behavior under No. 3 combination.
Composition of compressible strata
No. of
project

Settlement
at completion
time (mm)

Time of
completion
(day)

Completion
settlement
ratio (%)

Time for
settlement
stabilization (year)

Settlement at
stabilization
(mm)

No. 18

32.8

333

<32.5

>8.2

>101

Quasi-sand ratio(%)
Sand ratio
Firm-plastic clay
1 (%)
ratio 2 (%)
35.5
35.0

No. 11

40.7

553

36.8

8.3

110.7

Average

36.7

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

443

<34.7

>8.3

>105.9

Condition of
soil layers
surrounding pile

64.5

Sand Thick 13.7 m

85.9

Sand Thick 6 m

0
14.1

14.1

Plastic clay
ratio 3 (%)

Sand Thick 3 m

Sand Thick 3.8 m

7.7

58.3
<42.9

>7.4

>117.5

34
126
7.5
45.1
56.8

51.3

No 17

Average

333

29.9
No 16

384

18.7

67.3
No.6

335

29.2

8.1

102.2

18.3

41.7

0.4

81.2

Sand Thick 0 m
58.8
0
41.2
41.2
>124.2
>6.7
<54.2

Settlement
at completion
time (mm)

484

Condition of
soil layers
surrounding pile
Plastic clay
ratio 3 (%)
Quasi-sand ratio(%)
Sand ratio
Firm-plastic clay
1 (%)
ratio 2 (%)

4 THE EFFECT OF SOIL CONDITION


AROUND PILE ON THE PILE GROUP
SETTLEMNT BEHAVIOR AT > 75%

No. of
project

Time of
completion
(day)

Completion
settlement
ratio (%)

Time for
settlement
stabilization (year)

Settlement at
stabilization
(mm)

Composition of compressible strata


Table 4. Pile group settlement behavior under No.4 combination.

the completion settlement ratio is 29.2%54.2%, the


average 42.9%; the time for settlement stabilization
is 6.7 years8.1 years, the average 7.4 years; the
settlement at stabilization is 102.2 mm126 mm, the
average 117.5 mm.

A comparison of pile group settlement behavior


between No.1 combination and No.2 combination is
given in Table 5. As can be seen from table 5, both
combination possess the same condition of the compressible strata that are mainly composed of quasi-sand
layer (in other words > 75% or 3 <25%). Based on
this condition, the different of type of the soil situations around pile,i.e. the existence of thick sand layer
as well as soft clay and clay layers, on the pile group
settlement behaviour can be judged.
From the table 5 it can be seen that in comparison
with soft clay and clay layers around pile, the existence of thick sand layer around pile will decrease
the pile group settlement by 30.9%, the stabilization
time by 16.7%, the settlement after completion by
68.3% and will increase the completion settlement
ratio by 18.4%; it illustrates the thick sand layer around
pile is beneficial to decreasing pile group settlement,
time for settlement stabilization and settlement after
completion and to increasing completion settlement
ratio. However, in the condition that the compressible strata are mainly composed of quasi-sand layer,
whether thick sand layers or soft clay and clay layers
surrounding pile, the pile group settlement behavior still demonstrates basically close characteristics,
namely on the whole possess high level of completion settlement ratio (88.3% and 74.6%), short time
for settlement stabilization (3.5 years and 4.2 years),
low settlement at stabilization (50.2 mm and 72.6 mm)
and low settlement after completion (5.9 mm and
18.6 mm). From the pile group settlement behavior in
two different situations of soil layer around pile showing the almost close characteristics, it reveals that the
composition of compressible strata play a leading role
for pile group settlement behavior, namely the close
characteristics, as described above, of pile group settlement are considered to be a reflection of inherent
deformation performance for compressible strata with
high quasi-sand ratio. On the other hand, the existence
of thick sand layer surrounding pile can play further
role for decreasing the stabilization time, the settlement of observed stabilization and the settlement after
completion as well as for increasing completion settlement ratio, it is tightly related to the basic condition of
compressible strata with high quasi-sand ratio,i.e. it is
conditioned that the existence of thick sand layer can

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 5.

Comparison of pile group settlement behavior between No.1 combination and No.2 combination.

contrast type
Combination 1

Thick sand layers


surrounding pile
> 75%
Combination 2
Soft clay and clay
layers surrounding
pile > 75%
Combination 1/Combination 2(%)

Average of
settlement
at completion
time (mm)

Average of
time of
completion
(day)

44.3

582

88.3

3.5

50.2

54.0

636

74.6

4.2

72.6

118.4

83.3

69.1

82.0

91.5

play previously described role. Therefore, the point


of view, that the existence of shallow sand deposits
surrounding pile can cause significantly decreasing of
settlement, is not comprehensive and may not clarify
the necessary condition of compressible strata.
From previously described comparison, the following analysis can be obtained.
(1) In the condition that the compressible strata are
mainly composed of quasi-sand layer, whether
thick sand layers or soft clay and clay layers surrounding pile, the pile group settlement behavior
still shows basically close characteristic, namely
on the whole possess high level of completion
settlement ratio, short time for settlement stabilization, low settlement at stabilization and low
settlement after completion.
(2) In the condition that the compressible strata are
mainly composed of quasi-sand layer, in comparison with soft clay and clay layers surrounding
pile, the existence of thick sand layers is beneficial
to decreasing the settlement at stabilization, the
time for settlement stabilization and the settlement
after completion and to increasing the completion
settlement ratio.
(3) Engineer and technicians in shanghai have held
a more popular understanding that the existence
of shallow sand deposits surrounding pile will
lead to decrease the pile group settlement significantly. The analysis in the paper indicate the
understanding is rational only on the condition that
the compressible strata mainly consist of quasisand layer. When the condition of compressible
strata is different from it, the understanding may
not reasonable.
5 THE EFFECT OF SOIL CONDITION
AROUND PILE ON THE PILE GROUP
SETTLEMENT BEHAVIOR AT 3 >
A comparison of pile group settlement behavior
between No.3 combination and No.4 combination is
given in Table 6 . As can be seen from the table 6, both

Average of time
for settlement
stabilization (year)

Average of
settlement
stabilization
(mm)

combination possess the same condition of the compressible strata with 3 > 50% (i.e.3 > ), in which
the behavior of pile group settlement for two different type of soil condition (i.e. the existence of thick
sand layer as well as the soft clay and clay layers)
surrounding pile also shows almost close characteristics, namely on the whole possesses low level of
completion settlement ratio (<34.7%and 42.9%, long
time for settlement stabilization (>8.3 years and >7.4
years), large settlement at stabilization (>105 mm and
>117.5 mm) and large settlement after completion
(>69.2 mm and >66.2 mm). However, in the same
condition of soil layer surrounding pile, when the
composition of compressible strata are from > 75%
to < 50% (i.e. 3 > ), it will cause outstanding discrepancy in the behavior of pile group settlement, i.e.
completion settlement ratio is from high to low (from
88.3% and 74.6% to <34.7% and 42.9%), the time
for settlement stabilization is from short to long (from
3.5 years and 4.2 years to >8.3 years and >7.4 years),
settlement at stabilization is from low to high (from
50.2 mm and 72.6 mm to >69.2 mm and >66.2 mm).
The analysis and data described above give a further
proof that the composition of compressible strata play
a leading role for the behavior of pile group settlement, and that the compressible strata with higher
plastic clay ratio is closely related to the characteristics of pile group settlement, such as low level of
completion settlement ratio, long time for settlement
stabilization, high observed settlement at stabilization
and high settlement after completion.
From table 6 it can also be seen that in the condition
of compressible strata with 3 > 50%, in comparison
with the soft clay and clay layers surrounding pile, the
existence of thick sand layers surrounding pile are to
decrease pile group settlement by 9.9% and the completion settlement ratio by 19.1%, and to increases the
time for settlement stabilization by 12.2% and settlement after completion by 4.5%. These data indicate
that, for 3 > 50% the existence of thick sand layer surrounding pile may not always lead the behavior of pile
group settlement to the tendency for improvement. It
should be of note that in the condition of compressible

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Average of
completion
settlement
ratio (%)

Table 6.

Comparison of pile group settlement behavior between No. 3 combination and No. 4 combination.

contrast type
Combination 3

Thick sand layers


surrounding pile
3 > 50%
Combination 4 Soft clay and clay
layers surrounding pile
3 > 50%
combination 3/combination 4(%)

Average of
settlement
at completion
time (mm)

Average
of time of
completion
(day)

Average of
completion
settlement
ratio (%)

Average of time
for settlement
stabilization
(year)

Average of
settlement
stabilization
(mm)

36.7

443

<34.7

>8.3

>105.9

51.3

384

<42.9

>7.4

>117.5

71.5

115.4

80.9

112.2

90.1

strata with > 75%, in contrast to the soft clay and


clay layer surrounding pile can lead all of the behavior
of pile group settlement to improvement. Under these
two conditions of compressible strata, the actual effect
on the behavior of pile group settlement caused by the
thick sand layers around pile has evident distinction.
From previously described discussion, the following analysis can be obtained.
(1) In the condition of compressible strata with
3 > 50%, the advantageous effect of thick sand
layers around pile on the behavior of pile group
settlement has disappeared.
(2) In the condition of compressible strata 3 > 50%,
whether thick sand layers or soft clay and clay layers surrounding pile, the driven pile group settlement behavior shows close characteristics, namely
on the whole possesses low level of completion
settlement ratio, long time for settlement stabilization, high observed settlement at stabilization
and high settlement after completion. However,
the driven pile group settlement behavior for compressible strata with > 75% is in opposition to
that for compressible strata with 3 > 50%.
(3) The distinctions of composition of compressible
strata have significant effect of thick sand layers
around pile on pile group settlement behavior. The
effect of the thick sand layers around pile decrease
as the value of 3 increases of or the value of
decreases; Contrarily, the effect increases as the
value of 3 decreases or the value of increases.
6

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the comparison of the settlement measurement data of high-rise building supported by pile
foundation in Shanghai, conclusions are drawn as
follows:
(1) When the compressive strata are mainly composed of quasi-sand ( > 75% or 3 < 25%), thick
sand layers around pile exert obvious influence
on reducing the settlement of pile group and

improving the behavior of settlement. This is in


accordance with the results of measurement of settlement behavior of elevated road supported by
driven pile foundation. When plastic clay layers
have a relatively large proportion in the compressible strata (3 > 50%), the effect on the settlement
of pile group and its behavior induced by the thick
sand layer around pile will disappear. Therefore, it
reveals that the function of thick sand layer around
pile decrease as the value of 3 increases.
(2) When soil circumstances around pile are both of
the existence of thick sand layer, the behavior
of pile group settlement in two different compositions of compressible strata (i.e. > 75%
or 3 > 50%) appear to be in the opposite tendency. This further proves that it is a concept
with widespeed significance that the compressible strata (i.e. deformation performance and soil
type of compressible strata) always play a leading
role for the basic characteristics of pile group settlement. Even though there are thick sand layers
around pile, the concept is also without exception.
(3) Engineer and technicians in shanghai have held
the more popular point of view that the existence
of shallow sand deposits around pile will lead to
decrease the pile group settlement significantly.
The analysis in this paper, on the one hand, provide
prerequisite condition for the point of view, and on
the other hand, expands to the extent of the basic
characteristics for pile group settlement.
(4) The study results mentioned above, which are
based on the measured settlement data on driven
pile group confined to the pile length at a range of
20 m35 m, can be used to explain the reason why
driven pile group composed of super-long piles
with the tip reaching the layer 2 or layer possess the settlement characteristics similar to that in
which compressible strata are mainly composed of
quasi-sand layers and thick sand layers are located
in shallow depths. In the circumstances, the layers
of 1 or 2 can play a role as the shallow sand
layers around pile.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

REFERENCES
Castelli, F., Maugeri, M., 2002. Simplified Nonlinear Analysis for Settlement Prediction of Pile Groups, America.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 128, pp. 7684.
Chen, R.P., Lin, D.S., Chen, Y.M., 2003. Some problems in
settlement calculation of pile groups, China. Chinese Civil
engineering Journal, Vol. 39, pp. 8994.
Dai, R.L., Chen, H., Yu, Y.Y., 2001. The analysis of soil properties and settlement of pile foundation of shanghai highrise building, China. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol. 23, pp. 627630.

Gao, D.Z., 1992. Theory and practice of soft soil engineering,


China. China building publisher, Beijing.
Prakoso, W.A., Kulhawy, F.H., 2001. Contribution to piled
raft foundation design, America. Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 127, pp. 1724.
Zhang, D., Chen, Z.C., Yao, X.Q., 1999. The effect of pile
construction method on pile foundation settlement,China.
Journal of Tongji University, Vol. 27, pp. 723727.
Zhou, H.B., 2004. Study of effect of pile type and construction
technology on pile behavior, China. Ph.D. thesis, Tongji
university, Shanghai.

212

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Analyzing the static tests of boring piles through CFA technology


A. Zh. Zhusupbekov & Y. Ashkey
Geotechnical Institute, L.N. Gumilyev Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan

V.N. Popov
JSC Karaganda GIIZ and K, Karaganda, Kazakhstan

A.J. Belovitch & G.A. Saltanou


Corporation Bazis-A, ltd, Almaty, Kazakhstan

ABSTRACT: We carried out the static testing of boring piles, which was performed through geotechnology by
CFA on problematic soil grounds in Astana (the new capital of Kazakhstan). This paper summarizes the results
of static pile tests for compression vertical loads. As well, this article presents a comparison table of traditional
geotechnology and new geotechnology CFA during the performing of boring piles. This is important for the
estimation of geoecological effects of boring piles into difficult soil ground for buildings.

INTRODUCTION

Development in the new capital city of the Astana


Republic of Kazakhstan has resulted in strong and reliable bases for buildings and constructions. Erections
of large and high-altitude infrastructures are made
through the generosity of foreign investors, who have
been attracted to Astana. During construction, there
have been problems with designing in an economical
way, the device of the bases in difficult ground conditions. The decision to solve this problem should take
into consideration the following: geotechnology, quality and construction. Application of advanced global
technology CFA is duly provided at a given stage.
2

ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS OF THE SITE

Based on the visual description of the ground and


the data of skilled field workers that comply with the
results of laboratory researchers, geological elements
in their sequences of bedding are as follows:
EGE-1.
EGE-2.
EGE-3.

Filling the earth with loam, sand and rubble.


Uncovering all holes.
Brown loamy soil, half stiff, with interlayer
of clayey ground.
Yellow alluvium clayey soil, hard, half hard
ground, with interlayer of loamy ground.

Based on the visual description of the grounds, the


results of the laboratory data to research the soils is

established, up to the investigated depth in a geological


structure of a site of researches take part, submitted
by loams and clay grounds. Above these are blocked
fillings of earthwork, with a capacity up to 1,00 m. All
grounds are water saturated that are opened on the site
by researchers.

3 THE METHOD OF BORING PILE TEST


The technology of testing the grounds by statical pressing in loadings on the boring pile was conducted in
agreement with the demands of GOST 5686-94 and
recommendations that were worked out by KGS,
Ltd. In the beginning of statical testing through boring piles in water-saturated ground bases that were
conducted, the concrete of piles were 80% of design
durability. Loading of piles was done in stages of
200 kN and 100 kN depending on the value of settlement and speed of stabilization of deformation by
hydraulic jack CMJ- 158A with carrying capacity
from 2000 kN, resting on anchor-persistent test bench,
which is shown in Figure 1.
The pressure in the jack was created with the help
of manual oil pump station MNSR-400 with power up
to 800 kg/sm2 , the moving of boring piles was fixed
by caving in-measurers of the type 6-PAO, which were
positioned on both sides of unmovable bearings with
the benchmark system. The first count out, performed
right after putting the loading, then consequently 4
counts out with an interval of 15 minutes, 2 counts out

213

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Settlement, mm

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Load, kN
experimental dates;

the oretical dates

Figure 2. The graph for the dependences of settlement from


the loading for the boring experimental pile with a length of
11 m.

Figure 1. The scheme of anchor-persistent test bench 1


CFA pile; 2 basic beam; 3 auxiliary beam; 4 pipes for
welded seam; 5 jack; 6 - caving in-measurer; 7 - benchmark
system; 8 pump with manometer.

with an interval of 30 minutes and further for every


hour until the conditional stabilization of deformation
(by Bartolomey A.A., Omelchak I.M., and Yushkov
B.S.,1994). For the criterion of conditional stabilization of deformation was taken the speed of settlement
of boring piles on the given stage of loading that did
not exceed 0.1 mm during the last 12 hours of observation. The maximum loading on the experimental
piles was 1800 kN according to the recommendation
of KGS, Ltd until reaching the point of settlement at
8 cm. Boring piles required reactive efforts. Reloading
was conducted in stages 400 kN and 300 kN.

4 THE RESULTS OF THE BORING


PILE TEST
According to the results of the ground tests, by
static pressing in loadings for estimation, the bearing
capacity on ground received the dependences of settlement from loading for experimental piles (Figure 2)
and of length 11 m. The bearing layer for the grounds
under the piles is clay of EGE-3, which physicalmechanical characteristics are shown in table 1. The
experimental boring piles test for maximum loading

was taken at 1200 kN (L = 11 m), exceeding one and a


half times the loading (according to British standards)
that is taken from the building. The maximum settlement according to the results of experimental piles test
was 15.18 mm (L = 11 m), which reached the maximum value of settlings, equal to 16 mm, defined by the
equation 17 SNiP 2.02.03-85. It should be noted that
the settlement of piles at the given loadings have minimum values and the simple conclusion about the deformations of the base ground is untimely. The mentioned
settlements take place due to the pressing of concrete
or mistakes in the experiment. According to preliminary results, the experimental piles test using a particular value of the maximum resistance was taken at the
maximum experimental loading 1200 kN (L = 11 m).
For the final estimation of the bearing capacity on
the ground, experimental piles tests were held, using a
length of 14 m. Aside from the base which was taken
for the loading, this causes the maximum value of
the settlement for the mentioned type of the building, according to the enclosure 4 SNiP 2.02.01-83
8 cm. On the graph of settlement dependence from
loading the experimental pile, (Figure 2) it follows that
the maximum settlement 8 cm was reached at loading
1800 kN (L = 11 m). According to the results of statical tests, the value of the maximum resistance was
taken during the loading of 1500 kN (L = 11 m), resulting in which the pile settled at 16 mm. The results of the
received dependences of experimental piles show that
the maximum resistance at loading 1500 kN was not
reached. The authors on the basis of the analysis of the
results recommend taking the value of the maximum
resistance of piles, loading 1850 kN (L = 11 m). This
loading will not exceed the value of maximum settlements of 40 mm, regulated by the rules of normative
document. Secondly, only after supposedly through the
authors maximum resistance, the sharp increase of
pile settlement takes place.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

Characteristics of the grounds.

0.3m

The names of
the grounds

, g/cm3

c, kPa

E, MPa

EGE-1
Loam, EGE-2
Clay, EGE-3

2.02
1.86

33
35

18
21

7
7

11m

The values of physical-mechanical


characteristics

Figure 3. During load test of the boring experimental CFA


pile with the length 11 m.

5 THE NUMERICAL ANALYSIS BY FEM


The numerical analysis was provided by FEM for
elasto-plastic conditions. We used the characteristics
of soil ground (Table 1) for numerical calculation of
bearing capacity and settlement. The results show that
experimental and theoretical results are not so different (Figure 2). The numerical analysis are important
for understanding the interaction of CFA pile with soil
grounds.
6

CONCLUSIONS

Figure 4. The calculation mesh by FEM.

the absence of building dust). It is important for construction of bridges, civil engineering constructions
and other buildings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their deep appreciation
to Professor Tadatsugu tanaka from Tokyo University,
Japan for his continual encouragement and scientific
discussion about numerical results by FEM.
REFERENCES

The application of boring piles through technology


CFA in engineering geological conditions of Astana
is rather effective in comparison with driven piles.
Bearing capacity of boring piles in length of 11 m
makes 1500 kN, that is, two times more than the bearing capacity of driven piles. For weak lenses and strong
grounds, it is necessary to apply boring pile technology. The installation of boring piles occurs without
influence on an environment (there is no vibration during the performing of piles using safe technology and

Bartolomey A.A., Omelchak I.M., and Yushkov B.S. (1994).


Prognosis of settlement of pile foundations, Moscow,
302p.
GOST 5686-94. (1994). Grounds. Methods of field tests by
piles, 42p.
SNiP 2.02.03-85.(1995) Pile foundations, 52p.
SNiP 2.02.01-83 (1995) Ground basements and Foundation
55p.
AshkeyY, The problems of estimation of bearing capacity of
piles Proc. of 5th Asian Yong Geotechnical Conference,
Taipei, Taiwan, pp. 161164.

215

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Large scale experiment and case study

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Design and performance of a combined road-channel-dike structure


founded on very soft Bangkok clay
Prapote Boonsinsuk
AMEC Earth & Environmental, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada

ABSTRACT: Due to the large volume of wastewater generated in Samut Prakarn Province located about 20 km
east of Bangkok, Thailand, the Samut Prakarn Wastewater Management Project has been conceived to treat the
wastewater up to 525,000 m3 per day. The wastewater will be treated at a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in
Klong Dan which is located about 50 km east of Bangkok and about 0.5 km from the Gulf of Thailand. The WWTP
site is underlain by a 20 m to 25 m thick stratum of very soft to soft Bangkok clay of which the upper 12 m to 15 m of
the clay stratum can not support any earth embankment with more than 2 m in height without ground improvement.
A 4.2 m high dike structure, approximately 7 km in total length, is needed to form eight wastewater/sludge
ponds required for the wastewater treatment plant. The main functions of the dike structure are to contain
wastewater/sludge, to serve as access road, and in some sections, to function as channel for transporting influent or effluent. To serve the three functions required, a combined road-channel-dike structure is preferred for
construction cost saving and economic land use.
Various conceptual designs of the combined road-channel-dike structure had been developed and evaluated
prior to construction. Finally, a piled raft foundation was selected and designed by using a reinforced-concrete
structure supported by 12 m long pre-stressed concrete piles. During the construction from the years 2001 to
2003, slope failures were avoided by implementing the field observation method. Based on the results of 527
days of monitoring, the combined structure underwent the maximum vertical settlement of about 320 mm and
the highest lateral movement of about 100 mm, without slope and/or structural failures. This paper addresses
the different design approaches developed in the early stage, and the design and performance of the structure
selected for construction.

INTRODUCTION

The Samut Prakarn Wastewater Management Project


has been developed to treat up to 525,000 m3 per day
of wastewater produced primarily from factories in
Samut Prakarn Province located about 20 km east of
Bangkok, Thailand (Figure 1). The wastewater will be
collected from factories through a system of underground pipes and combined in a tunnel leading to the
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) located in Klong
Dan, about 50 km east of Bangkok.
The influent will be discharged into three Pretreatment Ponds, each about 150 m by 340 m in plan area
(Figure 2), after which the pretreated influent will be
directed into three Aeration Basins, each about 150 m
by 250 m in plan area. The aerated wastewater will subsequently be pumped through the Mixed Liquor Pump

(Formerly, Geo-Technology Consultants Co., Ltd., Bangkok,


Thailand)

Station to be treated in the clarifiers. The treated effluent from the clarifiers will then be directed through
a channel and discharged into the Gulf of Thailand
through an ocean Outfall. The sludge will be collected
on site in two Biosolids Storage Ponds.
For all the eight containment ponds needed, the
maximum water depth of the ponds required will be
3.9 m which has to be achieved by constructing a
dike, or an excavation, or the combination of dike and
excavation.
Due to the low bearing capacity of the very soft clay
covering the site and construction difficulty, it would
be beneficial and cost effective to combine the dike,
access road and channel that are needed for containing and transporting the wastewater into one single
structure.
The site for the wastewater treatment plant in Klong
Dan is located in a marshy coastal area, about 0.5 km
from the Gulf of Thailand. The site is covered by a 20 m
to 30 m thick, very soft to hard, clay layer overlying an
8 m to 12 m thick, dense to very dense, sand layer. The

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This paper describes the design concepts developed and evaluated for a 4.2 m high, combined roadchannel-dike structure at the commencement of the
project prior to selecting the most viable design concept. The final design of the combined road-channeldike structure is based on the piled raft foundation
concept using a reinforced-concrete structure supported by 12 m long pre-stressed piles which are driven
into the very soft clay. The structure will be able to
settle due to the ongoing regional land subsidence and
consolidation of the supporting clay stratum, without
causing any separation between the base of the structure and the supporting subgrade which, if occurred,
will lead to uncontrollable leakage.The design and performance of the combined road-channel-dike structure
are presented in this paper.
2

DESIGN CRITERIA

The combined road-channel-dike structure has to be


designed in accordance with the following criteria:
As a dike, the structure will have to contain
the wastewater in the ponds up to the maximum
water elevation of +3.5 m Mean Sea Level (MSL).
The bottom elevation of all containment ponds is
0.4 m MSL, leading to a maximum water depth
of 3.9 m. The existing ground surface elevation is
approximately +0.6 m MSL.
As a channel, the minimum dimension of the watercarrying section of the structure will have to be
3.0 m in order to transport the design wastewater
volume of 525,000 m3 per day.
As a road, the structure will typically have to support a design load of a single unit truck, according
to AASHTO Standard Truck (HS 2044) with a
rear axle load of 143 kN (32,000 pounds). Some
sections of the structure will have to be designed
to support cranes required for lifting heavy equipment. The clear width of the road traffic surface
will have to be a minimum of 4.0 m.
The highest seawater elevation anticipated during
the service life will be +2.75 m MSL plus an
additional allowance of 0.20 m for wave height.
The service life of the combined road-channel-dike
structure will be 80 years.
The maximum land subsidence due to deep well
pumping for the 80-year service life is anticipated
to be 1.5 m. The regional land subsidence rate
typically ranges from 20 mm to 50 mm per year.
Constructability of the structure on the very soft
clay and tight construction time schedule will have
to be considered.

Figure 1. Site location plan.

Figure 2. Layout of wastewater treatment plant.

upper 12 m to 15 m of the clay layer consists of very


soft Bangkok clay with undrained shear strengths ranging from 5 kPa to 30 kPa. It is common that an earth
embankment built higher than 2 m at the site without any proper ground treatment will likely collapse
because of low bearing capacity or slope instability.

The total area of the wastewater treatment plant


(WWTP) is approximately 320 ha, some portions of

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SUBSURFACE SOIL CONDITIONS

Figure 3. Typical soil profile.

which are covered with mangroves. The general average elevation of the site is +0.60 m above the mean
sea level. Due to its coastal location, the site is subject
to daily fluctuation of seawater level and covered with
a thick stratum of very soft to soft marine clay deposit.
The subsurface soil conditions of the WWTP site
were investigated by more than 50 boreholes drilled
to a maximum depth of 40 m and more than 30 insitu vane shear strength tests. Typically, the soil profile
across the WWTP (Figure 3) consists of a 20 m to 25 m
thick layer of very soft to soft Bangkok clay overlying
a 5 m to 10 m thick, firm to hard, clay layer which is
underlain by an 8 m to 12 m thick, dense to very dense,
sand layer.
The soil stratum that causes problems for the design
and construction of the combined road-channel-dike
structure is the top, 12 m to 15 m thick, very soft clay
stratum. The liquid limits of the very soft clay typically
range from 90 to 130 and the plastic limits from 30 to
50, while the natural water contents vary from 100% to
130%. The variations with depth of the average values
of liquid limit, plastic limit and natural water content
are shown on Figure 4.
The in-situ vane shear strengths of the very soft clay
range from 5 kPa near the ground surface to about
30 kPa at 12 m to 15 m depths. The undrained shear
strength profiles shown on Figure 5 provide the average values of the undrained shear strength measured by
in-situ vane shear testing and unconfined compression
testing.

Figure 4. Variation of liquid limit/plastic limit/water content


with depth.

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Figure 6. Variation of overconsolidation ratio with pond


depth.

Figure 5. Undrained shear strength profile.

Based on one-dimensional consolidation tests carried out on undisturbed soil samples at various depths,
the over-consolidation ratios of the clay at the WWTP
range from about 0.7 to 1.7 as shown on Figure 6. On
the average, the clay should be considered as normally
consolidated. The compression ratios of the clay typically vary from 0.3 to 0.4. The unit weights of the
very soft to soft clay normally range from 14 kN/m3
to 16 kN/m3 .
4

PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED BY DESIGN

Due to the facts that the wastewater treatment plant site


is underlain by a 20 m to 25 m thick stratum of very
soft to soft clay and is subject to the ongoing regional
land subsidence caused by deep well pumping, the
following problems with respect to geotechnical engineering have to be solved in the design of the combined
road-channel-dike structure:
The maximum height of an earth embankment that
can be built on the very soft clay covering the
site is about 2 m without slope stability or bearing capacity failure. This fact has been proven
from many failures of earth embankments and
roads constructed at the site. The combined road-

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channel-dike structure, which has to be higher


than 2 m, can not be constructed using an earth
structure without a major undertaking of ground
improvement.
The rate of the ongoing regional land subsidence
caused by deep well pumping ranges approximately
from 20 mm to 50 mm per year. As a result, if a
dike structure is founded on long piles that are typically founded within the sand stratum, separation
between the base of the structure and the underlying
soil subgrade will lead to leakage of the wastewater
from the containment pond. For the design service
life of 80 years, the maximum land subsidence is
anticipated to be about 1.5 m, leading to a possible separation of 0.5 m high underneath the base
of the dike structure. The 0.5 m separation is the
difference in land subsidence between the ground
surface and the sand structure. Such a separation
will be very difficult to design against leakage.
The exposed ground surface within the site can
not support heavy construction equipment without
ground improvement (e.g., cement/lime stabilization of the surface layer, placement of thick sand
and gravel layers, etc.). For the total length of about
7 km planned for the combined road-channel-dike
structure, the ground improvement required to support heavy construction equipment will be time
consuming and increase construction cost.
Ground improvement techniques that require heavy
machinery, high preloading embankment, and/or

Figure 7a. Conceptual Design of Road-Channel-Dike Structure Founded on Long Piles.

Figure 7b. Conceptual design of road-channel-dike structure founded on improved ground.

An earth structure supported by improved ground


(Figure 7b). A few alternatives for ground improvement may be feasible, e.g., preloading with prefabricated vertical drains, short piles with enlarged
pile caps or tension layers (i.e., piled embankment),
lime/cement columns, etc.
A reinforced-concrete structure supported by short
piles founded within the very soft clay layer, i.e.,
piled raft foundation (Figure 7c).

lengthy time for preloading are not practical due to


very soft ground conditions and construction time
constraints.
5

DESIGN ALTERNATIVES

In general, there are three main design approaches that


may be feasible for the design and construction of the
combined road-channel-dike structure. The conceptual design of each approach is illustrated in Figures
7a to 7c while the advantages/disadvantages of each
approach are compared in Table 1. The three design
approaches are as follows:
A reinforced-concrete structure supported by long
piles driven into the sand stratum located at about
30 m to 35 m depth below grade (Figure 7a).

The three approaches were designed based on the


same initial road surface elevation of +4.2 m MSL
and the same initial pond bottom elevation of 0.4 m
MSL for direct comparison. Each conceptual structure
was 3.6 m high above the average ground elevation of
+0.6 m MSL and the water in the pond was at the
same depth of 3.9 m. The elevations of each structure

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 7c. Conceptual design of road-channel-dike structure founded on short piles.


Table 1.

Comparison of various design approaches.

Performance/
Constructability
Long-term
settlement
Potential for
leakage
through
structures
base
Potential for
leakage
through the
structure
Long-term
structural
integrity
Long-term
maintenance
effort
Foundation
construction
preparation

ReinforcedConcrete
Structure
Supported
by Long
Piles

Earth
Embankment
Supported by
Improved
Ground

ReinforcedConcrete
Structure
Supported
by Short
Piles

Small

High

High

Very high

Very low

Low

Very low

High

Low

Very stable

Potential for
local collapse

Very stable

Low

High

Low

Require
ground
surface
improvement
to support
heavy
equipment.

Require
ground
surface
improvement
to support
heavy
equipment

Use light
equipment.
No ground
surface
improvement
required.

at the completion of construction in the years 2002


2003 are compared with the elevations at the end of the
80 year design life (around the year 2083) as shown
on Figures 7a to 7c. For the 80 year design life, the
ground subsidence was considered to be 1.5 m and

the seawater level was estimated to be at the highest


elevation of +2.75 m MSL.
For the structure founded on long piles driven into
the sand layer (Figure 7a), the ground surface would
settle by 1.5 m in 80 years due to regional land subsidence, while the road surface elevation at the top
of the structure would settle by 1.0 m. The difference
of 0.5 m was the consolidation settlement of the clay
layer which would not be experienced by the longpiled structure. Such a difference in settlement would
lead to a 0.5 m gap between the underside of the longpiled structure and the underlying ground, potentially
causing continuous leakage of the retained wastewater.
On the contrary, the other two approaches (Figures 7b
and 7c) which were founded directly on the clay layer
would settle an additional 0.5 m in 80 years due to consolidation of the very soft clay under the applied loads
of the structure. For design purposes, the total settlement of the structure founded on the clay layer was
considered to be 2.0 m in 80 years while the settlement
of the structure founded on long piles was 1.0 m.
At the end of the 80 year design life, the road surface elevation of the structures founded on the clay
layer (Figures 7b and 7c) would be +2.2 m MSL which
would be below the estimated +2.75 m MSL elevation
of seawater. Therefore, these structures would have to
be designed with the road surface elevation of +4.8 m
MSL at the completion of construction in order to stay
above the seawater level during the 80 year design life.
Prior to selecting the most feasible design, the
cost and the constructability of each design approach
had been carefully compared. Finally, the reinforcedconcrete structure supported by short piles (i.e.,
piled raft foundation) had been chosen for design
and construction due to its advantages in functionality, constructability and construction/maintenance
costs.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 8. Final design of road-channel-dike structure used in construction.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF THE COMBINED


ROAD-CHANNEL-DIKE STRUCTURE

Using the piled raft foundation concept, a reinforcedconcrete structure supported by short piles has been
conceived. The length of the short piles is selected to
be 12 m in order to achieve reasonable pile resistance
while the pile tip is still embedded in the very soft clay
stratum. As a result, the structure is supported by both
the underlying clay and piles, and will settle with the
underlying clay, thereby preventing leakage of retained
wastewater through the underside of the structure.
The final design of the combined road-channel-dike
structure is shown on Figure 8. The basic dimensions
of the structure are 4 m wide road surface, 12 m wide
base at the ground level, and 4.2 m high above ground.
The structure is located 5 m away from a 1:10 (vertical
: horizontal) side slope of a 1 m deep excavation. The
total height of the pond is therefore 5.2 m from the
base of the pond to the top road surface of the structure.
The structure is designed to accommodate a maximum
settlement of 2.0 m in 80 years.
The basic combined road-channel-dike structure is
composed of a reinforced-concrete box supported by
pre-stressed concrete piles. The base of the combined
structure is tied monolithically to a series of 12 m
long pre-stressed I piles. The box of the structure
is formed by two walls, a base and a top floor cover.
The core of the box is hollow to function as channel

or is filled with clay to function as dike. The walls


of the structure are strengthened by wall/beam stiffeners for channels (hollow box for water flow) and
beam stiffeners for dikes (clay-core installed inside
the box).
Each longitudinal section of the combined structure is typically 10 m in length (on plan) as shown on
Figure 9 and is linked to adjacent sections by keyed
vertical and horizontal expansion joints that are structurally separated from each other. Each section of the
structure can move independently, but the movement
is limited by the keyed joints.
The 12 m long piles are driven into the very soft clay
layer and are therefore subject to settlement. As such,
the combined road-channel-dike structure will behave
like a piled raft foundation that can settle vertically,
move laterally, tilt, and/or combination.
The combined road-channel-dike structure is
designed to sustain a total settlement of 2.0 m during
the design life of 80 years (i.e., 0.5 m consolidation settlement of the underlying clay and 1.5 m regional land
subsidence). The ground elevations of the structure at
the completion of construction in the years 20022003
and the end of the 80-year design life are compared in
Figure 7c.
Each pond/basin is designed to perform individually, without depending on the water level in the
adjacent pond/basins for stability. Lowering wastewater/sludge level in one pond/basin while keeping the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 9. Isometric view of road-channel-dike structure used in construction.

wastewater/sludge levels in adjacent pond/basins is


permissible, provided that it is conducted gradually
and the difference in the wastewater/sludge levels in
the surrounding pond/basins is maintained within the
allowable limit.
In order to prevent leakage from the channels, each
vertical joint is covered by waterstop, joint fillers
and a clay core installed between two wall stiffeners,
while the horizontal joint is filled with waterstop, joint
fillers and bentonite. The leakage from the pond/basin
through the vertical joints is prevented by the clay
core installed between two wall stiffeners covering the
vertical joints. As for the dikes, leakage through the
vertical expansion joints is prevented by the clay fill
inside the reinforced-concrete box structure and joint
filling materials.
The combined road-channel-dike structure acts as
earth dikes/dams, although it is a reinforced-concrete
structure. As such, some seepage of wastewater from
the pond/basins through the combined structures and
the underlying clay is anticipated, similar to the seepage normally occurred in earth dikes/dams. Seepage
can be identified when the ground adjacent to the combined road-channel-dike is damp to wet without visible
free flowing water.
Unlike earth dikes/dams, the rigidity of the
reinforced-concrete structure makes it easy to locate
the source of leakage which occurs when free water
flowing from the pond/basin is visible on the downstream ground surface. The source of leakage should

normally be the upstream location of the combined


structure directly opposite to the location that the
leakage appears. Once the source of leakage is identified, proper remedial measures (e.g., grouting) can be
implemented to mitigate the leakage.
It should be mentioned that the project is a design
build-operate project. As such, the design of the
combined road-channel-dike structure has been evaluated during and after construction. Any design and
construction adjustments required can be carried out
during the maintenance period.
7

The combined road-channel-dike structure was constructed from the years 2001 to 2003. The ground
surface at the base of the structure was prepared by
stripping, grading and compacting (kneading) of the
clay subgrade. The 12 m long piles were installed by
using light-weight, framed, percussion pile driving rigs
typically used in Bangkok. The piles were easily driven
to the required elevation. All equipment used in the
construction was controlled by limiting the ground
pressure not to exceed 20 kPa. The superstructure
was subsequently constructed using the normal construction practice for constructing reinforced-concrete
structure. The details of construction have been presented by Boonsinsuk and Chareonsuphong (2001 in
Thai language).

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CONSTRUCTION AND PERFORMANCE

Photograph 1. View of road-channel-dike structure and


adjacent ground.

Figure 10. Block numbers used in monitoring of structural


movements around Aeration basin No. 1.

Photograph 2. View of road-channel-dike structure and


stored water.

The completed structure, illustrated on Photographs


1 and 2, performs satisfactorily in accordance with
the design criteria. The first pond filled was Aeration Basin 1 as shown on the plan in Figures 2 and
10. The aeration basin was filled with water from the
canal passing through the north of the basin. The water
was primarily seawater and was relatively clear of suspended solids. Subsequently, the three Pretreatment
Ponds and the other two Aeration Basins were filled
with the same water. The vertical and lateral movements of the combined road-channel-dike structure
were surveyed on a regular basis, using the centerline
and the two walls of the structure as reference survey
points for monitoring movements.
The movements of the combined road-channel-dike
structure surrounding Aeration Basin 1 had been regularly monitored for the longest period of almost two
years. One of the highest movements was measured in
Block No. 47 along Line Y3 (Figure 10) as shown on
Figure 11. During the impoundment of Aeration Basin
1, the maximum water level in the basin reached Elevation 3.2 m MSL above the bottom of the basin which
was constructed at Elevation 0.4 m MSL. During
the first 200 days (cumulative days from 2 December

2001) after pond impoundment, the maximum vertical


settlement was approximately 240 mm while the maximum lateral movement (away from Aeration Basin 1)
was about 120 mm. The vertical movements of the two
walls of the structure were slightly different, indicating
negligible tilting.
When Aeration Basin 2 was filled with water to
the same water level as Aeration Basin 1, the vertical
settlement of Block No. 47 increased slightly while
the lateral movement was reduced by approximately
20 mm. The combined road-channel-dike structure
was therefore responsive to the water levels in the
ponds/basins located both sides of the structure. The
fact that the lateral movement can be reduced by
increasing water level in the adjacent pond/basin indicates that the soil-structure interaction is still in its
elasto-plastic range.
An example of the vertical settlement profile and the
lateral movement of Line Y3 (Figure 10) is shown on
Figures 12 and 13, respectively, at the cumulative Day
527. It can be noticed that the vertical settlement along
Line Y3, almost 250 m long, was not uniform, possibly due to the variation in soil properties. A few blocks
of the structure underwent the maximum settlement of

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 11. Variations of pond water level/vertical settlement/lateral movement for Block No.49 Line Y3 with
cumulative days.

about 320 mm and the lowest settlement occurred near


the junctions of the structures (e.g., Block No. 58 and
Block No. 33 on Figure 10) which were constructed
with larger piled raft sizes. The lateral movements
along Line Y3 were highest at about 100 mm in the
central portion of Line Y3 and decreased toward the
junctions.
Leakages of the water retained in the pond/basins
occurred only through the expansion joints. There was
no evidence of any leakage through the base of the
structure, indicating a tight contact between the base of
the structure and the supporting ground. Of about 200
expansion joints along the perimeters of the structures
(i.e., the exterior perimeters of the three aeration basins
and the three pretreatment ponds), about 75 joints
showed signs of seepage of the water retained in the
pond/basins to the exterior ground surfaces. The signs
of seepage ranged from damp ground, wet ground,
and flowing water (leakage). About 60 of the 75 joints
showed damp ground and about 10 joints showed wet
ground surface adjacent to the joints. About five (5)
joints located at the junctions of the structures showed
leakages with water flowing through the joints to the
adjacent ground. These leakages were caused by the
excessive opening of the joints due to differential settlement between the junction (e.g., Block No. 58) and
the adjacent blocks. Leakages with flowing water had
been successfully repaired by grouting. Other seepages/leakages that showed signs of increasing flow
rate were grouted. It should be noted that due to the
delay of implementing the project, clear water had
been stored for almost two years in the pond/basins
instead of wastewater as planned. Typically wastewater

Figure 12. Settlement Profile along Line Y3 at Cumulative Day 527.

Figure 13. Variation of lateral movement along line Y3 at cumulative day 527.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

contains high concentrations of suspended solids that


will eventually clog the joint filling materials, thereby
reducing/mitigating leakages.
8

a method can be used because the design and construction of the road-channel-dike structure are based
on a design-build-operate contract. The structure had
been constructed without any slope failure and had
performed satisfactorily.

CONCLUSION

Due to the difficulty in constructing high earth dikes


required for containment ponds in the wastewater
treatment plant located at Klong Dan, a reinforced concrete structure, instead of traditional earth structures,
has been designed using the piled raft foundation concept. Such a design made it possible to construct a
4.2 m high dike structure on the very soft clay that can
only support a 2.0 m high (maximum) earth structure,
without failure and without any separation between the
base of the structure and the supporting ground (which
will cause excessive leakage).
Because such a structure has never been constructed in Thailand, the road-channel-dike structure
had been constructed based on the field observation method, i.e., the design of the structure is subject
to modification during or after construction depending on the actual performance of the structure. Such

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The design and construction of the combined roadchannel-dike structure based on the piled raft foundation concept was approved by the NVPSKG Joint Venture for the Samut Prakarn Wastewater Management
Project.
REFERENCES
Boonsinsuk, P. and Chareonsuphong, S. (2001), Construction
Method for 4.2 m Height of Channel/Berm in Wastewater Treatment Pond on Very Soft Clay Area, Proceedings First Seminar on Highway Engineering, Pavements and Geotechnical Engineering Nibon Rananand
Seminar, Department of Highways, Bangkok, Thailand,
pp. 201223.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Improvement of a very soft dregded silty clay at the port of Valencia (Spain)
Marcelo Burgos
Valencia Port Authority, Spain

Francisco Samper
Geotecnia y Cimientos, S.A., Spain

ABSTRACT: The Valencia Port Authority plans to incorporate a new area of 140,000 m2 for the storage of
containers. A zone with a 65,000 m2 surface in the area has been back filled with about 1,000,000 m3 of dredged
mud of a very low consistency. In order to improve the mud, a project has been put forward that basically consists
of: the creation of a soil-cement crust with the mass-stabilisation method, the installation of vertical drains, the
construction of a horizontal drainage and the placement of a 9 m high preload. Once this is carried out, it will
be necessary to wait for around 9 months for the mud to consolidate, to remove the surcharge and to construct
the pavement. In order to control this process, a complete monitoring system will be installed. In this paper the
project that is currently under construction is described.

INTRODUCTION

+10.0

At the South Dock of the Port of Valencia, an area of


about 1,100,000 m2 has been gained from the sea during earlier stages. Once this area was improved using
preloading (with or without vertical drains) it has been
put into service in order to store containers.
As a result of the back filling of that area, an
artificial lagoon made up of mud with a very low consistency has been created at the docks end, presenting
very peculiar problems.
In the present paper, the project carried out to
improve these muds is explained (as well as the first
set of data obtained from the job site).

+5.0
+2.0
+0.0
0.0

-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR

GENERAL
FILL

SEA

MUD
ROCK FILL

-10.0

-12.0

-15.0

STAGE 0: INITIAL STATE


Figure 1. Initial state.

2
2.1

INITIAL DATA
Structure and geotechnical characteristics of
the subsoil

According to the information that was available (Burgos, Samper, 2004), initially, a draft of about 12 m
existed in the area. The following materials could be
found below that depth:
From level 12 m to level 24 m: Fine sands of
medium compacity (10<N30 SPT<30)
From level 24 m until at least level 31 m:
Clays and sandy silts of medium consistency
(25 kN/m2 < cu <125 kN/m2 ).
A hydraulic filling was subsequently done between
level 12 m to level +2 m, generating a lagoon of

mud with a low consistency, with an upper dried-up


layer around 0.5 m thick.
Finally, the water table is situated at the level 0.0 m,
with minimum variations due to the tides.
The main characteristics of the mud are reflected in
Table 1.

2.2 Characteristics of the jobs to be performed in


the area
The referred zone has a surface area of about
140,000 m2 . In its central part there exists an area of
about 65,000 m2 called the lagoon, where a volume
of mud in the order of 1,000,000 m3 is accumulated.

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Table 1.

Characteristics of the mud.

Characteristics
Organic matter (%)
Ca content (%)
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Liquid limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Water content (%)2
Dry unit density (kN/m3 )
Void ratio (e)
Compression index (Cc )
Coefficient of vertical consolidation (Cv )
(cm2 /s)
Coefficient of horizontal consolidation (Ch )
(cm2 /s)
Undrained shear strength (cu )
(kN/m2 )1

12
1518
< 10
4060
4060
2545
520
3060
1214
0.9-1.3
0.20-0.25
4*104
8*104

Figure 3. Fotograph of the site in October of 2005.


2

<25 kN/m

3 ADOPTED SOLUTION
The projected jobs basically consist of:

In the upper level (below the dried-up crust), its values round
2-3 kN/m2 , increasing proportionally with the depth until values in the order of 25 kN/m2 in the lower portion of these
muds.
2
The most superficial layer, which has been mixed with
cement, has a water content of 40-60 %.

the improvement of the upper 4 m of the mud


by mixing it with cement, creating a crust that,
among other things, will allow the equipment to
pass through, which was initially impossible.
the wick drains driving, whose objective is to dissipate the pore pressures of the muds, with a horizontal drainage (which includes a drainage blanket,
collecting ditches, wells and channels from them to
outside of the preloaded area), for the evacuation of
the water collected by the vertical drains.
The layout of a preload with a weight greater than
that of the port pavement and the containers combined, so that the muds will gain the necessary
resistance and its deformability will decrease.
The different jobs making up the project are
described in more detail below.
3.1 Soil-cement crust

50

100 150 200


ESCALE

Figure 2. General arrangement.

At this zone, once the jobs corresponding to the


project have been carried out, and the preload has been
removed, the construction of a port pavement, made up
of 0.30 m of concrete, 0.25 m of gravel and 0.80 m of
rock fill, with a combined weight of about 28 kN/m2 .
Later on, the area will be used as a storage site
for containers. In accordance with the Spanish Port
Norms, the containers are equivalent to an overload
of 60 kN/m2 , and the settlements for the pavement to
bear must be less than 10 cm in the 10 years following
its construction.

The soil-cement crust has two goals: the creation of a


platform that will allow the circulation of equipment,
and the improvement of the muds, so that they will
allow for the future construction of a port pavement
and the load of containers to be applied.
At the present time, a 4 m-thick crust is being carried
out with equipment especially developed for this mission, which adds dry cement to the mud, mixing it in the
most uniform manner possible. Adding 90110 kg/m3
of type II/B-V 42.5 R cement, it is possible to step on
the crust after 3-7 days, which allows advancing on
an already treated soil. If this were being done differently, the circulation of machinery over these materials
would not be possible (and the circulation of people
would be difficult).
The mixing is performed in cells with dimensions
of about 4.0 m (depth) by 4.5 m (length) by 3.23.8 m

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

+10.0

+10.0

+5.0

VERTICAL DRAINS

+5.0

+2.0

+2.0

+0 .0
0.0

-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR

-2.0

+0.0
0.0

STABILIZED MUD

GENERAL
FILL

SEA

-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR

MUD
ROCK FILL

-10.0

-2.0

-10.0

-12.0

-15.0

SEA

GENERAL
FILL
ROCK FILL
-12.0

-15.0

STAGE 1: MASS STABILIZATION

STAGE 2: INSTALLATION OF VERTICAL DRAINS

Figure 4. Mass stabilization.

Figure 6. Installation of vertical drains.

on them. The main conclusions are that the optimal cement content can be found between 90 and
110 kg/m3 . In the first case, the mix was more homogenous, and in the second, a greater resistance was
expected because of the greater binder content. As a
result, it was decided to execute the crust with 90 kg/m3
in the zone that was going to be stepped on after 7 days,
and with 110 kg/m3 in the zone what was going to be
stepped on after 34 days.
When this article was being written, 75 % of the
crust has been completed.
3.2 Vertical drainage
Figure 5. Fotograph of the execution of the crust.

(width), in front of which the mixer is placed (resting on an already stabilized zone), and starts adding
cement and mixing it with the mud in an operation that
lasts a total ranging from 60 to 90 minutes.
In the first constructed zone, a test area has been
created where cells with cement contents of 70, 90
and 110 kg/m3 and performances of 50 y 70 m3 /h have
been executed. This zone has been studied by means of
boreholes, DPSH type dynamic penetration tests, CPT
tests, pits and laboratory tests. Within the laboratory
tests the following have been performed: sieve granulometric tests, Atterberg limits, calcium content, dry
density, water content, unconfined compressive tests
and direct shear tests with peak and residual strength
measurements.
The main conclusions of this first testing area are
that neither could work go faster than 50 m3 /h nor with
less than 90 kg/m3 . It was also concluded that the best
system for the control of the crusts execution was the
use of CPT tests.
This way, two rows of 180 m 4.5 m cells with
90 and 110 kg/m3 were created, conducting CPT and
geophysical tests (spectral analysis of shallow waves)

Once the crust is completed, the layout of vertical


drains through it is planned, in order to relieve interstitial pressures in the lower 10-11 m of the muds.
Therefore, their length will be at least 15 m.
In order to do this, these elements will be driven
with a density of 1 drain every 2 m2 . A very flexible
drain will be used, which will guarantee a high percentage of its discharge capacity despite the magnitude of
the foreseen settlements (of up to 2 m) and with a outside filter sleeve with an effective pore diameter (O90 )
less than or equal to 80 m. This way, with a smaller
pore size, the risk of clogging of the interior channel (between the filter sleeve and the core) due to the
entry of finer particles is reduced. In this case, this
aspect is especially important, given that the muds are
composed of very fine particles.
While this report was being written, vertical drains
were laid out over a testing area of about 5000 m2 .
Two months after placing them and without the application of any exterior load, settlements of 16 cm have
been measured, and it is predicted that they will keep
on increasing up to 30-35 cm. Within this area a
50 m 35 m and 1 m-high test embankment has been
constructed. In a period of 2 months it has settled
32 cm, and it is foreseeable that it will continue settling
up to 45-50 cm.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

+11.0

DRAINAGE BLANKET
+10.0

+10.0

DRAINAGE CHANNELS
GENERAL FILL

+5.0

+5.0

+2.5

+2.0

+2.5

+2.0

+0.0

+0.0
0.0

0.0

-2.0

-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR

SEA

GENERAL
FILL

-10.0

-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR

ROCK FILL

-2.0

SEA

GENERAL
FILL
ROCK FILL

-10.0

-12.0

-12.0

-15.0

-15.0

STAGE 3: CONSTRUCTION OF HORIZONTAL DRAINAGE

STAGE 4: CONSTRUCTION OF TEMPORARY OVERLOAD

Figure 7. Construction of horizontal drainage.

Figure 8. Construction of the temporary preload.

This data allows for the prediction of good behavior


coming from the vertical drain.

+10.0

+9.0

+5.0

3.3

GENERAL FILL

Horizontal drainage

+0.5

+0.0

With the aim of collecting the water evacuated by the


vertical drainage, the creation of a drainage blanket
has been planned, made up of a 0.5 m-thick layer of
gravel, protected in its lower and upper surfaces by
two geotextile sheets. These sheets will prevent the
gravel from being contaminated by the crusts and the
embankments material.
Given the great surface dimensions of this blanket,
250 m at the point of greatest width and 290 m at the
point of greatest length, and that the lagoon ends up
surrounded by less deformable zones so that it would
constitute a low area once the preload was applied,
the creation of drainage ditches has been planned.
These would collect the water contained in the blanket
and would direct it to wells, from which it would be
evacuated to outside.
The drainage ditches will have two high-density
polyethylene drainage pipes 250 mm in diameter, and
will be filled with gravel identical to that used in the
drainage blanket.
The drainage ditches will lead down to 9 wells 1.0 m
in diameter with a mud pump capable of pumping 5 l/s.
These wells will be increased in length as the preload
embankment grows. The water will be conducted by
means of a network of flexible hoses into a ditch that
will be built next to the dike in order to pour it into the
sea. A flowmeter will be installed at the end of each
hose. In addition, at the end of the ditch a triangular stream gage will be installed that will confirm the
reading of the flow meters. Before pouring it into the
sea, the water will be taken into a settling tank system
that could facilitate its possible decontamination in the
case it were necessary.
In addition, the possibility of digging 3 other wells
in the embankment (when it reaches around 3 m in

-4.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
-10.0

SEA

GENERAL
FILL
ROCK FILL
-12.0

-15.0

STAGE 5: WAITING FOR AROUND 9 MONTHS


Figure 9. Waiting for mud consolidation.

height) has been planned for that places where the


greatest settlements are registered for the evacuation
of water accumulated in them.
3.4 Application of the preload
Following the previous, the preload embankment
will be constructed, which has a volume of about
1,100,000 m3 . In the lagoon zone where settlements
in the order of 2 m are expected, the height of the
preload is 9 m, so that after its period of application
the resultant effective height will be 7 m, which is
30% greater than the load that will be applied during service. In the rest of the zone, where the expected
settlements are about 50 cm, the height of the preload
is 6 m.
This preload will be built with materials coming
from the excavations carried out around the city of
Valencia, and in layers no thicker than 0.5 m, so that
there exists a uniform distribution of the load over
the crust, avoiding its rupture. Given the great volume
of material necessary, the time needed to apply the
preload is estimated in 11 months. Logically, during

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

+0.0

0.0

+10.0

+10.0

CONTAINERS

+5.0

+5.0
+0.0

+0.5

+2.0

+2.0

60 KN/m2

+3.3

+0.0

+0.0

0.0

0.0
-4.0

-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR

-4.0
SEA

GENERAL
FILL

-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR

ROCK FILL

-10.0

ROCK FILL

-10.0

-12.0

-15.0

-12.0

-15.0

STAGE 8: STORING CONTAINERS

STAGE 6: REMOVING TEMPORARY OVERLOAD

(OUT OF PROJECT)

(OUT OF PROJECT)

Figure 12. Storing containers.

Figure 10. Removing temporary preload.

with the results provided by instrumentation. At


the end of this period, an investigation is planned
in order to verify that the muds have acquired the
expected resistance due to the application of the
preload and to study the resistance of the crust at
that moment, given the soil-cements foreseeable
gain in resistance with time
Removal of the preload. With the instrumentation
laid out (settlement lines) it will be possible to measure the foreseeable heave due to the removal of the
preload.
Construction of the port pavement.
Application of the load from the containers

+10.0
PAVEMENT
+5.0
+2.0

+3.3
+0.0

+0.5
+0.0

0.0
-4.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR

SEA

GENERAL
FILL
ROCK FILL

-10.0

-12.0

-15.0

STAGE 7: CONSTRUCTION OF PAVEMENT


(OUT OF PROJECT)

3.6 Monitoring

Figure 11. Construction of pavement.

that time, the consolidation of the muds will be taking


place.
As a result of that consolidation, a settlement will
start to take place in the muds, which will provoke
the outgoing of the water through the drains and its
accumulation in the ditches and wells, and from them,
it will be necessary to evacuate the water to the outside by means of pumping. Every once in a while, and
as the embankment gains height, it will be necessary
to increase the length of the wells and reinstall the
network of flexible hoses.
3.5

SEA

GENERAL
FILL

A job of these characteristics requires intense monitoring. In this case, the following sensors have been
projected and are being placed:
A network of 92 settlement plates, situated every
25 m 50 m, resting on the crust, which will be
leveled with reference to fixed points, installed outside the zone of influence of the jobs to be carried
out. As the height of the preload increases, it will be
necessary to increase the length of the rods attached
to these plates.
3 continuous settlement lines with lengths of up to
350 m
6 bench marks to control the horizontal movements
of the protection dike as a result of applying the
preload.

Subsequent operations

Later on, and beyond the scope of this present project,


it will be necessary to carry out the following operations:

3.7 Geotechnical investigation and crust control

Waiting for around 9 months until the consolidation


of the muds is verified. During that period of time,
there are plans for the reading of the instrumentation described in the following paragraphs, and for
the pumping of the drained water. Logically, this
waiting time is an estimate and must be verified

Since before the execution of the crust it was not


possible to reach the interior of the lagoon, the
information known about the muds came from samples taken mainly from its edges. Thus, as the crust
is being carried out, investigations are being made in
order to verify that the muds respond to that planned

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

in the project. These investigations basically consist


of boreholes, CPTU, vane tests and laboratory tests.
Within the latter, the following tests have been carried
out: sieve and sedimentation granulometric analysis,
Atterberg limits, carbonate and organic matter content, water content, dry density, triaxial, direct shear,
consolidation and laboratory vane tests.
Additionally, in agreement with what was pointed
out in paragraph 2.1, basically boreholes, CPT and
laboratory tests have been conducted to control the
execution of the crust, verifying that, given the heterogeneity of the crust, the best system to characterize it
is by means of CPT tests.
5 inclinometers with a length of 45 m to control the
influence of the preload on the adjacent protection
dike.
15 vibrating wire piezometers for the control of the
interstitial pressure of the muds. These piezometers
have been designed so that they will behave adequately in such soft muds. The measurements made
up to date have registered interstitial pressures
clearly above the hydrostatic ones, which confirms
the idea that the muds are underconsolidated.
The reading of this instrumentation is planned for at
least once every week until the removal of the preload
finishes.
With this instrumentation, the aim is to regulate the
rhythm in which soil is added, so that they do not affect
the protection dike, and to control the consolidation of
the muds, indicating the moment in which the preload
can be removed.
A report about the monitoring of the instrumentation will be elaborated each month, which will allow
the analysis of the jobs status, and will have, among
other conclusions, the authorization to continue with
the construction of the preload.
At the end of the job, a final report will be elaborated
which will collect the results of all the jobs conducted
and their global analysis.
4

CONCLUSIONS

As a result of the back filling in previous stages of


other areas in the South Dock of the Port of Valencia,

a lagoon of muds with a very soft consistency has


been generated with a surface area of about 65,000 m2
and a volume of around 1,000,000 m3 . This lagoon
is contained within a zone of 140,000 m2 , where the
construction of a port pavement on which containers
will be stored is intended.
From the investigations and studies conducted, a
project has been written for the improvement of these
peculiar soils. This project, which is the object of the
present paper, is at the present moment in its beginning
stages, showing up to date a behavior that generally
responds to that expected.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to give thanks to Mr. Jos
Manuel Moncada and the Valencia Port Authority for
their collaboration, and to the staff from the General
Contractor (SEDESA and GEOCISA Joint Venture) at
the job site.
REFERENCES
Burgos, M., Samper, F. 2004. Caracterizacin geotcnica de
unas arcillas limosas muy blandas procedentes de relleno portuario en la Drsena Sur del Puerto de Valencia.
Simposio sobre geotcnica ambiental y mejora del terreno. Sociedad Espaola de Mecnica del Suelo. Valencia,
Espaa., pp. 205210.
Burgos, M., Samper, F. 2005. Modelizacin numrica retrospectiva de la rotura de un terrapln de prueba y del
comportamiento de distintas soluciones de mejora de un
relleno portuario en la Drsena Sur del Puerto de Valencia. Jornadas Hispano-Lusas de Geotecnia Sociedade
Portuguesa de Geotecnia. Lisboa, Portugal., pp. 277284.
Direccin General de Puertos y Costas. 1990. Acciones en
el proyecto de obras martimas y portuarias. Recomendaciones para obras martimas. ROM 0.290. Ministerio de
Obras Pblicas y Urbanismo. Espaa.
Direccin General de Puertos y Costas. 1994. Proyecto
y construccin de pavimentos portuarios. ROM 4.1-94.
Ministerio de Obras Pblicas y Urbanismo. Espaa.
Ladd, C. 1991. Stability evaluation during staged construction. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. ASCE, Vol.
117, No4, pp. 540615.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Study of geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway in Taiwan


Sao-Jeng Chao
Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Ilan University, Ilan, Taiwan

ABSTRACT: The Taiwan Area National Expressway Engineering Bureau (TANEEB) is currently constructing
the Taipei-Ilan Expressway. The Toucheng-Suao Section of the Expressway passes the Ilan Plain, in which
subsurface conditions contain soft and weak silt layers. As a result, the subgrade of the pavement structure can
not be easily compacted to the construction specification requirement in this area. Therefore, the geosynthetic
reinforced subgrade is proposed by the contractor for reducing the extra expense of the aggregate material. This
paper begins with introducing the engineering properties of the soft and weak silty soil. Following that, a test plan
for evaluating the technique of applying the geosynthetic reinforcement is described. The performance of the
geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway is investigated considering different thickness of aggregate layers
of the subgrade. Finally, finite element method (FEM) is used to simulate the complicated soil-reinforcement
interaction and to explain the mechanical behaviour of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway.

INTRODUCTION

The Central Mountain Range, which is located middle


through the Taiwan Island, makes transportation to be
difficult between the Taipei City and the Ilan County.
The Taipei-Ilan Expressway Project is aimed at shortening the travel time between the two regions, thereby
promoting economic development in the east Taiwan.
The well-known 12.9 km long Hsuehshan Tunnel penetrating the precipitous Hsuehshan Mountain Range
has been completed at the end of year 2005. Therefore,
the extension section of the Taipei-Ilan Expressway
(Toucheng-Suao Section), which passes through the
Ilan Plain, becomes an important and timing task considering the purpose of sharing transportation loading.
However, the subgrade of the pavement structure
of the expressway can not be easily compacted to
the construction specification required 95% of relative compaction in this area because the subsurface
material generally contains soft and weak silt. As a
matter of fact, this situation has been noticed before
the construction work started. Therefore, the designed
thickness of the subgrade structure uses the maximum depth of a replacing 75 cm aggregate layer.
Unfortunately, the contractor still has to provide more
than 100 cm of aggregate layer in order to reach the
requirement for the subgrade structure.
In this study, a geosynthetic reinforced subgrade
is proposed by the contractor for reducing the extra
expense of the aggregate material. The geosynthetic
reinforcement appears to have the greatest potential
for a beneficial application in soft subgrade layers.

A similar practical problem of geosynthetic application for the railroad track design has been studied
for saving the amount of aggregate/ballast thickness
by Wu (2003). The subgrade reinforcement design
method of the paved permanent road is initially developed by Holtz et al. (1995). Its principal function is to
transfer the bearing capacity which acts on subgrade
by geosynthetic reinforced material. In accordance
with Haliburton et al. (1981) experience, there are
three possible subgrade restraint mechanics provided
by geosynthetic reinforcement.
1. Lateral restraint of the subgrade through friction
and interlock between the aggregate, soil, and the
geosynthetic. Soft and weak subgrade silt provides
very little lateral restraint in this case, so when the
aggregate moves laterally, ruts develop on the surface
of subgrade.
2. Increase in the system bearing capacity by forcing the potential bearing capacity failure surface to
develop along alternate, higher shear strength surface. This tends to increase the bearing capacity of
the subgrade under loading.
3. Membrane support of the wheel loads. If the
geosynthetic reinforcement has a sufficiently high
tensile modulus, tensile stresses will develop in the
reinforcement to help support the applied wheel loads.
This paper begins with introducing the engineering properties of the soft and weak soil of the Ilan
area. A test plan is explained in detail for evaluating
the technique of applying geosynthetic reinforcement
to reach the requirement for the subgrade structure.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

The performance of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway is then examined considering different thickness of the subgrade. Finally, finite element
method (FEM) is utilized to simulate the complicated soil-reinforcement interaction and to explain the
mechanical behaviours of the geosynthetic reinforced
subgrade expressway. It is expected that the experience
learned from the Toucheng-Suao Section of the TaipeiIlan Expressway Project could be valuable for other
highway projects dealing with soft and weak subgrade
material in the future.
2

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF THE SOFT


AND WEAK SOIL OF ILAN AREA

This study deals with the soft and weak subsoil with
high content of fine grained soil of the Ilan area. The
Ilan area is located in the northeastern part of Taiwan
as shown in Figure 1. The subsurface soil of the Ilan
area is relatively poor in the aspect of the engineering
properties. Figure 2 demonstrates the Standard Penetration Test N values (SPT-N) from 726 boreholes we
collected in the Ilan area (Chao, 1998). In addition,
the climate of this area contains lots of rainy days during the whole year. As a result, the ground water table
varies from time to time at the depth close to the ground
surface. Figure 3 shows the map of the ground water
table of the Ilan area.
During the process of the construction works, the
contractor, the Retired Soldiers Engineering Services
Administration (RESA), unexpectedly realized the
difficulty of reaching the construction specification
provided by the TANEEB. Since the subsoil is really
soft and weak, there is almost no possibility to compact the site soil to the degree that TANEEB would

accept, especially when the weather is rainy and the


ground water raises to the ground surface. The main
reason for not being able to compact can be concluded
as the problem categories of the bearing capacity and
the excessive settlement of the shallow foundations.
The construction specification provided by the
TANEEB requires that within top 30 cm of the subgrade needs to be compacted to 95% of relative compaction as well as the California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
value reaching designed value, which is 6 for this site.
If the site can not fulfil above mentioned specification requirements, the subsoil needs extra treatments to
the depth of 75 cm. The treatments include replacing,
grouting, soil-cement, fiber reinforcing, and so on.
However, the contractor (RESA) found out in no
time that they had to provide treatments to the depth
more than 100 cm in order to reach the requirement
of subgrade for the construction specification. In the
case of rainy days and the ground water raises as the
consequence, the thickness of the aggregate layer is
increased significantly and never reaches the final goal

N - Value
0-2
2-5
5 - 10
10 - 30
30 - 100

10

10

10

20 Kilometers

Figure 2. The SPT-N values of the Ilan area.


N
W

E
5
4

S
2
3

3
2

Study area

2
2

3
2
283

37

9
7

24

7
6

10

20 Kilometers

Figure 3. The ground water table of the Ilan area.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 1. The location of the Ilan area of Taiwan.

10

47

10

4 2

10

4
11

from time to time. Figure 4 shows the subsoil condition


at the construction site right after the excavation and
grading process, which is clearly very soft and weak
for the subsequent earth works.
The method of evaluating the bearing capacity provided by the TANEEB for the subgrade under the
pavement structure is called the Proof Rolling Test.
The equipment for the Proof Rolling Test is a heavy
truck, which contains at least 4 metric ton of individual tire loading. However, even though the contractor
uses extra amount of the aggregate materials for the
subgrade structure, the performance of the subgrade
is still very poor for taking the proof rolling test as
shown in the Figure 5.
This research project attempts to find the solution by
introducing the geosynthetic reinforcement to the soft
and weak subsoil for the highway pavement structure.
The geosynthetic reinforcement used in the subgrade
structure is expected to support the loading from the
proof rolling equipment as well as the weight of the
pavement structure and the traffics.

3 TEST PLAN
For the purpose of understanding the mechanism of
the subgrade structure under loading which uses the
geosynthetic reinforced material, a test plan is proposed by the contractor. The test plan consists of a full
scale road section, which is 100 m in length and 10 m
in width. This section is then separated into 3 parts
for the purpose of evaluating the performance of the
geosynthetic reinforcement with different thickness of
the aggregate layer. The detailed arrangement of the
test section is shown in Figure 6.
The test plan totally contains 4 different thicknesses
of aggregate layers, namely: 15 cm, 25 cm, 40 cm, and
50 cm. The geosynthetic reinforcement material is in
fact composed of a geogrid layer and a geotextile
(nonwoven) layer. The geogrid layer provides tensile
strength resistance to reinforce the subgrade structure
while the geotextile layer provides the function of separation with the soft and weak silty soil underneath
for long term performance consideration. The detailed
arrangement of the section is described as follows:
1. Original design section simply replacing aggregate
material to the depth of 75 cm.
2. Test section A is excavated to a depth of 40 cm,
placed a layer of nonwoven and then a layer of geogrid,
refilled with aggregate material for a depth of 15 cm.
3. Test section B is excavated to a depth of 50 cm,
placed a layer of nonwoven and then a layer of geogrid,
refilled with aggregate material for a depth of 25 cm
(A typical cross-section of the geosynthetic reinforced
subgrade is shown in Figure 7).

Figure 4. The subsoil condition at the construction site.

Original
Design
Section

Test Section
A

Buffer
Zone

Test Section
B

30 m

30 m

10 m

30 m

Figure 6. The arrangement of the test section.

Figure 5. The performance of the subgrade during proof


rolling test.

Figure 7. Typical cross-section of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade.

239

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4. After completing the proof rolling tests for the cases


of 15 cm and 25 cm, both test section A and test section B will be refilled with another 25 cm aggregate in
depth for the cases of 40 cm and 50 cm.
The results of the 4 different conditions are exactly
the same with the expectation we had prior to the test.
The geosynthetic reinforcement can take over the most
loading in the subgrade and thus the other component
materials play less important role in the load transmitting process. The only unknown for the pavement
design is the minimum depth of the replacing aggregate material needed. From the successful results of
this test plan, we found out that the aggregate layers
of 15 cm and 25 cm can not pass the proof rolling test.
On the other hand, both the aggregate layers of 40 cm
and the 50 cm are able to pass the proof rolling test.
The original designed thickness of aggregate layer
is 70 cm for the subgrade structure. In addition, the
contractor provides more than 100 cm merely trying
to pass the proof rolling test. By adopting the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade design, the construction
specification can be easily passed with a much thinner aggregate layer of 4050 cm. The advantages of
using geosynthetic reinforced subgrade design, not
only can reduce a lot of construction expense for the
contractor, but also can safe countless construction
time because of the reasons of weather independence and straightforward placing procedure. Figure
8 explains the whole sequence of conducting the test
plan thoroughly.
As we can see from the photos in Figure 8, the test
plan started from placing 2 layers of reinforcements
for the purpose of separation and reinforcing. After
that, aggregate materials with different thickness are
stacked on the top of the reinforcements following by
the compacting work. To the end of the test, the aggregate materials at certain locations were removed to
observe the final forms of the reinforcements. It is
found that the reinforcement is still in a pretty good
shape.
4

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Failure mechanism of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway is thus become a very interesting
subject that needs to be studied much more extensively. It has been concluded that current experience
with reinforced slope failures indicates that the failure
mechanism are not significantly different from those
for natural slopes, but no such evidence exist for failure
mechanism of geosynthetic reinforced subgrade.
Therefore, in order to have more understanding
on the complicated mechanical behaviour and failure mechanism of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade structure, the PLAXIS finite element program is
utilized in this study. PLAXIS is a finite element

program specifically intended for the analysis of


deformation and stability in geotechnical engineering
projects. The geosynthetic reinforcement, the original silty subsoil, and the replacing aggregate layer
of the subsoil with different depths can be simulated
using PLAXIS to predict the responses of the whole
structures under the proof rolling load.
In the past, some research works took an approach
to model the geosynthetic reinforced soil as a homogeneous material. The macro-behaviour of reinforced
soil structure may be reasonably obtained by such
approach, in which the reinforcing effects were introduced into the constitutive law of the composite
material through the adoption of some kind of homogenization method (Chou et al., 1991). On the other
hand, the soil and the geosynthetic reinforcement can
be modelled individually to reflect physical behaviour
of each constituent (Guler and Hamderi, 2002), which
is the approach this study took.
Due to the area of the proof rolling tire is relatively
small compared to the size of the test section, the
geosynthetic reinforced subgrade can be assumed to
be axisymmetric condition as shown in Figure 9. An
axisymmetric model is usually used for circular structures with a uniform radial cross section and loading
scheme around the central axis, where the deformation and stress state are assumed to be identical in any
radial direction. In view of the fact that the shape of
the contact area of the proof rolling tire is only about
0.25 m 0.13 m, the axisymmetric assumption is not
a bad choice.
The subsoil is simulated using the Mohr-Coulomb
model while the geogrid layer of the reinforcement
material simply using the elastic tensile model. The
total number of the elements is 423 and the total number of nodes is 3535. In the model, an appropriate
boundary condition is applied at the depth of 5.0 m
and to a total radius of 5.0 m in horizontal direction.
The properties of the subsoil material for the
subgrade are based on the TANEEB site investigation report (1997) as follows: the unit weight
of the aggregate = 20.0 kN/m3 , the Elastic modulus
E = 50,000 kN/m2 , the Poisson ratio = 0.35, the friction angle = 45 . In contrast, the unit weight of the
original silty soil = 19.1 kN/m3 , the Elastic modulus
E = 5,000 kN/m2 , the Poisson ratio = 0.3. The friction angle = 0 , while the unconfined compression
strength cu = 50 kN/m2 . On the other hand, the drained
friction angle = 27 from the CU test. The engineering
material properties of the subgrade structure used in
the PLAXIS analysis program are listed in Table 1.
The first example is to simulate the proof rolling test
with the original silt as the subgrade material. It can be
done using the same model as in Figure 9 by setting the
aggregate layer to be the same material properties as
the original silty soil. The geosynthetic reinforcement
is deactivated for this case. From the result of computer

240

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(a) Placing the nonwoven layer

(b) Placing the geogrid layer

(c) Refill aggregate material

(d) Compaction work

(e) Typical cross-section

(f) Checking the reinforcement

Figure 8. The whole sequence of the test plan.

simulation, we can not get any information because


of the soil elements are failed before the simulation
process ended. That is to say, the computer simulation
of this case can not pass the proof rolling test.
The second example is to simulate the designed profile provided by the TANEEB. We replace the subsoil

from the original silty soil by an aggregate layer to


the depth of 75 cm. The geosynthetic reinforcement is
also deactivated for this case. The failure mechanism
is kind of different with the first example because of
the contribution from the aggregate layer. However,
from the result of computer simulation, we still can

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 9. FEM mesh for the typical subgrade structure


under proof rolling.

Figure 10. Predicted deformed mesh of the geosynthetic


reinforced subgrade.

Table 1.

Table 2.

Parameter
Material
model
Soil Unit
weight
Youngs
modulus
Poissons
ratio
Cohesion
Friction
angle

Material properties of the subgrade structure.

Name
Model

Aggregate
MohrCoulomb
20.0

Original
Silt
MohrCoulomb
19.1

Unit
Proof rolling
performance

kN/m3

Failure
condition
Max.
settlement

50000

5000

kN/m

0.35

0.3

0
45

50(0)
0(27)

Original
silty soil
subgrade

Replacing
aggregate
to the depth
of 75 cm

Geosynthetic
reinforced
subgrade

Yes

Yes

No

7.82 cm

4.48 cm

3.54 cm

kN/m2

not get any information because of the soil elements


are failed again. The computer simulation of this case
can not pass the proof rolling test, either.
The third and final example is to simulate the proposed geosynthetic reinforced subgrade by this study
with a typical aggregate layer to the depth of 50 cm.
The geosynthetic reinforcement is a slender object
with a normal stiffness for tension but with no bending stiffness. To be more precise, reinforcements can
only sustain tensile forces and no compression. In
the PLAXIS finite element computer program, the
geosynthetic reinforcements are modelled individually as Geotextile elements. The only material property
of the Geotextile element is elastic axial stiffness EA
entered in units of force per unit width. The material property of geosynthetic reinforcement used for
the present case, based on the test conducted in the
laboratory formerly, EA = 6000 kN/m.
The predicted deformations of the geosynthetic
reinforced subgrade structure by the PLAXIS finite
element program can be seen in Figures 10. The
maximum settlement caused by the proof rolling load

is 3.54 cm in the case. The reason for this successful alternative can be attributed to the important role
of the geosynthetic reinforcement playing. The soft
and weak subsoil is dramatically strengthen by the
geosynthetic reinforcement, which is an exciting new
engineered material emerging for the civil engineering
community.
As a final point, we can pull together the predicted
results from finite element analysis for the three examples in Table 2. From Table 2, we can easily know that
the outstanding performance of using the proposed
geosynthetic reinforced subgrade by comparing the
amount of maximum settlement as well as the failure
conditions for the three examples.
5

CONCLUSION

This paper deals with a practical problem we encountered in constructing expressway at the location with
soft and weak silt layers underneath. Even the designers have detected this situation and taken extra consideration in advance, the site construction work can
still be more difficult than expectation. The original
designed drawing maybe become an unsuitable and
dissatisfied one. Extraordinary care needs to be taken

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Summarized FEM results of the three examples.

to find the solution for avoiding the contract problems


and to assure the progress of the construction work.
The geosynthetic reinforced subgrade is proposed
by the contractor for reducing the extra expense of
the aggregate material. The geosynthetic reinforcement provides evidence having the greatest potential
for a beneficial application in soft subgrade layers by
conducting a full scale test in the construction site. The
test program executed in this study concludes that the
technique of applying the geosynthetic reinforcement
can easily reach the construction specification of the
subgrade structure. The performances of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade with different thickness of
the aggregate material give the idea that an aggregate
layer of 4050 cm can be a good design.
Finite element method can be used to simulate
the complicated soil-reinforcement interaction and
to explain the mechanical behaviour of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway under the proof
rolling test. In this study, the numerical predictions for
the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade under the proof
rolling test are in great agreement with the test results
obtained in the site. By simply performing parametric
study, FEM can be used to predict the performances
of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade with different
designed cross-section. Thus, FEM can be served as a
useful alternative to some degree for an expensive and
complex test program conducted in the field.

REFERENCES
Chao, S. J. 1998. Engineering Properties of the Soil of the Ilan
Area, Final Report for the National Center for Research
on Earthquake Engineering of Taiwan (in Chinese).
Chou, N. N. S., Chao, S. J., Chang, C. S., and Ni, J. 1991.
FEM Analysis of Staged Construction for a Reinforced
Earth Wall. ASCE Geotechnical Congress, Boulder, Colorado, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 27, Vol. II,
pp. 11981209.
Guler, E. and Hamderi, M., 2002. Fem Analysis of Reinforced Segmental Retaining Walls with Cohesive and
Granular Backfills. Geosynthetics 7 ICG Delmas,
Gourc & Girard (eds), pp. 103106.
Haliburton, T. A., Lawmaster, J. D. and McGuffey, V. C. 1981.
Use of Engineering Fabrics in Transportation Related
Applications, FHWA DTFH61-80-C-00094.
Holtz, R. D., Christopher, B. R. and Berg, R. R. 1995.
Geosynthetic Engineering. Geosynthetic in Roadways.
Taiwan Area National Expressway Engineering Bureau 1997.
Basic Design Phase Evaluation Report of Geo-mechanical
Test and Investigation, Toucheng-Suao Section, TaipeiIlan Expressway (in Chinese).
Wu, L. L. 2003. Design and Performance Analysis of Geosynthetic Applications in Railroad Track Mitigation, Ph. D.
Dissertation, National Cheng-Kung University, Taiwan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The technical assistance and the financial support of
the RESA on this research are gratefully acknowledged.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

A study on dynamic shear modulus ratio and damping ratio of recently


deposited soils for southern region of Jiangsu province along Yangtze
River, China
Guo-Xing Chen, Xue-Zhu Liu, & Ding-Hua Zhu
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing, China

ABSTRACT: The southern region of Jiangsu province along Yangtze River is an economically advanced area
in China. Saturated fine sand, silt and soft soils distribute widely in this region. There is a possibility of soft
settlement or sand liquefaction due to earthquake or intercity passenger train vibration in this region. Considering
the regional character and similarity of depositional environment of soils, this paper analyzes the test results of
378 undisturbed samples on 6 types of recently deposited soils. The mean dynamic shear modulus ratio G/Gmax
and damping ratio D curves are presented along with parameters of G/Gmax curve based on Martin-Davidenkov
model and the empirical formula of D curve recommended by authors. Especially, because of particular structural
characteristics of silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata and sand soils in this region, their dynamic property
distinguishes with that of general sand soils in this study.

INTRODUCTION

The southern region of Jiangsu province alongYangtze


River mainly includes Nanjing, Zhengjiang, Wuxi,
Suzhou and Changzhou cities. As the developed region
of delta plain in the lower reaches of Yangtze River,
it plays an important role in the economic development strategy of coastal areas and the strategy of urban
integrated cooperation in China. The citys infrastructure construction in this area has become the artery
of promoting its economic development. In recent
years, a large number of major projects in the southern
region of Jiangsu province along Yangtze River, such
as Sutong bridge of Yangtze River, 4th Nanjing bridge
of Yangtze River, Taizhou bridge of Yangtze River
and Chongqi across-river bridge etc., are being constructed or projected one after another. In addition, the
programming of Beijing-Shanghai passenger transportation special railroad line with maximal design
speed of 350 km/h and Nanjing-Shanghai intercity
railroad line with maximal design speed of 200 km/h
has already been approved, and those lines will pass
through the whole southern region of Jiangsu province
along Yangtze River. Furthermore, many important
projects including lifeline engineering projects are
being the stage of programming or construction in
this region, such as harbours, docks, the electric power
facilities and the water supply works et al. The sites of
these important engineering projects locate on washland, delta or limnetic facies sediment. Soft soils

distribute widely in this area. Especially, the component of sediments in this region is very complicated,
and the underground water level is close to ground
surface. There is a possibility of soft settlement or
sand liquefaction due to earthquake or intercity passenger train vibration. Even it may cause foundation
failure so that there is a great influence on safety
of engineering structures. In the world, the study on
dynamic characteristic of recently deposited soils is
little. However, the study on dynamic shear modulus
ratio and damping ratio of soils is a fundamental work
for the research of ground earthquake resistant. So,
exploring dynamic shear modulus ratio and damping
ratio of recently deposited soils in the southern region
of Jiangsu province along Yangtze River, the reliable
basic data may be used for the evaluation of seismic
safety for engineering sites and earthquake resistant
analyse of engineering structures.
2

The recently deposited soils formed in medium or


later term of Holocene Epoch. Generally speaking, the
recently deposited soils belong to underconsolidated
soils and its strength is quite lower. With different

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL CONDITION


AND ITS RESEARCH STATUS QUO OF
RECENTLY DEPOSITED SOILS IN THE
SOUTHERN REGION OF JIANGSU
PROVINCE ALONG YANGTZE RIVER

T13 T9 T12 C16 C39 C10 C8 T16 C51 C4 C31 C30 C50 C40 C85 T23 T22 T5

10

IV

IV
TS

20

Drilling depth(m)

III
30
40
50

II

60
70

80
90
1

2
8

3
9

4
10

5
11

6
12

7
13

Figure 1. Typical geologic section of the southern region


of Jiangsu province along Yangtze River; 1-gravel sand;
2-sand; 3-silty sand; 4-clayey sand; 5-sandy clay; 6-silty
clay; 7-ooze; 8-clay; 9-peat; 10-stiff mud; 11-plant clastics
and remains; 12-shell; 13-water body; I-revier bed facies;
II-washland-firth facies; III-firthgulf facies; IV-delta facies;
E-shallow sea facies; F-littoral tidal-flat facies; TS- tidal sand
body; L-littoral facies.

depositional environment, the strength of recently


deposited soils differs greatly. As a special type of
soils, there is its special engineering geology characteristic. The southern region of Jiangsu province along
Yangtze River belongs to the delta plain of Yangtze
River or low mountain mound terrain. A great deal of
sediment, carried by Yangtze River, accumulated continuously in this area and formed vast delta plain of
Yangtze River, mainly belonging to the washland sediment ofYangtze River. Water nets and river nets spread
densely in Taihu lake valley. Based on sedimentation,
sedimentary soils of plain in Taihu lake valley are
alluvium or lake sediment. The typical geologic section on recently deposited soils of the southern region
of Jiangsu province along Yangtze River is exhibited
in Figure 1. From the bottom up, sediment strata are
divided into riverbed facies, washland-firth facies and
deltaic facies sediment, including medium sand, fine
sand and sandy clay with horizontal bedding and cross
bedding.
The southern region of Jiangsu province along
Yangtze River locates on the seismic belt of lower
area of Yangtze River and South Huanghai Sea, the
active fault of the seismic belt is also in the active
stage at present and there will be some moderate or
strong earthquakes on the potential seismic source
zone in decades. The engineering geological condition of recently deposited soils exist some differences
and most site soils in this area are recently deposited
loose soft soils. Specially, in the littoral plain and old
lacustrine area, soft plastic soils conceal in superficial layers and are 20 40 meters in thickness,
which belong to typical soft soil sites. In addition, a
hard soil layer of 1 3 meters in thickness locates
in surface of soft soils. Quaternary unconsolidated

sediment widely distributes in the Yangtze delta and


those unconsolidated sediment is mainly fine sand
deposited alternately with clayey soils, with distinct
rhythm. In addition, structural soils, such as silty clay
and fine sand interbedded strata and sand soils, widely
distributes in this region.
Two of the most important parameters in site earthquake response analysis are the shear modulus and
the damping ratio. Moreover, the earthquake resistant design of important engineering projects bases on
design ground motion parameters given by the evaluation of seismic safety for engineering sites in China.
Furthermore, design ground motion parameters of
engineering sites are obtained from seismic response
analysis of sites. So, rationality of these parameters
or not will directly effect on safety and economical
efficiency of projects.
Through lots of experimental investigation on
dynamic shear modulus and damping of various soils
coming from different areas, researchers in the world
achieved many significant results. According to the
analysis of the test results for soil samples including
clay, silty clay, silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata etc. six sorts of recently deposited soils
in the Nanjing and its neighboring cites, such as
Wuxi, Suzhou, Changzhou, Zhenjiang, Yancheng and
Hangzhou cities etc., the effect of confined pressure,
shear strain and soil structure property on the dynamic
shear modulus and damping ratio were preliminarily
investigated (Chen guoxing et al. 2004). In addition,
based on the test results of 275 undisturbed samples from 15 cities in Jiangsu province (184 samples
of 7 cities in the south of Yangtze River, 91 samples of 8 cities in the north of Yangtze River), the
basic regularity of between the dynamic shear modulus and damping ratio with shear strain amplitude was
present (Chen guoxing et al. 2005), and the authors
mentioned that for attempting to provide nationwide
curves of dynamic shear modulus ratio, G/Gmax , and
damping ratio, D, versus shear strain amplitude for
various soils, only through the limited test data, its
representation and creditability ought to be deliberate.
As a whole, through large numbers of experimental investigation, the regional mean curves of G/Gmax
and D versus shear strain amplitude on various
soils should be more credible and referenced. So,
according to the test data of 120 undisturbed samples in Nanjing city and 155 undisturbed samples in
Zhengjiang, Wuxi, Suzhou and Changzhou city, Chen
guoxing et al. (2005) and Liu xuezhu et al. (2006)
provided the mean curves of dynamic shear modulus
ratio, G/Gmax , and damping ratio, D, versus shear strain
amplitude for various recently deposited soils in
two regions mentioned above, respectively. However,
comparing the research findings of two regions mentioned above, authors found that there werent obvious
difference on their dynamic shear modulus ratio and

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1. Location of recently deposited soil samples from southern region of Jiangsu province along
Yangtze River.
Soils
Cities

Mucky
silty clay

Clay

Silty
clay

Silty clay and fine


sand interbedded strata

Silt

Sand
soil

Nanjing
Zhenjiang
Changzhou
Wuxi
Suzhou

14
12
9
9
8

6
8
5
9

54
18
11
14
28

19
7

5
8

17
6
6
4
12

15
13
11
12
25

Amount
378

Table 2. Fitting values of parameters for recently deposited soils in southern region of Jiangsu province
along Yangtze River.
Soils

Clay
Mucky silty clay
Silty clay
Silty clay and fine sand
interbedded strata
Silt
Sand soil

Model parameters
A

0 (104 )

D0 (%)

Dmin (%)

Amount

1.17
1.13
1.08
1.03

0.43
0.44
0.46
0.47

3.1
2.7
3.0
3.0

0.94
1.04
1.09
1.35

17.5
19.1
18.4
21.1

1.83
1.40
1.91
1.35

28
52
125
39

1.01
0.93

0.47
0.50

3.4
4.1

1.10
1.29

18.5
21.5

0.94
1.15

45
89

damping ratio because of the similarity of depositional environment of soils in the southern region of
Jiangsu province along Yangtze River. Based on this
finding, through supplementing the test data of 103
samples in the southern region of Jiangsu province
alongYangtze River, this paper analyzes the test results
of 378 undisturbed samples once again and provides
the recommended values of mean curves on dynamic
shear modulus ratio, G/Gmax , and damping ratio, D,
versus shear strain amplitude of the 6 types of
recently deposited soils. The quantities of homogeneous soil samples are larger so that test results in this
paper are more representative, regional and applied
value for engineering practice. Those results have been
applied in the evaluation of seismic safety for sites
of across-river bridges, subways, tunnels and electric establishments in the southern region of Jiangsu
province along Yangtze River.
3 THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA OF DYNAMIC
SHEAR MODULUS RATIO AND DAMPING
RATIO ON RECENTLY DEPOSITED SOILS
The relationship of dynamic shear modulus ratio versus the amplitude of shear strain is expressed using
Martin-Davidenkov model:
G/Gmax = 1 H ( )
"
#A
( /0 )2B
H ( ) =
1 + ( /0 )2B

(1)
(2)

where A, B and 0 are fitting parameters related with


soil behaviour.
The damping ratio of soils, D, varies with shear
strain amplitude . The empirical equation of damping
ratio is recommended in this paper as follows
D = Dmin + D0 (1 G/Gmax )n

Where n and D0 are fitting parameters related with soil


behaviour. Dmin is the minimum damping ratio relative
to the initial dynamic shear modulus Gmax .
Those tests were operated with self-developed free
vibration column test machine (Chen guoxing et al.,
2003). Undisturbed samples of recently deposited soils
came from the southern region of Jiangsu province
along Yangtze River, such as Nanjing, Zhenjiang,
Changzhou, Wuxi and Suzhou, including mucky silty
clay, clay, silty clay, silty clay and fine sand interbedded
strata, silt and sand soils. The amount and distribution
of soil samples are listed in Table 1.
4 THE ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS ON
DYNAMIC SHEAR MODULUS RATIO AND
DAMPING RATIO
The recommended values of model parameters on
mean curves of dynamic shear modulus ratio and
damping ratio versus shear strain amplitude are shown
in Table 2. The value of model parameter A has a tendency to increase with clay content of soil increasing,
but the regularity of model parameter B is inverse.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(3)

Table 3. Recommended values and standard deviation of G/Gmax and D versus curves on recently deposited soils for
southern region of Jiangsu Province along Yangtze River.
Shear strain amplitude (104 )
Soils

Parameter

0.05

0.1

0.5

10

50

100

Mucky silty clay

G/Gmax

D (%)
(%)
G/Gmax

D (%)
(%)
G/Gmax

D (%)
(%)
G/Gmax

D (%)
(%)
G/Gmax

D (%)
(%)
G/Gmax

D (%)
(%)

0.9817
0.0080
1.71
0.47
0.9848
0.0022
2.17
0.34
0.9833
0.0065
2.13
0.51
0.9814
0.0078
1.25
0.50
0.9821
0.0075
1.12
0.37
0.9836
0.0079
1.25
0.50

0.9645
0.0138
2.00
0.54
0.9702
0.0039
2.47
0.45
0.9675
0.0108
2.35
0.60
0.9644
0.0129
1.39
0.65
0.9661
0.0124
1.35
0.52
0.9691
0.0123
1.40
0.58

0.8160
0.0403
4.07
1.12
0.8722
0.0122
4.35
0.94
0.8606
0.0300
4.05
1.10
0.8519
0.0338
2.75
1.26
0.8661
0.0352
3.01
1.17
0.8730
0.0300
2.65
1.04

0.7489
0.0549
6.02
1.45
0.7799
0.0179
6.06
1.19
0.7599
0.0405
5.80
1.36
0.7478
0.0444
4.42
1.54
0.7630
0.0489
4.70
1.49
0.7802
0.0394
4.20
1.36

0.4042
0.0613
12.75
1.52
0.4485
0.0262
11.86
1.43
0.4081
0.0483
12.35
1.54
0.3911
0.0487
11.90
1.65
0.4135
0.0630
11.20
1.69
0.4270

11.64

0.2667

15.45

0.3053

14.29

0.2653

15.10

0.2502

15.40

0.2685

14.00

0.2735

15.39

0.0801

19.25

0.0974

17.76

0.0753

18.85

0.0682

20.25

0.0747

17.89

0.0707

20.70

0.0451

19.94

0.0559

18.45

0.0412

19.55

0.0368

21.10

0.0404

18.60

0.0367

21.65

Clay

Silty clay

Silty clay and


fine sand
interbedded strata
Silt

Sand soil

: Standard deviation

G/Gmax and D versus curves


1

0.5

0.4

Mean Curve of Silty Clay


Mean Curve of Silty Clay and Fine Sand
Interbedded Strata

0.6

0.3

0.4

0.2

0
1.00E-06

0.1

0.2

0.0
1.00E-05

1.00E-04

1.00E-03

1.00E-02

1.00E-01

Figure 2. Comparison of the mean curves of dynamic shear


modulus ratio and damping ratio versus shear strain amplitude on silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata with those
of silty clay.

above fall between the mean curve and upper boundary


curve for sands proposed by Seed and Idriss (1970),
and the mean values for G/Gmax versus curve of silty
clay and fine sand interbedded strata soil are lower
than those of sand soils. In addition, the mean D versus curves of two soils are almost overlap and fall
near or somewhat below the mean curve of sands proposed by Seed and Idriss (1970). Consequently, for
the southern region of Jiangsu province along Yangtze

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Test Data for Silty Clay and FineSand


Interbedded Strata
TestData for Silty Clay

0.8

G/G max

However, other model parameters have little regularity. For the applied purpose of engineering, the mean
values and standard deviation of the G/Gmax and D
versus on six types of recently deposited soils in
the southern region of Jiangsu province along Yangtze
River are listed in Table 3.
In the southern region of Jiangsu province along
Yangtze River, the silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata soil is a structural soil, and the sand soil is
composed of flaky particle, which differs from general quartz sand. So, the mean G/Gmax and D versus
curves of silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata
soil are compared with that of silty clay in Figure 2.
Figure 2 indicates that the fitting results on G/Gmax
and D versus curves are quite perfection under small
strain range. The mean G/Gmax versus curve of silty
clay and fine sand interbedded strata soil is close to
that of silty clay. But the mean values for D versus
curve of silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata soil
are lower than those of silty clay at 8 104 , and
higher than those of silty clay at >8104 . Similarly,
for the comparison purposes, the mean G/Gmax and D
versus curves of silty clay and fine sand interbedded
strata soil, sand soil and those of sands proposed by
Seed and Idriss (1970) are shown in Figure 3. The
mean G/Gmax versus curves of two soils mentioned

0.5

0.6

0.4

0.3

Range and meancurve of data


for Seed and Idriss(1970)

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.1

0
1.00E-06

1.00E-05

1.00E-04

1.00E-03

1.00E-02

Mean Curve for Silty Clay and Fine


Sand Interbedded Strata

0.8

G/Gmax

G/Gmax

MeanCurve for Sand Soil

Mean Curve for Slity Clay and Fine


Sand Interbedded Strata

0.8

0.5

Mean Curve for Sand Soil

0.0
1.00E-01

0.6

0.4

0.3

Range and mean curve of data


for Seed and Idriss (1970)

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.1

0
1.00E-06

1.00E-05

1.00E-04

1.00E-03

(a) Dynamic shear modulus

(b) Damping

1.00E-02

0.0
1.00E-0

Figure 3. Comparison of the mean curves of dynamic shear modulus ratio G/Gmax and Damping D versus shear strain
amplitude on silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata with those of sand soils in the southern region of Jiangsu Province
along Yangtze River, China.

Test Data
Mean Curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds

G/Gmax

0.8

0.4

0.3

0.6

D
0.4

0.2

0.2

0.1

0
1.00E-061

0.0

1.00E-05

1.00E-04

1.00E-03

1.00E-02

0.5

0.5

G/Gmax

Test Data
Mean Curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds

0.8

0.4

0.6

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.1

0
1.00E-06

1.00E-0

0.0
1.00E-05

1.00E-04

0.8

0.4

0.8

0.6

0.3

G/Gmax

Test Data
Mean Curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds

D
0.2

0.4

G/Gmax

0.5

0.1

0.2

1.00E-03

1.00E-02

0.4

0.2

0.1

0
1.00E-06

1.00E-0

0.0
1.00E-05

1.00E-04

0.5

0.8

0.4

0.6

0.3

D
0.2

0.4

G/Gmax

G/Gmax

1.00E-02

1.00E-01

Test Data
Mean Curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds

0.1

0.2

1.00E-03

1.00E-02

Test Data
Mean curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds

0.4

0.6

0.3

0.4

0.2

0
1.00E-06

1.00E-01

0.5

0.8

0.1

0.2

0.0
1.00E-04

1.00E-03

(d) Silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata

1.00E-05

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.0
1.00E-04

0.5
Test Data
Mean Curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds

0.6

(c) Silty clay

0
1.00E-06

1.00E-01

1.00E-05

1.00E-02

(b) Mucky silty clay

(a) Clay

0
1.00E-061

1.00E-03

0.0

1.00E-05

1.00E-04

1.00E-03

1.00E-02

1.00E-01

(f) Sand soil

(e) Silt

Figure 4. Mean curves and one standard deviation bounds of shear modulus ratio and Damping versus shear strain amplitude
on recently deposited soils in the southern region of Jiangsu Province along Yangtze River, China.

249

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

River, the mean G/Gmax versus curve of silty clay


and fine sand interbedded strata soil is close to that of
silty clay, but its mean D versus curve approaches
that of sand soil. The mean values for G/Gmax versus
curve of sand soil in this region are higher than those
of general sand. Moreover, this paper also provided the
mean G/Gmax , D versus curves and one standard
deviation bounds on six types of recently deposited
soils in the southern region of Jiangsu province along
Yangtze River, as shown in Figure 4.
5

CONCLUSION

Based on the free vibration column test results of 378


undisturbed soil samples of recently deposited soils
coming from the southern region of Jiangsu province
along Yangtze River, China, the mean G/Gmax and D
versus curves on six types of recently deposited soils
are suggested by means of Martin-Davidenkov model
and empirical equation of damping ratio recommended
by authors. Moreover, for the applied purpose of engineering, the mean values and standard deviation of
the G/Gmax and D versus on six types of recently
deposited soils are presented.
The value of Martin-Davidenkov model parameter A has a tendency to increase with clay content
increasing, but the regularity of model parameter B
is inverse.
For the southern region of Jiangsu province along
Yangtze River, China, the mean G/Gmax versus curve
of silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata soil is
close to that of silty clay, but its mean D versus
curve approaches that of sand soil. The mean values
for G/Gmax versus curve of sand soil in this region
are higher than those of general sand.
Based on the depositional environment similarity
of soils, the research findings will make us understand
more dynamic characters of various recently deposited
soils in the southern region of Jiangsu province along
Yangtze River, China.

Chen Guo-xing, Xie Junfei, Zhang Ke-xu. 1995. The empirical of soil modulus and damping ratio for dynamic analysis. Earthquake engineering and engineering vibration.
Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 7384.
Chen Guo-xing, Liu Xue-zhu, Zhu Ding-hua, et al. 2006. The
experimental study on dynamic shear modulus ratio and
damping ratio of recently deposited soils in Nanjing city.
Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 28,
No. 8 (In press)
Chen Guo-xing, Zhu Ding-hua, He Qi-zhi. 2003. Development and property test of GZZ-1 free vibration column
test system. Earthquake engineering and the engineering
vibration, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 110114
Guoxing Chen, Jihua Chen, Xuezhu Liu, et al. 2005. Experimental study on dynamic shear modulus ratio and damping ratio of recently deposited soils in the lower reaches
of the Yangtze river. Journal of Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation Engineering. Vol. 25, No. 1 pp. 4957
Hardin B.O., Drnevich V.P. 1972. Shear modulus and damping in soils design equations and curves. Journal of Soil
Mechanics and Foundation. ASCE, Vol. 98, No. SM7,
pp. 603642.
Liu Xue-zhu, Chen Guo-xing, Zhu Ding-hua, et al. 2006.
Dynamic shear modulus ratio and damping ratio of
recently deposited soils in southern area of Jiangsu
province: experimental study. Journal of natural disasters,
Vol.15, No. 3, pp. 116122
Martin P.P., Seed H.B. 1982. One dimensional dynamic
ground response analysis. Journal of geotechnical engineering. ASCE, Vol. 108, No. GT7, pp. 935954.
Wang Gui-you, Pu Wei-bin, Chen Yang. 2002. Seismic
active character before the four mid-strong earthquakes
in the earthquake zone of the south of Changjinag middownstream reach and south Yellow Sea. Seismological
and Geomagnetic Observation and Research, Vol. 23,
No. 3, pp. 3945
Yuan Ren-mao, Sun Hong-wei, Ma Feng-shan, et al. 2005.
Physicochemical and geotechnical characteristic of the
recently deposited soil in Beijing plain region. Quaternary
investigation, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 9399
Yuan Xiao-ming, Sun Rui, Sun Jing, et al. 2000. Laboratory experimental study on dynamic shear modulus ratio
and damping ratio of soil. Earthquake engineering and
engineering vibration, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 133139.
Zhu Long-gen, Xu Cun-sen. 1993. Resonant column device
and its engineering application.Dam observation and
geotechnic testing, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 3237.

REFERENCES
Chen Guo-xing, Liu Xue-zhu. 2004. Testing study on ratio of
dynamic shear modulus and ratio of damping for recently
deposited soils in Nanjing and its neighboring areas. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 23,
No. 8, pp. 14031410.

250

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Investigations on improvement of soft ground treated by various vertical


drains under embankment on soft clay foundation
Ha Ik Chung & Jun Yu
Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Korea

ABSTRACT: A field test site was constructed to evaluate the performance of vertical drains for soft ground
improvement. The test site was heavily instrumented, and good performance data were obtained. Various vertical
drains such as paper drains, pack drains and menard drains were installed with different type and spacing at this
test site. Settlement and lateral displacement in clay foundation treated with paper drains, pack drains and menard
drains during and after embankment construction have been analysed. The relationship between settlement and
lateral displacement of the soft ground at the test site was investigated. It presents an analysis of the settlement
and lateral displacement data recorded, with conclusions regarding the practical effectiveness of the vertical
paper drains, pack drains and menard drains installed. The vertical settlement and lateral displacements were
evaluated using the field test data from instrumentation of settlement plates, extensometers and inclinometers.
The correlation between settlement and lateral displacement was obtained. The improvement of soft ground
treated by vertical drain under embankment on soft clay foundation was investigated.

INTRODUCTION

This study is concerned with the soft ground improvement by paper, pack and menard drains at full-scale
trial field test site at Yangsan area in Korea. The location of trial field test site is shown in Figure 1. A
comprehensive array of 3 embankment was built in the
same field test site with 3 different ground improvement techniques to assess the relative efficiency of
various vertical drain schemes. A typical plan view
of test site is shown in Figure 2. The test site is divided
into 3 sections such as paper drain section, pack drain
section, and menard drain section. This study provides
a means of evaluating the effectiveness of vertical
1.4m*1.4m
men - 2
1.6m*1.6m
men - 3

1.0m*1.0m

1.6m*1.6m

men - 1

pac - 2

pac - 1

1.2m*1.2m

2.0m*2.0m

1.2m*1.2m

Menard Drains
D

0.8m*0.8m

pac - 3

men - 4

pac - 4

Pack Drains
C

1.0m*1.0m 1.0m*1.0m

1.0m*1.0m

1.0m*1.0m

pap - 4

pap - 3

pap - 2

pap - 1

1.5m*1.5m

1.5m*1.5m

1.5m*1.5m

1.5m*1.5m

pap - 5

pap - 6

pap - 7

pap - 8

Paper Drains

Figure 1. Typical plan view of trial field test site.

drains in improving soft ground subjected to embankment loading. The depth of soft ground is 30 m, and
the depth of vertical drains installed in soft ground is
25 m. The vertical drains were not installed from 25 m
below the ground level to the bottom of the soft clay
layer. Thus, the depth of upper 5 m at the bottom of the
soft clay layer was untreated by vertical drains. The
embankment fill consisted of a granitic residual soil
compacted to a unit weight of 17 kN/m3 . The drain
parameters relevant for the measurement and analysis
are summarised as follows; drain pattern: rectangular, drain length: 25 m, drain spacing: paper
drains(1.0 m, 1.5 m), pack drains(0.8 m, 1.2 m, 1.4 m,
1.6 m), menard drains(1.0 m, 1.2 m, 1.4 m, 1.6 m).

2.1 Settlement and lateral displacement of subsoil


In order to obtain continuous settlement and lateral displacement distribution curves across the embankment
and to prevent disturbance of the construction work,
the profile settlement gauge and inclinometer was used
in this site. Representative example of vertical settlement and lateral displacement measurements with
construction sequence for pack drain is shown in
Figure 2. The magnitude of vertical settlement and

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

FIELD MEASUREMENTS

Horizontal displacement (mm) -pap1

First Loading (5m)


40
30
6

3.9

20
10

Ym

*
9
1
.
=0

Ym = 0.02*+ 17.06

0
0

50

100 150 200 250 300 350


Vertical diplacement (mm) -pap1

400

First Loading (5m)


40
Ym = 8.94*+ 26.98

0.4
5

30
Y
m=
0.2 *
4

Horizontal displacement (mm)-pac2

(a) Paper drain

20
10
0
0

50

100 150 200 250 300 350


Vertical displacement (mm) -pac1

400

Horizontal displacement (cm)-Men2

(b) Pack drain

Figure 2. Representative example of vertical and lateral


displacement measurement.

lateral displacement are increased with construction


sequence and the time elapsed (Indraratna etc., 1992).
Figure 3 presents the variations of the maximum
lateral displacement m with the settlements S for the
typical case of paper, pack, and menard drains. In
the early stages of the loading, the lateral displacements are much smaller than the settlements. And
we can recognise the lateral displacements develop
much more slowly than the settlements (Hartlen etc.,
1996). This conclusion can also be applied to stageconstructed embankments. The relationships of settlement and lateral displacement can be expressed in
terms of m = f (S), since the settlements s and lateral
displacement m are also variably affected by the duration of construction (Tavenas etc., 1980). If all case
histories presented in Table 1 are considered, the total
average m = f (S) for paper, pack, and menard drains
are m = 0.24S 2.16 during the periods of embankment construction and m = 0.03S + 20.84 during the
periods of consolidation after embankment.
2.2

Strength increase of subsoil

Consolidation following the first and second stage


of embankment construction leads to an increase

30
.55

3
*
8
0.1

20

Ym

10

Ym = 0.01*+ 25.39

0
0

50

100 150 200 250 300 350 400


Vertical displacement (cm) -Men1
(c) Menard drain

Figure 3. Variations of the maximum lateral displacement


m with the settlements S.

in vertical effective stress and increase in the


strength of subsoil (Leroueil etc., 1987; 1990). Several investigations have been carried out to observe
the strength increase during and after embankment.
The undrained strength-deformation behaviour of soils
under the loaded area during stage construction can be
simulated by use various types of field and laboratory
tests. The relationships between the strength of subsoil
beneath the embankment and plastic index, vertical
effective stress, and water content are presented in
Figure 4.5 and 6.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

First Loading (5m)


40

Table 1.

Summary of the relationships of settlement and lateral displacement.


Equation

Drains Method

During the 1st


Embankment

During
Consolidation

Paper Drains

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Ave.

m = 0.19S 3.96
m = 0.19S 3.93
m = 0.24S 2.85
m = 0.2S 2.08
m = 0.2S 1.67
m = 0.21S 0.18
m = 0.1S + 0.49
m = 0.13S 2.18
m = 0.14S 3.45
m = 0.14S 2.68
m = 0.28S 5.42
m = 0.29S 4.31
m = 0.27S 6.78
m = 0.28S 6.15
m = 0.22S 3.5
m = 0.19S 3.18
m = 0.20S 3.24

m = 0.02S + 17.06
m = 0.02S + 17.02
m = 0.09S + 21.1
m = 0.03S + 20.77
m = 0.03S + 21.26
m = 0.04S + 21.02
m = 0.01S + 10.73
m = 0.02S + 10.78
m = 0.06S + 5.7
m = 0.05S + 6.21
m = 0.04S + 22.26
m = 0.04S + 22.5
m = 0.05S + 17.88
m = 0.05S + 18.25
m = 0.01S + 19.8
m = 0.01S + 19.57
m = 0.04S + 17.01

Pack Drains

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ave.

m = 0.19S 6.1
m = 0.17S 2.78
m = 0.19S 1.48
m = 0.18S 3.55
m = 0.22S + 1.03
m = 0.18S 0.18
m = 0.19S 3.4
m = 0.32S 0.16
m = 0.19S 2.08

m = 0.01S + 18.02
m = 0.01S + 18.14
m = 0.01S + 25.48
m = 0.01S + 25.39
m = 0.01S + 21.70
m = 0.01S + 21.49
m = 0.01S + 21.98
m = 0.01S + 22.35
m = 0.01S + 21.82

Menard Drains

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ave.

m = 0.03S + 2.09
m = 0.03S + 2.09
m = 0.36S 3.07
m = 0.24S 0.45
m = 0.66S 1.02
m = 0.65S 7.62
m = 0.3S 2.04
m = 0.34S 0.69
m = 0.33S 1.17

m = 0.08S 3.36
m = 0.08S 3.36
m = 0.01S + 27.46
m = 0.01S + 26.98
m = 0.03S + 43.65
m = 0.03S + 43.3
m = 0.01S + 27.35
m = 0.01S + 27.45
m = 0.03S + 23.68

Total Ave.

During the 1st Embankment:


m = 0.24S 2.16
During Consolidation after 1st Embankment:
m = 0.03S + 20.84

Some researchers and designers have suggested that


the relationships such as Su /v = f (PI), Su /v = C, and
Su /v = f (wn ) can be used to estimate the strength
increase of subsoil. In this study, the relationships of
strength increases such as Su /v = f (PI), Su /v = C,
and Su /v = f (wn ) with construction sequence are suggested in Table 2. The shear strength increase due
to consolidation under the applied load of the stage
embankment can be estimated according to equation
presented in Table 2. We can obtain the equations
to predicting the strength increase with construction

stages from this figure. Thus, following equations


are drawn; Su /v = 0.188 + 0.003PI for Su = cu and
Su /v = 0.257 + 0.0009PI for Su = qu /2 in relations of
strength and plastic index, Su /v = 0.25 for Su = cu
and Su /v = 0.27 for Su = qu /2 in relations of strength
and effective vertical stress, and Su /v = 0.005wn for
Su = cu and Su /v = 0.0049wn for Su = qu /2 in relations of strength and water content. Where, PI, C,
Su , qu and wn represent plastic index, constant, shear
strength, unconfined compressive strength, and natural
water content, respectively.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.8

0.4

Original
ground
After drain
installation

0.6

After 1st
embankment

Su(=cu)/ v'

0.6
Su(=qu/2)/v'

0.8

Original
ground
After drain
installation
After 1st
embankment
After 2nd
embankment

After 2nd
embankment

0.4

0.2

0.2

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

10

20

Plastic index (PI, %)

30

40

50

Plastic index (PI, %)

(a) Su = qu/2

(b) Su = cu

Figure 4. Relations of strength plastic index.


0.8

0.8

After drain
installation

0.6

After 1st
embankment
After 2nd
embankment

0.4

After drain
installation

0.6
Su(=cu)/v'

Su(=qu/2)/v'

Original
ground

Original
ground

After 1st
embankment
After 2nd
embankment

0.4

0.2

0.2

0
25

50

75

100

25

50

75

100

Water Content (Wn, %)


(b) Su = cu

Water Content (Wn, %)


(a) Su = qu/2Su = qu/2

Figure 5. Relations of strength water content.


0.8

0.8
Original
ground
After drain
installation
After 1st
embankment
After 2nd
embankment

0.4

0.6
Su(=cu, kg/cm2)

Su(=qu/2, kg/cm )

0.6

Original
ground
After drain
installation
After 1st
embankment
After 2nd
embankment

0.2

0.4

0.2

0
0

v' (kg/cm )
(a) Su = qu/2

Figure 6. Relations of strength effective vertical stress.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2
v' (kg/cm2)
(b) Su = cu

Table 2.

Summary of equations of strength increase of clay foundation layer.


Equation suggested

Item

Construction sequence

Su = cu

Su = qu /2

Su /v = + PI

Initial condition
After drain Installation
After 1st Embankment
After 2nd Embankment
Average
Initial condition
After drain Installation
After 1st Embankment
After 2nd Embankment
Average
Initial condition
After drain Installation
After 1st Embankment
After 2nd Embankment
Average

0.13 + 0.0052PI
0.03+0.0087PI
0.198 + 0.001PI
0.2 0.001PI
0.188 + 0.003PI
0.19
0.22
0.33
0.25
0.26
0.01 wn
0.01 wn
0.007 wn
0.009 wn
0.005 wn

0.13 + 0.0052PI
0.15 + 0.015PI
0.12 + 0.001PI
0.19 0.0001PI
0.257 0.0009PI
0.19
0.16
0.24
0.27
0.25
0.01 wn
0.009 wn
0.007 wn
0.008 wn
0.0049

Su /c = C

Su /v = wn

REFERENCES

CONCLUSIONS

1) The total average lateral displacement m = f (S) for


paper, pack, and menard drains are m = 0.24S 2.16
during the periods of embankment construction and
m = 0.03S + 20.84 during the periods of consolidation after embankment.
2) The equations to predicting the strength increase
with construction stages were obtained as follows. Su /v = 0.188 + 0.003PI for Su = cu and
Su /v = 0.257 + 0.0009PI for Su = qu /2 in relations of strength and plastic index, Su /v = 0.25
for Su = cu and Su /v = 0.27 for Su = qu /2 in relations of strength and effective vertical stress, and
Su /v = 0.005wn for Su = cu and Su /v = 0.0049wn
for Su = qu /2 in relations of strength and water
content.

Hartlen, J., Wolski, W. 1996. Embankments on Organic Soils.


Elsvier.
Indrartna, B., Balasubramaniam, A. S., and Balachandran,
S. 1992. Performance of test embankment constructed to
failure on soft marine clay. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, 118, No.1: 1233.
Leroueil, S., Kabbaj, M. 1987. Discussion Settlement analysis of embankments on soft clay by Mesri and choi.
ASCE, 113, GT9: 10671070.
Tavenas, F., Leroueil, S. 1980.The behaviour of embankments
on soft clay foundation. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
17: 236260.
Leroueil S., Magnan J-P., Tavenas, F. 1990. Embankments on
the soft clays. Ellis Horwood.

255

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Static and seismic stability of geogrid reinforced-soil segmental


bridge abutments constructed on soft-soil
K. Fakharian & I.H. Attar
Dep. of Civil & Env. Eng., Amirkabir Univ. of Technology, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of a finite difference analysis on a special geosynthetic reinforced soil segmental retaining wall under surcharge loading referred to as a segmental bridge abutment,
both during static serviceability and also subjected to seismic loading with special emphasis on the magnitude of soft bed-soil cohesion. FLAC2D with the FISH programming option of it is used for implementing
the desired model for the numerical analysis. An elastic nonlinear model is used up to the failure (peak), after
which a Mohr-Coulomb softening model is used for plastic behaviour for both static and seismic conditions.
The Duncan Hyperbolic model is used for the nonlinear elastic part under static condition, while the Masing
nonlinear hysteretic loading-unloading rule is used for the nonlinear elastic part under seismic condition. The
reinforced geogrids are modelled by elasto-perfectly plastic cable elements. The slip limit of geogrid reinforcements are determined by some factors such as the confining stresses, perimeter, and friction angle around the
geogrid.
After the numerical modelling verification, effect of the magnitude of soft bed-soil cohesion under both static
and seismic conditions is studied on: 1) facing deformation, 2) displacement and rotation of bridge footing,
and 3) the geogrids load distributions. The results show that there exists a critical value for cohesion of the soft
bed-soil. Segmental bridge abutments can not be stable when the bed-soil cohesion is less than the critical value.
This value is not unique, however, and depends on, for example, loading condition (static or seismic). Finally, a
solution is proposed for when the cohesion of the soft bed-soil is less than the critical value.

INTRODUCTION

are studied with respect to variation of the soft bed-soil


cohesion.

Reinforced soil systems to be used as bridge abutments


have advantages such as easy construction, flexibility,
cost-effectiveness, and aesthetically pleasing appearance. Usually, the existence of an appropriate bed-soil
has been assumed to be a requirement for using reinforced soil walls to support the bridge deck load. For
example, Abu-Hejleh et al. (2000) pointed out the
limitation that Firm foundation is needed to minimize anticipated settlement of the reinforced soil
system. But the question is quantification of the
firm foundation which has not been the focus of
the previous studies yet. Most numerical and experimental studies on reinforced soil systems have been
so far carried out with the assumption of a rigid
foundation.
The main objective of this paper is to study the effect
of soft bed-soil condition on the static and seismic
response of segmental bridge abutments. The reinforcement load, horizontal deformation of facing, and
vertical displacement and rotation of the bridge footing

The Founders/Meadows bridge abutment constructed


and completely instrumented in Denver is used for
numerical modelling (Figs. 1 & 2). The model generated by FLAC is shown in Figs. 3 and 4 for static
and seismic analysis, respectively, with slight changes
compared to the prototype, such as changing the facing height from 5.9 to 6.0 m, geogrid element lengths
from 8 to 7.2 m at the base (equivalent to 0.9H) and
removing the soil beside the facing wall. As appropriate drainage system has been installed, no water is
considered in soil. The bridge deck load is substituted
by a 200 kN/m vertical load on the abutment wall.
The initial condition for the seismic analysis is the
static stability of the system, which is maintaining the
initial stresses while resetting all the deformations.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

NUMERICAL MODELLING

model was used for soft bed-soil as well. Hyperbolic


stress-strain equation has been found to be a useful
tool to model the nonlinear stress-strain behavior of
many soils included compacted and non-compacted
as well as granular and non-granular soil prior to failure (Duncan et al., 1980). Instead of the elastic part,
the variable modulus expressed by Duncan hyperbolic
equation is used: (Eq. 1)
 n


Rf (1 sin )(1 3 ) 2
3
E(t) = 1
K Pa
2C cos + 23 sin
Pa

(1)

In which K is the modulus number, n is the modulus


exponent, c is the cohesion,  is angle of internal friction, Rf is failure ratio, and Pa is atmospheric pressure.
Figure 1. Plan view of completed two-span founders/
meadows bridge and approaching roadway structure
(Abu-Hejleh et al., 2000).

Figure 2. Section of the founders/meadows bridge,


arrangement of geogrid reinforcement, drainage facility,
Bridge footing, and Superstructures (Abu-Hejleh et al.,
2000).

The grid is the same throughout static and seismic


analysis, but the boundary conditions and stress-strain
relations are different.
2.1

2.2 Soil dynamic modelling


The non-linear elasto-plastic model used for the static
loading conditions can not be used for soil due to the
hysteretic behaviour of the soil under seismic loading.
The loading/unloading nonlinear hysteretic Massing
rule is instead used for the shear behaviour of soil,
as is described in this section. Therefore, the shear
modulus and damping effects of soil will be more
realistically calculated with respect to the stress-strain
states. This model has previously been used by Cai
and Bathurst (1995) in finite element analysis of segmental retaining walls and also by Fakharian and Attar
(2005) for the seismic response of segmental bridge
abutments. Fakharian and Attar made the comparison
between results of an elasto-plastic type model and a
nonlinear hysteretic model showed that the segmental bridge abutment exhibited more precise response
when subjected to seismic loading.
To overcome this shortcoming of linear or hyperbolic model, using the FISH option of FLAC, the
tangent shear modulus (Gt ) is implemented in the
model using the hysteretic nonlinear Masing rule for
unloading/reloading cycles, as shown in Fig. 5. In such
a model, the shear modulus at each zone is determined
on the basis of stress and strain states that may considerably vary throughout the analysis. The tangent shear
modulus during the first cycle is expressed as:
Gmax
G =


2
max
1 + Gmax
| |

Soil static modelling

The compacted granular materials that commonly are


used in reinforced region of reinforced soil system
normally exhibit nonlinear hardening behavior before
peak and post-peak softening response. To improve the
model results, nonlinear elastic and softening plastic
Mohr-Coulomb model was used for mentioned region
in this study. The nonlinear elastic and perfectly plastic model was used for non-compacted of retaining soil
region that is retained by reinforced soil region and this

where Gmax is the initial shear modulus, max is the


maximum shear stress and is the shear strain. The
tangent shear modulus during unloading/reloading
cycle is:
Gmax
G =

2


Gmax

|
|
1 + 2

r
max

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(2)

(3)

B= 60 m

Interfaceelement

Reinforcement

200 kN/m
7
8
6

H= 8 m

5
5

H= 6 m

Abutment Face

25 m
3

10 m

Bed-soil
Interface elements

Lo=7.2 m=0.9 H

Interface Elements
1: Face/Soil
5: Bridge Footing/Soil

2: Block/Block
3: Face/Bed-Soil
6: Abutment Wall/Bridge Footing 7: Polystyrene/Soil

4: Reinforced Soil/Bed-Soil
8: Abutment Wall/Polystyrene

Figure 3. Numerical grid, interface elements, and boundary conditions for static analysis of segmental bridge abutment.

B=60 m

Interface element

200 kN/m

Reinforcement

Right edge of numerical grid and


free-field transmiting boundary

Non-yielding region

H= 6 m

H= 8 m

Non-yielding region

Abutment Face

25 m

10 m

Bed-soil

Interface elements

free-field transmitting boundary

Base acceleration (Time history as


show in the inset)

Lo=7.2 m=0.9 H

Interface Elements
1: Face/Soil
5: Bridge Footing/Soil

2:Block/Block
3: Face/ Bed-Soil
6:Abutment Wall/Bridge Footing 7: Polystyrene/Soil

4: Reinforced Soil/Bed-Soil
8: Abutment Wall/Polystyrene

Figure 4. Numerical grid, interface elements, and boundary conditions for the seismic analysis of segmental bridge abutment.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 5. Non-linear hysteretic stress-strain model of Granular soil (Cai and Bathurst, 1995).

where (r , r ) represents the stress state at which the


shear stress reverses direction.
The initial dynamic shear modulus of the soil (Gmax )
is calculated by the empirical equation developed by
Seed & Idriss (1970):
 1/2
m
(4)
Gmax = 21.7 K2 max Pa
Pa
in which m is the mean normal stress, Pa is the
atmospheric pressure, and K2max is the shear modulus
constant. The bulk modulus is calculated on the basis
of shear modulus and a poisson ratio of 0.35.
Using the above model for soil, it is no longer
necessary to apply an artificial damping to the soil
zones, and the hysteretic behavior of soil facilitates the
dynamic energy dissipation. In other words, based on
the stress-strain state of each zone, the damping is automatically implemented. Therefore, the error resulted
from considering a constant damping across the soil
and during the analysis will not affect the results.
The granular materials exhibit softening effects in
dense condition, and perfect plastic behavior in loose
condition. A variable frictional angle is then considered for the dense soil which reduces from the
maximum value at zero plastic strain to a given residual value at large plastic strains. The dilatancy angle
of soil is a function of frictional angle and density that
was proposed by Bolton (1986) relation as:
 = r + 0.8(r = 30 )

(5)

Equation 5 was formerly used by Rowe & Ho (1997)


for parametric analysis of reinforced soils.
2.3

Reinforcement modelling

The reinforcing elements are modeled by elastoperfectly plastic cable elements with no compressive
strength, available in FLAC. The injection layer option
around cable elements was used as the interface to
simulate the frictional behavior of soil-geogrid. The

thickness of this layer was assumed zero and friction angle and cohesion were considered 0.75  and
zero, respectively. Considering the assigned perimeter
around the cable element (in our case equivalent to
2 m which is the unit thickness of the wall in plane
strain condition and doubled for above and below
the geogrid effect) and the confining stress (determined by program), the slip limit or failure criterion
is established.
Bathurst and Cai (1994) studies on two geogrids
(PET & HDPE) showed that the geogrid modulus
does not vary with loading rate for practical purposes.
Therefore, an elasto-perfectly plastic assumption in
seismic loading has sufficient accuracy for geogrids.
2.4

Elastic elements are assumed for facing segments and


the bridge footing with interface elements between the
structural elements and soil. Interface elements are
also placed at the contact surface of facing segments
and also at the contact surface between abutment wall
and the horizontal bridge footing. The segment blocks
are having width and height of 0.28 m and 0.20 m,
respectively. The hollow blocks are having a metal
connector to prevent their relative slip and the reinforcing geogrids are attached to them. Cai & Bathurst
(1995) reported that relative slip of segmental blocks
may cause instability of the segments. To account for
the connector in the model, interface elements with
high friction are used to prevent the relative slip, but
with zero tensile strength to allow their rotation.
Due to insufficient vertical stress between the top
few blocks, reinforcing bar and concrete were placed
inside the hollow space of the top 1 m to increase
the stability. The numerical results also indicated such
local instabilities by increasing the earthquake magnitude. In the numerical model, considering the tensile
strength between the top blocks of the unstable zone
contributes to stabilization of the system in that zone.
Superstructure load from the bridge deck is transmitted through a reinforced concrete abutment wall

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Structural components

to a shallow strip footing placed directly on top


of a geogrid-reinforced segmental retaining wall. In
Founders/Meadows abutment, the concrete abutment
wall and shallow strip footing are not inter-connected
and joint exists between them to eliminate the bending
moment. But a kicker on the wall reduces the horizontal movement. To simulate the kicker role, interface
elements with high friction and no tensile strength are
considered at the contact surface.
Interface elements

The interface element of FLAC was used to model


the friction between difference contact surfaces of
soil/soil, soil/concrete and concrete/concrete, as stated
in the former sections and demonstration in Fig. 3. The
shear and normal stiffness of the interface elements
were assigned considering the stiffness of the adjacent
materials as directed by FLAC, and then the desired
friction angle was input. To verify its performance, a
concrete block was modelled on a slope and it was
observed that the block slides when the slope angle
exceeds the friction angle of the interface.

Figure 6. Instrumentation and geometry of retaining wall


under shaking table test (Bathurst et al., 2002).

Outward Displacement (mm)

2.5

2.6 Verification methodology

15
10
5
0
1

3
4
Stage #

Figure 7. Measured and predicted outward disp. of abutment face in elevation of No. 10 geogrid (Fig. 2) against the
construction stages (Fakharian and Attar, 2006).
1
measured
predicted
Static
0.1g
0.2g
0.3g
0.4g

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

0.5

1.5

Load (kN/m)

Figure 8. Measured and predicted connection loads and


horizontal toe loads at difference input base acceleration
amplitudes for shaking table test (Fakharian and Attar, 2006).

2.7 Grid, boundary condition and loading


Geometry, boundary conditions, loading, reinforcements distribution, interface element and the finite
difference grid are all shown in Fig. 3 for static

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Measured
Predicted

20

Elevation (m)

FLAC has been formerly used for reinforced soil walls


successfully both in static and seismic conditions (e.g.
Hatami & Bathurst, 2001; El. Emam et al. 2004),
but the reinforced soil walls used as bridge abutment
are relatively new and no seismic numerical results
are available in literature, and there is also no instrumented physical modeling test result for comparison
purposes. But it is assumed that with the comparison of
the static analysis of bridge abutments with the instrumented prototype and also the dynamic analysis with
the reinforced soil wall physical tests under dynamic
conditions, the numerical modeling of the dynamic
response of the bridge abutment is thus verified.
The static analysis results have shown good agreement with instrumentation results of the Founders/
Meadows bridge (Figures 1 & 2) reported by AbuHejleh et al. (2001). The results of the 1/6 scale shaking
table tests (Fig. 6) on a reinforced wall presented by
Bathurst et al. (2002) are used for seismic verification
of the numerical model. El-Emam et al. (2004) had
used FLAC2D 3.4 for comparison with the above shaking table test results. In this study, however, FLAC2D
4.0 is used applying a nonlinear hysteretic model for
soil instead of linear, considering slip between geogrid
elements and grid (representing soil mass), and using
interface elements instead of a thin layer of soil. Some
sample verification results are shown in Figures 7 and
8 details of which are available in Attar (2004) and
Fakharian and attar (2006).
Good agreement is observed between measured and
predicted results approving the predictions.

25

analysis, and in Fig. 4 for seismic analysis. The backfill width, B, is extended equivalent to 60 m behind the
face wall segments to minimize the effect of cut-off
boundary on the response. Bathurst & Hatami (1998)
conducted a parametric study and realized that by
extending the backfill width more than five times of
the wall height, the effect of boundary will be negligible. Free-field boundary condition is applied to the left
and right vertical edges close to which a non-yielding
zone is used for soil. A 10-m deep soil layer is placed
in one stage as bed-soil; the stage construction is used
in the model for placing each soil layer, block segment, and geogrid. Interface elements are placed at
the joints between bed-soil and reinforced soil mass
and bottom of block segments, enabling the sliding of
the reinforced soil as well as the base of the front face.
After establishing static stability and resetting of
deformations in all components, the nodes at the base
are subjected to a horizontal variable-amplitude harmonic ground motion re-cord illustrated in Fig. 4
(inset). This is a simplification of real earthquake
records.
Bathurst & Hatami (1998) used this record for
parametric seismic analysis of reinforced walls with
geogrid, and is expressed as:
..

u (t) =

k  t
e t sin (2ft)
2

(6)

where: = 5.5, = 55, = 12 are constant coefficient; f = frequency; and t = time; k = Peak amplitude
of the input acceleration assumed as 0.5 g, and the frequency, f = 3 Hz, was selected to represent a typical
predominant frequency of medium- to high-frequency
content earthquakes (inset of Fig. 4). t is time and
varies between 0 and 6 seconds. Equation 1 was implemented in model using the FISH programming of
FLAC and was input as points at time intervals of less
than 0.0008 sec.
3 ANALYSIS RESULTS
3.1

Horizontal displacement of front face

One of the important advantages of reinforced soil


structures during seismic response is their flexibility,
and therefore, more horizontal displacement, compared to less flexible conventional concrete structures.
They may undergo considerable deformations without causing any failure. Therefore, it is necessary to
control their serviceability. Figure 9 presents the normalized horizontal deformation of the abutment facing
due to static and seismic loading for different cohesions of the soft bed-soil. The figure shows that when
the bed-soil is not strong enough, the external instability occurs. Also the figure shows when the cohesion
of bed-soil is less than 30 kPa for static condition,

and 50 kPa for seismic condition, the general rotation


occurs (Fig. 10). Figure 11 illustrates the normalized
maximum horizontal deformation of the abutment facing due to static and seismic loading instead of the
cohesion variation of the bed-soil. This figure shows
when the cohesion of bed-soil is less than 40 kPa,
the horizontal displacement difference between the
static and seismic conditions increases. As mentioned
before, all displacements were reset after the static
analysis, and therefore, the seismic displacements are
induced by seismic excitation only.
3.2 Vertical displacement of the foundation
It is also necessary to control the vertical displacement
and rotation of the abutment foundation. This foundation is in fact a strip footing carrying the deck load to
the reinforced soil, as shown in Figures 2 & 12. Figure 12 shows the normalized displacement profile of
the abutment bottom at the end of the seismic loading for various bed-soil cohesions. It is observed that
the rotation and displacement of the bridge footing is
negligible when the cohesion of the bed-soil is higher
than 30 kPa. For cohesions equivalent to 30 kPa and
below, however, the rotation and displacements dramatically increase. Figure 13 illustrates the normalized
maximum vertical displacement of the bridge footing at the end of static and seismic conditions with
respect to the variation of the bed-soil cohesion. It is
observed that the static displacements are negligible
for all cohesion magnitudes, whereas the seismic displacements are considerable when bed-soil cohesion
is less than 40 kPa.
3.3 Reinforcement tensile load
The maximum reinforcement tensile load controls
the internal stability and the creep of geogrids. Figure 14 illustrates the normalized maximum load of all
geogrids versus variation of the bed-soil cohesion. It is
observed that increase in bed-soil cohesion decreases
the maximum reinforcement load, but the influence is
less important compared to the deformations. Besides,
no critical value for cohesion of bed-soil is observed
as was the case in deformations.
4

The results show that it is possible to construct reinforced bridge abutments on medium soft soils of 30 to
40 kPa and higher, even under the seismic excitations
studied here. The question is what solutions exist for
seismically active zones with very soft to soft soils.
Two alternatives are presently under study by the
authors. One is the ground improvement techniques
such as soil removal and replacement, soil mixing, soil

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

PRELIMINARY RECOMMENDATION

9
Facing self-weight
measured (hinged)
predicted (hinged)
measured (sliding)
predicted (sliding)
measured (hinged)
predicted (hinged)

Load (kN/m)

7
6
5

vertical
horizontal

4
3
2
1
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Peak base acceleration (g)


Figure 9. Measured and predicted horizontal and vertical toe loads at different input base acceleration amplitudes.

6
Load

5
H

Bed-soil

Cohesion=20 kN/m^2 (Dynamic)


30
40
50
60
Datum
Cohesion=20 kN/m^2 (Static)
30
40
0.38

Elevation (m)

4
Reinforcement

0.28
0.18
0.08
Normalized horizontal displacement, x/h

0
-0.02

Figure 10. Profile of abutment facing at end of seismic excitation for different bed-soil Cohesions.

compaction, etc., to increase the strength parameters


and to reduce the deformation characteristics of the
bed soil.
The other solution is to replace upper parts of
the soft bed-soil by reinforced-soil (which is in fact
another improvement method). In other words, the
reinforced-soil region of bridge abutment can be
extended into the bed soil. A preliminary comparison results are presented in Figs. 15a & b. The figures

present the grid deformation of the system before and


after reinforcement improvement, respectively.
5

Parametric analysis results for a segmental bridge


abutment using the 2-D finite difference program FLAC4.00 was presented. A well-instrumented

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

MaximumNormalized Horizontal
Displacement of the Front Face, x/h

0.400
Static
0.300

Seismic

0.200
0.100
0.000

10

20

30

40

50

60

Bed-Soil (Cohesion)kN/m2
Figure 11. Effect of bed-soil cohesion on horizontal displacement of abutment facing under static and seismic conditions.

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

5.5

Datum ( Bottom nodes Profile of the bridge footing

0
Bridge Footing

Normalized vertical displacement of the


bridge footing, y/h

Load
y
0.05

h
x
Abutment Face

0.1
x=1.4m
Cohesion = 20 (kN/m^2)
30
40
50
60

0.15

x=5.2m

0.2
Distance from the abutment face, x (m)

Maximum Normalized Vertical


Displacement of the Bridge Footing, y/h

Figure 12. Profile of abutment footing at end of seismic excitation for various bed-soil Cohesions.

0.2
Dynamic

0.15

Static

0.1
0.05
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Bed-Soil Cohesion (kN/m^2)

Figure 13. Effect of bed-soil cohesion on vertical displacement of bridge footing under static and seismic conditions.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Maximum Normalized Reinforcement


Load, Tmax/TY

0.20
Seismic

0.15

Static

0.10
0.05
0.00
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Bed-Soil Cohesion (kN/m^2)

Figure 14. Effect of bed-soil cohesion on reinforcement load under static and seismic conditions.

Figure 15. Seismic behavior of the reinforced soil bridge abutment on soft-soil: a) original bed-soil, b) improved bed-soil.

reinforced system was the Founders/Meadows segmental bridge abutment under static loads, and the
second was the shaking table 1/6 scale physical model
of a reinforced soil wall.
FLAC2D with the FISH programming option of
it is used for implementing the desired model for
the numerical analysis. An elastic nonlinear model
is used up to the failure (peak), after which a MohrCoulomb softening model is used for plastic behaviour
for both static and seismic conditions. The Duncan
Hyperbolic model is used for the nonlinear elastic
part under static condition, while the Masing nonlinear hysteretic loading-unloading rule is used for the
nonlinear elastic part under seismic condition. The
reinforced geogrids are modelled by elasto-perfectly
plastic cable elements. The slip limit of geogrid reinforcements are determined by some factors such as
the confining stresses, perimeter, and friction angle
around the geogrid.
The main objective of the paper was to study the
effect of bed-soil cohesion variation and critical value
of it on deformation characteristics and reinforcement
loads of the system in static and seismic conditions.
The soft bed-soil cohesion was varied between 20 kPa
to 60 kPa. A variable-amplitude harmonic motion
(shown in the inset of Fig. 4), with a frequency close

to the fundamental frequency of the reference structure was applied to the bottom nodes of the model
mesh.
The main conclusions obtained from the results of
this numerical study are as follows:
There Exist a critical value for cohesion of the soft
bed-soil of reinforced bridge abutments.
The system can not be stable when the bed-soil
cohesion is less than the critical value.
This critical value is not unique in static and seismic conditions. It also changes with variations of
seismic excitation.
The main issue when the bed-soil cohesion is less
than the critical value is lack of external stability,
such as the general rotation of the system.
REFERENCES
Abu-Hejleh, N., Outcalt, S., Wang, T. and Zornberg, J., 2000.
Performance of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Walls Supporting the Foun-ders/Meadows Bridge and Approaching Road-way Structures, Report 1: Design, Materials,
Construction, Instrumentation, and Preliminary Results,
Report No. CDOT-DTD-R-2000-5, Colorado Department
of Transportation.

265

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Abu-Hejleh, N., Outcalt, S., Wang, T., and Zornberg, J.,


2001. Performance of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Walls
Supporting the Founders/Meadows Bridge and Approaching Road-way Structures, Report 2: Assessment of the
performance and design of the front GRS walls and
Recommendations for future GRS abutments, Report
No. CDOT-DTD-R-2001-12, Colorado Department of
Transportation.
Attar, I.H, 2004. Dynamic and nonlinear analysis of geogrid
reinforced soil in bridge abutment, M.Sc. Thesis, Amirkabir Univ. of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
Bathurst, R.J., and Cai, Z., 1994. In-isolation Cyclic LoadExtension Behaviour of Two Geogrids, Geosynthetics
International, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 317.
Bathurst, R.J., El-Emam, M.M., and Mashhour, M.M., 2002.
Shaking table model study on dynamic response of reinforced retaining walls, Seventh International Conference
on Geosynthetics Society, Nice, PP. 99102
Bathurst, R.J. and Hatami, K., 1998. Seismic response analysis of reinforced soil retaining walls, Geosynthetics
International, Vol. 5, Nos. 12, 127166.
Bolton, M. D., 1986. The strength and dilatancy of sand,
Geotechnique, U.K., 36(1), 6578

Cai, Z. and Bathurst, R.J., 1995. Seismic response analysis


of geosynthetic reinforced soil segmental retaining walls
by finite element method, Computers and Geotechnics,
Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 523546.
El-Emam, M.M. and Bathurst, R.J. and Hatami, K., 2004.
Numerical modelling of reinforced soil retaining walls
subjected to base acceleration, 13th Word Conf. on
Earthquake Eng., Vancouver, Canada, paper No. 2621
Fakharian, K. and Attar, I.H, 2005. Effect of Soil Model
Type on Seismic Response of Segmental Bridge Abutments, Soil-structure interaction: calculation methods
and engineering practice, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
Hatami, K. and Bathurst, R.J. 2001., Modelling static
response of reinforced soil segmental retaining wall using
FLAC, FLAC and Numerical Modelling in Geomechanics. 223231.
Rowe, R.K. and Ho, S.K., 1997. Continuous panel reinforced soil walls on rigid foundations, J. Geo-tech. And
Geoenvir. Engrg., 123(10), 912920.
Seed, H.B. and Idriss, I.M., 1970. Soil module and damping
factors for dynamic response analysis, Report No. EERC
70-10, Earthquake Engrg. Res. Ctr., Univ. of California,
Berkeley, Calif., Dec.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Geotechnical behavior of organic soils of North Sarawak


Shenbaga R. Kaniraj & Robert R. Joseph
School of Engineering & Science, Curtin University of Technology, Miri, Malaysia

ABSTRACT: Soft soil deposits, organic and inorganic in nature, are found in several locations in Malaysia.
Many coastal regions of Malaysia are covered with marine clays. The State of Sarawak in Malaysia has a massive
peat land area that covers 1.7 million hectares or approximately 13 percent of the total land area of the State. The
Sarawak State government plans to develop peat land in the coastal areas for enhanced economic development that
could be initiated with road construction over peat land. However, there is a need to improve the understanding
of the geotechnical behavior of the marine and organic soils of the region. The paper first presents a general
review of the soft soil deposits of Malaysia and then describes the results of the first phase of a study, which
investigates the geotechnical behavior of selected marine and organic soils of North Sarawak.

INTRODUCTION

Like several other countries in South East Asia,


Malaysia too is home for a variety of soft soil deposits.
Generally, the soft clay deposits are of marine origin
and were formed about 15,000 years ago (Leroueil
et al. 1990). In the soft ground areas reported by Ting
et al (1988), the thickness of soft soil deposits ranged
from 15 m to 30 m for the coastal sites and from 2 m
to 9 m for the inland areas. The State of Sarawak in
Malaysia has a massive peat land area that covers 1.7
million ha or approximately 13 percent of the total
land area of the State (Melling et al. 1999, Singh and
Huat, 2003). The Sarawak State government plans to
develop peat land in the coastal areas for enhanced economic development that could begin with construction
of roads over peat land.The Lower SaribasAgricultural
Development Project, for example, visualized agriculture estate development over an area of 152,582 ha.
Eighty percent of the area consists of peat soils. The
civil engineering components of the project included
construction of flood control, main drainage works
and access roads. Soft soil conditions, however, create
several complexities in the design, construction, and
maintenance of structures. To cope with these problems, there is a need to improve the understanding of
the geotechnical behavior of the marine and organic
soils of the region.
The paper first presents an overall review of the
soft soil deposits of Malaysia. Following this, the paper
describes salient results of the first phase of an ongoing
study. The objective of the research in this phase is to
carry out the geotechnical characterisation of marine,
organic and peat soils of North Sarawak.

The two categories of natural soft soil deposits


of Malaysia are: a) alluvial and marine clays and
b) organic and peat soils. To this may be added the
local soft-soils-like conditions created due to mining
waste pond.
2.1 Alluvial and marine clays
Quaternary erosion, accentuated by climatic and sea
level changes, has produced widespread and thick alluvial deposits in the coastal areas and major river valleys
in Malaysia. Many coastal regions of Malaysia are covered with marine clays. They are generally very plastic,
organic and normally consolidated. The thickness of
these clays varies from 5 to 30 meters. They lead therefore to serious problems of stability and settlement.
Malaysia started construction of major highway
projects throughout the country in the 1980s. The
first was the North-South highway project, a length
of more than 800 kilometers, from Ayer Hitam in the
north to Johor Bahru in the south. The Malaysian Highway Authority (MHA) encountered deep soft marine
clay in the southern stretch of the highway that was
called the Muar flat. To address the problems of stability and settlement of highway embankments on soft
soils, from 1986 to 1989 MHA constructed several trial
embankment sections with different soil improvement
techniques and studied their behavior. The findings of
the study were presented in a symposium sponsored by
the MHA (Huat and Ali 1992, MHA 1989). Fauziah
et al (2003) discuss the recent soil properties at some
of the Muar trial embankments.

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SOFT SOIL DEPOSITS OF MALAYSIA

Residential and commercial developments have


recently shifted from the congested Kuala Lumpur city
to Klang area, which is about 40 kilometres south west
of Kuala Lumpur. This development is constructed
over soft silty clay. Tan et al (2003) discuss the characterization of the Klang clay. This is an alluvial deposit,
which generally consists of very soft to firm silty clay
up to a depth of 25 to 30 m. Very soft marine clays
up to 35 m thick were also encountered on the Shah
Alam Expressway at the Kebun interchange near the
city of Klang (Raju 1997). Soft clay varying in thickness from 1 to 4.5 m was encountered also in one of the
interchanges in the outer ring road constructed from
Dengkil to the Ministers Office at Putrajaya (Tean
2003). Much deeper soft marine clays, 20 to 30 m thick
overlain by 1 m thick desiccated crusts, were encountered along the Federal Route 5 in Selangor (Kwong
and Al Rifae 2003). Soft coastal and alluvial clay, 25 m
thick, led to the failure of approach embankments of
a bridge in Sarawak (Gue and Tan 1999).
2.2

Organic and peat soils

One of the problems faced in the mapping, classification and estimation of the extent of organic soils in
Malaysia is the different definitions used for organic
soils in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak
(Paramananthan and Meling 1999).
Organic soils are found in abundance in the State of
Perak. Mahmood et al (2000) reported that the organic
content of the soil in the area of Teluk Intan in the
State of Perak was 11.4%.The average specific gravity,
liquid limit and plastic limit were 2.54, 83.5% and
48.1%, respectively.
According to Melling et al (1999), there are about
2.7 million ha of peat in Malaysia and Sarawak has the
largest area of peat in the country covering about 1.66
million ha, which constitutes 13% area of the State.
The peat in its natural state is waterlogged and very
acidic.
In the neighbouring country of Brunei Darussalam,
peat swamps cover 90,884 ha, 15.6% of the total land
area. In Belait district they form a contiguous block
with the peat swamps of the Baram Basin in Sarawak.
These peat swamps are recent, having developed only
over the 5-6,000 years (Davies 1999). In north Sumatra, peat has been found at highlands also. Nasution
and Mansor (1999) report that approximately 2000 ha
of peat was found on the southern part of Toba Plateau
at an altitude of 1,114 m above sea level. Peats retain
considerable amount of water. At some sites, the drying and drainage of peat created subsidence of as much
as 4 to 6 m within a period of four years.
Because of the increasing developmental activities
on organic and peat soils, researchers in Malaysia are
paying more attention to geotechnical studies on these
types of soils. Al Raziqi et al (2003a, 2003b, 2003c),

Table 1.
1997).

Soil type

w
%

wL
%

wP
%

Clay
%

Silt
%

cv
m2 /yr

Mining slime
Marine clay

60
100

60
100

30
40

40
50

45
45

4
1

w = water content; wL = liquid limit; wp = plastic limit;


PI = plasticity index; cv = coefficient of consolidation.

Singh and Huat (2003) and Zainorabidin and Bakar


(2003) have carried out experimental investigations for
the index properties, engineering properties and engineering behavior of organic and peat soils. A number
of empirical correlations have also been suggested.
2.3 Mining waste pond
In some places in Malaysia, tin ore is found in shallow
alluvial deposits that overlie limestone rocks. Opencast or dredging methods were adopted to mine the tin
ore. Kuala Lumpur was historically a mining town. The
tin mine at Sungai Besi, 20 km south of Kuala Lumpur,
was the largest opencast mine in the world. As the mining of tin ore became uneconomical to operate, many
of the mining sites were abandoned as mining waste
pond. The bed of the waste pond consists of deep layer
of silty clay, a product of tin tailings, overlying firm
sandy soil. As the town grew in size and expanded,
the waste ponds had to be reclaimed for construction
purposes.
The very soft cohesive soils found at the Shah Alam
Expressway is also broadly subdivided into two as tin
mine tailings (slimes) and marine clays (Raju 1997).
The mine tailings were generally clayey silts with fine
sand content of about 15%. These soils were found in
the Kuala Lumpur area and vicinity. The marine clays
were found in the vicinity of the port city of Klang.
Table 1 gives a comparison of the soil properties of the
mine wastes and marine clays.
3

OBSERVED GROUND SETTLEMENT


IN MIRI

Sarawak is the largest state in Malaysia. Together with


Sabah it constitutes East Malaysia. The two states are
located on the Borneo Island. The Miri division is
one of Sarawaks eleven administrative divisions. Miri
itself is a city in North Sarawak with western coastline on the South China Sea. Curtin Sarawak Malaysia
operates from its Lutong Campus in Miri. It is an
offshore campus of the main Curtin University ofTechnology campus at Perth, Australia. The construction
of the stylish, architecturally designed buildings and

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Properties of mining wastes and marine clays (Raju

other facilities was completed in 2002 and since then


the university is functioning from the Lutong campus.
The present campus is the Phase 1 part of the entire
Master Plan and is designed to accommodate about
2,000 students, a landmark which has already been
achieved. Curtin Sarawak Malaysia would ultimately
cater to about 10,000 students. The Phase 2 part of
construction is slated to begin very soon.
The ground at many places in the Curtin Sarawak
Malaysia campus is continuing to settle down. Horizontal and vertical relative displacements between
pile-supported and ground-supported structures and
cracks in floors and pavements are telltale marks of this
continuing settlement. It is estimated that the amount
of settlement since 2002 could well exceed 100 mm at
many places.
3.1 Apparent reasons for settlement
Due to lack of recorded information, the presumed
reasons for this ground movement are summarized as
follows:

the fuel consumption increases due to deceleration and


acceleration of vehicles in the vicinity of the humps
and due to the additional wear and tear of the vehicle
parts.
It is also well known that the differential movement
between the piles and the surrounding soil could lead
to negative skin friction and drag load on piles. So
far, the pile-supported structures in the campus are
performing satisfactorily.
4

Apart from the ground subsidence observed at the


Curtin Sarawak Malaysia campus, there are other
construction and performance problems in Miri. For
example, the road surfaces are uneven at many places
in the city. These problems provided the motivation for
a systematic study of the soft soils of North Sarawak.
4.1 Collection of soil samples

During the development of the site and landscaping,


the original ground was filled with several meters
of fill material.
The soil underlying the site was soft, saturated and
clayey in nature. Experiments carried out on soil
specimens taken at shallow depths in the excavation by the side of the road to the Curtin University
campus show that the soil is soft clay. The paper
reports the experimental results.
The fill was probably placed in a very short time and
directly on the natural ground without any ground
improvement measures.
The excess pore water pressure would dissipate
over an extended period of time manifesting in the
form of ground settlement. Apart from primary consolidation process, there could be the secondary
consolidation also if the soil is organic in nature.
3.2 Consequences of ground settlement
The ground settlement has manifested itself in the form
of visible horizontal and vertical relative displacements between pile-supported and ground-supported
structures; cracks in floors and pavements; and sharp
humps where rigid drainage channels cross roads
underneath. The occurrence of humps is perhaps due
to a mismatch in the behavior of the rigid drain and
the soil adjacent to it, which is soft and susceptible to
long-term settlements and creep.
The consequences of the settlement, so far, may
not be termed serious but they call for continuous
maintenance and repair works.
The humps on the roads are not only objects of
discomfort to the road users but also are potentially
unsafe. There is also an associated economic cost as

Soil samples were collected from four locations. Two


of them were situated in Miri; one in Bekenu, about
50 km from Miri; and one in Suai Similajau, about
160 km southwest of Miri. In Miri, soil samples were
collected from two different sites. One site was located
close to the Curtin Sarawak Malaysia campus, by the
side of the road that leads to the campus. The second
site in Miri was at Kuala Baram, about 15 km from the
university campus. Except for a few undisturbed soil
samples collected in consolidation rings, all the others
were bulk samples. Care was exercised to collect only
representative soil samples.
In the sites of Miri and Suai Similajau, the soil sample collection work was carried out in very soft soil
conditions around the area of work. The soil samples
were collected inside excavations at shallow depths of
23 metres. Sufficient quantity of soil samples were
deposited in plastic boxes and transported to the laboratory. Two different samples were collected from each
of the sites at Miri and Suai Similajau.
In Bekenu, soil sample was collected from uplifted
marine clay. It was collected in blocky form above
ground level. The soil sample was quite hard. The chief
reason for including the Bekenu soil in the studies was
their inorganic nature that would enable the comparison of the geotechnical characteristics of the organic
and inorganic soils.
The notation in Table 2 is used in this paper to
identify the respective soil samples.
4.2 Processing of soil samples for geotechnical
experiments
Except from Bekenu, the soil samples were collected
from open excavations. At the Curtin road site, the

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GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON
SELECTED SOFT SOILS OF NORTH
SARAWAK

Table 2.

4.3.1 Organic content test


The organic content, N, was determined by first drying
the soil in the oven at 105 C for 24 hours which was
later kept in a furnace at the temperature of 440 C for
6 hours.

Notation for soil samples.

Designation

Soil location

CR1
CR2
KB1
KB2
SS1
SS2
BK

Miri, Curtin Road 1


Miri, Curtin Road 2
Miri, Kuala Baram 1
Miri, Kuala Baram 2
Suai Similajau 1
Suai Similajau 2
Bekenu

4.3.2 Specific gravity test


The specific gravity of solids, G, was determined
using 20 grams of soil in 100 cc volumetric flasks.
A minimum of three tests was performed on each soil.

excavation was being made for the installation of


pre-cast concrete sections of storm water drainage
channels. It was observed that because of soft soil
conditions, excavation much wider than the width of
installed structure was necessary. Thus, a very large
quantity of soil was removed, heaped by the side, and
later replaced loosely in the excavation after the construction of the channel sections. The excavated soil
was kept open to atmospheric influences of drying and
degradation for a number of days before replacement.
Thus the replaced soil was in a degraded remoulded
state. Jayakumar and Gajendra (2005) describe the
excavation and removal of peaty soft clay to a depth of
2 to 4 m in the construction of 14.5 km long highway
at Lumut bypass in Brunei Darussalam. The excavated
soft soil was replaced with sand. All the excavated soft
soil would form degraded remoulded deposit.
Prior to conducting experiments, the bulk soil
samples were reprocessed to simulate the degraded
remoulded disturbed state of the excavated soil. For
this, the soil samples were air dried or placed in oven
at maximum 60 C so that the organic matter present
in the sample was not destroyed. The dried soil was
ground using pestle and mortar and the material was
passed through 425 m sieve. Material coarser than
425 m was discarded. This was done to remove bigsized wood fibres and roots from the soil and to get
soil specimens of identical nature in the experiments.
However, the wood fibres and roots were not removed
in the experiments to determine the organic content
of soil.
The soil collected from Bekenu was in hard blocky
form. It was broken into powdery form using mortar
and pestle.
4.3

Experimental program

Apart from classification tests such as determination


of organic content, specific gravity, Atterberg limits,
the experimental program for geotechnical characterization included also vane shear tests and consolidation
tests. One-dimensional creep tests also form a part of
the investigations. These are still continuing and are
not explained here.

4.3.3 Atterberg limits tests


Liquid limit of the soil was determined using cone
penetration method.
4.3.4 Vane shear test
Laboratory vane shear test was carried out at water
contents close to the liquid limit by mixing the processed soil with required water. A vane of 12.7 mm
diameter and length was used.
4.3.5 Consolidation test
One-dimensional consolidation test was carried out on
50.5 mm diameter and 20 mm thick specimens at water
content close to liquid limit. For remoulded specimens,
the processed soil was mixed with required water.
Beginning from a vertical stress of 49.05 kN/m2 , a load
increment ratio of 2 was used until 1569.6 kN/m2 after
which the unloading was done in steps of 392.4, 49.05,
and 0 kN/m2 . Each vertical stress was maintained for
24 h and deformation dial gage readings were taken at
regular time intervals.
4.3.6 Creep test
Apart from the standard one-dimensional consolidation tests, a series of creep tests were also planned. The
creep test is identical to the consolidation test except
that each vertical stress was maintained for 120 hours
instead of 24 hours to observe the long-term creep
behavior of the specimens. The results of the creep
tests, however, are not reported here.
5

The results of different experiments are presented in


this section. The experimental studies were initiated
less than a year ago. Following the evaluation of the
test results some tests may be repeated or modified as
required.
5.1 Organic content
Table 3 summarizes the organic content of the different
soils. The values show that the collected soil samples
cover a wide range of organic content, which could
help to draw inferences on the influence of organic

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 3.
Soil

Organic content, N, of soils.

BK CR1

CR2

KB1

Table 5.

KB2

SS1

SS2

N % 03 1520 1520 7085 4550 5565 6065

Table 4.

Specific gravity, G, of soil solids.

Soil

BK

CR1

CR2

KB1

KB2

SS1

SS2

wl %
wp %
PI

39
22
17

64
50
14

54
38
16

153
83
70

71
62
9

190
116
74

186

Specific gravity, G, of soil solids.

Soil

BK

CR1

CR2

KB1

KB2

SS1

SS2

2.66

2.30

2.51

1.43

1.90

0.99

1.02

Eq. 1 with a very good correlation coefficient, R2 ,


value of 0.98.
G = 1.6281 N + 2.6859

(1)

3.0

Other correlations proposed by Huat (2004), Skempton and Petley (1970) and Den Haan (1997) can be
written as in Eqs 2, 3 and 4, respectively.

2.5

G = 1.2 N + 2.7

(2)

G = 1/(0.358 N + 0.357)

(3)

G = 1/(0.362 N + 0.371)

(4)

2.0
G
1.5

Figure 1 shows that relationship Eq. 1 agrees well with


Eqs 3 and 4. The data for SS1 and SS2, however, do
not conform to this trend.

BK, CR1, CR2, KB1, KB2


SS1, SS2
Eq.2
Eq.3
Eq.4
Eq.1

1.0

5.3 Atterberg limits

0.5
0

10

20

30

40
N%

50

60

70

80

Figure 1. Variation of G with N.

content on the geotechnical behavior of North Sarawak


soils.
From the Malaysian soils classification system
based on organic content (Huat 2004, Jarret 1995),
soils CR1 and CR2 may be classified as slightly
organic clay (N = 3 to 20%); soils KB2, SS1, and SS2
as organic soils (N = 20 to 75%); only soil KB1 as peat
(N > 75%); and soil BK as inorganic clay.

The liquid limit, wl , plastic limit, wp , and plasticity


index, PI, of the soils are summarized in Table 5
The results show that when the organic content
exceeds 50% there is a significant increase in the liquid
limit. For tropical hemic peat of Malaysia, Al-Raziqi
et al (2003a) have recorded wl values in the range of
200500%. The wl values obtained in the present study
for organic soils are towards the lower limit of this
range. For soils with organic content more than 50%,
the ratio of wl to N varied from 1.02 to 1.27. For the
Kota Samarahan soil, Al-Raziqi et al (2003a) found a
significantly higher value of 8.
5.4 Vane shear strength

5.2

Specific gravity

Table 4 summarizes the specific gravity of solids, G,


of the different soils.
Huat (2004) has reported the specific gravity
of some British and Malaysian peat as follows:
bog peat = 1.41.6, fen peat = 1.8, west Malaysia
peat = 1.381.7, Samarahan peat = 1.071.63 and
Central Kalimantan peat = 1.51.77. When the G values are compared to these values along with their
organic contents, the specific gravities of SS1 and SS2
appear to be low.
Figure 1 shows the variation of specific gravity with
organic content. All values except for those of SS1 and
SS2 indicate a linear relationship between G and N as

The results for undrained shear strength, Su , measured


for laboratory vane shear tests are shown in Fig. 2.
The water content was varied around the liquid limit
for each soil. The trends of the results show that Su
was very low around 2 kN/m2 at the liquid limit. Therefore, the measured liquid limits using cone penetration
method seem to be reasonable.
5.5 Consolidation behavior
The initial water content of the specimen was kept
equal to or close to the liquid limit of the soil.The initial
moisture contents of the BK, CR1, and KB1 specimens, for example, were 39.1%, 64.9%, and 138.4%,

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12

11.40
BK
KB1

CR1
KB2

CR2

CR1

11.30

10

11.20
Dial 11.10
gage
mm 11.00
10.90

8
Su
KN/m2
6

10.80
10.70
0.1

4
2

10
100
Time, min

1000

10000

Figure 4. Consolidation response of CR1 soil specimen at


vertical stress of 392.4 kN/m2 .

0
0

20

40

60

80 100 120 140 160 180


w%

17.90

KB1

17.80

Figure 2. Variation of Su with w.


7.20

17.70
Dial
gage 17.60
mm
17.50

BK

7.10
7.00
Dial
6.90
gage
6.80
reading,
6.70
mm
6.60

17.40
17.30
0.1

10
100
Time,min

1000

10000

Figure 5. Consolidation response of KB1 soil specimen at


vertical stress of 392.4 kN/m2 .

6.50
6.40
0.1

10
100
Time, min

1000

10000

Table 6. Values of C /Cc .

Figure 3. Consolidation response of Bekenu soil specimen


at vertical stress of 392.4 kN/m2 .

respectively. The final moisture contents of these specimens at the end of loading and unloading were 21.2%,
35.1% and 84.9%, respectively. The change in water
content increases as the organic content increases.
However, due to the definition of water content it does
not manifest as significant increase in specimen compression also. The changes in the thickness of the BK,
CR1, and KB1 specimens at the end of loading and
unloading were 4.7, 4.76 and 5.08 mm, respectively.
Typical consolidation responses of the specimens at
the vertical pressure of 392.4 kN/m2 for soils BK, CR1,
and KB1 are shown in Figs 3, 4 and 5, respectively. The
effect of organic content on the consolidation behavior
is brought out in these figures. The curve in Fig. 3 for
the inorganic Bekenu clay shows the typical response
of predominantly primary consolidation followed by
insignificant secondary consolidation. The curve in
Fig. 4 for the slightly organic clay CR1 shows some primary consolidation followed by significant secondary
consolidation and at the end tertiary consolidation.The
curve in Fig 5 for the peaty soil KB1 shows insignificant primary consolidation, but significant secondary
and tertiary consolidation.

Pressure kN/m2

BK

CR1

CR2

KB1

KB2

49.05
98.10
196.20
392.40
784.80
Average C /Cc

0.021
0.011
0.015
0.012
0.013

0.051
0.048
0.043
0.041
0.054

0.043
0.037
0.039
0.047
0.037

0.077
0.036

0.058
0.055

0.104
0.038
0.042
0.043
0.044

0.014

0.050

0.040

0.058

0.054

Edil and Dhowian (1979), Fox et al (1992) and Edil


(2003) too have reported the observation of the tertiary phase on Wisconsin peat samples. The tertiary
consolidation is attributed to biodegradation of peat
in laboratory (Mesri et al 1997). In experiments on
peat specimens treated with gamma radiation to minimize biodegradation, Fox et al (1999) did not observe
tertiary consolidation.
The experimental data was analysed to determine
the compression index, Cc , and secondary consolidation coefficient, C , using the procedure suggested
by Mesri and Castro (1987). The results for the ratio
C /Cc are shown in Table 6.
According to Mesri and Castro (1987), for a
variety of natural soils the ratio C /Cc lies in the
range of 0.02 to 0.1. For majority of inorganic soil,

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

C /Cc = 0.04 0.01 and for highly organic plastic


clays, C /Cc = 0.05 0.01. For organic soils, the values of C /Cc in Table 5 are generally in agreement with
this conclusion. The C /Cc for Bekenu clay is, however, significantly small mainly because of the very
small secondary consolidation as shown in Fig. 3.

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are arrived at from the


study.
1. Based on the organic content, the soils tested
include inorganic clay, slightly organic clay and
peat.
2. The specific gravities of the soil solids are generally
in agreement with the published correlations. The
reasons for low specific gravity for SS1 and SS2
soil specimens should be evaluated.
3. The liquid limit of inorganic soils conform to the
lower range of values reported for other Malaysian
inorganic soils. The vane shear strengths at the
liquid limit were in the region of 2 kN/m2 .
4. The C /Cc values for inorganic clays determined
from consolidation tests are in the range of 0.04
to 0.058. These are generally in agreement with
the values reported in literature. However, for the
inorganic Bekenu clay the C /Cc is significantly
small, mainly because of the very small secondary
consolidation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial assistance from the Curtin University of
Technology, Miri, as scholarship to the second author
from the Peat and Marine Soils Research Centre and
from Curtin Sarawak Research Fund to the first author
are gratefully acknowledged.
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Technology, Putrajaya, 24 July 2003. Huat, B.B.K. et al
(eds), Universiti Putra Malaysia Press, pp. 203220.
Skempton, A.W. and Petley, D.J. 1970. Ignition loss and other
properties of peats and clays from Avonmouth, Kings
Lynn & Cranberry moss. Geotechnique, 20: 343356.
Tan, Y.C., Gue, S.S., Ng, H.B. and Lee, P.T. 2004. Some
geotechnical properties of Klang clay [online]. Malaysian
Geotechnical Conference, Available from http://www.
gueandpartners.com.my/TechnicalPapers/ 2004 _ 01.pdf
[accessed April 28, 2006].
Tean, S.P. 2003. Economical solution for roadway embankment construction on soft compressible soil at Putrajaya,
Selangor. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology, Putrajaya, 24 July 2003. Huat, B.B.K. et al (eds),
University Putra Malaysia Press, pp. 649657.
Ting, W.H., Wong, T.F. and Toh, C.T. 1988. Design parameters
for soft ground in Malaysia. Geotechnical Engineering,
19: 95126.
Zainorabidin, A. and Bakar, I. 2003. Engineering properties
of in-situ and modified hemic peat soil in Western Johor.
In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Advances in Soft Soil Engineering and Technology, 2
4 July 2003. Huat, B.B.K. et al (eds), University Putra
Malaysia Press, pp. 173181.

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Behavior characteristics of unreinforced and reinforced lightweight soils


Yun-Tae Kim, & Hong-Joo Kim
Dept. of Ocean Engineering, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea

ABSTRACT: Lightweight soil is a cement-treated soil and consists of dredged clayey soil, cement and lightening material. This paper investigates strength characteristics and stress-strain behaviors of reinforced lightweight
soils (RLS) and unreinforced lightweight soils. RLS composed of soft soil, cement and air-foam was reinforced
by waste fishing net in order to increase its compressive strength. Test specimens were fabricated by various
mixing conditions such as cement content, initial water content, air content and content of waste fishing net; and
then several series of unconfined compression tests were carried out. The experimental results of lightweight
soils indicated that unconfined compressive strength increased with increase in cement content, but decreased
with increases in water content and air foam content. Water content of RLS was rapidly decreased up to 7 days of
curing time and converged to constant value. The stress-strain relation and the unconfined compressive strength
were strongly influenced by content of waste fishing net. It was also found that compressive strength of RLS
generally increased by adding waste fishing net, but amount of increase in compressive strength was not proportional to content of waste fishing net. In this test, maximum increase in compressive strength was obtained
at 0.25% content of waste fishing net.

INTRODUCTION

Busan, the second largest city of 4 million residents


in Korea, is located on the Southeast of the Korean
peninsula. Large-scale port and harbor construction
projects have been performed on the estuary delta
of the Nakdong river since 1990s. Therefore, a large
amount of soft soils have been dredged at navigation
channel or the construction area of port structure.
However dredged soils are usually dumped in waste
disposal site at sea. Figure 1 illustrates annual generation of dredged soil from 1990 to 2002, which
increases continuously due to large construction works
for building industrial complexes such as Busan New
Port. Recently dumping is becoming in difficulty
due to environmental pollution. Therefore there have
been strong calls for recycling of dredged soil to
port and harbor construction works due to social and
environmental aspects.
In addition to dredged soils, waste fishing net also
causes environmental problems such as pollution of
fishing ground and coastal area. Table 1 shows annual
amount of waste collection. According to data released
by Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, about
21,800 tons of waste fishing nets were collected but
there is lack of recycling technique for reuse of the
collected-waste fishing net.
In order to recycle dredged soil and waste fishing
net for environmental protection at the same time, the
reinforced lightweight soil (RLS) using waste fishing

Volume of dredged soil (m3)

20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
0

1990

1992

1994

1996
Year

1998

2000

2002

Figure 1. Annual generation of dredged soil (Busan


Regional Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Office, 2002).

net was developed. In this paper, the mechanical characteristics of RLS were investigated using laboratory
tests. RLS was made of dredged soil taken from construction site of Busan New Port, cement, air foam and
waste fishing net. Laboratory tests were performed
to compare behavior characteristics between RLS and
unreinforced lightweight soil, so that the reinforced
effect by waste fishing net on RLS was evaluated.
2

REINFORCED LIGHTWEIGHT SOIL USING


WASTE FISHING NET

Most of the dredged soils are clayey soils with high


water content and are too soft to be used for backfilling
material without any treatment. In order to use the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

25,000,000

Table 1. Annual amount of waste collection (Ministry of Maritime Affairs and


Fisheries, 2001) (Unit : ton, (%)).
Year

Total

Waste

Styro-foam

Fishing Net

Shell

Etc.

1998

343,830
(100)
107,726
(100)
87,340
(100)

36,427
(10.6)
24,153
(22.4)
31,591
(36.2)

1,712
(0.5)
44,124
(41.0)
5,027
(5.8)

19,160
(5.6)
21,650
(20.1)
21,761
(24.9)

254,783
(74.1)
3,286
(3.1)
11,476
(13.1)

31,763
(9.2)
14,513
(13.4)
17,486
(20.0)

1999
2000

AIR
Dredged
Soil

AIR

AIR

Cement

(a) Unreinforced

Waste
fishing net

AIR

Dredged
Soil
AIR

AIR

Cement

(b) Reinforced
Figure 2. The conceptual diagram of unreinforced and
reinforced lightweight soils.

light unit weight as well as high shear strength. Light


unit weight was resulted from lightening materials
such as air-foam or expanded polystyrene beads. Unit
weight of lightweight treated soil is in range of 6
to 15 kN/m3 . This feature is favorable to backfilling materials for reducing the long-term settlement
as well as the lateral earth pressure to the structure.
Lightweight soil has practically been used in various
coastal structures in Japan in order to reduce both overburden stress acting on an underground structure and
lateral earth pressure acting on a retaining structure
(Tsuchida and Kang, 2002; 2003, Watabe et al., 2004).
The characteristic of light unit weight is a good
advantage for backfilling to compensate for its high
cost. Lightweight treated soil is a homogeneous
ground material unlike a natural ground material. Its
density can be adjusted by varying the amount of airfrom mixed with soil. The density shows an increasing
tendency by defoaming of the air-form before hardening and by the water pressure during underwater
curing.
The shear strength of lightweight soil greatly
depends on content of cementing material such as
cement. The more cementing material that is added
to the mixture, the greater its unconfined compressive
strength (qu ) (Tsuchida et al, 2004).
In order to increase the unconfined compressive
strength as well as recycle waste fishing net, waste
fishing net was added to the lightweight soil as shown
in Figure 2(b). The main objective of this investigation focused on the strength behavior of the reinforced lightweight soil with randomly included waste
fishing net.
3

dredged soil, it is necessary to add a chemical ingredient such as cement to increase its shear strength. However chemically treated soil is usually more expensive
than natural soils taken from mountainous area due to
cost of treatments.
Lightweight soil is a cement-treated soil and consists of dredged clayey soil, cementing material
and lightening material, as shown in Figure 2(a).
Lightweight soil is characterized as a material with

RLS consists of dredged soil, cement, air foam and


waste fishing net. Geotechnical properties of dredged
soil, which was taken from construction site of Busan
New Port, are shown in Table 2. Natural water content
is 125 %. Liquid index is greater one. The dredged
soft clay is classified into mostly CL according to the
Unified Soil Classification System. Ordinary Portland
cement was used in this study as a cementing material.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

Table 2.

Properties of dredged soil dredged soil.

Initial
water
content
(%)

Liquid
limit
(%)

Plastic
limit
(%)

125

39.2

18.5

Table 3.

Mixing and test conditions.

Specific
gravity

Percent
passing
No. 200
sieve (%)

USCS

2.60

81.2

CL

Type

Mixing condition

Cement content, Ci (%)


Water content, Wi (%)
Air foam content, Ai (%)
Waste fishing net content, Ni (%)
Curing time, Tc (day)

20
156
2
0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1
7, 14, 28

Protein type of foaming agent was also used as a lightening material, which was expanded twenty times in
volume like shaving cream.
As shown in Table 3, several kinds of specimen
with diameter of 72 mm and height of 148 mm were
prepared. All specimens had cement content of 20%,
water content of 156%, and air foam content of 2%.
To evaluate the reinforced effect of waste fishing net
on the strength of lightweight soil, it was randomly
included into the soil at five different percentages of
contents of waste fishing net, i.e. 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and
1% by weight of raw soil.
Several series of unconfined compression test were
performed at curing time of 7, 14 and 28 days. Unconfined compression test on the specimen was conducted
in a strain rate of about 1%/min (Figure 3). Standard
consolidation test was also performed to investigate
consolidation characteristics of underwater curingand air curing-specimen of lightweight soil.
4
4.1

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Stress-strain behaviors

Stress-strain behaviors of lightweight soils with various mixing conditions such as cement content, initial water content and air content were illustrated in
Figure 4. Compressive stresses of lightweight soil
increased with increase in axial strain. Maximum compressive strengths of cement mixed lightweight soil
occurred at the range of axial strain from 2 to 4%. After
reaching to failure condition, unconfined compressive
stress decreased and stress-softening took place.
As shown in Figure 4, unconfined compressive
strength of lightweight soils increased with increase in
cement content, but decreased with increases in water
content and air foam content.

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of unconfined compression test.

Stress-strain relations of RLS and unreinforced


lightweight soil according to variation of curing time
were presented in Figure 5. Unconfined compressive
strengths of both RLS and unreinforced lightweight
soil increased with curing time. It was also found that
in the case of 0.25% content of waste fishing net,
unconfined compressive strengths of RLS are 2 2.5
times greater than those of unreinforced lightweight
soils due to reinforced effect by waste fishing net.
4.2 Unconfined compressive strength
Figure 6 shows variations of unconfined compressive
strength with curing time. The value of qu rapidly
increased at the beginning of curing time and then
increased gradually to certain value after 7 days of
curing time.
The relation of unconfined compressive strengths
between 28 days (qu28 ) and 7 days (qu7 ) of curing time
are shown in Figure 7. This result indicates that there
is a good relation between qu28 and qu7 . Therefore qu28
could be estimated from Eq. 1.
qu28 = 1.775 qu7 20.603

It was also found that unconfined compressive strength


of RLS generally increased by adding waste fishing
net, but amount of increase in compressive strength
was not proportional to content of waste fishing net
as shown in Figure 8. In this test, maximum increase
in compressive strength was obtained at 0.25% content of waste fishing net. Similar result was reported

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(1)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30

Ci8%
Ci12%
Ci16%
Ci20%

20
10
0

4
6
Axial strain (%)
(a) Cement content

10

120
100
80
60
40
20
0

Net 0.25%
Without net

4
6
Axial strain (%)
(a) Curing time of 7 days

50

10

45
40

Unconfined compressive stress (kPa)

Unconfined compressive strength (kPa)

35
30
25
20
Wi125%
Wi156%
Wi218%
Wi250%

15
10
5
0

4
6
Axial strain (%)
(b) Water content

10

100
90

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
Net 0.25%
Without net

20
0

6
8
4
Axial strain (%)
(b) Curing time of 28 days

10

80
70
60

Figure 5. Stress-strain behavior with respect to curing time.

50
40

Ai 1%
Ai 2%
Ai 3%
Ai 4%
Ai 5%

30
20
10
0

4
6
Axial strain (%)
(c) Air form content

Unconfined compressive stress (kPa)

Unconfined compressive strength (kPa)

Unconfined compressive stress (kPa)

Unconfined compressive strength (kPa)

100

10

Figure 4. Stress-strain behavior with respect to variation of


mixed materials.

by Prabaka and Sridhar (2002). In their researches,


the percentage of fiber content influenced the shear
strength as the shear stress increased non-linearly with
increase in fiber content. But beyond 0.75% fiber content, the shear stress reduced with increase in fiber content due to reduction of density of the soil fiber mass.
Variations of water content with time of lightweight
soils are presented in Figure 9. As shown in Figure 9, water contents of RLS were rapidly decreased
up to 7 days of curing time due to hydration reaction
and cementing process, and then converged to about

Without Net
Net 0.25%
Net 0.5%
Net 0.75%
Net 1%

10

15
20
Age (Day)

25

30

Figure 6. Compressive strength change with curing time.

100% of water content regardless of content of waste


fishing net.
4.3 Consolidation characteristics
Figure 10 presents effective stress-void ratio curves
from one-dimensional consolidation tests on the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

6
5.5
Void ratio

qu28 (kPa)

160
150 q = 1.775 q - 20.603
u28
u7
140
R2 = 0.9911
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
50
60
70
80
90
qu7(kPa)

100

110

Underwater curing
Underwater curing
Air curing
Air curing
Air curing
1

10

Figure 10. Effective


lightweight soil.

180

100
1000
Effective stress (kPa)
stress-void

ratio

10000

curve

of

7.E+03

160

6.E+03

140

E50=80qu

5.E+03

120

E50 (kPa)

Unconfined compressive stress (kPa)

4.5

3.5

Figure 7. Comparison of compressive strength at curing


time 7 days and 28 days.

100
80
60

E50=58qu

4.E+03
3.E+03
2.E+03

40

Tc-7day
Tc-14day
Tc-28day

20
0

0.2

0.4

0.6
Net (%)

0.8

Tsuchida
E50 = 40~240qu

1.E+03
0.E+00

1.2

Figure 8. Compressive strength change with waste fishing


net content.

Tc-7day
Tc-14day
Tc-28day

10
20 30
40 50
60 70
80
Unconfined compressive stress (kPa)
(a) Unreinforced

90

Figure 11a. Relation between deformation modulus and


unconfined compressive strength (cont.).

180
1.E+04

140

1.E+04

120

8.E+03

E50 (kPa)

Water content (%)

160

100
80
Without net
Net 0.25%
Net 0.5%
Net 0.75%
Net 1%

60
40
20
0

10
15
20
Curing time (days)

25

E50=85qu
E50=53qu

6.E+03
Tsuchida et al.(2004)
E50 = (40~240)qu

4.E+03
2.E+03
0.E+00

30

Tc-7day
Tc-14day
Tc-28day
50
100
150
200
Unconfined compressive stress (kPa)
(b) Reinforced

Figure 9. Water content change with respect to curing time.

Figure 11b. Relation between deformation modulus and


unconfined compressive strength.

lightweight soil sample. Two specimens were cured in


underwater condition and three specimens in air condition. Compression pressure from 10 to 1280 kPa was
applied in 8 stages of 24 hours with an incremental
loading ratio of 1 as shown in Figure 10. Initial void

ratios of underwater curing-specimens are slightly


higher than those of air curing-specimens. However
yielding stress and compression index of lightweight
soil samples have almost same values, irrespective of
curing condition.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4.4

Deformation modulus

Relation between deformation modulus (E50 ) and qu


of lightweight soils was presented in Figure 11. It was
found that E50 of unreinforced lightweight soils was
in range of (58 80) qu and E50 of RLS in range of
(53 85)qu , as shown in Eq. 2. Tsuchida et al. (2004)
reported that E50 was in range of 40 to 260 times the
value of qu and tends to decrease as the total confining
pressure increases.
E50 = qu
= 58 80 (unreinforced)
= 53 85 (reinforced)
5

(2a)
(2b)
(2c)

CONCLUSIONS

Several series of laboratory tests were performed to


evaluate behavior characteristics of unreinforced and
reinforced lightweight soils (RLS). RLS was made
of dredged soil, cement, air foam and waste fishing net. From this experimental study, the following
conclusions were found.
1. Unconfined compressive strength of lightweight
soils increased with increase in cement content, but
decreased with increases in water content and air
foam content.
2. In the case of 0.25% content of waste fishing
net, unconfined compressive strengths of RLS are
about 2 times greater than those of unreinforced
lightweight soils due to reinforced effect by waste
fishing net.
3. Unconfined compressive strength of RLS generally
increased by adding waste fishing net, but amount
of increase in compressive strength was not proportional to content of waste fishing net. In this
test, maximum increase in compressive strength
was obtained at 0.25% content of waste fishing net.
4. Deformation modulus (E50 ) of lightweight soil is
in range of 53 to 85 times of the value of qu ,
which is within range of data studied by Tsuchida
et al.(2004).

5. Consolidation characteristics of lightweight soil


such as yielding stress and compression index are
almost same , irrespective of curing condition.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was partially supported by grant MNF22004002-3-1-SB010 from the Research Program of the
Korea Maritime Institute Research and Development.

REFERENCES
Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries 2001. Fact Book
of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (in Korean).
Otani, J., Mukunoki T. and Kikuchi Y. 2002. Visualization for Engineering Property of In-situ Lightweight Soils
with Air Foams, Soil and Foundations, Vol 4, No 3, pp
93 105.
Prabaker, J. and Sridhar, R.S. 2002. Effect of Random
Inclusion of Sisal Fibre on Strength Behavior of Soil, Construction and Building Materials, Vol 16, pp. 123 131.
Tsuchida, T. and Egashira, K. 2004. The lightweight Treated
Soil Method, New Geomaterials for Soft Ground Engineering in Coastal Areas, Balkema.
Tsuchida,T. and Kang, M.S. 2002. Use of lightweight treated
soil method in seaport and airport construction projects,
Proc. Nakase Memorial Symposium (Soft Ground Engineering in Coastal Areas, Balkema, Yokosuka, pp. 353
365.
Tsuchida, T. and Kang, M.S. 2003. Case studies of
lightweight treated soil method in seaport and airport
construction projects, Proc. 12th Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
Singapore, pp. 249252.
Tsuchida, T., Takeuchi, D., Okumura, T. and Kishida, T.
1996. Development of Light-weight Fill from Dredgings, Proc. of Environmental Geotechnics, Balkema, pp
415 420.
Watabe,Y., Itou,Y., Kang, M.S. and Tsuchida, T. 2004. Onedimensional compression of air-foam treated lightweight
geo-material in microscopic point of view, Soils and
Foundations, Vol. 44, No. 6, pp5367.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

A case study of building damage risk assessment due to the multi-propped


deep excavation in deep soft soil
Sun-Jae Lee
Civil Technology Team, Samsung Corporation, Seong-nam, Korea

Tae-Won Song, Yoon-Sang Lee & Young-Han Song


KPE Project, Samsung Corporation, Singapore

Jae-Kwon Kim
Civil Technology Team, Samsung Corporation, Seong-nam, Korea

ABSTRACT: A case study was conducted by focusing on the method of ground movement prediction adopted in
the design of multi-propped excavation in Singapore deep soft soil. The prediction method was discussed in terms
of green-field angular distortion and horizontal strain. The results of close monitoring works by geotechnical
instrumentation for reinforced concrete frame structure of 12-storey, which is at 6m offset to the retaining wall,
were reviewed and compared with those from design prediction. Damage risk assessment parameters derived
from the monitoring results were in general at 80 100% level of the design prediction in green-field condition.
Analyses of the critical tensile strains caused by bending and shear showed much greater effect of horizontal
strain on building damage than settlement.

INTRODUCTION

Ground excavation induces adjacent ground movement which may cause damages to building structures in various ways. Prediction of ground movement
triggered by the excavation work has been studied
by numerous researchers (Caspe, 1966; Peck, 1969;
Attewell and Woodman, 1982; Attewell et al., 1986;
Bowles, 1997). Excavation-induced ground movement
causes structural movement and consequently damages on structure, for example distortions and severe
cracks on structural elements. The effects of ground
movement on the adjacent structures have also been
the subject of persistent studies of many researchers
(Skempton and Macdonald, 1957; Bjerrum, 1963;
Meyerhof, 1953 and 1956; Polshin and Tokar, 1957;
Burland and Wroth 1974; Wahls, 1981; Boscardin
and Cording, 1989; Franzius, 2003; Son and Cording,
2005).
The authors described here the method of ground
movement prediction and building damage risk
assessment adopted in the design of strutted deep
excavation for 6-lane underground expressway in Singapore deep soft soil deposits. Building damage risk
assessed in the design phase was compared with the
monitored ground and building movement in terms
of angular distortion and horizontal strain. Critical

tensile strains induced by shear and bending were


reviewed and also analyzed respectively with reference
to monitored building movement.
2

This project was a part of Kallang Paya Lebar Expressway (KPE) which had been planned as underground
tunnel to get traffic flow more smoothly from South
to North through the central urban area in Singapore
as shown in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows a plan view of

Malaysia
Woodland

KPE C423

Bukit Timah

Orchard
Jurong
Kallang
Sentosa

Figure 1. Layout of KPE route.

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SITE DESCRIPTION

Changi
Airport

Centre Sheetpile

1m D-wall

BLK.
122

Kallang
Formation

OA

0.8m
Transverse
D-wall

Bored pile

Figure 4. Bird view of retaining system to protect the


residential building (Block 122).

Figure 2. Plan view of excavation support and adjacent


building.

Transverse D-wall

Figure 3. Geological profile.

proposed retaining system of 45 m wide deep excavation for the construction of underground expressway
and Figure 3 shows a cross sectional view including
more detailed layout of retaining system. The subsurface ground consists of Kallang formation which is
one of typical soft soil layers in Singapore, and the Old
Alluvium (OA). Kallang formation consists of Marine
Clay, Fluvial Clay, Fluvial Sand and Estuarine (Peat
layer). Marine Clay is the most dominant member of
the Kallang formation consisting of recent deposits in
Singapore and has thickness of 15 to 25 m with an average of 20 m. It shows very soft to soft consistency (SPT
N = 0 2) and is intersected into Upper and Lower
Marine Clay by Fluvial Clay or Fluvial Sand (or both).
Fluvial Clay is lightly over-consolidated and
medium stiff (SPT N = 5 10). Fluvial Sand consists
of mainly sandy soil and shows loose to medium dense
condition (SPT N = 8 12). In most cases, Fluvial

Clay and Fluvial Sand of 10 30 m thickness overlie


or underlie the lower Marine Clay layer alternately.
The Old Alluvium consists of mainly sandy soil
and shows medium dense to very dense condition
underlying the Kallang formation. In general, the
Old Alluvium is classified by degree of cementation,
degree of weathering, and sand content. The degree of
weathering was adopted for the classification of the
Old Alluvium in this project; OAw (weathered OA,
SPT N = 12 25), OAsw2 (more slightly weathered
OA, SPT N = 25 50), OAsw1 (slightly weathered
OA, SPT N = 50 99), OAcz (cemented OA, SPT
N > 100). The Old Alluvium layer is well known suitable for the bearing layer of structural foundation in
Singapore.
Ground water table is at high side and the average
(or the maximum) water table is in general 1 m below
ground surface all the way through the construction
period, mainly being controlled by the Kallang River
which is located near the project site.
The original retaining system was designed by
adopting 1000 mm thick diaphragm wall and 5 layers
of struts over 15 17 m excavation depths. However,
by the sensitivity study, it was shown that the building
stability (Block 122, residential apartment of 12-story
as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3) adjacent to the
excavation could not be assured with this retaining system, hence transverse diaphragm wall of 800 mm thick
crossing between D-wall at one side and the retaining wall at the centre was designed and installed at
7 m spacing as robust support to minimize the ground
movement behind the 1000 mm diaphragm wall (See
Figure 4).
3

GROUND MOVEMENT PREDICTION

3.1 Settlement and horizontal movement prediction


The prediction method of ground movement induced
by excavation has long been proposed by numerous
researchers (e.g. Caspe, 1966; Peck, 1969; ORouke,
1975; Clough and ORouke, 1990; and Bowles, 1988).
Caspe (1966) proposed a method of movement prediction with the settlement profile of the second order of

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0.8m D-wall

parabolic function, assuming that the volume of lateral


movement of retaining wall was same as the volume
of ground settlement behind the wall. Bowles (1988)
proposed more specified parabolic equation to predict
the ground settlement profile behind the wall based on
Caspes assumption as shown in Equation (1).

(3)

(4)

where, x: horizontal distance from the vertical retaining wall, s(x): ground settlement at x, smax : ground
settlement at wall location, W: settlement trough
width. Figure 5 illustrates the basic concept of ground
settlement prediction curve adopted in this project.
Combining Equation (3) with Equation (4) and
adopting n = 1 for clayey soil lead to Equation (5),

20

0
-20

0
-10

20

40

60

Distance from the wall (m)

-20
-30
-40
-50
-60

Figure 6. An example of ground movement prediction.

which is horizontal ground movement curve behind


the wall.
h(x) = (1 + 2x/W) s(x)

(5)

where, x: horizontal distance from the vertical retaining wall, h(x): horizontal ground movement at x,
: the ratio of horizontal movement to settlement
(=dh/ds), W: settlement trough width, s(x): ground
settlement at x.
In this project, Equation (5) was adopted for the prediction of horizontal ground movement and the ratio of
horizontal movement to settlement = 0.5 for D-wall
and = 1.0 for sheet pile wall were assumed.
Figure 6 shows an example of ground movement
prediction using Equation (4) and Equation (5), in
which = 0.5, smax = 50 mm and W = 30 m were
assumed. As shown, all movement vectors at any
location derived from settlement and horizontal displacement curve aim at notional centre point. Notional
centre point does not coincide with the actual centre
point of excavation.
3.2

Estimation of trough width, W

It is noted from the Section 3.1 that estimation of


trough width, W, has a substantial effect on the shape
of ground settlement and horizontal movement curve.

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s(x) from Eq. (4)


h(x) from Eq. (5) with =0.5
Movement vector

30

10

where, x: horizontal distance from the centre of tunnel,


h(x): horizontal ground movement at x, n: power of
(z0 -z) to which i is proportional, z0 : depth to tunnel
centre, z: depth of any point where ground movement
is predicted. Power n is 0.9 for sandy soil and 1.0 for
clayey soil (Attewell et al., 1986).
Assuming that vertical retaining wall is located at
inflection point x = i in the Equation (2) and replacing
the x with x + i in the Equation (2) lead to Equation (4), which is the ground settlement curve behind
the vertical retaining wall (Mott Macdonald Co, Ltd.,
1993).
s(x) = smax exp[0.5 0.5(1 + 2x/W)2 ]

Figure 5. Basic concept of ground settlement prediction.

(2)

where, x: horizontal distance from the centre of tunnel, s(x): ground surface settlement at x, smax : ground
surface settlement at tunnel centre, and i: settlement
trough dimension parameter (Attewell et al., 1986;
ground surface distance from the tunnel centre to the
inflection point of settlement curve).
Tunnelling produces substantial amount of horizontal ground movement as well as settlement, and
OReilly and New (1982) proposed a method of horizontal ground movement prediction in the transverse
direction to the tunnel advance, assuming that the
ground movement vector at any location aims at the
same point (tunnel centre), as shown in Equation (3).
h(x) = [n/(z0 z)] x s(x)

Notional
center pt.

(1)

where, x: horizontal distance from the wall, s(x):


ground surface settlement at x, si,wall : ground surface
settlement at wall location, and W: settlement trough
width.
Tunnelling in the ground also induces ground movement in a similar way. Peck (1969) proposed the
tunnelling-induced ground settlement profile in the
form of Gaussian curve as shown in Equation (2).
s(x) = smax exp(x2 /2i2 )

settlement curve
from Pecks method
smax from Bowless method

(-) s(x), (+) h(x)

s(x) = si,wall [(W x)/W]2

W = 2i

damage of buildings into architectural damage, functional damage and structural damage. However, each
damage category was not classified quantitatively in
terms of strain level. Burland et al. (1977) proposed
that the building damage be categorized into 6 levels by considering the aspects of visual appearance,
serviceability, and stability; Negligible, Very slight,
Slight, Moderate, Severe, Very severe. They classified the damage levels by crack width, crack frequency
and tensile strain. Boscardin and Cording (1989) also
proposed the damage levels quantitatively by using
angular distortion and tensile strain. Table 1 shows the
damage criteria adopted for this project. The retaining walls over the whole stretch were designed such
that the damage levels might be remained under Slight
damage level.

Building
W @ Ground surface

Clay

DOA

45

FL

W @ top of OA

OA

45-/2

4.2 Assessment method of building damage risk


Figure 7. Illustration of trough width calculation.

Bowles (1988) proposed the settlement wedge is at an


angle of (45 -)/2 to the vertical line. In this project, it
was also assumed that ground movement wedge triggered by excavation was at an angle of 45 in the
Kallang formation which mainly consists of undrained
Marine Clay ( = 0), and (45 -)/2 in the OA layer
which shows similar behavior of sandy soil. Adopting
this assumption leads to the calculation of trough width
as shown in Equation (6), and Figure 7 illustrates the
calculation of trough width.
W = (D + H DOA ) tan(45 /2) + DOA

(6)

where, D: excavation depth, H: settlement influence


depth below excavation level, DOA : depth to OA surface, : friction angle of soil. Bowles (1988) proposed
the settlement influence depth can be calculated as
Equation (7) and Equation (8) for the undrained soil
and drained soil respectively.
H = B for = 0

(7)

H = 0.5B tan(45 /2) for > 0

(8)

where, B: excavation width, : friction angle of soil.


4 ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING
DAMAGE RISK
4.1

Classification of building damage

Most of the building damage is initiated by tensile cracking induced by stress increase. Polshin and
Tokar (1957) defined the critical tensile strain as
tensile strain at which visible crack started developing. Skempton and Macdonald (1956) categorized the

Burland and Wroth (1974) proposed the assessment


method of building damage by using simple beam
analysis, in which the building deflection was idealized as a deflection of simple beam. They calculated
critical tensile strain from the deflection of simple
beam and proposed that deflection ratio, /L, length to
height ratio, L/H, of building and the ratio of Youngs
modulus to shear modulus, E/G, were primary parameters for the damage risk assessment. Tensile strains
induced by pure shear and pure bending due to the
deflection were proposed respectively, and it has been
shown that the rigid building of greater L/H was much
more sensitive to the damage induced by shear rather
than bending. On the contrary, it has been shown that
the flexible building of smaller L/H was much more
sensitive to the damage induced by bending rather than
shear. More reasonably, their findings may be applied
to the assessment of damage risk caused by vertical
settlement of building rather than horizontal strain.
Boscardin and Cording (1989) suggested that horizontal strain had much influences on the building
damage as well as vertical settlement, particularly
in the case of excavation-induced ground movement.
They described the analysis results by using deep beam
model and introduced critical tensile strain derived
from horizontal strain, h , and angular distortion, .
They also proposed the damage classification chart
based on their findings, in which damage levels were
categorized by critical tensile strain as shown in Table
1. However, their study was focused on the damage
induced only by shear hence there are some limitations
in applying it to low-rigidity building (e.g. brick-wall
structure) whose damage is probably more governed
by bending than shear.
Burland (1995) proposed modified damage classification chart, in which the combined damage effects
induced by bending as well as shear were considered.
They took into account deflection ratio and horizontal
strain.

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Table 1.

Damage classification category (after Burland et al, 1977 and boscardin and cording, 1989).

Building Damage Classification


Damage
Category

Degree of
Damage

Description of Typical Damage and Likely Form of


Repair for Typical Masonry Buildings

Crack Width
(mm)

Max. Tensile
Strain (%)

0
1

Negligible
Very
Slight

<0.1
0.1 to 1

0 to 0.,05
0.05 to 0.075

Slight

1 to 5

0.075 to 0.15

Moderate

5 to 15 or a number
of cracks greater
than 3

0.15 to 0.3

Severe

15 to 25 but also
depends on number
of cracks

Greater than
0.3

Very
Severe

Hairline cracks
Fine cracks easily treated during normal redecorations.
Perhaps isolated slight fracture in building. Cracks in
exterior brickwork visible upon close inspection
Cracks easily filled. Redecoration probably required.
Several slight fractures inside building. Exterior cracks
visible: some repointing may be required for weather
tightness. Doors and windows may stick slightly.
Cracks may require cutting out and patching. Recurrent
cracks can be masked by suitable linings. Tack-pointing
and possibly replacement of a small amount of exterior
brickwork may be required. Doors and windows
sticking. Utility services may be interrupted. Water
tightness often impaired
Extensive repair involving removal and replacement of
sections of walls, especially over doors and windows
required. Windows and door frames distorted. Floor
slopes noticeably. Walls lean or bulge noticeably, some
loss of bearing in beams. Utility services disrupted.
Major repair required involving partial or complete
reconstruction. Beams lose bearing, walls lean badly
and require shoring. Windows broken by distortion.
Danger of instability.

Usually greater than


25 but depends on
number of cracks

4E-03

4E-03

Horizontal Strain,

Horizontal Strain,h

3E-03
(4-5) Severe to
Very Severe
2E-03
(3) Moderate
1E-03

0E+00
0E+00

(2) Slight
(1) Very Slight
(0) Negligible
1E-03

2E-03

3E-03

4E-03

5E-03

6E-03

7E-03

3E-03
(4-5) Severe to
Very Severe

2E-03

1E-03

(3) Moderate
(2) Slight
(1) Very Slight
(0) Negligible

0E+00
0E+00 1E-03 2E-03 3E-03 4E-03 5E-03 6E-03 7E-03 8E-03

8E-03

Angular Distortion,

Angular Distortion,

Figure 8. Damage classification chart for concrete frame


structure (L/H = 0.5, E/G = 12.5).

Figure 9. Damage classification chart for the low-rise


brick-wall structure (L/H = 2.0, E/G = 2.6).

In this project, damage classification chart proposed by Burland (1995) was adopted for the damage
risk assessment of building adjacent to the excavation. However, angular distortion, , introduced by
Boscardin and Cording (1989), was adopted instead
of deflection ratio, /L.
Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the typical damage
classification chart adopted in this project for the reinforced concrete frame structure and low-rise brick
wall building respectively (Mott Macdonald, 1993).
Figure 7 looks like that proposed by Boscardin and
Cording (1989) because their study was focused on
concrete frame structure, which is more sensitive to the

shear-induced tensile strain than to bending-induced


tensile strain. Critical tensile strain for each damage
category was adopted same as that given in Table 1.

4.3 Damage assessment result: design phase


Ground movement profile behind the wall was estimated by the method described in section 3, in
which volume of ground loss (or horizontal wall
displacement) was calculated from the numerical analysis. Figure 10 shows the predicted ground movement

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Ground level

100

Elevation (mOD)

90
80
70
60

Pile toe level

50
40
30
20
0 10 20 30
ux (mm)

(-) Settlement, (+) Horizontal displacement

110

40

H = 36m, L = 8.5m
X = 15m
G-F = 0m for raft analysis
= 37m for piled analysis
D=16.5m, B=44.5m

Building

20
0
0

20
40
60
Distance from the wall (m)

-20

Foundation Level

-40
-60
-80

Excavation
s(x) @ Ground level(Bilinear wedge)
h(x) @ Ground level(Bilinear wedge)
s(x) @ OA level
h(x) @ OA level

Reference point

Figure 11. Simplified geometry of excavation and


Block122.
4E-03

3E-03
Horizontal Strain,h

profiles for the Block 122 given in Figure 2 and Figure 3. In case of piled assessment, only the ground loss
(sum of horizontal movement) below the pile toe level
was taken and the procedures of movement prediction
were exactly same as that for ground surface described
in section 3.
Detailed description of the analysis of multipropped excavation itself is beyond the scope of this
paper hence not included in this paper. Damage risk
parameters were easily calculated from the settlement and horizontal movement profiles as shown in
Equation (9) to Equation (12), based on the given information (e.g. offset from the wall, transverse length of
building) of excavation and building.
rigid body tilt; = (sA sB )/L

Figure 10. Predicted ground movement profile behind the


retaining wall at Block 122 location.

Ground level: h = 8.35E-04


= 3.54E-04
Pile toe level: h = 8.35E-04
= 4.62E-04
(4-5) Severe to
Very Severe

2E-03

1E-03

Bilinear raft
assessment
Bilinear piled
assessment

(3) Moderate

(2) Slight
(1) Very Slight
(0) Negligible
0E+00
0E+00

(9)

1E-03

2E-03

3E-03

4E-03

5E-03

6E-03

7E-03

Angular Distortion,

horizontal strain; h = (hA hB )/L

(10)

slope at A; s = 2(1 + 2XA /W) sA /W

(11)

angular distortion; = s

(12)

where, : rigid body tilt of building, sA and sB : settlement at point A and B, L: transverse length of building,
h : horizontal strain of building, hA and hB : horizontal
displacement at point A and B, s : slope at point A,
XA : distance between reference point B and retaining
wall, W: trough width, and : angular distortion. Figure 11 illustrates simplified geometry of excavation
and adjacent building, Block 122.
Figure 12 shows the results of building damage
risk assessment for Block 122, in which the effect of
soil-structure interaction was not considered. Hence
the results were considered for green-field condition
and the estimated damage was categorized into Slight
level. Boscardin and Cording (1989) suggested that
the effect of soil-structure interaction on the building
damage was substantial and actual building damage
was much smaller than that estimated from green-field
condition. Therefore, it was postulated at design phase
that the damage risk was highly likely much smaller
than Slight damage level shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Damage risk assessment result in design phase


(Block122).

4.4 Damage assessment result: construction phase


Intensive instrumentation was installed prior to the
commencement of excavation work in order to verify
the damage assessment risk level at design phase.
Figure 13 shows the layout of instrumentation
installed on Block 122. 80 settlement markers were
installed to monitor the ground settlement and building settlement. 4 inclinometers were installed for the
monitoring of horizontal wall movement. 10 tape
extensometers were installed to check the relative horizontal movement of building column, which represent
the horizontal strain of the building. 60 EL-beam sensors (Slope Indicator, 2003) were installed to monitor
the overall movement of the building in parallel and
perpendicular direction to the excavation boundary.
Figure 14 shows the data from one of the inclinometers (I-1) and it is noted that the horizontal movement
monitored during the excavation is in good agreement
with design prediction, implying that actual ground
volume loss behind the wall was quite similar to that of

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

G-F

Figure 13. Layout of instrumentation on Block 122.


LAB

105

95
90
85

LBC

C
AB

80

75

BC

100

Elevation (mOD)

1st Exc.
2nd Exc.
3rd Exc.
4th Exc.
5th Exc.
6th Exc.

1st exc.
2nd exc.
3rd exc.
4th exc.
5th exc.
6th exc.

70
Deflection of building
Settlement bolt

65
60
-10

0
10
20
Horizontal displacement (mm)

El_beam sensor

30

Figure 16. Concept of monitoring for damage risk


assessment.

Figure 14. Inclinometer data of I-1.

10

Distance from the wall (m)


20
30
40

50

According to the monitoring data mentioned above,


damage risk assessment parameters (angular distortion, deflection ratio, horizontal strain) were analyzed.
Figure 16 shows the concept of this calculation and
the following Equation (13) to Equation (15) show
the detailed calculation procedure taking on settlement
and horizontal displacement. Equation (16) and Equation (17) show the calculation of angular distortion
from the EL-beam sensor data.

60

Settlement (mm

0
-10
-20
-30
-40

Settlement(mm) design prediction


Monitored@Section-1
Monitored@Section-2
Monitored@Section-3
Monitored@Section-4

= s = sAB /LAB sAB /LAB

-50

Figure 15. Settlement data of Sect-1, 2, 3 and 4.

design prediction. However, actual volume loss behind


the wall was shown to be somewhat greater than design
prediction as shown in Figure 15. Nevertheless, monitored settlement on building showed small magnitude
(<10 mm), which was surely due to the pile foundation below the building. Monitoring results of tape
extensometer and EL-beam sensors were directly used
for the calculation of horizontal strain and angular
distortion respectively. These results will be discussed
in following paragraph.

( > 0 for hogging, < 0 for sagging)


 = (tans tan) LAB
h = hAB /LAB
= tan1 [(LAB tanAB + LBC
tanBC )/(LAB + LBC )]
AB = AB , BC = BC

(16)
(17)

Damage risk parameters calculated from the monitoring data using Equation (13) to Equation (17) are
shown in Figure 17 to Figure 19. It is noted from Figure 17 to Figure 19 that angular distortions do not
carry meaningful variation as excavation advances,

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(13)
(14)
(15)

Angular distortio

Excavation
Finished

Excavation
Commenced

2.0.E-03
1.0.E-03
0.0.E+00
-1.0.E-03

31-Aug-05

1-Aug-05

2-Jul-05

2-Jun-05

3-May-05

3-Apr-05

4-Mar-05

2-Feb-05

-3.0.E-03

3-Jan-05

-2.0.E-03

3.0E-03
2.0E-03
1.0E-03

0.0E+00
0.0E+00

Figure 17. Variation of angular distortion derived from


settlement data.
3.0.E-03

Angular distortio

1.0.E-03
0.0.E+00
-1.0.E-03
-2.0.E-03

31-Aug-05

1-Aug-05

2-Jul-05

2-Jun-05

3-May-05

3-Apr-05

4-Mar-05

2-Feb-05

3-Jan-05

-3.0.E-03

Date

Figure 18. Variation of angular distortion derived from


EL-beam sensor data.
1.5.E-03

Horizontal strai

Excavation
Finished

Excavation
Commenced

AB
CD
EF
IJ
KL
MN
OP
QR
ST

5.0.E-04
0.0.E+00
-5.0.E-04

8.0E-03

1-Aug-05

2-Jul-05

Figure 20. Monitored damage risk parameters compared to


design prediction.

Burland and Wroth (1974) summarized the concept of


failure modes of building caused by bending and diagonal shear. Bending-induced tensile strain and shearinduced diagonal strain due to the vertical ground
movement (settlement) were expressed in terms of
deflection ratio, Youngs modulus to shear modulus
ratio, and length to height ratio as shown in Equation (18) and Equation (19) respectively, which was
derived from the Simple Beam Theory. Considering
the horizontal strain induced by lateral ground movement given by Equation (18) and Equation (19) lead
to the Equation (20) and Equation (21) respectively.
Multi-propped excavation generally induces horizontal ground movement hence horizontal strain shall be
considered in the assessment of building damage risk
triggered by ground excavation. Equation (20) and
Equation (21) show the critical tensile strain induced
by bending and diagonal shear actions respectively.

d = (/L) [(1/6)(G/E)(L/H)2 + 1]

(19)

bmax = b + h

(20)

dmax = h /2 +

Figure 19. Variation of horizontal strain derived from tape


extensometer data.

implying that no meaningful settlement was monitored during the full excavation period. Only slight
increase of horizontal strain was monitored near the
final excavation stage as shown in Figure 19.
Figure 20 shows the plot of damage risk parameters
on damage risk assessment chart.As shown, monitored
angular distortions were within 1e-3, giving negligible
damage category in terms of settlement. Horizontal
strains were within 0.75e-4, providing Negligible to
Very slight damage category in terms of horizontal
ground movement.

[(h /2)2 + 2d ]

(21)

where, b : tensile strain by bending, /L: deflection


ratio, L/H: length to height ratio of building, E/G:
Youngs modulus to shear modulus ratio of building,
d : tensile strain by diagonal shear, bmax : critical tensile strain by bending, h : horizontal strain and dmax :
critical tensile strain by diagonal shear.
Figure 21 shows the variation of strain described
in Equation (18) to Equation (21), which was derived
from the analysis of settlement and horizontal movement monitoring data. As shown in Figure 21, strains
induced only by settlement, b and d , not including effect of horizontal ground movement, showed
very small values all the way through the construction period. Critical tensile strains induced by both

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6.0E-03

b = (/L) [(1/12)(L/H) + (1/2)(E/G)(H/L)](18)

31-Aug-05

Date

2-Jun-05

3-May-05

3-Apr-05

4-Mar-05

2-Feb-05

3-Jan-05

-1.0.E-03
-1.5.E-03

4.0E-03

4.5 Analysis of building strain

GH-1
GH-2
GH-3
EF-1
EF-2
EF-3
IJ-1
IJ-2
IJ-3
CD-1
CD-2
CD-3
MN-1
MN-2
MN-3
OP-1
OP-2
OP-3
ST-1
ST-2
ST-3

Excavation
Finished

Excavation
Commenced

1.0.E-03

2.0E-03

Angular distortion

Date

2.0.E-03

Upper limit of Moderate damage


Upper limit of Slight damage
Upper limit of Very slight damage
Upper limit of Negligible damage
Raft design assessment
Piled design asessment
21-Feb-05
23-Mar-05
21-Apr-05
24-May-05
20-Jun-05
25-Jul-05
25-Aug-05

4.0E-03

AB
CD
EF
IJ
KL-1
KL-2
KL-3
KL-4
MN
OP
QR
ST

Horizontal strain

3.0.E-03

Mott Macdonald Co. Ltd. for providing much valuable


technical information for this work.

Strain

1.5.E-03
Tensile strain by bending,b
Critical tensile strain by bending,bmax
Diagonal strain by shear,d
Critical diagonal strain by shear,dmax

1.0.E-03

REFERENCES
5.0.E-04

31-Aug-05

1-Aug-05

2-Jul-05

2-Jun-05

3-May-05

3-Apr-05

4-Mar-05

2-Feb-05

3-Jan-05

0.0.E+00

Date

Figure 21. Variations of strains during the construction


period.

settlement and horizontal ground movement, bmax and


dmax , showed 80% of the upper limit of Slight damage
category, which is maximum allowable damage level
specified in design criteria. Therefore, it was noted that
the effect of horizontal ground movement on building
damage risk was much greater than settlement in this
case.
5

CONCLUSION

A case study was carried out by using the method


of ground movement prediction and building damage
risk assessment, which was adopted for multi-propped
underground excavation in Singapore deep soft soil.
Monitored ground movement showed smaller vertical settlement but wider trough than those predicted in
design phase. Probably, consolidation settlement, even
though not described here in detail, was a main cause
of this phenomenon.
Monitored angular distortion and horizontal strain
developed on the object building was at 80 100%
level of design prediction. According to the strain analyses, horizontal strain had greater influences on building damage than angular distortion. Shear-induced
strain had much greater impacts on tensile strain than
bending-induced strain in this case when horizontal
strain was not considered.
It is expected that the methods described in this
paper may be used efficiently and beneficially in case
that many kinds of buildings are scattered adjacently
along the long excavation route and building damage
risk assessments of all buildings are inevitable.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was carried out by virtue of the sincere
support of all engineers involved in Singapore KPE
C423 project. Their support is gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks are due to Dr. N. Mace of

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Geology of Underground Movements, Geology Society
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Skempton, A.W. and Macdonald, D.H. (1956), Allowable
settlement of buildings, Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Vol.5,
pp.727768.
Son, M.R. and Cording, E.J. (2005), Estimation of Building Damage Due to Excavation-Induced Ground Movements, Journal of Geotech. and Geoenv. Engineering,
ASCE, Vol.131(2), pp.162177.
Tomlinson, M.J. (1986), Foundation Design and Construction, 5th Ed., Longman Scientific & Technical, pp.294
296.

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Study on jackup spudcan punch-through


C.F. Leung, K.L. Teh & Y.K. Chow
Centre for Soft Ground Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore

ABSTRACT: Owing to peculiar subsurface seabed condition of stiff soil overlying soft soil, the possibility of
punch-through of jackup spudcan during installation in Southeast Asia is reported to be higher than that in other
parts of the world. In general, the spudcan will punch through if the underlying soft soil is unable to resist the
relatively large load required to install the spudcan through the upper stiff soil. Centrifuge model tests have been
carried out at the National University of Singapore to investigate the spudcan punch-through phenomenon. The
measured spudcan bearing resistance profiles for cases with various thicknesses of overlying stiff soil highlight
the significance of this thickness parameter to the bearing resistance provided by the layered soil system.
Traditionally, SNAME recommends the use of Hanna & Meyerhofs method of bearing capacity of shallow
foundation in layered soils and the projected area method to evaluate the spudcan installation resistance. The
centrifuge test results reveal that the above traditional theories are unable to determine the spudcan resistance
accurately and hence fail to predict the punch-through phenomenon in most cases. This paper presents the
centrifuge test results, the comparison of the test results with theoretical predictions and the recommendations
arising from the comparison.

INTRODUCTION

Spudcans are often used as the foundation for jackup


rigs that are commonly employed in offshore oil and
gas exploration works. A typical jackup rig is shown
in Figure 1. In general, the spudcan is essentially
a very large footing with diameter typically ranging
from 10 m to 18 m. Jackup rigs are mobile in nature
with their spudcan foundations installed or extracted
as and when required, see Figure 2. Thus the design of
spudcan foundations is generally not site specific.
The installation of spudcan in stiff soil overlying
soft soil stratum may result in the punch-through of
a spudcan into the underlying soft soil. A probable
problematic soil profile consists of stiff clay overlying soft clay that is prevalent in offshore Southeast
Asia. In other parts of the world with active oil and gas
drilling exploration works, the problematic soil profile
consists of sand overlying soft clay. Osbourne (2005)
presented the locations of seabed profile of sand overlying clay (Figure 3) that may threaten the jackup rig
stability during spudcan installation. Unlike onshore
foundations, spudcan footing is not custom-designed
to suit any particular location, and neither the foundation can be reformed to support the design loads. This
brings about the real challenge to spudcan design for a
site consisting of the above unfavourable problematic
soil profiles.

The key concern of spudcan installation is to meet


the designed preload without endanger the structure
integrity. To satisfy this basic requirement, the importance of having a reliable prediction of the foundation
bearing resistance prior to installation is pronounced.
The reliability of the predicted bearing resistance is
often governed by two factors. The first factor is the
quality of the site investigation data in which the soil
strength parameters are interpreted. The second one is
the validity of the adopted method of analysis. These
two factors are inter-related. However, the first factor is inevitably complicated to justify as it involves
many different issues such as workmanship, financial
concern, and heterogeneous soil condition beneath the
seabed. On the other hand, it is possible to justify the
validity of a method provided the shear strength of the
subsoils is known. One possible way to execute this
validation is by comparing the bearing resistance predicted by existing methods and the measured bearing
resistance obtained from a reliable source.
In the present study, centrifuge modeling technique
was employed to simulate the spudcan penetration
in sand overlying clay. The soil strength profile of
sand overlying clay was established by conducting
miniature piezocone penetration tests (CPTu) during
centrifuge flight. This is followed by discussions on
a generic spudcan bearing resistance profile before
moving on to the comparisons of centrifuge test results

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(a) Installation and preloading

Spudcan

Figure 1. Typical jack-up unit (Reardon, 1986).

with the corresponding predicted values obtained


using existing theories.
(b) Extraction

2
2.1

CENTRIFUGE MODEL TEST


Figure 2. Operational mode of mobile jack-up (Leung,
2005).

Experimental setup

The spudcan penetration tests were performed on the


National University of Singapore (NUS) Centrifuge.
All tests were performed at 100 g. A schematic of the
experimental set up is shown in Figure 4. A strong-box
model container of 500 mm in diameter and 400 mm in
height was used. The 100-mm diameter model spudcan (prototype diameter 10 m) was installed using a
servo-valve controlled hydraulic cylinder and its penetration was measured by a long-travel potentiometer
attached to the hydraulic cylinder. The bearing load
was measured by means of a load cell attached between
the actuator and the shaft of the model spudcan. A

set of miniature cone penetration test equipment was


also mounted on the loading frame to measure the soil
strength in-flight.
2.2 Soil sample preparation
Malaysian Kaolin clay and Japanese Toyoura sand
were used in the present study to form the lower and
the upper soil layer, respectively. The properties of the
soils are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The clay slurry at
1.5 times liquid limit was consolidated under 100 g
for 8 hours under two-way drainage. The clay sample

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

Properties of Malaysian Kaolin clay (Goh, 2003).

Specific gravity (Gs )


Liquid limit (wL )
Plastic limit (wP )
Coefficient of consolidation (at 100 kPa)
Coefficient of permeability (at 100 kPa)
Angle of internal friction,
Modified Cam-clay parameters:
M

K
N

Table 2.
Figure 3. Locations of sand overlying clay profiles
(Osbourne, 2005).
Hydraulic
cylinder

2.60
80
35
40 m2 /yr
2.0 108 m/s
23
0.9
0.244
0.053
3.35

Properties of Toyoura sand.

Specific gravity
Average particle size (mm)
Uniformity coefficient
Dmax , Dmin (mm)
D50 , D10 (mm)
Range of density (kg/m3 )

2.65
0.2
1.3
0.3, 0.115
0.2, 0.163
1335 1645

LVDT

LVDT

to flow into the strong box under a control manner


through a tube installed at an opening of the strong
box wall at the elevation of the sand-clay interface.
Once the saturation process of the sand layer was completed, the loading frame was mounted, and the model
spudcan and the miniature piezocone were attached to
the model setup. The model container was then again
subjected to 100g until the clay was fully consolidated
under the new sand surcharge.

Piezocone

Load cell
Spudcan

2.3 Test procedure


Once the soil consolidation was completed, the valve
controlling the bottom drainage was closed before the
CPTu test was carried out in-flight at a penetration rate
of 2.5 mm/s prior to spudcan penetration. The spudcan
was installed using a load control mode at the penetration rate of 0.15 kN/s. This rate of penetration ensures
an undrained installation process in the clay layer and
drained condition in the upper sand layer based on the
velocity group parameter proposed by Finnie (1993).

Sand

NC Clay

Drainage
layer

Valve

Figure 4. Centrifuge model setup.

was then brought to rest and sand was subsequently


rained in using spot type air pluviation method with
a constant drop height of 600 mm. The density of the
sand layer was then determined by measuring the total
added sand weight and the volume formed. The relative density, DR , of Toyoura sand recorded in the tests
ranges from 88% to 95%. The sand was then saturated
by applying vacuum on the top and water was allowed

A CPTu test results are shown in Figure 5. It was


intended initially to utilize the CPTu results to interpret
the soil strength parameters for the upper sand layer
(e.g. friction angle, ) and underlying clay layer (e.g.
undrained shear strength, su ). Unfortunately the soil
layering effect on the cone resistance prevented the
direct application of the CPTu results (Teh et al., 2006)
to interpret the soil strength. For instance, the softening
influence of the lower clay layer to the cone response

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LAYERED SOIL STRENGTH PROFILE

D (m)
0
0

0.5

Table 3. Test configurations and soil strength properties.

qt (MPa)
1.5
2

2.5

3.5

1
2
3

Test

H (m)

su0 (kPa)

( )

qmax (kPa)

T1
T2
T3
T4

3
5
7
10

7.8
13
18
26

42.1
41.1
42.0
42.1

154.78
300.4
559.23
699.54

4
5

interpretations of the above are presented in Teh et al.


(2006). The shear strength parameters of the soils for
all the centrifuge tests are given in Table 3.

SAND
7

NC CLAY
8
9

10
11
12
13
14

u1

u0

qt

15
16
0

50

100

150

200

250

u (kPa)
Figure 5. CPTu results from test T3.

was evident while the cone was penetrating through


the sand layer. In other words, the cone resistance in
the sand layer could not be fully developed. The maximum corrected cone resistance, qt , shown in Figure
5 was found to have only mobilized up to 70% of the
sand cone resistance for the given case, based on the
equation proposed by Tatsuoka et al. (1990) for Toyoura sand (Teh et al., 2006). Nonetheless, the strength
of the Toyoura sand layer was obtained through a correlation chart based on the relationship between DR and
(Ueno 2000) by implicitly taking into consideration
the low stress level of the sand.
Likewise, the qt of the clay layer at shallow depth
was considerably high. This indicated that the cone
response was affected by the upper sand layer while
the piezocone was penetrating into the clay layer. This
is mainly attributed to the rear influence zone of the
cone which had extended to the base of the sand
layer. For a penetration depth beyond 12 m (see Figure
5), qt increased with depth. The clay layer was normally consolidated with su increasing linearly with
depth. By adopting an effective unit weight of sand
and clay as 10 kN/m3 and 6 kN/m3 , respectively, the
interpreted clay strength profile was found to be adequately described by a strength ratio, su /v of 0.26, in
which v represents the vertical effective overburden
soil pressure. The surface shear strength of the clay
layer, su0 was then obtained by extrapolation. Detail

Four centrifuge model tests were conducted in the


present study. The test configuration for the 4 tests are
given in Table 3. The spudcan bearing stress profile
of test T3 is shown in Figure 6. The spudcan penetration depth, D is taken as the elevation of the maximum
plan area of the spudcan. All the test results will be
presented in prototype scale, unless stated otherwise.
When the spudcan full plan area was first in contact
with the sand surface, the bearing stress, q, indicated
a value of approximately 280 kPa. This initial q was
found to be lower than the bearing capacity of a surface circular footing on sand calculated based on the
Prantle-Terzaghi general shear failure mechanism (Teh
et al., 2005).The softening effect of the underlying clay
layer to the overall soil bearing system was evident.
The high compressibility of the clay layer prevented the
full mobilization of the shear strength of the sand layer.
For the given sand thickness/spudcan diameter ratio
H/B of 0.7 for test T3, the failure zone is postulated
to extend into the lower clay layer even at the initial penetration depth. This suggests the initiation of a
combined failure mechanism. As a result, the potential
of spudcan punch-through is in the spotlight and care is
needed while the spudcan penetrates deeper. The maximum bearing stress was achieved at a penetration depth
D of 1.19 m. Further loading led to a sudden reduction of q, resulting in the spudcan penetrating rapidly
into the underlying clay before stopping at a depth of
8 m. This process is indeed the punch-through of the
spudcan with the totally lost-control spudcan experienced a massive drop of 6.81 m. This could seriously
cause severe tilting of the whole jack-up rig resulting
in a severe increase in loading on the lost-control leg.
Such load concentration may cause catastrophic failure of the jackup rig. To avoid damage to the model
spudcan in the present centrifuge tests, the model spudcan was installed by the piston of the hydraulic cylinder
having limited travel speed and length.
To explain the great reduction and the formation of
the second peak in the bearing stress profile shown in

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GENERIC SPUDCAN BEARING


RESISTANCE PROFILE

1.3

Bearing stress, q (kPa)


100

200

300

400

500
600
qmax

1.1

Dcrt
1

Penetration depth, D (m)

2
3

Dpt

0.7
0.6
(5)
(6)

0.5
0.4
0.3

(1) qsand (Hansen)+ qclay (ave. su)


(4) qsand (Meyerhof)+ qclay (Davis & Booker)
(2) qsand (Meyerhof) + qclay (ave. su)
(5) SNAME + qclay (ave. su)
(3) qsand (Hansen) + qclay (Davis & Booker) (6) SNAME + qclay (Davis & Booker)

0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

H/B

Figure 7. Comparisons of measured results with predictions


using Hanna and Meyerhof method.

SAND
CLAY

9
10

Figure 6. Spudcan bearing stress profile for test T3.

Figure 6, the observations of the half spudcan penetration test reported by Leung (2005) is referred here. It
was established that the departure of the sand wedge
into the clay layer contributed to the reduction in q. The
sand wedge was trapped underneath the spudcan base
and traveled together with the spudcan for the entire
penetration process. In the clay layer, the soil flew
from the base of the sand wedge followed by radial and
upward soil movements. The end boundary of this soil
flow reached the base of the sand layer. The overburden pressure imposed by the sand layer subsequently
increased the resistance of the soil flow, as denoted by
the second peak in Figure 6. However, when the sand
wedge traveled deeper, the influence of the overburden pressure diminished. When the spudcan penetrated
beyond the sand/clay interface, the sand plug was
fully embedded in the clay layer and the deep penetration mechanism became dominant. From this point
onwards, the bearing resistance increased with depth.

5.1

0.8

0.1

1
0.9

0.2

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Punching shear theory


(Hanna & Meyerhof, 1980)

1.2

700

qu calculated/qu measured

COMPARISONS BETWEEN MEASURED


AND PREDICTED SPUDCAN RESISTANCE
Hanna & Meyerhof (1980) method

Hanna & Meyerhof (1980) introduced the concept of


punching shear mechanism in estimating the ultimate

bearing capacity of a surface footing on sand overlying


clay. By simplifying the angle of the shear plane as vertical, the coefficient of punching shear, Ks , was derived
and its value was back-calculated based on laboratory test results. For design convenience, this empirical
coefficient was provided in the form of design charts
for different combinations of strength parameters. The
magnitude of Ks depends on the bearing capacity ratio
between the two layers, q2 /q1 ; in which q2 = su Nc and
q1 = 0.5B  N are the bearing capacities of a surface strip footing on the clay layer and sand layer,
respectively. Nc and N are the bearing capacity factors, while  is the effective unit weight of soil. It
should be noted that the value of Ks obtained may
vary due to difficulties in the interpretation of N and
hence q1 . Furthermore, for a clay layer with strength
increasing with depth, the selection of su requires
additional consideration. Alternatively, the use of the
equation proposed by Davis & Booker (1973) will lead
a more accurate estimate of the bearing capacity in
clay, qclay , though the method may not be compactible
with Hanna & Meyerhofs design charts. Based on
these possible sources of variations, different analyses
were carried by incorporating different combinations
of formulas. The calculated values of ultimate spudcan
bearing stress, qu , were compared with the measured
values and the results are summarized in Figure 7.
It is worth nothing that the comparisons were made
at the same depth where qu was recorded for each
test. A total of six combinations of formulas were
analyzed:
1. qsand (or N ) by Hansen (1970) and qclay based on
su averaging up to a spudcan diameter below the
soil interface;
2. qsand (or N ) by Meyerhof (1951) and qclay based
on su averaging up to a spudcan diameter below the
soil interface;

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3. qsand (or N ) by Hansen (1955) and qclay by Davis


& Booker (1973);
4. qsand (or N ) by Meyerhof (1951) and qclay by Davis
& Booker (1973);
5. Ks by SNAME (2002) and qclay based on su averaging up to a spudcan diameter below the soil
interface;
6. Ks by SNAME (2002) and qclay by Davis & Booker
(1973).

1.1

qu predicted/qu measured

The sand bearing capacity, qsand , evaluated in (1)


to (4) was used to obtain the value of Ks given in
Hanna & Meyerhof s design charts. SNAME (2002)
recommended a lower bound value of Ks based on the
following equation:
KS tan 3Su /B

(1)

The ratio of calculated qu to measured qu is plotted


against H/B for all four tests, as shown in Figure 7.
The results reveal that only analyses (2) and (3) show a
smooth transition from underestimation to overestimation as H/B increases. The remaining analyses indicate
that the ratios of qu calculated /qu measured for tests T1 and
T4 are higher than that of tests T2 and T3. Furthermore, the comparisons between (1) and (2) as well as
(3) and (4) show little variations. This suggests that
the influence of qsand (or N ) to Ks and therefore qu is
relatively insignificant. On the other hand, the effect of
qclay on qu is pronounced especially for small H/B values. As expected, qclay obtained using average su values
is consistently higher than that predicted by Davis &
Bookers as a higher su value was adopted. However,
the difference in qu from these two analyses reduced
with an increase of H/B. This interesting observation
suggests that as H/B increases, the punching shear
mechanism appears to be the governing component
of qu and this suppresses the contribution of qclay to
the overall combined failure mechanism.
The ratios of qu calculated /qu measured for (5) and (6)
are well below 0.5 except for test 1 of (5). Although
SNAMEs recommendation was based on a lower
bound value of Ks , these results indicate a serious
conservatism. The incorporation of conservatism may
sometimes deviate from its objective and encourage
the occurrence of punch-through.This is because when
the spudcan is set at a depth that is much shallower than
the predicted one, the rig contractor may impose higher
preload to ensure the stability of the foundation which,
in turn, may trigger the spudcan punch-through.
In summary, the comparisons of qu calculated and
qu measured based on six different analyses indicate that
(1) and (2) which employed the average su over a
spudcan diameter depth provide the least variations
of 20%. Nonetheless, it is important to take note that
these comparisons were carried out mainly based on
the ground of empiricism.

(1)

0.9

(2)
0.8
0.7

(3)
(4)

0.6

(1) qclay (Davis & Booker) [n=3]


(2) qclay (ave. su) [n=3]
0.5 (3) qclay (Davis & Booker) [n=5]
(4) qclay (ave. su) [n=5]
0.4
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

H/B

Figure 8. Comparisons of measured results with predictions


using Projected Area method in SNAME.

5.2 Projected area method


Projected area method was first introduced based on
the classical Boussinesq theory to describe the vertical
stress distribution from the footing base to the clay surface with a projected area through the sand layer. The
bearing capacity of this layered soil system is therefore calculated based on the bearing capacity of the
clay over the entire projected area. Although the validity of this idealized theory remains questionable, this
method emerges as one of the most adopted methods
of analysis in spudcan design. The biggest challenge
in applying this method is the selection of a suitable
projected angle, , as this parameter remains uncertain
and it was empirically determined previously. Instead
of adopting an arbitrary value of , SNAME (2002)
recommended a value of 1:n with n ranging from 3
to 5. Likewise, to cater for the heterogeneous clay
layer, four analyses were conducted based on different
combinations of formulas:
1. qclay by Davis & Booker (1973) with n = 3;
2. qclay based on su averaging up to a spudcan diameter
below the soil interface with n = 3;
3. qclay by Davis & Booker (1973) with n = 5;
4. qclay based on su averaging up to a spudcan diameter
below the soil interface with n = 5.
The results of the ratio of calculated/measured qu for
the above 4 cases are given in Figure 8. In general, the
projected area method coupled SNAMEs recommendation underestimated qu with the difference reduced
with n. Interestingly, qclay based on Davis & Bookers
equation gave a better estimation of qu for higher H/B
values. For small H/B values, qclay based on average su
was found to determine qu more accurately. However,
it remains uncertain on why all analyses produced the
lowest ratios of qu calculated /qu measured for the case with
H/B of 0.7.

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Projected area method


(SNAME, 2002)

(4). It is suggested that the method proposed by Davis


& Booker (1973) can be utilized to estimate the value
of qclay for small H/B. For larger H/B values, qclay estimated based on the methods of Davis & Booker (1973)
or average su can provide comparable value of qu .

1.3

Projected area method


(Jacobsen et al., 1977)

qu calculated /qu measured

1.2
1.1
1

(1)

0.9

(2)
(3)

0.8

(4)

CONCLUSIONS

0.7

(1) qsand (Meyerhof)+ qclay (Davis & Booker)


0.6 (2) qsand (Meyerhof)+ qclay (ave. su)
(3) qsand (Hansen)+ qclay (Davis & Booker)
0.5
(4) qsand (Hansen)+ qclay (ave. su)
0.4
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5 0.6
H/B

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

Figure 9. Comparison of measured results with Projected


Area method by Jacobsen et al.

The projected area method does not explicitly


acknowledge the contribution of sand layer in the form
of shearing mechanism to qu . Nonetheless, its contribution was interpreted in some other forms. For
instance, there are some studies which drew equivalence between and  of the sand layer (Baglioni et
al., 1982; Das & Dallo, 1984; etc.). Moreover, Jacobsen et al. (1977) proposed a relationship between
and bearing capacity ratio between the two layers.
tan = [0.1125 + 0.0344 (qsand /qclay )]

(2)

Equation 2 seems to define the angle of with


more engineering basis though it involved empirical
correlation. By incorporating Equation 2, four combinations of formulas were considered to determine qu
theoretically:
1. qsand by Meyerhof (1951) and qclay by Davis &
Booker (1973);
2. qsand by Meyerhof (1951) and qclay based on su averaging up to a spudcan diameter below the soil
interface;
3. qsand by Hansen (1970) and qclay by Davis & Booker
(1973);
4. qsand by Hansen (1970) and qclay based on su averaging up to a spudcan diameter below the soil
interface.
As indicated by Figure 9, the ratio of calculated/measured qu for the above 4 cases generally falls
within 30%, which is deemed to be reasonably good.
The ratio is higher for small H/B values for some analyses. By comparing either (1) and (3) or (2) and (4),
the effect of qsand (or N) on qu was noticeable and
the induced variation remained approximately constant for all H/B values. On the other hand, the effect of
qclay on qu was larger for smaller H/B values based on
the comparisons made between (1) and (2) or (3) and

The results of spudcan penetration tests in sand overlying clay carried out on the National University of
Singapore Centrifuge are reported in this paper. A
total of four tests with various sand thicknesses were
conducted. A generic spudcan bearing stress profile
in this layered soil incorporating the punch-through
phenomenon is presented. Comparisons of the measured and calculated ultimate spudcan bearing stress,
qu , using two different methods of analysis, namely,
Hanna & Meyerhof (1980) and projected area method
were carried out by incorporating the recommendations proposed by SNAME (2002). Moreover, different
combinations of formulas were analyzed in order to
provide further insights into how the calculated qu
might be affected by these different analyses. In general, the calculated qu produced by these methods
did not show good agreement with the measured
values for the whole series of test results. This inconsistency reveals that the validity of applying these
methods for spudcan foundation design require further
evaluations.
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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Apparent earth pressure of soft soils overlying hard bedrock at


South Link in Stockholm
Jianqin Ma
College of Highway, Changan University, Xian, China

Bo S. Berggren & Per-Evert Bengtsson


Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Linkping, Sweden

Hkan Stille & Staffan Hintze


Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden

ABSTRACT: The apparent earth pressures measured at the South Link Project in Stockholm are used to analyze
the pressure on sheet pile walls at deep excavations in soft soils overlying bedrock. The depths of the excavations
vary from 3 m to 16 m and the toes of the walls are keyed into bedrock. Measured apparent earth pressures are
over the Pecks (1969) envelope for soft clay but approximate to initial stress at rest. The normalized distribution
pattern of the pressures indicates a large apparent earth pressure in the upper part of a test section. The well kept
anchor load contributes to the large apparent earth pressure. This case indicates that the beneficial effect of the
presence of bedrock may be over-shadowed by the low strength of soft soils, especially when the distance from
excavation level to bedrock is larger than the depth of excavation.

INTRODUCTION

Design of an in situ wall system requires a lateral


earth pressure distribution behind the wall for final
wall height to estimate support loads and wall bending moments. For in situ wall systems constructed
top down, the deformation pattern is complex and
not consistent with the development of a theoretical Rankine or Coulomb earth pressure distribution.
In a practical project, the apparent earth pressure
envelopes are more frequently used than other methods primarily because of expediency (ASCE 1997).
These apparent earth pressure envelopes were well
accepted since they were developed by Peck (1969),
based on field measurements of strut loads from various excavation sites. The envelopes were considered
to provide loading for conservative design of struts in
internally braced excavations. Since then, several modifications to the original envelopes have been proposed
to accommodate the findings from field and laboratory observations (Tschebotarioff 1973, Goldberg
et al. 1976, Weatherby 1998). These envelopes were
developed exclusively for either purely sand deposits
or purely clay deposits. Many questions have been
raised as to the applicability of these envelopes to multilayered ground conditions, where fill/residual soils
are underlain by rock stratum or stiff soils (Lee and
Chun 1993, Wong et al. 1997, Yoo 2001).

The apparent earth pressure diagrams represent


simplified ground conditions and is not readily
adapted to complex stratum or groundwater conditions. Given the scatter in observation data and the
variation in recommended apparent earth pressure diagrams, the recent edition of Terzaghi et al. (1996) noted
that there is as yet no sound basis for judging where
within the limits the pressures on a new project would
fall. Many approximations have been suggested to
address such situations (ASCE 1997).
Apparent earth pressures acting on an in situ wall
system can be back-calculated using the measured
axial forces of supports. The axial forces backcalculated using the readings of load cells and strain
gauges for anchors or struts are usually used to determine the apparent earth pressures. For the excavations
in multilayer soft soils overlying rock stratum in Korea,
Yoo (2001) suggested that when comparing the measured earth pressures to the available design earth
pressure envelopes, the soft soils should be modelled
as sand rather than soft to medium clay or stiff fissured
clay. The reason for this is that the design envelopes
for clays would likely yield conservative estimates
of support loads when used for multilayered ground
conditions composed of rock stratum. This indicates
that the apparent earth pressures on sheet pile walls at
excavations in soft soils overlying rock stratum are less
than that in merely soil layers and that the traditional

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+30

Anchor jacks and their No.


Location of a section
S4

S1

Relative elevation (m)

+25

1/680N

South Link 10

+20

Tunnel structure

1/740N

S9, S10 S11-S13


1/800N

Excavation
Part IV

Soil surface

S31, S32 S16, S17

1/840N 1/870N

Part III

1/901N
Part I

Part II

+15
1/740S

Rock surface

S5

+10

1/762S

S7

1/840S

S14, S15

1/920S

1/943S

S18-S20 S24-S26

+5
0

Figure 2. Plan showing locations of monitoring load cells.

-5

Rock surface

1/600

1/700

1/800

1/900

1/1000

1/1100

1/1200

from around 1.4 at surface to 1.0 at the relative


elevation level of +6 m and below (Hinzte et al. 2000).

1/1300

Figure 1. Longitudinal section of SL10 showing structures


and geotechnical layers.

2.2 Sheet pile walls and back-tied anchors

design may be too conservative. However, whether this


result can be used in other regions is still in need to be
tested.
This contribution presents the measured apparent
earth pressures of 21 anchors from 10 test sections at
the South Link Project contract No.10 (SL10) in Stockholm. The anchors were used to prop sheet pile walls at
deep excavations in soft soils overlying hard bedrock.
The influence of the occurrence of the bedrock on the
magnitude of apparent earth pressure is discussed in
comparing with the data of similar case histories.
2

PROJECT DESCRIPTION

SL10 represents parts of a road tunnel project in the


southern Stockholm. The contract comprises a 460 m
long underground structure including 40 m of rock tunnel, a cut and cover concrete tunnel and tunnel ramps
(Fig. 1). Deep excavations were conducted for the cut
and cover tunnel and ramps. The tunnel was open to
use in 2004.
2.1

Geotechnical conditions

The geotechnical conditions can be simply expressed


as soft soils overlying bedrock (Fig. 1). The soils consist of a fill deposit overlying a sequence of glacial
clays. The glacial clays are mainly composed of soft
clay, with about 1.0 m thick dry crust as the top layer.
Thin layers of silt or sand interlayer the soft clay. At
the bottom of the soils, there is a thin layer of granular
soil or dense till overlying bedrock. In some areas the
granular soil is missing and the soft clay is directly
on bedrock. The bedrock is gneiss with a surface layer
mainly unweathered but varying in elevation within
the working area (Fig. 1). The soil strata reach their
maximum depth, approximately 25 m in the central
part of the working area. Groundwater level is around
2 m below surface.
The undrained shear strength of the clay is
about 16 kPa, with an increase of 2 kPa/m below
the local relative elevation level of +10 m. The
overconsolidation ratio (OCR) of the clay decreases

Sheet pile walls with back-tied anchors were used to


meet the requirement of the construction works close
to buildings and heavy traffic. The anchors, with an
inclination angle of 30 , 35 or 45 , were fixed into the
bedrock by grouting injection. Curtain grouting was
applied to seal the toe areas of the sheet pile walls to
prevent groundwater leakage in order to reduce ground
settlements (Hinzte et al. 2000). The sheet pile walls is
commonly used in Scandinavia (Karlsrud et al. 2004).
Both the length of the wall and the number of anchor
vary since the excavation depth and the thickness of
soils are changeable along the alignment of the tunnel and ramp (Fig. 1). The depth of excavation varies
from less than 3 m to 16 m and 1 to 8 levels of anchors
are accordingly installed. The vertical interval between
anchors varies from 1.5 m to 3 m, and the horizontal space between anchors is from about 1 m to more
than 3 m.
2.3 Load cells of anchor load
The loads of 32 anchors were monitored with jacks
during building activities. There were 1 to 3 anchors
being instrumented in a test section. The values of 21
anchors out of 32 are here available. A plan of the 21
measured anchors at 10 sections is shown in figure 2.
The load cells were read every day when excavation
was conducted around the test sections.
3

3.1 General pattern


For simplicity, the strata are simplified as one layer,
with its unit weight and cohesion strength in terms
of weighted average value. This simplicity does not
induce large difference since the soils are mainly composed of soft clay and the difference of the unit weight
of the soils is insignificant, and the soft soils are mainly
in saturated state. Surcharge pressures are not included
and the pore pressure of the soft clay is not separately
calculated. Rankine theory is used to calculate the
active earth pressure for the strata.

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MEASURED APPARENT EARTH PRESSURE

Earth Pressure H
1

Depth below surface (m)

From 1/937S

SL10 data
Ka H
0.49KaH
20+Ka'H

200
4

Apparent earth pressure jh,m(kPa)

150

100

50

From 1/937S
0

05

01

00

150

200

Ka'H (kPa)
8
Figure 4. Measured apparent earth pressure versus Rankine
active earth pressure Ka  H as cohesion less soil.

From 1/937S
10

SL10 Data
0.89 H(Peck 1969)

12

Lateral pressure at rest

Figure 3. Apparent earth pressures at SL10.

Measured apparent earth pressure distribution


through anchor load cells is presented in figure 3. Note
that these data were obtained from various sections
with the same sheet pile wall shape in section but different anchor spaces and preloads at their excavation
sites. Also included in this figure is the earth pressure
envelope for soft soil suggested by Peck (1969) for a
braced wall, but calculated as a rectangle shape instead
of a trapezoidal envelope.
Following Peck (1969), the apparent earth pressure can be calculated through Ka H, where
Ka = 1 m4c/(H), m being 0.4 for soft clay. The
excavation depth H is as 12.1 m, which is the maximum depth of the relevant test load cells. The unit
weight in weighted average is 17.7 kN/m3 and cohesion c of the soil in average is 15.0 kPa. So, Ka is equal
to 0.89, shown as the line of 0.89H in figure 3.
As can be seen, in the middle and upper part of
the test sections the apparent earth pressures are larger
than the value of the Peck (1969) envelope value of
0.89H. This feature is especially significant in the
upper part, while some data from the lower level is
less than the envelop value. Such a distribution pattern may be associated with the characteristics of
anchored wall movements as well as significant resistance against wall movements provided by the rock
strata. For the anchored walls, more or less a uniform pattern prevails, due primarily to earth pressure
concentration around the anchor locations as a result of

preloading (Yoo 2001). The actual pressure envelopes


exhibit pressure ordinates approximately equal to 65%
of their design preloading pressures. Except the data at
upper levels, the magnitudes of the measured apparent
earth pressures are about the same as the lateral earth
pressure at rest (Fig. 3), in which the coefficient of
lateral pressure at rest is calculated according to the
equation K0 = (1 sin )OCRsin (Mayne and Kulhawy 1982), as varying between 1.38 to 1.0 with depth
increasing. Noted that, here, K0 is calculated based on
the geotechnical condition of section 1/840N, which
is typical in the work area.
3.2

3.2.1 Calculating as cohesionless soils


Figure 4 illustrates the relationship between the measured apparent earth pressure h,m and the Rankine
active earth pressure ha = Ka  H = 0.85H as for
cohesionless soil, along with the design earth pressure
proposed by Yoo (2001) for cases of deep excavations
in soils overlying bedrock. The value of Ka  = 0.85 for
Rankine active earth pressure is calculated according
to weighted thickness of the geotechnical materials at
section 1/840N.
The line of h,m = 0.49Ka H is from Yoo (2001)
for the Korean data relevant to the measured apparent earth pressure of the retaining wall; line of
h,m = Ka H is given by Peck (1969) for soft soil deep

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Features of apparent earth pressures

The maximum apparent earth pressure can be viewed


as an ordinate of actual pressure envelope for a given
conditions. Weighted average value of coefficient of
lateral earth pressure is calculated according to the
Rankine solution for active earth pressure on rigid
retaining wall, noted as Ka  , and average unit weight
for the multilayered ground avg is 17.7 kN/m3 .

excavation; and the line of h,m = 20 + Ka  H (kPa) is


used to approximate the tendency of the data of SL10.
Of the magnitude of the measured apparent pressure from SL10, figure 4 shows it is closer to the
line of h,m = 20 + Ka  H (kPa) than to the line of
Peck (1969) h,m = Ka H. This indicates the measured
apparent earth seems, to some extent, too large, since
the Pecks line is generally considered conservative as
a reference value for design. The data is almost totally
above the line of h,m = 0.49Ka H, which was used to
approximate the relationship between apparent earth
pressure and Ka H for the Korean cases (Yoo 2001).

4
4.1

DISCUSSION ON THE MEASURED


APPARENT EARTH PRESSURES
Comparison with similar cases

In empirical sense, it is considered that the magnitude


of the apparent earth pressure should be in comparison with each other for the sheet pile walls in a similar
situation. So, two case histories relevant to deep excavation in soft soils, with sheet pile walls and anchored
propped system, are quoted here to be compared with
SL10. The main parameters of the compared cases are
shown in table 1.
Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the relationship between
the measured maximum apparent earth pressures h,m
and the Rankine active earth pressure ha calculated
for cohesive soil and cohesionless soil, respectively.
The data are mostly above the line of Rankine active
earth pressure, which is around 40 kPa or 20 kPa
above the Rankine active earth pressure line, when
being calculated as cohesive soil and cohesionless soil,
respectively.
For the cases from Korea, Yoo (2001) shows that
the earth pressures exerted on in situ walls in soils

Apparent earth pressure h,m(kPa)

3.2.2 Calculating as cohesion soils


For the design value of Rankine earth pressure, the
zone of tensile stress is generally ignored, and the
maximum calculated active earth pressure is based on
the equation ha = Ka H 2c (Ka  )0.5 and distributed
over a triangular zone extending from the base of the
wall to the wall top, since progressive displacement or
degradation of strength due to tensile cracking or water
infiltration may occur so as to result in active stresses
within the tensile zone.The calculated results and the
line of lateral earth pressure at rest are shown in figure 5, and the line of ha = 40 + Ka  H 2c (Ka  )0.5
(kPa) is used to approximate the magnitude of the calculated results of SL10. Figure 5 shows that the data
of SL10 are mostly above the line of Rankine earth
pressure for cohesive soils. The data of SL10 seem to
be closer to the line of lateral earth pressure at rest than
to the line of ha = 40 + Ka  H 2c (Ka  )0.5 (kPa) for
data from the upper and lower part of the test sections.

SL10 data

200

40+Ka'H-2c(Ka')0.5
Lateral pressure at rest

150

100

50

0
0

50

100
Ka'H-2c(Ka')0.5(kPa)

150

Figure 5. Maximum apparent earth pressure versus Rankine


active earth pressure in cohesive soil.

overlying rock stratum are smaller than those on walls


in purely soils though there is ample scatter in the
measured data. The data are almost totally below
the envelop line of h,m = 0.80Ka H (Tschebotarioff
1973) and are around the line of h,m = 0.49Ka H. The
measured apparent earth pressures are less than 0.2H
for the excavations in a multilayer soil profile consisting of fill, weathered soil, weathered rock, soft rock
and hard rock, and sheet pile wall is deeply embedded
into the hard rock. The case history from Singapore
(Wong et al. 1997) shows that the maximum apparent
earth pressure is less than 0.6H for the excavations
in a multilayer soil profile consisting of soft soil layer
overlying stiff soils, and the bottom of the excavation is
in stiff soil. The data indicate that the measured apparent earth pressures of SL10 are significantly larger
than those of the two compared cases.
However, one of the features of the measured
maximum apparent earth pressures is similar in the
compared cases. The maximum apparent earth pressures in the upper anchor or strut is analogically large.
When the measured apparent earth pressures are normalized by vertical stress at rest, H, the ratio of
h,m /H in the upper part is the same as that in middle and lower parts, or the former is even higher than
the later as for SL10 (Fig. 3) and Korea cases (Yoo
2001). This should be mainly related to high preloads
in anchors or high stiffness of struts in the Korea case,
and will be discussed later.
4.2

Influence of soil properties

The measured maximum apparent earth pressures in


SL10 are far larger than those from the compared
cases. The magnitude of apparent earth pressures may
be influenced by many factors, such as initial earth

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Ka'H-2c(Ka')0.5

Table 1.

Comparison of the cases of deep excavation in soft soil overlying stiff soil or hard rock.
CTE phase II (Wong et al. 1997)

Korea case (Yoo 2001)

South Link in Stockholm

Case

Layers

Layers

Thickness**
(m)

Layers

Thickness
(m)

Geotechnical
conditions

Peat clay,
marine clay and
fluvial deposit
Residual soils

Fill
Weathered soil

1.5
1.5

Fill
Dry crust

1.0
1.0

Weathered rock

8.4

Soft clay with


1320
thin silt
inter-layered
Granular soil
1.0 m
Hard rock
Great depth
Soft clay
3.116.0 m
h > 1.1H
Crystallized rock
Mostly over Ka H, and even
larger than lateral earth
pressure at rest K0 H in the
upper part of test section

Weathered rocks
Formation level
Excavation depth, H
Ratio of h1 /H
Bedrock
Measured maximum
apparent earth
pressure

Thickness
(m)

Unknown

Great depth

Stiff soil, weathered rock,


8.521 m
h < 0.9H or h < 0.6H
Sedimentary rock or granite
h < 0.9H, <0.6H
h < 0.6H, <0.25H

Soft rock
13.3
Hard rock
Great depth
Hard rock
33 m
h 0.3H
Hard rock
<0.2H; <0.8Ka H
(Tschebotarioff 1973),
around 0.49Ka H

h: total thickness of soft soil, fill and dry crust layers; **the estimated thickness; Ka is after Peck (1969), but different value
for case from Yoo (2001) and SL10.

Shear strength (kPa)

175

Strength line of SL10


Strength line of case
(Yoo 2001)

150
125
100
75
50
25
0

8
13
Depth from surface (m)

18

Figure 6. Comparison of calculated shear strength of the


soils of case from Yoo (2001) and SL10.

pressure coefficient K0 , the magnitude of wall movement, construction sequence and workmanship. It is
well accepted that the properties of the soft soils, which
are excavated through or in, is one of the key factors, as
all the empirical design diagrams are based on types of
soils, such as sand, soft clay and stiff clay. This section
discusses the influence of the geotechnical conditions,
especially the formation level, such as whether it is soft
soil at excavation level, and the strength of the soft clay.
For the features of the strength of soft soils in Sweden, it is, to some extent, low and unique. In the
Scandinavian soft clays, it has been empirically found
that an effective friction angle can be mobilized when
the effective stresses are lower than the pre-stresses
in geological history. A number of Scandinavian soft
clays have been investigated and the value of effective

inertial friction angle  at low stresses of 30 is fairly


constant. The relationship between undrained shear
strength u and vertical preconsolidation pressure c
was presented u 0.26c (Larsson 1977). This means
that the undrained shear strength, which can be mobilized as the movement of the soil-retaining system is
acceptable, generally varies from 15 to 25 kPa, which
is less than the magnitude of the compared cases.
When the preconsolidation pressure c is over-passed,
large movement, usually unacceptable, occurs in the
retained soils.
The parameters, which were used by Yoo (2001) to
simulate the behaviour of the wall-retained soil system in a numerical model, are different from those of
SL10. The strength of the residual soil in Yoos model
is compared with the soft clay of SL10 in figure 6. If
the shear strength is calculated according to Coulomb
law, = c + tan , and the normal stress is calculated as vertical weight stress at rest, = z, where
z is the depth from the ground surface and  is the
unit weight of soils in average. The parameters inYoos
model show that the shear strength of soils is far larger
than that of the soils from SL10.
4.3 Influence of bedrock
Case study (Yoo 2001) shows that, for anchored walls,
the anchors are pre-stressed, usually to 75100%
of their design loads. Therefore, the back-calculated
apparent earth pressures may not reveal actual earth
pressures acting on the wall but rather design loads
that are applied. This means that well kept anchor

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Anchor 03

400
Anchor 01

Relative elevation (m)

Measured anchor load (kN)

500

300
Anchor 05

200
100

Excavation
III finished
0
98-11-15
99-1-4

Excavation
IV finished

99-2-23

99-4-14

Excavation
V finished

99-6-3

Excavation
VI finished

99-7-23

99-9-11

99-10-31

Date

Figure 7. Varying features of anchor loads with excavations


at test section 1/840N.

14

Excavation I

12

II

10

III

8
IV

V
VI

4
2
0
-2
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Increment from preceding excavation (mm)

loads may contribute to the large apparent earth pressures. For SL10, grouting parts of anchors are mainly
installed into hard rock. This gives a good chance of
sustaining the preloads applied to the anchors. Figure 7 shows the monitoring results of anchors in test
section 1/840N. The preloads of the anchors are well
kept as the excavation proceeds. This situation could
have more significant influence on the upper part of
the distribution shape of the measured apparent earth
pressures than on the middle and lower part, since the
magnitude of the former is less than that of the later.
Figure 3 shows that some data from the middle and
lower parts of the test sections fall within the envelope
line of 0.89H, while all data from the top anchor
are over this line. This indicates the beneficial influence of the bedrock. The features of the increment
of lateral displacement due to excavation also points
to this deduction. Figure 8 shows the features of the
lateral displacement increment from preceding excavation stage at test section 1/840N. At this section,
excavation depth is 12.1 m, from relative elevation of
+15 m down to +2.9 m. The Sheet pile wall is backtied with 5 levels of anchors.The excavation is in stages
of I through VI, which is altered by the installation of
anchor 01 through 05, respectively. The bedrock surface is at the elevation of 2.8 m. Lateral displacement
mainly occurs at stages of II through IV, and significantly at stages of II and III. The increment is small or
even negative at stages of excavation V and VI. It indicates that the influence of bedrock becomes significant
when the distance from dredge level to bedrock is less
than excavation depth. The minor or negative magnitude of the lateral displacement increment should
thrust relatively less load on the sheet pile walls during
excavating to lower elevation.
The tie-back anchor space can play a significant role
in the earth pressure distribution acting on a tie-back
wall, and large space can yield a distribution with high
concentration at the tie-back level (Clough and Tsui
1974). For the anchor spaces at section 1/840N, the
spacing of anchor 01 is the largest in both vertical and
horizontal spaces. Together with the well-kept anchor
load (Fig. 7) during the excavation activities, it is not
prude to conclude that there is certain concentration
of stress at the top anchor.

Excavation II
Excavation IV
Excavation VI

Figure 8. Magnitude of increment from preceding excavation stage at test section 1/840N.

Section 1/937S

Surface of soil

+15 m
Opening area
6.0 m
Anchor

Formation level

Monitored anchor

0 m
Surface of bedrock

Figure 9. Section showing open area and monitored anchors


at test section 1/937S.

Note that the increment of lateral displacement is


insignificant or even negative in the upper part of the
test section (Fig. 8). This tendency is compatible with
well-kept loads in anchor 01 after excavation IV being
finished (Fig. 7).
4.4 Influence of open area
Figure 3 shows that the magnitude of the data from
1/973S is extremely larger than the others, especially
for the load of the top anchor. This should be mainly
attributed to the fact that there is an open area near
the test section 1/973S (Fig. 9). The open area, 6 m
wide and 4 m deep, is 5.6 m away from the test section 1/973S. In this area, there is neither support of
sheet pile wall nor anchor. No anchor was installed
below the open area. The depth of excavation is around

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Excavation III
Excavation V
Level of excavation bottom

16 m, which is mainly in soil, but formation level is on


bedrock.
Around the test section 1/937S, there occurs a large
depth of excavation; the maximum depth is 16 m. As
is often the case, where the larger excavation depth
is conducted, the larger lateral displacement occurs.
However, the larger displacement generally takes place
around the middle part of the retaining wall system,
provided that the coefficient of safety at excavation
level is large enough. This condition should be sufficed
since the formation level is on bedrock. The monitoring results of section 1/840N shows that the increment
of lateral displacement from preceding excavation
stage is insignificant or even negative in the upper part,
as the loads of anchors in upper part are well kept.
Although there are no data available to indicate the
increment of lateral displacement at section 1/937S,
the larger magnitude of apparent earth pressure at this
section should not be mainly attributed to the larger
excavation depth.
It is not imprudent to deduce that the earth pressure
around the open area could be larger than the case far
away from the open area. The stability of the soil is
decreased due to a vertical opening. For example, the
stability of a tunnel face is always one of the main
concerns during excavation in soft soils. Based on the
study of a failure case and model test, Broms and Bennermark (1967) concluded that, for a vertical opening
area, failure occurs when the total overburden pressure
has exceeded six times the undrained shear strength of
the soil. The lateral earth pressure around the opening
area may be significantly concentrated before failure
occurs.
4.5

Reasons for the large apparent earth pressures

4.5.1 Arch mechanisms


For the large measured apparent earth pressure at
SL10, especially in the upper levels, it is probably
also relevant to the relatively large over-consolidation
ratio (OCR = 1.4) in the upper part of the soil layer,
due to the existence of the dry crust with comparatively higher strength. However, if there occur load
transfer and arching in retained soil, the lateral stress
acting on wall system may not only be well larger than
Rankine active pressure, but also larger than initial
lateral pressure at rest. According to the numerical
study (Hashash and Whittle 2002), confirmed by a
case data from Taipei deep excavation, arching mechanism may also occur in lightly overconsolidated soil
layers. In the retained soil, the lateral earth pressures
exceed Rankine active stresses above the excavated
grade, and even exceed the initial stress condition over
a large proportion of the braced height. Anisotropic
yield plays an essential role in stress transfer through
arching mechanism for deep excavations in normally
to lightly overconsolidated clays. This mechanism

A
O

(b)

Passive condition
shear stress

(a)
O
(d)

A
(c)

Active stress
C

(a)
Thrust similar
to active thrust
C

Active condition
shear stress

Figure 10. Active arching mechanism for braced excavation


(after Lambe and Whitman 1969).

is conceptually anticipated by Lambe and Whitman


(1969) (Fig. 10).
However, figure 10 shows that the arch mechanism
occurs on the condition that the wall toe is not fixed.
This was noted by Hashash and Whittle (2002) as the
wall is not keyed into an underlying bearing layer for a
braced diaphragm wall system. Is it a case for the sheet
pile wall system with its toe keyed into hard rock as
at SL10? There are three facts pointing to a positive
answer, though additional work is needed to verify this
deduction.
As a general rule, a diaphragm wall has a higher
flexural rigidity than a sheet pile wall does. In addition, the sheet pile is keyed into rock through a rock
dowel, which is pre-weld to the toe of the wall through
casing, as a usual way of taking up the horizontal reaction forces at bedrock level in Sweden and Norway.
This is the weakest point in the sheet pile wall for its
capacity. This part may deform larger than the other
parts before its strength is fully mobilized (Karlsrud
et al. 2004). The magnitude of the lateral displacement
near the toe of the sheet pile wall should be in analogy to the requirement that the toe is not fixed for a
diaphragm wall.
The lateral strain to mobilize the soil strength is relatively small, such as in soils, which are not rigidly
retained (Bjerrum et al. 1972, Boone 2003). The measured lateral displacements through inclinometers at
test sections vary from 20 mm to 150 mm, and mainly
more than 50 mm. As shown by the test section 1/840N
(Fig. 8), the largest displacement point occurs in the
middle part of a test section at SL10, when the upper
part of the sheet pile wall is well propped by top anchor.
This magnitude of lateral displacement is large enough
to induce the state of active earth pressure in the corresponding area in the retained soils and transfer earth
pressure to the upper layer, which has a relatively high
strength.
In figures 3 and 5, some data show that the measured
apparent earth pressures are larger than initial stress

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Thrust much greater O


than active thrust

and the points with this feature occur in the middle


and upper levels (figure 3). This is analogous to the
numerical result given by Hashash and Whittle (2002),
as there occur arching mechanism and stress transfer.
4.5.2 Flexure of the sheet pile wall around top
anchor
Noted that the arching mechanism develop on the condition that the sheet pile walls are unyielding and the
individual soils grains are hard and nondeformable, as
stated by Tschebotarioff (1973), and it can not develop
in plastic clays. That means that the magnitude of the
transferred earth pressure should be not very large
since the strength of the soils at SL10 is low. So, for
the large apparent earth pressures measured from the
top anchor of a test section, it seems difficult to be
totally attributed to arch mechanism, since some data
are significantly over the line of lateral pressure at
rest. The flexure of the sheet pile walls itself around
the top anchor should partake partially the large value
of the top anchor, instead of transferring totally to
the retained soils in terms of elastic deformation. As
shown in figure 8, in the upper part of the test section,
there occurs significantly negative increment of lateral
displacement from preceding stage at excavations IV
and V. In this situation, part of the load from top anchor
may be transferred by the sheet pile wall through flexural deformation. The retained soil should be in passive
earth pressure state behind the top anchor. Therefore,
the back-calculated apparent earth pressures are not
equal to actual earth pressures acting on the wall but
rather well-kept anchor load due to the benefit of the
bedrock.Yoo (2001) also stated the difference between
back-calculated apparent earth pressures and actual
earth pressures acting on the wall. So at SL10, the
load of top anchor should be transferred by sheet pile
walls to the retained soils through backward flexure.
5

CONCLUSION

This study examines the measured data obtained at


SL10 in order to provide insights concerning the
apparent earth pressures for deep excavation sites in
multilayered soils overlying bedrock. Based on the
present study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The measured apparent earth pressures exerted on
sheet pile walls in soft soils overlying hard rock stratum
in SL10 are larger than for walls, which are also keyed
into rock or stiff soil but with formation level in rock
layer or stiff soil. The magnitudes of apparent earth
pressure at SL10 are over those on walls in purely soft
soils as suggested by Peck (1969), but approximate to
lateral pressure at rest as overconsolidation ratio being
considered.
Similar to anchored sheet walls at other case histories, the measured apparent earth pressures at SL10
exhibit a large value for the top anchor at a test

section. This trend is much different from the trapezoidal design pressure envelope as recommended by
Peck (1969). The larger measured apparent earth pressures in upper levels may be partially attributed to the
arching mechanism of stress transferring during stage
excavation.
The low strength of the retained soils is one of
the key factors influencing the magnitude of lateral
pressures. The benefit of the presence of bedrock is
overshadowed when the distance from excavation level
to the surface of bedrock is larger than the depth of
excavation.
Bedrock provides condition of well kept anchor
loads, especially in the upper part of sheet pile wall.
The well-kept load of top anchor should be transferred
to retained soils through the flexure of the sheet pile
wall.
The magnitude of apparent earth pressure on sheet
pile walls around a vertical open cut area may be as
several times as that on a continuous area.

REFERENCES
ASCE 1997. Guidelines of engineering practice for braced
and tied-back excavation. Edited by the committee on
earth retaining structures of the Geo-Institute.
Bjerrum, L., Clausen,C.J., and Duncan, J.M. 1972. Earth
pressures on flexible structures (a state-of-the-art report),
Proc.5th European Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 2, Madrid, Spain.
Boone, S. J. 2003. Design of deep excavations in urban
environments, A thesis submitted in conformity with the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
Graduate Department of Civil EngineeringUniversity
of Toronto.
Broms, B.B. and Bennermark, H. 1967. Stability of clay at
vertical openings, J. of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, SM1, pp. 7194.
Clough, G.W. and Tsui, Y. 1974. Performance of tie-back
walls in clay. J. of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, GT12, pp. 12591273.
Goldberg, D. T., Jaworski, W. E., and Gordon, M. D. 1976.
Lateral support systems and underpinning, construction
methods. Rep.FHWA-RD-75-128, 129 and 130, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
Hashash, Y. M. A., and Whittle, A. J., 2002, Mechanisms
of Load Transfer and Arching for Braced Excavations in
Clay. J. Geotech. and Geoenvir. Engrg., Vol. 128, pp. 187
197
Hintze, S., Ekenberg, M. and Holmberg, G. 2000. Southern Link Road Construction: Foundation and Temporary
Constructions. Proc. 16th IABSE. Switzerland.
Karlsrud,K., Gjelsvik,V. and Loo,M.M. 2004. Design of toe
support for sheet pile walls driven to bedrock. NGM 2004,
E-47-53.
Lambe, T. W. and Whiman, R.V. 1969. Soil mechanics. Wiley,
New York.
Larsson, R., 1977, Basic behaviour of Scandinavian soft
clays. Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Report No.4,
108pp.

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Lee, J. K., and Chun, S. G. 1993. Earth pressure distribution on in situ walls in multi-layered ground. J. Korean
Geotech. Engrg., Vol.9, pp. 59-68.
Mayne, P.W. and Kulhawy, F.H., 1982, K0-OCR Relationships in Soil, J. Geotech Engrg. Division, ASCE, Vol. 108,
pp. 851872.
Peck, R. B., 1969, Deep excavations and tunneling in soft
ground. Proc., 7th Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. and Found.
Engrg., State-of-the-Art Rep., State-of-the-Art Vol., pp.
225290.
Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri,G. 1996. Soil mechanics
in engineering practice, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
New York.

Tschebotarioff, G. P. 1973. Foundations, retaining and earth


structures. 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
Weatherby, D. E. 1998. Design manual for permanent
ground anchor. Rep. FHWA-RD-97-130, Federal Highway Administration, Washington.
Wong, I.H., Poh, T.Y. and Chuah, H.L. 1997. Performance
of excavations for depressed expressway in Singapore. J.
Geotech. and Geoenvir. Engrg., Vol.123, pp. 617625.
Yoo, C.S. 2001. Behavior of braced and anchored walls in
soils overlying rock. J. Geotech. and Geoenvir. Engrg.,
Vol. 127, pp. 225233.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Performance of stone column encased with geogrids


S.N. Malarvizhi & K. Ilamparuthi
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, India

ABSTRACT: A laboratory investigation was carried out in which conventional and geogrid encased stone
columns were tested in a small cylindrical tank under strain-controlled condition. These tests were performed on
claybeds stabilized with single columns. Three types of geogrids were used for encapsulation and performance
of stabilized bed with three different diameter columns were investigated for each geogrid. A finite element
simulation of the experimental studies was done and it agrees to a good degree. The hoop stress generated in the
geogrid due to the dilating action of the stone material was responsible for the better performance of the encased
stone column.

1
1.1

INTRODUCTION
Introduction

Stone columns are installed by the vibro-floatation


method, in which the stone particles are properly compacted to achieve the necessary bearing resistance.
Stone column thus formed derives its axial capacity from the passive resistance developed against the
bulging of the column and increased resistance to
lateral deformation. But, columns installed in very
soft clays showed higher settlement. This is due to
poor lateral resistance offered by the surrounding clay.
In addition, stone columns consume large volume of
stone material than normally required. To overcome
this, rammed stone column with a geogrid encasement
in the form of tube is tried as an alternative. Though
few studies on stone columns with encasement have
reported the improvement of bearing capacity, they
were all on very small models, which used mostly
sand against stone aggregates to take care of the
scale down effect. However, experiments with scale
down model of stone are necessary to understand its
behaviour better. This study concentrates on understanding the performance of encased stone columns
and its improvement over conventional rammed stone
columns in terms of improvement of load capacity.

1.2

conducted triaxial compression tests on two types of


granular material with and without geogrid sleeves
and reported that the granular material packed within
the cylindrical sleeve, increased the stiffness of the
system considerably. It also offered adequate resistance against lateral deformation. The encapsulation
induced apparent cohesion to the stone column material and increased the strength of clay. Sivakumar
et al. (2004) conducted two series of triaxial tests on
sand columns of 32 mm diameter with and without
geogrid encasing of different lengths and concluded
that the columns longer than approximately five times
the diameter did not show further increase in loadcarrying capacity. Malarvizhi and Ilamparuthi (2004)
brought out the effect of stiffness of encased material
on the performance of stone column through laboratory model tests. Influence of L/D ratio on both bearing
and floating stone columns were also studied. Further,
analysis was carried out (Malarvizhi et al. 2005) to
validate the experimental study. Analysis showed that
the stress concentration on the encased stone column
is higher than the unreinforced stone column, which
is attributed to the mobilization of hoop stresses in the
geogrid. From their finite element studies, Murugesan
and Rajagopal (2004) have showed that the geogrid
encasement reduces the settlement of stone column
by about 20%. The influence of encasement decreases
with increase in diameter.

Literature review

In the recent past geotechnical engineers (Deshpande


and Vyas, 1996) are focussed more in improving the
performance of stone column stabilized bed. They are
attempting to reinforce (encapsulate) the stone column so that the column can be formed effectively
even in highly sensitive clays. Bauer and Nabil (1996)

2.1 Properties of clay, stone column and geogrid


Marine clay of high plasticity was collected from the
coastal area of Chennai city in India for forming the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

soft clay bed. The soil was collected at a depth of 3 m.


The index properties tests showed that the fine contents
are 90% out of which clay is 60%. The liquid limit
and plasticity index are 60% and 34% respectively.
This soil is classified as clay of high plasticity (CH).
The undrained shear strength of clay obtained from
vane shear test was 2 kN/m2 , 8 kN/m2 and 12 kN/m2
at consistency index of 0.05, 0.25 and 0.45 respectively. Stone chips varying from 2 to 10 mm particle
size were used to form the columns. The particle sizes
used to form the stone columns were as per the guidelines of Nayak (1983), which suggest that the particle
size should be in the range of 1/6 to 1/7 of the column diameter. Three different geogrids were used for
encasing the columns. The specifications of the nets
and the initial tensile modulus obtained from the tensile strength tests conducted as per ASTM D4592 are
tabulated in Table 1.
Net2 and net3 geogrids were covered with a thin
geotextile to avoid slipping of stone chips during
preparation of stone column. the geotextile is arranged
in such a way that it is not contributing either to
the vertical or lateral stiffness of the encased stone
column.
2.2

Experimental setup

Tests were conducted on a single column of diameter


60 mm formed in a claybed of 400 mm diameter and

Table 1.

Specifications of the nets used.

Netlon
Identification

Wt.
gm/m2

Nova Curtain
(net1)
Square mesh
(net2)
CE121 (net3)

260

Aperture size
Diamond
1 mm 1 mm
Square
4 mm
Diamond
8 mm 6 mm

475
730

Initial Tensile
modulus kN/m

300 mm deep on a standard loading frame as a straincontrolled test. The diameter of the loading plate used
was 2D (D diameter of the stone column) of adequate
thickness and rigidity. The column stabilized bed was
loaded at the rate of 1.27 mm/minute and the load acting on the plate was recorded at regular strain intervals.
Test was continued till the deformation was 20 mm.

FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION

The column and the claybed were modeled as axisymmetric to take care for the three-dimensional effects
(Figure 2). The clay was modeled using the soft soil
model; the stone column was modeled as a MohrCoulomb material. The clay is treated as an undrained
material and the stone as a drained material. The
PLAXIS FEM code was used for modeling and the
material models used were verified with the results of
Lee and Pande (1998), which were on stone column
groups. Cam clay model used by Lee & Pande and
Soft soil model of FEM used in this study compare
well with the experimental and numerical results of
Lee and Pande.
The Soft soil model is extensively described in
Vermeer & Brinkgreve (1998), which is similar to
the modified Cam clay model, without softening
behaviour. The yield function used in this, models
the irreversible volumetric strain in primary compression. The failure behaviour is modelled using a Mohr
Coulomb type yield function.
In the case of analysis of encased stone column,
the geogrid element available in the material library

15
40
60

Clay bed

Stone
Column
300mm

Geogrid
Encasing

400mm dia

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of stone column and encased


stone column.

Figure 2. A typical axisymmetric model of the column and


the claybed.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The tests were conducted on claybed stabilized with


different diameters (30 mm, 40 mm and 60 mm) and
the pressure-settlement plots of the columns with
diameters 30 mm and 60 mm are shown in Figure 3
& 4 respectively. The encased stone column beds performed better than the stone column stabilized beds.
The load intensity settlement response obtained from
the FEM analysis compares well with the response
curves obtained experimentally.
In the case of stone columns, the load capacity is
derived by the bulging effect of the dilating material. So if the restraint offered by the surrounding
soil is less, the load carrying capacity is also less.
In the encased stone column, the lateral resistance is
offered predominantly by the encasing geogrid. The
stone material tends to dilate and induces lateral pressure. Consequently, lateral strain in the stone column
induces hoop tension in the encasement, which results
in radial compression in stone column. The hoop tension developed depends on the stiffness of geogrid

Table 2.

and it develops a passive resistance for the stone column, which is otherwise offered by the surrounding
soil. The lateral pressure thus developed results in an
upward thrust. The stress transferred to the stone thus
increases, which reduces the load on the clay.
4.1 Influence of size of column on load capacity
The load intensities on stabilized bed with columns
of different sizes for a settlement of 10 mm are presented in Figure 5. For a settlement of 10 mm, the
load intensity on stabilized beds with 30mm diameter
columns was observed to be 33.4 kN/m2 , 50.2 kN/m2 ,
78.9 kN/m2 and 107.5 kN/m2 for stone column, column encased with net1, net2 and net3 respectively.
The corresponding load intensities in the case of
stabilized beds with 60 mm diameter column were
13.1 kN/m2 , 31 kN/m2 , 46.8 kN/m2 and 51.8 kN/m2
for stone column, column encased with net1, net2
and net3 respectively. The intensity of load on the
columns decreased with the diameter both in the stone
column and encased stone column stabilized beds.
However, the magnitude of stress in the encased stone
column is highest for the sleeve material having the
highest tensile strength. The effect of tensile strength
Pressure (kN/m2)
0

50

100

150

200

Settlement (mm)

of PLAXIS was used to model the sleeve material.


This model requires axial stiffness of the material only.
The stiffness of geogrid materials used in this study
is obtained from the tensile strengths conducted. The
values are presented in Table 1. Other material parameters used in the analysis are presented in Table 2. The
modulus of the stone material is increased to take care
of the confining effect of the geogrid, which depends
on the diameter of the column. The values adopted
here are based on the compression tests conducted
on samples of different diameters (60 mm, 40 mm and
30 mm) with L/D ratio of 2. The initial tangent moduli
obtained are found to vary between 4500 kN/m2 and
9000 kN/m2 with higher value for smaller diameter.
The prescribed settlement option available in PLAXIS
is used to simulate the strain-controlled experiments.

10

15

Parameters used for material modeling


20

Parameter
E [kPa]

Clay

[kN/m3 ]
 [ ]
c [kPa]
[ ]
k (m/day)

eo

12
24
4
0
2.39e3
0.154
0.062
1.42

Stone
Column
2500

Stone column
within the encasement
45009000#

0.35
16
46
0.1
20
1

0.3
16
46
0.1
10
1

25
Net2 30 mm dia (EXP.)

Net1 30 mm dia (EXP.)

SC 30mm dia (EXP.)

Net3 30 dia (FEM)

Net2 30 dia (FEM)

Net1 30 dia (FEM)

SC 30 dia (FEM)

Figure 3. Load settlement plot of columns with 30 mm


diameter.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Net3 30 mm dia (EXP.)

Pressure (kN/m )
0

20

40

60

80

0
LoadGEC /LoadSC

Settlement (mm)

10

0
20

30

40

15

50

60

70

Diameter of columns (mm)


sc

20

net1

net2

net3

Figure 6. Load improvement factor vs. size of the column.


5

25
Net2 60 mm dia (EXP.)

Net1 60 mm dia (EXP.)

SC 60mm dia (EXP.)

Net3 60 dia (FEM)

Net2 60 dia (FEM)

Net1 60 dia (FEM)

SC 60 dia (F M)

4
LoadGEC/LoadSC

Net3 60 mm dia (EXP.)

Figure 4. Load settlement plot of columns with 60 mm


diameter.

1
120
0
0

100

20

40

60

80

Load Intensity (kN/m2)

Tensile Modulus of geogrid (kN/m)


80

30mm dia.

40mm dia.

60mm dia.

60

Figure 7. Load improvement factor vs. tensile modulus of


geogrid.

40

20

0
20

30

40
50
Diameter of the column (mm)

sc

net1

net2

60

70
net3

Figure 5. Load intensity vs. size of the column for a


settlement of 10 mm.

is pronounced more in the case of smaller diameter


columns.
The ratio of the load intensities of the encased stone
columns and the stone column is compared and presented in Figure 6. Though the stabilized bed with

smaller diameter encased columns exhibited better


load capacity for a particular settlement, the improvement over stabilized beds with conventional stone
columns is more effective when the diameter of the
column is high.
From the figure 7, it is seen that the load improvement factor increases as the strength of the geogrid
increases for all the diameters studied.
4.2 Stress concentration and size of columns
From the FEM analysis,
the stresses on the stone
222.1 kN/m2 , 327 kN/m2
column, column encased

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

it was also observed that


column were 35.3 kN/m2 ,
and 369 kN/m2 for stone
with net1, net2 and net3

40

Hoop Forces (kN/m)


0

1.5

30
25

0.25

20
15
0.2

10

Along the length of column (m)

Stress concentration ratio

35

0.5

5
0
20

30

40

50

60

70

Diameter of the column (mm)


sc

net1

net2

net3

Figure 8. Stress concentration ratio vs. size of the column.

respectively. The increase in the stress concentration


is mainly attributed to the stiffness of the encasing
geogrid. The stress concentration ratio is the ratio of
the stress on the stone material to the stress on the clay.
The stress concentration ratio obtained from FEM is
shown in Figure 8. For a smaller diameter encased column, the stress concentration is higher. The increase
in stress concentration is more in the columns encased
with stiffer geogrid material.

0.15

0.1

Net1 30mmdia
0.05

Net2 30mmdia
Net3 30mm dia

Figure 9. Hoop forces mobilized in the geogrids (Column


diameter 30 mm).
Hoop Forces (kN/m)
0

1.5

Influence of stiffness of geogrid on load


capacity

The stiffer the geogrid is, the load carrying capacity


is also high. Net3 columns exhibited the better performance in all the cases. The hoop stresses generated in
the geogrid increases with the increase in tensile modulus of the geogrid. The hoop stresses were observed in
the geogrids from the FEM results for a settlement of
10 mm. Hoop stresses developed in 30 mm, 40 mm and
60 mm diameter columns exhibited a similar profile
and are shown in Figures 9, 10 & 11 respectively.
For a 30 mm diameter column, the maximum hoop
forces were 0.51 kN/m, 0.79 kN/m and 0.89 kN/m for
net1, net2 and net3 respectively. The corresponding
horizontal displacements were 0.51 mm, 0.28 mm and
0.22 mm respectively. In the unreinforced stone column the maximum bulging was 2.6 mm at a depth of
1.25D from the top of the column. The bulging has
reduced appreciably when net3 encasement was used.
Similar results were observed for 40 mm and 60 mm
diameter columns. However, the hoop forces reduced
as the diameter increased as shown in Figure 11.
The maximum hoop forces generated depends on
the strength of the geogrid. It is lesser for higher diameters. For low intensities of applied pressure, the hoop
forces mobilized are prominent at the top 1D of the
column. However, for increasing intensities the hoop

0.25

Along the length of column (m)

4.3

0.5

0.15

0.1
Net1 40mmdia
0.05

Net2 40mm dia


Net3 40mm dia

Figure 10. Hoop forces mobilized in the geogrids (Column


diameter 40 mm).

stresses are distributed along the length. Higher the


tensile modulus of the geogrid the composite column
behaves almost like a pile i.e. has high rigidity though
compressible.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.2

2. For a particular settlement, the load intensity of


the stabilized bed with smaller diameter columns
is higher than the larger diameter columns. The
stresses were higher in the smaller diameter
columns.
3. The hoop stress generated in the geogrid was
responsible for the increase in load capacity of the
encased stone columns. The stiffer the geogrid is,
the hoop stresses developed is more and consequently, higher is the load carrying capacity.
4. The bulging of the columns is reduced significantly
in the encased stone columns.

Hoop Forces (kN/m)


0

0.5

1.5

Along the length of column (m)

0.25

0.2

0.15

REFERENCES

0.1
Net1 60mmdia
Net2 60mm dia
0.05
Net3 60mm dia

Figure 11. Hoop forces mobilized in the geogrids (Column


diameter 60 mm).
1

Hoop forces (kN/m)

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
20

30

40

50

60

70

Diameter of column (mm)


net1

net2

net3

Figure 12. Hoop forces vs. Diameter of the column.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the experimental and numerical studies


through FEM the following conclusions are drawn.

Bauer G.E and Nabil Al-Joulani 1996. Laboratory and analytical investigation of sleeve reinforced stone columns,
Geosynthetics: Applications, Design and Construction,
De Groot, 463466.
Deshpande, P.M and Vyas, A.V. 1996. Interactive Encased
Stone Column Foundation, Sixth International Conference and Exhibition on piling and deep foundation,
DFI96, ISSMFE, Bombay, 119.
Lee, J.S. and Pande G.N. 1998. Analysis of Stone Column
Reinforced Foundations. Int. J. Numerical and Analytical
Methods in Geomechanics, 22, 10011020.
Malarvizhi S.N. and Ilamparuthi K. 2004. Load versus Settlement of Claybed stabilized with Stone & Reinforced
Stone columns. Proceedings of the 3rd Asian Regional
Conference on Geosynthetics, GEOASIA, Seoul, Korea,
322329.
Malarvizhi S.N., Ilamparuthi K. and Bhuvaneshwari S. 2005.
Finite Element Analysis of Stone columns and Geogrid
encased stone columns. Proceedings of the National Conference on Geotechnics in Environmental Protection, VIII
4851.
Murugesan S. and Rajagopal K. 2004. Finite Element
Analysis of embankments constructed on geosynthetic
reinforced stone columns. International Conference
on Geosynthetics and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
443448.
Priebe, H. J., 1976. An Evaluation of Settlement Reduction in Soil Improved by Vibroreplacement. (en alemn).
Bautechnik, n 53, 160162.
Sivakumar, V., McKelvey D., Graham J. and Hughes, D. 2004.
Triaxial tests on model sand columns in clay, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 41:299312.
Vermeer, P.A. and Brinkgreve, R. B. J. 1998. Plaxis Finite
Element code for soil and rock analyses, Rotterdam,
Balkema.

1. The performance of encased stone column is better than the conventional stone column for all the
diameters studied.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Strength distribution of soft clay surround lime-column


Agus Setyo Muntohar
Department of Civil Engineering, Universitas Muhammadiyah, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Jiun-Liao Hung
Department of Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science & Technology, Taipei, Taiwan

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the investigation result of the application of lime-column (LC) technique
on expansive soft clay. The research studied the strength distribution surround the installed lime-column in the
radial and vertical direction from the center of column. In this research, the LC was designed as single column
with 50 mm in diameter (D), and the depth was 4D (=200 mm). The soil strength surrounds the LC is determined
by unconfined compression strength (UCS) test and static cone penetration (CPT) test. The test results show
that the LC contributes to enhance the soil strength in radial direction up to 4D from the center of LC. Higher
strength occurs near the LC and decreases with the distance from the LC center. It was also observed that soil
strength tends to increase with time. The CPT results also showed that the installation of LC affected the soil
strength to a depth of 4 D beneath the bottom of LC. This research also confirms that after installation of
LC the water content of soil decreased near the LC, but beyond the distance of 4D in radial direction the water
content remained its original value.

INTRODUCTION

Lime column technique has been applied successfully


in recent years to improve the physical and mechanical properties of the soils. Both the dry and wet lime
mixing are carried out by injecting a preferable pressure into soil and form a lime-column in-situ (Rogers
& Glendinning, 1997). This technique increases soil
bearing capacity and reduces soil settlement owing to
improving of soil strength and stiffness. A study carried by Baker (2000) on full-scale model showed that
the stiffness of the improved soil using LC increased
more significantly than that of lime-cement column.
Researchers such as Shen et al (2003), Tonoz et al
(2003), and Budi et al (2003) studied separately the
strength of the soil surrounding the LC. They reported
that the soil strength increased near the column to a
distance up to 2 to 3 times of the column diameter
in radial direction. But, the effect of strength change
beneath the bottom of LC was not studied. It is reasonably to assume that the lime will flow easily downward
into soil in vertical direction and the soil strength may
also increase with the availability of lime.

(Presently: Ph.D Student, Department of Construction


Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science &
Technology, Taipei, Taiwan)

After LC has been installed, the lime or calcium ions


migrate into soil surround the LC. The soil properties
around LC will change due to consolidation, densification, and hardening resulted by the chemical reaction
between lime and soil. For an efficient stabilization,
calcium and hydroxyl ions should migrate through the
clay, because hydroxyl ions cause highly alkalinic conditions in clay soil. Highly alkalinic conditions give
rise to the slow solution of alumino-silicates which
are then precipitated as hydrated cementitious reaction
products. These reaction products contribute to flocculation by bonding adjacent soil particles together
and when curing is allowed the clay soil is strengthened. This mechanism will control the strength of the
soil surround the LC. The soil strength around the
LC will vary with the distance from the center of
the LC both in radial and vertical direction. So far,
based on the strength characteristics, the migration
zone of the calcium ion of lime can be predicted. The
lime soil reaction takes place within 2472 hours
after installation and the soil properties are modified.
Such pozzolanic reactions are time dependent. So is
the development of soil strength, After that, the soil
undergo a permanent change in mechanical properties
and the strength develop gradually over a long period
(Bell 1996; Sivapullaiah et al., 2000; Muntohar, 2003).
Since the LC ground improvement method is highly
related to the chemical reaction between lime and

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Figure 1. Particle size distribution of the soil used.

soil, it is necessary to consider the amount of lime


that should be added or mixed with the soil. Roger
and Glendinning (2003) used the ASTM C977-98
method to determine the lime required for stabilization. Muntohar (2003) determined simple method to
define the amount of lime by using correlation between
plasticity index and lime content. For expansive soft
clay, mixing with 6% lime was sufficient for the
purpose of the compressive strength improvement.
2

EXPERIMENT METHOD

2.1

Figure 2. Test tank used in this study.

Soil used

The index properties of test soil are as follows:

Specific gravity (Gs ) = 2.64


Liquid limit (LL) = 73%
Plasticity index (PI) = 36%
Fines fraction (<7.5 ) = 89%
Clay size fraction (<2 ) = 29%

The particle size distribution of the soil sample is


shown in Figure 1.
2.2

Laboratory test

Lime columns of 50 mm in diameter and 200 mm


in length were installed in the test tanks of
120 120 100 cm in dimension (Figure 2). The clay
prepared in the tank is saturated by controlling the
water level at the ground surface for 34 months.
It results in a degree of saturation about 90%98%.
Consolidation test for the soil sample indicates that
the soil undergoes a higher stresses before compared
with the current stress and can be considered as OC
clay. The compressibility coefficient (Cc ) and swelling
index (Cs ) are 0.7 and 0.085 respectively.
In the field application, a hollow tube is pushed
into the soil to the required depth and quicklime is
then forced into the pile or column by air pressure

Figure 3. Plan view of the installed LC.

as the tube is withdrawn. In the laboratory, the field


application is simulated by the technique in which the
column hole was filled with the powder type quicklime
in four successive layers and each layer was separately
compacted. The plan view of the installed LC is shown
in Figure 3.
Laboratory tests conducted are unconfined compressive strength test (UCS) and cone penetration test
(CPT). The UCS test was performed at varying distance from the installed LC i.e. 50, 100, 150 and
200 mm in radial direction. To avoid much disturbance

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14
3 days
12

7 days
14 days

UCS (kPa)

10

Main-influence
zone

8
6

Before LC
improvement
Effective
influence zone

4
2
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

Distance from column (mm)


Figure 5. Unconfined compressive strength of soil surrounding LC.

62
Main-influence Before LC
improvement
zone

61
Water content (%)

Figure 4. Installation of CPT and SPT equipment.

and sampling difficulties, the UCS samples were taken


at depth of 100 mm (one-half of LC length). The CPT
or sounding test was performed also at radial direction.
The cone resistance (qc ) was recorded every 20 cm of
depth. The installation of CPT is shown in Figure 4.

60

Effective
influence zone

59
3 days
7 days
14 days

58

3 TEST RESULTS
3.1

57
0

Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)

Figure 5 shows the development of unconfined compressive strength of soil surround LC at different ages
after installation. The effect of lime on the strength of
soil depends on numerous factors such as type of soil
and lime, curing period, moisture content, temperature, etc. In this study, the unconfined compressive
strength of the soil treated with the lime column has
also been determined in order to compare the variation
in unconfined compressive strength with the distance
from the lime column.
Fourteen days after installation, the soil strength
around LC is higher than that of 3 and 7 days after
installation. It implies that ageing factor has effect on
the soil strength surround LC. Similarly, the strength
of LC will also increase with time due to pozzolanic
reaction.
Most of the strength increase concentrates at the
soil near the side surface of the LC. It is up to 50 mm
or 1 D in radial direction from column. The soil
strength decays associated with distance from LC. The
soil strength in the distance of twice time of diameter

100

150

200

250

Figure 6. Variation of water contents from the LC.

(2 D) does not decrease very much in between 5%


7%. This influenced distance may be noted as main
influenced zone. However, the lime migrates effectively to a radial distance of 3 times of the column
diameter (3 D). It has been indicated by the higher
soil strength than that before improvement. This zone
may be called as effective influence zone within which
the strength is decreased in the range of 24%28%.
Interestingly, after a distance of 4 D, the soil strength
is approximately same as the soil strength before LC
improvement. The migration distances are small in
clayey soils because the soil has low to very low permeability. The coefficient of hydraulic conductivity
of the clay soil used in this study ranges in between
2.6 106 to 8 108 cm/sec. Other researchers, Rao
and Rajasekaran (1996) wrote that the lime migration
takes place in 7 to 15 days after installation to penetrate
into soil up to 5D in radial direction.

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50

Distance from column (mm)

16

Cone Resitance, qc (kPa)

12

1xD

10

2xD

20

3xD

30

4xD

40

Depth (cm)

Compressive Stress (kPa)

Natural
4

50

50

100
Limecolumn, D
= 50 mm

Main-influence
zone

60

Distance
from LC:
1xD
2xD
3xD
4xD

70
80

0
0

90

Strain, (%)

100

Figure 7. Stress and strain relationship from UCS test after


14 days.

Figure 8. CPT results taken 14 days after installation.

During migration, the lime reacts with the surrounding soil. This reaction consumes some amount of water
and produces reaction product as cementation compound materials. This phenomenon is illustrated in
Figure 6, it can be seen that the water content decreases
due to the lime reaction with water especially in the
influenced zone.
As shown in Figure 7, no clear peak is observed
at the stressstrain curves for the natural samples.
In comparison, the stressstrain curves of the limetreated samples shown in Figure 7 have slight peaks
due to cementation of soil particles resulted by the
pozzolanic compounds from lime reactions. It indicates that soil becomes stiffer and behaves in a slightly
brittle manner after lime treatment.
3.2

CPT test

Cone penetration test is commonly used to determine


the soil strength. Its cone-tip resistance qc will vary
with soil layer and soil properties. Figure 8 presents the
CPT results 14 days after installation. It is shown that
the lime column not only improves the soil strength in
radial direction but also in vertical direction beneath
the column. Similar to the UCS results, the CPT result
confirm that the qc reaches higher value near the limecolumn and decreases with distance from column.
In vertical direction, higher qc value is obtained near
the base of column decreases gradually to a depth of
40 cm to 60 cm underneath column. In other words,
the lime can penetrate into soil about 8 to 12 times
of column diameter beneath the column. The influenced zone in vertical direction is wider than in radial
direction. The lime migration in vertical direction is
helped by the gravity force to be able to migrate more
rapidly and wider. It is found In this investigation that

the main migration zone can reach up to 4 times of


column diameter beneath the column tip (Figure 8).
However, it should be noted that due to the variability of in-situ soil is relative high in vertical direction,
the range of lime migration In the field may be
different from the laboratory results,.
4

The following conclusions can be drawn from the


above research findings.
1. The installation of lime-column in the soil can
improve the strength of the soil surrounding the column in both vertical and radial directions. Higher
strength attained near the column and decreased
gradually with the distance from the column.
2. The increased soil strength is a result of the lime
migrates into and reacts with soil. The lime can
penetrate into soil up to 4 D in radial direction and
8 D in vertical direction. But, the main influenced
zone is within 2 D in radial direction and 4 D
beneath column in vertical direction.
3. The water content of surrounding soil decrease after
installation of the lime-column owing to the imbibing of water for chemical reaction between lime and
soil. The amount of water content decrease reduces
with the distance from the column edge.
REFERENCES
Baker, S., 2000, Deformation behavior of lime/cement stabilized clay, Thesis for Ph.D, Departement of Geotechnical Engineering, Chalmers University Of Teghnology,
Goterberg, Sweden.

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CONCLUDING REMARKS

Bell, F.G., (1996), Lime stabilization of clay minerals and


soils. Engineering Geology, Vol. 42, 223237.
Budi, G.S., 2003, Penyebaran kekuatan dari kolom yang terbuat dari limbah karbit dan kapur, Jurnal Dimensi Teknik
Sipil, Vol. 5 No. 2, hal. 99102.
Muntohar, A.S., 2003, Lime-Column in expansive soil :
A study on the compressive strength, Presented Paper,
International Conference on Civil Engineering, 13 October, Malang, Jawa Timur, Indonesia.
Rogers, C.D.F.,dan Glendinning, S., 1997, Improvement of
clay soils in situ using lime piles in UK, Engineering
Geology, Vol. 47, 243-257.
Rogers, C.D.F.,dan Glendinning, S., 2002, Lime requirement
for stabilization, Transportation Research Record No. 00
0604, National research Council, pp. 918.
Rao, S.N, and Rajasekaran, G., 1996, Reaction products formed in lime-stabilized marine clays, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 122, No. 5, 329336.

Shen, S.L., Miura, N., dan Koga, H., 2003, Interaction mechanism between deep mixing column surrounding clay
during installation, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.
40, 293307.
Sivapullaiah, P.V., Sridharan, A., Ramesh, H.N., 2000
Strength behavior of lime-treated soils in the presence
of sulphate. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 37,
13581367.
Tonoz, M.C., Gokceoglu, G., dan Ulusay, R., 2003, A
laboratory-scale experimental investigation on the performance of lime in expansive Ankara (Turkey) clay, Bulletin
Engineering Geology & Environmental, Vol. 62, 91106.
Zhou, C.,Yin, J.H., dan Ming, J.P., 2002, Bearing capacity and
settlement of weak fly ash ground improved using limefly ash or stone columns, Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 39, 585596.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

The investigation of mud tailings and a comparison of different test


methods with 3rd world constraints
Wyatt Orsmond
RPS Consulting, Dublin, Ireland

ABSTRACT: As part of the closure of tailings facilities in Scotland and Jamaica, in-situ and laboratory testing
was undertaken on both sites on very similar man influenced materials. In-situ testing in Scotland was done
with 4 different methods CPT, DCP, SPT and shearvane. In Jamaica local equipment was limited to DCP and
shearvane. This paper presents a cross comparison and correlation of these results and discusses the variations.
It also highlights the challenges faced with working in developing countries and the problems of accessing areas
of insufficient bearing capacity for standard ground investigation equipment.

INTRODUCTION

2.1 Scotland

The geotechnical investigation on weak materials is


always challenging and more so when they are difficult to access. This can be compounded in developing
countries by the lack of availability of modern and
sensitive test equipment.
This paper covers the investigation of two similar
tailings facilities. The first was in Scotland where a
selection of site investigation equipment and laboratory tests is available. The second was in Jamaica
where site investigation equipment is limited and
laboratories basic. Each of the sites had their own
logistical challenges of mobilising equipment onto
the surface of tailings where even foot access was
limited.
The aim of the paper is to provide those challenged
with similar investigations a wider range of choices
and to highlight some of the practical issues expected.
It also offers a revised correlation for determining
undrained shear strength from CPT tests under these
conditions.
2

OVERVIEW OF INVESITGATIONS

The aim of the investigations was to determine the


engineering characteristic of the manmade site materials. Although the final application of the information
is different for the two sites a similar approach (where
possible) was adopted. Although both sites contain
tailings from similar processes, their containment
environment and surface state varied dramatically
posing site specific challenges.

The general site location was easily accessible and due


to its location within the UK, the full spectrum of site
investigation methods was available, although a budget
needed to be considered. It was therefore decided to
limit the number of boreholes (shell and auger) and to
use other probing methods to provide a full coverage
of the site.
Previous limited investigations and historic data
provided some indication of anticipated conditions.
The tailings extended to depths of about 20 m and
the age of deposition varied from 10 to 60 years but
was deposited in different zones as the site developed.
The materials were typically deposited at a moisture
content of about 60%.
2.2 Jamaica
In contrast to the Scotland site, access to this site was
difficult and limited to off-road vehicles. Much of the
tailings were covered by ponded water so the ground
investigation requiring a different approach. The type
of geotechnical equipment available on the island was
also limited to rotary, auguring and dynamic probing
and there was very little experience with working over
very soft ground although overwater work was more
common.
The development of the site was well documented
and the records indicated that the first tailings were
deposited 45 years ago and the site progressively filled
for 30 years. The tailings extend to depths of about
90 m but typically 60m and were deposited as a slurry
of about 20% solids.

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CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED

Due to their locality and the way the sites were


developed, each had their own unique challenges in
mobilising investigative equipment into position. As
with most tailings, process residues can be chemically
reactive under certain conditions and this posed a problem with laboratory testing as did the availability and
choice of testing equipment.
3.1

Equipment availability and investigative


method

Although a full range of testing equipment is readily available in UK or can easily be brought in from
Europe, this is not the case in Jamaica. Even though
the tenderers indicated that they did have CPT probing and shear vane equipment available, it was only
when requested to view the plant did it become apparent that it was not readily available. The investigation
was therefore limited to dynamic (DCP) probing and
shallow shear vane test. However, the DCP equipment
needed more rods to be of any use and a full shear vane
kit needed to be imported.
In Scotland, the CPT rig was also used for in-situ
shear tests and undisturbed samples were taken from
depths of up to 12 m using a terrier rig.
3.2

4 ASSESSMENT OF RESULTS
4.1 Material properties
To provide the basic properties of the tailings, grading analyses and Atterberg limits were undertaken.
Although the material differed with depth and distance
from discharge, the average material gradings showed
similarities as demonstrated in Figure 1 as follows:
Scotland material:

Equipment access

Accessing very soft ground is generally one of the


biggest challenges when attempting to determine the
underlying engineering properties. Excessive loading caused by thick haul roads can alter the in-situ
stress conditions and material properties, they can also
induce failure planes.
On the Scottish site, some of the areas had received
an overall stabilising layer but in one large area, the
tailings were very recent deposits and exposed. Even
foot access was not possible. To access the surface,
lightweight access tracks were constructed using a
basal separation geotextile and geogrid combination
with 0.5 m of granular fill. These were very successful and were later used as haul roads for dump trucks
while constructing the cap.
In Jamaica, the tailings around the ponded area were
dry enough to allowed foot access hence all testing had
to be limited to lightweight hand operated equipment.
Getting access onto the pond surface was also limited
to manhandable equipment as the pontoon was only
large enough to take a tripod rig for a medium weight
DCP rig.
3.3

equipment is made from aluminium, this caused some


problems and much concern from the laboratory managers as highlighted by Clark (1995). In the triaxial
cell, the reaction caused erratic porewater measurement and in some cases total sample destruction. Also,
residues formed on the shear box and odometer cells.
Most of this was overcome by coating equipment with
a thin layer of silicone grease prior to setup and in the
triaxial cells, Perspex or brass load discs were used.
In Jamaica, although the equipment was available,
when inspected, it was found to be in a state of disrepair and incapable of operating at the required stress
ranges anticipated. The samples therefore had to be
sent abroad (to Ireland or UK) to be tested.
Many of these aspects caused delays in obtaining
results and delayed the overall investigations.

Laboratory testing

One of the main problems with both sites was the tailings tended to chemically react with anything made
from aluminium. As a large amount of laboratory

PI varied between 20 and 30,


Liquid limits of between 40 to 60,
Moisture content varied from 40% to 58% typically
reducing with depth,
bulk density increased with depth from typically
1.8 to 2.05 Mg/m3 .
Jamaica material

Sampling with depth was not achievable hence


no further correlation was possible for the Jamaica
materials.
4.2 Shear strength testing
In Scotland, in-situ testing was undertaken using CPT
probing to provide qc values, shear vane testing, SPT
testing and dynamic probing. Laboratory strength testing comprised both drained and undrained triaxial
testing and shear box tests.
As the in-situ testing provides undrained results,
a comparative assessment of these direct results and
correlations has been undertaken.
For qc to Cu , initially the suggested correlation
(Fugro, Lankelma) of qc /Nk where Nk is 1718 for
weak clays was used, however this tended to over

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PI ranged from 15 to 25,


liquid limits of about 40 (with some outliers),
Moisture content varied between 100% and 150%.
bulk density of 1.4 to 1.5 Mg/m3 .

Shear Strength Estimate


(Scotland)

Grading Composition
(Jamaica)

SAND
CLAY

Shear vane 1

Shear vane 2

Shear vane 4

Depth (m)

13%
29%

58%

SILT

Cu (CPT qc ratio)

Cu triaxial
10
12
14
16
18

Grading Composition
Scotland

20
0

20

40

60

80

100

Shear Strength (Cu)

SAND
Figure 2. CPT Comparison of Cu values.

7%
CLAY
38%
54%
SILT

Figure 1. Particle distribution summary.

estimate the in-situ shear vane results by 10 to 15kPa


although when compared as a percent the difference
ranged from 300% to 30%, decreasing linearly with
increased shear strength. A revised correlation based
on a best fit to the shear vane test data was therefore
calculated for these materials as:
Cu = (qc /22) 8
This is demonstrated in Figure 2 where the Cu values
calculated from average qc values for the material are
compared to in-situ shear vane tests as well as results
from quick undrained Triaxial testing.
Although good correlation was achieved throughout between qc and shear vane, this was not the case at
shallow depths with triaxial testing. This is probably
due to the limitations of doing conventional triaxial
testing at very low confining stresses. Some previous

studies on this material indicated possible cementing and the material does show thixotropic properties.
Both of these factors would be more dominant at low
shear strengths, however it is unclear why this was not
more evident with in-situ testing.
A similar exercise was undertaken using SPT N60
values. For SPT-N values Strouds correlation of
Cu = f1 xN was used with an upper f1 value of 6. These
results are plotted against the Cu values calculated
from CPT- qc and the triaxial tests and are shown in
figure 3.
In most cases SPT was recorded as blows for
300 mm and not per individual increment of 75 mm. It
is apparent that the SPT values are significantly less
sensitive in picking up changes in strength within these
weak soils. This may also be as a result of the investigation method where the shell and auger boring is
causing significant disturbance beyond the excavation
face.
The testing in Jamaica was somewhat limited due
to availability of equipment. The only direct strength
testing that was achievable was a hand operated shear
vane. Access and availability also restricted the use
of equipment like terrier rigs etc to install a casing to
undertake down the hole shear vane tests.
Shear testing was achieved by pushing the vane in
from the surface with sleeved rods and undertaking
tests at various depths until it would no longer penetrate. This achieved good profiling up to a maximum
depth of 4 m. The shear strengths recorded typically
ranged between 10 and 30 kPa with some indication

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Stiffness Correlation with Depth

Shear Strength Estimate


(Scotland)

Stiffness, E (Mpa)

0.00
0.00

Cu (6xSPT)

2.00

Cu triaxial

4.00

6.00

8
10

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

Cu (CPT qc ratio)

12

16

14.00

18

16.00

20

40

60

80

18.00

100

Shear Strength (Cu)

20.00

Figure 3. CPT comparison of Cu values.

Figure 5. Dynamic probing comparison (Scotland).

Shear Strength
(Jamaica)

Sampling with depth was only achievable to about


6m by using a push sampler basically a 50 mm
plastic pipe with stop-cock to hold the sample in. This
produced a continuous but disturbed sample. Investigation equipment to undertake u-tube sampling at
depth was not available.

Shear Vane

0.5

DCP PS12
SPT BHS06
CPT DS03

10.00
12.00

Access track

8.00

14

20

Triaxial UU

1
1.5
Depth (m)

2.00

4.3 Dynamic probing

2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
0

20

40
60
80
Shear Strength (kPa)

100

Figure 4. Hand pushed shear vane.

of an increase with depth. These results are presented


in Figure 4.
Triaxial undrained tests undertaken on near surface
materials confirmed the shear vane tests although did
indicate lower results in contrast to the Scotland materials. Sample disturbance during transportation is a
possible cause for this as the residual shear vane tests
were typically half of the peak strength.

On both the Scotland and Jamaica sites dynamic probing was undertaken with varying degrees of success.
One of the main problems was that in these very
weak soils the rods and hammer would fall under their
own weight. Another problem was that results were
recorded as blows/100 mm and not mm/blow making
the test less sensitive to higher penetrations.
To allow comparison of the different in-situ test
methods, all the results were converted to Youngs
Modulus (E).
For SPT, E = 0.8N,
DCP, E = 2.4xblows/100 mm
CPT, E = 2 qc (Schmertmann)
In Scotland all three methods were used in close
proximity and the calculated E values for each are
plotted in Figure 5. The methods do show similar low
strength results however at depths below 12 m the DCP
becomes erratic. This is possibly due to frictional resistance on the rods. The SPT and CPT results do however
follow a similar trend.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Stiffness, E (MPa)
0.00
0.00
2.00

5.00

Very Soft

10.00

15.00

20.00

MRP08
MRPM08

4.00

Depth (m)

6.00

5.2 DCP testing

Soft

8.00

Dynamic cone penetrometer testing was partially successful in investigating these very weak materials.
Its main benefit was to identify where the strength
increased to about 3540 kPa (soft to firm). If readings are taken as mm/blow, it can be of more benefit
for soft soils.
The DCP is lightweight and easy to operate by hand,
hence it has a significant advantage in getting into difficult positions. It is also robust and is readily available
in many developing (and developed countries). Also,
if it is unavailable, it is easy to construct from scratch.
Further development of the DCP apparatus for use
on very weak materials would be of great benefit for
the investigation of these tailings facilities.

Firm becoming Stiff

10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00

Figure 6. Dynamic probing depth profile (Jamaica).

In Jamaica, the DCP was used extensively both on


land and overwater. Some of the results are presented in
Figure 6 and show the changes in strength with depth.
It is interesting to note that the strength increase only
occurs at about 4.55 m, just below the depth to which
the shear vane could be pushed in by hand.

5
5.1

It was interesting to note that SPT tests were able


to provide shear strengths within range of that measured by shear vane tests although they were not as
sensitive to small changes. This is to be expected as
the equipment is not suited for such weak material and
the standard blow count method needed to be revised
to accommodate penetrations in excess of 75 mm.

CONCLUSIONS
Shear testing

The assessment of in-situ shear of these very weak


tailings is best undertaken by doing shear vane tests.
Unfortunately, in order to get a full depth spectrum of
results a cased hole or large CPT rig is required. This
necessitates the construction of access tracks to handle
heavy site investigation equipment.
It appears from the cross-correlation of results that
the CPT-qc values can give a good indication of insitu undrained shear strength. It does however appear
that the standard correlation of qc to Cu overestimates the shear strength of these very weak materials
and a variation may be required to improve this.
Cu = (qc /22)-8 gave a very good match for these
materials.
Conventional triaxial testing was found to over estimate the peak strength but underestimate the residual
strength. This was probably due to a combination of the
difficulty in representing in-situ stress conditions as
well as cementing/thixotropic features of the material
being investigated.

5.3 Constraints within developing countries


The investigation of any weak soils is firstly challenged
by getting the right equipment onto the surface. Once
there, however, it may not be able to operate to its full
capacity. The results may need to be tweaked as standard correlations may not apply in these conditions. It
is therefore necessary to undertake more than one type
of in-situ testing to achieve accurate results. In most
modern countries this is not a problem and getting the
correct laboratory testing is considered the norm.
However, in places like Jamaica, parts of Africa,
Angola, etc, geotechnical investigation equipment is
limited and in certain cases basic equipment is nonexistent. It is sometimes therefore impossible to undertake comparative in-situ testing or to even get suitable
samples to do laboratory strength testing.
Although the contractors in these more isolated
locations are very keen and willing, they may not
appreciate the high degree of accuracy required for
investigating and testing weak tailings materials. It is
therefore tempting to transport samples overseas for
specialist testing and in these instances, consideration
must be given to the possible change in strength due
to transport disturbance.
REFERENCES
Brouwer J.J.M (2002). Lankelma Guide to Cone Penetration
Testing
Craig R. F (1997). Soil Mechanics, Sixth Edition, E & FR
Spon, London.

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Clark R. G and Keeton G.P. (1995). Considerations in the


geotechnical testing of contaminated samples. Proc. ICE
conference on Advances in Site Investigation Practice,
Thomas Telford, London
Clayton C. R. I (1999). The Standard Penetration Test
Method and Uses. Lecture notes Provided at the 12th
Regional Conf for Africa on Soil Mech and Geo Eng.
Durban.

Fugro Ltd. (Feb 1996). Cone Penetration Testing. Simplified


Description of the use of CPTs in Ground Engineering.
Stroud, M. A (1989). The Standard Penetration Test its
application and interpretation. Proc. L.C.E Conference on
Penetration Testing in the UK. Thomas Telford, London.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

A geotechnical data base development and applying data mining


techniques to extract the common trendes of offshore geotechnical
properties of South Pars Gas Field/Persian Gulf IR-IRAN
H. Shiri GJ. & M.H. Pashnehtala
Petroparis Ltd, 2005, Tehran, IR-IRAN

ABSTRACT: Irans largest natural gas field is South Pars, geologically an extension of Qatars 900-Tcf North
Field. South Pars was first identified in 1988 and originally appraised at 128 Tcf in the early 1990s. This Field
contains 38.6% of the gas resources of Iran and is regarded as the largest offshore gas field in the world. Offshore
geotechnical site investigations are one of the key activities of upstream fields operators to supply the EPC contractors with the required results for designing approaches of offshore complexes. In the mean time a lot of marine
site investigations have been carried into execution within the phases of South Pars development. The authors are
currently trying to create the fundamentals of investigating the small- and large-scale spatial variability of the
South Pars Gas Field in Persian Gulf/IRAN. Part of this investigation is the providing of an extensive data base of
the offshore geotechnical properties of South Pars. Such a data base, will enable a model to be developed of the
large-scale variability of these properties. In addition, this data set will provide a data whereby general trends to be
established, as well as, providing relationships between geotechnical parameters and spatial parameters utilizing
probabilistic and data mining methods like ANN (Artificial Neural Network) in Geotechnical Engineering.

INTRODUCTION

By the end of 2003 the verified gas repositories of the


world were estimated at 175.78 trillion cubic meters.
Iran holds 26.69 trillion cubic meters of this quantity,
which equates to 15.2 percent of the worlds gas repositories and is second largest holder of gas after Russia
with holdings of 26.7 percent (BP Statistical Review
of World Energy-June 2004) Irans largest natural gas
field is South Pars, geologically an extension of Qatars
900-Tcf North Field. Figure 1.a
South Pars was first identified in 1988 and originally appraised at 128 Tcf in the early 1990s. Current

estimates are that South Pars contains 280 Tcf or more


(some estimates go as high as 500 Tcf) of natural
gas, of which a large fraction will be recoverable,
and over 17 billion barrels of liquids (i.e., condensates by 2010, South Pars as the biggest gas field
in Iran can effectively produce condensates of more
than 500,000 bbl/d, mainly for domestic consumption). South Pars Gas Field contains 38.6% of the gas
resources of Iran and is regarded as the largest offshore gas field in the world. This monumental field
is located 100 Km from the southern coast in Persian
Gulf and is a joint property of Iran and Qatar. The
first excavations on this field were performed in 1990
with seismic data and results confirming the existing
of gas there. The South Pars Gas Field has been divided

Figure 1a. South Pars Gas Field General Layout.

Figure 1b. South Pars Gas Field Phase 5, Jackup operation.

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into 28 phases for exploitation with each phase being


able to extract 28 million cubic meters of gas per day.
Exploitation of each phase can generate an income of
1.5 billion dollars for Iran including the income resulting from oil replacement consumption. In the mean
time a lot of Marine site investigations have been carried into execution within the phases of South Pars
development.
This paper outlines the effort of authors for providing of the offshore geotechnical properties data base,
its extent and suggests some potential applications for
the data set. The authors are currently trying to create the fundamentals of investigating the small- and
large-scale spatial variability of the South Pars Gas
Field in Persian Gulf/IRAN. Part of this investigation
shall be the providing of an extensive data base of the
Offshore Geotechnical Properties of South Pars. Such
a data base, will enable a model to be developed of the
large-scale variability of these properties. In addition,
this data set will provide a data whereby general trends
could be established, as well as, providing relationships
between geotechnical parameters and spatial parameters utilizing probabilistic and data mining methods in
Geotechnical Engineering.

GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

The Persian Gulf, within which the South Pars Field is


located in a marginal sea measuring some 1000 Km in
length and 200 to 300 Km in width covering an area of
approximately 226000 Km2. The average water depth
is close to 35 m approaching 100 m towards the Straits
of Hormuz.
The area represents a shallow tectonic depression,
formed in the late Tertiary Period (approximately
7 million years ago) by down warping of the earths
crust. At this time the sea reached a maximum elevation of 150 m above present levels, with subsequent deposition of typical shallow carbonate shelf
sea materials including limestone, marls, clastics and
evaporates.
Global cooling and the onset of glacial conditions in
higher latitudes marked the beginning of the Flandrian
Period, some 18000 years ago. During this time the
sea reached a minimum elevation of approximately
120 m below its current level, exposing the previously
deposited marine sediments to sub-aerial and fluvial
weathering processes.
As the climate steadily moderated towards the end
of this period and into the beginning of the Holocene
(10000 years ago), the gulf gradually became inundated once again. However this process was far from
regular and large zones of the region experienced
irregular periods of sub-aerial and marine sedimentation. Post-glacial sedimentation included shelly sands
in the shallow zones, clean carbonate mud in deeper

depressions and impure carbonate mud, or marls, along


the axis of the Gulf.
The presence of gypsum and carbonate cementation in Persian Gulf soil profiles is typical. Gypsum is
encountered either in a massive form, as thin layers,
or as disseminated crystals. When high temperatures,
low rainfall and frequent winds combine to produce
excessive evaporation of lagoonal water and sweater,
the resulting high salinities cause evaporite minerals
to be deposited. Gypsum is one of the less soluble of
these salts and is therefore precipitated in relatively
large amounts and in various forms. For example:

Thick accumulations of gypsum may develop on


tidal flats or areas periodically flooded by saline
water.
Thin crusts of gypsum, usually interbedded with
the prevailing sediments, may be precipitated from
standing water in highly restricted lagoons.
Gypsum may precipitate in pore spaces of onshore
deposits when seawater is drawn inland as ground
water and subsequently evaporated on rising to the
ground surface.
In conclusion, as a result of the deposition history of
the Persian Gulf soils, the sediments and their subsequent digenesis are extremely variable. In particular,
the distribution and occurrence of the predominantly
carbonate material commonly encountered in the top
100 m of the sediment column tend to be laterally and
vertically variable. Occasionally this lateral variability
can occur over relatively short distances, with attendant significance for offshore foundation design. This
paper is the first step to try to extract the probable
geotechnical common trends in an specific limited
zone of Persian Gulf as entitled South Pars field.

the purpose of all geotechnical investigations which


have already been done or going on in South Pars
Field development various phases is to determine the
nature and engineering properties of the seabed and
sub-bottom sediments at platforms location for use in
the geothechnical analysis and design of offshore foundations. The bore hole locations are normally under the
well head platforms, flare tripodes and intermediate
bridge supports tripods.
At each of the above motioned locations one or
two composite (sampling/PCPT) boreholes are being
carried out and deep PCPT bore holes normally are
performing at each of the other leg locations. The composite bore holes are usually drilling to around 110 m
bellow mud line at the jacket locations and to 80 m at
the tripod locations. All PCPT bore holes have a target
penetration around 35 m, three at the platform site and
two at the tripod sites. The sampling regime for each

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GENRAL SCOPE OF INVESTIGATIONS

composite bore holes are developed based on contractual agreements but normally are continues sampling
in the top 20 m for the Flare Tripods and Well head
jacket bore holes and in the first 10 m for the Bridge
Tripod bore holes. Alternate sampling and PCPT are
performed thereafter to the final depth. The scope of
geotechnical investigations are some times different in
various phase but the above description could be could
be considered as a general scope.

SAMPLING AND IN SITU TESTING

The sampling and in situ testing program is based on


the engineering requirements of the investigation and
the nature of the materials encountered as the bore hole
progressed as agreed plan.
Push sampling is performing by to the required
sampling depth, then raising the drilling by one meter
followed by development of a wire line sampling tool
fitted with a thin walled or thick walled Shelby tube.
After latching the tool into the drill string Bottom Hole
Assembly (BHA), the Shelby tube extended one meter
ahead of the drill bit. The drill string is then clamped
at the sea bed frame and advanced at a controlled rate
using the frames hydraulic push system. Penetration is
continued until either the drill string is being advanced
by one meter or the maximum reaction for the Shelby
tube is reached.
For soils in which push sampling is unsuccessful, a
percussion (hammer) sampler is deployed. This tool is
normally fitted with a split spoon sample tube incorporating a tulip catcher and is run on a wire line within
the drill string at the required sampling depth. Sample
recovery is achieved by driving the split-spoon beyond
the bottom of the borehole with a specified number of
blows using a sliding hammer.
Piezocone Penetration Tests (PCPT) is usually performed using the same method of drill string advancement as for push samples, the drill string being first
raised to accommodate the appropriate stroke of the
PCPT tool. The system pushes an instrumented electrical cone into the soil at a constant rate per time
unit and continuously records and stors tip resistance.
Sleeve friction and pore water pressure. The cone data
is displayed in real time on a PC during acquisition,
enabling the test to be monitored by the operator. The
raw CPT data is processed using softwares which converts the raw data into engineering units and drive the
net cone resistance, the friction ration and the pore
pressure ration.

is prepared. The testing methodology and results are


fully based on applicable standards. Using the soil laboratory normally mobilized on board of vessel, the
following tests are usually performed, depending upon
the material type and the quantity recovered:

LABORATORY TESTING

Immediately upon recovery all samples are extruded,


visually classified and a unique soil sample data sheet

The remaining portions of disturbed samples are sealed


into airtight plastic bags. Undisturbed samples are
wrapped in cling film and aluminium foil before being
wax sealed into cardboard sample tubes. Then all samples are labeled and carefully stored in metal sample
containers.
6

DATA BASE DEVELOPEMENT

In order to model the spatial variability of the South


Pars offshore geotechnical properties, a large volume of data is required. Many site investigations have
been conducted within South Pars Phases for numerous developments, and as a result, much laboratory
and field testing has been carried out on the marine
soil samples. The majority of these test results is
unpublished and resides in the archives of the offices
and laboratories of the many geotechnical engineering
practices and government instrumentalities of IRAN.
The authors approached in an attempt to collate much
of this unpublished data and develop parametric investigations to trace the common trend and potential
application.
6.1

Data gathering and selection

In gathering data some of the recorded information is


as follow:
6.2

Sub-surface profile information

Detailed information of the soil logs of bore holes


State of Marine Soils:
Moisture content, w;
Dry density, rd;
Total soil suction; pF;
Instability Index, Ipt.
Test Type:
Triaxial: (UU),(CU), (CD);
Direct Shear Test (DST);
Screw Plate Load Test (SPLT);

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Water content
Density
Torvane
Pocket penetrometer
Motorized laboratory vane
Unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests
Qualitative carbonate testing
Point load strength index testing

Figure 2a. Sample data base spread sheet of one borehole on Microsoft Excel for Laboratory Test Plan.

Cone Penetration Test (CPT);


Piezocone penetration test (PCPT)
Pressure meter Test (SBPT);
Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
Density
Water Content
Torvane
Pocket penetrometer
Motorized laboratory vane
Qualitative carbonate testing
Point load strength index testing
Test Depth
Geotechnical Properties:
submerged unit weight
over consolidation Ratio (OCR)
Strain at One-Half of the Maximum Deviator Stress
Initial sub grade modulus
Shear Strength, cu, c ;
Internal Angle of Friction, fu, f  ;
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity, E;
(for triaxial tests, the confining pressure, s3, is
recorded);
Standard Penetration Number, N ;
Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest, Ko.
Pile foundations end bearing and shaft resistance
parameters

Figure 2b. Sample of database spreadsheet on boreholes


ID log.

Site Information:
Site location;
Job number;
Borehole number;
Borehole location and south pars map grid cord.
Date of sampling;
Additional comments.
Spread specification

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Figure 3a. Sample variety of Submerged Unit weight with


Depth.

Figure 2c. Sample of database spreadsheet on lateral load


displacements (P-Y) data.
Figure 3b. Sample variety of Undrained Shear Strength with
Depth.

The data have been stored in spreadsheet format using


Microsoft Excel for ease of data storage, manipulation
and presentation. The data set consists of approximately 10 comprehensive offshore site investigations
projects carried out within the South Pars area since
the early 1990s.

COMMON TRENDS

Due to the large number of laboratory and in situ test


results incorporated in the data base, common trends
and relationships can be established in defined areas
and sub-areas. So as to highlight the benefits of such a
collection of test information assessment of the results
shows a series of interesting relationship between the
parameters which still needs to be more investigated,
specially in application and compatibility of data mining techniques. A lot of parameters are being studied
with together and a wide range of parametric studying has already been done. As the sample, Figures 3.a
and 3.b are showing the relationship of submerged unit
weight and untrained shear strength with the depth of
layers under the seabed and the associated extracted
trend lines.

In the next phase of our research we are going to


produce a classification system using data mining
techniques such as ANN (Artificial Neural Network)
and DTs (Decision Trees) to help us to develop
the large scale spatial variability and overall behavior of the properties. The properties of geotechnical
engineering materials, such as soil and rock, exhibit
uncertain behavior from one location to another due
to the complex and varied physical processes associated with the formation of these materials. This is
in contrast to most other civil engineering materials,
such as steel and concrete, which exhibit far greater
homogeneity and isotropy. Another complexity associated with some geotechnical engineering materials,
such as sand and gravel, is the difficulty in obtaining
undisturbed samples for laboratory testing. In order to
cope with the above complexities, traditional forms
of engineering modeling approaches are justifiably
simplified. An alternative approach, which has shown
some promise in the field of geotechnical engineering,
is artificial neural networks. Which one of the modeling techniques that attempt to simulate the operation
of the human brain and nervous system. ANNs learn

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DATA MINING METHODS

Pars, it is not complete yet. In the future, the author


will endeavor to update the data set by adding recent
test results to it in parallel to development the coming
phases of south pars up to 28 phases.. In addition, the
author extends an invitation to any consulting firms or
government instrumentalities that may wish to add to
the collection of data, to contact him via the Department of South Pars phase 12 development PetroPars
Ltd/Tehran

by example in which an actual measured set of input


variables and the corresponding outputs are presented
to determine the rules that govern the relationship
between the variables. Consequently, ANNs are well
suited to modeling complex problems where the relationship between the variables is unknown (Hubick
1992) and when non-linearity is suspected (Maier
1995). Although the concept of artificial neurons was
first introduced in 1943 (McCulloch and Pitts 1943),
research into applications of ANNs has blossomed
since the introduction of the back-propagation training
algorithm for feed forward ANNs in 1986 (Rumelhart
et al. 1986). ANNs may thus be considered a relatively
new tool in the field of prediction and forecasting.
Over the last few years, the use of ANNs has increased
in many areas of geotechnical engineering. The literature reveals that ANNs have been used successfully
in pile capacity prediction, prediction of settlement
of structures, modeling soil properties and behavior,
determination of liquefaction potential, site characterization, modeling earth retaining structures, evaluating
the stability of slopes and the design of tunnels and
underground openings. Recent state-of-the-art ANN
applications in geotechnical engineering have been
summarized by Shahin et al. (2001). Jaksa (2004).

As the first step of the investigation of spatial variety of


geotechnical properties of South Pars Field, an extensive data base has been presented. This area of research
which can have a lot of benefits as the outcomes shall
be further developed in detail by the authors and other
researchers in future in parallel with further investigation of the addressed Field. As the preliminary
results, It has been shown that such a data base can
provide: information regarding trends, relationships
and statistical properties; a mechanism whereby test
results can be checked; and, geotechnical information
for preliminary design purposes.

REFERENCES

POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

Apart from providing a source of data whereby the spatial variability of the south Pars soil may be modeled,
the data base has a number of additional applications
and benefits as below:
A) It provides the geotechnical engineering Community with a large quantity of data whereby trends
and relationships can be established, as well as
enabling statistical properties to be quantified.
This is due to the large number of test results
contained within the data set.
B) Secondly, the data base provides a mechanism
whereby test results can be checked. For example,
a consolidated un-drained tri-axial test performed
on soil samples can be checked to make sure about
its conformance. Thus, relationships and trends
generated from the data set will enable a quick
and inexpensive check of test results to be made.
C) Thirdly, the data base provides geotechnical data
for preliminary design. Values of un- drained shear
strength, Youngs modulus, bulk unit weight, void
ratio, and so on, can be obtained from relationships
obtained from the collection of data.
10

11

1) Amari, S. I., Murata, N., Muller, K. R., Finke, M., and


Yang, H. H. (1997). Asympotic statistical theory of
overtraining and cross-validation. IEEETransactions on
Neural Networks, 8(5), 985996.
2) Arnold, M. A. (1999). Artificial neural networks applied
to the prediction of settlements of shallow foundations in
granular soils, MEngSc. thesis, James Cook University,
Queensland.
3) Applications ofArtificial Neural Networks in Foundation
Engineering, Shahin, Jaksa, Maier 2004
4) A Data Base of Geotechnical Properties of Adelaides
Keswick and Hindmarsh Clays M. B. Jaksa
5) Das, B. M. (1995). Principles of foundation engineering,
3rd Edition, PWS Publishing Company, Boston, MA.
Cox, J. B. (1970).
6) A Review of the Geotechnical Characteristics of the Soils
in the Adelaide City Area. Proceedings of Symposium on
Soils and Earth Structures in Arid Climates, I.E.Aust.
and Aust. Geomech. Soc., Adelaide
7) Jaksa, M. B. and Kaggwa, W. S. (1992). Degree of aturation of the Keswick Clay Within the Adelaide City
Area Above the General Groundwater Table. Proceedings 6th Australia New Zealand Conf. on Geomechanics,
Christchurch, pp. 336341.
8) Jaksa, M. B., Kaggwa, W. S. and Brooker, P. I. (1993).
Geostatistical Modelling of the Undrained Shear strength
of a Stiff, Over consolidated, Clay.

EXTENSION OF DATA BASE

Whilst the data base is extensive by gathering the


information of the phases 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 of South

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Inaccurate interpretation of offshore geotechnical site investigation results


and risk associated: A case study of conductors collapse in driving
Hodjat Shiri GJ
Geotechnical engineering, University of Western Australia

Babak Molaei
Offshore Structural Engineering, Theran University

ABSTRACT: A 4-legged jacket structure was installed by an Offshore Installation Contractor (OIC) in the
Persian Gulf. In addition to four open-end pipe piles, six conductors were installed by OIC. During the installation
of the piles and conductors, some cemented layers were encountered, which had not been accounted for in the
foundation design performed by an independent well known offshore geotechnical site investigation contractor
(OGSIC). Six months later, the Drilling Company (DC) hired by Client to execute the wells, reported that all
of the six conductors were presenting anomalies, such as vertical misalignments up to 10o and/or collapse of
the conductors tip and mid height. The DC faced with serious problem in drilling of the wells and in spite of
several times milling the conductors and spending 40 days unpredicted extra time, some of the routes could
not be opened and Client lost millions of dollars due to direct and indirect associated costs and expenses. This
paper presents a complete overview of all engineering, construction and specially geotechnical investigations
and shows that how an inaccuracy in interpretations of the results of an offshore geotechnical site investigation
as the main reason in this case study can cause serious damages to whole project with unbelievable time and
cost impacts some times up to millions of dollars.

INTRODUCTION

A 4-legged jacket structure was installed by an Offshore Installation Contractor (OIC) in the Persian
Gulf. This installation took place in the beginning
of 2004. The water depth is about 40 m. Installation
works was performed by a revolving derrick barge.
In addition to four 42 inch OD, 40 mm TW opened
pipe piles, six 30 inch OD, 1 inch TW conductors were
installed by OIC. Both piles and conductors were
made of EN10025 grade steel, whose yield strength is
355 MPa, and installed using a 400T hydraulic hammer. During the installation of the piles and conductors, some cemented layers were encountered, which
had not been accounted for in the foundation design
performed by an independent offshore geotechnical
site investigation contractor (OGSIC),but in spite of
the heavier driving, there were no occurrences worth
mentioning in any of the installation reports, that could
be seen as an irregular behavior. Six months later, the
drilling company hired by Client to execute the wells,
reported that all of the six conductors were presenting
anomalies, such as vertical misalignments up to 10o
and/or collapse of the conductors tip and mid height.

The DC faced with serious problem in drilling of the


wells and in spite of milling the conductors for several
times and spending 40 days unpredicted extra time,
some of the routes could not be opened and Client lost
millions of dollars due to direct and indirect associated costs and expenses like standby and extra costs of
drilling rig and marine spread.
This outcome was totally unexpected and came as a
complete surprise to OIC, wherefore they immediately
began to investigate what had happened by searching
for any clues, which could lead to the causes of these
problems. In this study it has been tried try to identify
the causes, which may have generated the installation
damages of all the conductors of the Platform. The
object of this paper is to present a complete overview of
all investigation and to present that how an inaccurate
interpretation of the results of an offshore geotechnical
site investigation can cause serious damages to whole
project with unbelievable time and cost impacts to offshore projects as the main reason in this case study.
Then author presents the practical recommendations
to mitigate the occurrence of such inconvenient in the
future.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 1. Driving Blow count number of blows per 25 cm


of penetration.

Figure 2. Applied energy per 25 cm of penetration along the


driving.

REVIEWED AND ASSESSED DATA

The main information in order to perform this study,


included not only the Jacket design documentation and
construction reports, but also the driving records and
measurements of the as installed conditions of the
conductors, performed by a Drilling Contractor, which
confirmed the damage that they have undergone during installation. This information has been reviewed
and reassessed and the main results are presented in
this paper.
2.1

Conductor driving records

Conductors were driven to their final penetration using


an 400T hydraulic hammer, which has an automatic
driving recording system. Driving records not always
give an obvious picture of what is going on during pile
driving, especially when the hammer performance is
not uniform. In order to check it, the driving records,
given below, have been plotted as a function of pipe
penetration both in terms of blow count and in terms
of energy.
The blow count shows that there was some very
hard driving between 9 and 21 m of penetration, specially for conductor number BC-4 (positioned in slot
nr. 5), where it gets up as high as 550 blows/25 cm
of pipe penetration. It can be seen that special effort
was necessary to drive the pipes through this cemented
layer, which extends down to 21 m below mud line,
but that from 21 m all the way to 33 m a very low blow
count rate was required. Beyond 33 m driving began to
pick up again, but the heaviest driving, in this deeper
soil layer, took place at 41 m for pipe BC-3, where
it reached 250 blows/25 cm.Figure 11 is very similar
to Fig. 1, which shows that the hammer was behaving quite efficiently and in a consistent way from pile
to pile, although the energy required varied considerably with depth. This variation can be seen in Figure 3,
where the amount of energy per blow is plotted also
against pipe penetration. Once again all 6 curves were
placed on the same plot, so that the different behavior
between them could be easily identified. This third plot

Figure 3. Applied energy per blow as a function of penetration along the conductor.

shows, that in order to get through the hard cemented


layer, which was encountered between 9 and 21 m, it
was necessary to apply the maximum level of energy
provided by the hammer (400 kJ). Beyond this layer
(between 24 m and the final penetration at about 60 m),
100 to 200 kJ of energy were sufficient.
2.2 CP misalignment measurements
Drilling Contractor (DC) was requested by Client to
perform caliper measurements, which could provide
information regarding the misalignments of the conductors.These will, help indicate the direction in which
the conductors were driven, but their precision was
insufficient to assure if there were any collisions or
not. This statement is valid for all 6 conductors, but it is
most critical for the pipe inserted in slot nr. 6, because
of the absence of any measurement at mud line elevation. The gyro measurements are all performed related
to the magnetic north for sure, so the only trustworthy
way to use them is going back to the raw data. The 8
degree caliper presented measurements of slots 2 and
4, which seem to bare more coherence than the others.
A complete 3D model was provided using the calculated geometry to represent the deflected shapes of
the conductors. This model, presented in several plots
below, enables the viewer to navigate between and
around the conductors, thus visualizing whatever is
desired. This model was developed using the SACS 3D
Model Viewer, developed by Engineering Dynamics

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 4. 3D view of the conductors.

Figure 6. Relative positions of conductors 1 and 6.

Figure 5. Visualization of possibly clashing conductors 2 &


4 or 4 with 5.

Inc. of New Orleans. Figure 4 shows the complete 3D


model viewed from top.
The fact that the viewer is allowed to navigate in the
model, allows him to look at specific points, as shown
in Figure 5, where it can now be seen that conductors
2, 4 and 5 are so close to each other, that the precision
of this model is really insufficient to tell if they are
clashing or not.
In this Figure the top two conductors, from left to
right are 3 and 4, while the second row displays 2 and
5. At the bottom (at a 35m penetration) they are nested
together and their sequence from left to right is 3, 2,
4 and 5. The distances between 2 and 4 and also 4
and 5 are considerably less than one diameter, while
3 is about one diameter from 2. The next Figure, 6,
shows that conductors 1 and 6 are only about 1 diameter apart, which is also not very much, considering
that conductor 6 has specially poor measurements.
In this plot the group of conductors has been rotated,
so that 1 and 6 are the two bottom ones. Although
they do not clash into each other, the accuracy of
these measurements is questionable. Another important information that can be extracted from this 3-D
model is the depth to which drilling contractor was
able to perform their measurements. Figures 7 and 8
draw attention to the fact that conductors 3, 5 and
6 are longer than the other 3. In fact they were all

Figure 7. Conductors 3, 5 and 6 extending beyond the


other 3.

Figure 8. Conductors 1, 2 and 4 were damaged at intermediate sections.

built and installed with just the same length (approximately 129 m) and driven to the same penetration
(approximately 60 m), but conductors 1, 2 and 4 were
damaged and drilling contractor was unable to drill out
the entire soil plug. The aforementioned damage took
place exactly at the final lengths that are indicated for
these 3 conductors.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

Sequence in which the conductors were driven.

Conductor Slot

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

Driven to 36 m
Driven to 60 m

4
6

6
5

3
1

1
4

5
2

2
3

Figure 8 seems to indicate that conductor 4


was obstructed exactly at the position where it is
approached by 2 and 5. The installation sequence may
add some information to this.
The conductors were driven, basically in 3 phases:
first to approximately 16 m of penetration, then on
to 36 m and finally to about 60 m. The conductors
were driven to the penetrations of 36 and 60 m in the
sequences shown in table 1 conductors were driven.
Conductors 3, 5 and 6 were able to be cleaned, so
if they suffered any damage it was minor and didnt
affect the drilling cross section. It is, therefore, justified to say that these conductors probably didnt collide
with any others. Conductor 4, which was damaged at
about 37m, may have been hit by conductor 2, which
was driven afterwards and crosses it at exactly 37 m
of penetration. It seems possible, therefore, that conductor 2 damaged conductor 4 and was also damaged
in the process. The driving records of conductor 2
show an energy spike at 37 m and a high blow count at
about 40. Conductor 2 was cleaned down to 45 m only.
Conductor 1 was also damaged at about 50 m of penetration, but it doesnt seem to have clashed with 6 and
there is absolutely nothing in the driving records, that
could indicate this, wherefore this damage was probably caused solely due to hard driving in the upper
cemented layer, as will be shown ahead.

3
3.1

DISCUSSION OF POSSIBLE CAUSES


General comments

Although no sign of damage could be verified during


the installation performed by OIC there is no doubt
that all the damage, which was detected afterwards,
took place during the driving phase.

3.2

Conductor guide misalignement

The lateral deviations of one or more conductors are


information, which is already available. Figure 9 shows
the positions of the conductor guides at the rotary table
and that which was measured with the caliper at mud
line. This information was interpolated for conductor
6, where it wasnt measured. It can be seen that conductors 1 and 6 (the two bottom ones) hardly moved
laterally at all, while the other four moved away from
the guide projection as much as 40 cm (conductor 2).

Figure 9. Conductor loss of verticality (at mudline).

Assuming initially that no plastic behavior has taken


place, there are basically 3 causes, which could lead
to such misalignments:

the inexistence of conductor guides at the mud mat


elevation;
misalignments of the different levels of the conductor guides;
the oblique cut of the lead section tip of the
conductors.
These possible causes are evaluated below:
3.2.1 Absence of mudline cp guide
In practical terms the guide closest to mudline is at
elevation 24000, which is, therefore, about 20 m
above seabed. Obviously any change of direction of
the conductors would have been more restricted by
the presence of a guide at the mudline elevation. It
is important to say, however, that mudline conductor
guides, are seldom used in many countries around the
world as a common practice, because it is commonly
assumed that the soil already provides such a bracing, so it certainly can not be considered a project error.
This certainly is not the cause of the lateral deviations,
although they would have been slightly smaller.
3.2.2 Conductor guides misalignment
It is obvious, that if the conductor guides were not
aligned, then the conductors themselves would also be
misaligned, had the gap between the conductor and
the guide been exceeded. Once again this is unlikely
to happen because of the rigid structural tolerances in
the yard, which are smaller than the gap size. In addition to this it would also have been noticed when the
conductors were inserted offshore, if there was friction
to be overcome but not happened.
3.2.3 Oblique cut of lead section tip
The Shop Drawing of Conductor Pipes shows a
63 mm cross-sectional bevel (about 5o) at the lead section tip. The importance of the shape of the conductor

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lead section tip is relevant only when the conductor is


installed by driving, which is precisely what was done
here. Because of the fact that the cross section, is no
longer horizontal, the tip reaction force will be also
no longer be vertical, and will produce a horizontal
component, that pushes the conductor tip sideways.
Normally, for unplugged pile tip behavior, the tip
reaction is small, so the lateral force is smaller yet,
wherefore the lateral resistance of the soil, in which it is
embedded, can restrain the conductor from undergoing
large lateral displacements.
In this case, however, the existence of a hard
cemented layer, beginning only 8 or 9 m below mud
line, when lateral soil resistance is still very small,
may have played a very important roll in the trajectory
of the conductor pipes. In reality oblique cuts could be
specified by the designer or provided by the pipe delivery company, but this should be done only per request
of the installation company. This technique is useful
when used to maneuver the direction of the pipe during
driving. In this specific case, where OIC was driving the conductors as if they were piles, the conductor
bevel could have been used to move the conductors
away from each other, but there was no warning on the
drawings, regarding the effect of the bevel.
It seems possible that the designer himself may
have ignored this type of behavior and used the bevel
only to reduce the axial tip reaction. Summarizing,
it is not only possible, but also likely, that the conductor tip bevel had some influence upon the large
misalignments of the conductors.

3.3

Overstress & plastic behavior

Plastic behavior and yielding of the conductor pipes


could have happened due to the following causes:

the maximum allowed pipe stick-up for the 400T


hammer may have been exceeded, or high eccentricities may have led to bending moments, which
exceeded the cross-sectional plastic moment of the
conductors during the driving of the lead section
and/or any add-on;
poor quality of offshore welds with imperfections
that were not identified by the quality control tests
may have occurred. According to the specs, only
20% of the conductor field welds were tested;
the type of steel may not have matched the specified
requirements;
the high energy delivered by the 400T hammer, may
have been excessive for the driving of the 30-inch
conductors;
hard driving conditions may have exceeded those
predicted by OGSICs drivability study (the presence of very highly cemented calcarenite layers
between 9 m and 21 m below mudline were not
considered in the geotechnical profile).

Figure 10. Computer model used to obtain the maximum


static stress component during driving. This plot shows an
exaggerated deflected shape of the maximum conductor
stick-up with the hammer on top.

3.3.1 Excessive pile bending


The maximum allowed conductor stick-up, to be considered along with the 400T hammer (800 kN self
weight and center of gravity 4.5 m above the top of
the pipe), may have been exceeded. This evaluation
is something that has to be performed associated to
the dynamic stresses, which occur due to be hammer
blows. OGSICs drivability study has evaluated the
conductor pipe stress for the hammer working at full
energy level and found it to be 246 MPa /2/. After the
main piles were driven, and prior to the installation of
the conductors, the jacket was found to be 0.5 degrees
inclined. Based on this information and assuming the
maximum stick-up associated to the conductor installation sequence as 23 m (start of driving of the first
add-on), a computer model was developed to obtain the
static stress component related to the pipe and hammer
weight plus the second order effects associated to the
initial lateral deflection of the conductor. This model
is shown in Figure 10.
The maximum stress (axial + 1st and 2nd order
bending) was found to be 48 MPa, wherefore the
highest stress during bending would have been
246 + 48 = 294 MPa, which is 84% of yield (based on
the OGSIC drivability stress results).According toAPI
RP2.A this is a perfectly acceptable value, so definitely
this was not the cause of the problems encountered.
3.3.2 Offshore welds
According to the project specifications 100% of the
offshore pile welds and 20% of the offshore conductor welds were to be inspected by MP and UT. Based
on the magnetic particle tests all 12 inspected welds
were accepted, but the ultrasonic tests found problems
in 3 of these same 12 welds. A length of approximately 40m of weld cord was tested, and the sum of the
detected defects added up to one half meter (approximately 1.2% of the total). All encountered problems
were related to the lack of fusion (LF). Assuming that
the remaining 80% of the welds had the same 1.2% of
lack of fusion, which wasnt repaired, this would mean
about 1% of defective welds in general. Obviously this

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is not sufficient to cause the level of problems that


was encountered, so most certainly the welds were not
the cause of the problems that led to the conductor
damages.
3.3.3 Type of cp steel
The steel plates were purchased by OIC along with
the appropriate fabrication certificates. It is, therefore,
highly unlikely that these certificates would be forged
or anything like that.
3.3.4 Oversized hammer
Hydraulic hammers which can also function under
water, have normally the ability to apply varying
energy rates in the range of 5 to 100% of their nominal
values. The operator, therefore, applies only as much
energy as necessary to drive the pipe. During the installation of the conductors, 100% of the hammer energy
was required to overcome the resistance of the hard
layer encountered between 9 and 21 m below seabed.
According to OGSIC, however, the highest dynamic
stress that such piling should cause would be 246 MPa
/2/, wherefore the installation contractor had absolutely no reason to believe that the conductor could
be damaged by the size of the hammer. Although the
following section will show that hard driving has led
to pile overstressing it is important to emphasize here
that this overstressing is not because of an oversized
hammer. The oversized hammer causes overstressing
at the pile top, while this overstressing is at the bottom
and could be caused even by smaller hammers.
3.3.5 Hard driven condition
The driving records, presented above, show very
clearly that there was hard driving on all the conductors, in order to overcome the calcareous layer encountered between 9 and 21 m below seabed. According to
API-RP2.A, pile driving refusal can be defined as 300
blows per foot for 5 consecutive feet or 800 blows
per foot over a single foot. Neither of these conditions
were exceeded, shown in Figure 1.The hammer manufacturer, is slightly more stringent, saying that in order
not to damage the equipment, the maximum acceptable blow count is 250 blows/25 cm during continuous
driving and/or 400 blows/25 cm over a single 25 cm
length. This limit was slightly exceeded during the
installation of the conductor in slot number 4. In order
to evaluate what kind of stresses actually occurred during driving, a common technique is the back-analysis
of the blow counts. This type of analysis makes use
of a drivability study, which seeks to obtain soil resistances, that reproduce, in general terms, the driving
record along the entire pipe penetration. In this case
this study was based on the GRLWEAP program. Figure 11 presents a simplified envelope of the blow count
diagram shown in Figure 1, based on which the aforementioned back-analysis was carried out. This is a trial

Figure 11. Simplified blowcount chart to be reproduced by


the back-analysis.

Figure 12. Soil properties determined by the back-analysis.

and error method, where drivability analyses at several


depths are carried out iteratively, until the blow count
is reproduced at that depth. During these iterations
the soil properties are adjusted, so that end bearing
and lateral friction, going into the drivability analyses,
reproduce the same blow count. Figure 12 shows the
soil, which was required in order to obtain the adjusted
blow count results, and the properties obtained for the
calcareous layer between 9 and 21 m of penetration.
This layer was treated as a sand whose corresponding
friction angle is 55 to 59 degrees.
The results of the analyses performed at various depths, show that the pipe undergoes some very
high stresses, specially at the 921 m cemented layer.
Figure 13 presents the stresses along the conductor at
16 m of penetration, where the stresses were actually
maximized.
These results show that high stresses occur not at the
pile head (where heavy hammers usually cause most
damage), but at the pipe toe, due to the hardness of
the cemented soil. The value of this stress is as high
as 416 MPa, which is 17% beyond the yielding level,

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Figure 13. Pipe stresses along the conductor for drivability


at 16 m.

while the pipe head at 292 MPa, still remains within


the linear elastic range, although slightly above the
90% recommended by API ([292 + 48]/355 = 0.96).
It seems that the main cause of the damage has now
been identified. The fact that OGSIC failed to report
the existence of the hard layer between 9 and 21 m
below seabed, has had devastating consequences upon
the actions taken by OIC. Had they been advised that
such high stresses could occur, most certainly they
would have interrupted the driving procedure as soon
as the difficulty was detected. It should be noted, however, that this stress is applied very quickly and that
there is not a great amount of yielding taking place per
blow, but considering that there were more than 2000
blows per conductor inside this hard layer, the total
amount of damage could be considerable. The consistency with which the damage has occurred seems to
leave no doubt that either the yielding alone or associated to the lateral push, caused by the pile tip cut, has
been the main reason for the damage that was detected.
4

the driving records that could have warned OIC to


stop the driving. The fact that driving was heavier
than anticipated, right in the beginning of driving, did
inform OIC that there was a cemented layer, that had
been detected by OGSIC in their soil investigations,
but which had not been given due relevance in their
drivability studies which means the inaccurate interpretation of geotechnical site investigation results. The
information presented in the OGSIC report, regarding a similar layer accounted for in proximity jacket,
was that it could be overcome without any damage to
the pipe. On the other hand, it is important to emphasize that OGSIC, the soil consultant on this job, has
presented completely misleading information regarding the soil parameters and the corresponding driving
resistance in the Jacket vicinity, which has caused OIC
to believe that the stresses, to which the conductors
were subjected during driving, were within admissible
levels, when in fact they were not. In terms of stress
this means that the maximum 246MPa (69% of Fy)
stress anticipated by OGSIC drivability study was in
fact 417MPa (117% of Fy), as concluded in this study.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

The inaccuracy of the interpretation of geotechnical


site investigation results which is the main reason in
this case can lead the whole of a project to serious
time and cost impacts .
Driving of conductor pipes is better to be done by
drilling contractors who drill out the soil plug and
can control the pipe deviation by calipers. Platform
Installation Contractor can not control the deviation
of conductors to avoid the probable collisions.
Key documents provided by the geotechnical engineering consultant shall be cross checked sufficiently to make sure about the correctness and
sufficiency of conclusions obtained from analysis
and assessments which lead the client to execution
works.
The dynamic monitoring systems are necessary to
be hired in offshore pile driving projects . The item
which its presence in this projects could save the
parties against the occurred impacts.
The time and cost impacts caused by error in
geotechnical aspects for offshore projects are so
heavier than the similar onshore. So the special
attention shall be paid to geotechnical activities of
offshore projects.
Since the side effects of geotechnical errors in
actual projects could be sometimes bigger than
the whole of project, so the guarantee provided by
geotechnical contractors shall not be limited to a
small percentage of contract amount and the financial grade of the geotechnical contractor shall be
strongly considered during the tendering phase.

SUMMARY OF MAIN REASON

Based on the information referred before the following assessment has been performed to find the main
reasons for the problem:

Review of the design data;


Review of the construction reports;
Reassessment of the drivability parameters, based
on the driving records;
Reassessment of the as installed conductor trajectory, based on the drilling contractor measurements.
Summarizing, series of reasons may collectively
cause the damage to conductors but the geotechnical
fault is the main reason which has increased sometimes the influence of other minor reasons in this case.
The damage, has been inflicted to the conductors during installation and there was no clear indication in

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

REFERENCES
1. Project specific documents:
Report on Marine Geotechnical Investigation of
Project,
Geotechnical
Engineering,
Jacket
Installation, Pile and Conductors Driving Records,
Daily Drilling Reports, Pile Make-up Drawings
Conductor Make up Drawings Magnetic Particle
and Ultrasonic Examination Reports Conductor Shop
Drawing Controlled Vertical Drilling Data,
2. API-RP2A (2000),
Recommended Practice for Planning,
Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore
Platforms Working Stress Design, 21st edition.
3. Chellis. Pile Foundations. McGraw-Hill, 1961
4. Fellenius B.H., Riker R.E., OBrien A.J. and Tracy G.R.
Dynamic and static testing in soil exhibiting set-up.
Journal of Geotechnical engineering, 1989, Vol. 115,
No. 7, 9841001.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5. Lee W., Lee I.M., Yoon S.J., Choi Y.J. and Kwon L.H.
Bearing capacity evaluation of the soil-cement injected
pile using CAPWAP.
6. F. Townsend, M. Hussein & M. Mcvay (eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on the Application of Stress-Wave Theory to Piles, 1996, Orlando,
University of Florida,
7. Seidell, J. and Kolinowski, M., (2000). Pile set-up in
sands, Procedures of the Sixth International Conference on the Application of Stress Wave Measurements
toPiles, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Niyema and Beim, eds.,
Balkema, 267274.
8. Piles and pile-driving. Wessington, A. M., Engineering News Publishing Co., New York
9. Linkins, G., Rausche, F., Thendean, G., and
Svinkin, M., (1996). CAPWAP Correlation Studies.
Fifth International Conference on the Application of
Stress

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Behaviour of plate anchors under short-term cyclic loading


S.P. Singh
Civil Engineering Department, NIT, Rourkela, Orissa, India

S.V. Ramaswamy
Civil Engineering Department, Anna University, Chennai, India

ABSTRACT: This paper reports the behavior of circular plate anchors, buried in soft saturated soil under
short-term cyclic loading. The principle parameters studied are the effect of cyclic load ratio level (CLRL)
and time period of loading cyclic on anchor movement. Further the effect of pre-loading on the movement of
anchors in subsequent loading stages and post-cyclic monotonic load-deformation bahaviour of anchors have
been reported. The experimental results indicate that for low intensities of cyclic loading i.e. CLRL of 0.15
and 0.30 elastic equilibrium of anchor movement is attained after few cycles of loading. But for higher CLRL
an unceasing anchor movement is observed with loading cycles. The degradation in cyclic stiffness increases
with increase in amplitude of cyclic loading. Time period of loading cycles have showed considerable effect on
movement of anchors. For given duration of loading, higher frequency cycles cause more movement of anchors
than lower frequency cycles. Pre-loading reduces the movement of anchors in subsequent stages. Post-cyclic
monotonic pullout test showed an increase in initial stiffness of anchors whereas the peak pullout load was found
to decrease marginally over that of an anchor not subjected to any cyclic loading. To prevent any substantial
movement, the amplitude of cyclic loading should be kept below 30% of the static anchor capacity.

INTRODUCTION

under repeated loading is generally based on a high


factor of safety.

Soft clay deposits are extensively encountered in


the coastal regions, continental shelves and offshore
regions. Increased interest in exploration and utilisation of ocean resources has resulted in enormous
increase in construction activities in these areas. The
loads that are expected to be transmitted to the foundations of offshore structures comprise of a sustained
tension and a super imposed fluctuating load. In order
to meet the field requirements, several types of anchors
are being developed. The selection of an anchor type
depends primarily on the magnitude and type of
loading, type and location of the structure, subsoil conditions etc. Plate anchors are among the most popular
types of anchor used in the field as they provide an
economical alternative to gravity and other embedded anchor foundation (Bouzza and Finally, 1990).
The behaviour of anchors in saturated clay subjected
to sustained-cyclic loading is a complex interaction
problem involving the soil, water, anchor and loading pattern. A clear understanding of the behaviour of
anchors under such loading conditions is essential for
the design of structures in offshore environment. Due
to lack of sufficient information the design of anchors

Only limited information has been reported in


the literature on the behavior of anchors under
cyclic/sustained-cyclic loading. Bemben et al. (1973),
Bemben and Kupferman (1975) have presented some
results on the long term cyclic behavior of fluke
anchors embedded in sandy and clayey soils.
Ponniah and Finally (1988) reported the long term
behaviour of circular (50 mm dia) plate anchors subjected to sinusoidal loading of 10 sec time period.
Based on the test results it was reported that anchors
did not fail when the load cycled up to 50 20% of
the drained ultimate pullout capacity. With recycling
the failure load increased to 70 20% of the drained
anchor capacity.
The short term cyclic behavior of deep circular
(50 mm dia) plate anchor in soft cohesive soil was
reported by Datta et al (1990). The principal parameters studied were the influence of mean load and the
cyclic amplitude on the permanent anchor movement

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REVIEW OF EARLIER WORK

and post-cyclic static pullout capacity. Based on the


experimental results they opined that the plate anchors
should be designed for load of 1/3rd of its static pullout capacity to take into account the effects of cyclic
loading.
Singh and Ramaswamy (2002) have studied the
behaviour of plate anchors in soft saturated soil
under sustained-cyclic loading to highlight the relative influence of SLRL and CLRL on permanent
anchor movement as well as post-cyclic monotonic
load-deformation behaviour of deep anchors.
This paper outlines the effect of cyclic load ratio
levels and time period of loading cycles on movement
of anchors, the effect of pre-loading on movement of
anchors in subsequent loading cycles and the postcyclic load-deformation behavior of anchors.
3

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

The experimental program undertaken in the present


study is broadly divided into two distinct phases. In
the first phase, the anchors were subjected to various
intensities of cyclic load ratio levels. In the second
phase, the anchors are monotonically pulled out at
the rate of 5 mm/min and the post-cyclic monotonic
behavior of anchors was studied. All these tests were
carried out using rigid circular (80 mm dia.) model
anchors made up of brass plates of 6 mm thickness
and buried at an embedment ratio of six.
3.1

Soil characteristics

Pulverized commercial clay of high plasticity was used


in the test program. Grain size analysis indicates the
presence of fine sand (3.5%), silt (47.5%) and clay
(49.0%). The liquid limit (LL) and the plasticity index
(PI) of the clay used was 75% and 44% respectively.
The XRD pattern shows the presence of kaolinite,
chlorite, illite and vermiculite clay minerals along with
quartz particles.
3.2

Preparation of test sample

The pulverized clay was thoroughly mixed with


required amount of water by hand kneading and stored
in airtight containers. Care was taken to remove the
entrapped air during the mixing operation. The wet soil
was again remixed after 2 days and stored in airtight
plastic containers for another 7 to 8 days before being
used. This procedure was followed to ensure proper
moisture equilibrium in soil sample. The wet soil was
placed in the test tank in small quantities by hand and
patted uniformly. Because of the low consistency of
the soil used, no problem was faced to fill the test tank
using this method. After filling the test tank to the base
level of the anchor, the anchor with the connecting

rod was placed and the filling operation continued till


required embedment depth (480 mm) was achieved.
The test tank was kept undisturbed for 22 hours before
the load being applied. All the tests of this series were
carried out at an average moisture content of 57.4%
(Ic = 0.40%) with standard deviation of 0.2776. The
average degree of saturation of test beds was 96.65%
with in-situ undrained unit cohesion of 4.70 kPa. The
unit weight of soil in test tank was 16.08 kN/m3 .
3.3 Cyclic loading tests
In this investigation, one-way vertical cyclic pullout
load on anchors was imparted by using a pneumatic
loading apparatus. This consists of (i) an air compressor of adequate capacity with a reservoir (ii) pressure
regulator with indicator (iii) double acting pneumatic
power cylinder with 40 mm bore diameter and 150 mm
stroke length (iv) three-way solenoid valve and (v)
an electronic timer capable of operating the solenoid
valve in the frequency range of 1/24 to 1 Hz. Two types
of cyclic loading pattern were used in this test programme. In the first loading pattern, the CLRL was
varied from zero to a desired loading level. The maximum cyclic loading level used was 75% of the static
ultimate pullout capacity of anchor. In this test programme, the anchors were subjected to a maximum of
1000 loading cycles or loading cycles which cause permanent movement equal to the diameter of anchor. The
cyclic loading on the anchor was imparted by the piston
of the double acting pneumatic power cylinder which
was connected to the anchor rod by a flexible wire
through a system of frictionless pulleys. The piston of
the pneumatic power cylinder was actuated by regulated compressed air, passing through a solenoid valve
system controlled by an electronic timer. Schematic
diagram of the cyclic loading set-up used is shown in
Fig. l. These tests were conducted using rectangular
cyclic loading of 12 sec time period which is based on
the prevailing wave conditions along the Indian east
coast. In the second series of tests the anchors were
subjected to cyclic load ratios of 0.30 and 0.45 with
time period of loading cycles varying as 2 sec, 6 sec,
12 sec and 24 sec.
3.4 Post-cyclic monotonic loading
The post-cyclic monotonic behavior of anchors was
studied by adopting strain controlled pullout test. The
test set-up comprises of a (i) loading frame (ii) 5 H.P.,
D.C. motor with speed control unit (iii) gear box unit
with pulley drive and (iv) load and displacement measuring facilities. After completion of the cyclic loading
the anchors were monotonically pulled out at a rate of
5 mm/min using the above test facility. The pullout
resistance of anchors at required displacement levels was measured using a tension proving ring. Both

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Figure 1. Schematic layout of the cyclic loading test set-up.

Figure 2. Movement of anchors with number of loading


cycles at CLRL of 0.15, 0.30, 0.45 and 0.60.

cyclic loading tests and post-cyclic monotonic pullout


tests were carried out without eliminating adhesion
and suction force.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Anchor movement


The cumulative anchor movement with loading cycles
is shown in Figs. 2 & 3. In these tests, the CLRL are
varied from 0.15 to 0. 75. These curves indicate that
the rate of movement per loading cycle is more for
first few cycles and it reduces thereafter. For CLRL
of 0.15 and 0.30 the movement of anchor gets stabilized after few loading cycles, subsequently only
elastic movement is observed during each loading
cycle i.e. without causing any net permanent anchor
movement. The movement of anchor during cyclic
loading is related to the development and dissipation
of excess pore water pressure. The cyclic pore water
pressure increases during the loading phase of cycle
and subsequently dissipates. The dissipation of excess
pore water pressure from the soil just above the anchor
plate creates a locally consolidated soil mass with comparatively higher shear strength. For low cyclic load
amplitude the movement of anchor is arrested by the
stiffer soil mass formed above the anchor during initial
few cycles of loading. At higher cyclic load levels this
phenomenon also occurs but due to substantial movement of anchor in each cycle of loading, a localized
consolidated soil zone can not be formed as in each
cycle, the anchor moves upward through undisturbed
soil. So for higher CLRL, the complete stabilization of
movement is not observed within 1000 loading cycles,
although the rate of movement is found to decrease
with loading cycles. Similar behaviour is also observed
by Datta et al. (1990) for plate anchors in normally
consolidated clay.

Figure 3. Movement of anchors with number of loading


cycles at CLRL of 0.45, 0.60 and 0.75.

4.2 Cyclic stiffness


The cyclic stiffness of anchor soil system is defined as
the ratio of CLRL to the cumulative cyclic displacement at a given loading cycle. The variation of cyclic
stiffness with the number of loading cycles is shown
in Fig. 4. The cyclic stiffness is found to degrade with
loading cycles. However, for low intensities of cyclic
loading, i.e. CLRL of 0.15 and 0.30 the cyclic stiffness
stabilizes within 1000 loading cycles, while for higher
CLRL the degradation continues beyond 1000 loading cycles. The results are further analyzed in terms of
normalized cyclic stiffness which is the ratio of cyclic
stiffness at (N) cycles of loading to the cyclic stiffness
of first loading cyclic. The rate of degradation of normalized cyclic stiffness is found to increase with the
intensity of cyclic load (Fig. 5)
4.3 Effect of time period of loading cycles
The variation of anchor movement with number of
loading cycles is illustrated (Fig. 6) for cyclic load ratio
level of 0.45. The movement of anchor at a given cycles

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 6. Movement of anchors with number of loading


cycles at CLRL of 0.45.
Figure 4. Degradation of cyclic stiffness with number of
loading cycles.

Figure 5. Variation of normalized cyclic stiffness with


number of loading cycles.

of loading are found to increase with the time period


of loading cycles. The movement of anchor is found
to increase continuously with cycles of loading. However, the rate of increase of anchor movement tends to
decrease with the increase of loading cycles. It is further noticed that the movement of anchors with number
of loading cycles tends to stabilize earlier when subjected to lower frequency cycles. For anchors subjected
to 2 sec loading cycles, the movement is found to be
almost linear till the cyclic loading is stopped i.e. after
1000 cycles of loading. Rao (1988) has found similar type of results from the undrained triaxial tests
conducted on marine clays. He reported that, at high
frequency of loading the built up cyclic strain per load
cycle is slow and more or less uniform whereas, at low
frequency loading it is quite high and the movement
tends to stabilize at lesser loading cycles.
Typical variation of anchor movement with logarithm of cyclic time period for cyclic load ratio level
of 0.45 is shown in Fig. 7. It shows a linear relationship between anchor movement and logarithm of

Figure 7. Influence of cyclic time period on anchor movement at CLRL of 0.45.

time period with some scattering. The slope of average straight lines are not same, it increases with the
increase in loading cycles. The movement of anchor
under cyclic loading is related to the development and
subsequent dissipation of pore water pressure. When
the time period of loading cycles increases the excess
pore water pressure gets more time for its dissipation
causing comparatively higher anchor movement. Further, the linear relationship between anchor movement
with logarithm of time period indicates that the rate
of dissipation of pore water pressure within a loading
cycle decreases exponentially with increase in time.
The curves in Fig. 8 indicate a non-linear relationship between the movement of anchor and duration of
loading. Initially the rate of anchor movement is high
which tends to stabilize with time. For a given duration
of time, cyclic loadings of lower time period produces
higher anchor movement than movements caused by
cycles of higher time period.

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Figure 9. Post-cyclic pullout load-displacement curves for


anchors subjected to CLRL of 0.60.

Figure 8. Movement of anchors with loading time at CLRL


of 0.45.

4.4

Effect of pre-loading

For studying the effect of pre-loading on movement of


anchors in subsequent loading stages, two sequences
of cyclic loading have been adopted. In the first phase,
the anchors are cycled 500 times at CLRL of 0.30 or
0.45. In the next phase i.e. after an unloading period of
22 hours the anchors are again cycled at CLRL value
less than, equal to or more than the first stage. This is
referred to as re-cycling. Re-cyclic load ratio levels of
0.15, 0.30 and 0.45 are used for anchors cycled at load
ratio level of 0.30. Whereas, re-cycling load ratio levels of 0.30, 0.45 and 0.60 are used for anchors cycled
at CLRL of 0.45. When anchors are cycled at load ratio
level of 0.30 and further recycled at load ratio levels
of 0.15, 0.30 and 0.45 the anchor movements obtained
after 500 cycles of loading in re-cycling phase are
25.7%, 52.3% and 72.8% of anchor movements those
were obtained in cyclic stage with CLRL of 0.15, 0.30
and 0.45 respectively. Similarly, the anchor movements
obtained in re-cycling stage for loading intensity of
0.45 are 31.3%, 58.8% and 86.6% of the movement
registered in cycling stage with comparable loading
intensities. This shows that when anchors are re-cycled
at a load ratio level less than the precycling load, the
movement of anchor in re-cycling phase are very much
reduced but if the re-cycling is done at a higher load
ratio level, the effect is not that much pronounced and
the anchors behave as if they were not subjected to any
cycling load in the past.
4.5

Post-cyclic monotonic pullout behaviour

Monotonic pullout tests at a pullout rate of 5 mm/min.


were conducted on anchors subjected to cyclic loadings of various intensities and time periods. Typical
pullout load-displacement behaviour of these anchors
are shown in Fig. 9 for cyclic load ratio levels of
0.60. Pullout load-displacement curve for an anchor

which has not been subjected to any cyclic loading is


also illustrated in the same figure for comparison. The
cumulative anchor movements which were recorded
during the cyclic loading phase are also depicted on
displacement axis. Even though, there is not much
variation in post-cyclic monotonic pullout capacity
of anchors, the initial stiffness of anchors is seen
to significantly increase due to cyclic loading. The
peak pullout load is found to decrease within a small
range due to cyclic loading. The degradation factor is
found to vary between 0.883 to 0.978. The decrease
in post-cyclic monotonic pullout capacity of anchors
is attributed mainly to the loss of embedment during the cyclic loading. The soil used in the present
study is insensitive remoulded clay. Hence, no loss in
shear strength of soil is expected due to cyclic loading.
The undrained initial stiffness of anchors are increased
due to cyclic loading. The relative post-cyclic stiffness of anchors are found to vary from 1.128 to 1.329
i.e. an increase in initial stiffness value of 13% to
33%. Datta et al. (1990) also reported the increase
of initial stiffness of anchors in remoulded clay and
attributed this to the strain hardening of soil caused
by repeated loading. Authors like Koutsofts (1978),
Kodandaramaswamy and Rao (1981) have reported
the reduction of undrained modulus of marine clays
due to cyclic loading. However, it is to be noted here
that the undrained triaxul tests conducted by them are
on cemented marine clay with certain degree of over
consolidation. Due to cyclic loading the cementation
bonds might have been disrupted resulting a lower
modulus value.
Fig. 10 shows the curves where anchors are precycled at a load ratio level of 0.45 and then recycled at
load levels of 0.30, 0.45 and 0.60. Load-displacement
curve for an anchor which has not been subjected to
any cyclic loading is also plotted in both these figures
for comparison. For all these cases of cyclic loading,
there is a marginal reduction in peak pullout load while
the initial stiffness of the anchor is increased compared to the anchor which has not been subjected to
any cyclic loading. For a given pre-cyclic load the peak
pullout load decreases when the re-cycling load ratio

345

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 10. Post-cyclic pullout load-displacement curves for


anchors subjected to pre-cycling load ratio level of 0.45.

level increases, whereas, the relative cyclic stiffness


increases. The relative postcyclic stiffness is found to
vary between 1.169 to 1.282 and the degradation factor varies from 0.946 to 0.981. For all combinations of
loadings used in the present investigation a marginal
decrease in peak pullout load is observed whereas, the
relative post-cyclic stiffness is found to increase. However, marine clays which exhibits strength on account
of their in situ structure, cyclic load may cause degradation of soil structure and subsequent loss of anchor
stiffness as well as anchor capacity.
5

CONCLUSION

The magnitude of anchor movement is primarily governed by the amplitude of cyclic loading. The rate of
movement of anchor per loading cycle is maximum
for first cycle and it reduces thereafter. The normalized cyclic stiffness is found to decrease with increase
of amplitude of cyclic loading.
The cyclic stiffness of soil anchor system is found
to stabilize after few loading cycles for anchors subjected to CLRL of 0.15 and 0.30 but, for higher CLRL,
the cyclic stiffness continues to degrade beyond 1000
loading cycles. The normalized cyclic stiffness is
found to decrease with the increase in amplitude of
cyclic loading.
Anchor subjected to cyclic loading and then monotonic pullout shows a stiffer load-displacement behavior at its initial stage compared to anchor not subjected
to any cyclic loading. The relative post-cyclic stiffness of anchors for the present test conditions varies
between 1.129 to 1.329.
The magnitude of ultimate uplift capacity is found
to remain almost constant even with the imposition
of cyclic load, however the magnitude of anchor displacement increases significantly with cyclic loading
intensity.

The frequency of loading cycles has considerable


effect on the movement of anchors. For a given duration of loading, high frequency cycles cause more
anchor movement than that caused by low frequency
cycles. Pre-loading causes reduction of anchor movement in subsequent loading stages.
For the present test conditions a marginal loss of
anchor capacity up to an extent of 8% is observed due
to cyclic loading. However, in undisturbed naturally
cemented clays cyclic loading may cause degradation
of soil structure and subsequent loss in an
From the present investigations, it is recommended
that the design of plate anchors subjected to cyclic
loading should be based on the allowable movement of
structure rather than the breakout capacity of anchors.
To prevent, any substantial movement, the amplitude
of cyclic loading should be kept below 30% of the
static anchor capacity.

REFERENCES
Andreadis, A., Harvey, R.C. and Eldon, B., 1981. Embedded Anchor Response to Uplift Loading, J. of Geotech.
Engrg. Div., ASCE, Vol.107, No.l, pp.5978.
Bemben, S.M. and Kupferman, M., 1975. TheVertical Holding Capacity of Marine Anchor Flukes subjected to Static
and Cyclic Loading, Proc. Offshore Technology Conf,
OTC 2185, pp.363374.
Bemben, S.M., Kalajian, E.H. and Kupferman, M., 1973.
The Vertical Holding Capacity of Marine Anchors in
Sand and Clay subjected to Static and Cyclic Loading,
Proc. Offshore Technology Conf., pp.871880.
Bouazza, A. and Finlay, T.W., 1990. Uplift Capacity of
Plate Anchors buried in Two Layered Sand, Soils and
Foundations, Vol.36, No.4, pp.5770.
Das, B.M., 1995. Behavior of Shallow Plate Anchors in
Clay under Sustained Loading, Marine Georesource and
Geotechnology, Vol.13, No.4, pp.417428.
Datta, M., Gulhati, S.K. and Achari, G., 1990. Behavior
of Plate Anchors in Soft Cohesive Soils under Cyclic
Loading, Indian Geotech. J., Vol.20, No.3, pp.206224.
Goldberg, E.D. and Griffin, J.J., 1970. The Sediments
of the Northern Ocean, Deep Sea Research,. Vol.17,
pp.513537.
Meyerhof, G.G and Adams, J.I., 1968. The Ultimate Uplift
Capacity of Foundations, Can. Geotech. J., Vol.5, No.4,
pp.225244
Ponniah, D.A. and Finlay, T.W., 1983. Cyclic Behaviour of
Plate Anchors, Can. Geotech. J., Vol.25, pp.374381.
Singh, S.P., 1998. Behavior of Plate Anchors in Soft Saturated Clay under Monotonic and Cyclic Loading, Ph.D.
Thesis, Anna University, Chennai, India.
Singh, S.P. and Ramaswamy, S. V., 2002. Response of
Plate Anchors to Sustained Cyclic Loading Indian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol.32, No.2, pp.161172.
Sutherland, H.B. 1998., Uplift Resistance of Soils,
Geotechnique, Vol.38, No.4, pp.493516.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Dissipation process of excess pore water pressure caused by static


pressed pile in soft soil
Wei Wang
Department of Civil Engineering, Shaoxing College of Art and Science, Shaoxing, China

Jinmin Zai
Geotechnical Institute, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing, China

Tinghao Lu
Geotechnical Institute, Hohai University, Nanjing, China

ABSTRACT: The dissipation process of the excess pore water pressure (EPWP) caused by the static pressed pile
installation is one of the most interesting topics to engineers in the profession. In the paper, the dissipation process
of EPWP is analyzed. A new equation to determine the initial EPWP after pile installation is proposed. Time and
depth are adopted to analyze EPWP, and a 3D analytical formula to describe the dissipation process of EPWP is
established. The EPWP at any time and any position around the pile can be calculated by the formula. Position
and time of Mandel effect of the soil during the dissipation process are further studied. Good agreement has been
found between results of the new analytical formula, the finite element method analysis and field measuring.

2 THE INITIAL EXCESS PORE WATER


PRESSURE DUE TO PILE STALLATION

INTRODUCTION

Static pressed pile is used widely for tall building foundation in soft soil. While static pressed pile installation,
its compaction action to soft soil gives rise to the high
excess pore water pressure (EPWP) around it. After
the installation, the EPWP dissipates gradually and the
bearing capacity of the pile increases due to the increment of the soil effective stress (Juan et al, 2002). At
the same time, the displacement of soil causes various
kinds of environment problems (Fleming, 1992).
The EPWP caused by the pile installation and its
time-dependent dissipation process are of great importance to pile foundation design and pile construction.
The dissipation process is one of the most interesting
topics to engineers in the profession, and considerable research effort has been devoted to it (Randolph
1979; Roy, 1981). But there exist many shortcomings
in traditional discuss, for example, depth and time
effect are not valued enough. So, further study should
be performed to this subject in order to describe the
time-dependent EPWP dissipation process rationally.
In the paper, the dissipation process is analyzed, and
then a 3D analytical formula is derived. Then, example study using the formula is conducted in order
to sight the dissipation process. Finally, comparisons
between result of the new analytical formula, the finite
element method analysis and field measuring, are
conducted, too.

Initial EPWP is the EPWP in the soil around the pile


just after the pile installation. To determine the initial
EPWP is the first step to understand the dissipation
process of the EPWP. Traditional analysis shows that
the distribution of initial EPWP along the horizontal distance can be described by exponential function
(CHEN 1999). But this theory pays little attention
to the influence of depth. In fact, field tests show
that the value of the initial EPWP increases along the
depth with an approximate linear relationship (WANG
2002). Chen presented two equations for the initial
EPWP of plastic zone and elastic zone, respectively.
Given one point with horizontal distance from pile centre r and depth z, shown as figure 1, the equation for
initial EPWP of plastic zone is

Rp
2


u0 = 3 (2cu Kp r0 tan ln r

1 ca Z

+ 0.9f cu
+

3 r

Kp = tan2 (450 + )

Es

Rp =
r0
2(1 + )cu

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(1)

time-dependent EPWP, U(t), is written as


pile head

U (t) =

z
r
pile

2  bsj0 (i /a)
Hi
a2 i=1 bsj12 (i )


 
3(1 ) i 2 cv t
exp
1+
a
r02

(4)

and


Hi =

u0 bsj0 (i /a) d

(5)

Figure 1. Position of calculating point A.

The equation for initial EPWP of elastic zone is



u0 = 0.817f

Rp
r

2
cu

(2)

where, cv is the coefficient of soil consolidation; bsj0


denotes the Bessel function of the first kind of order
zero, bsj1 denotes the Bessel function of the first kind
of order one, i is the mummer i root of bsj0 .
According to equation 3, we can obtain
 a  
a
Hi = F
bsj0 (i /a)d
ln
(6)

0
Define x = i /a,

Where u0 is initial EPWP, cu is the undrained


strength of soil, is friction angle of soil-pile interface, ca is cohesion force of soil-pile interface, is
Poissons ratio of soil, Es is soil elastic modulus, f is
pore water pressure coefficient, r0 is pile radius.
Equations 1 and 2 reflect the 3-dimension distribution of EPWP, but they are not continuous at the edge
between plastic zone and elastic zone. To overcome
this shortcoming, we propose following equation to
describe the initial EPWP:


Hi = F

=F

a
i
a
i

2 

ln
2

i
x


x bsj0 (x)dx
(7)

Substituting for equation 7 into equation 4, then the


time-dependent EPWP, U(t), is rewritten as


bsj0 (i /a)
2i bsj12 (i )
i=1


 
3(1 ) i 2 cv t
exp
1+
a
r02

U (t) = 2F

u = F ln



(8)
Rp
1
ca Z (3)

F=
+
2(2cu Kp r0 tan ) ln

3
ln
a
r
r
0
0

+0.9f cu
Equation 8 is the very formula for determining and predicting the 3-dimension dissipating process of EPWP
caused by pile, so the EPWP at any time and any point
Where = r/r0 , a = rmax /r0 , rmax is the maxim influamong soil around the pile can be calculated using it.
ence distance of pile installation. The initial EPWP
is equal to zero when r is equal to rmax . Equation 3
indicates the initial EPWP distribution rationally.
4 BASIC MATHEMATIC ANALYSIS
4.1 Series item n

3 THE DISSIPATIING PROCESS OF EXCESS


PORE WATER PRESSURE
After pile installation, the EPWP dissipates gradually
with time passing by. Roy (1982) investigated the dissipation process by laboratory tests. Work of TANG
is very important for understanding the dissipating
behaviour of EPWP (WANG 2002). He proposed a
semi-theory expression for EPWP process, and the

Equation 8 includes an expression of infinite series.


The calculating results depend strongly on the item n of
the series. Given F = 1.0, a = 20 and t = 0, according
to equation 8, the value of U(t) with various item n is
shown by figure 2.
Figure 2 demonstrates that the error caused by item
n can be ignored when n is bigger that 9, so following
discusses are all conducted with n = 10.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

3.5
n=10
n=9
n=5
n=3
n=1

3.0

U(t)/kPa

2.5
2.0

Simulating parameters of the pile project.

Es
kPa

ca
kPa

cu
kPa

cv
m2 d1

2000

12

12

0.06

20

0.4

0.9

20

1.5

180

1.0

150

t=0d

0.5

t=1d
t=10d

0.0
0

10

15

20

U(t)/kPa

120
25

t=30d
t=60d

90

t=90d
60

Figure 2. EPWP value with various series item n while


F = 1.0 and t = 0.

30

3.5
0
Equation 3
Equation 9

3.0

10

15

20

2.5

1.5

180

1.0

150

0.5

120

0.0

10

15

20

U(t)/kPa

U(t)/kPa

Figure 4. Change of U(t) with time and distance.


2.0

25

t=0d
t=1d
t=10d
t=30d
t=60d
t=90d

90
60

Figure 3. Initial EPWP contrast between exponential


expression and series expression.

4.2

30
0

Expressions analysis of Initial EPWP

From equation 8, while time is equal to zero and n is


equal to 10, the initial EPWP is expressed
U (0) = 2F

10

bsj0 (i /a)
i=1

2i bsj12 (i )

5.1

(9)

EXAMPLE AND CASE STUDY


Simulating example

One pile project with saturated soil site locates at Nanjing, China. The length of the static pressed pile is
30.0 m, and the diameter of it is 0.6 m. the simulating

10
Z/m

15

20

parameters of the pile project is list in table 1. The


initial EPWP and its dissipation process are list from
figure 4 to figure 6.
Figure 4 is the distribution of EPWP at 10 m depth
with different times and horizontal distances. Figure
5 is the distribution of EPWP along the depth with
different times, its horizontal distance from pile centre
is 1.2 m.
Figure 6 indicates the EPWP dissipation process at
different distances, and Mandel effect during the dissipation process is demonstrated. According to figure
6, Mandel effect exists not in the soil around the pile
closely but in the soil with the distance (2.5-4.0) r0
from pile centre; Mandel effect exists not at the time
just after pile installation but after a spell time from
that.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 5. Change of U(t) with time and depth.

The value of equation 9 should be same to the value


of equation 3. Their values are demonstrated as figure 3 with F = 1, respectively. From figure 3, values
of two equations are same to each other, and then
the validation of deduction process of equation 8 is
confirmed, too.
5

1.2

From figure 7, it is clearly that the bigger the coefficient of soil consolidation, the quick the dissipating
speed of EPWP and the smaller the value of EPWP.

=3.1
=2.5

1.0

=4.0
U(t)/U(0)

0.8

5.2 Case study


There is a static pressed pile foundation for oil storage
tank in Jangsu province, China. The pile is with 18.3 m
length and 0.23 m radius. The soil parameters are same
to table 1, respectively. Initial EPWP was investigated
in details. Figure 8 shows good agreement among the
investigated EPWP, calculated EPWP and FEM simulated EPWP in soil with 1.1 m horizontal distance from
pile centre.

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.1

10
t/d

100

1000

Figure 6. Mandel effect in soil around pile.

6
40

cv=0.06m /d

Dissipation process of excess pore water pressure


caused by static pressed pile in soft clay is studied
in details. The basic conclusions are as fellows.

cv=0.09m2/d
30
U(t)/kPa

CONCLUSIONS

cv=0.12m2/d

(1) One new equation to determine the initial EPWP


after pile installation is proposed, which indicates
the initial EPWP distribution rationally.
(2) Considering time, horizontal distance and vertical
depth, one 3D analytical formula to describe the
dissipation process of EPWP is established. Then
basic mathematic property of the new model is
analyzed.
(3) Example study and case study are conducted using
the new established formula, respectively, and
accuracy and precision of the formula are prove.

20

10

0
0

10

15

20

Figure 7. Variation of EPWP with different coefficients of


soil consolidation.

REFERENCES

U(t)/kPa
0

10

1
2

20

30

40

Equation 8
Field tests

Z/m

FEM
3
4
5
6

Figure 8. Comparison of EPWP between theoretic calculation, measured value and FEM analysis.

It should be noted that coefficient of soil consolidation, cv , determines the value and dissipating speed
of EPWP. Figure 7 shows the distribution of EPWP
with different cv when t = 30 d and z = 10 m. Other
calculating parameters are same to table 1.

CHEN W., SHI J.Y., GONG Y. P. 1999. Centrifugal model


tests of piles jacked in saturated clay. Journal of Hohai
University, Vol.27, pp.103109.
Fleming W. G. K. 1992. Pile engineering. New York: John
Willey & Sons, Inc. pp.110120.
Juan M. P., Christopher E H., Jonathan D. B. 2002. Soil
Deformation and excess pore pressure field around a
closed-ended pile. Geotechnical and geoenvironmental
engineering, America Society of Civil Engineers, Vol.128,
pp.111.
Randolph N. F., Carter J. P., Wroth, C. P. 1979. Driven
piles in clay-the effects of installation and consequent
consolidation .Geotechnique, Vol.29, pp. 361380.
Roy M., Blanchet R., Tavenas F., Rochelle P. L. 1981.
Behavior of sensitive clay during pile driving. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol.18, pp. 6785.
Roy M.,Tremblay M.,Tavenas F., La Rochelle, P.1982. Development of pore pressure in quasi-static penetration test in
sensitive clay. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol, 19,
pp.124138.
WANG W. 2002. Calculation of excess pore water pressure
due to driving pile and its application. Nanjing: Nangjing
University of Technology.

350

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Research on control of settlement and stabilization of high subgrade


beside hill and above soft foundation in Wenzhou expressway
Hai-Lin Yao
Institute of rock and soil mechanics, Chinese Academic of Science Wuhan, China

Yi-Qin Zhou
Headquarter of the Expressway Construction, Wenzhou, China

Zheng Lu
Institute of rock and soil mechanics, Chinese Academic of Science Wuhan, China

Qi Zhou
Headquarter of the Expressway Construction, Wenzhou, China

ABSTRACT: The embankment reinforcement, anchor and anti-slide piles are used to ensure the stability
and control settlement of subgrade. From a series of experiments, long term monitoring and FEM analysis,
physical properties of soft silt in this segment are investigated; construction procedure of high embankment are
suggested, ultimate settlement of the high fill embankment are analyzed; and the internal force and deformation
characteristics of the anchor piles are evaluated. Comparing the results of settlement monitoring with numerical
analytical ones, control criteria for stability calculation of high fill embankment on soft clay foundation are
proposed, and the anticipated effect is obtained.

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that the control of settlement and stabilization of high subgrade beside hill and above soft
foundation in expressway is of great importance for
geotechnical engineering. And there is a technical difficulty in the control of stabilization and settlement
of high fill embankment beside hill and above soft
foundation. Moreover, it is rarely reported on building nearly 20 m high fill embankment beside hill and
above soft foundation.
There is a typical case of embankment beside
hill and above soft foundation in Yong-Tai-Wen
expressway in Wenzhou City. The length of sections
K83 + 050 K83 + 230 from Longtou Ruian to Fenshuiguan Cangnan is about 200 m and its highest fill
embankment is approximately 20 m. It lies between
the foot of mountain and paddy field. Soft silt with
3.2 7.2 m thick is below the right side of the embankment. Dry jet mixing (DJM) piles were used to dispose
soft silt, which diameter of pile is 0.5 m and the distance between two piles is 0.9 m and 1.1 m. There were
block stones in the soft foundation during construction, and some of dry jet mixing (DJM) piles didnot
reach the designed depth. So geogrids and geotextile
were paved in subgrade to decrease unusual settlement

of the both sides of embankment. From May 2002 to


February 2003, a large settlement and lateral displacement in the fill embankment was happened when 12 m
filled and 8 m left, and an early symptom of landslide
was showed.
Measures of anti-slide stabilization, methods of
control stabilization of high embankment, settlement
of high fill embankment and post construction settlement are discussed.The internal force and deformation
of high fill embankment retaining structures are analyzed. Field monitoring information is used to conduct
the procedure of high fill embankment and stabilization is evaluated. Furthermore, the interaction functionary mechanism of anchor anti-slide piles retaining
structures and high embankment are theoretically and
analytically discussed.
2

2.1 Engineering-geological conditions


The studied typical sectional soil-layer can be roughly
divided into five layers. They are fill soil-layer, clay
layer, silt layer (3.2 7.2 m thickness), pebble layer

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENGINEERING-GEOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS AND ANTI-SLIDE
STABILIZATION MEASURES

Table 1.

Physico-mechanical parameters of main layers.

Serial
number

Name of
soil-layers

specific
gravity Gs

Natural water
content %

Natural dry
density g/cm3

Void
ratio eo

aV 12
MPa1

Es12
MPa

C
kPa

degree

Silty clay
Clay
Silt soil

2.71
2.66
2.70

30.4
39.2
46.6

1.45
1.29
1.21

0.865
1.078
1.274

0.308
0.321
0.913

7.35
6.45
3.01

16.7
47.4
14.2

29.1
26.6
2.5

Figure 1. The engineering geological profile and disposal


of anti-slide piles.

and the foundation rock layer, respectively, as shown


in Table 1.
2.2 Anti-slide stabilization measures
Anti-slide stabilization measures are shown in Fig. 1.
Anti-slide piles (1.8 m diameter) are used in the whole
embankment. The concrete grade of the piles is C25 ,
the distance between two piles is 3.5 m, which depth
in rock is 6 m, and 104 reinforcing steel bars (32) are
longitudinally located in each pile. Crossbeams are
used to connect with piles, C25 reinforced concrete is
used in crossbeams and its cross size is 1.0 m 1.0 m.
High strength and low relaxation steel anchor cables
are used, the distance between two anchors is 3.5 m,
and designed anchor-hold is 800 kN.
3
3.1

CALCULATION OF ANCHOR ANTI-SLIDE


PILES RETAINING STRUCTURES
Calculating parameters

2D FEM is used to analyze the internal force and


deformation of anchor anti-slide piles retaining structures. Presumed the flexural rigidity of piles is equal,
the piles are modeled to a series wall as plane strain
elements. DUNCON-ZHANG model (E B(K)) is
used to simulate the deformation characteristics of silt.
Foundation rock is modeled as elastic model, which
density is 25 kN/m3 , elastic modulus is 2 107 kPa
and Poisson ratio is 0.3. The parameters of anti-slide

piles equivalent to series wall are as follows: elastic modulus is 2 107 kPa, the sectional area of unit
length is 1.21 m2 the inertia moment of unit length
is 0.1476 m4 the thickness is 1.21 m anchor cables is
simulated as concentrated forces, the anchor-hold of
unit length is 228.6 kN declination angel is 30 , the
unit length of prestressed anchor cable can provide
horizontal load 198 kN/m and vertical load 114 kN/m
respectively. The calculated resistant moment and
sheering force of series wall are converted when
researching the resistant moment and sheering force of
piles. DUNCON-ZHANG model (E B(K)) is used in
dividing soil stratums and consolidation drained shear
parameters are shown in the Table 2 , which is situated
in the finished consolidation condition. The construction procedure of anchor piles and fill embankment are
investigated. As a result, the distributing and the development process of resistant moment, sheering force,
axial force and plane displacement are obtained.
The consolidation coefficient of flowing plastic saturated silt and some partly consolidated silt-clay under
50 400 kPa is 0.1 102 cm2 /s with no drainage
system in soft soil. The silt soil stratum in 6 m depth
is considered as unilateral drain. It is needed approximately 7 10 years when the degree of consolidation
reaches 90%, which is much longer than constructing time and monitoring time. In order to simulate the
internal force and reformation that anti-slide piles bear
when the soft soil and fill soil havent consolidated,
some parameters of silt layers, cut and fill layers and
fill layers are modified as shown in Table 3.
The groundwater can diminish the effective stress
in foundation because of the effect of pore water pressure. So that Two cases are simulated respectively in
numerical analytic method. Case one is that neglecting the effect of effective stress in foundation caused
by groundwater. Case two is that the water level of
groundwater is considered as locating on the top of
the silt layers.

3.2 Internal force and deformation of


anti-slide piles
The anchor cable tensioning time and the level of
groundwater are taken into consideration in the process of calculation. When the first layer of tensioning
anchor cables are finished after pile driving and the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 2.

Parameters of soft soil from consolidated-drained direct shear tests.

Name of
soil-layers

Wet unit
weight kN/m3

Rf

C kPa

Kur

Kb

fully decomposed
residual soil
of tuff
Pebble-clay layer
Mucky layer
Clay-crust layer
Cut and fill layer
High of fill
layer over 19 m

18.5

600

0.3

0.75

48

32

1200

500

0.30

18.8
16.4
18.6
20.0
20.0

120
50
80
600
600

0.7
0.6
0.7
0.3
0.3

0.70
0.61
0.65
0.75
0.75

25
28
28
5
5

25
25
25
35
35

240
100
160
1200
1200

38
22
36
500
500

0.40
0.30
0.34
0.30
0.30

Table 3.

Parameters for original soft soil.

Name of layers

Kb

C (kPa)

Silt layer
Fill layer

1000000

28
1

5
35

piles are decided by the mechanical properties of soil


around piles.
(2) Though the design of anchor anti-slide piles
retaining structures is content to load, anti-slide piles
would be destroyed without anchor cables when filling
embankment reaches designed height.
4

GLOBAL STABILITY ANALYSIS OF HIGH


SUBGRADE

The control of stability and settlement calculation of


high fill embankment on soft clay foundation are analyzed by improved Hilf method. Unconsolidated soft
clay layers control the stability of high fill embankment during the period of filling and the total stress
method is used. Excessive pore water pressure is not
solely calculated and undrained strength indexes are
adopted to reflect the effect of excessive pore water
pressure of layers below the level of groundwater.
4.1 Selection of the strength parameters of
soil layers
Figure 2. The development of moment of piles with filling.

level of groundwater is on the top of silt layers, the


maximum lateral displacement of piles is 7.0 cm and
the maximum resistant moment of piles is 7000 kN.m.
The development of moment of piles with filling are
shown as Figure 2.
The analytical results are shown as:
(1) The anchor cable tensioning time weakly effects
on the final internal force and deformation of the piles
when the calculating parameters, the level of groundwater and another conditions are the same; on the other
hand considering the effect of the unconsolidated soft
soil and filling soil as using the modifying parameters,
both the internal force and the deformation of piles
became double. This result shows that the development
of the internal force and deformation of anti-piles are
restricted by the anchoring part and anchoring force of
anti-slide piles, while the anchoring force of anti-slide

The principle of selecting strength parameters is


improved based on the special characteristics of high
fill embankment beside hill, which is as follows:
consolidated drained shear indexes are used for the
foundation and filling soil above silt layer; consolidated untrained shear indexes are used to analyze the
foundation below silt layer; unconsolidated untrained
shear indexes are used for the silt layer; unsaturated
strength indexes provided by Hilf analysis are used
for embankment and linear Mohr-Coulomb strength
model is available to each soil layer.
The evidence of slide appears when the height of
embankment filling soil reaches 19.2 19.5 m and
without retaining structures. So it can be considered
hypothetically as limit-equilibrium state, the backcalculation method for strength parameters of silt layer
which show crucial in slope stabilization is put forward
and the unconsolidated untrained strength index which
is 25 30 kPa is obtained.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4.2

Reinforcement of dry jet mixing (DJM) piles

The dry jet mixing (DJM) piles (diameter is 0.5 m,


spacing is 1.1 m, uniaxial compressive strength is
1.0 2.0 Mpa) are squarely disposed. Replacement
ratio of slide face area m is 0.1618, the shear strength
of composite foundation is reduced to the following
formulation (fiction angle=0):
Cu = m c(piles) + (1 m) Cu (silt)
= 0.1618 500 0.4 + 0.8382 5 = 36 KPa
Where,
M:
:
C:

replacement ratio;
reduction coefficient of shear strength of the
piles (considering dip angle of slide surface and
the position of soil strip)
shear strength converted by unconfined compressive strength

4.3 Simulative simplified method of


anti-slide piles
The concrete of anti-slide piles is used C25 , uniaxial compressive strength is 25 Mpa, uniaxial tensile
strength is 4.2 Mpa and cohesion is 5.17 Mpa. In
order to make the numerical method convergent, limitequilibrium slice method is used to reduce the cohesion and concentrated force is located on the top of the
piles to increase fiction strength component. Desirable
convergent results can be derived by resorting to this
kind of disposal and the shear strength of the concrete
of piles can also be kept stable.
4.4 Calculation of the global stability of high
subgrade
Limit-equilibrium global stability analysis of high subgrade is carried out to the two sections K83+175.5
and K83+196.5. Dangerous sliding surface and relative safety coefficient of Sweden method and Janbu
method are obtained according to the results of simplified Bishop method and Spencer method.According to
the results of calculation, the anti-slide stability is content to the criteria of code when anchor and anti-slide
piles are applied in the high subgrade.
5
5.1

SETTLEMENT NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF


HIGH SUBGRADE
Settlement FEM analysis of high subgrade

FEM which is considered the complexity of stress-path


and the characteristics of strength and deformation of
soil in complex stress-path, is used to calculate the total
settlement of high subgrade. The results of settlement
monitoring and numerical analysis are compared.

As the results, when the embankment filling with


anti-slide piles retaining structures is accomplished,
the maximum settlement of unconsolidated soft soil is
16 18 cm and the maximum settlement of consolidated soft soil is 22 24 cm.
5.2 Post-construction settlement of high subgrade
Monitoring is performed from June 2003 to July 2004
when the height of the filling soil reached over 19 m,
the degree of consolidation of foundation achieved
about 30% 50% after the monitoring equipments
have been buried.
In the calculation of settlement, all of the stratums
except the soft clay layer are considered as that consolidation has accomplished, the deformation indexes
can be derived from consolidated drained shear test.
The maximum settlement of unconsolidated soft soil
is approximately 16 cm and the maximum settlement
of consolidated soft soil is about 22 cm. The settlement has been reached about 6 8 cm as far as July
2004 and the total settlement was 20 24 cm. Therefore, it can be calculated that residual settlement of the
embankment was about 10 15 cm after July 2004.
6

6.1 Content of monitoring


Settlement plates and deviators are used to monitor
vertical and horizontal displacement of the shoulder
of road and sloping angles. The measuring meters for
cable anchor-hold and reinforcing steel bar as well
as the inclinometers are introduced to monitor the
internal force and deformation of anti-piles retaining
structures. Working conditions of high subgrade and
anchor cable anti-slide piles retaining structures are
monitored and forecasted immediately.
6.2 Results of real-time monitoring
6.2.1 Inclinometers monitoring
According to the results of Inclinometers monitoring,
the maximum horizontal displacement is 73.66 mm;
Much of the horizontal displacement produced in the
filling period. It is over 70% of the total horizontal
displacement. The calculating result of the horizontal
displacement of piles and the monitoring result are a
close match. Anchor piles play a significant role in the
stabilization of embankment.
6.2.2 Settlement monitoring
The settlement of section K83+175.5 (settlement =
190.0 mm) is bigger than the other. This section lay in
the silt layer which has the lowest strength. According

354

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MONITORING OF THE INTERNAL


FORCE AND DEFORMATION OF HIGH
SUBGRADE AND RETAINING
STRUCTURES

Table 4.

Name of
layers

6.2.3

Monitoring of anti-slide piles measuring


meters for reinforcing steel bar
The maximum resistant moment of monitoring and
the result of calculation are a close match and neither of them exceeds the maximum resistant moment
8000 kN m. As a result, the rationality of the internal
force analysis of anti-slide piles is reflected potentially.
6.2.4

Monitoring of the measuring meters for cable


anchor-hold
The monitoring result of the measuring meters for
cable anchor-hold is shown in Fig. 3. Compared with
ordinary anchor cable, the anchor-hold is not reduced
mainly because that there are vertical and lateral deformations in the high subgrade beside hill and above soft
foundation. Recently, the result of monitoring is trend
to be stabilized.
6.2.5 Settlement observation by layers
From the settlement observation by layers some conclusions can be drawn as follows:
(1) The laws of settlement of settlement ring and settlement plate standing on the height of original
ground are totally identical and they are a little
different from each other in the view of value.
Also, their relation with load is evident. Therefore,
the monitoring value of Settlement observation
by layers and Settlement plate can be judged as
credible.
(2) The settlement value diminishes gradually with
the increasing depth of settlement ring. The compression of 15m thickness soil layer lying above on

Section K83+196.5

Middle Shoulder
(%)
(%)

Middle Shoulder
(%)
(%)

the top of the settlement plate is great. The compression of this layer increases with the change
of time, but its proportion in total settlement
diminishes gradually.
(3) The proportions of soil layers in total settlement
are shown Table 4
6.2.6 Pore water pressure
From the pore water pressure curve, several results can
be obtained as follows:
(1) The curve and the process of loading are a
close match. Pore water pressure aggrandizes
with increasing grades of loading and dissipates
gradually with the change of time.
(2) The pore water pressure of upside of the sections
dissipates more quickly than that of underside of
the sections because section piezometer tips lie in
the different depth of the same mucky soil layer.
(3) Pore water pressure can totally reflect the consolidation laws. Because the left of this embankment is
filled beside hill and horizontal slopes exist in the
below of this part, the level of groundwater is influenced tremendously by rainfall, the monitoring
pore water pressure is not steady in certain range
and the degree of consolidation is also difficult to
be calculate accurately.
6.3

Control criteria for stability in construction


of high fill embankment anchor anti-slide
piles retaining structures

The control criteria for stability in construction of high


fill embankment beside hill and above soft foundation anchor anti-slide piles retaining structures has
not been unified yet. The together functions of high

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Section K83+175.5

Silty clay (cut 34.7


46.7
12.4
16.7
and fill height
over 9 m)
Clay layer
31.5
53.3
38.0
27.0
(height over
(2 layers)
3 m and 5.0 m)
Mucky soil
33.8
49.6
56.3
layer (height
less than 3 m
and 5.0 m)
Clay layer of
shoulder and
mucky soil
layer
About 85% of total settlement

Figure 3. Relationship between anchor force and time.

to the settlement distribution of the two sections, the


settlement of the road shoulder is bigger than that of
in the middle of road because the left side of the road
was filled close to hill, horizontal slope exists under
the left side of the subgrade and the soft soil of road
shoulder is thicker than that of in the middle of road.
At last, the settlement is trend to be stabilized and it
matched the result of calculation.

Settlement ratios for soil layers.

fill embankment beside hill and above soft foundation anchor anti-slide piles retaining structures should
be taken into consideration and the control criteria of
stability can be obtained from analysis of stress-strain
relations. This project is carried out according to the
requirements of [Technical Specification of Constructional Foundation Treatment] (JGJ792002) and the
control criteria are as follows:
(1) The lateral horizontal displacement of slope
feet 3 mm/d, settlement 10 mm/d, the proportion of horizontal displacement to settlement
25 30%.
(2) Monitoring value of anchor cable is less than
designed loading value during filling.
(3) Horizontal displacement of pile 3 mm/d, the
maximum resistant moment of piles 8000 kN m.
7

CONCLUSIONS

(1) High subgrade beside hill and above soft foundation is a special section and show complicated
mechanism with the interaction of inclined foundation rock and soft clay. Anchor anti-slide piles
retaining structures show good control on the settlement and lateral deformation of high subgrade
beside hill and above soft foundation effectively,
and the anticipated effect is obtained.
(2) Real-time monitoring of the internal force and
deformation of high subgrade and anchor antislide piles retaining structures are carried out, the
states are derived and forecasted, comprehensive
monitoring data are obtained, monitoring results
are fed back in time in the process of construction,
the rate of progress of information-oriented con-

struction is accelerated, and this is crucial to the


rate of progress, quality and construction security
of the project.
(3) Control criteria for stability in construction of high
fill embankment anchor anti-slide piles retaining
structures is proposed in this paper, stability during
construction is achieved and time limit for project
is shorten. It shows that the control criteria for stability is desirable and can provide some referenced
value for similar projects. But its rationality and
reliability should be further researched.
REFERENCES
Geological conditions of slope engineering, 1982. Hunan
Provincial Water Conservancy Investigation and Design
Institute. Beijing. Hydraulic Publisher.
Liu Han-dong. Predictive theory and measures of unstabilized slope. Zhengzhou. 1996. Yellow River Hydraulic
Publisher.
Wu Heng-li. Principle of synthetic stiffness double- parameters method of calculating piles. Beijing. 1986. Pubic
traffic Publisher.
Yamada Goji,Prevention and collapse of landslide and slope.
Beijing. 1980. Scientific Publisher.
Zhou Guang-dian, ChenYong-ping. Limit resistance and integral design of anti-slide piles. 2003. Hydraulic Journal.
(6).-2229
He Jianqing, Zhang Jiasheng, Mei Songhua.INQUIRING
INTO SOME QUESTIONS IN DESIGNING ANTISLIDE PILE. 1999. Chinese Journal Of Rock Mechanics
And Engineering. 18(5).-600602
ZHOU Yi-qin, YAO Hai-lin. Report of controlling stabilization and settlement of high subgrade beside hill and
above soft foundation of Changing section Wenzhou
Expressway. 2005.4.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Engineering performances of soil disturbed by underground mining


and its application
Guang-Yun Yu & Ping Sheng
China University Of Mining And Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China

Li-Bo Wang
Jiangsu Provincial Communication Planning and Design Institute, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

ABSTRACT: Conventional triaxial apparatus was modified to simulate the stress paths happening in the soil
disturbed by underground mining. A series of conventional triaxial tests, biaxial compression extension tests
with loading and unloading was conducted. The influence of the underground mining disturbance on the soil
strength parameters was found based on these tests. The disturbed soil bearing capacity was analyzed using the
parameters determined from the above tests.

INTRODUCTION

The definition of disturbed soil is that the changes


of soil stress state, soil stress path, porosity, soil
water content, and, especially, the soil structure are
changed by external forces and these changes, in turn,
influence the soil strength and its deformational characteristic(Hu, 1997). The soil above the mining area
becomes disturbed soil after it experienced compression, tensile, and rotation induced by mining caused
deformation. The response of the soil on the surface
above the mining area to mining is as follows:

Excess pore water pressure in the passive state;


Tensile crack in the active state;
Original structure destroyed and remold, soil engineering performances changing;
Dissipation of pore water pressure, reconsolidation
of soil; and
Physical and mechanical parameters, such as porosity, coefficient of compression, Youngs modulus
and parameters of strength, have changed.
Much effort has been devoted to the study of the bearing capacity of disturbed soils and its application.
Litwinowicz (1985) studied the influence of underground mining on the ground base soil and the building
about the area of underground mining. The results
of laboratory tests on loess showed that the coherence obviously decreased with the increase of tensile
strain induced by underground mining, but the increase
of tensile strain has no influence on internal friction
angle of soil. Grabowski et al. (1991) showed that
underground mining resulted in the decrease of the

strength of ground base soil and the variation of the


strength is related to vertical strain. Grabowski et al.
(1991) also proposed the equations to calculate the
decrease of disturbed soil strength and the decrease
of coherence. Liang (2000) analyzed the influence of
underground mining on compressibility and deformation mechanism of disturbed soil. The relation between
deformation of ground surface soil and relative settlement of foundation and ground base was studied
using the measurements of settlements of foundation
and ground base above underground mining.
Most of these studies were focused on the relation
between soil strength and its horizontal strain. The
study on bearing capacity of disturbed soil has not
been reported in literature. Engineering performances
of disturbed soil induced by underground mining was
studied using laboratory tests, and bearing capacity of disturbed soil incorporating the influence of
underground mining was proposed and was applied
to engineering projects in this paper.

2.1 Equipment development


Conventional triaxial test is successfully used to determine the strength and deformation parameter of soil.
However, the tradition triaxial apparatus has to be
modified to simulate the stress path described for the
disturbed soil. The influences of confining pressure
on soil strength and deformation and soil strength performance under different stress paths are studied for

357

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

LABORATORY TESTING

Table 1. Physical and mechanical parameters of specimen soil.

sealing rubber ring

Fraction
angle

Coherent
kPa

top of the pressure cell

15.2

25.4

19.6

96

Porosity

Liquid limit

Plastic
limit

Compressive
modulus (MPa)

0.719

39.2

20.7

12.3

loading
ram

Density
kN m3

Saturation %

pressure
cell
Table 2.

specimen

sealing rubber ring

Figure 1. Pressure cell of modified triaxial apparatus.

in situ reddish-yellow clay using conventional triaxial


apparatus and modified triaxial apparatus.
TSZ30-2.0 is a strain-controlling triaxial apparatus.
It can be used to measure soil strength, deformation and pore water pressure. In lateral loading tests,
the conventional triaxial test could not meet demands
since the confining pressure is greater than the axial
stress. In order to carry out the test with this stress
path, the axial loading system has to be separated with
confining loading system.
The modification for conventional triaxial test
apparatus is shown in Figure 1. In the modified apparatus, the diameter of the axial loading ram is changed
to 39.1 mm. The diameter of the axial loading ram
is the same as that of soil specimen so that the axial
loading system can be separated from the confining
loading system. An upper pressure cell cover for axial
loading system is installed on the top of the pressure
cell around the axial loading ram, and a sealing rubber ring is installed on axial loading ram inside of the
upper pressure cell cover.
2.2

Soil specimen

The dimensions of the specimen form exploration are


100 mm by 200 mm. It is cut into 39.1-mm-diameter
and 80.0-mm-high specimen using circular cutting
tools. Table 1 shows the physical and mechanical
parameters of specimen soil.
2.3

Laboratory test program and test results

2.3.1 Biaxial compression extension test


Due to influences of structural and stress anisotropy on
the soil strength, some test results from conventional

Soil types

WL /WP

cu /v
CTCT

cu /v
BCET

Haney in situ
sensitive clay
Boston
sedimentary clay
AGS in situ highplastics clay

44/18

0.268

0.168

41/21

0.33

0.155

71/40

0.32

0.195

triaxial test, direct shear test and biaxial compression extension test indicated that the strength of clay
under undrained condition gradually decreases with
the change of the direction of major stress from vertical
to horizontal (Wang et al. 2001).
The strength from conventional triaxial compressive test (CTCT) and biaxial compression extension
test (BCET) is shown in Table 2. cu is soil strength
under undrained condition. v is the verticalconsolidation stress. The reduction of soil strength induced
by the change of major stress direction reaches about
35 50%. Therefore, the soil strength is anisotropic
(Zhang et al. 1999).
In the soil above mining area, major stress direction changed from vertical to horizontal in the area
of the passive stress state due to underground mining. Therefore, the soil strength from BCET should be
adopted.
Figures 2 and 3 are relations between confining
stress and axial strain and confining stress and lateral
strain, respectively. The relations between the confining stress and axial strain or lateral strain are different
for different initial confining consolidation stress. At
axial strain of 1.6%, confining stress is 420 kPa for
initial confining consolidation of 200 kPa and 530 kPa
for initial confining consolidation stress of 300 kPa.
2.3.2 Biaxial compression unloading test
The purpose of biaxial compression unloading test
is to obtain the compressive strength and the relations between compressive stress and strain. In order
to obtain the relation between biaxial compressive

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Comparison of test results from CTCT and BCET.

600
500
400
initial consolidation stress
200kPa
initial consolidation stress
300kPa

300
200

confining stress (kPa)

700

Table 3.

Shows the biaxial compressive unloading test plan.

Test
number

Stress state
of specimen
(kPa)

Recovery of in
situ stress state
(kPa)

Stress state after


disturbance
(kPa)

1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8

(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)

(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)

(313, 200)
(313, 184)
(313, 168)
(313, 152)
(469, 300)
(469, 270)
(469, 240)
(469, 210)

100
0

-3.5

-3.0

-2.5

-2.0 -1.5 -1.0


axial strain (%)

-0.5

0.0

Figure 2. Confining stress and axial strain.


30

initial consolidation stress


200kPa
initial consolidation stress
300kPa

25

v-a (%)

starts to open and the change of volume is taken


down. The change of volume of the specimen, v
is:
v = A0 H

in which A0 is initial cross-section area of specimen;


H is the change of specimen height. If A0 does
not change, if lateral strain happens or not can be
known based on the measured H . In order to get
the target consolidation stress with constant crosssection area, stresses 1 and 3 need to be gradually
adjusted.
Consolidation: applied consolidation retains to keep
the specimen to be consolidated under K0 consolidation condition.
Unloading: 1 keep constant, while 3 unloads.
Consolidated-undrained compressive test: conventional triaxial test procedure is followed for three
consolidation stresses of 100, 200 and 300 kPa.

20
15
10
5
1.5

1.8

2.1

2.4
log (3)

2.7

3.0

Figure 3. Confining stress and lateral strain.

stress and strength, unloading is applied stepwise.


Each decrease is  = (3 a )/4. 3 is the confining stress, i.e. biaxial compressive stress. a is the soil
strength under unloading condition. Initial consolidation stress is another important factor influencing soil
strength. Thus, tests with initial consolidation stresses
of 100, 200 and 300 kPa are conducted.
Due to disturbance during transport and installation
of specimen and, thereafter, this disturbance-induced
stress release and the change of pore water pressure
and reduction of soil undrained strength, preconsolidation is carried out before unloading. The in situ
soil has been consolidated under self weight, so K0
consolidation is adopted.
2.3.2.1 Test procedure
Table 3 shows the biaxial compressive unloading test
plan. There are eight tests conducted it.

Stress recovery: vertical and confining stresses


increase following Table 3. 3 , confining stress,
increases to 1/5 of target stress and 1 , axial
stress, increases to 1/k0 of 3 , then draining valve

Shear rate is 0.08 mm/min. Measurement is read every


0.5 mm of increase in axial deformation. When axial
strain reaches 15%, test is finished.
2.3.2.2 Test results
Figures 4 and 5 show the relations between deviator
stress (the difference between the axial stress and confining stress) and axial strain for Test 1-1 and test
1-5. There is no obvious difference in test results
between Test 1-1 and 1-5. Both show that deviator
stress increase with increase of confining stress.
Table 4 shows the results of strength parameters
from the eight tests. is the internal friction angle
of disturbed soil. Compared with the internal friction
angle of soil without disturbance shown in Table 1,
unloading disturbance has some influence on internal friction angle of soil. Internal friction angle of
soil decreases after disturbance. The decrease of the
internal friction angle is not obviously related to its
disturbance-induced stress. The average decrease in
internal friction angle is about 0.5 1 .
Figure 6 is the relation of unloading and coherence.
Soil coherence decreases obviously with increase of

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(1)

26

600

25

initial consolidation stress


200kPa
initial consolidation stress
300kPa

24

500
c (kPa)

3 3 (KPa)

700

400
300

23
22
21

200

20

3=100kPa
3=200kPa
3=300kPa

100
0

19
18
0

10
8
a (%)

12

14

20

40

16

60

80

100

3 (kPa)

Figure 6. Unloading stress vs coherence.

Figure 4. Deviator stress vs axial strain for Test 1-1.

600

26

500

24
c (kPa)

1 3 (KPa)

28

400
300

22
20

200

3=100kPa
3=200kPa
3=300kPa

100
0
0

10

12

14

18
16
0.00

16

3 (%)

Test number

1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8

25.1
24.5
22.3
18.8
24.5
24
21.8
19

15.2
14.7
14.1
14.8
15.8
14.5
14.6
14.7

0.24

0.32

2.3.3 Biaxial compression extension test


The purpose of biaxial compression extension test is
to obtain the relations between compressive stress and
strain of soil and soil compressive strength. Eight tests
are conducted in this group shown in Table 5.

unloading stress. If  3 /3 is defined as loading coefficient, then relation between loading coefficient and
coherence is linear. Figure 7 shows the relation of loading coefficient and coherence. The equation between
loading coefficient and coherence can be obtained
using least squares regression as follows:
(2)

Recovery of stress: vertical and confining stress


increase following Table 4.
Consolidation: stress state keeps constant to get k0
consolidation.
Loading: 1 keeps constant, while 3 increases.
Conventional consolidated-undrained compressive
tests under three confining stresses of 100, 200 and
300 kPa.
Shear rate is 0.08 mm/min. Measurement is read every
increase of 0.5 mm of axial strain. Testing stops when
axial strain reaches 15%. Modified pressure cell is
used for biaxial compression extension test.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.16
3/3

in which c is soil undrained coherence; c0 is initial soil


undrained coherence; 3 is unloading stress and 3
is initial consolidation stress.

Soil strength parameters results.

c = 23.73 /3 + c0

0.08

Figure 7. Unloading coefficient vs coherence.

Figure 5. Deviator stress vs axial stress for Test 1-5.


Table 4.

y=-23.7x+25.9

Table 5.

Table 6.

Biaxial compression extension test.

Test
number

Stress state
of specimen
(kPa)

Recovery of in
situ stress state
(kPa)

Stress state
after disturbed
(kPa)

2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8

(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)

(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)

(313, 510)
(313, 570)
(313, 630)
(313, 690)
(469, 600)
(469, 680)
(469, 760)
(469, 840)

Soil strength parameters results.

Test number

2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8

31.2
29.2
25.1
21.7
31.1
28.1
24.3
21.7

14.3
15.6
16.3
16.1
15.1
15.8
17.5
17.3

32
700

initial consolidation stress


200kPa

30

initial consolidation stress


300kPa

600
28
1 3 (KPa)

500
26
400
24

300

22

3=100kPa
3=200kPa
3=300kPa

200
100

20
0

0
0

8
10
3 (%)

12

14

50

100

150

200

250

300

3 (kPa)

16

Figure 10. Loading stress vs coherence.

Figure 8. Deviator stress vs axial strain for Test 2-1.

Table 6 shows strength parameters from biaxial


compression extension tests. Compared with values of
internal friction angle in Table 1, the internal friction
angle of soil increases in biaxial compression extension tests. The increase of the internal friction angle
is, also, not obviously related to disturbance-induced
stress. The average increase of internal friction angle
is about 1.7 .
Figure 10 is the relation of loading and coherence.
Soil coherence decreases obviously with increase of
loading stress. The relation between loading coefficient and coherence is also linear. Figure 11 shows
the relation of loading coefficient and coherence. The
equation between loading coefficient and coherence
can be obtained using least squares regression as
follows:

600

1 3 (KPa)

500
400
300

3=100kPa
3=200kPa
3=300kPa

200
100
0
0

10

12

14

16

3 (%)
Figure 9. Deviator stress vs axial stress for Test 2-5.

c = 11.43 /c + c0

2.3.3.1 Test results


Figures 8 and 9 show the relations between deviator
stress (the difference between the axial stress and confining stress) and axial strain for Test 2-1 and test
2-5. There is no obvious difference in test results
between Test 2-1 and 2-5. Both show that deviator
stress increase with increase of confining stress.

3 APPLICATION IN ENGINEERING PROJECT


Soil disturbance results in changes in physical and
mechanical parameters of soil. The changes in physical and mechanical parameters of soil induce the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(3)

40

35

30

25

y=-11.4x+31.4
20

Figure 12. Plan view of Hongqi river railway bridge.


15
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

3/3

Figure 11. Loading coefficient vs coherence.

change in soil bearing capacity. The following section


includes analyses of disturbed soil bearing capacity
using Prandtl-Vesic solution.
3.1

Project background and engineering geology

Hongqi River Railway Bridge is located in a mining


area. The surface of this area has subsided 3.6 m. In
order for railway to operate normally, additional boxing frames were installed and connected to the main
boxing bridge. Stone was poured on the surface of
bridge to raise the surface of bridge. In order to transport the stone to the bridge surface, 6-m-wide boxing
frames were affiliated to the original bridge. The 6-mwide boxing frames have the same vertical and axial
long dimensions as the original boxing bridge. The
total width of the bridge is 23 m. the total length is
10.9 m. The original design included 4 boxing frames.
The widths of the two middle boxing frames are 5 m
and 4 m, respectively.There are 20-mm-subsiding gaps
between the boxing frames. The total height is 5.36 m.
Figures 12 and 13 show the plan view and cross section view of this bridge. The engineering geology of
the soil under the bridge is shown in Table 7.
3.2

The horizontal strain at limit state is:


xp
E

xp =

(6)

If the horizontal strain is x , the loading coefficient


can be expressed as follows:
|Ex |
x
in the elastic state xp > |x |
=
x
K0 z

(7)

'
'
'K0 z xp '
x
in the plastic state xp < |x | (8)
=
x
K0 z
The equations (2) and (3) can be expressed as:

Disturbed soil bearing capacity

If it is in the passive stress state, the relation between


the vertical and horizontal stress is as follows:
1
1
(xp z ) = c cos + (xp + z ) sin
2
2

Figure 13. Cross-section View of Hongqi river railway


bridge.

(4)

c = k

x
+ c0
x

(9)

In the active stress state, the relation between the


vertical and horizontal stress is as follows:

Underground mining also induces the change of soil


porosity, which, in turn, results in the change of soil
density. For saturated soil, its density can be calculated
using the following equation:

1
1
(z xp ) = c cos + (xp + z ) sin
2
2

 =

(5)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

s + e  w
1 + e

(10)

Table 7.

Table 8. Soil Parameters used for soil bearing capacity


calculation.

Engineering Geology of the soil under the bridge.


In situ
water
content
(%)

In situ

Dry

Density (kN/m3 )

Soil
name

Depth
(m)

Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Sandy
clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Sandy
clay
Clay
Clay

1.8
2.6
2.8
3
3.3
4.8

22.6
25.4
24.3
26.3
30
21.9

2
1.99
1.99
1.96
1.99
2.06

1.63
1.59
1.60
1.55
1.53
1.69

5
5.5
5.7
8.5

31.4
24.3
25
20.5

1.95
2.32
1.93
2.05

1.48
1.63
1.63
1.70

9
10.6

25.2
27.6

1.98
1.93

1.58
1.51

Saturation
(%)

Porosity
(%)

Compressive
Friction Coherence Modulus
angle
(kPa)
(MPa)

91
95
94
94
100
97
100
97
94
93
94
93
87

0.686
0.733
0.711
0.772
0.803
0.615
0.83
0.892
0.73
0.599
0.739
0.812
0.807

9.9
11.4
10.4
6.7
14.8
8.5
15.6
13
20.7

24
20.7

80
34
66
88
48
78
85
81
28

7
28

9.21
7.6
9.51
5.49
3.72
8.78
8.88
9.51
9.45
6.66
14.02
6.06
4.07

(11)

(12)

in which Nq , Nc and Nr are functions of fraction angle


of disturbed soil.
Based on the numerical simulation of subsidence of
ground surface, during the process of subsidence the
soil under Railway Bridge unloads in the horizontal
direction and, subsequently, loads horizontally. Maximum horizontal deformation is 4.8 mm/m induced by

Friction
angle ( )

5.5

0.73

34

10

Density
(kN/m3)

Depth
(m)

Length-width
(m)

Horizontal
deformation
(mm/m)

19.6

0.5

10 2

4.8e-3

horizontally unloading and 9.8 mm/m induced by


horizontally loading. Other parameters of disturbed
soil used for the calculation of soil bearing capacity are
shown in Table 8. Soil bearing capacity also changes
during the process of mining. When soil stress transfers from passive stress state to active stress state, the
soil bearing capacity becomes least. The original soil
bearing capacity is 115.6 kPa and the disturbed soil
bearing capacity is 108.5 kPa from Equation 12.
CONCLUSIONS

c = 23.73 /3 + c0
The relation between loading coefficient and coherence during loading is:
c = 11.43 /3 + c0
Underground mining has an influence on disturbed soil
friction angle but the influence is very small.
Because of influence of mining disturbing, the
bearing capacity of mining ground changes, and the
formula (12) presented in this paper can calculate
the bearing capacity of mining ground disturbed by
mining.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is funded by Chinese National Science
Fundament Committee (50574088).

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Coherence
(kPa)

Because anisotropy of soil strength and the change of


major stress direction result in the reduction of soil
strength, soil strength parameters obtained from biaxial compression extension test should be used when
numerical simulation of underground mining-induced
response on disturbed soil if soil is considered to be
isotropic.
The relation between loading coefficient and coherence during unloading is:

Therefore, the disturbed soil bearing capacity can be


calculated using the following equation:
1
pk  = q N q   H + c Nc  + r  b N r 
2

Porosity

in which s is the grain gravity; w is the water density.


The relation between porosity and horizontal strain is
linear as follows:
e = (1 + e0 )x

Compressive
Modulus
(MPa)

REFERENCES
Grabowski Z, Litwinowicz L. 1991. On soil strength changes
on a mine subsiding thorough. Proceedings of the 10th
European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering. Publ by A.A. Balkema, 809810.
Hu Z.X. 1997. Soil mechanics and environmental soil technics. Shanghai: Tongji Publishing House, in Chinese.
LLitwinowicz. 1985. The influence of horizontal expansion
on soil strength in mining areas. the 3rd International
Conference of Ground Movement and Structure, 397403.
Liang W.M. 2000. The Relative Settlement of A Buildings
Foundation and Its Ground Base Under the Effect of
Mining. Mine Survey, (3), 2528. in Chinese.

Wang H. and Sun W.J. 2001. Influence of pushing soil induced


by pile sinking. Science and Technology of Building, 11:
2426. in Chinese.
Yu Guang-yun, Xia Jun-wu, Sheng Ping, 2004. Wang Li-bo.
Research on Disturbed Soil and Its Application in Environmental Engineering. Journal of China University of
Mining & Technology, 33(6): 631635. in Chinese.
Zhang Q.H., Zhu Z.L. and Yang J.L. 1999. Theoretical
analyses and test studies on soil disturbed by shield progressing. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering,
18(6): 699703. in Chinese.
Zhao X.H., Sun H., Luo G.W. 2000. Damage Soil Mechanics[M]. Shanghai: Tongji Publishing House in Chinese.

364

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Material behaviour

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Compressibility properties of reconstituted organic soils at Khulna Region


of Bangladesh
M.R. Islam, M. Alamgir & M.A. Bashar
Department of Civil Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology (KUET), Khulna, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT: This study represents the compressibility properties of reconstituted organic soils contents at
Khulna Region of Bangladesh. Reconstituted soils were prepared manually to have the soil samples of required
organic contents with wide variation. Eight different samples of reconstituted soils for the organic contents of
about 5, 6, 13, 19, 25, 30, 35 and 42% were prepared in the laboratory by adjusting the different proportion
of inorganic and organic soil samples with a water content equal to 1.25 times of liquid limits. ASTM (2004)
methods were followed for the determination of compressibility properties of reconstituted soils. The results
show that the compressibility properties of reconstituted organic soils have influenced significantly with the
increase of percentage of organic contents.

INTRODUCTION

region considering the significant variation of organic


contents.

The sub-soil of Khulna region consists of fine-grained


soils with a considerable part of decomposed and semidecomposed organic matter. This region is situated at
the southwestern part of Bangladesh near the world
largest mangrove forest, Sundarbans. The soft soil
deposit extends up to a considerable depth and creates
problem to Geotechnical Engineers in designing economic foundations to construct the required infrastructure (Alamgir et al. 2001). Due to presence of a thick
organic soil layers, the civil engineering constructions
in such sites need special attention against possible
shear failure and total and differential settlements. To
quantify the effects of organic deposits on the adopted
foundation systems, it is required to establish the
behavior of organic contents with the soil parameters.
In Khulna region, the organic soil layer exists in
most of the places in between the depth of 10 to
25 ft below the existing ground surface. Moreover, the
nature of organic contents and geotechnical properties are found to vary from place to place. The bearing
capacity of this soil is very low and always leads to
adopt a costly foundation for the construction of structures. To understand the characteristics of such organic
soil deposits, the detailed information about the soil
formation, composition and physical characteristics
are required to evaluate. However, comprehensive data
based on sub-soil information of the different organic
deposits within the Khulna region and its environs
are not available from any source. So, it is essential
to conduct a comprehensive study for understanding the compressibility characteristics of soil in this

2.1 Soil samples used in this study


The two disturbed soil samples were collected from
Beel Dakatia, 2 km away from KUET campus, Khulna,
Bangladesh at a depth of about 10 feet and from the
KUET campus at a depth of about 5 feet from the existing ground surface. The physical and index properties
of this soil samples were determined in the laboratory through ASTM (2004) methods are presented
in Table 1.
2.2 Methodology
The methodology of laboratory investigation is shown
in Figure 1 and presented below.
2.3 Preparation of reconstituted soils
2.3.1 Preparation of soil slurry
A reconstituted soil has been defined as one that has
been thoroughly mixed at moisture content equal to or
greater than liquid limit (Burland, 1990). Soil slurry
with initial water content well beyond the LL has been
commonly used as an initial state for sample preparation (Siddique, 1990 and Hopper, 1992). However,
higher initial water contents provide higher degree of
saturation and higher freedom of particle orientation
but require larger initial volumes and longer consolidation periods. In this study, the samples were first

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Table 1.

Physical and index properties of soil samples used to prepare reconstituted soils.
Percentages of Constituted
Soil Particles

Location

OC
(%)

w
(%)

LL
(%)

PL
(%)

PI

Gs

4.75.076 mm

0.076.002 mm

<.002 mm

USCS
Symbol

Beel Dakatia
KUET campus

70
8

250
36

78
40

63
27

15
13

2
2.75

30.5
2.80

49.50
53.80

20.00
43.40

OH
ML

Note: OC = organic content, w = moisture content, LL = liquid limit, PL = plastic limit, PI = Plasticity Index, Gs = specific
gravity and USCS = Unified Soil Classification System.
Collection of Disturbed Soil Samples

Crushed of Air-dried Samples into


Powder Form

Determination of Physical and Index


Properties of Soil Samples

Sieved the Soil Samples through Sieve # 16

Mixing of two Samples in Different Proportions


to obtain Samples of Different Organic Contents

Preparation of Soil Slurry with Water Content of 1.25 times of LL


Ko- consolidation to obtain Large Dia. (152.4 mm Samples)

Reconstituted Organic Soils

Block Sampling and prepared test specimen

Ko- consolidation Tests

Figure 1. Flow chart of laboratory investigation.

air-dried and then powdered. The powered samples


were then sieved No 16 sieve and the sieved samples
were mixed with a water content equal to 1.25 times
of LL which was found as sufficient to yield uniform
and homogeneous slurry. The soil and water were then
thoroughly mixed by hand to form slurry to ensure full
saturation. Generally No. 40 sieve is used for making
reconstituted inorganic soils by various researchers,
such as Bashar (2002), however, in this study, realizing the inherent physical conditions of organic soils, a
standard sieve of larger opening size i.e. No. 16 sieve
was used to obtain better representation of organic
soils. In this study, disturbed soil samples from two
selected locations of Khulna region were collected to
prepare reconstituted soils of various percentages of

organic contents (70% and 8%). In the laboratory for


organic contents of about 5, 6, 13, 19 25, 30, 35 and
42% were prepared by adjusting the different proportions of low and high content organic soil samples and
detailed of sample preparation are obtained in Islam
(2006).
2.3.2 Consolidation of slurry
The slurry was consolidated to form a uniform reconstituted soil cake in a cylindrical consolidation mold of
152 mm diameter and 222 mm in height. A 3 mm thick
perforated steel disc with filter paper to permit uniform
drainage was placed at the bottom of the mold. The
inner surface of the cylindrical consolidation mold was
coated with thin layer silicon grease to minimize side

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Measured organic content in reconstituted


samples, OC (%)

Compression
dial gauge

Loading
frame
Dead weight

Cylindrical
Consolidation
mold

60

OC)measured= 0.5871*OC)mixing + 0.7386

50

R2 = 0.9978

40
30
20
10
0
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Mixing organic content in slurry, OC (%)

Figure 2. Arrangement for preparation of reconstitute


organic soil samples.

friction. The slurry was then poured into the mold and
stirred with steel rod to remove the entrapped air.At the
top of the slurry, a 3 mm thick perforated steel disc with
a filter paper separation was placed as shown in the
Figure 2 and the axial load of 100 kN/m2 was gradually
applied to the sample. Initially the slurry was allowed
to consolidate by the self-weight and the weight of the
porous metal discs for about 24 hours. Then a small
pressure of 3 kN/m2 was applied to the sample for next
24 hours. Similarly, the pressure was increased gradually by about 5, 8, 10, 13, 18, 26, 34, 42, 50, 59, 67,
75, 87, 92 and finally 100 kN/m2 and maintained this
pressure till the end of primary consolidation. After
consolidation the soil cake of 114 to 127 mm length
and 152 mm dia was obtained from reconstituted soils.
2.3.3 Selection of overburden pressure
An external pressure is required to consolidate the
slurry to obtain reconstituted soil samples. Earlier, it
was considered that a pre-consolidation pressure of
276 kN/m2 was about the minimum value which could
make the clay soil just stiff enough to allow setting
up specimens (Kirkpatrick and Khan, 1984). Latter as
the skill in testing has improved and it is found that
the sample is possible to remove at 150 kN/m2 (Kirkpatrick and Khan, 1984). Singh (1992) suggested that
soil containing high organic matter shows large volume changes on loading and expulsion of water, low
shear strength and low dry density. In addition, the
reconstituted organic soil is fully decomposed with
normally loaded state and shows highly compressible
phenomena. So, in this study the reconstituted soils
were prepared in the laboratory in Ko -consolidation
cell by a consolidation pressure of 100 kN/m2 .
ORGANIC CONTENTS IN THE
RECONSTITUTED SOILS

It was intended to prepare reconstituted soils at the


organic contents of about 8, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and

Figure 3. Organic contents in reconstituted samples versus


mixing organic contents in slurry.

70% by mixing the soil samples collected from KUEL


campus and Beel Dakatia. However, the soil samples
of organic content of 8% and 70% were obtained as
the samples from KUET campus and Beel Dakatia,
respectively, without any mixing. Although slurry was
prepared to achieve such organic contents, but after in
the prepared reconstituted soil samples in the laboratory, the measured organic contents were rounded as
5, 6, 13, 19, 25, 30, 35 and 42%, respectively, against
to that of predetermined organic contents as stated earlier. The reconstituted organic soils at each designed
organic content were prepared in the laboratory based
on the procedure followed by Burland (1990). The
Figure 3 represents the variation of measured organic
contents in reconstituted samples with mixing organic
contents in slurry and from the figure, it can be perceived that the organic content in all reconstituted soil
samples were measured about 60% to that of mixing
during the preparation of slurry.
4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The main purpose of consolidation tests is to obtain


the data that may be used in predicting the rate and the
amount of settlement of structures on organic soils.
Conducting a series of Ko -consolidation tests in the
laboratory the compressibility parameters, Cc and Cv ,
as well as primary consolidation period are obtained
for the variation of organic contents from 5 to 42% in
the reconstituted soils. The findings are discussed in
the following sections.
4.1 Variation of initial void ratio
The variation of initial void ratio with the increase
of organic contents is shown in Figure 4. The figure
shows that there is a definite increasing trend of initial void ratio as a linear variation with the increase of
organic contents. Here, initial void ratio has increased
significantly from 0.646 to 1.98 with the increase

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

70

Perforated base
for drainage

80

(1997) suggested that if the value of organic content


of soils lies in between 6 to 20%, it effects the properties but behaviour is still like mineral soils; organic
silts and clays. In addition, he also postulated that if
the organic content of soils lies in the rage of 21 to
74%, organic matter governs the properties of soils.
The findings of the present study agree well with the
postulation given by Edil (1997).To predict the amount
of settlement the knowledge on compression index of
soil must be understood to solve the soil engineering problems (Lambe, 1969). However, the amount of
settlement of a soil mass depends on its composition
and its pore spaces. Due to induced organic matters
in the soil mass, the compression index has changed
significantly.

Initial void ratio, eo

2.5
eo = 0.0333*OC + 0.6432

R2 = 0.9168

1.5
1
0.5
0
0

10

20
30
40
Organic content, OC (%)

50

Figure 4. Variation of initial void ratio with organic contents


in the reconstituted soils.

Compression index, Cc

0.8
Cc = 0.015*OC + 0.0812
R2 = 0.9417 (OC: 25 to 42%)

0.7

4.3 Variation of coefficient of consolidation with


organic contents

0.6
Cc = 0.0054*OC + 0.3202
R2 = 0.65 (OC: 5 to 25%)

0.5
0.4

Organic content: 25 to 42%


Organic content: 5 to 25%

0.3
0.2
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Organic content, OC (%)

Figure 5. Variation of compression index with organic


contents in the reconstituted soils.

of organic contents from 5 to 42%. The finding is


in good agreement with the general behavior of initial void ratio versus organic contents. In organic soil
the void space is more and filled up by air or/and
water. Oades(1989) described that physical properties are changed significantly with organic contents.
The details on the variation of physical properties and
the change of Cc in the e-log p curves for different
organic contents and pre-consolidation pressure can be
obtained in a companion paper Alamgir et al. (2006)
and Islam (2006).

The variation of coefficient of consolidation of reconstituted soils with the increase of organic contents is
presented in Table 2 and Figure 6. The figure illustrates
that there is an increasing trend of coefficient of consolidation with the increase of organic contents. It can
be seen from the figure that at a particular applied pressure, say 100 kPa, the value of coefficient of consolidation has changed from 0.00252 to 0.0330 cm2 /sec for
the increase of organic contents from 5 to 42%. Similar increasing trend of coefficient of consolidation are
also observed for other applied pressure ranging from
25 to 800 kPa. From the figure it can be concluded that
the values of coefficient of consolidation is insignificant for low organic contents and then it is significant
for high organic contents. The value of coefficient
of consolidation depends on permeability, void ratio,
compression index and applied pressure (Lambe et al.,
1969). Under applied pressure the settlement of soil
mass depends on the percent of organic contents.
Therefore, due to induced organic matter in the soil
mass, the coefficient of consolidation has changed
significantly, with respect to the applied pressure.
4.4 Variation of coefficient of consolidation with
applied pressure

4.2 Variation of compression index with organic


contents
The variation of compression index of reconstituted
soils with organic contents is shown in Figure 5.
From the figure, it can be signified that compression index have increased significantly from 0.3226
to 0.4815 cm2 /sec with the increase of organic contents from 5 to 25% and the rate of increase is flatter.
In addition, the figure also revealed that the compression index have increased significantly from 0.4815
to 0.720 cm2 /sec with the increase of organic contents
from 25 to 42% and the rate of increase is higher than
the trend for the organic content from 5 to 25%. Edil

The variations of coefficient of consolidation of reconstituted soils with the increase of applied pressure
for different organic contents are represented in Figure 7. The figure depicts that there is an increasing
trend of coefficient of consolidation with the increase
of applied pressure for all percentages of organic
contents of the reconstituted soils. For the organic contents of 25%, the value of coefficient of consolidation
increases from 0.008 to 0.013 cm2 /sec for the increase
of applied pressure from 25 to 100 kPa. Similar degree
of increment is also observed for the other organic
contents.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 2. Coefficient of consolidation with organic contents under different applied pressure on the
reconstituted soils.

Organic
Contents, OC (%)

25.00

50.00

100.00

200.00

400.00

800.00

5.00
6.00
13.00
19.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
42.00

0.00154
0.00237
0.00402
0.00431
0.00788
0.0099
0.01146
0.0135

0.00231
0.00273
0.0045
0.0048
0.00907
0.0103
0.01483
0.0188

0.00252
0.00284
0.00587
0.00617
0.0131
0.0141
0.0158
0.033

0.00652
0.00672
0.0131
0.01652
0.0168
0.0188
0.028
0.0439

0.0252
0.0288
0.0297
0.0312
0.0478
0.0542
0.05939
0.0639

0.0359
0.037
0.0397
0.0437
0.0501
0.0556
0.0605
0.069

0.1
0.09

14

Applied Consolidation Pressure (kPa)=

Primary consolidation period, t


(mins.) .

Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv (cm2/sec)

Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv (cm2 /sec) for


Different Applied Pressure, (kPa)

0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04

Applied Consolidation Pressure (kPa)=

12

25
50
100
200
400
800

0.08

25

10

0.03
0.02
0.01

50

100
200

400
800

4
2
0
0

0
0

10

20

30

40

10

20

30

40

50

Organic content, OC (%)

50

Organic Content, OC (%)

Coefficient of consolidation, Cv (cm2/sec)

Figure 6. Variation of coefficient of consolidation with


organic content.

0.10
0.09

pressure is presented in Table 3 and in Figure 8. The


figure shows that there is a decreasing trend of primary
consolidation period for the increase of organic contents in all percentages of reconstituted soils. For the
applied pressure 100 kPa, the value of primary consolidation time decreases from 9.06 to 6.88 mins. for
the increase of organic contents from 5 to 13%. Similar degree of decrement is also observed for the other
applied pressure. The figure depicts that the values
of primary consolidation time is insignificant at high
pressure and then it is significant for low pressure. The
organic soils generally posses low shear strength and
high compressibility and the time required for primary
consolidation has varied significantly with the change
of applied pressure and organic contents.

42
35
30
25
19
13
6
5

Organic Content, OC (%)=

0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0

200

400

600

800

Figure 8. Variation of primary consolidation period with the


increase of organic contents.

1000

Applied pressure, (kPa)

Figure 7. Variation of coefficient of consolidation with


applied pressure.

4.5 Variation of primary consolidation period with


organic contents
The variation of primary consolidation period with
the variation of organic content at varying applied

4.6 Variation of primary consolidation period with


applied pressure
The primary consolidation time of reconstituted
organic soils with the increase of applied pressure are
presented in Figure 9. The figure depicts that there is
a trend of non-linear variation of the decrease of primary consolidation time with the increase of applied

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 3. Primary consolidation period with the increase of organic contents.

Primary consolidation period,t (mins.)

Primary Consolidation Period, t (mins.) for


Different Applied Pressure, (kPa)
Organic
contents, OC (%)

25.00

50.00

100.00

200.00

400.00

800.00

5
6
13
19
25
30
35
42

11.85
9.61
6.66
5.29
2.89
2.31
1.99
1.6900

9.86
8.352
5.663
5.063
2.528
2.22
1.54
1.21

9.06
8.01
6.88
4.884
2.742
1.877
1.44
0.6889

5.497
4.92
3.742
2.497
1.513
1.44
0.81
0.518

4.903
4.312
2.961
2.624
1.281
0.941
0.673
0.4225

1.384
0.96
0.656
0.561
0.457
0.34
0.263
0.176

for all applied loading conditions as well as with the


increase of organic contents of reconstituted soil.

14
12

42
35
30
25
19
13
6
5

Organic Content, OC (%)=

10
8
6

REFERENCES

4
2
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

Applied pressure, (kPa)

Figure 9. Variation of primary consolidation period with the


increase of applied pressure.

pressure in all percentages of organic contents. For the


organic contents of 25%, the value of primary consolidation time decreases from 2.89 to 2.52 mins. for the
increase of applied pressure from 25 to 50 kPa. Similar degree of decrement is also observed for the other
organic contents. From the figure it can be revealed
that the values of primary consolidation time are significant at low organic content and it is insignificant
for the high organic content.
5

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the evaluated results, it can be seen that the


compression index has increased up to a certain value
after that it decreases and further increases with the
increase of organic contents of reconstituted soils. It is
also revealed that the coefficient of consolidation has
increased for all applied loading conditions as well
as with the increase of organic contents of reconstituted soils. From consolidation test, it is concluded
that the primary consolidation period has decreased

Alamgir, M., et al. 2001. Performance of some ground


improvement methods recently practiced in the soft
ground of Bangladesh. Proc. of the Indian Geotechnical
Conference (IGC2001), 1416 December 2001, Indore,
India.
Bashar, M. A. 2002. Stress-deformation characteristics of
selected coastal soils of Bangladesh and their sampling
effects. Ph. D. Thesis. Department of Civil Engineering,
BUET, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp. xxvii, 68, 24, 312.
Burland, J. B. 1990. The Thirtieth Rankine Lecture: On
the compressibility and shear strength of natural soils.
Geotechnique 40, No.3, pp. 329378.
Edil, T. B., 1997, Construction Over Peats and Organic Soils,
Proc. Conf. On Recent Advances in Soft Soil Engineering,
Kuching. Referred by Abedin, 2006.
Hopper, R. J., 1992. The effects and implications of sampling
clay soils, Ph. D Thesis, University of Surrey, England,
U.K. Referred by Bashar, M. A. 2002.
Islam, M. R. 2006. Geotechnical properties of reconstituted
organic soils. M. Sc. Engineering Thesis. Department of
Civil Engg., KUET, Khulna, pp3839, 4250, 7583, 103.
Islam, M.R. and SharifuL, G.M. 2003. Geotechnical properties of organic soils in Khulna. B.Sc. Eng. Thesis.
Department of Civil Engg., KUET, Khulna, pp.2, 3747.
Kirkptrick, W. M. and Khan, A. J., 1984. The Reaction of
Clays to Sampling Stress Relief. Geotechnique, Vol. 34,
No.1. Referred by Bashar, M. A., 2002.
Lambe,T. W. 1969. Soil testing for engineering.Wiley Eastern
limited, New Delhi, India, pp. 7475, 81, 83.
Siddique, A. 1990. An experimental study of sampling disturbance. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Surrey, England, U.K.
Referred by Bashar, M. A. 2002.
Singh, A., 1992. The Determination of Swelling Pressure
of Expansive Organic Clays. I.I.P. Board, New Delhi.
Referred by Islam et al., 2003.
ASTM 2004. Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Soil and Rock
(1). D420- D4914. Volumes 04.08 and 04.09, Section 4.

372

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Temperature effects on engineering behaviour of soft Bangkok clay


Dennes T. Bergado
School of Engineering and Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand

Hossam M. Abuel-Naga & Abdelmalek Bouazza


Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Australia

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation carried out to study the engineering properties of soft Bangkok clay subjected to temperatures changes varying from 25 C to 90 C. Details of a
modified triaxial test apparatus that can handle temperatures up to 100 C are also presented. The experimental
program includes series of drained and undrained compression triaxial tests, and flexible wall hydraulic conductivity tests conducted at different temperature levels. In the range of temperatures investigated, soft Bangkok clay
was found to exhibit temperature induced volume changes that depended mainly on the stress history and stiffness.
Hydraulic conductivity was found to increase as temperature increased.The results of this study provide additional
data that can enhance the understanding of the thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour concepts of saturated clays.

INTRODUCTION

Initial research efforts on the effect of temperature on


soil behaviour were primarily focused on understanding the effect of temperature changes on volumetric
and strength parameters of soil specimens during sampling and transportation to the laboratory (Virdi and
Keedwell 1988). In view of this, most of the research
work concentrated on the study of the engineering
behaviour of soils heated up to a maximum of 50 C.
However, increased interest in radioactive waste disposal in deep clay formations has led, recently, to the
need to have a thorough understanding of the thermohydro-mechanical behaviour at temperatures up to
100 C. Extensive experimental work has been carried out on the thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of
some European deep clays (e.g. Boom clay; Pasquasia clay; Spanish clays) by Baldi et al. (1988), Hueckel
and Baldi (1990), Del Olmo et al. (1996), Robinet et al.
(1996), Sultan et al. (2002), and Hueckel and Pellegrini
(2002) to investigate their response as a host geological formation for radioactive waste disposal. These
studies have conclusively demonstrated that increasing the temperature of normally consolidated clays to
less than the boiling point of water (100 C) induces
irreversible contraction volume change and increased
the shear strength, stiffness, and hydraulic conductivity. A comprehensive review of these aspects has been
presented by Laloui (2001).
The validity and efficiency of an innovative thermal technique capable of enhancing the performance

of prefabricated vertical drains in soft Bangkok clay


has been investigated recently with the view of improving its strength and hydraulics properties (Abuel-Naga
et al., 2006). For this purpose, a clear understanding
of the temperature effects on the thermo-mechanical
behaviour of the soft clay is required. This paper
presents the results of an experimental investigation
carried out to study thermally induced volume changes
under drained heating condition, temperature effects
on undrained shear strength and hydraulic properties
of soft Bangkok clay.

2 TEST EQUIPMENTS
2.1 Triaxial apparatus
The modified triaxial system, shown in Fig. 1, comprises a metallic triaxial cell with two transparent
windows that can accommodate soil specimens up
to 50 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height. A thermal cutoff unit (25 C) has been used to minimize the
effect of thermal expansion of the connecting tubes.
Three ring heaters were placed on the outer wall of
the cell and the required temperature was controlled
by a K-type thermocouple placed inside the triaxial
cell. The precision of the thermo-controller system
is 0.1 C. A burette with a least count of 0.01 ml
has been used for volume change measurements. The
temperature induced volume change under drained
heating condition in the triaxial tests was measured

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.
Transparent
windows
Heater
Specimen
Thermal cutoff
25C
Back pressure

Physical
properties

Thermocouple
Porous
stone
Metallic
cell
Cell pressure
Pore water pressure
transducer

Figure 1. Schematic of the modified triaxial apparatus.

following the procedure proposed by Delage et al.


(2000), which was an improved technique of what
was originally employed by Campanella and Mitchell
(1968). In the present tests, the volumetric strain of a
soil during drained heating condition was calculated
from the volume of water expelled from a saturated
specimen taking into consideration the effect of the
thermal dilation of water and solids.
2.2

Flexible wall permeameter

A constant head flexible wall technique using the modified triaxial test apparatus, as shown in Fig. 1, was
used to study the effect of temperature on the hydraulic
conductivity of soft Bangkok clay. The two back pressure lines of the triaxial apparatus were opened to
different constant pressure sources to generate the
required constant hydraulic gradient across the test
specimen. The amount of water flow through specimen
was measured by a burette with a least count of 0.01 ml.

Chemical
properties

Sample
No.

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

4.1 Triaxial test program

Cation Exchange Capacity


(meq/100 g)
Exchangeable cations
Na (meq/100 g)
K (meq/100 g)
Mg (meq/100 g)
Ca (meq/100 g)
pH

20.2

78
22
0

1.44
0.39
10.29
4.99
7.3

pc (kPa)

OCR

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

200

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

300

1.5
3
9

Pre-shearing thermal
loading path ( C)
25
25-70
25-90
25-70-25
25-90-25
25
25-70-25
25-90-25
25
25-70-25
25-90-25
25
25-70
25-90
25
25-70
25
25-70
25
2570

pc : preconsolidation pressure.

the detailed experimental program of undrained compression triaxial tests. Undisturbed soil specimens
where the height and the diameter of the specimen
were 70 and 35 mm, respectively, were also tested.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

103
60
9095
0.83
2.67
14.9
2.4
Dark gray
5E-9
237

Table 2. Experimental program of standard undrained compression triaxial test.

Soft Bangkok clay samples obtained from 3.0 to 4.0 m


depth have been used in this study. Table 1 shows the
physical properties of soft Bangkok clay. The mineralogical composition as reported by Ohtsubo et al.
(2000) using XRD shows that the soft Bangkok clay
consists of Smectites (Montmorillonites and Illites)
ranging from 54 to 71% with Kaolinites (28 to 36%)
and micas.

The effect of temperature on the undrained shear


strength behaviour was evaluated experimentally at
different temperature and stress levels. The term temperature history was used for specimens subjected to a
heating/cooling cycle before shearing.Table 2 includes

Liquid limit (%)


Plasticity index
Water content (%)
Liquidity index
Specific gravity
Unit weight (kN/m3 )
Void ratio
Color
Permeability
Specific surface area (m2 /g)*
Grain Size Distribution
Clay (%)
Silt (%)
Sand (%)

Estimated using the empirical relationship of Chapuis and


Aubertin (2003).

3 TEST SPECIMEN

Properties of soft Bangkok Clay.

applying a standard triaxial compression shearing


path. Shear tests were carried out with strain rate of
2% per hour. Readings of pore pressure response,
axial deformation of the specimen, and axial load
at selected intervals of time were recorded during
undrained shearing test.
4.2 Flexible wall permeameter experimental
program

Figure 2. Incremental temperature consolidation of


isotropic normally consolidated specimen.

Figure 3. Thermo-mechanical testing path of undrained and


drained compression triaxial test.

The experimental program includes measurements of


the hydraulic conductivity of twelve normally consolidated undisturbed specimens, with diameter and
height of 50 mm and 20 mm, respectively, at different
isotropic pressures (200, 300, 400 kPa) and temperature levels (25, 50, 70, 90 C). Following the saturation
stage, the specimen was subjected to the designated
isotropic consolidation pressure. At the end of the
isotropic consolidation phase, the soil specimen was
subjected to drained heating condition under the designated temperature level. At the end of the thermal
consolidation stage the specimen was subjected to a
high hydraulic gradient of 900 to create a measurable flow. During the hydraulic conductivity test, the
volume of water flowing through the specimen was
measured with time. The test was terminated when
the water flow rate, Q (mL/min), through the specimen, became constant after achieving the steady state
condition. The hydraulic conductivity was calculated
using the water flow at the steady state condition.
5 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The drained heating condition applied to triaxial specimens was achieved by raising the soil temperature in
increments of 10 C when the volume change under
the current temperature stabilized as shown in Fig. 2.
Similar technique was adopted byTowhata et al. (1993)
and Delage et al. (2000).
The thermo-mechanical testing path of standard
undrained compression triaxial tests is shown in Fig. 3.
The general testing procedures can be explained as
follows:
1) Isotropic consolidation was imposed up to mean
effective pressure of 200 or 300 kPa (path O to A),
followed by an unloading in some cases (path A
to B) resulting in different overconsolidation ratios
(OCR = 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 9.0).
2) Incremental drained heating (path A to C or B to C)
was conducted for the specimen tested at elevated
temperature. Drained incremental heating/cooling
cycle (path A to C to A or B to C to B) was
conducted for specimen tested after having been
subjected to temperature history.
3) Undrained shearing (path C to D and C to D at
elevated temperature or, path A to E and B to E
for either tests at ambient temperature or after subjected to heating/cooling cycle) was performed by

5.1 Thermally-induced volume change


According to the test procedures, the soil specimens, under different isotropic stress conditions, were
subjected to incremental drained heating or drained
heating/cooling cycle at different temperature levels
before conducting the shearing test. Figure 4 shows
the thermally induced volume change of isotropic
consolidated specimens at different isotropic stress
conditions before shearing. The thermally induced
volume change of normally consolidated clay are
stress level independent since the isotropic normally
consolidated specimens at different preconsolidation
pressures (200, 300 kPa) show almost similar thermally induced volumetric strain. The reproducibility
of the results was also confirmed by testing two
normally consolidated specimens at same preconsolidation pressure (200 kPa).
In general, the test results show that the thermally
induced volume change depends on stress history
(OCR). As the soil changes from the normally consolidated state to the overconsolidated state, the thermally
induced contractive volumetric strain continued to
decrease and beyond a certain OCR value, dilative
behaviour was exhibited.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5.2 Effect of temperature on undrained shear


strength

100

Temperature [C]

90

Figure 5 shows the undrained shear strength test results


of isotropic normally consolidated soft Bangkok clay
specimens with preconsolidation pressure, p c, of
300 kPa subjected to different drained heating levels
(25, 70, 90 C) before shearing. The undrained shear
strength test results of overconsolidated specimens
(OCR = 1.5, 3.0, 9.0 and p c = 300 kPa) subjected
to different elevated temperatures (25, 70 C) before
shearing is shown in Fig. 6.
The results are presented in the form of deviatoric
stress q and excess pore water pressure u, versus a ;
where a is the axial strain. The results show that the

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
-1.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0
v

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

[%]

p'c=200 kPa, OCR(1)

p'c=200 kPa,OCR(1)

p'c=300 kPa, OCR(1)

p'c=400 kPa, OCR(1)

p'c=300 kPa, OCR(1.5)

p'c=200 kPa, OCR(2)

p'c=300 kPa, OCR(3)

p'c=200 kPa, OCR(4)

240

p'c=300 kPa, OCR(9)


200

OCR(1.5)-25 C

OCR(1.5)-70 C

OCR(3)-25 C

OCR(3)-70 C

OCR(9)-25 C

OCR(9)-70 C

Figure 4. Thermally induced volume change at different


isotropic stress conditions.
160

q [kPa]

240
200

q [kPa]

160

120

80

120

40

25 C

80
70 C

40

90 C

10

12

14

16

a [%]

0
0

10

12

a [%]

120

200

80

u [kPa]

u [kPa]

160

120

40

80

0
40

-40

0
0

10

12

a [%]

Figure 5. Undrained compression triaxial test results of


normally consolidated specimens (p c = 300 kPa) tested at
different temperature levels.

8
a [%]

10

12

14

16

Figure 6. Undrained compression triaxial test results


of overconsolidate consolidated specimens (p c = 300 kPa)
tested at different temperature levels.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

undrained shear strength increased as the soil temperature increased irrespective of the overconsolidation
ratios. In addition, for normally and lightly overconsolidated specimens (OCR = 1.5), the generated excess
pore water pressure decreased as the soil temperature increased. However, for highly overconsolidated
specimens the excess pore water pressure increased as
the soil temperature increased as shown in Fig. 6 for
specimens of OCR = 3.0 and 9.0.
Figure 7 demonstrates the undrained shear strength
behaviour of soft Bangkok clay specimens at different overconsolidation ratios (1, 2, and 4) subjected to
different temperature histories (25 to 70 to 25 C and
25 to 90 to 25 C) before shearing. The results show
that shear strength increased as the maximum cycling
temperature increased. The results also illustrate that
as the soil temperature increased the excess pore water
pressure decreased whatever the value of OCR.

To investigate the difference between the undrained


shear strength behaviour of normally consolidated
specimen when it was sheared at elevated temperature (T), and when subjected to temperature cycling,
the results of normally consolidated specimen tested
under both conditions are plotted in the form of normalized deviatoric stress q/p c and normalized excess
pore water pressure u/p c, versus a as shown in
Fig. 8. The peak deviatoric stress increased with the
increase in soil temperature for both types of specimen.
Additionally, it can be noted that the specimen subjected to temperature cycling before shearing showed
similar increase in the peak deviatoric stress. However, the axial strain at the peak deviatoric stress

1.0

0.8

200

0.6

q/pc

q [kPa]

160
120

0.4

80

T=25 C
T=25-70-25 C
T=25-90-25 C

40

0.2

T=70 C
T=90 C

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

a [%]

0.0
0

0.5

0.40

u /uo

a [%]

0.50

0.30

0.4
0.20

0.3
u/pc

0.10
0.00
0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

0.2

7.0

a [%]
0.1

OCR(1),25 C
OCR(1),25-90-25 C
OCR(2),25-70-25 C
OCR(4),25 C
OCR(4),25-90-25 C

OCR(1),25-70-25 C
OCR(2),25 C
OCR(2),25-90-25 C
OCR(4),25-70-25 C

0
0

a [%]

Figure 7. Undrained compression triaxial test results of


soft Bangkok clay specimens (p c = 200 kPa) tested after
subjecting to different cyclic temperature levels.

Figure 8. Undrained triaxial compression test results of normally consolidated soil tested at different temperatures or
after subjecting to different heating/cooling cycles.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

240

1.8

200

1.6

160

1.4

Eu/p

a)

120

1.2

80

1
1.E-11

40

T=25C

T= 70C

T=90C

1.8

b)

qf /q
1.6

Figure 9. Undrained secant modulus of normally consolidated soil at different temperatures and temperature histories.

for the specimen subjected to temperature cycling


before shearing is lower than the specimen sheared
at elevated temperature. Figure 8 also shows that the
excess pore pressure decreased as the soil temperature increased for both types of specimen. Therefore,
for normally consolidated specimen, a temperature
increase before shearing resulted in an irreversible
increase of undrained peak deviatoric stress.

Effect of temperature on stress-strain modulus

Effect of temperature on hydraulic conductivity

Results of the constant head flexible wall hydraulic


conductivity test conducted on undisturbed soft
Bangkok clay at different temperatures and consolidation pressures are plotted in e-log (k) as shown in
Fig. 10.a, where e is the void ratio and k is the hydraulic
conductivity. The results indicate that the hydraulic
conductivity increased with increase in temperature of
clay. This could be due to the fact that physical properties of pore water are affected by the change in temperature. To establish this effect, the intrinsic hydraulic

1.2

1
1.0E-18

1.0E-17

1.0E-16

K (m2)

conductivity, K, has been calculated from the hydraulic


conductivity test results at different temperatures:
K=

k (T)
w (T)

(1)

where (T) and w (T) are the viscosity and unit weight
of pore water, respectively, at tested temperature T. The
change of water viscosity (in Pa.s) with temperature T (in C) can be estimated after Hillel (1980) as
follows:
(T) = 0.00046575 ln (T) + 0.00239138

(2)

Figure 10.b shows that the intrinsic hydraulic conductivity is temperature independent. Based on the
above observation, the change of hydraulic conductivity with temperature can be attributed mainly to
the variation of viscosity of water with temperature.
Therefore, at constant soil void ratio, the ratio between
the hydraulic conductivity at tested temperature k (T)
and at room temperature k (To ) can be estimated using
the following equation:

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1.4

25C
50C
70C
90C
25C
50C
70C
25C
200 kPa
90C
50C
300 kPa
70C
90C
400 kPa

Figure 10. a) Effect of temperature on hydraulic conductivity of soft Bangkok clay; b) Effect of temperature on intrinsic
hydraulic conductivity of soft Bangkok clay.

The stress-strain modulus, E, was measured at different


deviatoric stress level ratios, qf /q, and normalized with
respect to the mean effective stress, p, as suggested by
Ladd (1964). The effects of the temperature and the
temperature history on the undrained secant stressstrain modulus of normally consolidated specimens
are shown in Fig. 9. The results show that the normalized undrained secant stress-stain modulus increased
as the temperature increased. Moreover, the modulus of the specimens that have temperature history
before shearing is higher than those sheared at elevated
temperatures.

5.4

1.E-09

k (m/s)

0
9

1.E-10

T=25-90-25 C

T=25-70-25C

5.3

25C
50C
70C
90C

k(T)
(To ) w (T)
=
k(To )
(T) w (To )

(3)

4.0

k/k25

3.0

2.0

Calculated

1.0

Measured
0.0
0

20

40

60

80

100

Temperature (C)

Figure 11. Comparison between measured and calculated


hydraulic conductivity at elevated temperatures.

where (T) and (To ) are the viscosity of pore


water at tested and room temperature estimated by
Eq. 2, respectively, and w (T) and w (To ) are the
unit weight of pore water at tested and room temperature, respectively. Figure 11 shows an acceptable
agreement between the measured and the predicted
temperature induced increase in hydraulic conductivity of soft Bangkok clay normalized to the hydraulic
conductivity value at room temperature (25 C).
6

CONCLUSIONS

The salient conclusions that can be drawn from the


present investigation are as follows:
1) Thermally-induced volume change of soft Bangkok
clay is dependent on stress history and independent
of stress level.
2) The stiffness and undrained shear strength is temperature dependent. Both increased as the soil temperature increased or after having been subjected
to a temperature history.
3) The hydraulic conductivity of soft Bangkok clay
increased as the soil temperature increased due to
the decrease in the water viscosity.
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Abuel-Naga, H.M., Bergado, D.T., and Suttisak, S. 2006.
Innovative thermal technique for enhancing the performance of prefabricated vertical drain system. Geotextiles
and Geomembranes. (in press)

Baldi, G., Hueckel, T., and Pellegrini, R. 1988. Thermal volume changes of mineral-water system in low porosity clay
soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp.
807825.
Campanella, R. G., and Mitchell, J. K. 1968. Influence
of temperature variations on soil behaviour, Journal of
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3, pp. 709734.
Chapuis, R. P., and Aubertin, M. 2003. On the use of the
Kozeny-Carman equation to predict the hydraulic conductivity of soils, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 40, pp.
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Delage, P., Sultan, N., and Cui,Y. J. 2000. On the thermal consolidation of Boom Clay. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
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Del. Olmo, C., Fioravante, V., Gera, F., Hueckel, T., Mayor,
J.-C., and Pellegrini, R. 1996. Thermo-mechanical properties of deep argillaceous formations. Engineering Geology, Vol. 41, pp. 87102.
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Hueckel, T., and Baldi, M. 1990. Thermoplastic of saturated clays: an experimental constitutive study. Journal
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Hueckel, T., and Pellegrini, R. 2002. Reactive plasticity for
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379

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Discharge capacity of vertical drains installed in soft ground with time by


laboratory small and large tests
Ha Ik Chung & Yong Soo Lee
Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Korea

Yeong Mog Park


Young Nam University, Korea

ABSTRACT: When constructing projects such as road embankment bridges approached, dikes or buildings
on soft, compressible soils, significant settlements may occur due to the consolidation of these soils under the
superimposed loads. Consolidation of soft, compressible soils involves the removal of excess pore water from
the soil. This is traditionally done applying a surcharge or preload on the construction area to squeeze out the
water. Compressible soils often have very low permeability, and water is not easily or quickly removed, making
the consolidation time unacceptably long. Vertically drains greatly facilitate the dewatering process, by providing
a suitable conduit to allow the pore water to escape quickly. Vertical drain can be economically installed at close
spacing, shortening the flow path of the water and expediting the consolidation process. Drainage capacity of
vertical drain was tested by laboratory and field test with time elapsed. Various drain materials were sampled in
factory and field application site. The test results were analysed with various test conditions. Drainage capacity
with drain material and test conditions was measured. When a load is placed on a compressible and water saturated
soil, the pressure increase is initially borne by the water within the soil. To achieve accelerated consolidation is
necessary to quickly transfer the load to the soil skeleton by drainage of the water. By installing prefabricated
vertical drains the pressurised pore water can quickly flow in a horizontal direction towards the nearest drains.
The correlation of drainage capacity and reduction of drainage capacity with time was suggested for design and
construction application on soft ground treatment.

INTRODUCTION

Recently, the cases which uses vertical drain method


for soft ground treatment is being increased, vertical
drain method have characteristics which increases consolidation settlement speed by reducing the drainage
distance on the soft ground whose hydraulic permeability is small and increase the shear strength of
ground. It is being produced various kinds of plastic board drains which are being used for vertical drain
method according as filter, quality of core and shape of
core, and they appear various sizes of discharge capacity in proportion to product kinds. General drainage
effect of general vertical drain board is affected by various factors such as deformation and winding of drilling
drain board due to settlement and volume reduction
of flow passage inside of core by lateral pressure of
grounds, reduction of material performance due to
structural heat-resistance and endurance, permeability
declines due to clogging of fine article. This study

executed discharge capacity experiment in laboratory


gathering the drain board which is drilled on filled
and analysed the change characteristics of discharge
capacity of vertical drain board which is drilled on the
soft ground by comparing with discharge capacity test
results of initial state. The drain board, which was used
for the study, was gathered by excavating in residential site test construction site, and 3 years have passed
since drain installation for filed trial test.
2

In order to examine discharge capacity of field state,


excavated to 5.0 m depth and gathered two kinds of
drain board, product E and product F, which 3 years
passed after installation in field, and executed discharge capacity test by reappearing the displacement
shape as it is in laboratory. In order to gather the drain
board, which is drilled on the object, ground, excavated

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SAMPLING LOCATION AND MATERIALS

Slope
1/2 point

0.5m

0.5m
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3

No. 4
No. 5

No. 6
No. 7

Figure 1. Sampling location of PD drain board in


Yangsan-Mulkum area.
Figure 3. Outline of small sized discharge capacity test
equipment.
Table 1. Test result of small sized discharge capacity.
Drainage capacity of E drain
(qw , cm3 /sec)
Pressure
(kPa)

Before
installation
(qw(1) )

After
installation
(qw(2) )

Reduction
rate
(qw(2) /qw(1) )

10
20
360

90
50
40

23
6
5

75
89
88

Table 2. Test result of small sized discharge capacity.


Drainage capacity of F drain
(qw , cm3 /sec)

Figure 2. Drain board sampled from field site.

to the underside of ground 5.0 m depth carefully and


sketched deformed drain board. Figure 2 presents the
drain board, which was gathered in investigation spot.

SMALL SIZED DISCHARGE CAPACITY


TEST

3.1 Test equipment and method


In order to measure and change amount discharge
capacity of drain board before and after drilling,
executed drain discharge capacity test in a vertical condition covering short period under the same conditions.
As for the discharge capacity of drain board, as shown

Before
installation
(qw(1) )

After
installation
(qw(2) )

Reduction
rate
(qw(2) /qw )

10
20
360

80
31
21

7
2
1

91
94
94

in Figure 3, used the tester which was imitated Netherlands Standard Drain Discharge Tester of Delft University of Technology. The test equipment is constituted of
cylindrical pressure chamber with diameter of 20 cm
and height of 67 cm, pressurization equipment which
is able to give lateral pressure and water head equipment which is able to control the influx and outflow of
water by adjusting exit gradient.
3.2 Test results and discussion
The test results of small sized discharge capacity were
shown in table 1 and Table 2. Discharge capacity test

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Pressure
(kPa)

Figure 4. Discharge capacity test result of the drain before


and after installation (E type drain).

Figure 7. Test equipment for large sized discharge


capacity.

Discharge Capacity,qw (/sec)

100

10

4.1 Test equipment and method

initial
after 3yrs.
1
0

100

200
Lateral Pressure (kpa)

300

400

Figure 5. Discharge capacity test result of the drain before


and after drain installation (F type drain).

(a) 10kPa

LARGE SIZED DISCHARGE CAPACITY


TEST

In order to examine discharge capacity of deformed


PBD after consolidation in field, used two large sized
discharge capacity (diameter:120 cm, height:200 cm)
which are presented in Figure 79 and two medium
sized discharge capacity equipment (diameter:30 cm,
height:100 cm) which are presented in Figure 9 (Yoon,
1999). The test equipment is organized of main body
of large sized cylindrical form of steel material (same
structure as triaxial cell) and ancillary system such as
influx and outflow water, air compressor, water tank,
water pump and vacuum pump. In this study, supplemented a device in order to make available to give a
pressure which is correspond to head difference to outflow tank in case of it is difficult to adjust hydraulic
gradient with water head difference because of long
length of PBD (Lawrence etc., 1988; Pradhan etc.,
1991).
4.2 Test results and discussion

(b) 360kPa

Figure 6. Deformation form of the drain by lateral pressure


change.

results for E type drain and F type drain before and after
installation were illustrated in Figure 4 and 5. The discharge capacity is decreased with increasing of lateral
pressure and is decreased after 3 years comparing with
initial time. The reduction rate of discharge capacity
is 75 88 for E type drain and 91 94 for F type drain
(Holtz etc., 1991)

Measured the change of Qw when regular pressure is


maintained after gave a lateral pressure on the condition of natural consolidation for 24 hours after setting
by the conditions of Table 3, and it is presented in
Figure 8 (Miura etc., 1989, 1993)
In Figure 8 (c), in the case of 3 = 4 kg/cm2 and
drain board is 2 m, Qw decreased about 16.7% in a
vertical condition compared with the initial state and
decreased about 33.3% in field winding condition.
And, in the case of 70 cm drain board by medium
sized test, it appears regularization on the state which
about 29.7% decreased. Also, with it tries to compare

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Discharge Capacity, Qw (cm3/sec)

100
F
F
F

After 24hours Consolidation


2
Lateral Pressure (3): 1 kgf/cm )
Length : 2m, 2m, 70cm

(
(
(

2m)
2m)
70cm)

As the result which analyzed the drainage characteristics of drainage due to vertical drain and embankment
load on the soft clay grounds and the strength characteristic changes due to ground consolidation, it was
gotten the conclusion such as following.

10

1) As the result of small sized discharge capacity test


regarding the drain board which 3 years passed
before and after field drilling, product E decreased
about 7589% compared with the initial state, and
product F decreased about 70% compared with the
initial state. Also, as the result of large sized discharge capacity test, product F decreased about
70% decreased compared with the initial state.
2) It is considered that there is some problem of judgment that the price that lateral pressure, winding,
hydraulic gradient are composed on the worst condition is the discharge capacity of PBD. Therefore,
it is our judgement that it will be desirable that calculate discharge capacity corresponds to the filed
condition through interpolation from the experimental results considering the filed conditions.

1
0

10

15

20

25

CONCLUSIONS

30

Elapsed Time(hour)

(a) Changes of time-discharge capacity


(3=1kg/cm2, i=0.2)

REFERENCES
Yoon, Seong-Bae(1999), A study on the drainage capacity
evaluation of vertical natural fiber using large sized experimental device Masters degree, Yeongnam University.
Holtz, R.D., Jamiolkowisk, M. Lancellotte, R. and Pedroni,
S. (1991), Laboratory testing of prefabricated wick
drains. ICGECD. GEO-COAST.91. Yokohama, pp.
311316.
Lawrence, C. A. and Koerner, R. M., 1988. Flow behavior of
kinked strip drains. Geo-synthetics for Soil Improvement,
ASCE GSP 18: 2239.
Pradhan, T.B.S. Kamon, M. and Suwa, S.(1991). Design
method for the evaluation of discharge capacity of prefabricated band shaped drains. 9th ARC. Bangkok.
Miura Techiko, Bergado, D.T., Houki Kwanji, Machnaga
Jakma (1989): Experimental study on drainage capacity of plastic drain, Collection of thesis of the faculty of
science and engineering of Saka University, Vol.18, No.
1, 1. pp. 8188.
Miura Techiko, Park, Yeong-Mok, Madhav M.R. (1993),
Basic study on drainage performance of plastic drains,
Theses from Civil Engineering Society, No. 485, III-25,
pp. 3140.

(b) Changes of time-discharge capacity


(3=2 kg/cm2, i=0.2)
Figure 8. Relation of time-discharge capacity (Qw ) in
proportion to drain board.
Table 3.
elapses.

Reduction rate of discharge capacity with time

Lateral pressure(3 )
Drain board

1 kg/cm2

2 kg/cm2

4 kg/cm2

Initial vertical (F drain)


Field winding (F drain)
Field winding (F drain)

87.6 (%)
81.6 (%)
85.5 (%)

88.6 (%)
78.3 (%)
77.2 (%)

83.2(%)
66.6(%)
70.3(%)

vertical state with wind condition, the winding condition decreased 7076% compared with the value
of Qw in a vertical condition. The result on this is
represented in Table 3.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Study of preconsolidation pressure values derived by the modified


Casagrande method
I.N. Grammatikopoulos
Laboratory of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering Division,
Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thesssaloniki, Greece

ABSTRACT: The degree of settling occurring to a clay layer bearing a certain stress level strongly depends
on the amount of maximum pressure the soil had previously been subjected to (pre-consolidation pressure).

Therefore, laboratory investigation of pre-consolidation pressure Vmax
values for soil settling estimation is of
vital importance.

It is known that the value of Vmax
is derived from the cross plot of the final void ratio versus logV , for each
load increment during consolidation trials. Such time intervals take into account initial, primary and secondary
consolidation, probably caused by gradual soil structure resettling or by progressive inter-particle bond failure
due to the pressure applied.
Actually, in practice, compression characteristics of in situ soils differ from those obtained from oedometer
tests conducted on soil specimens; in many cases, secondary consolidation in the field appears to be negligible
in relation to the value derived from laboratory measurements.
In such cases, the final void ratio for each load increment corresponds to the volume change at the end of

primary consolidation (U = 100%), which results in a total change of the e-logV and, consequently, of the Vmax
value.

The main objective of this laboratory research study was to investigate the difference between Vmax
values
derived from volume change at 24 hours and from volume change at the end of primary consolidation. A
significant number of reconstituted soil specimens were used in the experiments, containing different clay to
fine-sand ratios. All soil specimens were subjected to pre-consolidation pressure before initiating oedometer
tests.
Analysis of experimental results revealed that c values calculated on the basis of volume change at the end of
primary consolidation are higher than those calculated on the basis of volume change at the end of 24 hr loading.
In some cases this difference was as high as 20%.
1

INTRODUCTION


Consolidation pressure Vmax
expresses maximum
load (actual or virtual) in terms of active stress the
saturated soil layer under investigation has being subjected to, to date. Pressure magnitude is graphically
determined through an e-logV plot of coordinates.
Corresponding values are derived after appropriate
processing of measurements made on the oedemeter
from layer specimens tested in the laboratory.
Data on consolidation pressure values reflect timecontinuum variance of loads that might have compressed or de-compressed the soft (problematic) soil.
Methods commonly used for the determination of

Vmax
in the laboratory are:

a. The Casagrande Method


b. The Schmertmann Method
c. The Janbu Method

All three methods are generally used and result


in slight deviations from the value under investigation. Indeed, the author of this paper completed and
published [MINERAL WEALTH ISSN 0253-9462,
ISSUE 123, APRIL-JUNE 2002] an experimental
study that indicated variations resulting from deter
mining Vmax
using the three methods mentioned
above.
In any case, the Casagrande Method is considered
the easiest to use and most accurate one; however,
it is necessary to meticulously identify the point of
maximum curvature in the section of small load effect.
The extent of over-consolidation, the magnitude of
which depends on consolidation pressure, provides the
corresponding degree of safety to the researcher
engineer in regard to the strength and deformation of
a given soil layer.
Therefore, it is clear that up to the point of not
exceeding maximum pressure c , deformation is rather

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 1. Graph determining maximum and minimum values of consolidation pressure c .

lower than that generated when this knee is crossed.


It should be noted that the disturbance caused from
the sampling procedure moderates the knee of the
curve, thus, shifting the point of maximum curvature.
When investigating the magnitude of consolidation
pressure and the consequent characterisation of a soil
layer as hypo-, normally or hyper- consolidated, it is
not necessary to always involve any virtual loads that
might have affected layer stress conditions. Occasionally, and this is a common phenomenon, there is a
change in the layer from SC to OC and vice versa; in
other words, c value changes due to a corresponding
change of the underground horizon. The range of pos
sible values of Vmax
, as presented in Fig. 1, extends

between points A (VA
), i.e. the minimum value, and B

(VB
), the maximum value. Point A represents the section of horizontal line (x) by eo and the upward extension of the linear segment of compression; B represents
the point where the linear segment starts and B is the
foot of the perpendicular drawn from B to line (x).
2 THE CONCEPT OF THE
QUESTION/INVESTIGATION
A clay layer is compressible and shows a range
of mechanical characteristics depending on whether
it has been normally consolidated (NC) or overconsolidated (OC). Therefore, the maximum active
pressure value that has been imposed to date on the said
clay layer paints a historical scenario of the overall
stress condition.
When processing calculation values related to the
features of compressibility, reference is made to the
deformation the layer under study is subject to at the
end of the course of secondary consolidation, i.e. at
the end of time t = 24h (t24 h ). However, if reference
was made to the deformation occurring at the end of
primary consolidation, i.e. at the end of time t100 , then


Figure 2. Determination of Vmax
from the curves of
et100 -logV and et24h -logV .

the curve depicting the corresponding compression


would be different; in fact, on the one hand, values would be lower than corresponding void ratio e
ones and, on the other, there would be a shift of the
maximum curvature segment to the right (Fig. 2).
In other words, when determining consolidation
pressure, it is important to mention deformation corresponding to t100 , because curves referring to 24

hours might well underestimate the Vmax
value under
investigation.

During the experimental investigation reconstituted


saturated clay-sand mixtures were used. Variation
intervals between specimens were five percentile units
in weight. Thus, a number of soil specimens were
tested, ranging from pure clay up to 65% fine sand
35% clay. Through the pressure/pressure-release
system, the oedemeter allows us to prepare NC-OC
consolidated specimens with given-known pressures


Vmax
and Vo
.
For the purposes of this paper, every mixture specimen was consolidated up to a specific pressure value

Vmax
and then pressure was released to the level of

value Vo
, so that at any given time O.C.R. = cte = 5;
in other words, soil layers examined were slightly
over-consolidated (LC).
In brief, the experimental procedure was as follows:
3.1 Weighing of the two materials separately so as
to correspond to the weight ratio required (gr). Total
specimen weight: 180 gr.

386

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Figure 3. Mould used for the preparation of reconstituted specimens for the oedometer tests.

different line of the seven-day loading period on the


oedemeter.
Therefore, two values for consolidation pressure
are derived: one at the end of primary consolida
tion, i.e. Vmax
t100 and one at the end of secondary

th24 .
consolidation, i.e. Vmax
The range of these values is presented on Table I
(columns 4 and 5); column 6 presents given experimental consolidation pressure values c .

deformation values and void ratio at the end of the


24 hr loading
deformation values and void ratio at t100

RESULTS

The final processing of results measurements generates a pair of curves on the e-logV system for every

Clay percentage (%)

3.2 Stirring the two materials in dry state within a


bowl.
3.3 Injection of H2 O 150 ml
3.4 This watery mixture was stirred once again in
a mixer for about 15 min to ensure more even granule
distribution.
3.5 Saturation check. In an air-tight press, under
load, curve V is examined so as to ensure recording
of negligible deformation and parallel course to the V
axis.
3.6 Injection of the final mixture in the improvised
die/press shown in Figure 3.
3.7 Application of various loads, up to the given

Vmax
limit at any given time; loads remain in place
for 24 hours.
3.8 Release of pressure in the necessarycorresponding time, up to the pressure level of value

Vo
, which represents the current-present load of the
layer at any given time.
3.9 Removal of reversed flanged ring and cutting
the specimen at the rim of the oedemeter ring.
3.10 Finally, through this procedure, we have specimens of various composition ratios and desirable
pressure conditions.




Loads Vi
on the oedemeter, where Vo
< Vi
< Vmax
,
allow us to record measurements on the basis of which,
through known procedures, we can determine:

Experimental consolidation
pressure
Over-consolidation pressure
corresponding to primary
consolidation
Over-consolidation pressure
corresponding to secondary
consolidation

0,5

0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9


1
1,1
Consolidation pressure (Kg/cm2)

1,2

Figure 4. Comparison between the values of the over


consolidation pressure for different clay-sand mixtures.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Values derived at the end of the 24 hr period



Vmax
th24 were lower than those calculated at
the end of primary consolidation, i.e. at t100 . In
fact, if deformation values (H/Ho ) are taken into

account, Vmax
t100 are higher than the former
by 5%17%.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
0,4


Table 1. Over-consolidation pressure values Vmax
at the end of primary and secondary consolidation, in correlation to
changing clay-fine sand weight ratios.

Serial
No
1

Clay %
2

Fine Sand %
3


Determination of Vmax
from the end of
secondary consolidation
t = 24h
4

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35

5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65

0.415
0.46
0.49
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.69
0.75
0.80
0.87
0.92
0.97
1.05
1.09

Specimens

2. Taking into account given experimental overconsolidation pressure values c , for any given
moment, these are almost identical to

Vmax
t100 .
3. This practice is more applicable in cases of clay
soils (increase percentage 17%) and less so for
sandy soils (increase percentage 5%).
4. Given that, according to the application of consolidation theory, deformation of water saturated soils
follows a parallel course to pore water drainage,
the determination of consolidation pressure should,
therefore, be ruled by deformation values at the end
of primary consolidation.
REFERENCES
Calabresi G.. (1980) L influenza delle dimensiani de carnpioni sui parametric di resistenza delle argille sovraconsolidate, intatte e fessurate, AGI, XIV Congresso Nazionale
di Geotecnica, Firenze, vol, 2, pp. 393402.
DAppolonia D.J., Poulos H.G., Ladd C.C., (1971) Initial
Settlement of Structures on Clay, JSMFD, ADCE, SM10,
pp. 13541377.

Experimental
consolidation
pressure c
6

0.47
0.52
0.57
0.63
0.69
0.73
0.78
0.83
0.92
0.93
0.98
1.07
1.04
1.09

0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15

Grammaticopoulos I, Anagnostopoulos C., Correlation of


the values of preconsolidation pressure MAX defer mined
wite casagrande and schmertman method for silty sand
soils, Mineral wealth, 123, AprilJune 2002.
Guidi carlo. Geotecnica e tecnica delle fondazioni, vol I,
Editore vlrico hoepli milano, 1975.
Henkel D.J., (1956), The effect of overconsolidation on the
bevaviour of clays during shear, Geotechnique, Vol VI.
Kezdi A., (1980), Soil testing, Elsevier Scientific Publ,
Company Vol II, Amsterdam.
Lambe T.Q., Whitman R.V., (1969) soil Mechanics, Wiley,
New York.
Lancellota renato, Meccanica dei terreni Volme I. Libreria
editrace uninersitaria levrott ed bella
Leonards G.A. & Girault P., (1961) A study of the OneDimensional Consolidation Test, Proc. 5th ICSMFE,
Paris, vol. 1, pp. 213218.
Singh AL., (1967) Soil engineering in Theory and practice,
Asia Publishing House, Bombay, India.
Zervouyannis CR., Etude synthetique des proprietes
mecaniques cles argues saturees et des sables sur chenin
oedometrique et Triaxial de revolution THESE DDDI,
EC PARIS 1982.

388

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


Determination of Vmax
from the end of primary
consolidation
t100
5

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Modeling sand behavior in constant deviatoric stress loading


Reza Imam
Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran

Norbert Morgenstern
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada

ABSTRACT: Constant Deviatoric Stress (CDS) loading involves application of a constant deviatoric (shear)
stress to the soil while the applied mean normal stress is being varied. Loose granular soils exhibit a unique
behaviour under such loading. In these soils, significant contraction can initiate before the soil reaches the
critical state condition. In saturated soils, this can lead to the generation of pore pressures and substantial loss of
strength, which can result in flow slides in soil masses. While the initiation of such behaviour has been investigated
experimentally in a number of previous studies, ability of constitutive models to predict such behaviour has been
rarely verified.
In this paper, a critical state constitutive model is used to examine the initiation and severity of volume
contraction of sands subjected to CDS loading. The model, which has been described in detail elsewhere, is
briefly summarized and used to investigate effects of factors such as density, consolidation pressure, anisotropic
consolidation, etc. on the initiation of volume contraction in loose sands. Predicted effects are then compared
with test data where such data is available.

INTRODUCTION

Changes in soil stresses resulting from the rise in pore


water pressure are believed to be responsible for many
instances of slope failure (see e.g. Eckersley 1990;
Dawson et al. 1992; Castro et al. 1992, Lade 1993, and
Anderson and Sitar 1995). These failures have been
observed to occur following pore water pressure rises
resulting from the infiltration of rainwater, snowmelt,
cyclic loading, etc. and are often of the types referred
to as flow slides or debris flows.
A rise in pore water pressure within the soil mass
leads to a reduction in the soil confining stresses.
This can occur while the vertical loads due to gravity remain unchanged, or increase as a result of soil
wetting. The stresses applied to the soil in such cases
may be represented more closely by a test in the triaxial apparatus in which a constant load is applied to the
top of the soil sample, while the confining stresses are
being reduced. Since in such tests the deviatoric load
remains approximately constant, the loading may be
referred to as a Constant Deviatoric Stress or CDS
loading. CDS loading should be applied under drained
condition since preventing drainage will result in an
increase or decrease in the shear strength of the soil as
in undrained loading, and a constant deviatoric stress
cannot be maintained.

Experimental studies have shown that while finegrained and medium to dense coarse-grained soils
generally dilate under CDS loading, very loose and
loose sands initially experience small or no volume
change, then start to contract substantially as they
approach failure (see e.g. Riemer 1992; Sasitharan
1993; Skopek 1994; and Anderson and Riemer 1995).
Under poor drainage conditions in the field, such
contractive behaviour can lead to the generation of substantial pore pressures and loss of strength, resulting
in catastrophic failures (see Sasitharan 1993).
While a number of experimental studies on the
behaviour of soils under CDS loading have been carried out in the past, ability of constitutive models to
replicate soil behaviour under such loading has been
rarely verified. Stress paths applied to soil samples
in standard laboratory tests such as the conventional
triaxial test do not replicate the CDS stress path, and
models verified using results of such tests may not provide reliable means for predicting the actual behaviour
of soils under CDS loading.
With the current widespread application of computational tools in geotechnical engineering, and the
important implications of the CDS loading on the
stability of earth structures, the need for constitutive
models with verified capability for reproducing soil
behaviour under CDS loading is evident. Such models

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

can also be used to examine effects of various factors


such as density, confining pressure, anisotropic consolidation, direction of loading, etc. on the response
of soils to CDS loading. Effects of most of these factors have not been systematically examined in previous
experimental studies.
In this paper, the previously developed constitutive
model for sand is first described briefly. Behaviour
of sands subjected to CDS loading and ability of the
model to predict such behaviour are then examined
by modelling CDS test data previously published in
the literature. Factors that affect the response of soils
to CDS loading, and approach of the model in taking
into account these factors are then discussed.

0.8
Mf,c

q / pc

0.4

0.2

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

p / pc
-0.2
Mf,e
-0.4

MCS,e

Mp,e

Figure 1. Yield surface of isotropically consolidated sand.

yield surface is determined by pc . As shown later, in


anisotropically consolidated sand, the stress state corresponding to this maximum mean normal stress does
not lie on the p axis since it is associated with a shear
stress.
3

MODEL PREDICTIONS FOR THE


BEHAVIOR OF SANDS IN CDS LOADING

3.1 Isotropically consolidated Ottawa sand


Figure 2 shows test results and model predictions for
loose and very loose Ottawa sand consolidated isotropically and loaded in triaxial compression before being
subjected to CDS loading. The tests were conducted
by Skopek (1994) on samples of dry sand prepared by
the moist tamping technique, and the model predictions were carried out using the parameters listed in
Table 1.
Ottawa sand is a rounded to subrounded quartizic
sand with maximum and minimum void ratios of 0.82
and 0.5, respectively. The tests were carried out on
samples with relative densities close to or less than
zero.
Observed and predicted results indicate that the
samples first contracted due to the initial triaxial
compression loading (e.g. from point P to A), then
they slightly expanded during the initial part of the
CDS stress path (e.g. from point A to B). A state
was then reached (point B) at which substantial
contraction associated with large axial strain initiated and continued until the critical state line was
reached. Proper modeling of this stage of contraction is important since it may be responsible for many
flow failures that have been observed in loose granular
materials. If fully drained condition cannot be maintained when this large contraction initiates, high pore
pressures will develop and the sample will loose

390

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Mp,c

0.6

2 THE CONSTITUTIVE MODEL USED


A critical state constitutive model for sands was developed with emphasis on taking into account important
aspects of the behaviour of loose liquefiable sand.
Details of the model and its formulation are described
by Imam et al. (2005), and the constitutive relationships are summarized in the Appendix of this paper.
The model uses a capped yield surface with the stress
ratio Mp at its point of peak deviatoric stress (q)
obtained from the undrained effective stress path in
triaxial tests.
In the model, stress-dilatancy is based on Rowes
(1962) relationship combined with a modified form of
the Manzari and Dafalias (1997) equation. The failure
criterion is given by a friction angle that depends on
the current state parameter (Been and Jefferies 1985)
through a slightly modified version of the Wood et al.
(1994) relationship.
The model uses a single set of parameters to predict sand behavior over a wide range of void ratios and
confining pressures. The critical state line represents
soil state at large strain, while the behavior at small and
medium strains is captured by other material parameters such as the yielding, dilatancy, and plastic modulus
parameters, which take into account anisotropy.
Figure 1 shows a graphical representation of the
yield surface, and the stress ratios at critical state (Mcs )
and at failure (Mf ) in a p-q plane normalized to the
maximum mean normal stress at yielding (pc ). Values
of Mp in triaxial compression and triaxial extension are
referred to as Mp,c and Mp,e , respectively. These stress
ratios control the yield surface shape (i.e. width), and
account for effects of void ratio, mean normal stress,
and inherent anisotropy on the yielding stresses. A
small Mp results in a slender yield surface and applies
to sand that is loose, subjected to high confining pressures, or loaded in a weak direction such as the triaxial
extension. Stress-induced anisotropy is represented by
stress ratio , at which the tangent to the yield surface
is parallel to the q-axis. This stress ratio is non-zero
only in anisotropically consolidated sand. Size of the

MCS,c

strength as in undrained loading. Slopes consisting of


poorly drained very loose or loose granular soils may
fail catastrophically as a result of such loss of strength.

subrounded to rounded quartz and feldspar grains


(Reimer and Seed 1997). Prior to applying the CDS
loading, the samples were anisotropically consolidated
at Kc = 1 /3 = 2.5 in a series of small increments
of applied stress until the specified deviatoric stress
(q = 1 3 ) was reached.
Shearing at constant q was then initiated by decreasing the confining pressure (3 ) while maintaining a
constant back pressure. An oil piston with a restrictedflow valve was used to apply the axial load in order to
limit the maximum rate at which the specimen could
deform, and ensure uniform pore pressure within the
sample by maintaining slow rate of straining. CDS
tests carried out by Sasitharan (1993) led to vigorous collapse of the sample once substantial volume
contraction started (as in point B Figure 2). This collapse likely occurred due to an uncontrolled, high rate
of straining and inability of the sample to remain fully
drained during a high rate of contraction. As a result,
the sample followed a stress path similar to that of an
undrained test, in which the soil lost strength and was
no longer able to sustain the applied CDS load.
Figure 3 shows test results and model predictions
for tests on samples S1 to S6 reported by Anderson
and Riemer (2005). Test data on the initial anisotropic
consolidation were not available and sand behaviour
during this stage of loading was therefore not modelled. Model predictions were carried out using the
parameters listed in Table 1 for Monterey No. 0 sand.
The results indicate that while the overall behaviour
of Monterey No. 0 sand is similar to that of Ottawa sand
discussed earlier, in the Monterey No. 0 samples S1,
S2 and S4, the stage of substantial contraction (points
B to C in Figure 2) started earlier. In these samples, the
regions of slight initial volume change (i.e. points A
to B in Figure 2) was smaller, and contraction started
shortly after the CDS loading was applied. Samples
S3 and S5 had initial states near the CSL and exhibited very small or no contraction throughout the CDS
loading before reaching the critical state line.
Note that for modelling these tests, the critical state
line in e - p plane provided by Anderson and Riemer
(2005) and obtained from a large number of triaxial
compression tests was used. Critical state conditions
reached in the CDS tests were close to, but slightly
below, those obtained from this critical state line. Final
states of the soil samples in the e p plane obtained
from test results are therefore slightly below those
obtained from model predictions.

3.2 Anisotropically consolidated monterey no. 0


sand

250

CDS Loading
Critical State Line
Measured
Initial Shearing

q (kPa)

200

150

100

50

(a)
0
0

50

100

200 P

150

250

300

p (kPa)
0.86

Ottawa Sand
Measured
predicted
CSL

void ratio

0.84
0.82
0.8
0.78
0.76

(b)

0.74
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

p (kPa)

Figure 2. CDS tests on isotropically consolidated Ottawa


sand: (a) stress paths (b) void ratio changes.
Table 1.
sands.

Model parameters used in modelling CDS tests on

Parameter Ottawa Sand

Monterey No. 0

kp

cv
kPT
h
Gr (kPa)
Kr (kPa)
CSL:

1.2
27.5
33
0.75
1
5000
15000
ecs = 0.0156p2 0.075p
+0.851 (p in MPa)

1.4
20
28.5
1
1
8000
17000
ecs = 0.9233
0.0325 lnp (p in kPa)

Anderson and Riemer (2005) reported results of CDS


tests on samples of Monterey No. 0 sand prepared
by moist tamping. This sand is a fine, uniformly
graded, beach sand with maximum and minimum void
ratios of 0.86 and 0.53, respectively, and consists of

4.1 Yielding of soils in CDS loading


Figure 4 shows the stress path followed in the CDS test
of isotropically consolidated, very loose Ottawa sand

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MODELING SAND BEHAVIOR IN CDS


LOADING

800

300

700
600

MCS

S4

200

q (kPa)

q (kPa)

YS at start of CDS loading


YS at critical state

250

(a)

500
S2
S5

400
300

100

100

S3
S1

200

Mp

150

50

CDS stress path


Critical State Line
Anisotropic consolidation

0
0

100

200

300

400

p (kPa)

0
0

200

400

600

800

Figure 4. State of stress of a very loose sample of Ottawa


sand at the beginning and at the end of CDS loading relative
to the yield surface (YS).

p (kPa)
0.86

300

Monterey No. 0 Sand


S1

0.84

S2
S3

0.83

S4

S5
0.82
0.81
0.8
100

Modeled Behavior
Critical State Line
Measured
Critical State
200

Yield surface at start of CDS loading

250

q (kPa)

void ratio

0.85

300

400

150
C

100

50
0

(b)
500

600

50

100

150

200 P

250

300

p (kPa)

700

p (kPa)
Figure 3. CDS tests on anisotropically consolidated Monterey No. 0 sand: (a) Stress paths followed (b) Void ratio
changes.

shown in Figure 2, along with the yield surfaces at the


beginning and at the end of the CDS loading. The solid
curve in Figure 4 shows the state of stresses at points A
and B shown in Figure 2 relative to the yield surface at
the end of the triaxial compression shearing, and prior
to applying the CDS loading.
As shown in Figure 2, during the early stages of the
CDS loading, as the stress path moves from A to B, the
state of stress remains inside the yield surface that was
established at the end of the triaxial compression shearing. As a result, the soil slightly expands due to elastic
unloading. As the stress state passes point B, yielding
of the soil resumes and leads to substantial volume
contraction. Between stress states B and C, size of the
yield surface increases and the material hardens (contracts). This continues until the critical state is reached
at C, where material hardening no longer occurs.
The stress state at which contraction initiates (point
B) depends on the shape used for the yield surface
of the sand since this stress state is where the stress
path reaches point B after it crosses the elastic region

Figure 5. Yield surface of cohesive and dense granular soils


in a CDS loading.

between A and B. Using a proper shape for the yield


surface is therefore important in modeling the behavior
of loose granular soils under stress paths such those of
the CDS loading.
Note that in cohesive or dense granular soils, the
stress ratio Mp is close to the stress ratio at critical
state, Mcs , as observed from Figure 5. In such soils,
a region between the yield surface and the Mcs line
does not form, and stress states such as those between
points B and C in a CDS loading are not encountered. Such soils will therefore not exhibit the high
contractive behaviour observed in tests on very loose
granular soils, and remain in a state of elastic unloading throughout the CDS stress path. Results of CDS
tests on clay-rich colluvium presented by Anderson
and Riemer (1995) and those of Monterey No. 0 sand
consolidated to low state parameters (sample S5 in
Figure 3) exhibit no contraction, but only expansion
throughout the CDS loading.
4.2 Effect of density and mean normal stress
As noted from figures 2(b) and 3(b), samples consolidated to higher void ratio and mean normal stress

392

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MCS

200

(p) exhibit higher tendency for contraction as point B


is reached. This may also be seen from the geometry of the yield surface shown in Figure 4. Samples
with higher void ratio and/or mean normal stress have
higher state parameter = e ecs (e and ecs are the
current and critical state void ratios). Higher results
in lower stress ratio Mp (based on Equations [3] and
[4] in the Appendix) and wider distance between stress
states B and C where contraction occurs. Samples with
low void ratios and/or confining stresses have small
and high Mp . In such samples, the distance between B
and C is very small or non-existent, and these samples
may experience very small or no contraction during
CDS loading (as in samples S3 and S5 in Figure 3).

350
MCS

YS at start of CDS loading

300

YS at critical state
250

Mp,c
B

q (kPa)

200

150
c

100

50

4.3

Effect of anisotropic consolidation

Comparison of the data presented in figures 2(b) and


3(b) indicates that the initiation of volume contraction during the CDS loading occurred earlier in the
anisotropically consolidated samples compared to the
isotropically consolidated samples.
Figure 6 shows yield surfaces of the anisotropically consolidated Monterey No. 0 sample S1 at the
beginning and at the end of the CDS loading. Due
to anisotropic consolidation, shape of the yield surface is more slender and the distance between A and
B is smaller than that between B and C. This is in
contrast to the yield surface of isotropic consolidation
Ottawa sand shown in Figure 4, in which large unloading takes place between A and B before contraction
commences. In the anisotropic consolidation samples,
volume contraction initiates earlier and continues over
a wider range of stresses during the CDS loading.
Based on the shape of the yield surface for anisotropically consolidated sand, the higher is the stress ratio c
at consolidation, the smaller will be the elastic region,
and the earlier is the initiation of volume contraction.
It is noted that for sand anisotropically consolidated along a stress ratio c larger than the Mp of
isotropically consoliated sand, the stress ratio Mp (or
equivalently, the friction angle at peak, p ) is no longer
a function only of state parameter (as indicated by
Equation [4] in the Appendix). In these cases, stress
ratio Mp will increase to a value close to, but slightly
higher than stress ratio c at which the sand was consolidated (see Imam et al. 2005). This results in a yield
surface shape similar to that shown in Figure 6, in
which the elastic region that should be crossed prior
to the onset of yielding is small, and the sample starts
contraction shortly after the CDS loading starts.
5

IMPLICATIONS ON STABILITY ANALYSES

The difference in behaviour between isotropically and


anisotropically consolidated sand subjected to CDS

0
0

100

150

200

250

300

p (kPa)

-50
Mp,e
-100

Figure 6. State of stress of loose Monterey No. 0 sand at


the beginning and at the end of CDS loading.

loading can have important implications on the assessment of stability of slopes consisting of loose granular
soils subjected to increase in pore pressure. In such
cases, stability analyses based on test results from
isotropically consolidated samples may indicate that
a large reduction in confinement (or increase in pore
pressure) can take place without initiating high volume contraction (i. e. the distance between points A
and B in Figure 2 is large). However, since soils in
the field are generally anisotropically consolidated and
will likely have yield surfaces closer to those shown in
Figure 6, a small increase in pore pressure (or decrease
in mean normal stress) may be sufficient to bring the
soil state to the point of collapse (i. e. point B in Figure 6). Stability assessments based on results of tests
on isotropically consolidated samples may therefore
provide unconservative results.
The difference in soil response to loading in different directions or different modes of shearing (e.g.
loading in triaxial compression vs simple shear or
triaxial extension) may also have similar implications on the stability assessment of slopes subjected
to pore pressure increase. It is often observed that
soils loaded in triaxial extension exhibit are more
contractive behaviour than those subjected to triaxial compression (see e.g. Yoshimine 1996). It is also
a common observation that Stress ratios Mp obtained
from triaxial extension are smaller than those obtained
from triaxial compression (see Imam et al. 2002) and
the constitutive model used here accounts for this

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

50

difference (see Equation [4]). Considering geometry


of the yield surface for loading in other directions,
results of CDS tests carried out in directions other
than triaxial compression may indicate that contraction can start after a smaller increase in pore pressure
and will be more pronounced than that obtained from
triaxial compression tests (yield surface is flatter in
other directions). However, CDS test results carried
out in other loading directions are rare or non-existent
and further experimental studies need to be carried out
in order to investigate the effect of loading direction
on CDS loading of loose sand.

APPENDIX

REFERENCES

Mp,c =

6 sin p,c
3 sin p,c

in TC

(3a)

Mp,e =

6 sin p,e
3 + sin p,e

in TE

(3b)

Anderson, S. A. and Riemer, M. F. 1995. Collapse of Saturated Soil Due to Reduction in Confinement. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 121(2): 216219.
Anderson, S. A. and Sitar, N. 1995. Analysis of rainfallinduced debris flows. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 121(7): 544552.
Been, K. and Jefferies, M. G. 1985. A state parameter for
sands. Geotechnique, 35(2): 99112.
Castro, G., Seed, R. B., Keller, T. O. and Seed, H. B. 1992.
Steady State strength analysis of the Lower San Fernando
Dam Slide. Proc. of the 53rd Canadian Geotechnical
Conference, Montreal, pp. 169176.
Dawson, R. F., Morgenstern, N. R. and Gu, W. H. 1992. Instability Mechanics initiating Flow Failure in Mountainous
Mine Waste Dumps. Contract Report, Phase 1, to Energy,
Mines and Resources Canada.
Eckersley, J. D. 1990. Instrumented Laboratory Flowslides.
Geotechnique, 40(3), 489502.
Imam, S. M. R., Chan, D. H., Robertson, P. K, and Morgenstern, N. R. 2002a. Anisotropic yielding of loose sand.
Soils and Foundations, 42(3): 3344.
Imam, S. M. R., Morgenstern, N. R., Robertson, P. K., and
Chan, D. H. 2005. A Critical State Constitutive Model
for Liquefiable Sand, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 42:
830855.
Lade, P. V. 1993. Initiation of Static Instability in the Nerlerk
berm. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 30(6), 895904.
Manzari, M. T. and Dafalias, Y. F. 1997. A critical state twosurface plasticity model for sands. Geotechnique, 47(2):
255272.
Riemer, M. F. and Seed, R. B. Factors Affecting Apparent
Position of Steady State Line. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(3): 281287.
Rowe, P. W. 1962. The stress-dilatancy relation for static equilibrium of an assembly of particles in contact. Pro.of the
Roy.Soc.A269: 500527.
Sasitharan, S. 1993. Collapse behavior of very loose sands.
Ph.D. thesis, University of Alberta.
Skopek, P. 1994. Collapse behavior of very loose dry sand.
Ph.D.thesis , The University of Alberta.
Wood, D. M., Belkheir, K., and Liu, D. F. 1994. Strain softening and state parameter for sand modeling. Geotechnique,
44(2): 335339.
Yoshimine, M. 1996. Undrained flow deformation of saturated sand under monotonic loading conditions. Ph D
thesis, University of Tokyo.

The yield surface is defined using the following


equation:

f = ( ) M
2

p
pc

 12

=0

M 2 = (5Mp )(Mp )

(1-a)
(2)

in which, for triaxial compression (TC) and triaxial


extension (TE) we have:

and p,c and p,e are the friction angles at the point of
peak q in TC and TE, respectively, and are obtained
from:
sin p,c = sin kp

in TC

sin p,e = sin kp ap

(4-a)

in TE

(4-b)

in which is the friction angle corresponding to


p = 0 in TC and is typically close to the inter-particle
friction angle of the sand; kp and ap are material parameters, and is the state parameter. A Mohr-Coulomb
type failure criterion, expressed in the following form,
is used:
sin f = sin cs kf

(5)

in which cs is the critical state friction angle and kf is a


material parameter which is taken to be 0.75 for sand
loaded in both TC and TE. Friction angles obtained
from [6] are converted to equivalent stress ratios at
failure Mf ,c and Mf ,e for TC and TE as in [3]. These
are the maximum stress ratios attainable at the current
soil state, and may not be equal to the current stress
ratio . It is only at critical state ( = 0) where the
current and failure stress ratios coincide and we have
= Mf = Mcs . The flow rule is determined from the
following relationship:
d=

dp p
= A(Mcs )
dq p

(6)

in which:
Ac = 9/(9 2MPT,c + 3MPT,c )

in TC

(7a)

Ae = 9/(9 2MPT,e 3MPT,e )

in TE

(7b)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


1

and MPT,c and MPT,e , are obtained using the following


relationships:
sin PT,c = sin cs + kPT

for TC

sin PT,e = sin cs + aPT + kPT

(8a)
for TE

(8b)

Hardening during shearing is determined from:


pc
hG
=
(pf pc )
q p
(pf pc )ini

(9)

in which h is a non-dimensional material parameter


related to soil stiffness during shearing, G is the elastic shear modulus, and (pf pc)ini is the initial value
of (pf pc ) at the end of consolidation and prior to
shearing. The value of pf is obtained by substituting
the current Mf for in Equation [1]. Elastic moduli
are defined as follows:
G = Gr

(2.973 e)2
(p/pa )1/2
1+e

(10a)

K = Kr

(2.973 e)2
(p/pa )1/2
1+e

(10b)

in which Gr and Kr are reference values that depend


on the units used and may be obtained from the elastic
moduli corresponding to the atmospheric pressure pa .
NOTATION:
ap , aPT :

d,:
e, ecs :
f:
G, Ga :

Difference between sin at peak


point of the yield surface and
at PT at = 0 in TC and TE,
respectively
Soil dilatancy
current and critical state void
ratios, respectively
Yield function
Elastic shear modulus at current
and atmospheric mean normal
stresses, respectively

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

h:

Material parameter related to


plastic shear stiffness
K, Kr :
Elastic and reference bulk moduli, respectively K0 = h /v Coefficient of lateral earth pressure
kp , kf , kPT :
Slope of variation of sinp , sinf
and sinPT with state parameter,
respectively
Mcs , Mcs,c , Mcs,e : Stress ratios q/p at critical state,
and its values in TC and TE,
respectively
Mp , Mp,c , Mp,e :
Stress ratio at the peak point of the
yield surface, and its values in TC
and TE, respectively
M , Mf :
Stress ratio q/p corresponding to
inter-particle friction and failure,
respectively.
p, pa , pc , pp , pf :
Effective mean normal stress, and
its values at atmospheric pressure
and at consolidation, respectively.
q:
Deviatoric stress (=1 3 )
:
Stress ratio q/p at which tangent
to yield surface is perpendicular
to the p-axis
1 , 3 :
Major and minor principal strains
respectively
p , q , p p , q p :
Volumetric and shear strains and
their plastic components, respectively
f :
Mobilized friction angle at failure
PT , PT,c , PT,e : Friction angle at PT, and its values
in TC and TE, respectively
p , p,c , p,e :
Friction angle at peak point of the
yield surface, and its values in TC
and TE, respectively
, cv :
Inter-particle and constant volume friction angles, respectively
, c :
stress ratio q/p at current stress
state and at consolidation, respectively
:
State parameter = e ecs

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Identification of a general poro-viscoelastic model of one-dimensional


consolidating soft soil
Chin Jian Leo
School of Engineering, University of Western Sydney, Australia

ABSTRACT: A poro-viscoelastic model is useful for modeling a consolidating soft soil with intrinsic timedependent effects. This paper presents a methodology for identifying (calibrating) the values of the parameters
that go into a general linear poro-viscoelastic soil model. As part of the identification methodology, which is
based around the familiar oedometer test, a semi-analytic solution of consolidation in an oedometer test has
been developed. The methodology then involves using the levenburg-marquadt nonlinear regression technique
to regress the model parameters by fitting the theoretical semi-analytic solutions to the measured oedometer
test data. Although the methodology can be applied to any general poro-viscoelastic model, the paper uses the
3-element, 4-elelment and modified 4-element mechanical poro-viscoelastic models, all of which can potentially
model the creeping soft soil, as examples to illustrate the identification methodology. The modified 4-element
model has been found to give the best results.

INTRODUCTION

Saturated soft fine-grained soil is generally considered


as a two phase geomaterial in which one phase consisted of the solid soil grains and the second phase, pore
spaces filled with water. When subjected to loading,
water would be expelled from the pore spaces with
ensuing consolidation or settlement increasing with
time. Terzaghi is generally credited as the first person
to develop a theory for describing the consolidation
behavior of fine-grained soil.
Terzaghis classical theory predicts that the rate of
consolidation will eventually diminish with elapsed
time and that ultimate consolidation will be reached
eventually as excess pore pressure dissipates. Field
and laboratory data, however, suggest that very soft
fine-grained soil will often experience significant
secondary consolidation long after the excess pore
pressure has been dissipated and thus showed up
a limitation of Terzaghis classical theory. Intrinsic
time-dependent creep effects which are ignored in the
classical theory contribute to the secondary consolidation. Neglecting the time-dependent creep effects will
lead to an underestimation of the magnitude and the
rate of settlement and an over-estimation of the rate of
pore pressure dissipation in the field.
Creep phenomenon can be easily simulated by a
viscoelastic model. Here the model is often assumed
to consist of a combination of mechanical springs
and dashpots representing either the elastic or viscous

behavior of the consolidating soil. Using mechanical


springs and dashpots help give the model physical
meaning. For a creeping consolidating soil, it will
be necessary to extend the viscoelastic model to
a poro-viscoelastic model by including the effects
of drainage. Although the development of modern
computers and efficient techniques of analysis (e.g.
Booker and Small, 1985, Leo and Xie, 2001) are
now available to solve poro-viscoelastic consolidation
problems, the development of experimental techniques
to identify the parameter values needed to go into
the analysis tended to lag behind. Unfortunately, it
is also often perceived that creep tests are both prolonged and costly to run or that creep only requires
rule-of-thumb estimation. These reasons have tended
to discourage geotechnical engineers from using the
time-dependent poro-viscoelastic models in their practice. In view of this, it is worthwhile to mention
that the benefits of a viscoelastic model also include
the ability to model hysteresis effects under cyclic
loading, and extensions from a one-dimensional to
a higher dimensions model and/or to include thermal effects can proceed in a theoretically consistent
manner.
The objective of this paper is to present a methodology based on the standard oedometer test in the
laboratory for calibrating a one-dimensional poroviscoelastic model. The methodology includes developing a semi-analytic model of the oedometer test
in Laplace transform space. The values of the model

397

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

parameters are then regressed using the LevenburgMarquadt nonlinear regression technique based on
fitting the values of the semi-analytic solutions to the
oedometer test data. The paper further examines the
use of 3-element, 4-element and modified 4-element
models to predict creeping soft soil and deduces
the creep compliance for these models. Finally the
methodology is illustrated using these mechanical
models.
2

PORO-VISCOELASTIC GOVERNING
EQUATIONS

(1)

where (z, t) is the total strain, 0 (z, t) is the immediate (elastic) strain and c (z, t) is the creep strain
resulting from a stress application. For a (linear) poroviscoelastic model, the constituent parts of the strain
described in equation (1) are related to the effective
stress z (z, t) as follow,
0 (z, t) = z (z, t)J0
 t
 (z, )
d
Jc (t ) z
c (z, t) =

v (z, t)
z (z, t)
kv 2 u(z, t)
=
=
t
t
w z 2

(2)
(3)

where J0 is the immediate elastic strain compliance,


Jc (t) is the kernel of the creep strain compliance corresponding to a selected viscoelastic model (more
discussion on the strain compliance is given in a later
section), t is the elapsed time, z is the spatial direction
of the consolidation. The convolution integral in (2b)
has a memory kernel in the sense that the creep strain
depends not only on the current stress at time t but also
on the stress history. The general constitutive equation
for a one-dimensional (linear) poro-viscoelastic model
is obtained by combining (1) and (2) to give:
 t
 (z, )
z (z, t) = z (z, t)J0 +
d (3a)
Jc (t ) z

(5)

where the volumetric strain v is identically equal to


the strain z for the one-dimensional case, kv is the
coefficient of permeability and w is the unit weight of
the fluid flowing in the soil. Equations (3), (4) and (5)
describe the general (linear) poro-viscoelastic model.
3

The elastic one-dimensional consolidating soil with


creep may be written, in general, as
z (z, t) = 0 (z, t) + c (z, t)

and the drainage in the porous material satisfies the


continuity equation,

LAPLACE TRANSFORM

The solutions are developed in the Laplace transform


space where, in particular, the convolution integral has
the benefit of a very simple transform. The Laplace
transform is typically defined as,

u (z, s) =
u(z, t)est dt
(6)
0

where the superior bar on the left hand side denotes


the transformed Laplace variable and s is the Laplace
transform parameter. Then it follows by invoking the
Laplace transform of the governing equations (3), (4)
and (5) that,
z (z, s) = sJ (s) z (z, s)

(7)

z (z, s) = q (s) u (z, s)

(8)

sz (z, s) =

kv u (z, s)
w z 2
2

(9)

where
J0
J (s) =
+ Jc (s)
s

(10)

and the initial strain is taken to be zero. Combining


equations (7), (8) and (9) leads to,
2 u
= 2 (u q )
z 2

(11)

in which

A useful alternate and equivalent form of the constitutive equation is obtained by integrating the convolution
integral by parts so that,

2 =

z (z, t) = z (z, t)J0 + z (z, t)Jc (0)


 t
Jc (t )

d
z (z, )

where cv and mv are the coefficient of consolidation


and the coefficient of volume compressibility respectively. It is not difficult to show that the general solution
of equation (11) gives,

(3b)

It is assumed that the effective stress is dependent on


the applied surcharge q(t) and the excess pore pressure
u(z, t) in which
z (z, t) = q(t) u(z, t)

(4)

u = Aez + Bez + q

(12)

(13)

in which A, B are the constants of integration, the values of which are to be determined for the oedometer
test as explained below.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

s2 J w
s2 J
=
.
kv
cv m v

Equations (17a) and (17b) represent the Laplace transform solutions, and to obtain the solutions in real time,
the highly recommended inversion algorithm of Talbot
(1979) was used to invert the solutions numerically.
The solutions in (17) apply to a general strain compliance which up until now has not been specified. The
next section discusses some possible forms of strain
compliance to use.

Surcharge q(t)

z=0

pervious
Soil sample

pervious

2H

5 VISCO-ELASTIC MODELS

z = 2H

Figure 1. Schematic of oedometer test.

LAPLACE TRANSFORM SOLUTIONS


OF CONSOLIDATION IN AN OEDOMETER
TEST

The schematic of a typical oedometer setup is shown in


Figure 1 where the top and bottom boundaries of the
soil sample are completely pervious. Since u = 0 at
z = 0 and z = 2H , substituting this into (13) yields the
following constants of integration for the oedometer
test:
A=

q (1 e2H )
(e2H e2H )

q (e2H 1)
B = 2H
(e
e2H )

(14a)

(14b)

so that,
z = sJ q

"

#
(e2H 1) z
(1 e2H )
z
e
e
+
(e2H e2H )
(e2H e2H )
(15)

Since the consolidation of the soil sample is


given by,

w =

2H

J = J0 =

z dz

2sJ q (e2H 1)
w =
(e2H + 1)

(17a)

If the surcharge is kept constant (q(t) = q0 ) as this


is typically the case in an oedometer test for each
loading stage, then q = q0 /s and the consolidation
simplifies to,
2J q0 (e2H 1)
(e2H + 1)

(17b)

Thus it may be shown that for the 3-element model


(e.g. Findley et al. 1976),
1
E1

Jc (t) =

(19a)
1
E2


1e

E
2

2 t


(19b)

and the Laplace transform of strain compliance (equation (10)) is,


1
1
J (s) =
+
sE1
s(s2 + E2 )

(19c)

The strain response of the 3-element model under a


constant stress is produced in Figure 2. It is observed
that the strain asymptotes to a constant value at later
values of elapsed times.
The 3-element model is clearly constrained by the
constant-valued asymptote but this restriction may

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(18)

z (z, t) = 0 (t)(J0 + Jc (t))

(16)

then substituting equation (15) into equation (16) and


integrating gives,

1
E1

Figure 2 shows a typical 3-element model.


It may be deduced from equation (3b) that under
the application of a constant stress 0 the strain is,

J0 =

w =

Embedded in the poro-viscoelastic constitutive model


is the viscoelastic model. In general, any viscoelastic
model that best represent the creeping consolidating
soft soil can be used. In the present paper, the rheological mechanical visco-elastic models which are
assumed to be a combination of mechanical springs
and dashpots have been used. Each element is representative of either elastic or viscous behavior. The
number and type of the model parameters vary from
model to model. The simplest model consists of a single elastic spring (E1 ), which is not able to capture
intrinsic time (creep) effects. This is in fact Terzaghis
classical consolidation model, in which the coefficient
of volume compressibility mv = 1/E1 . Since there is
no creep, the total strain compliance is identical to the
immediate elastic strain compliance which is,

E2

E2

E1

E1
0

0
Stress input
Stress input
o
Time
Time

Time
Figure 3. 4-elelment (Burgers) model.

Time
Figure 2. 3-element visco-elastic model.

be overcome by employing a 4-element model, also


known as the Burgers model, shown in Figure 3. Here
an additional dashpot (1 ) is connected in series. In the
4-element model it is the strain rate that asymptotes to
a constant value at later values of elapsed times. In this
model J0 = 1/E1 and:


E
t
1
2t
Jc (t) =
+
1 e 2
(20a)
1
E2
1
1
1
+ 2 +
J (s) =
sE1
s 1
s(s2 + E2 )

1
(n + 1)
1
J (s) =
+ n+1
+
sE1
s 1
s(s2 + E2 )

Stress input

Time

(20b)

The 4-element model may be further modified to allow


the strain to asymptote to a nonlinear power curve as
shown in Figure 4.
In this case, the creep strain compliance of the modified 4-element model and the Laplace transform of the
strain compliance are:


E
tn
1
2t
Jc (t) =
+
1 e 2
(21a)
1
E2

where  is the Gamma function.

Strain response
0

Time
Figure 4. Modified 4-element model.

IDENTIFICATION OF MODEL
PARAMETERS

(21b)
As previously mentioned, it is necessary to establish
the values of the model parameters, i.e. calibrate the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Strain response

Strain response

time (mins)
0.1
0

10

100

0.01

10000

measured

0.02
displacements( cm)

1000

1-element
3-elements

0.03

4-elements

0.04

mod 4-elms

0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1

Figure 5. Oedometer test data vs model results.

model, prior to applying the poro-viscoelastic model


for solving problems of practical interest. The methodology proposed in this paper employs the semi-analytic
theoretical solutions developed in equations (17), the
values of which are regressed against the experimental data from the oedometer tests to yield optimized
values of the models parameters i.e. E1 , E2 , 1 etc.
The algorithm used in the optimization process
is the Levenberg-Marquardt (Levenberg 1944, Marquardt 1963) nonlinear least squares regression technique. This algorithm is embedded, as a subroutine, in
a general program developed by the investigators that
seeks to calculate the theoretical solutions and to continuously update the values of the models parameters
until they are suitably optimized. For the purpose of
this work, the values of the models parameters i.e. E1 ,
E2 , 1 etc. are all constrained to remain positive.
The Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm searches for
a (local) minimum of the residual, which is the sum
of the squares of the error between the model and
measured data. To search for the global minimum,
it is necessary to start with a good initial guess of
the values of the parameters. A useful strategy is to
start with the identification of a simple model before
moving on to do the more complex visco-elastic models. This approach normally proceeds in the following
way: First, the parameters of a single element (spring)
model, E1 as well as cv are estimated using the algorithm. This set of values is used as initial guesses for
E1 and cv of the 3-elements model where the parameters to be identified are E1 , E2 , 2 as well as cv . The

values for the 3-element model are then used to provide the initial estimates for the 4-element model and
so on. This strategy is coded into a program capable
of providing estimates of the parameter values ranging
from a single element model to the modified 4-element
model. The user has the option to decide which model
to adopt based on the results of the regression where
the sum-of-squares of the errors, a measure of the
goodness-of-fit, is reported.
For the purpose of illustration, Figure 5 shows the
results of the proposed methodology where experimental data from an oedometer test (Table 2) are
presented along with the solutions yielded by a 1element (Terzaghi) model, a 3-element model, a 4element model and a modified 4-element model. In
the given example, a 1.85 cm thick clay sample was
consolidated under a surcharge pressure of 20 kPa. The
regression analysis yields the parameter values shown
in Table 1 below. The 3-element model did not produce any improvement over the 1-element Terzaghi
model as evidenced by the closeness of the relevant
theoretical curves shown in Figure 5 as well as from
the magnitude of the sum-of-squares error in Table 1.
The 4-elements model and modified 4-elements model
appear to give a better fit than the simpler models,
with the best model being the modified 4-element
model.
Once the model parameters of a chosen poroviscoelastic model have been identified, it can now be
used to predict the long term consolidation of creeping
soil. A number of numerical models have already been

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Estimated values of model parameters.

Tv=E1kvt/(wh2)
0.1
0

Para-meters

1-elem
Terzaghi
model

cv
0.00753
(cm2 /min)
E1 (kPa)
440
1 (kPa-min) n/a
E2 (kPa)
n/a
2 (kPa-min) n/a
N
n/a
Sum-of0.213
squares
103
of error

3-elems

4-elems

Modified
4-elems

0.00753

0.00919

0.01247

440
n/a
1 105
1 1021
n/a
0.213
103

473.5
1.27 107
1 105
1 1021
n/a
0.104
103

556.8
14656
1 105
1 1021
0.2706
0.787
104

0.25
0.57
1
1.57
2.25
3.07
4
6.25
9
12.25
16
25
36
49
64
100
200
1000
2000
5000

0.0086
0.0093
0.0113
0.0134
0.0154
0.0177
0.0199
0.0233
0.0291
0.0337
0.0374
0.0456
0.053
0.0586
0.0637
0.0709
0.0784
0.0825
0.0866
0.0911

40

1.5
60

80

2.5

100
Up

CONCLUSION

This paper presents a simple methodology to identify


the values of the parameters that go into a general poro-viscoelastic soil model. In developing this
methodology, the semi-analytic solution (viz. Laplacetransform) of consolidation in the oedometer test has
been developed. The modified 4-element model has
produced the best fit to the creep and consolidation
data. The methodology shown herein may be extended
to identify the parameters of thermoporo-viscoleastic
models but this will be left to a future work.
REFERENCES

developed for this analysis (e.g. Leo and Xie, 2001).


The application is illustrated in Figure 6 showing the
predictions of consolidation of a 10 m thick clay and
the degree of consolidation in terms of the excess pore
water pressure (Up ) from a poro-viscoelastic model.
Creep continues long after the dissipation of the excess
pore water pressure has been dissipated. The model
predicts that at dimensionless time Tv = 10, the consolidation is 25% higher than the consolidation at
the end of primary consolidation. In this case, the
effects of creep are not insignificant and should not
be discounted.

Booker J.R. and Small J.C. (1985), Finite layer analysis of settlement, creep and consolidation using microcomputers, Proceedings 5th International Conference
of Num Meth in Geomechanics, Nagoya, Japan, V(1),
pp318.
Findley W.N., Lai J.S and Onaran K. (1976), Creep relaxation
of nonlinear viscoelastic materials, Dover Publications,
Inc., New York, N.Y.
Leo, C.J. and Xie, K.H. (2001), An efficient solution of onedimensional consolidation of layered soft soils with time
effects, in Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, Proceedings of the 10th IACMAG, Tucson,
Arizona 712 Jan, Vol. 2, pp 17911794. Desai et al.(eds),
Bakema Rotterdam, ISBN 90-5809-183X.
Levenberg K. (1944), A method for the solution of certain problems in least squares, Quarterly of Applied
Mathematics, 2, pp164168.
Marquardt D. (1963), An algorithm for least-squares estimation of nonlinear parameters, SIAM Journal of Applied
Mathematics, 11, pp431441.
Talbot A. (1979), The accurate numerical integration of
Laplace transforms, Journal Inst. Mathematical Applications
Terzaghi, K. (1925). Modern concepts concerning foundation engineering, Journal of Boston Society of Civil
Engineers, 10, VXII.

402

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

20

Figure 6. Predictions of consolidation and degree of consolidation (Up) with elapsed dimensionless time for a creeping
soft soil.

Experimental data from oedometer test.


Displacement (cm)

0.5

displ

Time (mins)

10

n/a - not applicable.

Table 2.

displ = wE1/(q0h)

Model

Up

Table 1.

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Characterisation of peat using full flow penetrometers


Noel Boylan & Michael Long
Department of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, Ireland

ABSTRACT: This paper examines the utility of full flow penetrometers such as theT-bar and Ball penetrometers
as characterisation tools for peat. Penetration tests were conducted at three peat sites together with in-situ vane
tests and a number of laboratory triaxial tests. The T-bar and Ball are shown to yield a narrower range of N factors
relating penetration resistances to undrained shear strength than the Nkt factor of the CPTU. The T-bar and Ball
are found to overcome many of the difficulties associated with the CPTU in soft peat. In disagreement with
analytical solutions, T-bar resistances tended to be higher than comparative tests using the Ball. It is suggested
that this is due to the structural anisotropy of peat and is a feature of other soils where this phenomenon is
observed. N factors based on excess pore water pressures for the CPTU (Nu ) and Ball (NuBall ) seem to be less
scattered than those based on penetration resistances. The pore pressure parameter from the Ball penetrometer
test (BBall ) is shown to be a useful parameter to identify the relative humification within a peat deposit.

INTRODUCTION

qc and u2 (kPa)

The characterisation of peat for engineering projects


has traditionally been based on numerous in-situ vane
tests and determination of VonPost humification profiles (Von Post and Granlund, 1926). In order to make
site investigations more efficient, various researchers
and practitioners have used piezocone (CPTU) tests to
gain continuous profiles of peat strength with correlation to in-situ vane tests or laboratory triaxial tests.
The results of CPTU tests in peat are problematic
with results tending to be scattered due to the interaction with fibres (see Figure 1). In extremely soft
peat, resistance can be less than the load cell accuracy,
resulting in zero resistance being measured. While
more accurate load cells would be useful, they are
expensive and their range of use is limited.
Landva (1986) studied the deformation pattern of
model cones penetrating peat in the laboratory and
found it to be one of varying compression and tearing
which does not resemble any real mode of deformation under structures on peatland, concluding that the
cone penetration test was of little engineering use.
Uncertainty about the deformation around the cone
and the level of corrections to be applied to results
has led researchers to investigate with larger full flow
penetrometers such as the T-bar and ball penetrometer (see figure 2). These penetrometers have several
advantages over the standard cone (Randolph, 2004);

Depth b.g.l. (m)

300

qc
u2
fs

12

16

20

fs (kPa)
Figure 1. Typical CPTU from commercial project in peat.

(1) The measured resistance requires minimal correction to provide corrected resistance compared

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

200

100

to possibly significant adjustment to the cone


resistance.
(2) Improved accuracy is obtained in soft soils due to
the larger projected area 100 cm2 compared to
the 10 cm2 of the cone. This results in improved
resolution and reduced sensitivity to any load cell
drift.

Resistance factor N = q/su

16
15
Cone (Ir = 300, = -0.5)

14
13

Ball

Upper

12

Tbar

Lower
11

Cone (Ir = 100, = 0.5)

10
9
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Interface friction ratio,

Figure 3. Range of Cone Factors (adapted from Randolph,


2004).

Figure 2. Cone Penetrometer and full flow probes.

(3) Plasticity solutions based on simplified assumptions of soil behaviour exist which relate the net
resistance to the shear strength of the soil.
Long & Gudjonsson (2004) conducted T-bar penetrometer tests in several Irish soft soils, including
peat, yielding less scattered uniform resistances compared to the CPTU and a high degree of repeatability.
Long (2005) has shown that the pore pressure parameter (Bq ) derived from CPTU tests holds promise as a
profiling tool for peat humification.
The objective of this paper is to examine the ability
of full flow penetrometers to overcome the problems of
the CPTU in peat and to assess the repeatability of the
results. Tests were conducted at 3 locations in Ireland
with both blanket bog and raised bog peat. A number of
in-situ vane tests and laboratory triaxial compression
tests were carried out and the correlation between penetrometer tests and analytical solutions examined. The
Bq parameter as a profiling tool for peat humification
is investigated.

BACKGROUND TO FULL FLOW


PENETROMETERS

The undrained shear strength (su ) of soil is normally


determined by dividing the net cone resistance (qnet )
by a cone factor (Nkt ) using Equation 1. Net cone resistance is determined by correcting the measured cone
resistance (qc ) for unequal pore pressure effects using
Equation 2 and the overburden vertical stress (v0 ).
qnet
(qt vo )
=
Nkt
Nkt
qt = qc + (1 a)u2

su =

(1)
(2)

where qt = corrected cone resistance; a = net area ratio


and u2 = measured pore water pressure (Lunne et al.,
1997). For soft soils, where the tip resistances are
already low, these corrections can be a large percentage of the measured resistance. Long & Gudjonsson
(2004) showed these corrections to be as high as 17%
of the measured resistance in soft Irish clays. Theoretical analysis of the CPTU test (Teh & Houlsby, 1991)
has highlighted that the value of Nkt will be influenced by the soil stiffness (or rigidity index, Ir ) and
in-situ stress ratio (). This has meant that the results
of CPTU tests need to be interpreted with cone factors from empirical correlations which can vary widely
(Lunne et al., 1997).
Full flow penetrometers were developed in an
attempt to overcome some of these problems, by
replacing the cone with a geometry for which closely
bracketed theoretical plasticity solutions exist. Theoretical upper and lower bound solutions (see Figure 3)
have been computed for both the T-bar and Ball (Randolph & Houlsby, 1984; Martin & Randolph, 2006;
Randolph et al., 2000) which have a smaller range than
those computed for the cone (Randolph, 2004). This
would seem to make it more possible to measure a
continuous profile of soil strength without the need
for empirical relationships. Researchers at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) and the Center for
Offshore and Foundation Systems (COFS) in Australia
have carried out extensive research into the use of the
T-bar probe and found that it is limited by the very high
strain rates in the shear zone, and the combined effects
of anisotropy and gradual strain-softening of the soil as
the T-bar passes a given horizon (Randolph & Anderson, 2005). This has meant that empirical relationships
are still required, but the range of N factors relating
measured resistance to undrained shear strength (su ) is
slightly narrower for the T-bar than the standard CPTU
(Lunne et al., 2005).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3 TEST PROCEDURES & DATA ANALYSIS


3.1

In-situ testing

3.1.1 Cone penetration tests (CPTU)


The piezocone CPTU tests were conducted using
a standard cone dimension of 35.7 mm and a projected area of 10 cm2 . Pore pressure measurements
were taken from behind the cone (u2 position). Penetration was carried out at 2 cm/sec and readings
recorded at intervals of 0.01 m. Corrections were carried out according to the recommendations of Lunne
at al. (1997) and undrained shear strength was computed using Equations 1 and 2. The undrained shear
strength was also computed from the excess pore water
pressures using Equation 3:
su =

u
u2 u 0
=
Nu
Nu

(3)

where (u0 ) is the ambient in-situ pore water pressure.


The pore pressure parameter (Bq ) is determined
using Equation 4.
u2 u 0
Bq =
qt v0

(4)

3.1.2 T-bar & ball tests


T-bar tests were conducted by unscrewing the cone just
below the load cell and replacing it with the T-bar. The
T-bar used in this study is identical to the T-bar used
by NGI and COFS being 250 mm long and 40 mm in
diameter with a lightly sandblasted surface. Tests were
conducted in the same manner as CPTU tests although
no pore water pressure measurements were taken.
The Ball used in this study has a diameter of 113 mm
and smooth spherical surface and is capable of making pore water pressure readings through two 3.5 mm
diameter porous elements at opposite sides of the Ball,
a third the way up from the tip (see Figure 4). In order
to ensure saturation of the porous regions, the Ball was
connected to the shaft in a similar manner to the T-bar
before being immersed in a de-airing tank filled with
glycerine. When all air was removed from the Ball, a
specially altered latex glove was placed over the porous
regions before penetration commenced.
Penetration of the T-bar and Ball was conducted in
the same manner as CPTU tests at a rate of 2 cm/sec
and measurements at intervals of 0.01 m. Net resistances for the T-bar and Ball were calculated using
Equation 5 (Randolph, 2004):
qTbar = qBall = qC [v0 (1 )u0 ]

As
Ap

(5)

Where As /Ap is the ratio of shaft area to the bearing


area of the probe, which in this case is 0.1 for both
probes. The undrained shear strength were determined

Figure 4. Ball Penetrometer.

for the T-bar using Equation 6 and for the Ball using
both Equations 7 and 8.
qTbar
NTbar
qBall
su =
NBall
u
uBall u0
=
su =
NuBall
NuBall
su =

(7)
(8)

The pore pressure parameter for the Ball (BBall ) is


calculated using Equation 9.
BBall =

uBall u0
qBall

(9)

3.1.3 In-situ vane tests


In-situ vane tests were carried at the Limerick and
Loughrea sites in this study using two types of shear
vane apparatus. Vane tests at Limerick were conducted
using the Geonor H10 field vane apparatus which is
the most common type of vane apparatus used in Ireland, United Kingdom and Scandinavia. The vane head
used was 55 mm 110 mm in size and the vane rods
were contained within a casing to cancel any error
due to rod friction. During the test, the operator held
the torque head and an average rotation of 1 /sec was
applied manually.
Vane tests conducted at Loughrea used the
Geotech electrical field vane apparatus using a
140 mm 280 mm vane head. This vane apparatus
allows for very well controlled testing conditions. The
vane apparatus is mounted on a special stand to minimise movements during the test with rotation of the
vane controlled by a motor in turn controlled by a
computer. Tests were conducted at a rate of 10 /min.
Rod friction was corrected for automatically by a 15
slip-coupling on the vane head. The undrained shear
strengths (su ) were determined using Equation 7.
su =

T
k

(10)

where T = measured torque and k = vane constant.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(6)

Laboratory testing

3.2.1 Triaxial tests


A number of Isotropically Consolidated Undrained
Compression (CIUC) tests were undertaken to determine the undrained shear strength (su ) of peat in the
laboratory. Samples were obtained using the SGI peat
sampler (Carlsten, 1988) which consists of a sharp
serrated edge connected to a PVC drainage pipe that
obtains samples of approximately 9.6 cm diameter.
In order to minimise sample disturbance, the sample
retainer was removed and the sampler was excavated
to retrieve samples.
Test procedures adopted were similar to those
adopted at the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute
(NGI), described by Berre (1982). Samples were tested
at either the 96 mm size or trimmed to 70 mm with
a height to diameter ratio of at least 1.6. In order to
minimise friction between the sample and end pattens,
petroleum jelly was smeared on the periphery of the
end platen in contact with the sample. Thin membranes
with a thickness of 0.25 mm were used to minimise
the correction for membrane stiffness. Initially, the
sample was subject to a cell pressure of 0.5vo and
left overnight. B-checks were carried out by increasing the back pressure in small increments of about
20 kPa until it reached 120 kPa. B values were always
greater than 0.95 and saturation of samples was not
required. Samples were then consolidated isotropically

to the apparent in-situ effective vertical stress (vo
)
using a differential transducer between the back and
cell pressure controllers to maintain the low stresses
involved which were typically less than 5 kPa. It is
likely that consolidation stresses could have increased
by up to 3 kPa for short periods due to the controllers
adjusting. At the end of consolidation which occurred
within 24 hrs, samples were sheared at a strain rate of
10% axial strain per day. After tests were completed,
samples were visually inspected to ascertain if peak
strength was accurate of the whole sample or due to
slight imperfections. The bi-linear correction of the
deviator stress due to membrane stiffness developed
by Greeuw et al. (2001) was applied to the results.

SITES

4.1 General
Testing of the various penetrometers was conducted at
both a raised and blanket bog site. The raised bog site
is located near Limerick and the blanket bog site is
located on the outskirts of Loughrea, Co. Galway. An
additional T-bar test was conducted on a raised bog site
on the outskirts of Tuam, Co. Galway for correlation
with laboratory strength data.
Raised bogs are different from blanket bogs in a
number of ways but the key difference is in the way

Von Post
Humification

Depth b.g.l. (m)

3.2

H5/H6

H7

Marl

0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5

10

su (Vane)

Figure 5. Basic properties and strength data for Limerick.

they formed. Raised bogs owe their existence not to the


wetness of the present climate, but the peculiar history
of the environment in which they formed. Each raised
bog started its development as one or several small
bogs to begin with, growing on post-glacial lakes;
which in time outgrew its boundaries and eventually
fused to create a large expanse of bog (Feehan and
ODonovan, 1996). Blanket bogs on the other hand
form in mountainous environments primarily due to
the wet climate. As as result of the different modes of
formation, the resulting peat tends to be quite different. Raised bog peats tend to consist of sedge leaf with
a strong structural anisotropy visible. Blanket bogs
tend to be rather fibrous with less visible structural
anisotropy.
4.2 Limerick
The Limerick raised bog site consists of 3.1 m of
peat underlain by marl and silty sand. As can be
seen from Figure 5, the peat humification is generally H5/H6 to 2.1 m on the Von Post scale (Von Post
and Granlund, 1926) increasing to H7 between 2.1 m
and 3.1 m. Peat at this location is made up of sedge
leaf which is generally aligned horizontally giving a
very distinct structural anisotropy. In-situ vane tests
were carried out by the method described in Section
3.1.3. Undrained shear strengths (su ) in Figure 5 varied
between 5 and 7 kPa.
4.3 Loughrea
The blanket bog site at Loughrea consists of 3.65 m
of peat overlying silty clay. The peat humification
increases with depth to a peak of H8 at about 2.8 m
below ground level before reducing to H5/H6 (see

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0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5

Undrained Shear Strength,


su (kPa)

0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5

Moisture Content (%)


400

600

Undrained Shear Strength, su (kPa)


0

800 1000 1200 1400 1600

H4/H5
Depth b.g.l. (m)

Depth b.g.l. (m)

Von Post
Humification

H6/H7

H7/H8

H5/H6

Von Post
Humification

600

800 1000 1200 1400 1600

20

10

15

20

0
0.25

Depth b.g.l. (m)

0.25

Depth b.g.l. (m)

15

Legend
su(Vane)

0.5

H5/H6
0.75
1

0.5
0.75
1

H7
1.25

1.25
1.5

10

Undrained Shear Strength, su (kPa)

Moisture Content (%)


400

0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5

H5
Marl

Legend
su(CIUC)

1.5

Figure 6a and 6b. Basic properties for Loughrea and Tuam.

Figure 7a and 7b. Strength data for Loughrea and Tuam.

Figure 6a). Peat at this location is quite fibrous


to 2 m and then starts becoming sedge-like with
increasing amounts of wood. Moisture content tests
conducted at 80 C are generally between 1000%
and 1500%. Low values measured in surface peat
are probably due to moisture loss during sampling.
Bulk densities are uniform with a mean value of
1030 Mg/m3 . Organic contents were greater than 95%
throughout. In-situ vane tests were carried out as per
the method described in Section 3.1.3. Undrained
shear strengths (su ) in Figure 7a varied between 5
and 10 kPa.

between 800% 1100%. Bulk densities are uniform


with a mean value of 1040 Mg/m3 . Organic contents
were generally greater than 94% throughout. A limited
number of triaxial compression tests were carried out
(see Figure 7b) as per the method described in Section
3.2.1 with the resulting strengths varying between 10
and 15 kPa.

4.4 Tuam
The Tuam raised bog site consists of 1.3 m of peat
underlain by marl and silts. As can be seen from Figure
6b, the peat humification is generally H5/H6 with a
distinct transition to H7 peat from 1 m 1.25 m. Peat at
this location is quite fibrous to 0.8 m and then becomes
sedge like to 1.25 m. Moisture contents are generally

5
5.1

Limerick

Testing at the Limerick site was the first comparative study of the CPTU, T-bar and Ball conducted in
peat. The results of this comparison in Figure 8a show
the net cone resistances (qnet ) for the CPTU to reduce
from initial values of 0.14 MPa to zero and small negative values before increasing from 0.7 MPa to 1.5 MPa
between 1.5 m and 3.1 m. At the time of writing this
paper, the reasons behind the negative cone resistances
between 0.5 m and 1.3 m are not fully understood and

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RESULTS OF PENETROMETER TESTS

Depth b.g.l. (m)

0.1

0.2

qBall and qT-bar (MPa)

Friction Sleeve Resistance, fs (MPa) Pore Water Pressure, u2 (kPa)

CPTu qnet (MPa)


0

0.3

0.004

0.008

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Legend
Ball Test 1
Ball Test 2
T-bar Test 1
T-bar Test 2

Marl
Hydrostatic
Line
Friction Sleeve Resistance, fs (MPa)

CPTu qnet (MPa)


0

0.1

0.2

0.3

Fibrous
Peat

Depth b.g.l. (m)

Increasing
Sedge
& Wood

0.004

Pore Water Pressure, u2 (kPa)

0.008

qBall and qT-bar (MPa)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Silty Clay

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

Legend
Ball Test 1
Ball Test 2
Tbar

Hydrostatic
Line

qT-bar (MPa)
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

0.4

Depth b.g.l. (m)

Fibrous Peat

0.8

Sedgy Peat
1.2

1.6

Marl & Silt

Figure 8a to 8c. Results of penetrometer tests at Limerick, Loughrea and Tuam.

may be due to slight zero offsets due to temperature variations between the peat mass and the surface.
Excess pore water pressures (u2 ) show a relatively uniform trend with depth. Measured sleeve friction values
(fs ) show a distinct transition at 1 m where the peat
becomes uniform. The results of the Ball and T-bar test
show very good agreement with resistances reducing

to 0.05 MPa at 1 m and increasing slightly with depth


to 0.07 MPa at 3 m.
5.2 Loughrea
Further comparative tests of the three penetrometers
were conducted at the Loughrea blanket bog site with

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

the results shown in Figure 8b. Net cone resistances


(qnet ) from the CPTU test again reduced from initial
values of 0.09MPa to negative values at 0.4m before
becoming positive again at 1.5 m and increasing gradually to 0.14 MPa at 3 m. Measured sleeve resistances
(fs ) show a gradual reduction before becoming negative at 1.1 m and only becoming positive at 2.6 m.
The reasons behind the negative cone and sleeve resistances are the same as Section 5.1. Excess pore water
pressures (u2 ) increase steadily with depth with the rate
of increase increasing slightly at 2.5 m before reducing significantly in the sandstone after passing through
the impermeable clay beneath the peat. Results from
the Ball and T-bar again show good agreement and
little scatter. Net cone resistances (qnet ) reduce from
0.2 MPa to a steady value of 0.05 MPa between 1 m
and 2 m before increasing to 0.08 MPa at the 3 m.

NBall factors determined for the Ball are compared


to an upper bound of 13.3 and a lower bound of 12.9
determined by a theoretical analysis by Randolph et al.
(2000) for an interface friction ratio of 0.4. The range
of NBall factors varies between 5.4 and 12 when computed using strengths derived from in-situ vane tests.
NuBall values varied from 1 to 1.8.

6.4 Range of N factors


Research into the empirical relationships between the
measured resistance of full flow penetrometers (NBall ,
NTbar ) and laboratory tests has shown them to have a
slightly narrower range of N factors than the standard
CPTU (Nkt ) (Lunne et al., 2005).

5.3 Tuam

6.5

A single T-bar test was conducted at the Tuam site (see


Figure 8c) with shallow samples retrieved for laboratory strength testing. Resistances measured by the
T-bar, show a peak value of 0.5 MPa at 0.15 m before
becoming uniform at 0.1 MPa throughout the sedge
peat and marl.

Table 1 summarises the data presented in Figures 9a to


9c. It is clear for the standard deviations that the range
of factors for the Ball and T-bar based on measured
resistance (NBall and NTbar ) occupy a narrower range
than Nkt factors for the CPTU.
It must be noted that much of the variance of the
CPTU Nkt factors is due to the problematic behaviour
of the cone in extremely soft peat tending to questionable resistance values close to zero and its tendency
to increase with depth at a rate above the other penetrometers. The values of NT-bar compare well with the
theoretical value of 10.5.Values of NBall are always less
than the theoretical limits and even less than the lower
bound value of 10.98 for zero interface friction for the
vast majority of the results. The narrow trend of NT-bar
factor and the strong correlation with analytical solutions would suggest that the T-bar is a better tool for
profiling peat strength based on measured resistance
than the CPTU. The Ball penetrometer holds promise
as a strength profiling tool in peat although the reasons for divergence from analytical solutions needs to
be understood first.
Empirical factors relating the excess pore water
pressure generated during penetration for the CPTU
(Nu ) and the Ball penetrometer (NuBall ) yield
smaller standard deviations than those based on measured resistance. Although factors based on excess
pore water pressure show better results than those
based on measured resistance during penetration, it
should be borne in mind that the results presented
here are based on a very limited data set and relationship between excess pore pressure and undrained
shear strength (su ) is not verified in peats. Nu and
NuBall factors correlate quite well with the pore pressure parameters Bq and BBall , which is similar to the
relationship noted between Nu and Bq for CPTU tests
in clays. (Lunne et al, 1997).

UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH

6.1 General
Values of Nkt , Nu , NT-bar , NBall and NuBall have been
calculated for 3 sites based on results of in-situ vane
tests for Limerick and Loughrea and on the results of
laboratory CIUC triaxial compression tests for Tuam
shown in Figures 9a to 9c. Only NT-bar results were calculated forTuam as neither CPTU or Ball penetrometer
tests were conducted at this site.

6.2

Undrained shear strengths from CPTU

The range of Nkt factors are between 5.8 and 15.5 when
in-situ vane tests are used to calibrate the relationship.
Nu values varied from 0.7 to 3.2.

6.3

Undrained shear strengths from T-bar

NT-bar factors determined for the T-bar are compared


with the theoretical value of 10.5 determined by Randolph and Houslby (1984) for an interface friction of
0.4 to take account of any adhesion due to the lightly
sandblasted surface. The range of NT -bar varies from
between 10.8 to 13.2 when compared to the laboratory CIUC tests and from between 7.8 to 13.6 when
compared to in-situ vane tests

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Undrained shear strengths from ball

Nkt

Depth b.g.l. (m)

10

NTbar

15

20

25

10

10

15

Nu Ball

NBall
20

25

10

15

20

25

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

N Factor (Vane)

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

10

Theoretical Value
Randolph & Houlsby (1984)

15

20

25

Upper and Lower Bound


Theoretical Values
for =0.4
Randolph et al. (2000)

NTbar

Nu

Nkt
0

Depth b.g.l. (m)

10

10

15

25

10

15

20

25

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

Theoretical Value
Randolph & Houlsby (1984)

10

10

Nu Ball

NBall
20

N Factor (Vane)

Upper and Lower Bound


Theoretical Values
for =0.4
Randolph et al. (2000)

Figure 9a and 9b. Nkt , Nu , NT-bar , NBall and NuBall factors determined for Limerick and Loughrea.
Table 1.

NTbar
0

10

15

20

25

Depth b.g.l. (m)

Site

N Factor

Range

Mean

Std. Dev.

Limerick

Nkt
NBall
NTbar
Nu
NuBall
Nkt
NBall
NTbar
Nu
NuBall
NTbar

1015.5
7.612
7.811
1.92.2
1.31.8
5.812.5
5.49.5
9.113.6
0.73.2
11.6
10.813.3

12.7
8.9
9.6
2.1
1.6
9.8
7.7
10.6
2.3
1.2
12.2

3.9
2
1.7
0.2
0.4
3.5
1.2
1.6
1.1
0.3
1.3

0.5

Loughrea

1
N Factor (CIUC)

Summary of N factors.

Tuam

Theoretical Value
Randolph & Houlsby (1984)

1.5

Figure 9c. NT-bar factors determined for Tuam.

PERFORMANCE OF PENETROMETERS

7.1 Tip resistances & repeatability


Comparing the performance of the Ball and T-bar penetrometers with the CPTU, they have overcome many

of the problems associated with the CPTU in peat. The


Ball and T-bar do not tend to zero and negative resistances in soft fibrous peat. The resulting profiles are
well defined compared to the scattered profile which is
often found with the CPTU. Resistance profiles from
the CPTU show a tendency to increase with depth at
a rate higher than the T-bar and Ball which has been
noted in other soft soils (Long & Gudjonsson, 2004;

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Chung & Randolph, 2004). Although the tip resistance


profiles for the T-bar and Ball penetrometers are well
defined compared to the CPTU, repeat profiles of the
individual penetrometer can differ by up to 30% in
peat.
Depth b.g.l. (m)

Comparison of T-bar and ball

0.6

0.8

T-bar
Ball

Figure 10. Ratio of extraction to penetration resistance.


1

Measured Resistance (MPa)


-0.1
2.6
2.8
3
3.2

0.1
0.8
Before Correction
After Correction
0.6

0.4

3.4
0.2
0

Cycle (#)

Figure 11. Cyclic T-bar with zero offset correction.

of the extraction to penetration ratio for any of the


penetration tests due to the uniformity of the profiles.

7.3 Assessment of zero offsets


In order to be confident of the relationships found in
Section 7.3, careful assessment of the zero offsets was
undertaken. Randolph (2004) points out that minor
corrections to the load cell zero may need to be considered, due to zero drift or bending effects of the T-bar.
Plots of extraction to penetration resistance ratio are
used to assess if the ratio is relatively constant or if
a correction needs to be applied. Randolph (2006)
suggests using cyclic penetrometer tests as another
method to assess the level of penetrometer based sensitivity by invoking symmetry to the cycle profile to
calculate the level of zero offset.
7.3.1 Extraction to penetration ratio
Analysis of extraction to penetration resistance ratio
was carried out for the T-bar and Ball tests conducted
at Limerick and Loughrea. Figure 10 shows a typical
example of the extraction to penetration ratio for the
T-bar and Ball penetrometer at Loughrea. Although
the ratio is not uniform in the top 0.5 m, correction
of this was not deemed suitable, as the material is
strongly fibrous in this zone. The penetration would
have resulted in tearing of fibres that would have
resulted in the lower extraction resistance. Correction of the zero drift was not undertaken on the basis

7.3.2 Cyclic penetration tests


Cyclic T-bar tests were carried out at several depths to
ascertain the level of penetrometer based sensitivity.
Cyclic tests are carried out by continually penetrating and extracting the penetrometer over a distance
of 0.5 m until the measured resistance becomes relatively constant. The degradation factor is computed
as the ratio of the measured resistance of a particular
penetration or extraction cycle to the initial measured
penetration. Figure 11 shows an example of a cyclic
T-bar test before and after correction. The zero offset
correction is calculated by adjusting the plot of cycle
resistance until it becomes symmetrical about zero.
The level of correction was quite small and was typically about 2 3% of the measured resistance. This
cyclic test also suggests that the sensitivity of peat is
low, with a sensitivity of 2.5.

7.4

Pore water pressures

The Ball penetrometer used in this study has the facility to measure pore water pressures as described in
Section 3.1.2. Figure 12 compares the pore pressure

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0.4

Degradation Factor

It is interesting to note that although analytical solutions of the T-bar and Ball would suggest that measured
resistances from the Ball should be about 25% greater
than the T-bar when interface friction ratio is 0.4,
measured Ball resistance tend to be less than the Tbar. Comparison of the medians of several Ball tests
with the median of several T-bar tests showed the Tbar resistances to be up to 25% more than the Ball
resistances.
DeJong et al. (2004) conducted similar penetrometer tests on Connecticut Valley varved clay and found
the T-bar to give resistances 38% larger than the Ball.
On the other hand Chung and Randolph (2004) carried out T-bar and Ball tests in reconstituted Burswood
clay and found the T-bar and Ball yielded similar
resistances. Long and Gudjonsson (2004) found large
variance of NT-bar factors in the varved clays ofAthlone
compared to uniform NT-bar factors in the relatively
uniform clays at Portumna. The divergence seems to be
associated with soils where there is a strong structural
anisotropy i.e. varved clays and peats.

0.2

Depth b.g.l. (m)

7.2

Extraction/Penetration Ratio
0

Pore Water Pressures (kPa)


0

10

20

30

40

CPTUu

Depth b.g.l. (m)

Depth b.g.l. (m)

Ball uBall

Bq Parameter

Von Post
Humification 0

50

Ambient Pore
Water Pressure

0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

H5/H6

H7
CPTU Bq

Marl

BBall

Figure 13. Bq and BBall parameter at Limerick.

Figure 12. Comparison of Ball and CPTU PWP.

8
8.1

CHARACTERISATION OF PEAT
HUMIFICATION
General

The use of the pore pressure parameter (Bq ) to profile


peat humification suggested by Long (2005) is examined at both Limerick and Loughrea. At Loughrea, a
detailed study of several indicators of peat humification was undertaken to evaluate this theory.
8.2

Limerick

The pore pressure parameter from a CPTU test (Bq ) is


compared to the pore pressure parameter from a Ball
penetrometer test (BBall ) in Figure 13 at the Limerick
site. The Bq parameter is seen to be unreliable between
0.25 m and 1.5 m where the the measured resistance
became negative and quite scattered throughout the
rest of the profile. The BBall parameter is well defined
throughout, showing an increase with depth to about
2 m and reaching peak values of 0.14 within the more
humified peat between 2.1 and 3.1 m.
8.3

Depth b.g.l. (m)

measured from the Ball and CPTU at Limerick showing the Ball to give a comparable profile but with less
scattered results than the CPTU. The Ball would be
useful for defining parameters that rely on the pore
water pressure e.g. pore pressure parameter (BBall ).

Loughrea

Figure 14 shows a comparison of the BBall parameter


with the humification profile.The BBall value increases
to 0.15 and is constant at this value to 1.5 m before
suddenly dropping to 0.05. This sudden drop occurs at

Fibrosity (%)
5

10

15

20

BBall Parameter
25

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Figure 14. Comparison of BBall parameter with humification and fibrosity at Loughrea.

a depth where there is a significant amount of wood


fragments in the peat that are quite resistance to decay.
After the woody layer, Bq increases to 0.25 in the highly
humified peat.
Lvesque and Mathur (1979) have shown that
fibrosity of to be the most useful indicator of humification in peat. In general, as humification increases
the amount of fibres in the peat reduces as they decay.
The decrease in fibrosity and VonPost scale in Figure
14 suggest a similar trend of humification throughout the profile. Samples of peat at several depths were
also examined using Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM) to observe the physical changes with increased
humification and gain confidence in the Von Post profiles. Figures 15a shows an image of peat with a low
degree of humification (H4) with its cage like structure of decaying leaf. The increase in decay can be
clearly seen in the transformation of links between the
decaying leaf particles to weak strings in Figure 15b
where the humification is H8. From this analysis, it
seems that the BBall parameter is a good indicator of
the relative humification in a peat deposit.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Von Post
Humification 0
0
0.25
0.5
H4/H5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
H6/H7
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
H7/H8
2.75
3
3.25
H5/H6
3.5

It is suggested that laboratory studies be carried out to


see the effect of structural anisotropy on the full flow
mechanism around the T-bar and the Ball.
Computed NT-bar and NBall factors for the T-bar and
Ball show less variance than the Nkt factor for the
CPTU. NT-bar values show good agreement with the
theoretical value of 10.5. NBall values were generally
less than the suggested theoretical bounds. The variance in NT-bar and NBall values is largely due to the
level of repeatability of profile which can differ by
as much as 30%. The narrow range of NT-bar and NBall
factors compared to the CPTU Nkt factors would suggest that the T-bar and Ball are more reliable strength
profiling tools in peat than the standard CPTU. Factors based on the excess pore water pressure during
penetration for the CPTU (Nu ) and the Ball (NuBall )
seem to be superior to their counterparts based on measured resistance, although further research is required
to validate their applicability to peats. Nu and NuBall
factors show good correlation with the pore pressure
parameters Bq and BBall .
The pore pressure parameter (BBall ) from Ball penetrometer tests has been shown to be a useful parameter
to differentiate the humification of peat within peat
deposits. BBall values show a tendency to increase with
peat humification. The Ball penetrometer has been
shown to be superior over the CPTU as a tool for characterising parameters that are dependent on the pore
water pressure value.
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
Figure 15. SEM Images of H4 and H8 Peat from Loughrea.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of penetration tests using the T-bar and


ball show that they overcome some of the problems of
the CPTU in peat namely the scattering due to interaction with fibres and inability to attain resistance in
extremely soft peat. Resistance profiles from the T-bar
and Ball are similar and show a high degree of resolution compared to the CPTU. Resistance profiles from
the CPTU show a tendency to increase with depth at
a rate higher than the T-bar and Ball which has been
noted in other soft soils (Long & Gudjonsson, 2004;
Chung & Randolph, 2004).
Resistance profiles from the T-bar have tended to
be higher than those from the Ball although analytical solutions suggest that Ball resistances should be
higher. It is the opinion of the authors that structural
anisotropy in certain soils such as varved clays and
peats may inhibit the full flow mechanism from occurring around the Ball and lead to lower resistances than
expected.
End effects of theT-bar may also be more significant
in these soils, leading to higher measured resistances.

The authors are grateful to Lankelma Ltd. who conducted the penetration testing (Andy Barwise, Jamie
Ford, Brian Greorgious, Andy Molloy, Ian Musson
and Martyn Waters). The authors are also grateful
to ESB International Ltd (Henry Bouchier, Bernard
Casey, Samir Hebib, Con Sheehan) and RPS Consulting Engineers (Greg Hayes) who facilitated various
aspects of the fieldwork. The authors are grateful to
Dr. Tom Lunne of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Prof. Mark Randolph of the Center for
Offshore and Foundation Systems (COFS) and Asst.
Prof. Jason DeJong of University of California Davis
for their comments.
The authors are grateful for the support of the Environmental RTDI Programme 20002006, financed by
the Irish Government under the National Development
Plan and administered on behalf of the Department of
the Environment, Heritage and Local Government by
the Environmental Protection Agency.
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Lunne, T., Randolph, M.F., Chung, S.F., Andersen, K.H. and
Sjursen, M. 2005. Comparison of cone and T-bar factors
in two onshore and one offshore clay sediments. Frontiers
in Offshore Geotechnics: ISFOG 2005 Eds. Gourvenec
and Cassidy. Perth. pp981989.
Martin, C.M. and Randolph, M.F. 2006. Upper-bound analysis of lateral pile capacity in cohesive soil. Geotechnique,
Vol. 56(2), pp141145.
Randolph, M.F. and Houlsby, G.T. 1984. The limiting pressure on a circular pile loaded laterally in cohesive soil.
Geotechnique, Vol. 34(4), pp613623.
Randolph, M.F., Martin, C.M. and Hu, Y. 2000. Limiting resistance of a spherical penetrometer in cohesive
material. Geotechnique, Vol. 50(5), pp573582.
Randolph, M.F. 2004. Characterisation of soft sediments for
offshore applications. Proc. of 2nd Int. Conf. on Geotechnical and Geophysical Site Characterization, ISC2, Porto.
Vol. 1. pp209232. Millpress.
Randolph, M.F. and Anderson, K.H. 2005. Numerical Analysis of T-bar Penetration in soft clay. University of Western Australia, Centre for Offshore Foundation Systems,
Report No. C:2048.
Randolph, M.F. 2006. Private Communication
Teh, C.I. and Houlsby, G.T. 1991. Analytical study of the
cone penetration test in clay. Geotechnique, Vol. 41(1),
pp1734
Von Post, L. and Granlund, E. 1926. Sdra Sveriges Torvtillgngar I. Sveriges Geologiska Underskning, Yearbook
19.2 Series C, No. 335. pp1127, Stockholm.

414

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Experimental study of ageing effect on the undrained shear


strength of silty soil
Mounir Ltifi
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Gabes Engineering National School, Tunisia

ABSTRACT: Basing on an experimental detailed study, this paper presents the storage time effect on the
mechanical behaviour of the western northern Nancy area (France) a silty soil. This study has as objective at
explaining and quantifying the effect of ageing time due to the storage of samples after compaction on the shear
strength. Thats why, a significant number of undrained unconsolidated triaxial shear tests was carried out on
altered samples. These latter were stored safe from the air and the moisture during various periods after being
compacted. The results show an important increase in both the undrained shear strength and the deformation
modulus by silt rigidification during the ageing time at constant volume and in undrained conditions.

INTRODUCTION

The ageing phenomenon, which reflects a material


state change as function of the time, can produce
considerable changes in the mechanical and physical soil properties. Therefore, it is essential to take
it into consideration in geotechnical problems. However, compared to other soils phenomena, it has being
taken seldom into account in practice.
Several researchers have being interested to the
mechanisms and the effects of soil ageing [Mitchel
(1960, 1986), Leonards and Ramiah (1960), Leonards
and Altschaeffl (1964), (Zeevaert (1949, 1983)
Schmertmann (1983, 1987, 1993), etc.]. Although,
many reliable ideal models were proposed, the soil ageing remains a complex and uncontrolled phenomenon.
Nevertheless, these studies have showed that the
soil properties (altered or intact) measured in laboratory on some samples, which were taken weeks,
months and even years, are often different from those
in-situ [Bjerrum, Simons and Torblaa (1958), Bjerrum
and Simons (1960), Bjerrum (1961)]. This difference was attributed to both changes observed during
storage periods and to the test duration. So, the storage time is a determining parameter. These effects
on the soil deformation variables remain not known
sufficiently.
Although certain changes can produce negative
results from a geotechnical viewpoint, generally, ageing generates soil behaviour improvements. Indeed,
all the soils age and change according to time
(Mitchell, 1986). We often characterize by pure ageing the phenomenon, which involves time-dependent
changes only. But, during the time evolution different

phenomena, such as chemical weathering, freezingthawing, swelling-desiccating, ground-water levels


fluctuation can occur simultaneously, particularly
in-situ. This can generate confusion with what soils
can undergo during a pure ageing (Schmertmann,
1993). Consequently, the changes that soils undergo
have multiple sources. Then, it is often difficult to
determine the principal ageing cause.
In the literature devoted to the ageing of soils, the
thixotropy is widely used to explain the ageing mechanisms. To most geotechnical engineers, the thixotropy
is associated with strength regain with time after some
type of remolding. Mitchell (1960) has focused his definition to include isothermal conditions and reversible
behaviour at constant composition and volume.
ASTM D653 has long defined thixotropy as the
property of a materiel that enables it to stiffen in a
relatively short time on standing, but upon agitation or
manipulation to change to a very soft consistency or to
fluid of high viscosity, the process being completely
reversible.
According to Mesri (1993), the thixotropic hardening is a reversible process that can occur under
conditions of constant composition and volume. The
soil is reserving increased interparticle interaction
through reorganisation -mainly rotation- of inorganic
and organic particles and ions. Thixotropic hardening is the purest form of soil ageing, as it does not
require any volume change or chemical alteration of
soil solids or pore water. Therefore, it is the only
aging mechanism that can operate in soil samples
that are hermetically sealed and remain at constant
composition, including pore volume, and at constant
environment, such as temperature.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

%
cumul CAILLOUX GRAVIER GROS SABLE LIMON
SAB
FIN
100

figure 1. The geotechnical and mineralogical characteristics are presented in tables 1 and 2:
From results presented above, we can note that the
studied material is plastic silt.

ARGILE

90
80
70

60
50
40

3.1

30

10
100

10

0,1

0,01

0,001

0,0001

Ouverture intrieure des mailles destamis


quiv.(Sdimentomtrie)

Figure 1. The studied silt grading curve.


Table 1.

Compaction

The compaction was carried out using the Harvard


Miniature apparatus. This test principle is different
from that of the dynamic compaction. Indeed, with
Harvard Miniature, the compacted soil undergoes
more kneading effect than impacts. The choice of the
miniature Harvard compaction is justified by the facility obtaining more homogeneous samples with the
desired dimensions. We obtain an optimal water content of 22% which corresponds to a maximum dry
density of 1,6 g/cm3 .

20

0
1000

SAMPLE PREPARATION AND REALISED


TESTS

Xeuilley silt Characteristics.

Soil

wL (%)

wP (%)

IP

s (g/cm3 )

3.2

Silt

55

30

25

2,64

We carried out some undrained unconsolidated triaxial


compression tests. These tests aim at studying the ageing influence on shear strength. The compacted samples have a water contents raging approximately from
w = 23 to 24% and an almost constant dry density.
We must note that a small variation in water content
preparation already exist, before ageing period. Then
we let age the samples for various periods safe from
the air by protecting them in sealed bags. These latters
have been placed in an hermetic container ensuring a
constant temperature and a constant relative humidity
of the surrounding medium. Several samples represent
the same group for the same aging period.
At the end of a fixed period, we retrieve the corresponding samples and we carry out a weighting to have
a first indication on the water content (we considered
that the mass loss is due to a water loss only). This
corresponds to the water content after ageing. Then,
we place samples in the triaxial cell in order to begin
the shear test. It should be announced that for each
period, a group of samples were sheared under various
confinement pressures (50, 100, 200 and 400 kPa).
One of the group samples were sheared immediately
after compaction in order to be used as references for
the other tests.
The samples height and diameter are approximately
7 and 3.13 cm respectively. Table 3 presents the triaxial
compression test program:

Table 2.

Mineralogical Xeuilley silt Analyses.

Mineral type

Percentage (%)

Quartz
Montmorillonite
Feldspaths
Kaolinite
Mica

60
20
11
45
45

As seen the ageing phenomenon is with a great


complexity and has a considerable practical importance. We believe that it requires several experimental
studies, which must be undertaken over long enough
periods. This is the principal goal of the present study.
Indeed, this article presents the undrained unconsolidated triaxial compression test results carried out
on argillaceous silt samples compacted and stored for
various periods.
First of all we will start this work by giving the
studied material characteristics as well as the various
sample preparation stages. Secondly we will present
the obtained results and their interpretations.

STUDIED MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION

3.3 Results and comments

The experimental study was carried out on silt coming


from the Xeuilley area, located at Nancy North-West
(France). Corresponding grading curve is given on

3.3.1 Test characterizations


We remind that the water content after ageing corresponds to the water content measured by the sample

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Realised tests

Table 3. Triaxial shear tests programs.


d
kN/m3

3
kPa

Aging Period
(days)

3
to
24

16

50
100
200
400

Immediately
after
compaction
and up to

initial dry density (kN/m3)

w
%

20
Test Number
Two samples for
each period and
each confinement
pressure at least
328 days

19
18
17
16
15
14
14

16
17
18
19
final dry density (kN/m3)

20

Figure 3. Relation between initial and final dry density.

22

G1

G2

G3

G4

G5

G6

G7

G8

20

18
18

20
22
24
preparation water content (%)
(a)

26

26
initial water content (%)

15

24

initial water content (%)

water content after ageing (%)

26

24

27

24

21

18
0

22
20

100

200
300
storage time (days)

400

Figure 4. Initial water contents groups for each ageing


period.

18
16
16

18

20
22
24
final water content (%)
(b)

26

Figure 2. Water content variation during various tests


stages: (a) water content after ageing versus preparation water
content (b) initial water content versus final water content.

weighing after ageing. This same value characterises


the initial sample water content at the beginning of the
test.
In the figure 2a, the water content after ageing is
represented as function of the water content preparation. It is noted that the content water variation is very
weak. This allows concluding that the material aged at
constant water content.

Figure 2b present the relation of the initial water


content on the final one. It shows that all undrained
shear tests had proceeded with constant water content.
The fact that the samples were directly assembled in
the cells after being weighed, allows minimizing the
water loss risks.
On figure 3 we represent the initial dry density
(corresponding to the preparation water content) as
function of the final dry density for all the tests. This
shows the weak dry density variation during the tests
for all samples.
We present in figure 4 the different groups corresponding to all samples, as function of the storage
periods.
We can note that, the sample group G5 have a relatively higher initial water content compared to the
other groups. These small differences in water content
are due, mainly, to weak water content variations at

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

the preparation of the different samples. These observations are very useful for the result interpretations.
So, we will consider them thereafter.

T0
185 days
Dviator stress (kPa)

600

3.3.2 Deviator stress-strain curves


For simplification reasons, we choose to represent
the deviator stress variations as function of deformation for various confinement pressures for two ageing
periods only. Thus, we compare the groups G1 (immediately after compaction: in the next refereed to as T0)
and G6 (185 storage days) whose initial water contents
are very close (figure 4). In figure 5, we represent the
deviator stress evolution as function of axial strain for
each confinement pressures.
From the two preceding figures, we can note good
test repeatability. Curves relative to the same group
almost over lop for the same confinement pressure. In
addition, one can notice that the general curves shape
seems to be independent of time. Indeed, all the curves
describe a failure on the level for all confined pressure
studied.
In addition, we note a clear increase in the deviator
stress and consequently in the deformation modulus,
as function of ageing time although the strain at failure seems to be influenced very little by this one.
This increase is more important for the confinement
pressures equal to 50 and 100 kPa.

400
200

=50 kPa

0
0

Dviator stress (kPa)

6
9
axial stain (%)

12

15

+ T0
185 days

T0
185 days

400

200
=100 kPa
0
0

6
9
axial stain (%)

T0
185 days

12

15

T0
185 days

Dviator stress (kPa)

600

400
200

=200 kPa

0
0

3.3.4 Time influence on the strain modulus


In figures 7, we represent the deformation modulus
variation as function of ageing time for various confinement pressures. As for the preceding figures, we
retained the same sample groups.
We can observe a very clear increase of the deformation modulus as function of sample age.

6
9
axial stain (%)

T0
185 days

12

15

T0
185 days

Dviator stress (kPa)

600

3.3.5 Time influence on undrained cohesion


From the obtained results, we then proceeded to the
undrained cohesion determination for the different
studied ages. Figure 8 represents the undrained cohesion variation as function of ageing time. We note
an important increase in the undrained cohesion as
function of sample ages.

400

200

=400 kPa

0
0

12

15

axial stain (%)

Figure 5. Maximum deviator stress variation versus axial


strain for various confinement pressures after compaction
and at 120 days.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

T0
185 days
600

3.3.3 Time influence on the maximum deviator


We represent the maximum deviator stress as function
of ageing time for the various confinement pressures
(Fig 6). It should be noted, that we have eliminated the
G5 group aged of 122 days. In fact, the initial water
contents of this group are slightly higher than the other
groups (fig. 4).
The resistance acquired during the storage time is
as important as the confinement pressure is lower.

3.3.6 Comments and result interpretations


The obtained results show an important increase in
undrained resistance and deformation modulus with

+ T0
185 days

T0
185 days

maximum dviateur stress (kPa)

50 kPa
200 kPa

As we have already mentioned, several experimental studies showed that these resistance profits
are often attributed to chemical pore water alteration
and/or solid matter material constituents [Lessard and
Mitchell (1984); Mitchell (1986); La Rochelle, Leroueil and Tavevas (1986) and Graham et al.. (1990)].
In our case, according to the mineralogical material nature (mainly of quartz), we do not expect that
this increase has a chemical origin, i.e. initiated par
the transformations that the material structure could
undergo.
Mesri (1993) defined thixotropic hardening as the
purest soil ageing form, which does not require any
volume changes or chemical alteration. Thus, only
the ageing mechanism appears in samples, which we
protect and preserve without any changes in the composition or in the surrounding conditions. These conclusions were confirmed by Zeevaerts work (1949) on
the Mexico City clay.
The conditions under which we carried out our tests,
and the verifications made by measurements, in particular of the water content and the dry density, show that
the temperature and moisture have only a weak influence on the material. In addition, we took the care to
eliminate the sample groups whose preparation water
content variations were different. Thus, our test results
seem to be caused by a pure ageing mechanism as its
defined by Mesri (1993). We however highlighted the
importance of the influence of this pure ageing on the
mechanical properties of a fine-grained soil.

100 kPa
400 kPa

750
600
450
300
150
0

100

200
300
ageing time (days)

400

Figure 6. Maximum deviator stress variation versus ageing


time.

50 kPa
200 kPa

100 kPa
400 kPa

strain modulus (MPa)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0

100

200
300
ageing time (days)

400

Figure 7. Strain modulus variation versus ageing time for


various confinement pressure.

This article corresponds to an experimental study of


the effect of storage time ageing on the undrained
shear strength of silty soil. This effect is demonstrated
by the realisation of several unconsolidated undrained
triaxial shear tests. These tests are accomplished on
compacted samples stored during different periods.
The compaction was carried out using the miniature
Harvard test. Many samples, with water content and
dry densities almost constants, were tested. This study
permit to make the following conclusions:

400

Suu (kPa)

300
200
100

An increase in the maximum deviator stress for


the all samples is observed. This increase is as
important as the confinement pressure is lower.
An increase in the strain modulus, and then in the
material rigidity, with increasing ageing time;
The strain at failure remains only weakly influenced
by the ageing time.
A clear increase in the undrained cohesion with the
time of storage.

0
0

100

200
300
ageing time (days)

400

Figure 8. Undrained cohesion variation versus ageing time.

increasing ageing time. The relative increase is too


important to be neglected in the practice.
What are then the mechanisms and the origin of this
clear improvement of the mechanical characteristics?

This mechanical behaviour change was announced


by several authors (Zeevaert, 1949, Shmertmann,
1991, Mesri, 1975). It was attributed to ageing by

419

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSION

thixotropic hardening during the sample storage,


which makes the material more rigid. It should be
noted that this has a very important influence on
the behaviour of compacted and/or natural materials stored at the laboratory before test realizations. It
is then necessary to take into account these changes
which can cause an over estimation of the shear
strength measured in the laboratory. We could highlight that the increase in the deformation modulus and
undrained cohesion can reach up to 100% per one
storage period of about 328 days. However, it should
be recalled that the soil behaviour in-situ take place
under drained conditions, which differ from the laboratory conditions. Nevertheless, this study permitted
to describe and quantify the ageing time effect on
undrained silty soil shear strength.
REFERENCES
Bjerrum L. and Lo K. Y. , Effect of aging on the shearstrength properties of a normally consolidated clay, pp.
147157.
Lessard G. and Mitchell, J. K. (1985), The Causes and effects
of Aging in Quick Clays, Can. Geotech. J., Vol. 22, N
3, pp. 335346.
LTIFI M. (1998), Experimental study of ageing of soils s,
Thse de doctorat, I. N. P. L., 130 pp.
Mesri G. and Castro A. (1987), C?/Cc concept and K0 during
secondary compression, J. Geotech.Engrg., ASCE, Vol.
113, N 3, pp. 230247.

Mesri G. and Choi Y. K. (1985), Settlement analysis of


embankments on soft clays, J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE,
Vol. 111, N 3, pp. 441464.
Mesri G. and Choi Y. K. , The uniqueness of end-of-primary
(EOP) void ratio-effective stress relationship, pp. 587
590.
Mesri G. , Feng T. W. and Benak J. M. (1990), Postdensification penetration resistance of clean sands, J. Geotech.
Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 116, N 7, pp. 10951115.
Mesri G. , StarkT. D. ,Ajlouni M.A. , Chen C. S. (1997), Secondary compression of peat with or without surcharging,
J. Geotech. and Geoenviron. Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 123, N
5, pp. 411421.
Mitchell J. K. (1965), Permeability of compacted clay, J. of
the Soils Mecanichs and Foundations Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 91,
N SM4, pp. 4165.
Mitchell J. K. (1986), Practical problems from surprising
soil behavior, J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 112, N 3,
pp. 259289.
Mitchell J. K. and Solymar Z. V. (1984), Time-dependent
strength gain in freshly deposited or densified sand, J.
Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 110, N 11, pp. 15591576.
Schmertmann J. H. (1983), A simple question about consolidation, J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 109, N 1, pp.
119122.
Schmertmann J. H. (1987), "Discussion of Time-dependent
strength gain in freshly deposited or densified sand by
J. Mitchell and Z. V. Solymar, J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE,
Vol. 113, N 2, pp. 173175.
Schmertmann J. H. (1991), The mechanical aging of soils,
J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 117, N 9, pp. 12881330.

420

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

New relationships to find the hydraulic conductivity and shear wave


velocity of soft Pusan clays
K.G. Rao
Dept. of Civil Engg., Dong-A University, South Korea

M. Suneel
M.S. Engg. College, Tamilnadu, India

ABSTRACT: So far, several possible kinds of in-situ and laboratory tests have been performed in order to
characterize the Pusan clays. But, the data has not yet been used in the direction of generating new relationships,
which may avoid concern tests or may be used to check the accuracy of results of concern tests in the subsequent
projects. So, in this study, the data from several kinds of field and laboratory tests have been used to generate
different kinds of correlations among different soil parameters. As a result, some new relationships have been
obtained to find the hydraulic conductivity (Kv and Kh ) at any desired void ratios and also some other relations,
to find the shear wave velocity in terms of some basic soil parameters, such as natural water content and plasticity
index, have been obtained. In addition to above new relations, some other existing relations have been checked
for the Pusan clays.

INTRODUCTION
Yangsan

Pusan is the second largest city in South Korea where


large subsurface investigation projects are being carried out for the purpose of land development for
construction new residential and commercial complexes. The land developments taking place across the
Nakdong River Estuary. Fig. 1 shows the Nakdong
River Estuary and some of the sites in it. In this
study, the Hwajeon site was the study area (Fig. 1).
In this study an attempt has been made in order to
generate some new relationships to find hydraulic conductivity and shear wave velocity by using very basic
soil parameters, such as initial void ratio (e0 ), natural
water content (Wn ), etc. The results obtained by new
relationships were compared with those corresponding measured values which have shown very good
agreement. The obtained new relationships have also
been used to estimate the corresponding parameters for
the other locations and/or other sites for preliminary
design purpose.
2

GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF PUSAN


CLAYS

Except for the fill of about 12 m thickness, the Pusan


clays consist largely of fluvial channel-fill, marine and
fluvial flood plain sediments. The marine deposit is

Nakdong River
Jangyu
Hwajeon
Noksan
PNP

Shinho

Eulsokdo
Myeongji

Figure 1. Location of study and some other sites across the


NRE.

divided into five sedimentary facies (at Jangyu site)


on the basis of sediment types and primary sediment
structures (Chung, 2003).
Pusan clays are mainly deposited into two major
geological depositional environments across the NR
E. But each of them again sub-divides into a number of
sub-layers (different units) with marginal differences
from site to site.As an example, geological results from

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Kimhae

3
Unit weight, (kN/m )
t
14 16 18 20 0
0

Initial
Specific gravity,G
s
void ratio, e
o
1
2
3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

Shinho
Myeongji
Jangyu
Hwajeon
PNP
Kimhae
Eulsukdo
Noksan
Yangsan

5
10

Upper clay

20
25

35
40
45

Upper clay

50

Transition length

30

Lower clay

Depth (m)

15

Liquidity
Plasticity
Natural water
index, LI
index, PI (%)
content,Wn (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0
20
40

55

Figure 3a. Basic soil properties of Pusan clays from different sites across the NRE.
compression index, C
0.0

0.4

0.8

c
1.2 0.0

Coefficient of consolidation Yield stress, ' (kPa)


Compression ratio
2
y
C (cm/sec )
C /(1+e )
v
c
o
200
400
600
0.2
4.0
.6 0.00
0.01
0.02 0

Transition zone
Depth (m)

20

30

Lower clay

40

50

physical parameters with depth. It can be seen that the


basic soil properties varying with depth and depend on
geological depositional environments. Fig. 3(b) shows
the consolidation parameters, which also depend on
geological depositional environments. As a result, it
can be noticed that geotechnical investigations should
be carried out in relation to geological investigations.

one of the locations at the Hwajeon site are shown in


Fig. 3 (Rao, K. G., 2005). It can be very clearly seen
that the clay has been deposited into two major geological depositional environments (namely: sedimentary
facies 1 and sedimentary facies 2), which again subdivide as shown in Fig. 2. It should be noted that as the
soil between upper and lower clays has mixed geological properties of both upper clay as well as lower clay,
it is designated as the transition zone between upper
and lower clays.
BASIC SOIL PROPERTIES OF PUSAN CLAYS

All kinds of possible laboratory tests, such as physical


tests, consolidation tests and unconfined compressive
strength tests, have been performed on undisturbed
specimens from different sites and the results were
presented in Fig. 3. Fig. 3(a) shows the variation of

SAMPLING AND SAMPLE QUALITY

Undisturbed samples have been collected using different kinds of samplers, drilling methods and core
tubes at the objective site. A core tube with cross bars
and wings was used at some locations, whereas the
Dong-A core tube (Chung et al., 2004b and Rao, K.
G., 2005) was used other locations at the same site.
As the objective of this paper is not the sample quality evaluation, it was not discussed here. However, the
results of the sample quality are presented here because
the main results of this paper are from laboratory tests
on undisturbed samples. The sample quality has been
evaluated using one-dimensional consolidation data
using a method proposed be Lunne et al. (1997) and
presented in Figure 4. It can be noticed that most of
the samples were designated as poor quality.

422

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

'vo

Figure 3b. Consolidation properties of Pusan clays from


different sites across the NRE.

Figure 2. Geological profile at one of the locations at the


objective site.

Myeongji
Shinho
Hwajeon
Yangsan
Eulsukdo
Noksan
PNP

Transition length

Lower clay

10

Upper clay

5
Sand bed

41.5m

14m
26m
34m

1
1

42.5m

10

60
0.00

Good
to
fair

0.04

Poor

0.08

0.12

0.16

0.20
1e-5

e/eo

BH-3
BH-4
BH-9

Figure 4. Sample quality evaluation of Pusan clay at the


Hwajeon site (Lunne et al. (1997)).
kv (cm/sec)

6mm

44m from BH-4


(more Silt &sand)

logkv = 3.01(e/e0)-9.59
2
(R = 0.683)

1e-8

Hwajeon
1e-9
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.0

1.2

e/eo

Figure 6. The relationship between Kv and e/e0 .


1e-5

Hwajeon

1e-6
Kh (cm/sec)

Laboratory consolidation tests with measuring


hydraulic conductivity were performed as proposed
by Tavenas (1983b). Hydraulic conductivities were
measured after 24 h of each loading with falling head
method (Rao, K. G., 2005). The results of horizontal
and vertical hydraulic conductivities were presented, in
terms of anisotropy of hydraulic conductivity (Kh /Kv ),
in Figure 5. It can be seen that the variation of Kh /Kv
with consolidation pressure (v ) increases, decreases
or remains constant until consolidation pressure equals
to about the preconsolidation pressure, after which its
value increases with further increase in consolidation
pressure as shown in figure. The anisotropy of Pusan
clays is ranging between 1.1 and 2.7 for the Hwajeon
site.

1e-7

20m from BH-9

Sand column

BH-18

1e-6

LABORATORY TESTS TO MEASURE


HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY (Kv & Kh )

CORRELATIONS FOR HYDRAULIC


CONDUCTIVITY OF COHESIVE SOILS

1e-7

logkh =3.25(e/e0) -9.28


(R2 = 0.59)

1e-8

The measured hydraulic conductivities (Kh and Kv )


were correlated with the corresponding void ratios
normalized with initial void ratio. The results are
presented in figure 6 and Figure 7 for Kv and Kh
respectively. It can be seen that the determination
coefficients (R2 ) are significantly more as shown in
figures. The relationships are obtained as follows:
log kv = 3.01(e/e0 ) 9.59

(1)

log kh = 3.25(e/e0 ) 9.28

(2)

1e-9
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

e/e0

Figure 7. Relationship between Kh and e/eo .

But, it should be noted that the points that are located


in side a circle are of larger initial hydraulic conductivities (>1 106 cm/sec) due to the presence of
more silt and sand in a specimen from the location

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1000

Figure 5. Anisotropy of hydraulic conductivity of Pusan


clays at the Hwajeon site.

Very poor

2cm

Excellent

100

Consolidation pressure, 'v (kPa)

45.5m

50

BH-9

37.5m

40

16m
26m

30
Lower clay

Depth (m)

20

BH-3

kh / kv

Upper Clay

10

BH-3
BH-4
BH-9
BH-14
BH-18

1.6

1.8
Pusan New Port (N-1)
1.6

1.4

1.4

1.2

1.2

void ratio, e

void ratio, e

Therefore, the correlations that have been generated in


this study have shown very effective solution to find
the values of hydraulic conductivity at any desired void
ratio when we know the initial void ratio (e0 ), which
is very common and basic soil parameter in any soil
investigation project.

Hwajeon

1.0
0.8

1.0

0.8

7
0.6

0.6
Depth Measured Predicted

Depth Measured Predicted


0.4

0.4

8m

The purpose of this study is to develop new correlations between Vs obtained from SCPT and physical
indexes and cone penetration data to estimate Vs in
silty sand and silty clay soils. The values of Vs obtained
from new correlations were compared with those from
the existing correlations and the measured from SCPT.
Figure 10 shows the correlation between VS and different soil parameters, such as sleeve friction (fs ), cone
tip resistance (qc ), natural water content (Wn ), Plasticity index (PI) and initial void ratio (e0 ), and the corresponding relationships are presented in Equation 3 to
Equation 7 respectively.

40m
43m

21m

0.2
1e-9

1e-8

1e-7

1e-6

0.2
1e-9

1e-5

1e-8

1e-7

1e-6

1e-5

log kv(cm/sec)

log kv(cm/sec)

Figure 8. Comparison of measured and predicted values of


vertical hydraulic conductivity.
1.8

1.8

Hwajeon
1.6

1.4

1.4

1.2

1.2

void ratio, e

void ratio, e

Pusan New Port (N-1)


1.6

1.0
0.8
0.6
Depth Measured Predicted
0.4

8m

Vs = 3.51 fs + 96.33

(3)

1.0

Vs = 0.086qc + 92.33

(4)

0.8

Vs = 1122.1(Wn )0.4863

(5)

Vs = 672.37(PI )0.4358

(6)

Vs = 192.27(e0 )0.5345

(7)

0.6
Depth Measured Predicted
0.4

21m
0.2
1e-9 1e-8 1e-7 1e-6 1e-5 1e-4

log kh(cm/sec)

16m
14m

0.2
1e-8

1e-7

1e-6

1e-5

log kh(cm/sec)

Figure 9. Comparison of measured and predicted values of


horizontal hydraulic conductivity.

BH-4 and a continuous sand column in a specimen


from the location BH-9 as shown in Fig. 8.11. The
above correlations have been generated based on the
available results from the Hwajeon site and the efficiency of these correlations has been checked on the
other site Pusan New Port (PNP), where the hydraulic
conductivity measurements have been performed in
laboratory.
Figure 8 and figure 9 show the efficiency of the new
correlations generated in the present study in terms
of comparing the hydraulic conductivities obtained
from direct measurement and those obtained using the
above correlations. It can be seen that the predicted
values of vertical hydraulic conductivity have shown
good agreement with those from the direct measurement as shown in figure 9 for both Hwajeon and Pusan
New Port sites. It can also be found that the predicted
values of horizontal hydraulic conductivity have also
shown good agreement as presented in Fig. 8.13(b).

The measured shear wave velocities at the two locations BH-3 and BH-9 were used as the reference
shear wave velocities and compared with the estimated
shear wave velocities using Eq. 3 to Eq. 7. Figure 11
presents the shear wave velocities measured and estimated using the correlations developed in this study
as well as existing studies (Mayne and Burns, 1995).
It can be seen that the shear wave velocities estimated
from different correlations follow the same trend such
as measured values of shear wave velocities at both
the locations BH-3 and BH-9 as shown in Fig. 8.15(a)
and (b) respectively. It can be concluded that as the
new relations generated in this study have shown very
promising results compared to those measured at the
same locations, they can be used directly to estimate
the shear wave velocity at any locations where the
necessary data is available.
8

CONCLUSONS

In this study, a special attempt has been made in order


to get some new relationships for estimating hydraulic
conductivity and shear wave velocity using some basic

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CORRELATIONS FOR SHEAR WAVE


VELOCITY

400

Shear wave velocity, vs (m/s)

vs (m/s)

BH-9

Vs = 3.51fs + 96.33

BH-3

300

(r =0.53)

100

200

300

400

500

SCPT
f(e0)
f(wn)
f(PI)

100

(a)

0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

fs (kPa)

10

400
BH-3
BH-9

300

Mayne ans Burns (1995)

Vs =0.086qc+ 92.33

Depth (m)

Shear wave velocity, vs (m/s)

600

200

(r2 = 0.53)

200
100

Vs =(10.1 Logqc-11.4)1.67(fs/qc*100)0.3

15
f(qc)

(b)

f(fs)

20

0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

qc (kPa)

25

300

Vs (m/s)

BH-9
BH-3
200

30
Vs =1122.1(Wn)-0.4863
(r2 = 0.34)

100

Figure 10b. Comparison between measured and predicted


values of shear wave velocity at location BH-3.

(c)

0
0

20

40

60

80

Shear wave velocity, vs (m/s)

Wn (%)

300

100

200

300

400

500

600

f(fs)

100

10
(d)

0
0

10

20

30

40

f(qc)

50

PI (%)

20
300

100
BH-9
BH-3

(e)

0
0.6

0.8

30

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

40

2.2

eo

50

Figure 10a. Correlation between shear wave velocity and


different soil parameters: (a) relationship between Vs and fs ,
(b) Relationship between Vs and qs , (c) relationship between
Vs and Wn , (d) relationship between Vs and PI and (e)
relationship between Vs and eo .

soil parameters. As a result, some excellent relationships were generated, based on which the following
concluding remarks can be drawn:
(1) Geotechnical properties of Pusan clays depend on
their geological depositional environments

60

Figure 11. Comparison between measured and predicted


values of shear wave velocity at location BH-9.

(2) New relationships were obtained to estimate


hydraulic conductivities (Kv and Kh ) at any desired
void ratio if we know very basic soil parameter
initial void ratio (e0 ).

425

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Mayne and Burns (1995)

Vs = 192.27 (e0)
2
(r = 0.38 )

200

Depth (m)

Vs (m/s)

-0.5345

Upper clay

SCPT
f(e0)
f(wn)
f(PI)

200

Lower clay

vs (m/s)

(3) Hydraulic conductivities measured using new relationships show very good agreement with those
measured in laboratory.
(4) Also, new relationships were obtained, using very
basic soil parameters, to estimate shear wave velocity, which also showing very good agreement
with those measured by in-situ test (SCPT) and
estimated by other correlations.
(5) These shear wave velocities can be used to estimate the small strain shear modulus (results are not
presented here).
REFERENCES
Chung, S. G., Baek, S. H., Ryu, C. K., and Kim, S. W. 2003.
Geotechnical characterization of Pusan clays. Proceedings
of Korean-Japan Joint workshop, 810 April 2003.

Chung, S. G., Jo, K.Y., Baek, S. H., Ryu, C. K. 2004b. Sample


quality associated with sampling techniques on thick clay
deposits. Geotechnique (accepted).
Lunne, T., Berre, T., and Strandvik, S. 1997. Sample disturbance effects in soft low plastic Norwegian clay. Symposium on recent developments in soil and pavement
mechanics, Rio de Janeiro.
Mayne, P.W. and Burns, S. E. 1995. Geotechnical report
of Seismic cone test at Bagda, AZ, to Agra Earth and
Environmental Inc., Georgia Tech.
Rao, K. G. 2005 Comprehensive Experimental Investigation
for Geotechnical Characteristics of Pusan Clay in the West
Coast of the Nakdong River Estuary. Ph.D thesis, Dong-A
University, Pusan, South Korea.
Tavenas, F., Leblond, P., Jean, P., and Lerouel, S. 1983b. The
permeability of natural clays, Part I: Methods of laboratory measurement, Canadian geotechnical Journal, Vol.
20 (4).

426

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Geotechnical characteristics of a very soft dredged silty clay and


a soil-cement mix in Valencia Port (Spain)
Marcelo Burgos
Autoridad Portuaria de Valencia, Spain

Francisco Samper
Geotecnia y Cimientos, S.A., Spain

ABSTRACT: The Valencia Port Authority plans to incorporate a new area of 140,000 m2 for the storage of
containers. In this area there is a zone called the lagoon with a surface of 65.000 m2 . It has been back filled
with about 1.000.000 m3 of dredged mud. The consistency of this mud is very low and the water content is
higher than the liquid limit. One of the activities that will be carried out will be the construction of a 4 m thick
crust of soil-cement using the mass-stabilization improvement method. This will allow the circulation of heavy
machinery, which was not possible before. In this paper the geotechnical characteristics of the mud and the
soil-cement mix are described, with special focus on its residual shear strength.

INTRODUCTION

+10.0

At the South Dock of the Port of Valencia, an area of


about 1,100,000 m2 has been gained from the sea during earlier stages. Once this area was improved using
preloading (with or without vertical drains) it has been
put into service in order to store containers.
As a result of the back filling of that area, an artificial lagoon made up of mud with a very low consistency has been created at the docks end, presenting
very peculiar problems.
In the present paper, the geotechnical characteristics of those muds and of the soil-cement that is
obtained after mixing them in situ with that binder
are described.
2
2.1

INITIAL DATA
Structure and geotechnical characteristics of
the underground

According to the information that was available (Burgos, Samper, 2004), initially, a draft of about 12 m
existed in the area. The following materials could be
found below that depth:
From level -12 m to level 24 m: Fine sands of
medium compacity (10 < N30 SPT < 30)
From level -24 m until at least level 31 m:
Clays and sandy silts of medium consistency
(25 kN/m2 < cu < 125 kN/m2 ).

+5.0
+2.0
+0.0
0.0

-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR

SEA

MUD
ROCK FILL

-10.0

-12.0

-15.0

STAGE 0: INITIAL STATE


Figure 1. Initial state.

A hydraulic filling was subsequently done between


level 12 m to level +2, generating a lagoon of mud
with a low consistency, with an upper dried-up layer
around 0.5 m thick.
Finally, the water table is situated at the level 0.0 m,
with minimum variations due to the tides.

2.2

Characteristics of the jobs to be performed in


the area

The referred zone has an area of about 140,000 m2 . In


its central part there exists an area of about 65,000 m2
called the lagoon, where a volume of mud in the
order of 1,000,000 m3 is accumulated.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GENERAL
FILL

+10.0

+5.0
+2.0
+0.0
0.0

-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
-10.0

-2.0

STABILIZED MUD

GENERAL
FILL

SEA
MUD

ROCK FILL

-12.0

-15.0

STAGE 1: MASS STABILIZATION


Figure 4. Mass stabilization.
0

50

100 150 200


ESCALE

Figure 2. General arrangement.

Figure 5. Fotograph of the execution of the crust.

Figure 3. Fotograph of the site in October 2005.

At the present time, a project is being carried out


that basically consists of:
the improvement of the upper 4 m of the mud by
mixing it with cement, creating a crust that, among
other things, will allow the machinery to pass
through, which was initially impossible. This crust
is being constructed using the mass-stabilization
technique, developed in european nordic countries
based on deep-mixing.
the wick drains driving, whose objective is to dissipate the pore pressures of the muds, with a horizontal drainage (which includes a drainage blanket,
collecting ditches, wells and channels from them to
outside of the preloaded area), for the evacuation of
the water collected by the vertical drains.
The layout of a preload with a weight greater than
that of the port pavement and the containers combined, so that the muds will gain the necessary
resistance and its deformability will decrease.

Once these jobs have been completed, there will be


a waiting period until the muds have consolidated, and
from then on the preload will be removed. Later on, the
construction of a port pavement is planned, made up
of 0.30 m of concrete, 0.25 m of gravel and 0.80 m of
rock fill, with a combined weight of about 28 kN/m2 .
Later on, the area will be used as a storage site
for containers. In accordance with the Spanish Port
Norms, the containers are equivalent to an overload
of 60 kN/m2 , and the settlements for the pavement to
bear must be less than 10 cm in the 10 years following
its construction.
3

Due to their low consistency, the investigation of the


muds has encountered the difficulty of not being able
to introduce machinery in the lagoon previous to the
construction of the crust.
Thus, samples were taken from the edges of the
lagoon, as well as manually from the most superficial
zone. Once the crust was constructed, boreholes,
CPTU, vane tests and laboratory tests were conducted,

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE MUDS

Table 1.

Characteristics of the muds.

cu (kN/m2)

Characteristics

10

15

20

25

0
12
1518
<10
4060
4060
2545
520
3060
1214
0,91,3
0,200,25
4*104

2
4
Depth (m)

Organic matter (%)


Ca content (%)
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Liquid limit (%)1
Plasticity index (%)1
Water content (%)2
Dry unit density (kN/m3 )
Void ratio (e)
Compression index (cc )
Coefficient of vertical consolidation
(cv ) (cm2 /s)
Coefficient of horizontal consolidation
(ch ) (cm2 /s)
Undrained shear strength (cu ) (kN/m2 )3

6
8
10

8*104

12

<25 kN/m2

14

see Figure 6.
the most superficial zone, which has been mixed with
cement, has water contents of 40-60 %.
3
see Figure 7.
2

Theoretical values (1)


Average field vane test results

70

Figure 7. Results of in situ vane tests.

PLASTICITY INDEX ,Ip

60

qc (MN/m2)
50

40

10

15

30
20
10

5
0
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Depth (m)

LIQUID LIMIT, WL

Figure 6. Plasticity chart of the mud.

with the goal of verifying the hypotheses made regarding the characteristics of the muds.
The main characteristics of the muds are summarized in the Table 1.
In Figure 7, the results of the vane tests carried out
on the mud once the crust was constructed (This is the
reason for the absence of results for the first 4 m) are
summarized. These values, lower than the theoretical
ones, show that the muds are underconsolidated. On
the other hand, being somewhat more elevated, these
values differ slightly from those used in the project,
leaving the hypotheses made on the safe side.
Once the crust was completed, a CPTU campaign has also been carried out. The average cone tip
resistance is shown in Figure 8
Given the low cone tip resistance of these muds (See
Figure 9), it cannot be used to deduce values of their
undrained shear strength (cu).

15

Figure 8. Average results of CPTU tests.

Thus, the undrained shear strength (cu) has been


obtained from the increase in pore pressure (u)
generated during the cone driving, in accordance with
the Equation 1.
Cu = u /10

(1)

These results, together with those of the vane test, are


reflected in Figure 10.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10

qc (kN/m2)
50

100

150

200

BinVderA-Cement CEM I 42,5 R SR


250

2000

300
UCS (kN/m2)

0
0
2
4

1500
1000
500
0

Depth (m)

30

50 Kg/m3

45
Days
100 Kg/m3

60

75

90

150 Kg/m3

Figure 11. UCS results for binder A.

be attributed to the fact that they are somewhat


mixed with subjacent sands, which would explain
the lower pore pressures generated during the cone
driving.

10
12

Among other reasons, in our opinion, the values


for the undrained shear resistance coming from the
vane tests turn out to be more representative than those
obtained from CPTU tests because in underconsolidated clays the pore pressure should be higher than
the hydrostatic one; as a result, the adopted increment
in pressure generated during the cone driving may be
higher than the real one.

4.1 Laboratory mix

14
Figure 9. Detail of CPTU test in mud.

cu (kN/m2)
0

Depth (m)

15

10

15

20

25

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE CRUST

Before the project execution, samples of mud were


taken at the edges of the lagoon with the goal of
studying the most adequate binder and mixture for
that material. Tests were conducted with three types
of cementitious binders:

6
8

BinderA, which corresponds to a commercial CEM


I 42.5 R SR type cement
Binder B, which corresponds to a commercial CEM
Il/B-V 42.5 R type cement
Binder C, which corresponds to a commercial CEM
I 42.5 R cement to which 40% of fly ash was added.

10
12
14

Binders A and B gave similar resistances, clearly


superior to that of C, which was rejected. Finally,
binder B was chosen por economic reasons, and it was
decided that the proportioning (kg of binder per cubic
meter of mud) would be at least 90 kg/m3 .
The project demanded that the soil-cement meet the
following conditions:

Theoretical values (1)


Average field vane test results
Figure 10. cu values from CPTU and field vane test.

These results show that:


A good concordance between both methods exists
at depths between 6 and11 m.
At the outer zones of the muds layer, the results
differ depending on the method used, decreasing
drastically in the case of those coming from CPTU
tests. In the lower few meters of muds, this can

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

the results of the unconfined compression tests


of the samples made in the laboratory should be
greater than 4.5 kg/cm2 at 28 days.
the equivalent field unconfined compressive
strength should be greater than 1.5 kg/cm2 at 28
days. This aspect could be controlled by means of

Binder B- Cement CEM II/B-V 42,5 R

2000

UCS (kN/m2)

UCS (kN/m2)

2000
1500
1000
500
0

15

30

45
Days

60

75

50 Kg/m3

100 Kg/m3

70 Kg/m3

150 Kg/m3

1000

500

90

15

30

45

60

75

90

Days
Figure 14. UCS for 90 kg/m3 and binder B.

Figure 12. UCS results for binder B.

70
60

PLASTICITY INDEX, Ip

Binder C- Cement CEM I 42,5 R + 40% Fly Ash


2000

UCS (kN/m2)

1500

1500
1000

50
40
30
20
10

500

15

30

45
Days

60

75

50 Kg/m3

100 Kg/m3

70 Kg/m3

150 Kg/m3

90

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

LIQUID LIMIT, WL

Figure 15. Plasticity chart of soil-cement.

Figure 13. UCS results for binder C.

unconfined compression tests with samples taken


during the execution of the boreholes or by means
of correlationships with in situ test results such as
CPT (which, as will be seen later on, proved the
most effective method). With this condition, a laboratory/field ratio of 3 has implicitly been adopted,
which was within that expected according to the
actual state of the technique (EuroSoilStab, 2000).
In this way, during the job execution, tests have been
conducted mixing the chosen binder with new samples
of mud that have been taken as the job progressed. (See
Figure 14).
From these results, it can be deduced that the condition for resistance in the laboratory is met quite
comfortably. In addition, they also show that the resistance continues to grow after 90 days, as it was
predicted.
4.2 In situ mix
The data obtained in the laboratory give an idea about
the behavior of the soil-cement, which must later be
contrasted with the mix made in situ, with the equipment designed for this goal. For this, the following
in situ works have been conducted: boreholes, DPSH

type dynamic penetration tests, CPT tests, pits and


geophysical tests. With the samples obtained the following tests have been carried out: sieve granulometric tests, Atterberg limits, calcium content, dry
density, water content, unconfined compression tests
and direct shear tests with peak and residual strength
measurements.
During one of the first stages of the job, a test area
with cement contents of 70, 90 y 110 kg/m3 was created. Afterwards, during the job execution, the cement
contents used have been between 90 and 110 kg/m3 .
These mixtures are reflected in the figures and tables
shown next.
4.2.1 Laboratory tests
The samples with which these tests have been carried
out basically come from the cores of the boreholes
conducted on the soil-cement.
The silty-clayey fine content in the analyzed samples is reduced in comparison with that corresponding
to the untreated mud. The values are found to be
between 20 and 90 %, with an average of 60 %. The
cause of this may be that the cement must have agglomerated some fine particles giving rise to particles with
the size of sand and gravel, in such a way that the
behavior of the soil-cement is more granular than
that of the mud. This aspect is observed in the practical impossibility of retrieving block samples from the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10

Ca (%)
15

16

17

18

Natural moisture (%)


19

20

20

30

40

50

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

70 kg/m3
mud

90 kg/m3
110 kg/m3

Figure 17. Water content of the mud and the soil-cement.

4
110 kg/m3

90 kg/m3

Figure 16. Calcium content of the soil-cement.

pits. Furthermore, water was found in these pits carried


out in soil-cement in contrast with what was observed
in the pits executed in untreated mud.
The liquid limit of the soil-cement is between 30
and 50 % and the plastic limit is between 8 and 20 %,
values somewhat lower than those of the mud.
The calcium content of the samples lies between 14
and 21%, somewhat greater than the 15 to 18 % of
the muds, which is logical given the elevated calcium
content (39.5%) of cement.
The usual practice in this type of treatment is to control its efficiency in terms of the soil-cements calcium
content uniformity (which can be verified in the laboratory or, better yet, in situ, superficially or on the
borehole cores). This practice is based on the following
assumptions:
the calcium content of the soil to be treated is low,
which is not our case.
the amount of cement added is considerable, normally around 200 kg/m3 , which does not occur in
the studied case either.
A close mix of cement and mud can be guaranteed.
This is easier with other muds on which this technique is applied, that are more fluid than the ones
studied. With the latter, mixing is more difficult due
to their viscosity

untreated mud. This reduction can be attributed to the


adding of cement, which takes up part of the muds
water.
Due to the reduction of water content, an increase
in the consistency index takes place, which has values
that are normally between 0.4 and 0.5. This strikes a
contrast with the close to zero or negative values of the
untreated muds.
The dry density of the untreated soils normally
ranges between 12 and 14 kN/m2 , which shows that
the adding of cement does not lead, as it was expected,
to a significant change in that parameter.
The void ratio does not experience significant variations as a result of the mix with cement, remaining at
values of around 1.0-1.2.
In the laboratory, the resistance characteristics have
been studied by means of unconfined compression
tests, vane tests and pocket penetrometer. The results
of the latter have not been considered as being representative, given the fact that they are usually much
higher than those of the other two tests. This is probably the consequence of the presence of thick elements
made out of pure cement or thick lenses with a high
content of this material. In this way, by rejecting that
test and putting together the results of the other two,
the results reflected in Figure 19 are obtained.
From these results, the following conclusions can
be drawn:

The water content of the soil-cement is normally


found between 30 and 40 %, lower than that of the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

the high heterogeneity of the obtained results, that,


unlike it should normally occur in the field, makes
the resistance of the samples be in some cases less
after 28 days than 7 days in two cells executed with
the same mixture. This can be attributed to differences in the cement content, the difficulty of the

Table 2. Average results of the direct shear tests on samples


with a cement content of 90 kg/m3 .

Void ratio (e)


0,8

1,0

1,2

1,4

1,6

Depth (m)

Characteristics

( )

c (kN/m2 )

Peak resistance
Residual resistance
(first test)
Residual resistance
(second test)
Residual resistance (Average)

44
29

51
47

32

22

31

34

Table 3. Average results of the direct shear tests on samples


with a cement content of 110 kg/m3 .
4
70 kg/m3

90 kg/m3

Figure 18. Void ratio of the soil-cement.

Undrained shear resistance (kN/m2)


0

50

100

150

200

250

Characteristics

( )

c (kN/m2 )

Peak resistance
Residual resistance
(first test)
Residual resistance
(second test)
Residual resistance (average)

42
31

32
37

32

39

32

38

110 kg/m3

300

350

400

0
100
90
80
70
c(kN/m2)

Depth (m)

60
50
40
30
20

10
0
20

30

40

50

60

()

4
70 kg/m3-7 days
110 kg/m3-7 days
90 kg/m3-7 days
design value

70 kg/m3-28 days
110 kg/m3-28days
90 kg/m3-28 days

Peak - 110 kg/m3


Residual-110 kg/m3

Figure 20. Direct shear tests.

Figure 19. Unconfined compression tests and laboratory


vane test.

mix or the presence of thick elements that could


have falsified the results.
The difficulty of having a procedure to control the
crust based on this type of tests, considering its
variability.
Taking test tubes with samples of soil-cement newly
mixed in situ was also tried, but it has been demonstrated that it is not an adequate procedure for the study
of this material due to the difficulty of introducing the
mix in the tubes as a result of its viscosity and to the

complexity of taking samples in the lower part of the


crust.
On the other hand, during the preloading to be carried out later, the crust can be fractured so that when it
has to bear the uncompensated load from the containers only its residual strength or resistance will be taken
into account. If that does not happen and the crust is
not fractured, due to its greater rigidity in comparison
to the muds, a progressive rupture phenomenon in the
crust-muds set could be started once the containers are
put into place. Due to this, the residual strength of the
crust would only be considered.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Peak-90 kg/m3
Residual-90 kg/m3

As a result of this, in the calculations made in the


project, only the residual strength of the crust at the
moment of applying the load of the containers has been
taken into consideration.
With the goal of studying the residual resistance of
the soil-cement crust, direct shear tests have been conducted (two tests have been executed once the sample
is broken) with samples taken during the execution
of the boreholes, in cells carried out with 90 and
110 kg/m3 .
The result of these tests has been that significant
differences cannot be observed between the samples
with 90 and 110 kg/m3 , and that, in both cases, these
results were higher than the initial hypothesis about the
projects calculations, in which residual friction angles
of 2530 and residual cohesions of 010 kN/m2 were
being considered.

q c = Nc Cu

(2)

Nc usually ranges between 10 and 13. In this case,


Nc = 12 has been adopted. In addition, the project
asked for the crust to have an undrained shear strength
(cu ) after 28 days of 75 kN/m2 , which corresponds to
a tip resistance of 900 kN/m2 .
In Figure 20, the results of the CPT tests carried
out in cells with cement contents between 90 and
110 kg/m3 and ages greater than or equal to 28 days
are represented.

10

15

20

Depth (m)

110 kg/m3

70 kg/m3

90 kg/m3

Figure 21. Results from DPSH tests at 28 days.

qc (MN/m2)
0

10

average

50 th percentile

design value

Figure 22. Cone tip resistance of the CPT tests with ages
greater than or equal to 28 days.

Two criteria have been put forward in order to verify


that a certain zone meets the projects conditions: that
this be true for the average of the values at each depth
or that this be the case for the 50th percentile of the
values. Given the heterogeneity of the results obtained,
this second criterion seems more correct. In figure 22
it is shown how in both cases, the projects criterion is
met in a studied zone.

FUTURE STUDIES

The soil-cement crust has two aims: the creation


of a platform that will allow the circulation of the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

depth (m)

4.2.2 Field tests


The DPSH type dynamic penetration tests, very
widespread in Spain, are not sensible enough for the
study of soil-cement, due to the high amount of energy
that they apply to it.
The boreholes allow for a qualitative analysis of
the crust, but, in order to quantify its resistance, it is
necessary to resort to unconfined compression tests,
which have presented considerable variability as has
been mentioned in the previous section.
At the same time, pits have made it possible to
observe the aspect of the crust, giving a good qualitative idea of it. However, these do not provide
conclusive quantitative results.
Spectral shallow wave analysis tests have given a
good idea of the greater or lower heterogeneity of the
cells studied, but they have also been rejected as a
control method since they are still in an experimental
stage.
Therefore, of the field tests conducted, the CPT has
been the most effective for the control of the crust. Due
to the heterogeneity of the crust, it has been necessary
to carry out a large number of these tests and analyze
them with statistical methods.
In accordance with experience (Euro Soil Stab,2000),
the undrained shear strength (cu ) could be deduced
from the cone tip resistance (qc ) of this test, with the
Equation 2.

N20 DPSH
0

equipment, and the improvement of the muds so as


to allow for the future construction of a port pavement
and the application of the uncompensated load of the
containers.
This way, the second aim is yet to be verified. This
is planned to be carried out by studying the crusts
residual resistance at the moment of placing the containers, and the gain in resistance of the muds due to
the application of the preload.
As a result of this, additional investigation of the
crust and the muds is planned once the consolidation of the latter has been completed, and even
an instrumented test embankment is foreseen. This
investigation would include field and laboratory tests
similar to those presented in this paper.
6

CONCLUSIONS

As a result of the filling in previous stages of other


areas in the South Dock of the Port of Valencia, a
lagoon of muds with a very soft consistency has
been generated with a surface area of about 65,000 m2
and a volume of around 1,000,000 m3 . This lagoon
is contained within a zone of 140,000 m2 , where the
construction of a port pavement on which containers
will be stored is intended.
A set of investigations and preliminary tests have
been carried out in order to study the characteristics of
these muds and to find the most adequate binder for
the construction of a soil-cement crust in situ using
the mass-stabilization technique (developed from the
deep-mixing technique). This crust is being made at
the present moment and is basically being controlled
by means of CPT tests, which have proven to be the
most adequate for this case.
This crust is already accomplishing the first mission
for which it is being constructed: to allow the movement of equipments. Future investigations of the set
crust-underlying muds are planned in order to verify

that it is behaving adequately when the zone is used as


a storage site for containers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to give thanks to D. Jos Manuel
Moncada and the Valencia Port Authority for their
collaboration, and to the staff from the General Contractors (SEDESA and GEOCISA Joint Venture) at the
job site.
REFERENCES
Burgos, M., Samper, F. 2004. Caracterizacin geotcnica de
unas arcillas limosas muy blandas procedentes de relleno portuario en la Drsena Sur del Puerto de Valencia.
Simposio sobre geotcnica ambiental y mejora del terreno. Sociedad Espaola de Mecnica del Suelo. Valencia,
Espaa., pp. 205210.
Burgos, M., Samper, F. 2005. Modelizacin numrica retrospectiva de la rotura de un terrapln de prueba y del
comportamiento de distintas soluciones de mejora de un
relleno portuario en la Drsena Sur del Puerto de Valencia. Jornadas Hispano-Lusas de Geotecnia Sociedade
Portuguesa de Geotecnia. Lisboa, Portugal., pp. 277284.
Direccin General de Puertos y Costas. 1990. Acciones en
el proyecto de obras martimas y portuarias. Recomendaciones para obras martimas. ROM 0.2-90. Ministerio de
Obras Pblicas y Urbanismo. Espaa.
Direccin General de Puertos y Costas. 1994. Proyecto
y construccin de pavimentos portuarios. ROM 4.1-94.
Ministerio de Obras Pblicas y Urbanismo. Espaa.
EuroSoilStab. 2000. Design Guide Soft Soil Stabilisation
Development of design and construction methods to
stabilise soft organic soil.
Ladd, C. 1991. Stability evaluation during staged construction. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. ASCE, Vol.
117, No4, pp. 540615.
Lunne, T. et al 1997. Cone penetration testing in geotechnical
practice. E & FN Spon, pp. 6368.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Consolidation behavior of a soft clay composite


A.P.S. Selvadurai & Hani Ghiabi
Dept. of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics, McGill University, Montral, Canada

ABSTRACT: Inhomogeneous soft clay deposits can either be natural or constructed. Naturally occurring inhomogeneous soft clay deposits are typically varved and sedimentary clays encountered in lacustrine environments.
The constructed variety usually involves the introduction of regions of highly permeable zones, in the form of
columns or layers into an otherwise homogeneous clay region, in order to enhance the consolidation process. A
more recent development relates to land reclamation using dredged material. Where voids are present between
dredged clay lumps, significant compression can occur in a built-up layer of fill. This research presents an
experimental study and a computational treatment of an idealized situation where the soft clay composite consists of spheres of clay separated by a deformable granular material (ballotini). A one-dimensional bench-scale
consolidation test was conducted on the composite. The time-dependent response of the soil composite was computationally modelled, using a poroelasto-plastic model where the constitutive behaviour of the spherical clay
inclusion is represented by Cam-clay and a quasi-linear elastic model is used to describe the granular material.

INTRODUCTION

The estimation of the consolidation settlement of soil


deposits is an important consideration in the geotechnical design of foundations constructed on clay. Both
elementary and advanced models of soil consolidation
have been presented in the literature for the description of the consolidation response of homogeneous
clay deposits (Terzaghi 1943; Mikasa 1965; Davis
& Raymond 1965; Gibson et al. 1967; Schiffman
& Cargill 1981; Selvadurai, 1996, 2007). Inhomogeneous clay deposits include either naturally occurring
varved clays that are formed as a result of sedimentary processes or clay composite regions constructed
using different methods of land reclamation. Natural
layered sedimentary clays can be formed during different climatic cycles associated with periodic earth
movements, cyclic shifting of tributaries on deltas,
periodic volcanism and annual rhythms. The thickness
of deposits formed during each cycle can vary from
less than a millimeter to hundreds of meters. Rowe
(1972) discussed soil exploration data collected from
35 sites and indicated that the majority of boreholes
showed occasional fine and coarse lenses with variable compressibility and permeability characteristics.
Several efforts have been devoted to the characterization of consolidation behaviour of inhomogeneous
clay regions using analytical methods (Gray 1945;
Terzaghi 1940; Schiffman & Stein 1970; Sadiku 1991;
Bourgeois et al. 1997; Cai et al. 2001; Xie et al.
2002). Computational modelling has also been used to

predict the behaviour of the varved clays formed from


layers with wide variations in the constitutive properties (Yang & Huang 1970; Desai & Saxena 1977;
Cheung & Tham 1983; Booker & Small 1987; Abid &
Pyrah 1990; Pyrah 1996; Zhu & Yin 1999).
Some composite soils are constructed for ground
improvement of soft soils; soil reinforcement is commonly used, with stiffer materials such as sand or
gravel installed within the softer material, to form an
arrangement of closely spaced reinforcing piles. This
technique also improves the mechanical performance
of the deposit by accelerating the rate of consolidation, which in turn leads to an increase in the shear
strength of the reinforced soil. Many articles examine
the mechanical properties of such reinforced foundations by appeal to theoretical and computational
analyses (Hughes & Withers 1974; Balaam & Booker
1981; Mitchell & Huber 1985; Schweiger & Pande
1986; Cheung et al. 1991; Kim & Lee 1997; Lee &
Pande 1998).
In developing countries with coastal regions, the
shortage of land for housing, transportation, commercial, and industrial needs is addressed by land
reclamation from the sea. Many such projects are
directly linked to major infrastructure developments
including airport, seaport and other industrial and
residential facilities. In Singapore for example, land
scarcity for industrial, residential and commercial
usage is addressed through a major program of land
reclamation. This city-state has grown from an original land area of 580 km2 in 1965 to an estimated

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 1. (a) Schematic profile of reclamation fill (b) dredging of stiff clay lumps using clamshell (After Robinson et al.
2005).

area of 662 km2 in 2002 (an increase of 17%) and


the future reclamation projects are expected to result
in at least 120% more land (Lee et al. 1987; Leung
et al. 2001; Tan et al. 2002; Robinson et al. 2005).
To accelerate the process of land reclamation over the
past four decades, hill-cut material, seabed sand, and
other locally available materials were used to construct reclaimed fill. The sources of these materials
have gradually depleted and over the past 15 years
land reclamation in Singapore has relied on imported
granular soils. On the other hand, several environmental problems have arisen as a result of the sea dumping
of fine-grained soils obtained from maintenance of
navigation channels, port construction activities, and
inland constructions including tunneling and excavation of deep basements (Hartlen & Ingers 1981; Wang
et al. 1997). Hence, the use of dredged or excavated
fine-grained marine soil in reclamation activities is
an attractive proposition for solving the environmental problems. Different reclamation methods have been
implemented, depending upon the available equipment
and geological characteristics of the region. In this
regard, investigations have shown that the use of clay
lumps is more convenient and efficient than the use of
slurried material in constructing reclaimed fill (Bo et
al. 2001). Therefore, many reclamation activities have
recently been undertaken employing large dredged
lumps (measuring approximately 1.5 m in the largest
dimension) extracted from the seabed using advanced
facilities such as bottom-opening barges and huge
clamshells (Figure 1). Several field observations suggest that the compression of the built-up layer resulting
from the closure of the inter-lump voids usually causes
significant settlement. In an idealized situation the
voids can be filled with a highly porous granular fill
material.The granular fill dispersed between the lumps
can facilitate the consolidation process and enhance
the shear strength of the reclaimed soil strata. This

is the objective in reclamation schemes where the


reclamation activities involve spreading sand layers
between the hydraulically placed marine clay (Lee
et al. 1985, 1987).
This paper presents the results of experimental and
computational studies of the time-dependent consolidation behavior of a soft clay composite consisting
of spheres of clay reconstituted at nearly the Liquid
Limit, which are dispersed in a deformable granular
medium consisting of ballotini beads. The objective of
this study is to investigate the influence of the granular
fabric on the consolidation settlement of the composite by considering the constitutive behavior of the
filler region and the effect of stress partitioning within
the composite region. A one-dimensional bench-scale
consolidation test was conducted on the composite
sample consisting of 36 clay spheres arranged in four
layers inside the ballotini. The mechanical behavior of this composite is then predicted by appeal to
computational modelling. For this purpose, the constitutive models for both the remolded clay and granular
material (ballotini) are developed using the results of
triaxial and consolidation tests. The soil composite
undergoing overall one-dimensional behavior is then
modelled with the general purpose nonlinear finite element code (ABAQUS) using the constitutive models
of the constituent materials.
2

2.1 The silty clay


The clay used in this experimental study was obtained
from an excavation for the construction of the deep
foundation for an eight-story residential building
located on Sherbrooke Street East (Montral). The
clay, which was recovered from a depth of approximately 4 m, had a natural water content of 15%. After

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SOILS USED IN THE EXPERIMENTS

allowing the excavated clay to dry for a period of


3 months, the dry lumps were ground using a soil
grinder. The results of a particle size analysis indicated that the reconstituted clay contained 40% clay
fraction (<0.002 mm), 52% silt and 8% sand, and
according to the soil classification systems, it can be
classified as a silty clay soil of low plasticity (USDA
1975; AASHTO 1996; Day 1999). The plastic limit
and liquid limit of the fine grained soil determined
from a Casagrande device were approximately 15%
and 25% respectively. The activity of the clay was
also estimated at 0.25, which corresponds to the group
of inactive clays including leached post-glacial or
estuarine clay deposits (Skempton & Northey 1952;
Skempton 1953).
2.2 The granular medium
Ballotini is an artificial particulate medium composed
of glass beads. It is used in a wide range of industrial applications including the cleaning, shot-peening
and finishing process of metal surfaces. The material
selected for this experimental study was ballotini type
A3 with a specific gravity estimated at 2.5 manufactured by Potters Industries Inc. The grain size analysis
indicated that 83% of this granular material ranges
between 600 m to 850 m while 17% had a particle
size that ranged from 300 m to 600 m.
3 THE BENCH-SCALE EXPERIMENT
The bench-scale test conducted in connection with this
research consisted of a silty clay-ballotini composite
fabricated by dispersing spheres of silty clay in ballotini. This soil composite was prepared in a stainless
steel cylindrical cell with internal diameter of 15.2 cm
(Figure 2). The sample was fabricated in four identical
layers each with an approximate height of 4.2 cm. Each
layer contained nine clay spheres arranged in symmetric configuration. The total height of the sample was
16.8 cm and the volume fraction of the clay was evaluated to be 31%. The ground dry clay was mixed with
distilled water using a paddle-rotary mixer to achieve
a moisture content near its liquid limit (25%). The clay
paste was then kept in sealed containers for a period
of 1 month to allow for moisture equilibrium.
To prepare the clay spheres, the soil was placed in
split plastic moulds using a spatula. The two halves of
the prepared hemi-sphere of silty-clay were joined by
clamping the two parts of the mould. The clamped
moulds were then placed in sealed bags and were
placed in a freezer for 24 hours. The frozen spheres
were then extracted from the moulds using a heat gun.
After placing the clay spheres within the test cell, the
ballotini was dispersed between the spheres to fabricate a layer of composite sample. The consistency

draining vent

ballotini
4.2 cm
16.8 cm

geotextile

5.2 cm
base plate

water inlet
Side view

7.6 cm

Plane section

Figure 2. Composite sample fabricated for the Bench-scale


test.

of the frozen spheres was estimated by measuring the


moisture content of 4 frozen spheres, which ranged
between 24.4% to 25.1%. In order to saturate the composite sample prior to application of the load, distilled
water was allowed to flow into the cell through the bottom inlet connected to a water container and the water
level was maintained at the top of the soil composite
for a period of 2 days. Proper drainage was assured by
placing two layers of geotextile at the upper and lower
surfaces of the sample.
The most convenient method of application of a
controlled axial stress to a sample undergoing consolidation is through the use of static weights. The loading
frame used in this experiment can apply axial stresses
of up to 482 kPa corresponding to a 273 kg load placed
on the weight holder (Figure 3). The initial pressure on
the sample resulting from the weight of the lever arm,
plunger, weight holder and other accessory parts connected to the lever arm was approximately 81 kPa. In
the load sequence the axial stress on the sample was
increased to 149, 219, 273, 383 and 493 kPa by adding
weights to the weight holder. During each load step the
stress increment was gradually applied to the sample
by using a scissor jack installed in the loading frame.
The instrumentation used in this experiment
included a load cell to record the transferred load
between the lever arm and plunger and two LVDTs
to measure the vertical settlement of the sample. The
load cell, with a capacity of 10 kips (Model 1210
precision series, Interface Advanced Force Measurement) used in this experiment had an accuracy equal
to 0.04%. Two LVDTs with a displacement range of
10 cm were also attached to the opposite sides of the
plunger to determine the amount of axial compression in the composite sample. The excitation voltage
of the transducers, which is equal to 10 V , was supplied from the rack of the signal conditioning module
(ISO-RACK8) which can be connected to 8 signal conditioning blocks. In this test, three signal conditioner
blocks with the gain of 50 converted the transmitted signals to high-level analog voltage outputs after

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

plunger
clay spheres

stainless steel
container

Weight Holder
Data Acquisition

Load Cell
LVDT
Scissor Jack

Plunger

Water Container

Water Inlet

Consolidation Cell

Figure 3. Loading setup used in the bench-scale test.

the filtering and amplification process. These output


voltages were then transferred to a desktop computer
through a USB-based DAQ module (PMD-1606FS).
Due to the higher rate of axial deformation in the initial moments of load increments, the data were taken
every second during the first hour of each load step.
The data acquisition rate was then reduced to one sample per minute during the rest of the load steps in which
a lower rate of axial deformation was observed.
The test results indicated that a considerable portion
of the settlement corresponding to 80% of the total
strain occurred in the first load step. This substantial settlement, which was reached in approximately
15 mins, was related to the initial compression of the
loose ballotini poured between the clay lumps during
the fabrication of the composite sample. In the triaxial testing performed to investigate the constitutive
properties of the ballotini, the samples were similarly
prepared by pouring the ballotini inside a split mould.

CONSTITUTIVE MODELLING OF THE SOIL


COMPONENTS

The ultimate objective of the research is to develop


a computational approach to the study of the consolidation response of soil composite regions. A computational approach, which is validated through comparison with experimental data, can then be used to
estimate the settlement of soil composites that consist
of arbitrary arrangements of clay regions separated by
a porous granular material.

In order to develop such a computational approach,


we need to consider the constitutive behavior of three
components of the soil composite: The silty clay, the
ballotini and the interfaces between the regions of silty
clay and the ballotini. The accurate constitutive modelling of these components is a critical aspect that
can influence the overall predictions of the computational scheme. In this section we present brief accounts
of the experiments and model developments used to
characterize the silty clay and the ballotini. Although
specific interface models for the contact between the
silty clay and ballotini are not considered, the role of
clay extrusion into the void space of the ballotini is
discussed.
4.1 A constitutive model for the silty-clay
A series of triaxial tests, both unconsolidated
undrained (UU) and consolidated undrained (CU)
tests, with pore water pressure measurement were conducted to determine the shear strength characteristics
of the normally consolidated silty clay, used as a component of the composite soil sample. Since the silty
clay is prepared at nearly its liquid limit the preparation
and testing of the triaxial specimen required the adaptation and development of special techniques. These
are fully described by Ghiabi & Selvadurai (2006).
Here we summarize the experimental data and the relevant constitutive models. The constitutive model that
best describes the deformation and failure of the silty
clay is the critical state Cam-clay model in which the
response of the soil is dependent on the mean effective

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2000
Effective pore pressure at
failure = 145.4 kPa

Effective pore
pressure at failure
= 32.1 kPa

150

Deviator Stress (kPa)

Deviator stress (s1s3)(kPa)

200

100

Effective stress
paths
Total Stress
paths

50

3  kPa500

Experiment
Quasi-linear
model

1500

3  kPa400

1000

3  kPa300
3  kPa200

500

3  kPa100

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Mean stress value ((s12s3)/3)(kPa)

Figure 4. Stress paths in consolidated undrained triaxial


tests on reconstituted Montral clay.

6 sin 
3 sin 

(1)

The slope of the hydrostatic virgin consolidation line


() and the slope of the hydrostatic swelling line ()
can be related to known quantities such as the compression index (Cc ) and swelling index (Cs ). These indices
are usually determined from a one-dimensional consolidation test, which is regarded as a special case of a
constant q/p test (Desai & Siriwardane 1984) in which
p and q are defined as:
p=

1 + 23
3

q = 1 3

(2)
(3)

For this reason, two oedometric consolidation tests


were conducted on the reconstituted Montral silty
clay and the compression and swelling indices were
estimated at approximately 0.15 and 0.03 respectively. Considering the values of the compression and
swelling indices defined in e logP10 , in which P is the
vertical total stress, the slope of the hydrostatic compression and swelling lines in e ln P are established
at = 0.05464 and = 0.0104. From the results of
the conventional consolidation test, the permeability
of the silty clay was also estimated at 5 108 cm/s.
This value compares favorably with results available in
the literature for silty clays (Lambe & Whitman 1969;
Holtz & Kovacs 1981).

0.015

0.02

4.2 Constitutive model development for the


Ballotini
To develop a constitutive model for ballotini which
has a high hydraulic conductivity, the consolidated
drained triaxial tests were performed by subjecting
the cylindrical samples to different levels of confining pressures. In this study, cylindrical samples with
approximate dimension of 6.85 cm in diameter and
13.6 cm in height were first saturated under a back
pressure of 30 kPa. At this stage, the permeability of
the ballotini was estimated at 1.24 103 cm/s by
subjecting the sample to a hydraulic gradient of 22.
Applying different confining pressures (100, 200,
300, 400 and 500 kPa), the deviator stress was gradually increased and the volume change in the sample
was recorded by measuring the volume of water
extruded from the triaxial specimens. The variation in
the volume of the samples was then used to obtain the
lateral strain and the Poissons ratio of the ballotini.
The results of triaxial tests conducted on the ballotini samples at various confining stresses are shown in
Figure 5. Adopting a Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion,
the effective angle of internal friction was estimated
at 38 . Experimental results also indicated that the
elastic modulus of ballotini was highly dependent on
the confining pressure during the straining process.
The experiments indicated that the elastic modulus as
estimated by the initial tangent modulus exhibited an
increase with an increase in the confining pressure.
The constitutive model selected to characterize the ballotini was a quasi-linear model in which the elastic
modulus is related to the stress invariants. The stressstrain relationship is the first-order Cauchy elastic
model, which can be written as:


E
E
ij =
ij
(4)
kk ij +
(1 + )(1 2)
(1 + )
where ij is Kroneckers delta function; E and are
the Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio respectively.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.01
Axial Strain

Figure 5. Comparison between predictions from


quasi-linear model and triaxial test results on ballotini.

stress and the void ratio. The slope M of the critical


state line obtained from consolidated undrained triaxial tests was 1.55 (Figure 4). This parameter can
be directly obtained from the stress paths recorded
in compression triaxial tests or can be related to the
effective angle of internal friction (  ) of the soil
considering the following relationship (Chen 1994)
M=

0.005

The variation in the elastic modulus during each load


increment can be defined as:
E = A f (J1 , J2D )

(5)

where A is a constant and it was estimated at 400


using the results of the triaxial compression test, and
f (J1 , J2D ) is an invariant of the triaxial compression
test which is suggested as:

(6)
f (J1 , J2D ) = J1 J2D /3
where J1 and J2 are the first and second invariants of
the stress tensor defined as:
J1 = ii
J2D =

1
1
ij ji ii2
2
6

(7)
(8)

From the ratio of the lateral strain to axial strain


recorded in the triaxial compression test, the Poissons ratio was estimated to be 0.3. In the analysis
of the results, the lateral strain was evaluated from
the recorded axial strain and volumetric strain. The
latter was calculated from the amount of pore water
extruded from the ballotini assuming uniform lateral
deformation of the cylindrical samples.
To implement the proposed quasi-linear constitutive model in the computational modelling, a UMAT
subroutine was developed in ABAQUS finite element
code and the triaxial test was modelled in the code. A
comparison between the observed experimental data
and predictions, based on the quasi-linear model, is
shown in Figure 5. The prediction obtained by using
this model compares well with the observed curves
from CD triaxial test.
4.3

the pore space of which is filled with the penetrating


clay. The amount of clay in the voids of the granular
medium can be estimated by considering the mass conservation equation. The constitutive properties of the
mixture interface surrounding the clay lumps largely
relate to the deformability characteristics of the granular media, while the fluid conductivity property is
significantly changed as a result of the penetration
of clay through the granular voids. The consolidation response of intact clay lumps is also influenced
by the effective fluid transmissivity characteristics of
the mixture interface which creates a barrier to fluid
migration from the clay lumps.
The experimental observation after dissecting the
bench-scale sample indicated that no mixture interface occurred around the clay spheres. There was a
layer of ballotini beads stuck to the clay lumps, but this
could easily be removed from the surface of the clay
spheres. Therefore, in this study a stationary boundary was considered between the clay and the ballotini
region.
4.4 Summary of the constitutive models
The mechanical behavior of a composite soil depends
on the constitutive characterization of the constituents
including the stiffness and failure characteristics of the
skeletons and the fluid conductivities. In this study,
laboratory testing was first conducted on clay and ballotini and proper constitutive models were developed
for use in the computational modelling. The Cam-clay
and quasi-linear models described in the previous sections were then implemented for the clay and ballotini
regions respectively. A summary of the constitutive
models and parameters are presented in Table 1.
5

Interface

The approaches that can be adopted for modelling the


consolidation response of composite soil deposits can
range from the treatment of the problem as a stationary
initial boundary value problem, where the penetration effect is neglected, to the consideration of the
moving boundary at which the clay occupies the void
space of the surrounding granular medium. The former
approach can include the modelling of the clay and
granular layer as either a poroelastic or a poroelastoplastic material where the governing equations could
be in an incremental form. The fluid transport in the
composite porous medium can be governed by Darcys
law by considering two hydraulic conductivities for the
soil regions.
Another approach that can be employed in modelling the composite soil mass is to assume the presence of an interface surrounding the fine grained
lumps. This interface consists of a granular medium

The constitutive models developed for the reconstituted silty clay and ballotini were implemented in the
ABAQUS code to predict the mechanical response
of the composite sample under an overall oedometric state. Based on the symmetry in arrangement of
the clay spheres in each layer, a region with a section
angle of 22.5 was modelled including a hemisphere
and a 22.5 cut representative of the outer and the
central clay spheres respectively (Figure 6). Another
simplifying assumption was made in which identical
behavior was considered for each of the four layers
forming the composite sample. The steel plunger that
constrained the upper boundary to ensure uniform settlement was also modelled by taking into account a
layer with higher stiffness compared to the components of the soil sample (E = 2 107 kPa, = 0.4).
For this analysis, a 20-node brick element (C3D20RP)

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COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING OF THE


COMPOSITE SAMPLE

Table 1.

Constitutive parameters used in the computational modelling.

Material

Constitutive
model

Clay

Cam-clay

Model parameters
Stress
Ratio (M )

Swelling Index
(e ln P scale)

Compression Index
(e ln P scale)

Initial Void
Ratio

Permeability
(cm/s)

1.55

0.0104

0.05464

0.63

5 108

Initial Void
Ratio

Permeability
(cm/s)

0.73

1.24 103

Parameter A (Eq. 5)
Ballotini

Hydraulic conductivity
properties

Quasi-linear

400

Figure 6. The model of the composite sample.

with quadratic displacement and linear pore pressure


was selected, which was formulated based on a reduced
integration scheme. In this element, each node has
4 degrees of freedom, 3 of which correspond to the
displacement and one that relates to the pore pressure.
The ballotini and clay parts were discretized into
1030 and 570 elements respectively, which were
bonded in the interface of the two regions. The side
boundaries in this model were constrained to allow
radial and vertical movement only with no rotation
around the radial axis. The circumferential boundary was also restrained from moving in the radial

direction. Another boundary condition was defined at


the top and bottom boundaries so that the fluid pressure
could be considered to be zero.
The composite sample was subjected to 6 loading
steps of magnitude 81, 149, 219, 273, 383 and 493 kPa.
In each load step, the pressure applied to the top boundary was increased over 1 second and maintained for a
period of 1 day.
The coupled pore fluid diffusion and stress analysis was conducted on the model in which, based on
the proposed effective stress principle, the mechanical
behavior of the skeleton was determined. The mass

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continuity equation for pore fluid is also derived considering Darcys law for the constitutive behavior of
the pore fluid flow through the porous media. At
each load step, the displacement of the sample after
a period of 1 day was determined. At the termination
of the last load step, less than 0.05% discrepancy was
observed in the axial strain obtained from numerical
and experimental results, which is indicative of a close
agreement between the experimental observations and
the computational modelling (Figure 7).
The time-dependent behavior of soil is commonly
associated with the pore fluid dissipation or timedependent compaction of the grains due to the viscoplastic response of the soil skeleton. In the numerical analysis conducted in this study, the effect of
the former phenomenon was taken into account by
incorporating fluid conductivity of both materials in
the coupled pore fluid-stress analysis. However, the
numerical results reached their ultimate deformation
faster than the experimental counterpart. This difference can be attributed to the visco-plastic behavior
of the ballotini, which was not considered in the

quasi-linear model for this material in the computational modelling. The progress of the axial compression with time is shown in Figure 8 and compared
with the numerical results.The different scales adopted
for the initial load step attributed to higher axial displacements and the shorter period required to reach
the ultimate axial compression compared to the other
loading steps.
Stress partitioning is one of the main objectives of
soil reinforcement for soft soils. The reduction of the
loads transmitted to the softer regions of a soil will
reduce the overall settlement of the reinforced soil;
the major portion of the structural loads will be carried
by the reinforcing elements (e.g. either sand columns
within the soft clay or dispersed sand between the soft
lumps) (Balaam & Booker 1981; Mitchell & Huber
1985).
The results of the numerical analysis conducted in
this study indicated that the normal stress in the centre
of the outer clay spheres (pointA) is 0.69 0 where 0 is
the average normal stress applied to the sample, while
the normal stress at point B, located in the ballotini, is
estimated at 1.27 0 (Figure 9). The maximum normal

600
900
Numerical

500

700

400

Normal Stress (kPa)

Normal Stress (kPa)

Point C

800

Experimental

300
200

Point B

600
Axial pressure applied
on the plunger

500
400
300
200

100

100
0
3.5

3.75

4.25
Strain (%)

4.5

4.75

Point A

Time (day)

Figure 7. Final axial strain of the composite sample at the


end of each load step.

Figure 9. Stress partitioning in the composite sample.


8

1000
Settlement (Experimental results)

Experimental
3
Numerical
2

Axial stress level

600

7
400
6.5
200

1
0
0

(a)

10
Time (min)

15

0
0

(b)

Time (day)

Figure 8. Compression of the composite sample vs. time (a) Initial load step (b) Second to the last load step.

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Axial stress (kPa)

Axial stress= 81 kPa

800

Settlement (Numerical results)

7.5

Settlement (mm)

Settlement (mm)

stress in the sample occurred at point C within the


ballotini, with a stress magnitude of 1.63 0 .
During the compression process, the clay spheres,
which are initially at saturation level (24.8%), experienced a volumetric strain resulting from consolidation.The extent of the consolidation process, therefore,
can be determined with regard to the moisture content
of the spheres measured after dissecting the composite
sample. At the termination of the bench-scale test, the
moisture content of the clay spheres retrieved from
the loaded composite sample was estimated in the
range of between 18.5% and 20.0%. Numerical results
also indicated that, at the end of the test, the average void ratio of the clay spheres was approximately
0.55, corresponding to a moisture content of 20.9%.
The difference between the experimental results and
the numerical evaluation can be a result of the higher
stresses transmitted to the clay spheres during the
application of normal stress compared to that obtained
from the numerical results.
6

CONCLUSIONS

An experimental study was conducted to investigate


the performance of a composite fill made up of
clay spheres at a consistency near the liquid limit
dispersed in an artificial granular material called ballotini. A bench-scale one-dimensional compression
test was carried out to examine the surface settlement of the saturated composite fill. The test results
indicated that a considerable part of the settlement
occurs due to the initial compression of the loose
ballotini poured between the clay lumps during the
fabrication of the composite sample. A quasi-linear
constitutive model was developed for this material,
using the results of CD triaxial tests, in which the stiffness gradually increases during the process of loading.
The comparison indicated that this constitutive model
can reasonably predict the behavior of the material in
triaxial experiments.
It was observed that no mixture interface occurred
in the boundary of clay spheres and ballotini during
the experiments. Interface development can occur in
composite regions involving softer clay lumps or with
composite foundations that experience higher loads
than those applied in these laboratory experiments. In
this study, due to the consistency of the fined grained
soil and the stress levels, a stationary interface was
considered in the computational modelling.
The numerical and experimental results indicated
that the behavior of the composite sample prepared
in this study is highly dependent on the constitutive
characterization of the granular material. As discussed
before, the time-dependent response of the soil may
result from the dissipation of the pore pressure or the
time-dependent response of the soil skeletons related
to the visco-plastic behavior. The former effect was

considered in the numerical modelling by conducting coupled diffusion-stress analysis on the composite
model. Computational analysis showed that the pore
pressure generated in the clay spheres dissipated in
4.5 min to 8 min, whereas the ultimate settlement in
the experiments was reached in a period of almost
one day. By comparing the results obtained from the
numerical analysis and experimental results it was
noted that the time-dependent response of the sample is more related to the visco-plastic behavior of
the granular regions. Therefore better prediction of
the time-dependent response of the sample can be
obtained by considering a visco-plastic constitutive
model for ballotini.
Stress partitioning, another factor that enhances
the mechanical response of the composite foundation,
was also examined in this study. This phenomenon
is related to the distribution of the load due to the
interaction between different parts of the composite specimen. The numerical results show that the
maximum normal stress in the clay medium is approximately 37% of that in the ballotini region. Hence, the
deformation of the soft clay lumps during the consolidation process would be significantly less than
in homogeneous clay layers as a consequence of the
lower stresses applied to the lumps when dispersed in
granular media.

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Laboratory testing of a soft silty clay


Hani Ghiabi & A.P.S. Selvadurai
Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics, McGill University, Montral, Canada

ABSTRACT: This paper presents an experimental technique that can be employed to investigate the mechanical
behavior of a soft silty clay, with a consistency close to that of its liquid limit. Such soft deposits can occur either
naturally or be reconstituted for laboratory studies. The testing of soft clays needs to address the problematic
nature of the consistency, which limits the application of conventional sample retrieval and preparation procedures
for laboratory testing. This experimental research proposed a series of unconsolidated undrained tests that will
enable the determination of the undrained shear strength of the soft material. The laboratory testing includes
fall cone penetration tests to validate the results obtained from triaxial tests. The investigations also include a
series of consolidated tests, including conventional oedometer tests and consolidated undrained tests with pore
pressure measurement, aimed at describing the mechanical properties of a soft silty clay at both small and large
strains.

INTRODUCTION

Conventionally, the term soft clay has been used


to describe clays that have a high moisture content, approaching that of the liquid limit. The soft
clays encountered in Eastern Canada, the Scandinavian countries and South East Asia are characterized
not only by their high moisture content but also, in
some cases, by their high sensitivity resulting from
deposition in marine environments (Leroueil et al.
1985; Bjerrum 1954; Balasubramaniam & Chaudry
1978). In the context of this paper, the term soft clay
specifies a saturated cohesive soil with a consistency
close to that of its liquid limit, and with little or no
sensitivity. Clays of this type are usually associated
with soft unconsolidated sediments and dredged material recovered from marine environments. The study of
soft clays or soft sediments is important for a number
of geotechnical applications, including placement of
Spudcan-type foundations in offshore resource exploration (Mehryar et al. 2002; Cassidy et al. 2004), land
reclamation by placing dredged fill using pipelines or
clamshells (Lee et al. 1987; Robinson et al. 2005),
power and telecommunication cable construction in
offshore environments and offshore energy resource
recovery (Figure 1). Geotechnical activities related to
these problem areas require a knowledge of the constitutive behavior of soft cohesive soils for use in both
conventional geotechnical design and by appeal to
computational modelling.
This paper deals with experimental research aimed
at determining the mechanical behavior of a soft silty

Figure 1. Hibernia-worlds largest oil platform, Southeast


of St. Johns, Newfoundland [Ref: www.hibernia.ca].

clay which is reconstituted to a moisture content close


to that of its liquid limit. Conducting different geotechnical tests required the development and adaptation of
techniques proposed in the literature that deals with the
preparation of soft soil samples. The research is aimed
at conducting different tests on the soft clay under
both drained and undrained conditions. The results
of the unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial tests
on the clay samples can be used to obtain constitutive parameters governing the undrained response of
the material. The UU shear strength of the clay is further validated from the results derived from fall cone
tests. The drained response of the soft silty clay is also

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investigated using results of oedometric consolidation


tests and consolidated undrained (CU) tests with pore
pressure measurement.
2 THE CLAY USED IN THE RESEARCH
The clay used in the experimental research was
obtained from an excavation for the construction of
a deep foundation for an eight-story residential building located on Sherbrooke Street East (Montral). The
clay is typical of the weathered Champlain Sea clay
located in this region. The clay, which was recovered from a depth of approximately 4 m, had a natural
water content of 15%. At this depth the clay has
undergone extensive weathering and leaching of the
salts originally associated with its deposition in a
marine environment (Eden & Crawford 1957; Crawford 1968). The excavated clay was allowed to dry
for a period of 3 months and the dried clay was
ground using a soil grinder. A particle size analysis conducted on the reconstituted clay showed that
the fine grained soil contained 40% clay fraction
(<0.002 mm), 52% silt and 8% sand and could be classified as a silty clay soil of low plasticity (USDA 1975;
AASHTO 1996; Day 1999). Occasionally, the silty
clay contained gravel particles ranging from 2 mm to
5 mm, which were removed by sieving the ground soil.
The Atterberg limits of the reconstituted clay, measured using a Casagrande device, were as follows:
liquid limit = 25%, plastic limit = 15%. The activity
of the clay was also estimated as 0.25, corresponding to the group of inactive clays that include leached
post-glacial or estuarine clay deposits (Skempton &
Northey 1952; Skempton 1953).
3

UNDRAINED TESTING OF THE CLAY

The rationale for conducting UU tests to predict the


behavior of soft clays is well established (Lambe &
Whitman 1969). The UU test is indicative of a condition where a saturated fine grained soil is loaded at a
rate that does not allow for pore water pressure dissipation. The UU tests performed in this study are research
category tests since in geotechnical practice undrained
tests are often restricted to unconfined compression
tests. The UU test with pore pressure measurement,
however, allows for the assessment of saturation conditions of the sample, which is a necessary prerequisite
for establishing the applicability of the undrained condition. When saturated samples can be retrieved and
prepared for testing, the unconfined compression test
is the most convenient test for determining the constitutive properties of the soft clay. The consistency of
the soft silty clay used in this investigation presented
an added complication to the routine testing of the clay

in an unconfined fashion; with a moisture content well


in excess of the liquid limit the reconstituted soft clay
was unable to support its self weight and maintain a
cylindrical shape. The approach adopted therefore was
to prepare a sample for triaxial testing by consolidating a slurry prepared at a moisture content close to the
liquid limit of the clay.
The sub-sampling method proposed by True (1971)
involves inserting a small corer with the same dimension as the required specimen into the large primary
sample. This specimen to be tested is then extruded
into the triaxial test membrane and mounted in the triaxial cell. This method, however, is likely to introduce
greater sampling disturbance in the test specimen than
those introduced during the initial sample recovery.
In another sample preparation technique, reported by
Sanchez et al. (1979) and Sanchez & Sagaseta (1981),
the specimen was prepared from a slurry mixed at a
water content approximately twice the liquid limit of
the clay. The slurry was allowed to consolidate in a
split mould oedometer (diameter 38.1 mm and height
165.1 mm) under an axial stress of 24.5 kPa. Upon consolidation the split mould was removed and the sample
was cut to a height of 76.2 mm and used for UU testing. In a more elaborate sample preparation procedure
presented by Baldi et al. (1988), the sample is extruded
vertically into a trimming ring with the excess material trimmed ahead of the ring; here, the clay sample
directly enters the membrane which is stretched in the
mould connected to the trimming ring. Similar sample
preparation techniques are described by Hanzawa et al.
(1980) and Berre (1985). Goldscheider & Scherzinger
(1991) conducted one-dimensional consolidation tests
and undrained triaxial compression tests to determine
the mechanical properties of lacustrine soft clay from
the city of Constance, Germany. In their studies, large
samples of diameter 109 mm were obtained from boreholes using thin, smooth-walled steel tubes inserted
into a sampler with a slender cutting ring. They then
used the technique suggested by Berre (1985) to prepare the sample for triaxial testing. Another laboratory
method for sample preparation was presented by Katagiri & Imai (1994) in which the soil slurry with high
water content (100% to 2000%) was poured into an
acrylic pipe with an internal diameter of 75 mm and
length of 100 mm. After the sedimentation process,
a preconsolidation pressure of 49 kPa was applied to
the sample for 48 hours using a piston inserted inside
the preconsolidation pipe. Triaxial specimens with the
dimension of 5 cm both in diameter and height were
then trimmed from the preconsolidated sample.
Another sample preparation technique involves
continuously extruding soil from a tube, trimming and
feeding the trimmed soil into the split-tube containing a stretched membrane. Sheahan & DeGroot (1997)
used this method to design a trimming device for triaxial specimens. In another study, Yin (2002) presented

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

sampling tube (Figure 3d). After trimming the ends


of the sample, the mould containing the sample was
mounted on the base of the sample assembly of the
triaxial apparatus and the membrane was attached to
the cap by four o-rings at both the top and the bottom.

3.2

Figure 2. Sample preparation technique.

a technique where a thin-walled PVC tube of internal


diameter of 50 mm was pushed into the reconsolidated
soft Hong Kong marine deposit to obtain specimens
for triaxial testing.
A consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of the various sampling methods described in the
literature led to the development of the sample preparation and sample recovery procedure (Figure 2) that
was used in the current experimental research.
3.1

Sample preparation

The clay was mixed with distilled water using a paddlerotary mixer to achieve a moisture content close to its
liquid limit of 25% (Figure 3a). During mixing, water
was gradually added to the clay paste and the consistency of the paste was estimated using the Casagrande
liquid limit apparatus. From the samples taken from
different batches, it was observed that the water content of the paste varied between 23% and 25%.The clay
paste was then kept in sealed containers for 3 weeks to
allow for moisture equilibrium.
To prepare a triaxial specimen, the clay paste was
first compacted in 3 layers inside a PVC split mould
(Figure 3b), using a 625 g plunger to minimize trapped
air inside the clay sample (20 impacts per layer). The
split mould, with internal diameter of 9 cm and 15.5 cm
height, was held together by two steel ring clamps
and placed on the base of a Proctor mould. The membrane was then stretched over the split sampler with an
internal diameter of 35.5 mm and the cutting edge was
attached to one end. Another PVC tube was employed
to gradually push the sampler into the compacted clay
and the entry of the clay to the sampler was observed
through openings of the PVC tube (Figure 3c). When
the clay soil completely filled the sampler, the clamps
were removed and the mould opened to retrieve the

The undrained tests were conducted at different pore


pressures on four samples of the clay that were compacted and retrieved using the procedures described
previously. Prior to application of the deviator stresses,
the specimens were subjected to a back pressure of
300 kPa, which was maintained for 4 hours to allow for
complete saturation of the sample. The degree of saturation was established indirectly through measurement
of the pore water pressures and by calculating the value
of Skemptons B = (u/3 ) parameter (3 is the
increment in cell pressure and u is the corresponding
increase in the pore water pressure) (Table 1).
3.2.1 Results of UU triaxial tests
UU triaxial tests were conducted on samples of the
soft clays, which were subjected to different confining
pressures. The results of these tests are shown in Figure 4. The tests 2 to 4 indicate consistently repeatable
results. The higher peak value deviator stress in the
first test is most likely due to the lower water content
(24.2%) of the specimen. This observation is indicative of the importance of the moisture content on the
undrained strength. A further observation is that the
stress-strain response shows no softening behavior,
which is indicative of the mechanical behavior of a
normally consolidated clay.
3.2.2 Membrane correction
When performing triaxial tests on soils that are constituted at or above the liquid limit of the soil, the
measured strength can be influenced by the membrane
that is used to retain the soil and for transmitting the
cell pressures to the soil sample. The importance of the
membrane stiffness on the estimation of the strength
and deformability characteristics of soft soils was first
recognized by Henkel & Gilbert (1952). In their study
these authors assumed that the rubber membrane and
the test specimen will deform as a unit with a compression shell action around the sample. They also
suggested a procedure that would take into account
the influence of buckling of the rubber membrane
during sample compression. In a related study, Kuebris & Yoginder (1990) developed a procedure that
accounts for membrane effects by considering changes
in the membrane thickness during straining. A correction factor that can be applied to the deviator stress

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests on


reconstituted silty clay

Figure 3. Preparation of triaxial specimen from soft clay (a) Mixer (b) Split mould (c) Retrieving the clay sample (d) Sample
extraction.
Table 1. Triaxial unconsolidated undrained test specifications.
Estimation of B value
Test
no.

Water
Content
(%)

Diameter
(cm)

Height
(cm)

Back
Pressure
(kPa)

Confining
Pressure
(kPa)

Confining
Pressure
Increase (kPa)

Pore Pressure
Increase (kPa)

B Value

1
2
3
4

24.2
25.4
25.8
25.6

3.50
3.55
3.55
3.40

6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9

300
300
300
300

50
100
100
150

70
70
70
70

69.3
69.7
69.1
69.5

0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99

to account for membrane stiffness effects is given in


ASTM D4767-88 as:
(1 3 ) =

4 E m tm 1
Dc

(1)

where (1 3 ) is the reduction that should be


applied to the measured deviator stress (1 3 ); Em
isYoungs modulus of the membrane material; tm is the
wall thickness of the membrane; Dc is the diameter of
the soil sample after consolidation and 1 is the axial
strain.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

30

25
Cone Penetration (mm)

Deviator Stress (kPa)

5
4
Test 1
Test 2
Test3
Test 4
average

3
2

20
15
Evaluated Liquid Limit
of the clay using
BS 1377 (1975)

10
5

1
0
22

0
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

24

26

28

30

32

Moisture content of the clay (%)

0.2

Strain

Figure 5. Results of the fall cone tests on Montral


remoulded clay.

Figure 4. Stress-strain curves from UU triaxial tests (with


membrane correction).

3.3

Results of fall cone tests

Low shear strengths encountered in soft clays make


the constitutive characterizations of these materials
sensitive to the test methodology. The preparation of
samples from soft clay for triaxial testing is prone
to sample disturbance both during extraction of the
sample and its assembly for triaxial testing. In addition, the constraining action of the membrane and the
frictional/adhesion effects between the membrane and
the soft clay sample can influence the results derived
from the triaxial tests. For this reason, recourse must
be made to verify, independently, the accuracy of the
strength estimates derived from the triaxial tests. In a
laboratory context, the estimation of strength can be
approached either by using a laboratory vane test or a
laboratory fall cone test. In this research program, a fall
cone test [BS 1377(1975)], Quebec Standard Bureau
2501-092) was used to validate the results for the
strength properties determined from the UU tests conducted on the soft clay. The test performed in this study
involves the release of the cone with an apex angle
of 30 through the activation of an electrical switch
for a specified time period (5 0.5 sec). The penetration of the cone during this procedure is accurately
measured and correlated with the undrained shear
strength of the material at various moisture contents.
The first use of fall cone tests for the measurement
of the undrained shear strength of saturated clays is
generally attributed to Hansbo (1957), who proposed
the following relationship for estimating the undrained
shear strength,
Cu =

k Q
h2

with an apex angle of 30 . Karlsson (1961) proposed


cone factor values between 0.7 and 0.86, and revised
the estimates to a specific value k30 0.80 (Karlsson
1977). Research conducted by Wood (1985) proposed
a range of values for a 30 cone, with an average value
of 0.85. In the current research study, the value of
k30 was obtained using results from Brown & Huxley (1996); this value was estimated at approximately
0.33 at a moisture content close to the plastic limit and
0.76 for moisture content close to the liquid limit.
The results of the fall cone test (Figure 5) were
used to estimate the undrained shear strength obtained
from UU triaxial tests. Using Hansbos equation, the
undrained shear strength of the clay was estimated
to be 2.63 kPa for a moisture content near 26%.
The results indicate a good agreement with the shear
strength obtained from UU triaxial experiment. The
results of the fall cone test can also be used to estimate
the liquid limit of the soft clay. The BS 1377(1975)
uses a 20 mm penetration of the cone (30 apex angle
and 80g) from its original position in (5 0.5) secs
to estimate the liquid limits. In the current tests, the
liquid limit is estimated at 29%. The conventional
Casagrande tests gave a value of approximately 25%.
The difference in the estimates can be attributed to the
different modes of testing and to the empiricism associated with these tests. The results obtained by Belviso
et al. (1985), Sampson & Netterberg (1985) and Wasti
(1987) from studies conducted using the British fall
cone device and a Casagrande device with a hard base
indicate that the fall cone testing procedure leads to
a liquid limit that is 4.2% to 4.9% higher than that
obtained from the Casagrande device.

(2)
4

where Q is the weight of the cone; k is a cone factor


for a cone of angle and h is the cone penetration.
Various investigations have proposed expressions for
k ; Hansbo suggested a cone factor of 0.82 for a cone

The effects of excessive settlement of soft soil deposits


are a real concern to many geotechnical activities. Such

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DRAINED BEHAVIOR OF REMOULDED


MONTRAL CLAY

effects are encountered in naturally deposited soft layers, including marine clay and lacustrine clay, and in
offshore activities associated with land reclamation.
Several soil improvement techniques have been developed to resolve excessive settlement problems, and
include the installation of different types of sand drains
and prefabricated wick drain systems that can accelerate the consolidation process and the occurrence
of settlement (Balasubramaniam et al. 1980; Bergado
et al. 1990; Bergado & Balasubramaniam 1993). The
pre-loading stage is the main agency that can accelerate the settlement of the soft clay deposits and reduce
the settlements associated with the construction loads.
The settlements related to the pre-loading stage can
be divided into three different categories. The relative
importance and the magnitude of each type of settlement depends on several factors, including soil type,
compressibility and hydraulic properties. The immediate settlement of the layer, which is more severe in
reclaimed nonhomogeneous lumpy clay fills, occurs
due to the closure of the voids between the clay lumps.
Several experimental and theoretical studies have been
conducted to estimate the settlement of the lumpy fills,
which usually takes place rapidly in the early stage
of loading and before initiation of primary consolidation (Nogami et al. 2004; Robinson et al. 2005).
Primary consolidation is the main factor contributing
to the settlement in sedimentary layers such as natural
varved clay or hydraulically-placed marine clay soil
deposits. Secondary consolidation, which is not the
predominant settlement in the clay layers, occurs in the
long-term period under construction loads (Bergado &
Balasubramaniam 1993).
During the process of consolidation, the consistency and strength of the layers changes with alterations in moisture content. The drained behavior of the
soft clay is therefore an important issue that should be
taken into account before each construction project;
such consideration may indicate the efficiency of the
preloading phase especially for clays with a high
hydraulic conductivity and a low plasticity index.

4.1

Consolidated undrained triaxial tests

The consolidated drained (CD) test is commonly


performed on granular samples with high hydraulic
conductivity. For a true drained test, the pore water
pressures should be maintained without any increase
during the application of deviator stress. Maintaining this requirement in fine-grained soils requires the
application of slow strain rates that tend to increase
the duration of the tests. Therefore, consolidated
undrained (CU) tests with pore pressure measurement are the preferred alternative for determining the
strength characteristics of fine grained soils with low
hydraulic conductivity under drained conditions.

4.1.1 Sample preparation and testing technique


The triaxial specimens for CU tests are prepared using
the same technique described previously for the UU
tests. After the sample is assembled in the triaxial
apparatus, the specimen should be brought to a fully
saturated condition. This was accomplished by applying a back pressure of 300 kPa to the samples for a
duration of 8 hours. Other conditions associated with
each test are presented in Table 2.
After saturation, the specimens were isotropically
consolidated in the triaxial chamber. In each test, the
confining pressure was increased in two equal steps
and the volume change was determined by measuring the volume of water leaving the sample. Each
increment of confining pressure was applied only after
the termination of the primary consolidation process.
The time for completion of the primary consolidation
process took between 4 to 8 hours.
During the consolidation phase, the samples regain
their strength through a reduction in the void ratio. The
initial moisture content of the specimens was approximately at the liquid limit (25%) and reduced to
approximately 19% under the application of 50 kPa
of confining pressure (Table 2). By further increasing the confining pressure, the moisture content of the
specimens was approaching its plastic limit due to the
consolidation process.
The value of the pore pressure parameter B was
determined prior to the application of the deviator
stresses. The parameter was determined by subjecting the sample to an increment of confining stress
3 = 70 kPa. The experimentally determined value
of B = 0.99 indicates the near full saturation of the
triaxial samples.
4.1.2 Results of CU triaxial tests on remoulded silty
clay
The behavior of most geological materials is highly
dependent on the isotropic stress applied to the
medium. Under fully or partially drained conditions,
the strength of a soil often increases with the isotropic
confining stress. The results of the CU test with pore
pressure measurement indicated that the consolidation
of the reconstituted silty clay under different confining
pressures results in an increase in the shear strength of
the material (Figure 6). Different failure criteria, such
as Mohr-Coulomb or Drucker-Prager, have been proposed for the prediction of the frictional characteristics
generally observed in geologic media.
Figure 7 shows the effective stress path of the tests
in which all the paths deviate to the left, indicating
the normally consolidated behavior of the clay samples. The deviation of the effective stress paths results
from the positive pore pressure generated during the
shearing process.
The membrane correction was also applied to the
experimental results, following the method indicated

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 2.

Consolidated undrained triaxial test specifications.

Test
no.

Effective
Confining
Pressure
(kPa)

Back
Pressure
(kPa)

Isotropic
Consolidation
Pressures (kPa)

Initial
water
content %

Initial wet unit


weight (kN/m3 )

Water content
after
consolidation %

B value

1
2
3
4
5

50
100
150
200
200

300
305
305
305
305

2550
50100
75150
100200
100200

23.2
25.0
25.3
25.0
25.0

1.98
1.98
1.98
2.01
1.98

19.3
18.6
18.0
17.2
17.1

0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99

Deviator Stress 1-3(kPa)

180

4.2 Consolidation test

Test 1- 3 = 50kPa
Test 2- 3 = 100kPa
Test 3- 3 = 150kPa
Test 4- 3 = 200kPa
Test 5- 3 = 200kPa

160
140

In this research program, one-dimensional consolidation tests were performed to determine the consolidation characteristics of the Montral silty clay.
The assessment of the consolidation settlement of soft
clays is also important to geotechnical design involving such soil deposits, whether they occur naturally or
are created by dredge and fill operations.

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

0.05

0.1
Strain

0.15

0.2

Figure 6. Result of the consolidated undrained triaxial test


on remoulded clay.
200
Effective pore pressure at

Deviator stress (1 - 3)(kPa)

150

failure = 145.4 kPa

Effective pore
pressure at failure
= 32.1 kPa

100

Effective stress
paths
Total Stress
paths

50

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Mean stress value (( 1 + 2 3 ) / 3 )( kPa )

Figure 7. Stress paths in CU triaxial tests on reconstituted


silty clay.

in UU experiments. Computational studies indicate


that in the CU test series, 4 to 10% of the deviator stress at failure was carried by the membrane,
whereas in the UU tests, approximately 50% is carried
by the membrane. This observation clearly indicates
the importance of the membrane stiffness in influencing the stress-strain behavior obtained from undrained
tests on a soft clay.

4.2.1 Test procedure


The specimens were prepared using a method identical to that used in the preparation of the specimens for
triaxial testing. The soil, with a moisture content near
its liquid limit, was compacted in a split proctor mould
in 3 layers using a plunger. A stack of three rings was
then inserted into the compacted clay and the material
contained in the central ring was trimmed to form the
sample for the oedometer consolidation test. The samples had an internal diameter of 6.6 cm and a height of
1.9 cm. The axial stress on the samples was increased
from 12 kPa to approximately 508 kPa during the loading process. The evaluation of the physical properties
of the material indicates that the samples were in a saturated state. Other information relevant to the test is
presented in Table 3.
4.2.2 Results of consolidation tests
In the consolidation process the extrusion of pore
pressure results in a change in the void ratio of the
sample. The coefficient of consolidation (Cv ) of the
clay was determined using Terzaghis construction
(Casagrande & Fadum 1940; Day 2001).The estimated
value of Cv varied with the level of vertical effective
stress within the range 0.01 cm2 min to 0.08 cm2 min
for v ranging from 12 kPa to 508 kPa.
The results of the consolidation tests are shown
in Figure 8, which illustrates that the consolidation
curves from the two consolidation tests agree closely.
The value of the recompression index Cr and the compression index Cc can be derived from the slope of
the recompression curve and the virgin compression
curve, respectively. The swelling index (Cs ) can be
calculated from the unloading curves (Table 3).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 3. Physical and mechanical properties of the Montral


clay evaluated from consolidation tests.
Test no.

Initial Height (cm)


Initial wet unit weight (g/cm3 )
Initial moisture content (%)
Initial degree of saturation (%)
Final moisture content (%)
Initial Void ratio
Final Void ratio
Compression Index Cc
Recompression Index Cr
Swelling Index Cs

1.9
2.1
21.2
100
17.02
0.55
0.29
0.14

0.024

1.9
2.04
22.2
100
16.99
0.58
0.29
0.13
0.016
0.024

Void Ratio (e)

0.48

Test 1
Test 2

0.43
Virgin Compression
curve
0.38
Recompression
curve
0.33

0.28
10

Elastic unloading
curve
100
Effective normal stress (kPa)

1000

Figure 8. Consolidation curves (Montral remoulded slity


clay).

There are several empirical relations proposed in


the literature for the estimation of compression and
swelling indices. Skempton (1944) proposed the following relationship between Cc and the liquid limit for
remoulded clay:
Cc = 0.007(LL-7)

(3)

Considering a liquid limit of 25% for the reconstituted Montral silty clay, the compression index Cc
is estimated at 0.13. Nagaraj & Murthy (1985) also
suggested the following relationships for estimating
compression and swelling indices from measured values of the liquid limit and the specific gravity Gs of
the clay:
Cc = 0.2343(LL/100)Gs

(4)

Cs = 0.0463(LL/100)Gs

(5)

Using these relations and assuming Gs = 2.63, the


compression and swelling indices are estimated at
approximately 0.15 and 0.03 respectively. This comparison indicates a reasonable agreement between the
experimental results and empirical estimates.

The mechanical behavior of a reconstituted soft soil


was investigated through a series of drained and
undrained tests conducted on Montral silty clay. The
objective of this study was to propose an experimental
method that can be used to characterize the mechanical
properties of a normally consolidated silty clay, which
can represent the soft load-bearing strata encountered
in marine environments or in hydraulically placed
reclaimed soil deposits.
Due to the low strength of the material, experimental results associated with conventional triaxial testing
suffer from errors resulting from sample preparation
and assembly and sensitivity of the data acquisition
devices. These results therefore need to be validated by
appeal to other testing methods and empirical relations
suggested from experimental investigations involving
other types of fine grained soils. In this study, the
undrained shear strength of the tested soil determined
from UU triaxial testing was verified by the experimental results obtained from a strength-based fall cone
test. The influence of the membrane stiffness in the
triaxial testing was also considered when analyzing
the results. In this study the magnitude of the deviator
load carried by the membrane is estimated up to 50%
of the total deviator load by appeal to experimental
results and considering the relations suggested in the
literature.
In fine grained soils a decrease in the water content
can enhance the shear strength; a soil which was soft in
its natural state becomes a stiffer medium as the moisture content is reduced by a process such as consolidation. Experimental data on strength and water content
presented by Skempton & Northey (1952) indicated
that the undrained shear strength of a fine grained soil
increases about 100 times through a decrease of its
moisture content from its liquid limit to its plastic limit.
The experimental results of the CU tests conducted in
connection with this research indicated that the moisture content of the tested clay reduces to approximately
17% under an effective confining pressure of 200 kPa,
which is close to the plastic limit of the soil. The regain
of the soil strength, which was also seen in the conventional consolidation tests, rationalizes the preloading
technique applied to the soft foundations in order to
reduce excess deformations during the application of
construction loads.

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Effect of heating on pore water pressure of soft bentonite


A.N. Sinha & O. Kusakabe
Department of Civil Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology (TIT), Japan

ABSTRACT: Bentonite is naturally occurring clay having high swelling potential and very low permeability.
It is used as the main component of landfill liners and as backfill material of nuclear waste disposal. Heat is
generated, both in landfill and nuclear waste disposal facilities. Thus it is necessary to study the behaviour of
bentonite due to different levels and different sequences of heating. It was found from the investigation that index
parameters like liquid limit, plastic limit are not affected by heating significantly. A modified consolidation cell
was used to measure the temperature inside the soil and pore water pressure at the bottom of the specimen.
Bentonite slurry was heated to 75 C in drained and undrained conditions. It was found that undrained heating of
bentonite caused rapid increase in pore water pressure. The removal of heating in the undrained condition caused
development of significant negative pore water pressure. In the case of drained heating the increase of pore water
pressure was very small compared to the undrained case. In the drained condition there was no development
of negative pore water pressure. A relationship is established between pore pressure increment to temperature
increment ratio with permeability in the undrained condition.

2 TESTED MATERIAL

INTRODUCTION

Bentonite is naturally occurring clay having very high


percentage of clay mineral sodium montmorillonite. It
has a very high swelling potential and very low permeability. For this reason, it is used as the main component
of Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs) in landfill liner,
as well as buffer material to protect nuclear waste at
deep geological barrier. It was reported that (Rowe,
2005), the landfill liner temperatures can reach at least
30 40 C for normal landfill operations, temperature
may go up to 40 60 C at the base of landfills due
to significant leachate mound. Yoshida et al. (1996)
reported that in the Tokyo Port Landfill the temperature went upto 70 C. In the case of Nuclear Waste
disposal, bentonite is used as the most popular buffer
material. There are two types of Nuclear Waste (i)
Low Level Waste (LLW) less radioactive and (ii)
High Level Waste (HLW) highly radioactive. HLW
is disposed by putting them in steel canisters, and kept
inside deep rock formation surrounded by bentonite
blocks. HLW is expected to be kept stored for about
1000 years and they are so designed to give a temperature below 100 C. The bentonite inside the GCLs can
be in soft state in the landfill and the bentonite buffer
can also become soft with long time duration. Thus it
is very important to investigate the behaviour of soft
bentonite due to heating effect.

Japanese Bentonite was used in this experimental program. The results were close to as reported by Komine
(2004). The index properties are as below.
3 TEST EQUIPMENTS
A consolidation cell was modified to measure the temperature (T) inside the soil at two locations and a
Pore Pressure Transducer (PPT) was placed at the bottom to measure the pore water pressure (uw ). The cell
has two parts (i) Outer cell where the hot water is
circulated from a hot water tub, and (ii) Inner cell
where the soil placed inside a stainless steel metal ring
(Height = 20 mm and Dia = 60 mm) and a piston with
bottom porous stone over the soil to provide vertical
Table 1.

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Index properties of bentonite.

Sl No.

Item

Bentonite

1
2
3
4
5

Liquid Limit (%), wL


Plastic Limit (%), wP
Plasticity Index , IP
Clay (%) (<0.002 mm)
Activity

438
42
396
68
5.82

Table 2.

Properties of Pore Pressure Transducer.

Sl no

Item

Output

1
2

Rated Capacity
Permissible
temperature range
Temperature effect
on rated output

1 MPa
20 to 165 C

0.1% R.O./10 C

Figure 2. Bentonite slurry in the stainless steel ring.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the modified consolidation cell.

pressure. The thermometers can measure upto 100 C


and the height of thermometer is 5 mm. Fig.1 shows
the cell used in this experimental program. The PPT
is a product of TEAC Instruments Corporation, Japan.
The important properties of the PPT are given above.

4 TEST METHODS
In this experimental program, Bentonite slurry was
made at twice liquid limit. Then the slurry was placed
inside the stainless steel ring, having a height of 2 cm
and diameter of 6 cm. Filter papers were placed at the
top and bottom of the soil. A stainless steel plate without any hole was placed at the top of the ring to isolate
the bentonite slurry to simulate an undrained condition. Whereas a stainless steel plate with holes was
placed at the top of the ring to simulate a drained
condition. In both cases the piston was placed over
the stainless steel plate, but no pressure was given. A
dial gauge was placed over the piston to monitor any
movement of the piston. Then the inner cell was filled
with water and closed by tightening screws around.
The outer cell was also filled with water and connected
by pipes to hot water tub for giving 6 hours of heating. Fig.2 to Fig.5 show the testing method used. To
simulate extreme conditions both in landfill and deep
geological buffer a temperature increase from 20 C
to 75 C was provided. A cyclic temperature effect was
also investigated to find the hot and cold cyclic effects.

Figure 3. Simulating a undrained condition in the cell.

Figure 4. Simulating a drained condition in the cell.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

150
80
125

Temperature, T(C)

100

60
75
50

50

40

25

30

20

-2

10
-2000

Pore water pressure, uw (kPa)

T
uw

70

-50
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Time, t(min)

Figure 7. Variation of temperature and Pore water pressure


with time in Undrained Condition.

Figure 5. Consolidation cell with hot water circulation.


475

140
0

20 C
0
75 C

120

Pore water pressure, uw (kPa)

Moisture Content (%)

450

425

400

375

100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40

350
25

50

75

-60

100

No of blows (N)

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Tempeature, T(C)

Figure 6. Liquid limit at higher temperature for bentonite.

Figure 8. Variation of Pore water pressure with temperature in undrained condition.

5 TEST RESULTS
The effect of temperature on the index properties of
bentonite was investigated. In this test, the soil was
thoroughly mixed with distilled water at a moisture
content half of the original liquid limit, covered it with
aluminum foil paper and kept under hot water for 24
hours. Then it was taken out for the Liquid limit (wL )
and Plastic Limit (wP ) test. Liquid limit test was performed using Casagrandes apparatus; it was found
that the liquid limit dropped slightly due the effect
of higher temperature (Fig.6), only about 6%, whereas
plastic limit drops for 42% to 39%, which was insignificant. Thus it was found that the effect of heating on
the index properties is not significant. Komine and
Ogata (1998) also reported that heating bentonite in the
dry powder state for one day below 1100 C caused no
significant reduction of absorbing power of bentonite.
In the case of undrained test, the soil was kept under
a constant temperature of 20 C until the pore water
pressure became constant as shown in Fig.7. Then the

temperature was raised for 20 C to 75 C by circulating hot water around the bentonite slurry kept inside
the stainless steel ring. It was found that due to the
effect of temperature the pore water pressure began
to rise very sharply, as shown in Fig. 8. There was a
small drop in the excess pore water pressure at 50 C
and then pore pressure became stable upto 75 C. This
may be due the fact that the arrangement between soil
particles and pore water started to change significantly,
resulting in a volume decrease at a higher temperature
more than 50 C and thus the pore water pressure was
changed to accommodate the new arrangement. Campanella and Mitchell (1968) mentioned that volume
of soil mass decreased due to increase in temperature
under the undrained condition. It is also clear that the
effective stress would reduce due to the application of
heat in the undrained condition, creating an overconsolidated (OC) state. The ratio of pore water pressure
increase (duw ) to the temperature increase (dT) was
found to be 1.5.

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Pore water pressure, uw(kPa) or Temperature, T(C)

Pore water pressure, uw(kPa) or Temperature, T(C)

90

80

T
uw

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

80

T
uw

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20

Time, t(min)

5000

10000

15000

20000

Time, t(min)

In the undrained condition when the heat was


removed or temperature was decreased, negative pore
water pressure was developed. It was found that
for a temperature cycle of 20 C75 C20 C, about
50 kPa negative pore pressure was developed. Thus
in this case the effective stress has increased significantly.
In the case of drained test, the soil was kept under a
constant temperature of 20 C until the pore water pressure became constant. Then temperature was raised
from 20 C to 75 C, following the same way as in the
Undrained test. It was found that the pore pressure
increase was very small compared to the undrained
case. When the temperature was reduced there was no
development of negative pore water pressure. Though
bentonite is a soil with very low permeability, it was
very interesting to note that even a high temperature
change (550 C) cannot be able to increase the pore water
pressure during the rise of temperature and there is also
no development of negative pore water pressure when
temperature was reduced, as shown in Fig.9.
A test was conducted to simulate the effect of cyclic
hot and cold effect in undrained condition. The temperature was raised from 20 C to 35 C and again dropped
to 20 C, then again raise to 40 C, dropped to 20 C, this
way to 20 50 20 , 20 60 20 , 20 70 20 and
finally upto 20 75 20 . It was found that hot and
cold cyclic temperature has less effect on the development of positive and negative pore water pressure for
temperature rise and drop than one step rise or drop.
The negative pore pressure became more or less constant at higher temperatures. Thus the rise and drop
of temperature in a one step is affecting pore pressure
significantly than cyclic step rise and drop.
The pore pressure increment (duw ) to temperature
increment (dT) ratio was calculated for all six cases
and it was found within a range of 1.1 to 1.3, with average value of 1.2. Mitchell(1993) reported the factor
duw /(dT *  ) for different types of clay, from those data

Figure 10. Variation of temperature and Pore water pressure


with time in undrained cyclic heating condition.
3.6
3.2
3.0

Illite

2.8
2.6
2.4

Vicksburg buckshot clay

2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2

Bentonite (duw/dT=1.20)

1.0
0.8
0.6
1E-14

1E-13

1E-12

1E-11

1E-10

1E-9

1E-8

1E-7

1E-6

Permeability, k(m/s)

Figure 11. Relation between pore water pressure increment


to temperature increment ratio with permeability.

and corresponding permeability data from Lambe and


Whittman(1979) were plotted in Fig.11, using duw /dT
against permeability, it was found that the corresponding ratio against permeability can be fitted reasonable
on the straight line. This ratio for bentonite from this
study giving a reasonable value for the permeability
of bentonite. It is also needed to be mentioned that the
same ratio which was 1.5 in the case of one step rise
of temperature also gives a reasonable value of permeability for the bentonite. The relationship can be
expressed in the following expression:
duw
= 6.46 + 0.42 log k
dT

(1)

where duw = pore water pressure increment in kPa,


dT = temperature increment in C and k = permeability
in m/s

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Kaolinite

3.4

duw/dT(kPa/C)

Figure 9. Variation of temperature and Pore water pressure


with time in drained condition.

REFERENCES

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are drawn from this study.


1. The index properties of bentonite do not change
significantly due to a temperature rise from 20 C
to 75 C.
2. The undrained heating of bentonite with a temperature change of 55 C can cause significant increase
in pore water pressure in one step rise and the
removal of heating in one step drop can also cause
development of significant negative pore water
pressure.
3. The drained heating of bentonite causes insignificant change in pore water pressure, for the same
temperature rise and drop as in the undrained
condition.
4. The cyclic heating with temperature rise and drop
has less effect on pore water pressure than one step
rise or drop of temperature.
5. A relationship can be established between pore
water pressure increment to temperature increment
ratio with permeability in the undrained condition.

Campanella, R.G. and Mitchell, J.K. 1968, Influence of temperature variations on soil behaviour. Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division. Vol 94, No SM3.
pp 709734.
Komine, H. 2004, Simplified evaluation on hydraulic conductivities of sand-bentonite mixture backfill. Applied Clay
Science, Vol 26, pp. 1319.
Komine, H. and Ogata, N. 1998, Thermal influence of
compacted bentonite for nuclear waste disposal. Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Environmental
Geotechnics, Vol 1, pp. 3439.
Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. 1979. Soil Mechanics, SI
version, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Newyork. p. 286.
Mitchell, J.K. 1993. Fundamental of soil behaviour. 2nd ed.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Newyork. pp. 332333.
Rowe, R.K. 2005, Long-term performance of contaminant
barrier systems. Geotechnique 55, No 9, pp. 631678.
Yoshida et al. 1996. Theoretical study on temperature distribution in a sanitary landfill, Proceedings of the 2nd
International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics,
Vol 2, pp. 323328.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Initial discussions with Professor Jiro Kuwano of
Saitama University, Japan, regarding this research is
gratefully acknowledged.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Undrained strength and compressibility of mixtures of sand and coal


Constantine Stamatopoulos & Aris Stamatopoulos
Stamatopoulos and Associates Ltd., Athens, Greece

ABSTRACT: The paper studies the effect of organic content on compressibility and undrained strength. A
representative organic material and a standard soil material were chosen as a basis for controlled laboratory
tests. The carbon is made from carbonized wood fully pulverized. The soil used in the mixtures was fine sand.
Oedometer tests illustrated that the compressibility of the sand-carbon mixtures increases as the carbon content
increases and density decreases. Triaxial undrained tests illustrated that the critical state line is steeper as the
carbon content increases. In addition, the friction angle at large strain increases as carbon content increases. An
empirical expression predicting the parameters of the critical state line with the carbon content is obtained.

INTRODUCTION

Organic deposits start as accumulations of vegetable


matter in lakes or shallow seas. They undergo changes
due to decomposition by bacteria and pass through the
phases of bog, humus, turf, peat, and lignite or other
forms of coal. The first phases are transient but coal
is chemically stable under normal temperatures. The
whole process takes a few tens of millions of years
(Kirkaldy, 1963).
The stability of slopes in open pit lignite mines is
of major concern in Greece because most of the electric power comes from thermal plants. Accumulated
volumes of tailings are of the order of hundreds of
millions of cubic meters. Heights of cut slopes are
in excess of 70 m with average inclinations from toe
to crest of the order of 20 . Layers contain varying
proportions of organic material that affect their properties, some properties being affected more than others.
Minor slides are frequent. It was also observed that
marls of high in situ strength are subject to liquefaction when vibrated by conveyor belts (Kotzias and
Stamatopoulos, 1983). The composition and descriptive properties of tailings from coal mines in the U.S.A.
and U.K. are presented by Vick (1983).
The problem of assessing the geotechnical properties of deposits of lignite intensely stratified with
clayey soil is treated by Stamatopoulos and Kotzias
(1981), for the case of an open pit mine near the
thermoelectric station of Megalopolis, Greece. Major
slides in open pit lignite mines must absolutely be
prevented because they could be disastrous. The problem of estimating the strength parameters and arriving at a slope design was studied by Kotzias and
Stamatopoulos (1984).

Site related studies are of great value for the specific locations from which samples of soils and organic
deposits were taken and tested. Yet, if a general study
of the geotechnical properties of organic deposits is to
be addressed, standardization is needed.
The paper studies the effect of organic content on
compressibility and undrained strength. A representative organic material and a standard soil material were chosen. Oedometer and triaxial undrained
tests were performed at different organic content and
density and were analyzed in terms of critical state
theory.

Carbon used in the mixtures was derived from manufactured carbonized wood commercially available
because it is used for outdoor barbecuing. It was fully
pulverized in order all the material to pass through the
No 200 sieve. It is chemically stable with liquid limit
110%, plasticity index zero, specific gravity 1.62 and
carbon content (by ASTM D2974) 95%.
Its nonplasticity and specific gravity are consistent
with the properties of organic materials as determined
by Stamatopoulos and Kotzias (1981), Kotzias and
Stamatopoulos (1983) and (1984), and Vick (1983).
Grain size distribution of the carbon is given in Figure 1. Comparisons between the properties of the
carbon and lignite from the power plant of Megalopolis, Greece, reported by Stamatopoulos and Kotzias
(1981) are shown in Table 1. Specific gravity of grains,
water content, liquid limit and plasticity index of the
carbon fall within the range of the values of lignite.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS

Soil used in the mixtures was fine sand (quartz) with


subangular grains, specific gravity 2.63, and maximum / minimum unit weights 16.3/14.5 kN/m3 . Grain
size distribution of the sand is given in Figure 1.
In the mixtures of sand and carbon we define the
carbon content, p, as
p=

Weight of dry carbon


Total dry weight of mixture

w
1
x
1
(1 p)/Gsand + p/Gcarbon d

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM DENSITIES OF


MIXTURES

(1)

The void ratio of the mixtures is given in terms of p


and their dry weight, d , as
e=

can vary between 1 and zero. For values equal to


1 (pure carbon) or zero (pure sand) Equation [2]
gives e = (Gcarbon w / d ) 1 and e = (Gsand w /
d ) 1, respectively, which are valid.

(2)

where G is the specific gravity (dimentionless) and


w is the unit weight of water. The value of p

The maximum and minimum densities of the mixtures


of sand and carbon were determined in terms of carbon content, p. Tests were carried out firstly on dry
constituents and then, as for high values of p the values of d appeared to be rather small, the tests for p
0.8 and 1 were repeated after adding moisture so that
water content was 30%. Results are shown in Figure
3. It is noted that:
(a) As carbon content p increases maximum density decreases and minimum void ratio increases.
Effect of increase of p is greater when p > 60%.
(b) As p increases minimum density decreases and
maximum void ratio increases. Effect of increase
of p is greater when p > 60%.
(c) As p increases the difference between maximum and minimum densities increases. Effect of
increase of p is greater when p > 60%.
(d) The mixtures with water content 30% and p
80% give higher maximum density than the dry
mixtures.

Dry UnitDensity (kN/m3)

(a)

Figure 1. Appearance of carbon saturated with water.

20
15
10
5
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

p = Weight of coal/Total Weight


MINDRY
MIN30%water content

MAXDRY
MAX30% water content

(b)

Void ratio

4
3
2
1
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

p = Weight of Coal/Total Weight


MINDRY
MIN30%water content

Figure 2. Grain size distribution of carbon and sand used in


the mixtures.

Figure 3. (a) Maximum and minimum unit weight and (b)


corresponding void ratio versus carbon content (p).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MAXDRY
MAX30% water content

In the present work relative density, Dr, is defined in


terms of the maximum and minimum values for both
water content values.
4

COMPRESSIBILITY

Compressibility was studied in the oedometer device


in terms of initial density and carbon content. Samples
were prepared as described in Appendix A. Test results
are given in Figures 4 to 7.
In the results for sand (Figure 4) it is observed that
(a) the compression index Cc in the e-log relationship increases with decreasing initial unit weight and
increasing consolidation pressure, (b) there is no virgin

compression curve followed by all test results and (c)


the value of CR for the rebound phase more-or-less
does not depend on initial density and equals 0.02.
The results for carbon (Figure 7) illlustrate that
the loosely compacted specimen behaves as normally
consolidated with compression index CC = 0.8. The
denser specimens show preconsolidation up to a certain stress and then they follow the same line as the
loose specimen. The swelling index CR is equal to 0.08
for all specimens.
The response of the sand-carbon mixtures is
between these two limiting responses.
In table 2, the measured (Virgin) Compression
index (=CC /2.3) and the Swelling index (=CR /2.3),
defined e.g. by Atkunson (1993) are given in terms of

0.850

2.20

p=0, d-o=14.4 kN/m3


p=0, d-o=14.4 kN/m3
p=0, d-o=16.1 kN/m3
p=0, d-o=16.1 kN/m3

0.800

P=0.8, d-o =4.5 kN/m3

P=0.8, d-o =6.3 kN/m3

2.00

0.750

1.90
VOID RATIO, e

VOID RATIO, e

P=0.8, d-o =5.5 kN/m3

2.10

0.700

0.650

1.80
1.70
1.60
1.50

0.600

1.40

0.550

1.30
1.20

0.500
10

100

1000

10

10000

100

1000

10000

VERTICAL STRESS (kPa)

VERTICAL STRESS (kPa)

Figure 6. Results of consolidation tests of mixtures with


p = 0.8 at different initial densities.

Figure 4. Results of consolidation tests for sand (p = 0) at


different initial densities.

2.40

1.00

P=1, d-o =4.4 kN/m3


P=1, d-o =5.1 kN/m3
P=1, d-o =5.6 kN/m3

P=0.15, d-o =12.1 kN/m3

2.30

P=0.15, d-o =14.0 kN/m3

0.90

P=0.15, d-o =15.9 kN/m3

2.20
2.10
VOID RATIO, e

VOID RATIO, e

0.80
0.70
0.60

2.00
1.90
1.80
1.70

0.50

1.60
0.40
1.50
0.30

1.40
10

100

1000

10000

10

Figure 5. Results of consolidation tests of mixtures with


p = 0.15 at different initial densities.

1000

10000

Figure 7. Results of consolidation tests for carbon (p = 1)


at different initial densities.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

100

VERTICAL STRESS (kPa)

VERTICAL STRESS (kPa)

1.2

550

160

500

140

450

120

400

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

100

350

u (kPa)

1
- (kPa)
1
3

e (' from 0 to 200 kPa)

1.4

300
250

40

150

20

100

50

20

20

40
60
Dro ( %)

80

60

200

0
0

80

100

p=1

0.8

0.15

Linear (p = 1)

Linear (0.8)

Linear (0)

Linear (0.15)

550

4.5

500
450

4.0

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
AXIAL STRAIN (%)

2 4

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
AXIAL STRAIN (%)

3.0

350
300

/
1
3

- (kPa)

Figure 8. Measured change in void ratio for change of


vertical stress from 0 to 200 kPa in terms of p and Dro .

250
200

Lignite from
Megalopolis

Current
carbon

1.5 to 2.5
130 to 240
100 to 250
0 (mainly)
1.0
0.15

1.6
120 to 140
110
0
0.8
0.09

50

0
0.15
0.80
1.0

*
0.09
0.26
0.35

0.009
0.022
0.030
0.035

0.5

0
0

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550

'oct (kPa)

0.0

Figure 9. Response of undrained triaxial tests of loose


(do = 3.6 kN/m3 dotted thicker lines) and dense
(do = 5.7 kN/m3 ) carbon samples.

SOIL STRENGTH

Undrained tests were performed in the triaxial device


for different mixtures at different initial densities.
Appendix A describes the methodology that the samples were prepared. Results of the tests performed are
summarized in Appendix B. Figure 9 gives the results
of two typical tests on loose and dense samples of
carbon. It can be observed that in the dense sample
(Figure 9 upper right), unlike the loose, negative pore
pressure develops, and thus the final shear strength is
larger (Figure 9 upper left). On the other hand, the
final effective stress ratio is similar (Figure 9 lower
left).
Been and Jefferies (1985) define the steady-state

void ratio in terms of the octahedral stress oct
, as

Table 2. The measured compression index and the


Swelling index in terms of p.
p of mixture

2.0

1.0

100

Table 1. Comparison of the properties of the carbon used


in the mixtures and the field lignite from the power plant of
Megalopolis.

2.5

1.5

150


)
ess = CS CS ln (oct

*Cannot be defined.

p. As explained above, for sands the factor cannot be


defined. It can be observed that both and increase
as p increases.
Figure 8 is another way to describe the compressibility of the mixtures of sand and carbon. It presents
the change in void ratio when  increases from 0 to
200 kPa in terms of the initial relative density, Dro , and
p. It can be observed that e increases as p increases
and decreases as Dro decreases.
Finally, it is of interest to compare the compressibility of the carbon with the compressibility of the
lignite of Megalopolis whose properties are described
by Stamatopoulos and Kotzias (1981). The comparison is given in table 1. It can be observed that the
carbon prepared in the laboratory is, similarly to the
Megalopolis lignite, very compressible.

(3a)

In the above equation, the notation used by Bouck


ovalas et al (2003) is adopted and oct
is in kPa.
The state parameter of a sand is defined as the difference of the void ratio between the current state and
the critical state for the current confining stress (ess ).
The state parameter has been correlated to a number
of soil properties measured in the laboratory, such as
the peak undrained soil strength (qmax ) and the peak
friction angle (peak ) (Been and Jefferies, 1985).
In undrained triaxial tests the unknown is the octa
hedral stress at large strain, or at the steady-state, oct-ss.
Equation [3a] can be rewritten as

oct-ss
= exp [(CS e)/CS ]

(3b)

The steady-state shear strength qss of soils can be


obtained from the steady-state octahededral stress and

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2 4

3.5

400

Specific weight of grains


Water content %
Liquid Limit
Plasticy Index
Coefficient CC
Coefficient CR

0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

AXIAL STRAIN (%)

2.5

(a)
0.5
Coefficient CS

void ratio

2
1.5
1
0.5

0.3
0.2
0.1

0
10

100

1000

10000

octss (kPa)
p =0
0.8
Log. (0.15)

0.075
1
Log. (0.6)

0.15
Log. (1)
Log. (p = 0)

y =0.3099x +0.0661
R2 =0.8562

0.4

0.2

0.4

Coefficient cs

the factor M (or equivalently the steady-state friction


angle ss ) as:
where

5
4

qss =

0.8

(b)

0.6
Log. (0.8)
Log. (0.6)

Figure 10. Measured critical state lines of mixtures of sand


and coal.


oct-ss
/M

0.6
p

y= 2.7275x +0.975
R2 =0.8572

3
2
1

(4)

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

q = (1 3 )
M = 6 sin ss /(3 sin ss )

Figure 11. The parameters (a) CS and (b) CS of equation


[3] versus carbon content (p).

CS = 0.05 + 0.36 p

(5a)

CS = 0.87 + 3.0 p

(5b)

In addition, Figure 12 illustrates that CS and CS are


related as
CS = 0.43 + 8.64CS

(5c)

In the above equations [5a], [5b], [5c] the coefficients


of correlation are 0.86, 0.86 and 0.99 respectively.
According to critical state theory (e.g. Atkinson
1993), the value of the parameter CS obtained from
undrained triaxial tests is the same as the parameter
 obtained from consolidation tests. Table 5 compares the measured values of these parameters. Good
correlation is observed.
Finally, Figure 13 gives the measured factor M in
terms of the relative density and the carbon content
of the mixtures. It can be observed that M increases

5
Coefficient cs

In this study, the undrained strength is described with



oct-ss
and the factor M. Figure 10 gives the final mea
sured effective octahedral stress oct-ss
in terms of the
void ratio after consolidation and the carbon content
of each mixture. For best accuracy, the void ratio after
consolidation is estimated from Figure 8. Table 4 gives
the parameters CS and CS of Equation [3] and the
coefficient of correlation for each mixture. Figure 11
plots CS and CS versus p. It can be observed that
CS and CS increase as p increases. Linear regression
gives:

3
2
1
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Coefficient CS

Figure 12. The parameter CS versus the parameter CS .

as the percentage of carbon increases: For pure sand


M = 1.2 (or ss = 30 ) and for pure coal M = 1.4 (or
ss = 36 ). Linear regression gives:
M = 1.19 + 0.27 p

(6)

The coefficient of correlation R2 of equation [6]


equals 0.72. In addition, similarly to critical state theory predictions, M is not affected by initial density
considerably.
6
6.1

DISCUSSION
Comparison with previous study of sand-silt
mixtures

Bouckovalas et al (2003) analyzed laboratory test


results of a wide range of sands and silty sands reported
by different researchers and derived the following

467

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

y= 8.7413x +0.4055
R2 =0.9877

Table 3. The measured coefficients CS and CS , and


coefficients of correlation, in terms of p.
p

CS

CS

R2

0
0.075
0.15
0.6
0.8
1.0

0.07
0.14
0.09
0.2
0.26
0.45

1.15
1.55
1.14
1.98
2.87
4.32

0.78
0.82
0.85
0.93
0.7
0.89

Table 4.

Comparison of equations [5] and [7] illustrate similar trends: As fines/carbon content increases, the
parameters CS and CS increase. Yet, in equations [5]
the parameters CS and CS increase more rapidly with
fines/carbon content than in equations [7]. This may be
a result of the different fines material: carbon instead
of silt. In addition it can be observed that the relations
in the present study have better correlations. This may
be due to the fact that the present data is from one
material from one researcher.
Furthermore, Bouckovalas et al (2003) derived the
following empirical expression that approximately
predicts the factor M in terms of f:

Comparison of parameters CS and  in terms of p.

CS

CS /

0.15
0.80
1.00

0.09
0.26
0.45

0.09
0.26
0.35

1.00
1.00
1.29

M = 1.25 + 0.1 f

The coefficient of correlation R2 of equation [6] is


0.03, a very small value.
Comparison of equations [6] and [8] illustrates
similar trend: As fines/carbon content increases, M
increases. Yet, in equation [6], M increases more
rapidly with fines/carbon content than in equation [8].
This may be a result of the different fines material: carbon instead of silt. Better correlations in the present
study may be a result of data of one material from one
researcher.

(a)
1.50
1.40
M

(8c)

1.30

6.2 Future studies

1.20
y = 0.0012x +1.2325
2
R =0.1188

1.10

Test results presented in the paper belong to the


first stages of a continuing study of the mechanical properties of carbon-sand mixtures. In the near
future the liquefaction susceptibility, or equivalently
the cyclic soil strength, of the mixtures will be studied in terms of their carbon content (p) and density.
In addition, according to critical state theory, the peak
undrained soil strength (qmax ) and the peak friction
angle (peak ) measured in the undrained triaxial tests
will be correlated with the state parameter.

1.00
0

20

40

60

80

100

Dr (%)
(b)
1.50
1.40
M

1.30
1.20
y =0.2724x +1.1861
R2 =0.7213

1.10
1.00
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

CONCLUSIONS

Figure 13. Factor M versus (a) relative density (Dr) and (b)
carbon content (p).

empirical expressions that approximately predict the


factors CS and CS in terms of the content of silt, f.
CS = 0.018 + 0.27 f

(7a)

CS = 0.863 + 1.1 f

(7b)

CS = 0.79 + 4.1CS

(7c)

The coefficients of correlation R2 of equations [7a],


[7b] and [7c] are 0.72, 0.52 and 0.69 respectively.

The stability of slopes in open pit lignite mines is of


major concern in Greece because most of the electric
power comes from thermal plants. In the present study
the compressibility and undrained response of sandcarbon mixtures is studied in a standardized manner.
The carbon is made from carbonized wood fully pulverized so that all the material passes through the No
200 sieve. The density of grains, maximum and minimum void ratio, water content and compressibility of
the carbon are similar to those of the lignite at the
power plant of Megalopolis. Soil used in the mixtures
was fine sand.
The compressibility of the sand-carbon mixtures
increases as the carbon content increase and relative
density decreases.

468

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

The critical state line, correlating the octahedral


stress at large strains with the void ratio, is steeper as
the carbon content increases. An empirical expression
predicting the parameters of the critical state line with
the carbon content is obtained. The friction angle at
large strain increases as the carbon content increases:
For pure sand = 30 and for pure coal = 36 . The
above agree with trends observed previously in mixtutes of sands and silts. Yet, the increase of the critical
state parameters and the friction angle is more rapid
with carbon content than with silt content.

desirable dry density we estimate the weight of the


quantity to be placed. Soil is placed inside the ring
in layers with the use of a round metallic rammer by
the application of constant energy blows. The number
of layers and blows can vary according to the desired
compaction. Layers vary from 3 to 5. If the material
cannot be compacted, water is added. Next follows
saturation by filling of the socket around the ring with
water. The water level was maintained constant during
the test.
For the triaxial apparatus

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was funded by the General Secretariat of
Research and Technology of Greece (Project no DP23
with title X-Soils). Mr Chrysanthos Mavridis and Mr
Alexandros Xenakis assisted in the performance of
laboratory tests. Mr Skevos Halkitis and Mrs Lydia
Balla assisted in the analysis of the test results.
REFERENCES
Atkinson J. 1993. An introduction to the mechanics of
soils and foundations. McGraw-Hill international series
in Civil Engineering, 337 pages
Been, K., and Jefferies, M.-G. 1985. A state parameter for
sands. Geotechnique, 35(2): pp. 99112.
Bouckovalas, G.-D., Andrianopoulos, K.-I., and Papadimitriou, A.-G. 2003. A critical state interpretation for the
cyclic liquefaction of silty sands. Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering 23, pp. 115125.
Kotzias, P., and Stamatopoulos, A. December 1983. Sensitivity of Very Hard Pliocene Marl. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE.
Stamatopoulos, A., and Kotzias, P. June 1981. Geotechnical Properties of Lignite. Tenth International Conference
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 4/55,
Stockholm.
Kotzias, P., and Stamatopoulos, A. May 1984. Stability of an
Erratic Tailings Deposit. Proceedings, International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering,
University of Missouri Rolla.
Vick, S.-G. 1983. Planning, Design, and Analysis of Tailings
Dams. Wiley.
Kirkaldy, J.-F. 1963. Minerals and Rocks. Blandford Press,
London.

APPENDIX A. SAMPLE PREPARATION


METHODS USED
For the oedometer device
The soil is oven dried so that its moisture reaches
approximately 0%. A specimen is prepared in the
oedemeter ring of diameter 15 cm and height 6 cm
in the following way: Knowing the volume and the

The soil is oven dried so that its moisture reaches


approximately 0%. A specimen is prepared in a cylindrical mould with open edges: The mold is placed on
the pedestal of the compression frame and vacuum is
applied at the base. Vacuum intensity is increased as
the soil level inside the mold is raised. Placement is
in 5 to 9 layers, by the application of constant energy
blows with a rammer. If soil can not be compacted
water is added.
Next follows saturation of the specimen. With
closed drainage valves the lateral pressure and the back
pressure are increased in successive steps to 500 kPa.
The B parameter, defined as the ratio of the pore pressure increase by the increment of the lateral stress, was
measured. It was verified that it was equal to about one.
All specimens were then consolidated at a confining
stress equal to 700 kPa (Thus c = 200 kPa).
APPENDIX B. SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF
UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TESTS

Date

do
[kN/m3 ]

02.12.04
02.12.04
07.12.04
29.12.04
07.02.05
08.02.05
14.02.05a
14.02.06b
07.04.05
12.11.04a
12.11.04b
29.11.04
03.12.04
23.12.04
24.12.04
27.12.04
16.12.04
17.12.04

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.15

15.70
14.42
14.91
15.21
14.72
15.70
14.72
15.70
15.70
13.73
13.73
12.65
15.70
14.72
12.75
14.22
15.70
12.16

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC


octss
[kPa]

1220
220
460
980
1210
950
640
1240
875
530
530
240
962
485
232
330
1085
107

1.23
1.03
1.09
1.18
1.15
1.17
1.07
1.20
1.23
1.09
1.09
1.21
1.15
1.25
1.21
1.35
1.25
1.17

8 APPENDIX B. (continued)

Date

do
[kN/m3 ]


octss
[kPa]

20.12.04
21.12.04
29.12.04
30.11.04
29.11.04
25.04.05
26.04.05
28.04.06
26.04.07
24.5.04
13.05.05
03.05.05
04.05.05a
04.05.05b
12.04.05
13.04.05
19.04.05
20.04.05a
20.04.05b
10.05.05
11.05.05
26.04.06a
26.04.06b
26.04.06c

0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

12.36
13.73
14.72
13.73
15.99
9.03
11.18
10.10
10.59
9.52
6.57
6.57
4.51
5.98
5.10
5.59
5.69
5.10
5.59
3.53
5.59
3.60
3.80
4.00

242
395
415
245
749
115
570
402
385
144
295
345
100
130
198
270
217
193
313
100
368
82
120
127

1.34
1.36
1.19
1.31
1.24
1.43
1.42
1.45
1.29
1.45
1.49
1.34
1.45
1.38
1.50
1.44
1.42
1.44
1.45
1.45
1.42
1.42
1.37
1.42

470

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

The assessment of destructuration of Bothkennar clay using bender elements


Jiraroth Sukolrat, David Nash & Martin Lings
Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Nadia Benahmed
CEMAGREF Groupement dAix en Provence, Aix-en-Provence, France

ABSTRACT: Natural soft clays are structured as a result of their history of deposition, cementing and aging.
The natural clay possesses a higher void ratio and greater undrained strength than its reconstituted counterpart
due to its structure, and thus exists outside the state boundary surface for the reconstituted material. To examine
the evolving damage to the structure of natural Bothkennar soft clay as it is subjected to plastic volumetric and
deviatoric strains, tests have been conducted on natural and reconstituted samples in CRS oedometer and triaxial
stress-path apparatus equipped with bender elements. The shear stiffness at very small strain Go (determined
using bender elements) has been used as an indicator of the degree of damage. When normalised by a void ratio
function, Go of the natural clay has been compared to the normalised stiffness of the reconstituted clay at the
same stress state. Changes of normalised stiffness reveal the underlying clay behaviour and have shown that the
plastic volumetric strain and plastic deviatoric strain result in similar structural degradation.

INTRODUCTION

Leroueil and Vaughan (1990) have shown that many


natural soils exhibit strength and stiffness which cannot be accounted for by porosity and stress history
alone. Differences in behaviour of a natural clay from
the same clay reconstituted in the laboratory are due
to geological processes such as creep, thixotropy,
cementation, and diagenesis. These effects result in
the natural clay possessing greater strength than that
of the reconstituted clay at a common stress level and
allow it to exist at higher void ratio (Burland, 1990;
Leroueil andVaughan, 1990). Plastic strains are known
to damage the structure of natural clays which may
result in reduction in strength and stiffness, reduction
in vertical yield stress and coefficient of consolidation
in oedometer tests, and degradation of yield surface
(e.g. La Rochelle et al., 1981; Holtz et al., 1986; Hight
and Leroueil, 2003). Sample disturbance often causes
structural degradation, which may be inferred from
changes of pretest effective stress, loss of unconfined
compressive strength, changes of volumetric strain
during reconsolidation to in-situ overburden stress,
and reduction of apparent pre-consolidation pressure
(Lunne et al., 1997; Ladd and DeGroot, 2003).
Many of these observations are obtained from tests
which themselves cause further damage to the samples but recently, research has focused on assessing
structure using elastic shear modulus as an indicator
of destructuration (Shibuya, 2000; Nash et al., 2006).

This paper describes attempts to assess the change


in structure of natural Bothkennar clay samples in the
laboratory using bender elements. Controlled destructuration was caused by one-dimensional volumetric
straining under drained conditions, and deviatoric or
shear straining under undrained conditions. The shear
stiffness of a natural clay was compared to that of the
same soil when reconstituted to indicate changes to the
structure.
2

The research described in this paper has explored the


changes of shear modulus Go resulting from controlled
destructuration of Bothkennar clay, an estuarine clayey
silt/silty clay of high plasticity. Bothkennar clay (Nash
et al., 1992) was chosen because of the availability
of some high quality natural soil samples, obtained
using the Sherbrooke sampler (Lefebvre and Poulin,
1979) in 1997. These samples were found to be in a
good condition despite having been stored for more
than 5 years. Typical properties of the clay are given in
Table 1. At Bothkennar, there are different facies with
distinct properties (Paul et al., 1992; Clayton et al.,
1992), but all the samples tested were from the mottled facies which is significantly structured with a void
index of 1.0 or more, with the majority of samples
taken from around 8.0 m depth. Each Sherbrooke sample was carefully divided and trimmed using a wire

471

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

BOTHKENNAR CLAY

Table 1. Typical properties of natural Bothkennar


clay from 8.0 m depth.
Water content (%)
Liquid limit, wL (%)
Plastic limit, wP (%)
Activity
Organic matter (%)
Undrained strength (kPa)
OCR

Top cap

72%
79%
37%
1.34
5%
25 kPa
1.6

O-ring
Polished
stainless steel
oedometer
ring
O-ring

saw, into several specimens of natural clay of 75 or


100 mm diameter.
Reconstituted samples were used as a reference
material. Natural clay trimmings were mixed with
deaired water until the moisture content reached
approximately 1.9wL . The clay was mixed in a household blender and a mixing bowl before being deaired
and poured into a 100 mm diameter floating tube consolidometer. A vertical stress of 100 kPa was applied
to the sample which was left to consolidate for several weeks; the tube was moved daily to minimise
friction effects. After primary consolidation, the sample was extruded and test specimens were prepared by
trimming to 75 mm diameter, with heights of 30 mm
and 100 mm or 150 mm for CRS oedometer tests and
stress-path tests respectively.

a) CRS oedometer sample


Top cap
O-ring

Rubber
grommets

Miniature pore
pressure
transducer

Lateral transmitter
benders (HH and
HV)

Lateral receiver
benders (HH
and HV)
O-ring

BENDER ELEMENT TEST EQUIPMENT

Vertical receiver
bender (VH)
Brass
sintered disc
Pedestal

b) Triaxial specimen
Figure 1. Installation of bender elements on samples.

soil. The lateral benders mounted in small pots embedded in triaxial specimens are 5 mm wide by 4 mm long.
The pots are held in place by a rubber grommet in a
similar manner to that used to mount the mid-height
pore pressure transducer. The arrangements of bender
elements used for CRS oedometer and triaxial samples
are shown in Figure 1.
In most of the tests described here the signal used
to generate the shear wave was a sine pulse with a frequency of 5 kHz, 90 phase shift and an amplitude of
20 Vpp using a TG1010 function generator. Determination of the travel time of the shear wave was based
on identifying the point of the first arrival in the time
domain. The point selected was taken as the abrupt
deviation of the signal, allowing for the near field
effects for the VH direction. Examples of the excitation and typical shear wave signals are illustrated in
Figure 2 with the points of the first arrival indicated.
In some instances a sound card installed in the computer controlling the test was used to generate the
sine pulse. The data acquisition system comprised a

472

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Rubber
membrane

Brass sintered
disc
Vertical transmitter
element (VH)

O-ring

Shear wave velocity measurements are widely used


for determination of the shear modulus at very small
strain Go . Arrangements of shear plates (Lawrence,
1963; 1965) or bender elements (Shirley, 1978; Shirley
and Hampton, 1978) are used to generate shear waves
and detect their arrival. When an embedded bender
element is energised, its movement generates shear
waves which result in very small shear strains, estimated by Pennington (1999) to be about 0.0001%.
A second embedded bender element located within
perhaps 200 mm, may act as a microphone and it generates fluctuating charge which can be observed with a
suitable oscilloscope. Numerous researchers (e.g. Viggiani, 1992; Jovicic, 1997) have used bender elements
in triaxial apparatus to examine the changes of soils
stiffness with soil state; the interpretation of the test
data has been discussed, for example, by Viggiani and
Atkinson (1995) and Jovicic et al. (1996).
More recently Pennington (1999) mounted bender
elements on the sides of a triaxial specimen as well as
in the platens, thereby enabling measurement of shear
wave velocity in HV and HH directions in addition to
the standard VH direction. The platen-mounted bender
elements used in both CRS oedometer and triaxial cells
in this research are normally 10 mm wide by 10 mm
high with protrusion through the porous disc into the

Vertical transmitter
bender (VH)
Vertical receiver
bender (VH)
Brass sintered
disc
Pedestal

HV
0.5

1.5

HH

2.00
1.90
1.80
1.70
1.60
1.50
1.40
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00

*
10

100
'v (kPa)

Time (ms)

Figure 2. Driver and received signals from bender elements


indicating points of the first arrival.

1000

Figure 4. Void ratio vs vertical effective stress from the CRS


oedometer tests.

Transducers
Transmitter
Benders

BN 2CRS
BR 1CRS

Void Ratio,e

VH

500
400
300
200
100
0
2 -100
-200
-300
-400
-500

Received Amplitude (mV)

Transmitted Amplitude (V)

25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 0
-10
-15
-20
-25

2.20

BN7
BR8

2.00

Datascan

Sample

Amplifier

VH
HV
HH

Receiver
Benders

Switching
Box
Signal
Amplifiers

1.60

Test Control and


Bender Elements
Reading Computer

1.40

Sound
Card

Signal
Generator

VH
HV
HH

Void Ratio, e

1.80

Serial Port
Logic signal lines

1.20

8255I/O
Card

0.80
10

Stepper Motor
and CRSP
Pressure
Controls

Picoscope ADC216 with an automatic multiplex system, developed in the Geomechanics laboratory at the
University of Bristol for automatic collection of bender
reading data. It is shown schematically in Figure 3.
DESTRUCTURATION PROCESSES IN
LABORATORY CONDITIONS

Two types of tests will be described here. In the


first, samples were subjected to one-dimensional volumetric straining to define the normal consolidation
behaviour for the reconstituted and the natural clays. In
the second, samples, consolidated under stress equal to
that in-situ were then subjected to cycles of undrained
shear. Both types of test were used to examine the consequential changes of Go which will be presented and
discussed later in the paper.

4.1 Volumetric straining


Figure 4 shows the e-log v data from tests on a
reconstituted sample, BR1CRS, and a natural sample,

1000

BN2CRS that were subjected to one dimensional


loading-unloading in the CRS oedometer. A strain
rate of 0.01%/min was applied in both loading and
unloading cycles. The maximum vertical stresses for
successive loading cycles were 125 kPa, 250 kPa, and
500 kPa. The dotted line labelled *- * indicates the
normal consolidation line for the reconstituted sample.
The figure shows that the structure of the natural clay
enables it to exist at a higher void ratio than the reconstituted clay at a given stress level. It also shows how
volumetric straining results in gradual convergence of
the two normal consolidation lines.
Parallel tests were carried out in a triaxial stresspath apparatus on a reconstituted sample BR8, and
a natural sample BN7. Testing imposed a constant
K = 0.65, and although the tests were not strictly onedimensional, the radial strains were less than 3%.
The vertical effective stress path repeated that used in
the CRS oedometer tests, with loading and unloading
cycles along this constant K path. Figure 5 illustrates
the e-log p plots for these tests, again, showing the
convergence of the two normal consolidation lines
at high stresses. This illustrates the gradual destructuration that results from volumetric straining of the
natural clay.

473

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

100
p' (kPa)

Figure 5. Void ratio vs mean effective stress from the


pseudo-1D triaxial tests.

Figure 3. Automatic bender element data acquisition


system.

1.00

ADC-216
Parallel
PC
Port
Oscilloscope

90

70

60

50

40

30

20

Ko =0.65 Line

First yield
point from
BN7

2
1

10

0
-10

Allman & Atkinson (1992)'s Critical


State Line

Possible bounding
surface

q/p'e

q (kPa)

80

10

20 30 40

50 60

70

80

90

-1

-20

-2

-30

-3

-40

-4

-50

-5

6
7
8
9
Possible
normalised
bounding surface

Smith, Jardine & Hight (1992)'s Outer State


Boundary Surface

p' (kPa)

p'/p'e

Figure 6. Stress path followed in test BN11.

Figure 7. Normalised stress path for test BN11.

4.2

by Smith et al. (1992) for natural Bothkennar clay


taken from the depth of 5.40 m.

Deviatoric straining

In the second series of tests, natural samples were


reconsolidated under in-situ stresses and were then
subjected to a series of undrained compressionextension loops each followed by recompression back
to the in-situ stress state accompanied by reduction of
volume. The strain paths followed were similar to those
thought to be applied to the sample at the centre-line
of tube during sampling of soft clays (Baligh, 1985;
Baligh et al., 1987; Clayton et al., 1992). In test BN11
described here three consecutive undrained loops with
strain of magnitude 2%, 4%, and 8% were applied
to the sample before it was finally sheared to failure.
Figure 6 shows the stress path during test BN11 and
it may be seen that the evolving undrained strength is
apparently barely affected by previous strain cycles.
On close examination of the data it was found
that the effects of destructuration are compensated for
by the effects of volume reduction. Figure 7 shows
the data, plotted after normalisation by pe , (the mean
effective stress for the reconstituted clay on the normal consolidation line at the same void ratio). This
now reveals shrinking of the primary bounding surface towards the reference bounding surface obtained
from a reconstituted sample. The figure also indicates a possible primary bounding surface for the
sample alongside the state boundary surface proposed

From the theory of shear wave propagation in an elastic


body, shear stiffness at very small strain Go is given by
Go = Vs2

(1)

where is the soils bulk density, and Vs represents


shear wave velocity. According to Hardin and Blandford (1989), Go for the current state of a clay can be
expressed by
 nj

i ni j
Go(ij) = Sij F(e)OCR k p(1-ni-nj)
r

(2)

where i ,j are the effective principle stresses acting


in the directions of wave propagation and polarisation respectively, k is an empirical exponent depending
on the plasticity index, F(e) represents a void ratio
function, Sij is a non-dimensional material constant
reflecting the structure of the given soil, ni and nj are
empirical stress indices, and pr represents a reference
stress.
Many laboratory test results have shown that the
influence of the overconsolidation ratio on shear

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SMALL STRAIN STIFFNESS

stiffness could be neglected when an appropriate F(e)


was used in equation 2 (e.g. Tatsuoka and Shibuya,
1992; Shibuya et al., 1992; Jamiolkowski et al., 1995).
By taking the reference stress pr as 1 kPa, neglecting the effect from OCR, and assuming that the stress
indices are equal (Nash et al., 1999; Pennington 1999)
equation 2 may be rewritten as
Go(ij) = Sij F(e)ij (i j )nij

In-situ
aging
Void ratio e

A1
A2

B1

Reconstituted clay
log (')

(3)

Equation 3 suggests that the shear stiffness depends


on void ratio through void ratio function, normal
stresses through stress function, and structure through
the term, Sij .

Natural
structured clay

Shear modulus
Go

A
A2

B
B1

A1
log (')

6 ASSESSING DESTRUCTURATION USING


BENDER ELEMENTS
6.1

Normalised
shear
modulus
Go/F(e)

Normalisation of shear stiffness

In this research we have normalised the data in


two ways. The first approach adopts the concept of
metastability index, proposed to quantify structure by
Soga and Mitchell (1996). It has since been developed by Shibuya (2000) using shear stiffness Go who
redefined metastability index as
MI(Goij )e = (e-e

)current Goij

(4)

in which the *-* line represents normal consolidation line on an e-log Go plot for a reconstituted sample.
Shibuya (2000) has used metastability index in assessing structure in one dimensional consolidation tests on
Ariake clay, Bangkok clay, and Louiseville clay.
The second framework for normalisation is based
on equation 3. Figure 8 indicates the expected relationships that stem from equation 3 in which it is assumed
that the effects of structure can be expressed purely
by the structure terms Sij . In this study measurements
of Go have first been made on reconstituted (fully
destructured) Bothkennar clay from which the void
ratio function F(e) and stress indices were determined.
In comparing natural and reconstituted soils to correctly identify effects of microstructure, it has proved
important to normalise the data to a common void ratio
and to a common effective stress state. For this purpose
we have chosen to apply the void ratio function from
the tests on reconstituted clay when interpreting the
data for the natural clay.
6.2

Determination of void ratio function

A
A1A2

B
B1

log (')

Figure 8. Expected relationships between void ratio, G0 and


effective stress.

The void ratio index xij varies from soil to soil. Jamiolkowski et al. (1995) carried out bender element
and resonant column tests on six Italian clays, and
found that the void ratio index varies from 1.11 to
1.52. Shibuya and Tanaka (1996) proposed an index
of 1.5 for their tests on Holocene clays. Shibuya
et al. (1997) formulated F(e)ij in term of specific volume, and obtained an index of 2.4 from 17 different
clays tested in-situ and in the laboratory including
Bothkennar clay.
A simple way (method 1) to obtain the void ratio
function is to compress the sample in order to reduce
its void ratio, returning periodically to a common
isotropic stress state (Nash et al. 1999). Such a test
may readily be carried out in a triaxial cell, and by
measuring Go at the same stress state the influence of
stress function is eliminated.
If a soil sample is subjected to one dimensional
loading, the horizontal and vertical stresses may be
related through the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K. Equation 2, with previously defined void ratio
function and neglecting the effect of OCR, can be
modified to
Govh,1D = Svh,1D K nh exvh v nv+nh

(6a)

According to Lo Presti (1989) and Jamiolkowski


et al. (1991), the void ratio function F(e)ij can be
expressed as

Gohv,1D = Shv,1D K nh exhv v nh+nv

(6b)

Gohh,1D = Shh,1D K 2nh exhh v 2nh

(6c)

F(e)ij = exij

Equation 6 enables the void ratio index and the combination of stress indices to be determined by iteration

(5)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

xvh
xhv
xhh

Table 3.

Evaluation of reference void ratio index.


Method 1

Method 2

3.58
3.69
3.96

3.41
3.72
3.67

Void ratio, e

Table 2.

Evaluation of reference stress index.

nvh

nhv

nhh

0.164

0.167

0.175

2.00
1.90
1.80
1.70
1.60
1.50
1.40
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00

BN2CRS
BR1CRS

0.27
1

MI(Govh)e

*
1

10

100

1000

Govh (MPa)
a) e-log Go
1000
*

(method 2) for stiffness data from each direction of


bender measurement. The stiffness data along the normally consolidated line are used to discard the effect
of K, which is held constant equal to KoNC . The void
ratio indices from both methods taken from test BR8
are listed in table 2; in method 1 data are found from
the measured stiffness at a common stress state, and in
method 2 data are obtained by iteration, indicating that
the values are approximately the same for all bender
measurement directions; the average value is 3.67.

Govh(MPa)

100

10
BN2CRS
BR1CRS

*
1
10

100
'v(kPa)

1000

b) log Go-log v

6.3

Determination of stress index

The stress indices for the reconstituted sample BR8


were found by plotting shear stiffness, normalised by
the void ratio function, against log(i .j ) where I
and j are the appropriate effective stresses in equation 3, as shown for example in Figure 11 later in the
paper. The stress indices, of this reconstituted sample
are listed in table 3 leading to the structure terms, Sij of
30.0, 42.4, and 55.1 for VH, HV, and HH respectively.
6.4

Destructuration assessments

6.4.1 Effect of volumetric straining


The frameworks of metastability index and normalised
shear stiffness enable the structure of natural Bothkennar clay to be explored.
6.4.1.1 Assessment using metastability index
Firstly, data taken from the CRS oedometer tests, (in
which measurements could only be taken in the VH
direction), are plotted in the framework of metastability index using e-log Go and log Go -log v plots
as illustrated in Figure 9. The plot of e-log Go shows
that, the natural sample lays above the reconstituted
sample due to the existing structure of the natural
sample. With increasing consolidation stress level, the
natural sample approaches the reconstituted sample,
with the destructuration resulting in gradually decreasing metastability index. However, when the plot of

Figure 9. Shear stiffness from CRS tests.

log Go -log v is considered, it does not show any significant difference between the two samples, suggesting
that the shear stiffness alone, without consideration of
void ratio, cannot throw light on the determination of
structure of the natural clay. Similar trends may be seen
in Figure 10 in which VH bender data from triaxial test
BN7 (natural) are compared with BR8 (reconstituted).
Comparison of Figures 9a and 10a, shows that data
from the CRS oedometer tests are very similar to those
from triaxial tests for both natural and reconstituted
samples indicating the uniqueness of *-* line. This
suggests that there is no effect of strain rate on the
e-log Go relationship.
6.4.1.2 Assessment using void ratio normalisation
An alternative way of exploring the damage to the
clay structure is to normalise the data using the
trends observed for the reconstituted clay. It would
be expected that when the natural clay is compressed
sufficiently to fully destroy its structure it would
exhibit the same void ratio and Go as the reconstituted clay sample. Figure 11 shows that when the VH
shear stiffness data from BN7 were normalised by
the void ratio function and plotted against v h , the
normalised stiffness initially lays above that for the
reconstituted clay (test BR8). As the clay was compressed along the normal consolidation line the data

476

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2.20

1000

MI(Govh)

1.40
1.20
0.27

1.00

0.80
10

100
Overconsolidated
Region
10

100
Govh (MPa)
a) e-log Go

100

1000

1000

10000

100000

a) Govh /F(e) vs 'v'h


120

1000

0.3
nvh

100
*
Svh

Govh (MPa)

100

0.25

80

0.2

60

0.15

40

10

1
10

100
p' (kPa)

0.1
Svh

20

BN7
BR8

0.05

0
0

1000

100

200

300 400
p'max (kPa)

500

600

b) Svh pmax and nvh- pmax

b) log Go-log p

Figure 10. VH Shear stiffness from triaxial tests BN7


and BR8.
1000
Govh/F(e) (MPa)

1000000

'v'h(kPa2)

Svh

BN7
BR8

120

0.3

100

0.25

80

0.2

60

0.15
nvh

40

0.1

Svh

20

100

0.05

0
1

4
p'max/p'e

c) Svh - pmax /peand nvh - pmax /pe

10
100

nvh

1.60

NCL

nvh

Void ratio, e

*
1.80

Govh/F(e) (MPa)

BN7
BR8

2.00

1000

10000

100000

1000000

Figure 12. Determinination of Svh and nvh for test BN7 on


natural Bothkennar clay.

'v'h (kPa2)

Figure 11. Normalised Govh plotted against v h .

converged. Unload-reload loops resulted in reductions


of normalised stiffness below that of the undamaged
clay. Changes in both nvh and Svh can be observed for
successive unloading lines which appear to relate to the
amount of plastic volumetric straining. Therefore, an
assumption of constant stress index but varying Sij is
invalid for this natural clay; the changes in both terms
must then be taken into account.
Comparison of the data for the natural clay during
the later stages of the test with that for the reconstituted

clay are very sensitive to the precise value of the


void ratio index chosen for normalisation. Nevertheless there is evidence that the stiffness for the natural
clay falls below that of the reconstituted clay at the
same state (stress and void ratio) in the last cycle, and
thus this reconstituted soil does not form a true reference fully destructured material against which the
natural clay may be compared.
The data from the unloading branches (shown in
Figure 12a) have been used to evaluate changes in nvh
and Svh , and their relationship with pmax , the maximum
mean stress before unloading. This shows that nvh

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

increased with increasing pmax , while Svh reduced as


shown in Figure 12b. Svh decreased and nvh increased
very rapidly during the first loading cycle (passing
through the yield stress) but changes were smaller for
the later cycles. In an attempt to link the change of
stiffness to the degradation of the natural bounding
surface, the data are plotted against pmax /pe in Figure
12c (cf Figure 7). Functions relating nvh and Svh to
pmax /pe can be empirically estimated as

Svh =

3.34(pmax /pe )2

0.003(pmax /pe )2

5.97(pmax /pe )

+ 19.24

Goij (MPa)

In-situ state

Isotropic state

G0(vh)

(7)

10

100

(8)

DISCUSSION

Two methods have been used to make a quantitative assessment of the changing structure of natural

1000
'i'j (kPa2)

10000

a) Goij vs 'i'j
1000

Goij/F(e) (MPa)

Degradation in Goij/F(e)
at in-situ state
4%

100

2%

8%

G0(vh)/F(e)
10
10

100

1000
'i'j (kPa2)

10000

b) Goij /F(e) vs 'i'j


Figure 13. Shear stiffness in VH direction-effective stress
plot from test BN11.
0.4

60

0.3

45
Bonding

0.2
MI(Govh)e

6.4.2 Destructuration due to deviatoric straining


As mentioned earlier several natural samples were
reconsolidated under in-situ stresses and were then
subjected to a series of undrained compressionextension loops each followed by recompression back
to the in-situ stress state accompanied by reduction of
volume. In test BN11 whose stress paths were shown
in Figures 6 and 7, three consecutive undrained loops
with strain of magnitude 2%, 4%, and 8% were
applied to the sample before it was finally sheared to
failure. Shear stiffness data with and without normalisation by the reference void ratio function are plotted
against i j in Figure 13. Note that the figure shows
only results obtained from VH direction; the data from
the other directions show the same trend.
During each undrained excursion there is a clear
reduction of Go . Without normalisation (Figure 13a),
the measured stiffness appears to be recovered whenever the sample was reconsolidated under the in-situ
stress, (which resulted in reduction of void ratio).
However, if the void ratio change during reloading is
taken into account by plotting Goij /F(e) against i j , as
shown in Figure 13b, it may be seen that the normalised
stiffness under in-situ stress decreased, with ever larger
reductions following each cycle of undrained deviatoric straining. Note that the observed reduction of
shear stiffness during each undrained loop increased
with increasing strain amplitude.

0.1

30
15

Fabric

0.0

-0.1 0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

0
2.2-15

-0.2

-30
MI(Govh)e
Svh

-0.3
-0.4

-45
-60

Void Ratio, e

Figure 14. Comparing MI(Govh )e with Svh for test BN7.

Bothkennar clay; metastability index and normalised


shear stiffness, and it is interesting to compare these
approaches. Both metastability index and Svh have
been plotted against void ratio for the volumetric
destructuration test BN7 in Figure 14. The plot shows
that some advantages obtain from the normalised
Go approach for assessment of structure over the
metastability index approach. Firstly, during unloadreloading loops, the metastability index technique
exhibits pseudo-degradation in structure of the natural
sample which is recovered when the sample is loaded

478

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8%

10

If the fully destructured parameters are extracted from


equations 7 and 8 by substituting pmax /pe = 1, values
of nvh = 0.24 and Svh = 16.6 are obtained. The value
of nvh is comparable to nvh = 0.25 found previously
for other non-structured clays (e.g. Jamiokowski et al.,
1995; Pennington, 1999). The estimated stress function was used, to normalise Go /F(e) of test BN7 to
obtain Svh of the natural sample for comparison with
its reconstituted Svh from test BR8.

4%

2%

Svh

nvh = 0.25

0.009(pmax /pe )

100

and deviatoric straining. This finding suggests that


volumetric and deviatoric strains contribute equally
to destructuration strain as previously found for
Nrkoping clay (obtained from test data with an
optimisation technique by Rouainia and Muir Wood,
2001).

% Change in Goij/F(e)

0%
VH

-10%

HV

HH

-20%
-30%
-40%
-50%
-60%
-70%

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

-80%
0%

10%

20%

30%

Induced volumetric plastic strain (%)

Figure 15. Degradation in normalised shear stiffness due to


volumetric straining, and deviatoric straining.

back to the same preconsolidation stress. In contrast


the structure term Svh of the sample is unchanged in
the overconsolidated range which is more realistic
for soil structure. Moreover, the MI(Govh )e varies with
overconsolidation ratio while Svh does not show this
dependency. Secondly, the use of metastability index
by definition only involves the void ratio and does
not take stress level into account. Many current softsoil models compare the behaviour of a structured soil
with that of its destructured counterpart at the same
void ratio. For these reasons, quantifying the effects
of structure using metastability index seems less useful than normalisation that takes the effects of both
void ratio and stress level into account.
In section 6.4.1.2 it was shown that damage to the
clay structure results in changes to both the stress index
nij and the structure term Sij . The latter is somewhat
arbitrary since it depends on the choice of reference
stress (here taken as 1 kPa).
As a further alternative way to assess damage, the
change of normalised shear stiffness Goij /F(e) at a
single stress state has been used to compare destructuration due to volumetric strain and with that due
to deviatoric strain. Figure 15 compares data under
in-situ stress from test BN7 (plastic volumetric strain
damage) with data from test BN11 (deviatoric strain
damage followed by plastic volumetric strain due
to reconsolidation). In this figure the solid symbols
indicate data from BN11, and the opened-symbols
present data from BN7. Data have been normalised by
Goij /F(e) at the in-situ state and are plotted against the
cumulative plastic strain developed subsequent to the
initial consolidation under the in-situ stress. Data are
presented for the three directions VH, HV, and HH.
In the case of BN11, the undrained deviatoric strain
excursions induced plastic strain during subsequent
reconsolidation to in-situ stress, so the changes of stiffness result from the effects of both plastic deviatoric
and plastic volumetric strain.
Figure 15 implies that more or less the same level
of destructuration results from volumetric straining

The paper has shown that the structure of natural


Bothkennar clay is revealed by comparing its shear
stiffness with that of the reconstituted clay. Damage
to the structure is shown when stiffness data are normalised by the reference void ratio function taken from
tests on reconstituted clay. During volumetric straining, the stress indices nij of the natural clay were found
to increase with increasing plastic volumetric strain,
indicating that the destructuration can not be sufficiently described by the degradation of the structure
term Sij alone. Careful assessment of a volumetric
straining test showed that values of Sij and nij eventually reached values that differ from those obtained
for the reconstituted clay. Indeed the reconstituted clay
does not appear to form a lower bound to the damaged
natural material, perhaps due to differences in initial
micro-structure of the materials as well as differences
in pore fluid.
Comparison of the structure term Sij with metastability index as indicators of damage to the clay
structure showed that while both reveal the damage,
metastability index is less informative in the overconsolidated region since it combines the effects of
stress change with void ratio change. Perhaps a more
informative indicator of damage is normalised shear
stiffness at a common stress state. Comparison of
the evolving stiffness normalised by the same void
ratio function for two samples always under the insitu stress, showed that volumetric strain causes similar
damage to deviatoric strain.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was carried out at the University of
Bristol under a grant from the EPSRC, and the Royal
Thai Government which supported the first author.
The authors are grateful to laboratory technicians at
the University of Bristol, Mr. Mike Pope, Mr. Mark
Fitzgerald, and Mr. Steve Iles for their technical
support.
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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Softening characteristics of soil cement on the condition of soaking


Chang-Jun Yin & Xing-Hua Wang
School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Central South University, Changsha, China

Shi-Cheng Ma
Civil Engineering and Mechanics college of Xiangtan University, Xiangtan, China

ABSTRACT: As a new type of construction material with appropriate behavior and economy, soil cement
is widely applied in many engineering fields, such as water conservancy, communications and civil engineering. Because long-term mechanical behavior of soil cement construction is directly affected by its rheological
behavior, the rheology theory will provide more dependable and reasonable safety guarantee to soil cement
construction when it is applied in design of structure.
According to the results of the unconfined compression tests and rheologiacal tests on laterite cement and
sandy soil cement, this paper compared the mechanical behavior of soil cement on the condition of soaking or
un-soaking. The tests provide some data to the application of these two kinds of soil cement. Based on the data
provided by the previous tests, many tests for rheological behavior of soil cement were done.

INTRODUCTION

In practice, the environment factors of soil cement


deserve to be considered because of changing of the
condition, such as the bank of river with foundation
reinforced by deep mixing cement piles soaked in
floods in south China in summer. Soil cement has
been applied widely to the fields of civil engineering, transportation, water conservancy and so on since
it was introduced into China about twenty years ago.
And challenges were brought forward when different
practical situation was encountered, such as settlement
and velocity of settlement of foundation that should be
considered in several engineering applications.
It is known that the mechanical behavior of soil
cement is influenced mainly by cement ratio, curing
time and properties of soil. With the change of the
influence factors on soil cement, it has the material
properties of both continuum and granular media. As
granular media, the influence of soaking is notable.
So it is important to research the mechanical and rheological behaviors of soil cement on the condition of
soaking.

2
2.1

cement. Two areas of the city were selected for the


project. For ease of reference, the test sites will be
referred to as S1 and S2. S1 with widely distributed
laterite is in the campus of Xiangtan university, and
S2 is in Yangmeizhou Alluvion formed by alluviation of Xiangjiang River. The two areas are far from
each other.
Samples of the soils from the sites taken 0.5 m
below ground surface were brought to the laboratory
for characterization and to be investigated for use in
soil cement. Characterization of the soils included particle size analysis, dry density tests and water content
tests.
With the information from the tests above, and following the procedure described in Xiao (1985), four
kinds of cement ratio were selected, which are 4%, 7%,
10% and 13% for S1, and 10% for S2. The definition
of cement ratio (CR) is ratio of the weight of cement
to the weight of dry soil. The water content (WC) is
30% for all soil cement specimens in this project, and
the definition of it is ratio of the weight of water to the
weight of dry soil.
Tap water and cement graded as P. O. 325 were used
throughout the experimental program.
2.2 Tests

MATERIALS AND TESTS


Materials

The project originally planned to use soils from the


test sites for laboratory tests and preparation of soil

2.2.1 Preparation of specimens


Before preparing the soil cement specimens, the soil
for use must be treated with three processes of drying, grinding without shattering of soil particle and

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

passing through a 2 mm sieve in turn. According to


assured WC and different CR, respectively, a certain
amount of soil was mixed with the predetermined
amount of Portland cement and water for about 2 to
3 minutes with a mortar mixer. The mixture was compacted in three layers in a standard cylindrical mold
(50 mm in diameter 100 mm in height). The specimen was then extruded and weighed, and the weights
of soil specimen from S1 and S2 were about 330 g
and 390 g, respectively. Then it was taken out from the
mold and kept in a humidity chamber (at 90% relative
humidity) at 20 5 for 28 days.
2.2.2 Unconfined compressive strength tests
The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of the soil
cement was determined following two procedures. In
the first one, triplicate sets of specimens were prepared
and tested with a universal testing machine following unconfined compressive strength test standards,
and at the same time, complete stress-strain curve of
specimen was obtained. The compressive strength was
labeled as the un-soaked strength (USS). The compressive strength in the second procedure was obtained in
manner essentially similar to the first, except that the
specimens were soaked in tap water for 24 hour before
they were tested. And the compressive strength was
labeled as the soaked strength (SS).
According to the above tests, each kind of soil
cement with different CR has two kinds of strength:
USS and SS respectively.
2.2.3 Rheological tests
The procedures of rheological tests include creep tests
and relaxation tests, in which graded loading mode was
taken following the procedure described in Sun (1999).
As the unconfined compressive strength tests, the
specimens for the rheological tests were divided into
groups according to different CR and whether or not
being soaked. The stress or strain level of each grade of
loading was determined by the unconfined compressive strength of each group, herein, the definition of
stress/strain level was that ratio of load/displacement
to the PL/DPL that could be checked in Table 2. It was
the aim of the rheological tests to find out the timedepending behavior of soil cement under different
condition.

Figure 1. Grain size distribution of different soils.


Table 1.

Site

Dry density
(g/mm3 )

Water
content (%)

Classification

S1
S2

2.63 103
1.844 103

25
20

Sandy soil
Redeposited laterite

Table 2. Mechanical factors of soil cement with


different CR.

Cement
ratio (%)
S1

S2

4
7
10
13
10

Model
(MPa)

PL
(MPa)

DPL
(mm)

77.52
99.48
129.91
184.19
242.00

29.83
70.62
219.68

1.33
1.31
1.87
2.07
4.89

0.52
0.55
0.82
2.86

1.62
1.67
1.53
1.50
2.02

1.53
1.57
1.33
1.44

1Un-soaked specimen, 2Soaked specimen

from S1 and S2 were named as sandy soil cement and


laterite cement, respectively. The dry density and the
natural water content were given in Table 1.
3.1 Compressive strength

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND


DISCUSSION

The soil from S1 and S2 were sepia and red brown


in color respectively. Particle size distributions of the
different soils are presented in Fig. 1.
The classification of the soil from S1 was fine sandy
soil and that of the soil from S2 was redeposited laterite. Accordingly the soil cements containing the soil

The test results of UCS presented in Table 2 consisted


of values of modulus, peak load (PL) and displacement
at peak load (DPL). The modulus is the slope of the
straight segment of the curve. The specimens with 4%
CR disintegrated under conditions of soaking, so the
value of modulus and UCS could not be obtained. And
the curve of the specimens with 7% CR did not present
distinct straight segment under condition of soaking,

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soil physical properties and classification.

Figure 2. Complete stress-strain curve of un-soaked and


soaked specimens.

so the value of modulus was not obtained either. As


could be noted from Table 1, the values of modulus, PL
and DPL increased with the increase of CR for sandy
soil cement, and the increase in sandy soil cement was
greater than that in laterite cement with the same CR.
For soil cements containing different soils, all their
mechanical behaviors were softened after soaking in
water.
The curves character was observed with the specimens tested on the condition of un-soaking and
soaking (Fig. 2.). It was obvious that the characteristics of laterite cement approached to those of solid, and
sandy soil cement was similar to soil especially on the
condition of soaking. The greater the value of CR, the
higher is the stability of soil cement. But increasing the
CR purely was not a good method. There should be an
optimum CR to achieve both economy and adequate
bearing capacity. It would be better to choose other
method or material if the soil cement or its material
properties would not satisfy the need of practice.
As shown in Fig. 2, the residual strength of sandy
soil cement with different CR approached the same
value, because the cohesion mainly formed by cement
was destroyed, and that of the soaked specimen was
nearly equal because of the cohesion being further
destroyed by water.
3.2

Rheological behavior

The creep tests of sandy soil cement with CR of 4%


and the relaxation tests of that with CR of 4% and 7%
failed under lower stress and strain level.
3.2.1 Creep behavior
A creep curve composed of three phases that were
attenuation, uniform velocity and accelerating in turn.
The specimen failed at accelerating phase. And the
relaxation curve could be described in the same way.

Figure 3. Creep curve of soil cement with different CR (a


presented laterite soil cement, b, c and d presented
sandy soil cement with CR of 7%, 10%, 13%).

Figure 4. Relaxation curve of soil cement with different CR


(a presented laterite soil cement, b, c presented sandy
soil cement with CR of 10%, 13%).

As shown in Fig. 3, for soil cement with a certain


CR, the initial strain rate of soaked specimens were
greater than that of un-soaked ones at lower stress
level. But the soaked ones reached the uniform velocity
phase earlier than un-soaked ones. This explained that
the response of soil cement to stress or strain became
slower after soaking because of viscosity of water.
In general, the strain rate of un-soaked specimens
with lower CR was greater than that with higher ones
at a certain time. So the specimen with CR of 7% failed
when the second stress were loaded (Fig.3b). But for
soaked specimens, this phenomenon was not obvious.
3.2.2 Relaxation behavior
Similarly to the creep curve, for soil cement with a
certain CR, the initial stress rate of soaked specimens

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

was greater than that of un-soaked ones at lower strain


level. But the soaked ones reached the uniform velocity
phase earlier than the un-soaked ones.
As shown in Fig. 4b, the soaked specimen failed at
higher strain level, and its limit of relaxation stress was
similar to its residual strength. But with the increasing CR or adoption of appropriate soil as laterite, the
capability of resisting relaxation was enhanced.
4

CONCLUSIONS

The influence of soaking to the mechanical behavior


of soil cement was notable. The water could soften the
soil cement and converted it back to soil. To enhance
the capability of stability of soil cement, increasing
CR or adopting appropriate soil was a valid method to
a certain degree.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the fund of
Education Office of Hunan Province of their project
01C085, and the Test Center of Foundational Mechanics and Material Engineering Institute of Xiangtan
University.

REFERENCES
Complication Committee of Geotechnical Engineering
Handbook, 1994. Geotechnical engineering handbook,
China. China Architecture and Building Press.
Cui J.Y., 2001. Analysis research of the mechanics properties
on cement deep mixing pile, China. Chinese Journal of
Foundation Engineering, Vol. 11, pp. 58.
Liang R. W., and Zhang M., and Bai X. H., .2001. Analysis
of laboratory test result of cemented soil, China. Chinese
Journal of Rock and Soil mechanics, Vol. 22, pp. 211213.
Ministry of Construction P. R. China, 1999. Specification
for soil test (SL237-1999), China. China Architecture and
Building Press.
Ministry of Construction P. R. China, 1999. Standard of
method for soil test (GB/T50123-1999), China. China
Architecture and Building Press.
Sun Jun, 1999. Rheology and engineering application of rock
and soil, China. China Architecture and Building Press.
Xiao L., and Wang C. Y., and Guo H. S., 1985. Construction material soil cement, China. Water Conservancy and
Electric Power Press.
Yu Y. H., and Yang X. H., 2003. Experiments of mechanics property of cement-loess, China. Chinese Journal of
Changan University (Natural Science Edition), Vol. 23,
pp. 2932.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Progressively destructurated undrained strength of natural soils


Cheng Zhou
Department of Geotechnical Engineering, Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute, Nanjing, China
Key Laboratory of Water Science and Engineering, the Ministry of Water Resources, China
Department of Civil Engineering, Laval University, Quebec, Canada

ABSTRACT: A solution to the progressively destructurated undrained strength is derived in the framework of
critical state theory and progressive destructuration concept. The analytical solution can be used to investigate
the influences of anisotropy, degrees of structure and destructuration, Lodes angle and visco-plastic volumetric
strain rate on the progressively destructurated undrained strength of natural soils. Generally, the soil parameters
involved in the proposed solutions can be determined from laboratory experiments.

INTRODUCTION

It is increasingly accepted that natural soils are microstructured under anisotropically deposited K0 condition (Burland 1990; Leroueil and Vaughan 1990).
Bonds between soil particles or aggregates usually
exhibit that the peak strength envelope of the overconsolidated soils is above that of the same soil when
non-structured. For example, Leroueil et al. (1997)
and Saihi et al. (2002) reported from triaxial tests that
large deformation strengths of overconsolidated sensitive eastern Canada clays and softened clay shales
from southern Italy, lie well above the critical state
line obtained on the reconstituted material. Leroueil
and Vaughan (1990) and Leroueil (2001) indicated that
the void ratio of the natural soils, its stress history and
the strength of the bonds between particles or aggregates can be reflected in the limit state curves of natural
soils. When an effective stress path reaches the limit
state curve, a large proportion of the bonds are broken, and the stiffness, peak strength envelope and the
yield stress and the compression index of the natural
soils are consequently decreased. Destructuration can
be reached by compression, shearing and possibly by
swelling in particular conditions respectively.
In the well-known modified Cam clay (MCC)
model, the shape of the yield locus is assumed symmetrical about the mean effective stress axis. However,
many natural clays were studied and their yield surfaces exhibited strong anisotropy. For example, Tavenas and Leroueil (1979) found that the limit state curve
of natural clay was more or less elliptically symmetrical about the in situ stress state or K0 line. A study
by Graham and Houlsby (1983) also indicated that
the yield loci of anisotropically consolidated natural

lacustrine clay were symmetrical about the K0 axis


in the invariant mean effective stress versus deviator stress space (p q). Wroth and Houlsby (1985)
believed that this asymmetry was a common feature
of natural clays and was related to the stress-induced
anisotropy. The shape of the limit state curve reflects
both the anisotropy and the effective stress path dependency of the shear strength of the natural clay, for
example, the yield strength under K0 loading is 1.6
times larger than that under isotropic loading (Leroueil
and Vaughan, 1990; Diaz-Rodriguez et al. 1992).
Solution to the progressively destructurated undrained
strength is therefore derived by means of the critical state theory, progressive destructuration concept
and the visco-plastic flow surface function (yield
function). A parametric study is also conducted to
investigate the influences of anisotropy, degrees of
structure and destructuration, Lodes angle and viscoplastic volumetric strain rate on the progressively
destructurated undrained strength of natural soils.
2 THE YIELD FUNCTION OF NATURAL SOIL
An anisotropic parameter K0 is adopted in the viscoplastic flow surface function similar to that of Camclay model to initiate the initial anisotropy. The viscoplastic flow surface equation can be written as follow:
Q = (q K0 p )2 /M 2 (1 K2 0 /M 2 )
(pK0 p )p = 0

where K0 can be a variable (Wheeler et al. 2003) or a


K0 )
(Zhou et al. 2005), depending
constant K0 = 3(1
1 + 2K0

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(1)

on whether the anisotropic strain hardening (rotational


hardening) was considered or not.
For the reconstituted soils, only the mean effective
pressure pK is used to describe the magnitude of the
0
yield surface during strain hardening, i.e., in MCC
model. In this paper, the variable is adopted in the
visco-plastic flow surface function associated with the
degree of destructuration D, i.e., the symbol pK0 is
used rather than pK to describe the magnitude of the
0
visco-plastic flow surface of the natural soil in comparison with the reconstituted soil, so that the strain hardening and destructuration (structure collapse during
strain hardening) can be both described. The term is
related to the degree of destructuration in terms of the
0
relationship = 1 + (1 D)(0 1), and 0 = M
is
M1
the initial degree of structure.The critical state strength
ratios M0 and M1 are defined for natural soil without
any destructuration and for fully destructurated soil,
respectively, and M = M0 D(M0 M1 ).

p'K

p'K

p'u

p'

0,0

line
V1

line

V2

Figure 1. Virgin consolidation and swelling line.

Nakai (1974), or Lade and Duncan (1975), so that


3 /1 as a function of  and at failure state can


be derived. Then the
derived 3 /1 is substituted
3

1 + 3 tan2 (1  /  )

1
into M (  , ) = (3 + 3 tan ) + (3 3 tan3 )
 /  to get the
3

3 THE UNDRAINED STRENGTH OF


NATURAL SOIL
The visco-plastic flow surface for the anisotropic
visco-plastic constitutive equation has been given
by Equation 1. To develop an anisotropic viscoplastic constitutive equation for a general stress
state, a general failure criterion is necessary
to be adopted together with Equation 1. Some
failure criteria can be expressed in terms of
explicit shape function g(  , ), for

 example,
g(  , ) = K  /{(2K  1) + (1 K  )[ sin 6 +



3 cos 6 ]}, K  = (3 sin  )/(3 + sin  ) in
Xins function (1988). With the explicit shape function g(  , ) or implicit function M (  , ) of failure
surfaces, Equation 1 can be written as:
Q = (q K0 p )2 /M 2 [g(  , )2 K2 0 /M 2 ]
(pK0 p )p = 0

Q = (q k0 p )2 /M 2 (  , )
(2b)

where  is the effective friction angle of soils, and


is Lodes angle.
However, sometimes it is difficult to give the
explicit shape function g(  , ) for some failure criteria, i.e., Matsuoka and Nakais failure
surface (1974), Lade and Duncans failure surface (1975). Under this circumstance, M (  , ) can
be used instead
of Mg(  , ). The relationship

2 = 1 (1 + 3 tan )/2 + 3 (1 3 tan )/2 can be


firstly substituted into the criteria of Matsuoka and

where the subscript ds defines a progressively


destructurated state.
From Figure 1, we have
pK0
p


=

pK0

 k

pu

(4)

1 + 2K OC

0
vi ; K0OC is the current value of the
stress, p =
3
coefficient of earth pressure at rest; vi is the initial
vertical effective stress.
For an element of soil in the ground which has an
initial vertical effective stress vi and overconsolida

tion ratio OCR (OCR = v,max
/vi , where v,max
is the
maximum vertical effective stress that the element of
soil has been subjected to), the horizontal effective
stress is given by

hi = Kooc vi

(5)

As noted above, the maximum vertical and horizontal effective stress that the soil element has ever
experienced are given by

= (OCR)vi
v,max

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

general M (  , ).
Based on the critical state theory (Roscoe and
Burland 1968; Muir Wood, 1990), the progressively
destructurated concept (Leroueil and Vaughan, 1990;
Leroueil, 2001), and according to the method in Potts
and Zdravkovic (1999), the undrained strength at progressively destructurated state can be derived using the
anisotropic flow surface function as follows:

Su,ds = 3qds cos


(3)

where p is the current value of the mean effective


(2a)

or
[1 k20 /M 2 (  , )](pK0 p )p = 0

'
ln p

(6)



h,max
= K0NC v,max

(7)

where K0NC is the value of the coefficient of earth


pressure at rest, associated with normal consolidation.
Equations 6 and 7 can now be used to define the
stress invariant qi and pi

pi

1+

(8)

(OCR)vi

(9)



, h,max
,
Because the stress state associated with v,max
qi and pi is normally consolidated, it must lie on
the visco-plastic flow surface. Consequently, using
Equation 2 we can get

pK0 = pi +

(qi K0 pi )2

pi [M 2 (  , ) K2 0 ]

log (pK0 ) = log (pK0 )0


vp

vp

+Cp [ log (VK0 ) log (VK0 )0 ]

vp

(12)

(VK0 )0


pu

pK0

pi
pK0

 k

= (OCR)vi

2
(1+2K NC )

1 + 2K NC
3 1 K0NC K0 3 0
0
+

NC
2
2


3
(1 + 2K0 )[M ( , ) K0 ]

1 + 2K0NC

2

K (1+2K NC )

1K0NC 0 3 0

(OCR)(1 + 2K NC ) + 9(OCR)

(1+2K0NC )[M 2 (  ,)K2 ]

vp
VK0
vp
(VK0 )0

)Cp (1 )

(13)

When the undrained strength is mobilized, the soil element is at the critical state, with stresses qds and pds .
These stresses are related by the equation
qds = pds M (  , )

(14)

which, on substitution in Equation 2, gives


pds = pK0 ,ds

M (  , ) + K0
2M (  , )

(15)

Combining Equations 4 and 15, gives


(11)

where pK0 , VK0 , (pK0 )0 , and (VK0 )0 are mean effective pressures and visco-plastic volumetric strains at
the current state and reference state (at a strain
rate low enough), respectively; the coefficient Cp is
the slope of the mean effective pressure (log) versus
visco-plastic volumetric strain rate (log) curve (Kim
and Leroueil, 2001).
Substituting Equations 8 and 9 into Equation 10
and rearranging in consideration of the variation of the
mean effective pressure pK0 with strain rate, provides
the following expression for the current hardening

pK0 ,ds

vp

pds


=

pK0 ,ds
pu

 k

2M (  , )
M (  , ) + K0

(16)

Consequently,
pK0 ,ds = pu

2M (  , )
M (  , ) + K0

 k
(17)

Combining Equations 3, 13, 14, 15 and 17 gives


the desired expression for Su,ds using the anisotropic

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

)C p

vp

VK0

Using Equation 4 gives the following value for pu

(10)

In this paper, the mean effective pressure of the natural structured soil, pK0 lies on the K0 axis (Zhou
et al., 2005) and corresponds to the value of mean
effective pressure on the pi axis in the mean effective
pressure versus volumetric strain diagram.
Leroueil et al. (1985) have illustrated a variation of
the apparent preconsolidation pressure with strain rate.
In a similar way, we assume a variation of the mean
effective pressure of the natural structured soil,pK0 ,
with strain rate. Leroueil et al. (1985) and Leroueil and
Marques (1996) showed that the variation of apparent
preconsolidation pressure with strain rate is about the
same for most inorganic clays, i.e., 712% per logarithm cycle. The corresponding values of the slope
of the preconsolidation pressure (log) versus viscoplastic volumetric strain rate (log) curves are between
0.03 and 0.05 as same as those given by Mesri et al.
(1995). Similarly, we adopt a relationship of mean
effective pressure of the natural structured soil, pK0 ,
with strain rate as

vp

pK0 = (OCR)vi

2
(1+2K NC )

1 + 2K NC
3 1 K0NC K0 3 0
0
+

NC
2

3
(1 + 2K0 )[M 2 (  , ) K0 ]

qi = (1 K0NC )(OCR)vi
2K0NC

parameter

visco-plastic constitutive equation and the progressive


destructuration concept:

Su,ds = 3qds cos




 k
2M (  , )
3pu cos [M (  , ) + K0 ]
=
2
M (  , ) + K0

3(OCR)vi cos [M (  , ) + K0 ]
=
2

2
(1+2K NC )

1 + 2K NC

3 1 K0NC K0 3 0
0
+
NC
2

3
(1 + 2K0 )[M 2 (  , ) K0 ]

Table 1. Basic parameters for the solution to progressively


destructurated undrained strength.

0.6

2(1+2K0oc )M (  ,)
3M (  ,)+3K0


vp

VK0

)Cp (1 )

vp

(VK0 )0

M0

M1

K0oc

0.75

0.03

0.008

0.06

1.243

1.143

0.50

Su /'z

0.2
K
0

0.0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

(18)
Figure 2. Relationship of the normalized progressively
destructurated undrained strength vs. the anisotropic parameter k0 at = 30 and D = 0.4.

1.0
Su /'z
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
D
0.0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Figure 3. Relationship of the normalized progressively


destructurated undrained strength vs. the degree of destructuration D at = 30 and k0 = 0.75.

EXAMPLE ANALYSIS USING THE


SOLUTION

The obtained solution to the progressively destructurated undrained strength is used for an example of
parametric analysis. The basic parameters used are
summarized in Table 1.
Figures 2 to 6 give the relationship between the
normalized progressively destructurated undrained
strength Su /z and the anisotropic parameter K0 ,
the degree of destructuration D, the initial degree of
structure 0 , Lodes angle , and the visco-plastic

vp

volumetric strain rate VK0 . It can be seen that the


normalized progressively destructurated undrained
strength depends significantly on the degree of inherent anisotropy, the destructuration and initial structure
states, the general stress state and the strain rate of
soils.
The normalized progressively destructurated
undrained strength Su /z increases with increasing

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.4

If the soil element is normally consolidated,


K0OC = K0NC and OCR = 1. For simplicity, Mg(  , )
is used instead of M (  , ) in the following parametric
study, where g(  , ) is Xins function (1988),  is the
effective friction angle of soils, and is Lodes angle.
In the constitutive equation, the parameter Cp for
description of rate dependency can be obtained from
K0 compression and creep oedometer tests (similar to
the creep parameters 0 /V0 and t0 in Yin and Graham,
1999; the relationship between them can be established); The parameters /V and /V can also be
obtained from K0 compression tests (Yin and Graham,
1999). The symbol pK0,0 defines the initial magnitude of the elasticity core in p q space, which
corresponds to a volumetric strainVK0,0 . The critical
state strength parameters M0 and M1 can be obtained
through triaxial tests on natural soil without any
destructuration and reconstituted soil, respectively.
4

0.8

K0 ]

Cp

1.0

K (1+2K NC )

1K0NC 0 3 0

NC

0
OCR 1+2K
+ 3(OCR) (1+2K NC )[M 2 (  ,)2
3

K0

1.0

1.0
S u / 'z

S u / 'z

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2
0

0.0
1.0

1.1

1.2

0.0
1.E+00

1.3

Figure 4. Relationship of the normalized progressively


destructurated undrained strength vs. the degree of structure
0 at = 30 , = 0.75 and D = 0.4.

1.0

vp
VK0 (10-10)

1.E+02

1.E+04

1.E+06

Figure 6. Relationship of the normalized progressively


destructurated undrained strength vs. the visco-plastic voluvp
metric strain rate at VK 0 , = 30 , k0 = 0.75 and D = 0.4.

and decreases with increasing degree of destructuration D and Lodes angle .

Su /'z
0.8
0.6

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

0.4
0.2

0.0
-30

-10

10

30

Figure 5. Relationship of the normalized progressively


destructurated undrained strength vs. the Lodes angle at
= 0.75 and D = 0.4.
vp

values of K0 , 0 and VK0 , and decreases with


increasing values of D and .

CONCLUSIONS

The analytical solution to the progressively destructurated undrained strength allows for the evaluation
of the dependency of it on the degree of inherent anisotropy, the destructuration state, the general
stress state and the strain rate of soils. The parametric study shows that the normalized progressively
destructurated undrained strength Su /z increases with
increasing anisotropic parameter K0 , initial structure
parameter 0 and visco-plastic volumetric strain rate,

Financial supports from Ministry of Water Resource


of China (CT200514), partly the Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council of Canada, are
acknowledged.
The financial supports in the past years from
National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC
50409009) and the University Grants Committee of
the Hong Kong SAR Government (PolyU 5041/01E)
are also acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Burland, J. B. 1990. 30th Rankine Lecture: On the compressibility and shear strength of natural soils. Geotechnique,
40(3): 329378.
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Numerical modelling and theoretical development

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Numerical modeling of interaction between flexible retaining wall and


saturated clayey soil in undrained and drained conditions
Amir M. Bazrafshan & Ali Pak
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: In this article, behavior of cantilever retaining walls with various flexibilities, which retain
saturated cohesive soil behind, is studied using numerical modeling. Generally, pattern of lateral earth pressure
behind retaining walls is complex and this complexity becomes greater for clayey soils. In this investigation,
effects of different wall bending stiffnesses, and backfill drainage conditions on the failure height and on the
lateral earth pressure are investigated using finite elements. Comparison between the obtained results from
numerical simulation and those based on empirical or conventional design methods indicate that soil-structure
interaction and c drainage conditions play important roles in the analysis and design of flexible retaining walls
which are not fully addressed in the classical methods of analysis. At the end of the paper advantages and
limitations of the classical methods are discussed.
1

INTRODUCTION

Analysis and design of retaining walls should be


based on the wall behavior on one hand, and on the
characteristics of the backfill soil on the other. Categorically, there are two classes of geotechnical analysis
in this regard, namely rigid retaining walls and flexible
retaining walls.
At the beginning of twentieth century, construction of flexible retaining walls posed new problems
to the soil-structure interaction (SSI) field of study,
mainly because of considerable deformation of these
walls under service loads. Flexibility of the walls
varies in a wide range which has a considerable effect
on the lateral earth pressure distribution. Walls with
more flexibilities bear less bending moments in their
structural elements but produce larger deformations.
Therefore, classical theories, such as Coulomb or
Rankine, which are based on the assumption of wall
rigidity do not seem applicable to the analysis of flexible walls. Recently, a performance based design
philosophy has been proposed for retaining walls using
the concepts of function and serviceability.
So far, considerable efforts have been made by
different researchers for considering the interaction
Table 1.

between the soil and the retaining wall. Their work


can be classified in the following four groups
[7, 10, 11, 16]:
1) Classical methods by Blum (1931), Tschebotarioff
(1948) and Rowe (1952)
2) Subgrade reaction methods by Winkler (1867),
Terzaghi (1955), Rowe (1955), Haliburton (1968)
and Simon (1995).
3) Finite elements methods by Clough & Woodard
(1967) and Bjerrum et al (1972).
4) Empirical methods by Terzaghi (1936), Peck (1943,
1969) and Clough et ORourke (1990).
In these investigations, saturated clayey backfill has
not been of interest, especially in undrained conditions. In this article, the effect of interaction between
flexible wall and saturated clayey soil in drained and
undrained conditions is investigated using the finite
element method.
2

SOIL AND WALL CHARACTERISTICS

The finite element code Plaxis [4] has been used for
the course of numerical simulations in this study. This

Clay soil specifications.

ID

Cu
kPa

C
kPa

d
kN /m3

sat
kN /m3

E
kPa

Eu
kPa

ko

C5
C9

25
40

0
0

5
9

20
22

18.5
18.5

20
20

2500
5000

2250
4500

0.495
0.495

0.35
0.35

0.74
1.11

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 2.

Classification of walls with different stiffnesses.

ID

Types of wall

EI
kNm2 /m

EA
kN /m

CRW
DW
SPW
SSW

Concrete rigid wall


Diaphragm wall
Steel sheet pile wall
Steel soft wall

2.3E06
2.3E06
7.5E04
1.5E04

2.8E10
2.8E07
4.0E06
4.0E06

0.17
0.17
0.35
0.35

software is capable of conducting stress-deformation


analysis for various types of geotechnical problems
considering elastic and elastoplastic behaviors under
different drainage conditions.
The constitutive model for soft clayey backfill
is considered elasto-perfectly plastic Mohr-Coulomb
model which is defined by parameters ofYoungs modulus (E), Poison ratio (), Cohesion (C), Friction angle
() and Dilatancy angle (). In the process of soilstructure interaction modeling, In order to compare
drained and undrained conditions, real parameters of
clay soil should be used, thus two types of clays are considered with the following parameters [6, 13]. These
parameters have been obtained from triaxial tests.
Wall behavior is assumed elastic and is modeled
by beam elements with 3 degrees of freedom in each
node (2 degrees of freedom of transition and 1 degree
of freedom of rotation). Elastic behavior of beams is
introduced to the model by poison ratio (), bending
rigidity (EI) and axial rigidity (EA) per unit width of
the wall [4]. In this study, four types of walls with different stiffnesses representing their different behaviors
are considered: Concrete rigid wall, Diaphragm wall,
Steel sheet pile wall and Steel soft wall. The values
of their parameters are shown in Table 2. For a more
realistic simulation, interface elements between the
soil and retaining wall are used. Interface elements
can facilitate modeling of the sliding and/or separation of soil from the wall. Their behavioral model is
also Mohr-Coulomb with parameters that are a fraction of the adjacent soil parameters. In this study, this
reduction factor is considered 0.5 [4].
Since the types of the elements for the soil, interfaces and the wall should be compatible for generation
of the finite element mesh, triangular elements with 6
nodes and 3 stress points are used for soil and interface elements, and beam elements with 3 nodes and 4
stress points are used for modeling the wall [4].

GEOMETRY AND ANALYSIS


SPECIFICATIONS

Walls are assumed to be long enough so that deformations in the direction of wall length are negligible and
the problem is considered in plane strain conditions.
Dimensions, geometry and boundary conditions are

Figure 1. Problem geometry and boundary conditions.

shown in Figure 1. Domain mesh is consisted of 1084


elements. In the analysis procedure the wall height
is constant. Steel walls are driven into the ground,
and concrete walls are built in pre-excavated trenches.
Then excavation is performed in front of the wall, layer
by layer, until instability occurs. In this way, walls stability height (H) is obtained and the penetration depth
would be equal to D = L-H. Water table behind the
wall is at the ground surface and because of very low
permeability of clay, it is assumed at the excavation
level in front of the wall.
4

In this article, due to the similarities between the C5


and C9 analysis results, C9 charts are skipped but
they are available in Ref. [1]. Results of limit equilibrium analysis for cantilever walls and cohesive backfill
soil, in drained and undrained conditions, are given
in Table 3 based on using two classical design methods explained in References [5, 7, 17]. In conventional
design method, lateral earth pressure distribution along
the wall changes gradually from active condition at
the top to passive condition at the bottom in a way
that a rotating point can be assumed above the toe of
the wall. In Blum method [7], the force resulting from
active and passive earth pressures below the rotating
point is substituted by a concentrated force. In Table
3 two major variables, which are of interest, in the
design of retaining walls i.e. failure height and maximum bending moment are mentioned. Failure height
is the maximum height of the cantilever retaining wall
that sustains stability (with a factor of safety equal
to unity). Maximum bending moment determines the
required cross-section of the retaining wall from the
structural viewpoint.
In Table 3, ka , kac and kau are active earth pressure
coefficients and kp , kpc and kpu are passive earth pressure coefficients. Index u is referred to the undrained

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CLASSICAL ANALYSIS RESULTS AND


COMPARISON WITH NUMERICAL
MODELING RESULTS

Table 3.

Summary of classical analyses results.


Failure height

Cu
kPa

C
kPa

ka

kp

kac

kpc

0.490

2.040

1.400

2.856

25
9

0.455

2.198

1.349

kau

kpu

2.45

2.45

2.45

2.45

2.965

40

Maximum bending moment

Conventional
m

Blum

Conventional
Blum
kNm/m

4.80
3.50
5.55
5.29

4.41
3.42
5.13
5.13

1704.03
127.66
1806.63
391.20

1260.60
112.12
1352.16
345.61

Table 5.2. Results of numerical analysis at failure for C9


soil in undrained conditions.

Table 4.1. Results of numerical analysis at failure for C5


soil in drained conditions.
Type of
wall

Failure
height m

Maximum bending
moment kNm/m

Maximum
horizontal
displacement m

Type of
wall

Failure
height m

Maximum bending
moment kNm/m

Maximum
horizontal
displacement m

CRW
DW
SPW
SSW

6.5
6.0
5.5
4.5

2170
1600
1120
752.7

1.54
1.62
3.34
3.53

CRW
DW
SPW
SSW

10
10
10
10

1120
1110
500.7
339.0

0.85
0.90
0.99
1.03

Table 4.2. Results of numerical analysis at failure for C5


soil in undrained conditions.
Type of
wall

Failure
height m

Maximum bending
moment kNm/m

Maximum
horizontal
displacement m

CRW
DW
SPW
SSW

6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5

388.6
374.8
327.0
220.1

0.94
0.99
1.06
1.17

Table 5.1. Results of numerical analysis at failure for C9


soil in drained conditions.
Type of
wall

Failure
height m

Maximum bending
moment kNm/m

Maximum
horizontal
displacement m

CRW
DW
SPW
SSW

7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0

2180
1640
1190
867

1.27
1.37
1.60
2.01

conditions and kac and kpc are related to the cohesion


term in the lateral earth pressure formulas.
Tables 4 and 5 contain the results of the analysis of
this problem using finite element software Plaxis [4].
The results shown in Table 4.1 indicate that the
failure height gradually decreases for retaining walls
with more flexibility in drained condition. However,
the results shown in Table 4.2 indicate that the failure

height remains constant despite increasing the wall


flexibility in undrained conditions. The reason is in
the constant volume behavior In undrained case where
the mixture of saturated water and clay soil has a very
large stiffness so that changes in the stiffness of the
walls do not affect the system. Therefore, no changes
in the failure height is seen. But in drained conditions,
with increasing the flexibility of the wall, more lateral deformation per unit excavation depth is created
and therefore walls adjacent elements (at the upper
part of the wall) reach to the plastic state more quickly
comparing to soil elements adjacent to the rigid walls.
With increasing depth of excavation, the number of the
plastic elements increases and a failure wedge behind
the flexible wall is gradually formed rendering the soil
mass towards failure. In classical methods such as conventional and Blum methods, wall flexibilities are not
considered except in Rowe (1952, 1955) method, in
which he took the flexibility parameter into account in
his calculations.
By comparing Table 3 to Table 4.1, it is realized that
maximum bending moment obtained from each of the
two conventional and Blum methods is less than those
obtained from numerical analysis in the case of concrete rigid wall. However, Blum method for designing
soft steel walls and sheet pile walls, and conventional
method for designing diaphragm walls provide good
results near to the numerical results. The obtained failure height from both conventional and Blum methods
is close to that of obtained from numerical modeling
for soft steel wall (which has a less magnitude of all
failure heights). So it can generally be concluded that

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 2. Lateral earth pressure distribution on the walls for C5 soil.

the conventional and Blum methods are not suitable for


designing concrete rigid walls. Comparing the conventional and Blum methods together reveals that Blum
method yields closer values for maximum bending
moment and failure height compare to the numerical
results, so it seems more suitable for designing and
analyzing of flexible retaining walls.
By comparing Table 3 to Table 4.2 it can be seen that
the obtained bending moments from both conventional
and Blum methods are less than numerical analysis
values, thus these two methods are not recommended
for designing of wall sections in undrained conditions.
The failure height obtained from these methods is less
than that of numerical analysis and these values are just
slightly bigger than half of failure height of numerical
analysis.
Figure 2 shows lateral earth pressure distribution
on the walls. Here just results of CRW (very rigid)
and SSW (very soft) walls are shown. The interested
reader may see the complete results in Ref. [1]. In
drained conditions it is observed that classical active
earth pressure distribution is less than that obtained
from numerical analysis and the classical passive earth
pressure distribution is more than that of numerical
analysis. Passive earth pressure distribution is not linear and forms a nonlinear pattern. Also in undrained

conditions it is observed that the net earth pressure


distribution in the level below the level of failure
height is approximately zero. The active earth pressure distribution of the classical theory shows a good
accordance with the active earth pressure distribution
of the numerical analysis, but passive classical earth
pressure distribution is an overestimation of numerical
analysis magnitudes.
Figure 3 shows the bending moment variation along
the walls. In general, the magnitude of maximum
bending moment decreases with increasing of wall
flexibility. Also in drained conditions the magnitude
of the bending moment is bigger than that obtained
in undrained conditions. The remarkable point here is
the process of passing from undrained condition in the
short term to drained condition in the long term, during which the bending moment gradually changes its
direction from positive to negative which is an important issue in designing the reinforced concrete walls
regarding placement of rebars. For good performance
of concrete walls in the long term some considerations
such as reinforcing both sides of the wall due to the
variable bending moment are important.
Figure 4 shows horizontal displacement of two
walls in drained and undrained conditions. It is shown
that maximum wall displacement in drained conditions

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

is more than undrained conditions therefore drained


conditions are more critical with respect to horizontal
displacements.

Figure 3. Bending moment distribution on the walls for C5


soil.

CONCLUSIONS

In this paper effects of the wall flexibility on the lateral earth pressure distribution behind retaining walls
in drained and undrained conditions have been studied. It has been shown that in undrained conditions
changes in wall bending stiffness has little effect on
the failure height and it is nearly constant for all types
of walls with different flexibilities. It is observed that
in undrained conditions classical methods estimate
smaller failure heights compare to the numerical methods. Also, the calculated maximum bending moment
using the classical methods is generally less than the
calculated values in the numerical analysis; therefore, designing with classical methods will lead to an
underestimation of wall cross-section design. Drained
conditions compare to undrained conditions have a
less failure height, induce more maximum bending
moment, and create more horizontal displacement at
the top of the retaining wall. Therefore, in the design
of retaining walls drained condition is more critical. Concerning the change in the direction of bending
moment from negative to positive in passing from
undrained condition to drained condition over time,
it is recommended to reinforce the concrete walls in
both sides on the basis of the bending moment obtained
from numerical analysis.

REFERENCES
[1] Bazrafshan M., Amir, 2005, Numerical analysis of
interaction between flexible retaining wall and saturated cohesive soil in short term (undrained) and
long term (drained) conditions, MSc thesis, civil eng.
Faculty, Sharif University of Technology, Iran.
[2] Bjerrum, L., Frimann Clausen, C.J., and Duncan, J.M.,
1972, Earth pressure on flexible structures, Compusrendus du V CEMSTF, Vol. 2, 169196.
[3] Blum, H., 1931, Einspannungs verhaltnisse bei Bohlwerken, Berlin, W. Ernst & Sohn, 32.
[4] Brinkgreve, R. B. J., and Vermeer, P. A., 2002, PLAXIS
finite element code for soil and rock analyses, version
8, Balkema.
[5] Budhu, M., 2000, Soil mechanics and foundations,
John Wiley & Sons.
[6] Building on soft soils, 1996, CUR, Balkema.
[7] Clayton, C. R. I., Milititsky, J., and Woods, R. I., 1993,
Earth pressure and earth-retaining structures, 2nd Ed.,
Chapman & Hall.
[8] Clough, G.W., and ORourke, T.D., 1990, Construction induced movements of in situ walls, Proc. Of the
Conf. on Design and Performance of Earth Retaining
Structures, Cornell University, 439470.

Figure 4. Horizontal displacements of the walls.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

[9] Clough, R.W., and Woodward, R.J., 1967, Analysis of embankment stresses and deformations, Proc.
ASCE, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, 93(SM4), 529549.
[10] Das, B. M., 1990, Principal of geotechnical
engineering, 2nd Ed., PWS-KENT.
[11] Delattre, L., 2001, A century of design methods for
retaining walls, BLPC.
[12] Haliburton, T.A., 1968, Numerical analysis of flexible
retaining structures, Proc. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div.
ASCE.
[13] Liu, C., and Evett, J. B., 1984, Soil properties, testing
measurement and evaluation, Prentice-Hall.
[14] Peck, R.B., 1969, Deep excavation and tunneling in soft
ground, Comptes-rendus du VII CIMSTF, 225290.
[15] Peck, R.B., 1943, Earth pressure measurements in open
cuts Chicago subway, Trans. ASCE, 108, 10081036.
[16] Potts, D. M., 1993, The analysis of earth retaining
structures, Proceedings of the Conference Retaining Structures, Cambridge, C. R. I. Clayton (editor),
Thomas Telford, 167186.

[17] Puller, M., 1996, Deep excavations: A practical manual, Thomas Telford.
[18] Rowe, P.W., 1955, A theoretical and experimental analysis of sheet pile walls, Proc Instn. Civ. Engrs, Pt I,
Vol 4, 3269.
[19] Rowe, P.W., 1952, Anchored sheet pile walls, Proc.
Instn. Civ. Engrs, Pt I, Vol 1, 2770.
[20] Simon, B., 1995, Commentaires pour le choix des
coefficients de reaction pour le calcul des ecrans de
soutenement, Revue francaise de Geotechnique, 71,
1119.
[21] Terzaghi, K., 1936, Distribution of lateral pressure of
sand on the timbering of cuts, Proc. First Int. Conf. Soil
Mech., Vol. 1, 211215.
[22] Terzaghi, K., 1955, Evaluation of coefficients of subgrade reaction, Geotechnique, 4, 297326.
[23] Tschebotarioff, G.P., Brown, P.P., 1948, Lateral earth
pressure as a problem of deformation or of rupture,
Comptes-rendus du II CIMSTF, Vol. II, 8186.
[24] Winkler, E., 1867, Die lehre von elastizitat und festigheit, Prague, H. Dominicus.

498

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Numerical modeling for ground settlement due to two-tunnel shielding


construction
Yadong Bian
Dept. of Civil Engineering & Architecture, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China

Facheng Zhuo
Shanghai Tunnel Bureau, Shanghai, China

Yanzhi Zhu
Dept. of Civil Engineering & Architecture, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China

Xiaopeng Ji
Foundation Engineering Division, Avic Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: According to geological conditions, properties of terrane and soil offered by Guangzhou No.3
Metro Line, three different numerical models are built upon three shielding construction plans of thrusting with
same advance at the same time, thrusting with opposite advance at the same time, and thrusting with sequential
advance. This paper forecasts and evaluates the influence of ground settlement due to two-tunnel shielding
construction. The influence of ground deformation by expanding metro-station is also modeled under four
different reinforcement measures. The investigation shows: different settlement occurs in different construction
plan; the ground settlement enlarges based on shield expanding construction and the influence range in cross
direction enlarges as well.These results can support the constructing the metro-stations by expanding the shielding
tunnels directly and provide a method to predict the ground deformation. It also offers theoretical reference for
promoting the shielding construction.

INTRODUCTION

With the increase of the city intensity and the highrise buildings, the available surface space decreases.
The underground space is also occupied with pipelines
of different uses. How to utilize and create the underground space more effectively has become an important subject of current city modernization. One of the
best choices is to adopt shield method to develop
the underground space. Shield method, one modern
construction technique that undermines the tunnel
underground, has been used in construction for about
200 years. However, even the most advanced shield
technique causes ground settlement unavoidably. The
buildings, structures or the underground pipelines are
influenced in different extent. If the tunnel excavated
is connected to or under the building, it constitutes
a threat to use, even the security of the building
(Chow. 2004). The range and value of the settlement
can be effectively controlled by accurately predicting
the influence of ground settlement and construction

due to shield tunnelling and taking the corresponding


measures according to prediction.
The method of predicting the influence of ground
settlement includes empirical formula method, random medium theory, and numerical modeling, etc.
With the development of the computer technology
and computing method, the complicated engineering
problems can be solved by the discrete numerical
method. The ground settlement can be calculated by
numerical modeling method through multiple sampling, logic analysis, and smooth treating. In addition,
with the superposed calculation of computer, the curve
of final settlement after excavation in a distance can
be obtained.
2

The Linhe west station of Guangzhou No.3 Metro


line, excavated by open-cut and undermining method,
locates in the crossing of Tianhe north road and

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PROJECT OVERVIEW

Table 1.

Soil layer distribution and mechanical parameters in Linhe west station.

Soil Layer

Thickness
(m)

Density
(Kgm3 )

Bulk Modulus
(MPa)

Shear Modulus
(MPa)

Internal Friction
Angle ( )

Cohesive
Strength (KPa)

Artificial filling Soil


Alluvium & diluvium
Plastic eluvium
Intense weathered rock
Medium weathered siltite
Weak weathered siltite

1.90
2.5
9
2.4
8
36.2

2140
1990
1980
2000
2310
2410

4.67
2.47
3.58
3.48
4.33
917

2.15
1.63
1.65
1.80
2.60
423

27.7
19.6
22.8
28.3
35.0
45.0

11.0
22.5
49.2
46.1
48.3
785.0

Linhe west road. The street is the important region


of Guangzhou along with dense high-rise buildings.
Similar to Linhe west road, Tianhe north road, the arterial road of Guangzhous city roads, also has heavy
ground traffic and close underground pipelines. These
two roads make high demands on deforming control
of tunnel construction.
The topography of Linhe west station is smoother,
the land form unit belongs to the alluvial plain. The
structure is simple with no passing fault. Soil layer
distribution and mechanical parameters are shown in
Table1.
Both ends of the station are underground double
frame structure based on open-cut method; the midst of
station across Tianhe north road adopts the two-tunnel
of beam-and-column construction. The two-tunnel is
50.8 m long and is the longest one of the undermining tunnels with a shallow depth in Guangzhou. This
paper takes Linhe west station, the typical station, as an
example. The FLAC3D is applied to analyze and forecast the influence law of ground settlement to construct
the metro-stations based on the shield construction and
the shielding tunnels expansion.

3
3.1

FLAC3D MODELING
Brief introduction of FLAC3D

FLAC3D (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua


in three Dimensions) is one of the most widely
used three-dimensional numerical modeling tools for
geotechnical analysis in the world (Itasca consulting
group. 1997). It utilizes an explicit finite difference formulation that can model complex behaviors
not readily suited to FEM codes, such as: problems
that consist of several stages, large displacements
and strains, non-linear material behavior and unstable
systems.

3.2 Three-dimensional structure model


The section calculation of the shield tunnel adopts
stratum-structure pattern which cooperates with

Figure 1. Boundary condition of calculating model

stratum. The stress and strain feature of the structure


are also modeled. The range of calculating model is:
the horizontal size is limited within 3 times of the width
of the excavation tunnel; the total length in horizontal direction is 120 m; the vertical extent from ground
surface to underneath the bottom of the tunnel is 40 m;
and the length in axis is 200 m.
The permanent load is mainly considered in the
modeling. It includes the deadweight of building,
stratum pressure, water pressure, etc. Among them,
deadweight of building is simplified as uniform vertical load. Guangzhou International Trade Center and
CITIC square are located in the calculating range.
The deadweight of the tunnel structure can be calculated and fixed according to the design size of the
structure and the standard weight of material. To calculate the water pressure, the water-soil coupling is
adopted; other parameters including the land form,
hydrological geology, permeability of stratum, and job
practice are also considered. The underground water
level below the ground surface is 2.4 m according to
the hydrological data offered.
The side and bottom surfaces of the calculating
model are the displacement border. The horizontal
shift is restricted in the side surface; the vertical movement is restricted in the bottom surface. The ground
surface is set as free boundary, as shown in Figure 1.
The elastic-plastic theory is adopted to model the
soil body. The Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion is used
to model the geotechnical material. The deformation
is large strain pattern.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6m

6m

shield 2

11.0m

6m

6m

shield 1

11.0m

6m
11.0m

shield 2
6m

shield 2

shield 1

Excavated tunnel

Figure 2. Three kinds of construction schemes (A) state of two tunnels shielding construction with same advance; (B) state
of two tunnels shielding construction with opposite advance; (C) state of two tunnels shielding construction with sequential
advance.

NUMERICAL MODELING FOR


TWO-TUNNEL SHIELDING CONSTRUCTION

Most research done by scholars in the past was about


excavated single-tunnel; and some scholars studied
the interrelationship of the excavated two-tunnel and
the settlement subject caused by excavating. But there
is little research has been done about the law of
ground settlement that constructs the metro-stations
by expanding the shielding tunnels directly. Therefore, on the basis of numerical analysis, this paper
studies the law of the ground settlement and prediction technique based on the results obtained from the
two-tunnel shield construction.
Figure 3. The numerical model of shielding tunnels and
meshwork.

4.1 Three kinds of construction schemes


There are three kinds of schemes about two-tunnel
shield construction, as shown in Figure 2.
4.2 The structure model building
The structure is modeled and meshed using the software. Since the soil body of the surrounding region is
disturbed more intensely during the shield construction, this region is subdivided and the size of the unit
is smaller. The meshwork of the overlying strata is
widened and the size of the unit is larger correspondingly. The unit of the soil layer changes from dense
to sparse; and the size enlarges gradually at the same
time. The numerical model and meshwork are shown
in Figures 3 and 4, respectively.

Figure 4. The meshwork of tunnel after excavation.

4.3 The law of settlement based on two-tunnel


shield construction
The results under three different scheme are listed as
follows:
4.3.1 Two tunnels shielding construction with same
advance
In this scheme, the advance rate of the shield machine
is 5 m/d and the distance between the two shield

machines is 70 m. Figure 5 shows the profile of the


ground settlement induced by two tunnels shielding
construction with same advance. In this figure, the
center of the tunnel is set as the origin of the coordinate
and the length (120 m) along the horizontal direction
is considered in numerical modeling.
From the figure, we can see that the ground settlement approaches zero in the point 60 m away from

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0
-2
-4

Settlement /mm

Settlement /mm

-5

-10

-15

-6
-8
-10
-12
-14

-20

-16
-18

-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

-70

Horizontal Direction /m

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Horizontal Direction /m

Figure 5. Profile of ground settlement induced by two


tunnels shielding construction with same advance.

and 15 m from the sides to the center of the tunnel,


respectively.

Shield 1
Shield 2

Figure 7. Profile of ground settlement induced by shield 2


after excavation of shield 1.

Settlement/mm

-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

Horizontal Direction /m

Figure 6. Profile of ground settlement induced by two


tunnels shielding construction with opposite advance.

both sides and the tunnel center. This shows that the
settlement influence around this range can be ignored.
The settlement in the center of the tunnel is 18.35 mm;
while in the position of two separate shield machines
the values are 19.37 mm and 20.26 mm respectively.
When the distance from the center of the tunnel
increases, the law of settlement is found to be roughly
linearly distributed.
4.3.2 Two tunnels shielding construction with
opposite advance
In this scheme, one shield machine thrusts in one
tunnel while the other thrusts in opposite advance.
The results show that, when the distance between two
shield machines is less than 40 m, surface lift or fracture phenomenon in the construction period is serious.
Figure 6 shows the ground settlement when the distance is more than 40 m. From the figure, we can find
that the maximum value is 13.66 mm and the law of
settlement is roughly linear within the distance of 35 m

4.3.3 Two tunnels shielding construction with


sequential advance
In this scheme, the curve of ground settlement caused
by the first shield machine is similar to Figure 6. It
proves the interrelationship of the shield machines
can be ignored when the distance between these two
machines is more than 40 m.
Figure 7 shows the curve of settlement caused by
the second shield machine after the first tunnel is
completed.
From the figure we can find that the maximum
settlement is 15.99 mm. Compared with Figure 6, we
find the value of settlement in Figure 7 is higher. This
proves that the settlement caused by the second shield
machine cannot be neglected.
4.4 Influence on settlement due to constructing the
metro-station by expanding tunnels
The Linhe west station, adopting three-joint-arch
structure, is simulated to construct the metro-station by
expanding the tunnel on the basis of built tunnels. The
construction modeling mainly considers four ways to
consolidate the soil body: excavating directly, excavating in advance with grouting, excavating with anchor
stock, and the combination of the previous two. The
influences of the ground settlement in different consolidation cases are analyzed. Figures 8 and 9 show
the schematic plans of consolidation by grouting and
anchoring stock. The curve of ground settlement under
these two situations is shown in Figure 10. The profile of principal stress by grouting and anchoring stock
consolidation is shown in Figure 11. By analyzing the
law of ground settlement under the above four kinds of
consolidation, we can find that the value and region of
the ground settlement are the largest when excavating

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

The depth of grout is 2.0-2.6m

Figure 11. Profile of principal stress by grouting and anchor


stock consolidation.

directly; the maximum value is 43mm and the influence region is 60 m from both sides to the centre of
the station. The settlement is the minimum when consolidating by grouting and anchoring stock, and the
maximum value is 25 mm. The consolidated effect by
excavating with grouting is better than excavating with
anchor stock.

Figure 8. Schematic plan of consolidation by grouting.

The length of anchor stock is 4-6m


The diameter is 18mm, interval is 1.0m
The tensile strength is 210Mpa

Figure 9. Schematic plan of consolidation by anchor stock.


Consolidation by Grouting
Consolidation by Anchor Stock

5
0

Settlement /mm

-5
-10
-15
-20

CONCLUSIONS

The investigation based on the numerical modeling of


two-tunnel shield construction shows that the two tunnels interact with each other and different settlement
occurs in different construction scheme. The value of
the ground settlement is the minimum in the scheme
of thrusting with sequential advance and its construction period is the longest correspondingly.The distance
between the two shield machines is avoided to be short
while constructing at the same time. Numerical simulation result shows that the surface lift or fracture
phenomenon is serious when the distance between two
shield machines is less than 40 m. During the actual
construction, only one shield machine is allowed to
work in the range of 40 m apart. The ground settlement enlarges based on shield expanding construction
and the influence range in cross direction enlarges too.
These results can support the construction of the
metro-stations by expanding shielding tunnels directly
and provide a method to predict the ground deformation. It can also undoubtedly offer theoretical reference
for promoting the shielding construction.

-25
-30

REFERENCES

-35
-40
-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Horizontal Direction /m

Figure 10. Profile of settlement induced by excavating.

Bob Chow. 2004. Shield Tunnelling technology. Beijing,


China. China architecture & building press. (in Chinese)
Itasca Consulting Group. 1997. Fast lagrangian analysis
of continua in 3 Dimensions(Version2.0), Minnesota,
America.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Numerical modeling of an embankment on soft ground improved by


vertical rigid piles
Orianne Jenck, Daniel Dias & Richard Kastner
Laboratory of Civil Engineering, INSA Lyon, Villeurbanne, France

ABSTRACT: This paper proposes a three-dimensional numerical modeling of an embankment over soft ground
improved by vertical rigid piles. Arching occurs in the embankment fill, leading to partial load transfer onto the
piles as well as surface settlements reduction and homogenization. The piles, the soft ground and the embankment
are simulated with a continuum model. A representative unit cell from the pile grid is taken into account. The
performance of the improvement system is analyzed and the constitutive model impact for simulating the soft
soil and embankment material behavior is investigated. The numerical results are compared to existing design
methods in terms of load transfer onto the piles.

1
1.1

INTRODUCTION
Problem description

As a consequence of good quality soil rarefaction, soft


soil improvement techniques must be used to construct
infrastructures on land that was previously considered
unsuitable. Soft ground improvement using vertical
rigid piles consists of a grid of piles driven trough the
soft layer down to a substratum, on which an embankment is built. This technique overcomes the problem
of surface settlements and stability, it is fast and it does
not necessitate soft soil replacement.
The piles can be preformed or manufactured in situ.
The preformed piles can be timber piles (Holtz and
Massarsch 1976), metallic piles or concrete piles. Insitu constructed piles are mainly bored concrete piles
or soil mixing piles. A detailed list of pile types and
installation techniques has been described by Brianon
(2002).
Applications are mainly for road- and railway
embankments (Quigley et al. 2003, Wood 2003),
road widening (Habib et al. 2002), bridge approach
embankments (Ooi et al. 1987, Combarieu et al. 1994)
and industrial areas (Liausu and Pezot 2001, Pinto et al.
2005).
Arching occurs in the granular soil constituting the
embankment, due to shearing in the fill generated
by the differential settlements at embankment base,
leading to load transfer onto the piles and surface
settlement reduction and homogenization. Rathmayer
(1975) performed real scale experiments of piled
embankments and showed that arching develops if
the embankment height is sufficient. Moreover, the

Figure 1. Schematic section of a piled embankment.

fill material friction angle seems to have a dominant


influence on the arching mechanism.
In some cases, geosynthetic reinforcement can be
brought at embankment base, participating to the system improvement due to membrane effect (Collin et al.
2005, Mankbadi et al. 2004).
The friction along the piles also participates to the
system behavior (Berthelot et al. 2003). In the upper
part of the piles, the soft soil settles more than the pile,
hence there is negative skin friction (Combarieu 1988),
whereas in the lower part of the piles, there is positive
skin friction and development of a toe resistance in the
substratum.
1.2 The need of system behavior understanding
improvement
Several methods exist to determine the load transfer on
piles by arching (Hewlett and Randolph 1988, Combarieu 1988, BS 8006 1995, EGBEO 2004, etc.), but
they can lead to very different results (Brianon et

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

al. 2004, Naughton and Kempton 2005), as also highlighted in section 7 of this paper. Moreover, none of the
existing design methods predict the surface settlement,
as pointed out by Love and Milligan (2003).
Better understanding of the precise mechanisms
by which the loads are transferred onto the piles is
then needed. In France, a national research project has
begun (entitled ASIRI for Amlioration des Sols par
Inclusions RIgides, translated as Soil Improvement
using Rigid Piles). The aim of this project is to edit
guidelines for the design, the construction and the control of soft ground improvement by vertical rigid piles.
1.3 Three-dimensional aspect of the problem
The studied problem is fully three-dimensional due to
the vault shape in the embankment fill. Each vault is
supported by three or four pile caps, depending if the
regular pile grid is triangular or square respectively.
When using a numerical approach to handle this
problem, axi-symmetric two-dimensional models can
be implemented (Han and Gabr 2002), but the vault
shape will then be considered as a circular umbrella,
which does not represent reality. Plane strain models also have already been implemented, but Kempton et al. (1998) compared such models with fully
three-dimensional approaches and showed that twodimensional models can not simulate properly the
real system behavior. A full three-dimensional modeling then appears essential in the prediction of piled
embankment performance. Full three-dimensional
numerical modeling of piled embankment problems
(simulating explicitly the soft soil) were already performed by Wong and Poulos (2001), Aubeny et al.
(2002), Laurent et al. (2003) and Steward and Filz
(2005).

NUMERICAL MODEL

A regular square grid is studied (Fig. 2). The pile diameter is equal to 0.35 m and the pile spacing is s = 2 m.
The choice of the geometry is arbitrary but is deduced
from average values of piled embankment site data
collection (Brianon 2002). The area ratio is the proportion of the soft soil area treated covered by the piles.
It is here equal to 2.4%, which is a small value. Piled
embankment and pavement sites also present higher
area ratio values when pile caps are placed on the top
of the piles.
Due to symmetry conditions, only a unit cell as presented in figure 2 needs to be modeled. The numerical
model thus contains only a quarter of a rigid pile. The
numerical model is shown in figure 3. The soft soil,
the rigid pile and the embankment are explicitly simulated. The calculations are performed using the finite
difference code Flac3D (Itasca 2002).
s = 2m

Pile
d = 0.35m

Numerical model
Unit cell

Elementary grid
part

Area ratio = 2.4%


Figure 2. Top view of a square grid. Unit cell considered in
the numerical model.

1.4 Proposed numerical approach


Embankment

This paper proposes a three-dimensional numerical


continuum approach of the reinforcement system,
using the finite difference code Flac3D (Itasca 2002).
The piles, the soft ground and the embankment are
explicitly simulated. A representative unit cell from
the pile grid is taken into account. A fictitious case is
simulated but with embankment and soft ground materials taken from the literature. The piles are precast
reinforced concrete piles.
The soft soil and embankment material behavior
are firstly simulated by the elastic perfectly plastic
model with the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. The
soft soil behavior is then simulated using the modified Cam Clay model (Roscoe and Burland 1968) and
the granular embankment material is simulated by the
two-mechanism elastoplastic model CJS2 (Maleki et
al. 2000). The impact of the constitutive model on the
load transfer and the displacements is investigated.

Pile

A
Y=1m

Soft soil
Z

Y=0m
Y

X
X=0m

Top view
Rigid stratum

Figure 3. Numerical model of a unit cell.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

X=1m

To respect the limit conditions due to system symmetry, the nodes situated on the vertical plane located
at X (Y) = 0 m and X (Y) = 1 m are fixed in the X (Y)
direction. The nodes situated at Z = 0 m (bottom of
the model) are fixed in all direction, as a rigid stratum
is considered.
The soft ground layer is 5 m-thick and it is composed of a very soft soil layer, under the ground
water level, and a 1 m-thick superficial dry crust, usually stiffer or over-consolidated (Vepslinen et al.
1991, Chai et al. 2002). No interface elements are
place between the rigid concrete piles and the soft
soil, assuming that there are no relative displacements
between pile and soil, and then the skin friction is
considered infinitely rough.
The embankment is set up in 0.5-m thick successive
layers up to a maximum height equal to 5 m. At each
new embankment layer installation, calculation is performed until static equilibrium is reached under self
weight. When the embankment is 5 m-high, overloads
are placed on the embankment top up to a maximum
value equal to 100 kPa (equivalent to 5 m additional
embankment material, the embankment unit weight
being 20 kN/m3 ). The loading is performed in drained
conditions: the effect of soft soil time consolidation is
not taken into account.
3

Where Ej is the Youngs modulus, Pa is a reference


pressure (100 kPa), 3 is the minor principal stress and
k and m are the Janbu (1963)s parameters.
At each new embankment layer installation, the
Youngs modulus values are calculated in each
embankment zones according to the actual stress state,
but during each calculation to equilibrium, the elastic
part remains linear.
Table 1 indicates the Mohr-Coulomb model parameters determined on the experimental triaxial test
results given in figure 4. Tests performed with a confinement pressure equal to 75 kPa indicate that the
cohesion is equal to zero. At a confinement pressure of
150 kPa, the Youngs modulus is equal to 20 MPa. By
fixing the n value from equation 1 equal to 0.5 (common value for granular soils), the k parameter is then
equal to 163. The embankment material experimentally presents a strain softening behavior which can not
be taken into account by the Mohr-Coulomb model.

Table 1. Mohr-Coulomb model parameters


with Janbus formula for the non linear part,
for the embankment material.

CONSTITUTIVE MODELS USED AND


PARAMETERS

The embankment material and soft ground behavior are modeled using several constitutive models, in
order to evaluate the important features of the behavior
which have to be taken into account.
Deviatoric stress (kPa)

Embankment

The embankment material described and tested by


Fragaszy et al. (1992) is implemented in this study.
Triaxial tests were performed at confinement pressure
of 75 and 150 kPa, allowing for the constitutive model
parameter determination.
One of the most popular models in geotechnical
engineering is the elastic perfectly plastic model with
the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. Most of the existing piled embankment numerical analyses use this type
of model to simulate the embankment material behavior (Kempton et al. 1998, Rogbeck et al. 1998, Laurent
et al. 2003, Russell et al. 2003 and Stewart and Filz
2005). However, the basic level of this model presents
a linear elastic part, which does not take the real granular material highly non linear behavior into account
(Valle 2001). The Janbu (1963) formula is therefore
implemented here to take account for stress dependant
elastic Youngs modulus:
Ej /Pa = k (3 /Pa )m

(1)

K
m

163
0.5
0.4
42
0 kPa
5.4

Janbus
parameters

600
400
Experimental results
Mohr-Coulomb model
CJS2 model

200
0
0

10
Axial strain (%)

15

20

3
2
1
0
-1
-2

Figure 4. Triaxial test experimental and numerical results on


embankment material for a confinement pressure of 150 kPa.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

value

800

volumetric strain (%)

3.1

Parameter

Table 3.

Table 2. CJS2 model parameters for the embankment


material.
Mechanism

Parameter

value

Elastic part

G0
Koe
n

5 MPa
13 MPa
0.6

Deviatoric
mechanism

Rc
A
Rm

Kop

0.6
0.27
0.001 Pa1
0.35
0.9

Isotropic

Parameter

Dry crust

Compressible layer

M
e

pc ini

0.13
0.05
1.19
3.07
0.3
110 kPa

0.11
0.08
1.07
1.61
0.3
pini + 10 kPa

: slope of the normal consolidation line


: slope of the swelling line
M: frictional constant
e : void ratio at normal consolidation for p = 1 kPa
: Poissons ratio
pc ini : initial preconsolidation pressure

50 MPa

However, important features of the granular material behavior are not taken into account with the
Mohr-Coulomb model, as non-linearity and dilatancy
before failure. The embankment granular material
behavior is then also modeled using an elastoplastic model with two hardening mechanisms, the CJS2
model (Maleki et al. 2000), adapted to granular material behavior modeling. This model has two isotropic
hardening mechanisms, one for the deviatoric stresses
and one for the isotropic stresses. The elastic part is
non-linear. This model was implemented successfully
in the user defined model interface for a use in the
Flac/Flac3D code.
The parameters identified on the triaxial test results
are given in table 2 and the triaxial test numerical modeling results are given in figure 4. For this material and
for the determined set of parameters, the CJS2 model
lightly overestimates the contractive behavior of the
material.
The CJS2 model and the parameter identification
are more complex than for the Mohr-Coulomb model,
but no adaptation of the model is needed to simulate
the non-linear behavior of the granular material. However, neither the Mohr-Coulomb model, nor the CJS2
model is able to simulate the observed strain softening
behavior.

Cam Clay model parameters for the soft soil.

Table 4.

Mohr-Coulomb model parameters for the soft soil.

Parameter

Dry crust

Compressible layer

Ej (for 3 = 40 kPa)

2.53 MPa
0.3
27
0 kPa
0

1.17 MPa
0.3
30
0 kPa
0

Table 5.

Parametric study.
Soft deposit

Embankment

MohrCoulomb
CJS2

Mohr-Coulomb

Cam Clay

Smc Emc

Scam Emc

Smc Ecjs

Scam Ecjs

application according to the actual stress state. The


Mohr-Coulomb model parameters are given in table 4.
3.3 Rigid pile

3.2

Soft soil

The marine soft deposit of Muar in Malaysia is simulated in this study. This soft deposit has been widely
described and simulated numerically (Indraratna et
al. 1992), in particular using the modified Cam
Clay model (Roscoe and Burland 1968). This deposit
presents a superficial dry crust over a saturated compressible layer. Average values for the Cam Clay model
parameters are taken from the literature for both parts
of the deposit. Parameters are indicated in table 3.
Mohr-Coulomb model parameters are determined
from the Cam Clay model parameter from table 3.
To take account for non-linear behavior, the Youngs
modulus is updated at each new embankment layer

The piles are reinforced concrete piles and it is


assumed that they behave elastically. The elastic
parameters are the Youngs modulus E = 10 GPa and
the Poissons ratio = 0.2.
4

The parametric study focuses on the impact of the


soft soil and embankment material constitutive model
used. Table 5 summarizes the various combinations.
Symbol S stands for soft deposit, E for embankment,
cam for Cam Clay and mc for Mohr-Coulomb. Case
Smc Ecjs is not included due to numerical difficulties.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

PARAMETRIC STUDY

Equivalent embankment height (m)


2
4
6
8
10

-0.2

Basal settlement (m)

Settlement (m)

0
Smc
Scam

-0.4
-0.6

Figure 5. Settlements at soft soil deposit according to


equivalent embankment height, without pile improvement.

0
-0.1
Smc Emc
Scam Emc
Scam Mcjs

-0.2
-0.3

Figure 6. Embankment basal settlements according to


equivalent embankment height, with pile improvement.

0.03

NUMERICAL RESULTS WITHOUT PILE


IMPROVEMENT

Preliminary calculations are performed on a simple


model without pile improvement. A simple column of
soft deposit is loaded by up to 5 m embankment and
100 kPa overload. The results in terms of settlements
at the soft deposit surface are given in figure 5 for both
constitutive models to simulate the soft deposit behavior. This results stand for reference settlements in order
to highlight the improvement by the piles in terms
of basal settlements. Figure 5 shows that the results
obtained with both constitutive models are equal, as
the Mohr-Coulomb model integrates a non-linear elastic part to obtain the same compressibility as with the
modified Cam Clay model.

Differential surface
settlement (m)

Equivalement embankment height (m)


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Smc-Emc
Scam-Emc
Scam-Ecjs

0.02

0.01

0
0

6.1

Figure 7. Embankment surface settlements.

Point C

Point B

0.5m

sC

Embankment
H

NUMERICAL RESULTS WITH PILE


IMPROVEMENT
Basal settlements

The maximum settlement at embankment base is


reached amid the piles, at point A from figure 3. Figure
6 depicts this settlement according to the equivalent
embankment height.
Results are equivalent for all constitutive models
implemented. Compared to the non reinforced-by-pile
case (Fig. 5), the basal settlements are reduced by about
50%.
6.2

Embankment height (m)

sB

Surface settlements

This improvement technique is mainly applied to


reduce and to homogenize the surface settlements.
In this modeling, the surface settlements are studied
in terms of differential and maximum surface settlements caused by the application of the next 0.5 m-thick
embankment layer, as illustrated in figure 7. Point B
is situated above the pile and point C is situated amid
the piles, above point A from figure 3. The differential

Pile

Figure 8. Surface differential settlements due to next layer


application, according to actual embankment height.

surface settlement is given by sC sB and the maximum


settlement is reached on point C (sC ). The distance
separating points B and C is 1.4 m.
Figure 8 gives the differential surface settlement
according to the actual embankment height H from figure 7. It appears clearly that the differential settlement
is reduced when the embankment height increases.
Arching effect occurring in the embankment fill when
its height is large enough leads to settlement homogenization. There are no recordable surface differential
settlements from an embankment height equal to
about 2 m.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft soil

Smc-Emc
Scam-Emc
Scam-Ecjs

Embankment

0.02

0.6
0.4

Smc Emc
Scam Emc
Scam Ecjs

0.01
0.2
0

0
0

10

Figure 10. Efficacy according to equivalent embankment


height.

There is almost no influence of the constitutive


model used to simulate the embankment and the soft
ground behavior.
Figure 9 presents the maximum surface settlement
(sC ) due to the next layer application according to the
actual embankment height. This settlement is reduced
when the embankment height increases. Without pile
improvement, this settlement varies between 0.05 m
for the first layer and 0.021 m for the last layer. The
improvement using rigid piles also reduces the surface
settlement compared to the non-reinforced case, here
by about 50%. When implementing a more rigid and
more dilative embankment material over a more compressible soft ground, this surface settlement reduction
reaches up to 80% (Jenck 2005).
Figure 9 shows the difference in terms of surface
settlements using the Mohr-Coulomb model or the
CJS2 model to simulate the embankment fill behavior. The settlements are up to 77% larger when using
CJS2. This is due to the facts that:
the CJS2 model overestimates the contractance in
the triaxial compression test compared to the experimental and the Mohr-Coulomb model results, as
showed in figure 4,
the arching mechanism occurring in the fill is a
shearing mechanism. The dilatance-contractance
shearing mechanisms are then mobilized.
Load transfer

Several terms are used to assess the load transfer onto


the piles by arching in the fill. The efficacy (noted
E) of the pile support if defined as the proportion of
the embankment weight carried by the piles. When no
arching occurs, the efficacy is equal to the area ratio .
The efficacy according to the equivalent embankment
height is presented in figure 10. The efficacy increases
with the fill height to reach a maximum value equal
to about 0.65 for H = 5 m + 100 kPa overloads, which
means that 65% of the total load is supported by the
piles.

1
Smc Emc
Scam Emc
Scam Ecjs

0.8

SRR

Figure 9. Maximum surface settlements due to next layer


application, according to actual embankment height.

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

2
4
6
8
Equivalent embankment height (m)

10

Figure 11. Stress reduction ratio (SRR) according to equivalent embankment height.

Results obtained with the various constitutive models are equivalent; one of the reasons is probably
because the shear strength of the fill is equivalent for
each modeling.
Some authors use the term Stress Reduction Ratio
or SRR (Russell and Pierpoint 1997, Horgan and
Sarsby 2002, Naughton and Kempton 2005, etc.) for
estimating the magnitude of arching, as suggested by
Low et al. (1994). The SRR is defined as the ratio of
the average vertical stress acting at the soft ground surface to the average vertical stress due to embankment
fill ( H, where is the unit weight of the fill and
H the fill height) and eventual surface overload. When
no arching occurs, the SRR is equal to 1. The SRR can
be directly estimated from the efficacy E value and the
area ratio using equation 2:
SRR = (1 E)/(1 )

(2)

The SRR according to the equivalent embankment


height is presented in figure 11. The SRR decreases
when the embankment height increases, which means
that the load acting on the soft ground is reduced compared to the non reinforced case. SRR = 0.4 signifies
that the average vertical stress acting on the soft ground
is reduced down to 40% of the vertical stress that would
act without pile-improvement.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Equivalent embankment height (m)

Embankment height (m)

6.3

Overloads

0.8
Efficacy

Maximum surface settlement


(m)

0.03

a H

Hc

Figure 13. Arching assumption in Svano et al. (2000)


method.
Figure 12. Principal stresses in the embankment fill around
the pile head.

Figure 12 shows the principal stress orientation and


magnitude in the embankment fill around the pile head
at the final state. This figure illustrates how the arching effect takes place in the embankment when using a
continuum approach. The principal stresses are orientated towards the pile head and the stresses are much
larger above the pile than above the soft ground.

7.1

COMPARISON OF THE NUMERICAL


RESULTS WITH CURRENT DESIGN
METHODS
Current design methods to assess the system
efficacy

Various analytical and empirical methods exist to


assess the load transfer onto the piles due to arching effect in the embankment fill. They are based on
various approaches. Some of the presented methods
include basal geosynthetic reinforcement, but the load
transfer by arching in the fill and by tension membrane
are determined independently. This method can then
be used to assess the load transfer by arching only.
Hewlett and Randolph (1988)
Hewlett and Randolph (1988) performed small scale
experiments of a granular embankment fill overlying
a rectangular grid of pile caps. They then assessed
arching effect analytically by considering the limit
equilibrium of stress in a curved region of fill between
adjacent pile caps. The considered vaults are domes,
the crown of each dome being hemispherical, its radius
equal to half the diagonal spacing of the pile grid. They
give a relation to calculate the efficacy.
EGBEO (2004)
The German standard is based on a three-dimensional
arching model where the upper and lower vault

envelops are not concentric. A relation giving the average vertical stress acting on the soft subsoil is obtained
by considering soil element equilibrium in the vault
axis. The analytical approach used in the German
standard is also presented by Kempfert et al. (2004).
Svano et al. (2000)
In the SINTEF method, Svano et al. (2000) assume
that a wedge of soil as illustrated in figure 13 is carried by the pile cap. If the height of fill is higher than
Hc , all additional fill weight and overload are transmitted to the piles. The slope is expected to range
between 2.5 and 3.5 and needs to be calibrated as it can
be considered as a material parameter (Van Eekelen
2001).
BS8006 (1995)
The British standard for designing piled embankment
is based on Marston and Anderson (1913) formula to
assess vertical stress on buried conduits:
qp /( H) = (Cc a/H)2

Where qp is the average vertical stress acting on the


pile head, H is the average vertical stress, Cc is an
arching coefficient, H is the embankment height and
a the pile size. Compared to the original formula, the
stress ratio has been simply squared to take account for
individual pile caps. In BS 8006 (1995), the arching
coefficient is empirical and is given by equation 4 for
end-bearing piles:
Cc = 1.95 H/a 0.18

(4)

This method does not take explicitly into account the


internal friction angle of the fill, which might be
implicitly contained in the Cc coefficient.
Russell and Pierpoint (1997)
Russell and Pierpoint (1997) developed Terzaghi
(1943) analysis on soil arching to take account for
the three-dimensional nature of the piled embankment.

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(3)

Table 6.

Methods to assess arching in the embankment.

0.7
0.6

Concept

Parameters

Hewlett and
Randolph (1988)
EGBEO (2004)

Analytical vault
model
Analytical vault
model
Wedge of soil

a, s, H, Kp

Svano et al. (2000)


BS8006 (1995)

Marston formula

Russell and
Pierpoint (1997)
Combarieu (1988)

Equilibrium of
sliding soil mass
Negative friction

0.5
Efficacy

Method

0.1
0

a, s, H,
(correlated to )
a, s, H

Hewlett
and
Randolph
(1988)

a, s, H, K,

Combarieu (1988)
Combarieu (1988) proposed a method based on negative friction along concentric cylinder surfaces centered on the pile in both the embankment fill and the
soft soil. This method is therefore considered as global.
When considering shearing only in the embankment
fill, this method is identical to Russell and Pierpoint
(1997) approach if using the same coefficient of horizontal earth pressure K. The average vertical stress
acting on the soft soil qs is given by equation 5. The
value of K tan ranges between 0.5 and 1 for dense
granular soils (Combarieu 1988).
qs = /m (1 exp(m H ))

(5)

with m = 4 a K tan /(s2 a2 )

(6)

Table 6 summarizes the concept on which are based


each methods and the parameters.
The passive earth pressure coefficient is determined
using Rankine formula (Equ. 7)
(7)

Comparison with numerical results in terms of


efficacy

The presented design methods are implemented using


the geotechnical and geometrical data of the performed
numerical modeling to determine the system efficacy.
In the design methods, no support of the soft subsoil

Svano et al. BS8006


(2000)
(1995)

Combarieu Numerical
(1988)
analysis

is considered, whereas in the numerical modeling, the


soft ground compressibility can have an impact on the
magnitude of soil arching (Jenck 2005).
Figure 14 presents the results obtained for the efficacy for an embankment height equal to 5 m before
without any surface overload. The numerical analysis
gives an efficacy equal to 0.58. Hewlett and Randolph (1988) method, Svano et al. (2000) method with
= 3.5 and BS 8006 (1995) method give efficacy values close to the numerical result (efficacy values equal
to 0.60, 0.57 and 0.59 respectively). Combarieu (1988)
method with K tan equal to 0.7 gives an efficacy
value of 0.44 and EGBEO (2004) method gives an efficacy equal to 0.47, which corresponds to a reduction
of 2025% compared to the numerical analysis value.
The various methods and the numerical analysis
lead to disparate results, underlining the need of a
unified and simplified design method to assess soil
arching in piled embankments.
Comparison of the current design methods was
already done with experimental results obtained on
a two-dimensional scale model tests using analogical
materials (Jenck et al. 2005). The impact of the coefficient of horizontal earth pressure K was highlighted
and the fact the BS8006 approach does not take explicitly the friction into account led to inconsistent results
compared to the experimental data.
8

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

In this communication, a three-dimensional numerical


analysis of a piled embankment unit cell was presented. The numerical model includes the pile, the soft
ground and the embankment. The piled embankment
geometry and the materials constituting the system
were taken from the literature in order to perform a
realistic simulation.
The purpose of the work was first to assess the performance of the improvement system in terms of basal
and surface settlement reduction and homogenization
and in terms of load transfer onto the piles due to
arching in the embankment fill. It was shown that a

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

EGBEO
(2004)

Figure 14. Efficacy for H = 5 m for the various methods


and obtained by the numerical analysis.

a, s, H, K tan

Terzaghi (1943) considered equilibrium of elements


of a soil mass subjected to a differential movement at
his base. In their study (square pile caps), Russell and
Pierpoint (1997) considered sliding mass cruciform in
plan and assumed that the plane of equal settlement is
situated at the embankment surface.

7.2

0.3
0.2

a, s, H, Kp

a: pile cap width


s: pile spacing
H: embankment height
Kp : coefficient of passive earth pressure

Kp = (1 + sin )/(1 sin )

0.4

minimum embankment height of 2 m cancels the surface differential settlements and that the settlements
in the embankment are reduced by 50% compared to
the non-reinforced case. This reduction can be much
larger for a better quality embankment fill over a more
compressible subsoil layer. Terms were defined and
used to assess the load transfer onto the piles. The
efficacy indicates that up to 60% of the total embankment weight plus overloads were carried by the piles,
whereas they cover only 2.4% of the soft ground area.
The stress reduction ratio quantifies the reduction of
the average vertical stress acting on the soft subsoil
and can be determined directly from the efficacy value.
It reached a minimum value equal to 0.4. It was also
shown that the load transfer mechanisms are dependant
to the embankment height as the efficacy increases
with the height.
A parametric study was performed on the constitutive model implemented for the embankment and the
soft ground. No large difference was recorded when
using the Mohr-Coulomb model with non-linear elasticity or the two-mechanism elastoplastic CJS2 model
for the embankment material and the Mohr-Coulomb
model with non-linear elasticity or the modified Clay
model for the soft ground deposit. Nevertheless, even
if they are more complex than the Mohr-Coulomb
model, the CJS2 model and the modified Cam Clay
model do not require a special implementation of non
linearity to simulate a realistic soil behavior.
It is important to notify that the studied case is fictitious and a validation of the numerical model would
be necessary by comparing with experimental results.
Experimental in site data will be available in the frame
of the research project ASIRI and comparison will be
performed.
This numerical model will be used to perform parametric studies on the geotechnical and geometrical
parameters, in order to clearly underline the parameters which should inevitably appear in a simplified
design method. In particular, the precise impact of the
granular embankment parameters such as the friction
angle, the dilatancy and the rigidity should be investigated, as well as the cohesion as the embankment
can be made of treated granular material (with lime
or cement, Dano et al. 2004). Moreover, the precise
influence of the soft subsoil compressibility in combination with the embankment characteristics should be
analyzed.
Last part concerned a comparison of the numerical results with current design methods to assess the
soil arching in the embankment fill. Several methods
were presented and it was shown that they are based on
various concepts to model the soil arching. The comparison in terms of efficacy showed that the design
methods and the numerical analysis yield different
results. The range of efficacy values for an embankment height equal to 5 m is between 0.44 and 0.60,

or a difference up to 27%. This part thus underlines


the need to develop a unified and simplified design
approach to quantify the load distribution at embankment base between the piles and the soft subsoil.
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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Numerical simulation of passively loaded piles adjacent to embankment


constructed on soft Bangkok clay
Rolf Katzenbach & Sathaporn Pokpong
Institute of Geotechnics, Darmstadt University of Technology, Darmstadt, Germany

ABSTRACT: Embankment construction on soft clay can result in the development of significant lateral soil
movement. This soil deformation in soft clay layer induces considerably horizontal passive loading to the adjacent
pile foundations and probably causes serviceability problem due to excessive lateral displacement or bending of
the piles. In order to investigate the complex soil-pile interaction, the three-dimensional finite element analysis is
employed in this study. The passive p- curves are presented as the common p-y curves may not properly describe
the actual behaviour of passively loaded piles under lateral ground movement. It is found that the generated p-
curves are obviously dependent on pile spacing. The passive p- curves stiffen, whereas the active p-y curves
soften when pile spacing decreases. A better understanding of behaviour of passively loaded piles adjacent to
embankment constructed on soft Bangkok clay is achieved.

INTRODUCTION

Laterally loaded pile can be mainly classified into


two categories: (1) the pile subjected to transversely
loading applied at the pile head, widely referred to
as actively loaded pile, and (2) the pile subjected to
passive loading where undergoing ground movement
induces horizontal displacement or bending stresses
along the pile, referred to as passively loaded pile.
The latter case, pile may be imposed unexpectedly and
substantially when the soft clay layer is present and
the undergoing ground movement is relatively large
(Broms 1972). These passive stresses induced along
the pile shaft may seriously lead to a serviceability
problem or structure failure.
A number of research works have been conducted
numerically and experimentally in attempt to gain a
better understanding of the behaviour of passively
loaded pile. In recent years, the finite element method
(FEM) is exploited extensively to describe the rigorous
soil-pile response due to passive loading. Nevertheless, the transmitted lateral force varies diversely in
any particular cases.
In this present study, the passively loaded piles,
imposed by downslope ground movement due to the
settling embankment as depicted in Figure 1, are investigated numerically. The three-dimensional finite element analysis is comprehensively employed to account
for the overall soil-pile-embankment response. A
series of idealised numerical models are simulated
constitutively based on the elasto-plastic continuum
approach.

Embankment

lateral ground
movement

Figure 1. Passive loading along pile adjacent to embankment construction.

PASSIVELY LOADED PILES

Generally, the withstanding piles against the horizontal ground movement can be analysed by empirical methods based on field measurements and the
result of laboratory experiments, pressure-based methods, displacement-based methods and sophisticated

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft clay

Table 1.

Parameters used in the finite element analysis.

initial pile
position

initial soil
centerline profile

deformed soil
centerline profile

final pile
position

equivalent plane
deformation

Parameters

Soft clay

Pile and
pile cap

Youngs modulus (MPa)


Poissons ratio,
Unit weight (kN/m3 )
Undrained shear strength (kPa)
Dilatancy angle (degree)

4.4
0.40
14.0
11.3
0

27.0
0.20
25.0

(a) actively loaded piles

5.0
initial soil
centerline profile

15.0
p

eq

2.0

final pile
position

deformed soil
centerline profile

equivalent plane
deformation

20.0

(b) passively loaded piles

Figure 2. Displacement definitions for piles subjected to


lateral loading (after Bransby 1996).
40.0

numerical analyses (Stewart 1999). The reliable estimation of the free-field soil displacement is a dominant issue to successfully study the response of that
passive pile (Chen and Poulos 1997).
The magnitude of ultimate soil resistance of a single
passive pile varies from 9cu to 12cu (Randolph et al.
1984 and Chen 1994). The limiting lateral soil resistance is defined as equal to 2cu due to the near-surface
effects, then increased linearly up to 9cu at a depth of
three pile diameters and remained constant below that
depth (Broms 1964).
The variation of the ultimate soil resistance p with
depth and the relative soil-pile displacement are
presented in the term of p- curves. Bransby (1996)
stated that the traditional active p-y curves may not
properly describe the soil-pile response of passively
loaded pile under lateral ground movement. This is
because the actively loaded pile is pushed laterally
into the surrounding soil and the soil is dragged with
the pile. Therefore, the pile deflection y is the sum
of relative soil-pile displacement and the global soil
displacement y (see Figure 2a).
In case of passive lateral loading under undrained
and plain strain conditions, the value can be estimated
from the difference between an equivalent uniform
displacement eq and pile displacement relative to the
initial pile position p as shown in Figure 2b. The result
from centrifuge model tests conducted by Stewart

Figure 3. Generated soil-pile model for FE analysis.

(1992) indicated that at spacing larger than 4.9 times


of pile diameters is less significant in group effects.

To investigate the rigorous response of passively


loaded pile due to embankment-induced ground
movements, the finite element program ABAQUS is
employed. A series of idealised cases of passively
loaded piles subjected to embankment-induced horizontal soil movement are numerically examined. The
soil-pile system is performed by solid 3D eight-node
brick elements. The material parameters used in the
FE analysis are summarised in Table 1. As illustrated
in Figure 3, the half domain is applied by taking
advantage of the symmetry.
In the FE analysis, three free-head piles are modelled in a single row parallel to the embankment at
distance 1.0 m away from the toe. The three and five
centre-to-centre pile spacing are examined. Passively
loaded piles adjacent to the embankment are schematically depicted in Figure 4. The uniform live loading

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONSTITUTIVE FINITE ELEMENT


MODELS

5.0

Lateral displacement (cm)

1.0

4.0

0,0

0,5

1,0

1,5

2,0

2,5

3,0

0,0
2

31

0.40x0.40 @ 1.20 m
@2.00 m

Embankment

1,0

2,0

3,0

very soft to
soft clay

Depth (m)

12.0

4,0

5,0
medium clay

6,0

Figure 4. Passive pile adjacent to embankment.

is applied vertically and incrementally ranged from 0


to 60 kPa on the crest of slope.

7,0

3.1

8,0

Soil elements

It is well-known that the soft Bangkok clay is classified


as a considerably low strength, high compressibility
and slightly overconsolidated clay. The very soft clay
layer is about 6 m thick underlain by soft to medium
clay about 46 m. The soil stress-strain behaviour is
modelled using an elasto-plastic Drucker-Prager constitutive relationship with a non-associated flow rule
and undrained condition. The very soft clay layer with
the undrained shear strength of Cu = 11.3 kPa and
soil friction angle = 0 are used as input data in the
Drucker-Prager model.
3.2 Pile elements
An unrestrained vertical pile is assumed to remain perpetually elastic and installed perpendicularly to the
direction of ground movement. A constant embedment
ratio L/B equal to 30 is defined in all models, where
L is the embedded length and B is the width of pile.
3.3 Interface elements
In particular, the virtual interface elements are used to
account for soil-pile interaction and assigned an element thickness equal to 0.1B around the pile elements.
3.4 Loading conditions
The external pressure loading on the crest of slope
is applied uniformly and incrementally from 0 to
60 kPa in order to observe the non-linear response

Figure 5. The lateral displacement versus depth.

in the analysis. The passive pressure due to lateral


ground movement beneath embankment is conveyed
to the pile elements while the directly applied force is
disregarded.
4

LATERAL DISPLACEMENT AND


RESISTANCE

When piles are installed nearby settling embankment


or slope constructed on soft soil, the horizontal ground
movement can result a significant bending stresses and
displacement along the pile shaft. Even though the
vertical movement of embankment can be well estimated, but lateral ground movements are considerably
difficult to predict (Poulos 1973).
An accurate estimation of free-field soil displacement is one of the dominant keys to successfully
investigate the response of passively loaded piles
(Chen 1994). The free-field soil movement is referred
to as the lateral ground movement due to settling
embankment without piles installation. In this study,
the estimation of free-field soil displacement from FE
analysis is demonstrated in Figure 5.
In addition, the construction process can be noticeably influenced the induced forces, bending moment
along the pile and the magnitude of lateral soil displacement. Poulos (1994) represented an analytical

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

global soil displacement (at q = 10 kPa)


pile deflection (at q = 10 kPa)
free-field soil movement (at q = 0 kP

Figure 6 illustrates the contour of global


embankment-induced ground movement which ultimately yields about mid layer of very soft clay beneath
the toe of slope.
The p- curves at depth z = 4.5 m are plotted as
shown in Figure 7 since the horizontal ground movement is large. The ultimate soil resistance per unit
length of passive piles installed at 3B and 5B spacing
are about 17 and 19 kN/m, respectively. The magnitude of to grasp the ultimate value is approximately
0.008B from 3D analysis, which is considerably lower
than that of about 0.025B from 2D analysis represented
by Bransby and Springman (1999).
5
Figure 6. Global embankment-induced ground movement
(unit: m).
25

Soil Resistance (kN/m)

20

15

10

z = 4.5 m @ 3B spacing

0,011

0,008

0,006

0,004

0,002

0,000

z = 4.5 m @ 5B spacing
0

Based on three-dimensional finite element analysis,


the nonlinear behaviour of passively loaded piles
subjected to embankment-induced soil movement is
identified. As the conventional active p-y curves may
not properly describe the response of passively loaded
piles adjacent to embankment construction, the p-
curves is appropriately used.
Since the magnitude of ground movement at middepth of soft clay layer is significantly large, therefore,
the p- curves at determined depth are used to investigate the response of passive piles adjacent to the
slope. With the relative soil-pile displacement equal
to 0.008B, the soil resistance of passively loaded piles
is ultimately yielded.
It is found that the generated p- curves are obviously dependent on pile spacing. The passive p-
curves stiffen, whereas the active p-y curves soften
when piles spacing tends to decrease.
The numerical simulation in this present study provides the initial estimates of lateral soil resistance
that allow perceivable assessment of rigorous soil-pileembankment response. The significant certainties can
be achieved economically by sophisticated numerical
techniques which affords much higher confidence in
their reliability than those with empirical approaches.
REFERENCES

/B

Figure 7. The p- curves at 3B and 5B pile spacing.

result from specific case that the piles installed prior


to the embankment construction may experience about
10% higher bending moment than those installed after
the placement of the fill.
The pile deflection is considerably large in soft clay
layer about 5.0 m below the ground level. The global
lateral soil movement at midpoint s and pile deflection
p versus depth at q = 10 kPa are plotted in Figure 5.

Bransby, M. F. 1996. Difference between load-transfer relationship for laterally loaded pile groups: active p-y or
passive p-. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 122(12), pp. 10151018.
Bransby, M. F., and Springman, S. 1999. Selection of loadtransfer functions for passive lateral loading of pile
groups. Computers and Geotechnics, Vol. 24(3), pp.
155184.
Broms, B. B. 1964. Lateral resistance of piles in cohesive soils. Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division. ASCE, Vol. 90(2), pp. 2763.
Broms, B. B. 1972. Stability of flexible structures (piles
and pile groups). Proc. of the 5th ECSMFE, Vol. 2, pp.
239269.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSIONS

Chen, L. T. 1994. The effect of lateral soil movements on piles


foundation. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sydney, Australia.
Chen, L. T. and Poulos, H. G. 1997. Piles subjected to lateral
soil movements. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 123(9), pp. 802811.
Poulos, H. G. 1973.Analysis of piles in soil undergoing lateral
movement. Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division. ASCE, Vol. 99(5), pp. 391406.
Poulos, H. G. 1994. Analysis and design of piles through
embankments. Proc., International Conference on Design
and Construction of Deep Foundations, Vol. 3, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., pp.
14031421.

Randolph, M. F. and Houlsby, G. T. 1984. The limiting pressure on a circular pile loaded laterally in cohesive soil.
Geotechnique, London, Vol. 34(4), pp. 613623.
Stewart, D. P. 1992. Lateral loading of piled bridge abutments
due to embankment construction. Ph.D. thesis, University
of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
Stewart, D. P. 1999. Discussion: Analysis of piles subjected
to embankment induced lateral soil movement. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 125(5), pp. 425426.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Three dimensional nonlinear finite element analyses for horizontal bearing


capacity of deeply-embedded large-diameter cylindrical structure on
soft ground
Qinglai Fan
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Dalian University of Technology,
Dalian, China

Maotian Luan
State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China; Institute
of Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian,
China

Qing Yang
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Dalian University of Technology,
Dalian, China

ABSTRACT: Large-diameter cylindrical structure is a new type of coastal hydraulic structure which is suitable
for soft ground. Up to now appropriate computational procedure and analysis method for horizontal bearing
capacity of such a type of structure are still not available. In the paper, a series of three-dimensional numerical
analyses are carried out for the structures. The effect of strength anisotropy of soft soils on bearing capacity of
the structure and foundation is examined. Based on the computational results, such two patterns of instability
as single-sided failure mechanism and double-sided failure mechanism of the structure and foundation are
employed. It is shown that single-sided failure mechanism is more likely to occur. Influence of cyclic softening
of soft soil ground caused by wave loading on horizontal bearing capacity of structure is then investigated. It is
demonstrated that horizontal bearing capacity of the structure is considerably reduced when the cyclic nature of
wave loading imposed on structure is taken into account.

INTRODUCTION

The deeply-embedded large-diameter cylindrical


structure is a new type of structures which is increasingly used in deep-water breakwater and dock structures or port and harbour facilities in China in recent
years. It is mainly a steel or reinforced concrete thinwall cylindrical shell structure, penetrated into the soil
up to a given depth by static loading or vibration procedure. Such a structure, similar to a cylindrical caisson
without bottom and inner linkage walls, is especially
suitable for complex condition such as marine soft
soil ground and terrible sea environments. To compare with other current types of structures, it takes
advantages in lower construction cost and shorter construction period. Efforts on understanding of working
mechanism and development of analysis methods of
the large-diameter cylindrical structure embedded in
soft soil have been made in last decade. Among them,

a series of model tests were performed by Zhu (2002)


to investigate distribution of earth pressure on both
outer and inner sides of the cylinder wall during loading. Based on observed data it was found that the
most likely failure mechanism of model structure is
rotation mode around a point under mudline which is
different obviously from the pattern of conventional
gravity structures. Three-dimensional finite element
method were employed and then limit analysis method
were proposed by Luan et al. (2005) for evaluation of
bearing capacity of large-diameter cylindrical structure on soft soil ground. However, these methods are all
adapted to isotropic soft soil foundation condition and
the influence of anisotropy of soil strength on bearing
capacity of structure is usually overlooked. Therefore in this paper, transversely isotropic effect of soil
strength of soft ground is incorporated into the generalpurpose software ABAQUS and the bearing capacity
behaviour of the large-diameter cylindrical structure is

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

investigated. By virtue of the contact pair algorithm


provided in theABAQUS, the influence of contact state
indicating that whether the active soil mass is separated
from or bonded to the wall surface on bearing capacity
of the structure is examined. According to the field
investigation to the large-diameter cylindrical pilot
section of the second phase engineering of north guide
dyke of Changjiang estuary, it was found that strength
softening of foundation soil under wave-induced lateral load is the main cause of the resulting settlement
and failure of the structure (Fan, Q. J. et al., 2004). A
lumped spring-damper model is proposed byYuanzhan
Wang et al. (2004) to reproduce the action of foundation soil on the cylindrical structure while HardinDrnevich hyperbolic model is employed to represent
nonlinear dynamic property of subsoil. Then numerical computations were carried out to examine the effect
of such factors as cylinder diameter, embedment depth
on dynamic responses of a large-diameter cylindrical breakwater. However, compared with earthquake
shaking, wave loading is characterized by long duration and large number of cycles. When the computational techniques commonly used in earthquake
engineering is directly employed to dynamic analyses
under wave-induced loading, the uneven accumulation of errors and unacceptable computational cost
may appear. Therefore the computational experience
gained from dynamic analyses in earthquake engineering cannot be directly utilized. In this paper, based on
the concept of cyclic strength of soft soil developed
by Andersen et al. (1988), secondary development on
the framework of multi-purpose software ABAQUS
is made to develop a computational procedure which
integrates the Duncan-Chang nonlinear strain-stress
relationship with Mises yield criterion, Such a method
is in essence of quasi-static analysis for cyclic bearing capacity of cylindrical structure embedded in soft
soil. For the second phase engineering of Changjiang
estuary, three dimensional nonlinear finite element
analyses is conducted by the proposed method to
evaluate the cyclic bearing capacity of the structure
founded in soft ground. The cyclic bearing capacity is compared with the ultimate bearing capacity of
large-diameter cylindrical structures under monotonic
loading. It is found that compared with the bearing
capacity obtained when the weakening effect of soil
strength is overlooked, cyclic bearing capacity of the
structure is considerably reduced due to cyclic nature
of wave loading.

EFFECT OF SOIL STRENGTH ANISOTROPY


ON BEARING CAPACITY OF
STRUCTURE

The soft soil under marine environments is usually


cross-anisotropic. Therefore the effect of undrained

strength anisotropy of soft soil on bearing capacity of large-diameter cylindrical structure must be
investigated.
2.1 Hills yield criterion
For transversely isotropic soil, the commonly-used
Hills criterion of yield can be expressed as
f = J1/2 k = 0
J = a1 (z x )2 + a1 (z y )2 + a2 (x y )2
2
2
2
+(zx
+ yz
) + 2(a1 + 2a2 )xy

(1b)

Where k is strength parameter and here it is taken as the


undrained direct simple shear strength Sussv , a1 , a2 are
test constants. As proposed by Aubeny et al. (2003),
a1 , a2 can be determined by following relations





Sussv 2
1 Sussv 2
1
(2)
, a2 =
2a1
a1 =
8 Sutx
4
Supm
where Sutx and Supm are undrained shear strengths
respectively determined from triaxial shear tests and
pressuremeter. When a1 = a2 = 1/6 which leads to
Sussv /Sutx = 0.866 and Sussv /Supm = 1, the Hills yield
criterion is reduced to the Mises yield criterion for
isotropic ideal elasto-plastic constitute model.
2.2 Finite element modelling
The total stress method is utilized for undrained analyses. Used for cylindrical structure is the linear elastic
constitutive model with a modulus of elasticity of
E = 210 GPa and Poissons ratio of = 0.3. For soil,
the linearly elastic, perfectly plastic constitutive model
obeying Hills yield criterion is employed. The Poissons ratio of soft soil is taken as = 0.49 and the
deformation modulus is assumed to be a given portion
of the undrained strength of soil.The soil modulus does
not almost affect the predicted ultimate bearing capacity of the structure and foundation although it will have
appreciable effect on the lateral displacement level at
which the ultimate bearing capacity is mobilized. For
analyses the structure and the soil mass inside and
outside the cylinder are all simulated by 8-node brick
elements. Considering the symmetry of both geometrical and loading conditions, half portion of the structure
with foundation is used to establish the finite element
modelling in order to reduce computational effort. As
one of the key issues in gaining instructive numerical solution of the problem, the contact behaviour of
interfaces between the cylindrical structure and the
soil masses inside and outside the cylindrical walls
as well as beneath the cylindrical structure should be

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(1a)

rationally simulated. It is of significant importance in


understanding the horizontal bearing capacity and performance of the large-diameter cylindrical structure
embedded in soft ground. In order to consider the possibility of initiation of the potential crack between the
active-sided soil and the wall, the contact-pair algorithm in the software ABAQUS is adopted to deal
with the discontinuous deformation behaviour along
interfaces between the structure and the soil mass.
Frictional contact pairs are respectively imposed on
both contact surfaces between wall-inside wall-outside
as well bottom surface and their neighbouring soil
masses. A thin band of soil elements is arranged adjacent to the interface between wall-outside and soil in
order to reproduce the interface behaviour more accurately. Tangential component behaviour of the contact
face is governed by Coulombs friction law, where a
certain higher value of the coefficient of friction, e.g.
= 0.51, is taken so that the limit friction on the
interface can be constrained by the undrained strength
of the neighbouring soil elements. When the soil of the
active side separates from the structure, contact surface can no longer sustain further tension stress, and
the friction on the interface is assigned to vanish. If no
crack between the wall-outside and soil is considered,
a tied constraint is imposed to the interface between
the wall-outside and soil. Under such a circumstance,
the soil is always bonded to the wall-outside during loading phases. The external load P is imposed
step-by-step on the structure. On the basis of the
computational results, the inter-relationship between
normalized external load and normalized displacement occurred at the mudline is displayed. The load
at the point, where the slope of such a relation curve
approaches to zero, is taken as the ultimate load of the
large-diameter cylindrical structure embedded in the
soft ground. Shown in Figure 1 is a representation of

the computational model of the structure used for analysis. In the figure, L denotes the embedment depth, La
is the height of the structure above the mudline, D is
the diameter of the cylinder, t is the wall thickness, P is
the wave-induced external lateral load, Lp is the height
of the loading action point above the mudline, G is the
gravity of the structure and the soil.
2.3

Parametric studies

As a numerical example, the cylindrical structure


with D = 13.5 m, L/D = 1, Lp /D = 0.424, t = 20 mm,
La = 10.5 m, and the ground with effective unit weight
of  = 5 kN/m3 and the direct simple shear strength
of Sussv = 8.66 kPa are used for analyses. In order to
examine the effect of soil modulus, E, and the coefficient of friction, , on the load-carrying behaviour
of the structure, an uniform isotropic profile of subsoil is assumed. In the parametric studies, the value of
modulus and friction coefficient are respectively taken
as E = 320Sussv and E = 800Sussv , and = 0.5 and
= 1. Under such a condition, the three dimensional
finite element model used is depicted in Figure 2.
For different combination of soil modulus and friction
coefficient, the relationships between the normalized
bearing capacity and displacement computed are portrayed in Figure 3 in which the normalized capacity the
normalized displacement at the mudline are respectively as Pn = P/(ASussv ) and dn = d/D where with

La

P
Lp

G
L
t

Figure 1. The structure model used for numerical analysis.

Figure 2. Three dimensional finite element model.

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Pn

3
E=320Sussv
=1 crack
E=800Sussv
=1 crack
E=320Sussv
=0.5 crack
E=800Sussv
=0.5 crack
E=320Sussv no crack
E=800Sussv no crack

0
0

0.05

0.1

dn
Figure 3. The load-deformation relations computed for
different soil modulus and friction coefficient.

A = 1/4D2 and d is the computed displacement at


the mudline from finite element analyses.
It can be found from Figure 3 that the normalized bearing capacity is almost identical for different
combinations of soil modulus and friction coefficient.
Therefore in the following analyses, soil modulus
of E = 320Sussv and friction coefficient of = 0.5
are chosen. The computed bearing capacity factor is
Pn = 3 when potential crack between the active-sided
soil and the wall-outside is taken into account while
Pn = 3.4 when no crack is assumed in the active region
of foundation soils.
Indicated in Figure 4 are the failure mechanisms
obtained from finite element analyses. The failure
mode under the condition in which the possible crack
is considered in the active region of subsoil is termed
as single-sided failure mechanism while the failure
pattern when it is assumed that no crack is initiated in
the active region of subsoil is termed as double-sided
failure mechanism. Shown in Figure 5 is distribution of resultant displacements within the cylindrical
structure. From both Figure 4 and Figure 5, it is easily identified that the structure tends to rotate around
a point under mudline and above the bottom of the
cylinder. This observation is validated by the model
tests performed by Zhu (2002). The depth of the
rotation centre L0 is respectively 0.66L and 0.73L
for double-sided failure mechanism and single-sided
failure mechanism.
In order to examine the effect of effective unit
weight of subsoil on the lateral bearing capacity of
the structure, a comparative study is made through
parametric computations. The dependency of the normalized capacity Pn on effective unit weight of  can
be observed from the computed relations between as
shown in Figure 6. It is indicated that for double-sided
failure mechanism, the unit weight does not almost

Figure 4. The failure mechanisms predicted from finite


element analyses.

affect bearing capacity of the structure, for singlesided failure mechanism, however the load-carrying
capacity seems to increase with soil unit weight. In
reality, as shown in Figure 4(b), the passive and active
wedges are almost symmetric, leading to the total net
work done by the self-weights to vanish. Alternatively,
the weight of the soil lifted behind the cylinder is the
same as that pulled down on the opposite side, thus
resulting in no net energy dissipated due to gravity.
This observation has been implied in the limit analysis method proposed by Maotian Luan et al. (2005)
and Qinglai Fan et al. (2004). In addition, the bearing
capacity for single-sided failure mechanism is lower

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Pn

no crack
crack

Effective unit weight /

10

kN/m3

Figure 6. Effect of soil effective unit weight on the computed bearing capacity factor.

6
5

Pn

4
3
Lp=0.75D
Lp=0.75D
Lp=0.05D
Lp=0.05D

2
1
0

crack
no crack
crack
no crack

0.03
dn

0.06

Figure 7. Effect of height of load action point above mudline


on bearing capacity.
Figure 5. The computed resultant displacements and rotation mode of large-diameter cylindrical structure.

Table 1.

than that for double-sided failure mechanism in the


given range of soil effective unit weight.
For different value of the height of load action point
above mudline, Lp , the lateral bearing capacity of the
structure computed by the proposed numerical method
is given in Figure 7. It is observed that ultimate lateral load for both double-sided and single-sided failure
mechanism decreases as the height of load action point
increases.
The anisotropic (AI) characteristics of shear
strength properties of normally K0 consolidated clays
and silts were reported by Ladd (1991) from laboratory tests of simple shear and triaxial compression
and extension. However, less data are available on the
shear strength Supm from pressuremeter. Based on a
certain limited experimental data, it is assumed by
Aubeny et al. (2003) that the pressuremeter strength
is identical to the direct simple shear strength. In order

Strength

Sutc /Sussv

Sute /Sussv

Supm /Sussv

Isotropic
AI case A
AI case B
AI case C

0.866
1.33
1.04
1.04

0.866
0.96
0.55
0.55

1
1
1
0.55

to discuss the effects of strength anisotropy on bearing capacity of T-bar and Ball-bar, the pressuremeter
strength is regarded by Randolph (2000) as the same as
the triaxial-extension strength. In the following analyses, these two cases are considered. The soil strengths
in various shearing modes are listed in Table 1. For
the large-diameter cylindrical structure with the same
diameter, numerical analyses are conducted for two
different aspect ratios of L/D = 1 and L/D = 1.85.

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Strength parameters considered in FE analyses.

Table 2. Comparison of the computed ultimate loads of


cylindrical structures with two aspect ratios of L/D = 1 and
L/D = 1.85 under various strength anisotropy.

4
L / D=1
3

L/D = 1

Pn

131.667
case A
case A
case B
case B
case C
case C

crack
no crack
crack
no crack
crack
no crack

0.04

0.08

dn
Figure 8. Effect of strength anisotropy of soil on bearing
capacity of the structure with the aspect ratio of L/D = 1.

8
L / D=1.85

Pn

case A
case A
case B
case B
case C
case C

crack
no crack
crack
no crack
crack
no crack

0
0

0.05
dn

Strength

no crack

crack

no crack

crack

isotropic
AI case A
AI case B
AI case C

3.4
3.7
3.3
2.8

3.0
3.1
2.7
2.4

6.7
7.3
6.6
5.4

6.0
6.3
5.8
5.0

It is worthy to note that Sussv = 8.66 kPa is hold for all


analyses.
It can be implied from the computational results
given in Figure 8 and Figure 9 as well as in Table 2
that

0
0

0.1

Figure 9. Effect of strength anisotropy of soil on bearing


capacity of the structure with the aspect ratio of L/D = 1.85.

Other parameters are taken to be the same to those


in above section.
Shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9 are the computed
relations between the normalized bearing capacity and
the displacement at the mudline. It is obvious that
the effect of undrained strength anisotropy of soft
soil on bearing capacity of the cylindrical structure
is appreciable. In addition, the bearing capacity of
the structure increases with the embedment depth for
a given diameter. Moreover, the ultimate load of the
cylindrical structure under the condition of no-crack
on the interface between the wall and soil tends to be
lower than that under the condition of potential crack
on the interface for the given aspect ratio of structure
and undrained strength of soil. The computed ultimate loads for different cases are given in Table 2.

(a) When the undrained triaxial compression and


extension strength is higher, e.g. case A, the
ultimate load computed by conventional analysis
based on isotropic model tends to be somewhat
conservative.
(b) When the undrained triaxial compression and
extension strength is lower, e.g. case C, the bearing capacity computed by isotropic model seems
to be on unsafe side. For the structure with the
aspect ratio of L/D = 1.85, the ultimate load given
by isotropic model overestimates 20% than that
obtained from anisotropic model when the potential crack on the interface between the wall and the
soil is taken account.
(c) For a given aspect ratio of structure and undrained
strength of soil, the bearing capacity when the
potential crack is assumed to be likely on the interface between the wall and the soil is lower than
that when no crack on the interface between the
wall and the soil is postulated in the computational
model. It is implied that single-sided failure mechanism is more likely to occur than double-sided
failure mechanism. Therefore a certain countermeasures against crack initiation may be taken in
engineering practice.

EFFECT OF CYCLIC SOFTENING OF


STRENGTH OF SUBSOIL ON BEARING
CAPACITY

The shear strength of soft subsoil under marine or


ocean environments may be reduced due to the cyclic
nature of wave-induced loading. Attentions to such a
cyclic softening effect of soil strength should be paid
in the analysis of bearing capacity of coastal or offshore structures and foundations. In fact, this issue has
been still keeping challenge in offshore geotechnical

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L/D = 1.85

engineering due to its sophistication. A practicallyapplicable simplified procedure is required for engineering purpose. The concept of cyclic strength based
on experimental tests which was proposed by Andersen et al. (1988) has been widely used in evaluation
and analysis of overall stability of gravity platform
and foundations subjected to wave loading. The cyclic
strength cyc is defined as the resultant of initial static
shear stress and cyclic shear stress acting on the shearing plane that drives the soil element to reach failure
criterion of deformation after a specified number of
load cycles, i.e., cyc = (s + d )f . It is obvious that
the cyclic strength, which is defined from experimental tests, relies on the loading pattern and the initial
shear stress as well as the number of cycles. Therefore
the cyclic strength can be achieved by virtue of the
empirical relation between the cyclic strength and initial shear stress for a given number of cycles and the
initial shear stress obtained from FEM-based numerical analyses. The cyclic strength defined in such a
manner can be directly used in any pseudo-static limit
equilibrium method. A pseudo-static model based on
the Mises yield criterion is developed by Jianhua Wang
et al. (2005) for evaluation of cyclic bearing capacity of
soft ground through investigation of general features of
cyclic strength of soft soil. In the pseudo-static method
based on cyclic strength, initial stresses of foundation
are assessed by static FEM analyses. Then the empirical relation between cyclic strength and initial shear
stress which is obtained by soil tests for a given number of cycles together with the computed initial shear
stresses is employed to determine the cyclic strength
of soil elements in the foundation. Afterwards, the
finite element analyses are performed for the structure and foundation under the combined action of both
static loads including self-weight and wave-induced
cyclic load action to compute the ultimate load where
reduced soil strengths due to cyclic softening effect
are employed. In the conventional pseudo-static analyses based on the concept of cyclic strength, however,
the nonlinear characteristics of soil before failure is
usually overlooked. In order to fully reproduce nonlinear behaviour of soft soils, the hyperbolic stress-strain
relationship proposed by Duncan and Chang is incorporated with Mises yield criterion to constitute a
nonlinear elasto-perfectly plastic model. Numerical
implementation of such a combined model is fulfilled
on the framework of the software package ABAQUS.
Three dimensional nonlinear finite element numerical analyses are conducted by using the proposed
procedure as above for the deeply-embedded largediameter cylindrical structures on soft ground. The
cyclic bearing capacity of the structure together with
foundation against overturning with consideration of
cyclic softening effect of soil under wave action is
achieved and then is compared with the ultimate loads
under monotonic loading condition.

For undrained condition, the tangential modulus, Et ,


of soil based on Duncan-Chang nonlinear stress-strain
relationship is expressed as (Bonin et al. 1976)


max 2
Et = 1 R f
Ei
Su

Where Ei is the initial modulus of soil, max is maximum shear stress on the shearing plane, Su is undrained
static strength and Rf is failure ratio which usually
lies between 0.750.95. Based on general experience, failure ratio of Rf = 0.8 and Initial modulus
of Ei = 320Su are used empirically in the following
analyses. Meanwhile, by virtue of the equivalence
principle of octahedral shear stress, the equivalent
shear stress under general shear condition for a specific soil mass in foundation can be related to the static
strength q = s = 1 3 for soil sample determined
by triaxial test as following (e.g., Jianhua Wang et al.
2005)

1
q = (1 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + (3 1 )2 (4)
2
Finite element analysis is conducted by the following procedures. (1) The undrained static strength Su
of the soil is taken as the failure criterion and the
nonlinear elasto-perfectly plastic model is constituted
by combining Duncan-Chang hyperbolic stress-strain
relationship and Mises yield criterion. Stress analysis of the structure together with foundation under
static loads including self-weight is made by finite
element method. (2) Based on the computed static
stress of soil foundation, cyclic strength under different stress condition for various locations of soil
elements in foundation can be determined by using
both empirical relations of cyclic strength and initial stress achieved from cyclic triaxial test or direct
shear test, as well as correlation between the actual
stress state of foundation and shear strength of soil
sample in laboratory test. (3) The cyclic strength of
soil element defined in the above manner is taken as
failure criterion, re-evaluation of stresses of the structure and foundation subjected to combined action of
both static loads and wave-induced cyclic load is conducted by finite element analysis. The relation between
lateral load induced by wave-loading and horizontal
displacement of the structure at the mudline is gained
and the cyclic bearing capacity of the structure can be
determined by the procedure as proposed above.
After the cylindrical structure is penetrated into the
soft soil, the structure together with soil foundation
is loaded by the self-weight and gravity force of both
super-structures and backfills. Static shear stresses s
in foundation is non-uniformly distributed. When the
structure is further subjected to wave-induced loading, cyclic stresses d in addition to initial stresses are

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(3)

2.5

1.5

1.5

Pn

Pn

2.5

no crack / linear elasticity


no crack / nonlinear elasticity

0.5

crack / linear elasticity


crack / nonlinear elasticity

0.5

0
0

0.05

0.1

dn

0.03

0.06

dn
Figure 10. The computed relation between load and displacement considering cyclic nature of soil strength by
different soil model with no consideration of crack.

Figure 11. The computed relation between load and displacement considering cyclic nature of soil strength by
different soil model with consideration of crack.

imposed on soil elements in the foundation. If the combined stress of both initial and cyclic components, i.e.,
(s + d ), exceeds its cyclic strength, the soil element
tends to failure. Then redistribution of stress takes
place, high stress will be transferred to the neighbourhood of the soil elements with high stress. The failure
region may get through the soil mass and thus induce
overall loss of stability of the large-diameter cylindrical structure. For convenience of comparison, finite
element modelling together with boundary conditions
are all identical to those as given in Figure 2.
The following empirical equation of shear strength
which is presented by Andersen et al. (1993) from
cyclic direct simple shear tests for a given number of
cyclic loading of N = 1000 is employed in the analyses
cy
s
= 0.42 + 0.87
f
f
cy
s
= 0.47 + 0.53
f
f

s
0.15
f
s
when 0.15
1
f
when 0

(5a)
(5b)

To emphasize the influence of cyclic softening effect


on bearing capacity independently, strength anisotropy
of soil is not taken into account. The computational
results are given in Figure 10 and Figure 11. Thereafter it can be observed that the cyclic bearing capacity
decreases considerably compared with the ultimate
loads achieved under monotonic loading condition.
when no crack is assumed on the interface between
cylindrical structure and subsoil, the cyclic bearing
capacity factors obtained by linear or nonlinear elastoperfectly plastic model are 2.4 and 2.2 respectively.
When potential crack is anticipated to be initiated on
the soil-structure interface, the cyclic bearing capacity
factors obtained by both linear and nonlinear elastoplastic models are 2.1 and 1.9 respectively. The cyclic
capacities computed by both linear and nonlinear
elasto-perfectly plastic models are lower than ultimate
loads by approximately 30% and 35%. It can be found

Figure 12. Distribution of static shear stress in structure


and foundation with no consideration of crack computed by
nonlinear elasto-perfectly plastic model.

that the cyclic bearing capacity computed by linear


elasto-perfectly plastic model is always on unsafe side.
Therefore it is essentially necessary to take account
both cyclic softening effect of soil strength and nonlinear feature of soil deformation behaviour before
failure in stress analyses. Shown in Figure 12 and Figure 13 are the static shear stresses distribution in both
foundation and backfills computed by nonlinear and
linear elasto-perfectly plastic models. By comparing
the computational results given in Figure 14 computed
by using the nonlinear elasto-perfectly plastic model
and Figure 7, the effect of the height of load action
point above mudline Lp on the cyclic bearing capacity of the structure and foundation can be illustrated.
As the height of load action point increases, the cyclic
bearing capacity reduces for both double-sided and
single-sided failure mechanisms.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

computed with no consideration of strength anisotropy


of soil will be on unsafe side in some conditions.
Then, influence of cyclic softening of strength of
soft soil due to cyclic nature of wave-induced loading
on bearing capacity of the structure and foundation is
evaluated by using the concept of cyclic strength proposed by Andersen et al. (1988). On the framework
of the FEM package ABAQUS, a combined nonlinear elasto-perfectly plastic model which integrate
Duncan-Chang nonlinear stress-strain relation with
Mises yield criterion is constituted and then numerically implemented. The cyclic bearing capacity of
the large-diameter cylindrical structure embedded in
soft ground is determined by three-dimensional nonlinear FEM. Through numerical computations, it is
found that when the cyclic softening effect of soil is
taken account, cyclic bearing capacity is considerably
reduced compared with the ultimate load under monotonic loading pattern. In addition, it is necessary to
take nonlinear feature of deformation behaviour of soft
soil before failure into consideration since the conventional analyses utilizing elasto-perfectly plastic model
always overestimate the cyclic bearing capacity.

Figure 13. Distribution of static shear stress in structure and


foundation with no consideration of crack computed by linear
elasto-perfectly plastic model.

Pn

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Professor Dahong Qiu of Dalian University of Technology
for his continuing support and invaluable advice for
the investigation. The financial support for this study
through the grant 50179006 from National Natural
Science Foundation of China is mostly grateful.

2
Lp=0.75D
Lp=0.75D
Lp=0.05D
Lp=0.05D

0.03
dn

crack
no crack
crack
no crack

0.06

REFERENCES

Figure 14. Effect of height of load action point above


mudline on cyclic bearing capacity.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

A three dimensional nonlinear numerical procedure is


developed for horizontal bearing capacity of deeplyembedded large-diameter cylindrical structure on soft
ground. The proposed method is based on finite element analyses which is numerically implemented in
the general-purpose finite element software package
ABAQUS. The following effects are respectively taken
into consideration.
Firstly, the anisotropic characteristic of soft soil
strength is taken account in the elasto-perfectly plastic model based on Hills yield criterion. By using
the empirical relations among undrained strengths of
soil obtained by different shear tests under various
stress conditions, it is found that the bearing capacity

Andersen, K. H., Kleven, A., and Heien, D. 1988. Bearing


capacity for foundation with cyclic loads. Journal of the
Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 114(5),
pp. 540555.
Andersen, K. H., Dyvik, R., Schroder, K., Hansteen, O., and
Bysveen, S. 1993. Field tests of anchors in clay II: predictions and interpretation. Journal of the Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 119(10), pp. 15321549.
Aubeny, C., Han, S., and Murff, J. D. 2003. Suction caisson
capacity in anisotropic, purely cohesive soil. International
Journal of Geomechanics, Vol. 3(2), pp. 225235.
Bonin, J. P., Deleuil, G., and Zaleski-Zamenhof, L. C. 1976.
Foundation analysis of marine gravity structures submitted to cyclic loading. Offshore Technology Conference,
Houston, Texas, pp. 571579.
Fan, Q. L., Luan, M. T., and Yang, Q. 2004. Numerical analysis of lateral load bearing capacity of large cylindrical
structures on soft foundations (in Chinese). Rock and Soil
Mechanics, Vol. 25(supp.2), pp. 191195.
Fan, Q. J. and Li, N.Y. 2004.The reasons and countermeasures
for north banks part failure In the second phase regulation
project of Yangtze estuary (in Chinese). China Harbour
Engineering, Vol. 129(2), pp. 18.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Ladd, C. C. 1991. Stability evaluation during staged construction. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division,
ASCE, Vol. 117(4), pp. 540615.
Luan, M. T. and Fan, Q. L. 2005. Numerical analyses of
bearing capacity of large-diameter cylindrical structure
on soft soil against lateral loads. Proceedings of the
2nd China-Japan Geotechnical Symposium, Shanghai, pp.
161166.
Randolph, M. F. 2000. Effect of strength anisotropy on
capacity of foundations. Proceedings of Booker Memorial
Symposium, Perth, pp. 313327.
Wang, J. H., Li, C., and Moran, K. 2005. Cyclic undrained
behavior of soft clays and cyclic bearing capacity of a

single bucket foundation. Proceedings of 15th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Seoul,
Korea, pp. 377383.
Wang, Y. Z., Zhu, Z. Y., and Zhou, Z. R. 2004. Dynamic
response analysis for embedded large-cylinder breakwaters under wave excitation. China Ocean Engineering, Vol.
18(4), pp. 585594.
Zhu, C. H. 2002. Computation of earth pressure on
large diameter cylinder under service ultimate state (in
Chinese). Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
Vol. 24(3), pp. 314318.

530

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Numerical modelling of a very soft dredged silty clay improvement in


Valencia port (Spain)
Francisco Samper
Geotecnia y Cimientos, S.A., Spain

Marcelo Burgos
Valencia Port Authority, Spain

ABSTRACT: The Valencia Port Authority plans to incorporate a new area of 140.000 m2 in order to store
containers on it. This area contains a 65.000 m2 lagoon that has been back filled with about 1.000.000 m3 of
dredged mud. The consistency of this mud is very low and its water content is higher than the liquid limit. In
this paper, the numerical modeling of several improving solutions has been developed; from these solutions one
has been selected for the construction that is currently taken place. In addition, a parametric study is included
regarding the variation of the characteristics of the soil-cement mix that is currently being made and their
influence on safety against shear failure and on predicted settlements.

INTRODUCTION

At the South Dock of the Port of Valencia, an area of


about 1,100,000 m2 has been gained from the sea during earlier stages. Once this area was improved using
preloads (with or without vertical drains) it has been
put into service in order to store containers.
As a result of the back filling of that area, an artificial lagoon made up of mud with a very low consistency has been created at the docks end, presenting
very peculiar problems.
In order to study the possible solutions for the
improvement of these muds, the creation of a test
embankment began in 2003, which had a fragile failure during the middle of construction despite the
precautions taken.
Based on what has been learned from investigations
conducted in the area, the study of the test embankments failure and the readings coming from the
instrumentation laid out in that embankment, a back
analysis of the failure has been made. This analysis
has then been used to study the possible improvement
solutions.
The present paper describes the calculations made,
using classical methods and finite elements, in order
to simulate the failure of the test embankment and the
possible improvement solutions.

2.1

Structure and geotechnical characteristics of


the underground

According to the information that was available


(Burgos, Samper, 2004), initially, a draft of about 12 m
existed in the area. The following materials were found
below that depth:
From level 12 m to level 24 m: Fine sands of
medium compacity (10 < N30 SPT < 30)
From level 24 m until at least level 31 m:
Clays and sandy silts of medium consistency
(25 kN/m2 < Cu < 125 kN/m2 ). These materials are
not included in the calculations made since they do
not have a significant influence.
A hydraulic filling was subsequently done between
level 12 m and level +2 m, generating a lagoon of
mud with a low consistency and with an upper dried-up
layer around 0.5 m thick.
The main characteristics of the mud are reflected in
table 1.
Finally, the water table is situated at the
0.0 m level, with minimum variations due to the
tides.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

INITIAL DATA

Table 1.

Characteristics of the mud.

Characteristics
Organic matter (%)
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Liquid limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Water content (%)
Dry unit density (kN/m3 )
Void ratio (e)
Compression index (cc)
Coefficient of vertical
consolidation (cv) (cm2 /s)
Coefficient of horizontal
consolidation (cv) (cm2 /s)
Undrained shear strength
(cu) (kN/m2 )1

12
<10
4060
4060
2545
520
3060
1214
0,91,3
0,200,25
4*104
8*104

50

100

150

200

ESCALE

<25 kN/m2
Figure 2. General arrangement.

In the upper level (below the dried-up crust), its values


round 23 kN/m2 , increasing proportionally with the depth
until values in the order of 25 kN/m2 in the lower portion of
these muds. When the calculations were made, the growth of
resistance with depth was assumed to be at 0,9 kN/m2 /m. It
has been later shown that this growth is actually somewhat
greater, which leaves the calculations made on the safe side.
Once the test embankment was constructed, an undrained
shear strength of 57 kN/m2 on the surface was observed, as
well as an increase with depth of around 1,2 kN/m2 /m.

+10.0

+5.0
+2.0
+0.0
0.0

Figure 3. Photograph of the site in October 2005.

-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR

GENERAL
FILL

SEA

MUD

mix of gravel and sand locally known as zahorra and


0.80 m of rock fill, with a combined weight of about
28 kN/m2 .
Later on, the area will be used as a storage
site for containers. In accordance with Spanish Port
Norms, the containers are equivalent to an overload of
60 kN/m2 , and the settlement for the pavement to bear
should be less than 10 cm in the 10 years following its
construction.

ROCK FILL

-10.0

-12.0

-15.0

STAGE 0: INITIAL STATE


Figure 1. Initial state.

2.2

Characteristics of the jobs to be performed in


the area

The referred zone has a surface area of about


140,000 m2 . In its central part there exists an area of
about 65,000 m2 called the lagoon, where a volume
of mud in the order of 1,000,000 m3 is accumulated.
At this zone, once the jobs corresponding to the
project have been carried out, and the preload has
been removed, the construction of a port pavement is
planned, made up of 0.30 m of concrete, 0.25 m of a

In 2003, a test embankment was created in the


lagoon. Due to the low consistency of the muds,
it was necessary to construct it employing very light
means and in multiple phases. Thus, it was considered
that extending this method of construction to the rest
of the zone was not viable.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

NUMERICAL BACK ANALYSIS MODEL OF


THE TEST EMBANKMENTS FAILURE

Table 2.

Geotechnical parameters for the test embankment.

Material

(kN/m3 )

K (m/day)

E (kN/m2 )

Embankment
Dry mud1
Mud
Mud_P12
Mud_P23
Mud_14
Mud_25
Dike
Sands6

18,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
18,0
20,5

0.864
1,2*103
1,2*103
1,2*102
7*103
1,2*102
7*103
0,2
8,64

1*104
5*103
750
750
750
4*103
4*103
5*104
5*104

Corresponds to the dried-up superficial crust


Mud_P1: mud with 1 drain/m2 without improvement
3
Mud_P2: mud with 1 drains/2 m2 without improvement
4
Mud_1: mud with 1 drain/m2 , improved by action of the
embankment
5
Mud_2: mud with 1 drains/2 m2 , improved by the action of
the embankment
6
Bearing layer.

Figure 4. Calculation scheme of the test embankment.

The dimensions of this embankment were 60 m


60 m on its base, and it was planned that it would be
36 m 36 m on its crown (with a height of 6 m).
Below this embankment, vertical drains were driven
in order to accelerate the consolidation of the muds
(with a density of 1 drain every 2 m2 in the majority of its area and 1 drain every 1 m2 in the outer
border).
Despite following a construction process done in
phases (in which it was taken advantage of the gain
in undrained shear resistance due to the embankments weight in order to enhance its stability (Ladd,
1991)) and having followed the observational method,
a fragile failure took place in one of the foreseen construction steps: when the embankment was about 4 m
in height.
This embankment was equipped with instrumentation (settlement plates, inclinometers and vibrating wire piezometers), part of which ceased to be
operational due to the failure.
In this way, the back analysis of the failure,
along with that of the rest of the instrumentation
that remained operational and the investigations conducted, has allowed for the calibration of a model of
the ground behaviour.
In order to do this, 12 cases with different parameters for the materials have been studied, with the aim
of finding that which best reflected the evolution of
the measured settlements and the form of the failure
and that it logically had a safety coefficient against
failure of 1.
In the different cases analyzed, a bidimensional
elastoplastic model has been adopted, with the MohrCoulomb failure criteria, in the hypothesis of plane
strain. The calculations have been made using the
PLAXIS code of finite elements, developed at the
University of Delft.
In Figure 4, the calculation scheme used to carry
out the retrospective modelling (back analysis) of the
test embankments rupture is reflected.

Table 3.

Material

c o cu
(kN/m2 )

( )

 cu
(kN/m2 /m)

Embankment
Dry mud1
Mud
Mud_P12
Mud_P23
Mud_14
Mud_25
Dike
Sands6

10
37
3
3
3
5
5
5
0

28
0
0
0
0
0
0
38
32

0
0
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0
0

Figure 5. Scheme of points with equal displacement of the


test embankment.

In tables 2 and 3 the values for the geotechnical parameters of different materials in their most
representative case have been collected.
In Figure 5, a graph of points with equal displacement is included, which correctly adjusts to the form of
failure observed and the magnitude of the movements
measured

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Geotechnical parameters for the test embankment.

With the parameters that can be deduced from this


retrospective study (back analysis) of the failure, the
calculations shown in the following sections have been
made.

NUMERICAL MODELIZATION OF THE


IMPROVEMENT SOLUTIONS

One of the singularities of the job studied is the difficulty of creating a work platform over such soft
soils.
As a result of this, the solutions studied are based on
the creation of a soil-cement crust, constructed from
the edges of the lagoon, and subsequently from the
crust itself towards non-stabilized zones, given that the
tool that mixes the soil with the cement is installed in
the arm of an excavator, which rests on soil already
stabilized.
This crust will be constructed using the mass stabilization technique (developed from the deep-mixing
technique). Its function, apart from allowing the movement of heavy machinery to the inner part of the
lagoon, is that of reinforcing the soil, allowing it
to bear in the future, with an adequate security coefficient, the uncompensated loads coming from the
containers. This action has been simulated, in accordance with Spanish Port Norms (R.O.M. 02-90) and
the service characteristics, as a load of 60 kN/m2 ,
which is applied over an undefined 16 m wide strip.
As has been pointed out earlier, this crust is made
mixing cement with the mud. The thicknesses considered in the calculations have been 3, 4 and 5 m, which
respond to usual values for this type of jobs.
In this way, different solutions have been studied,
progressively more complex and expensive, which are
explained below. These solutions would be:
Solution A: Construction of only the crust
Solution B: Construction of the crust and application of a preload, accelerated with vertical drains, in
order to improve the muds found below the crust.
Solution C: Construction of the crust supported by
soil cement columns either floating or placed on the
bearing sandy layer.
In the studied solutions, a bidimensional elastoplastic model with the Mohr-Coulomb criterion in the
hypothesis of plane strain has been used first of all,
carrying out analyses with the PLAXIS finite elements
code. In the second and third solution classical failure
calculations have also been made.
The residual resistance values of the crust have been
used in order to make these calculations, given that, if it
had not broken before placing the containers (Solution
B) due to the greater rigidity of the crust in comparison to the muds, a progressive rupture phenomenon
in the mud-crust system could have initiated at the

Figure 6. Calculation scheme for solution A.


Table 4. The most significant geotechnical parameters of
the materials.
E (kN/m2 )

Pavement
Crust
Mud
Sands

1.5*105
1.5*104
750
5*104

c o cu
(kN/m2 )
0
1

3
0

( )

 cu
(kN/m2 /m)

36
25
0
32

0
0
0.9
0

See data in Table 5.

Table 5. Geotechnical characteristics of the crust and calculation results.


Caso

c (kN/m2 )

( )

e1 (m)

Ffe2

S3max (cm)

A-1
A-2
A-3
A-4

20
20
10
10

25
25
25
25

3
4
3
4

1.2
1.5
1.1
1.4

85
60
94
64

1
2
3

e = thickness of the crust


Ffe = safety factor in the finite element code
Smax = maximum settlement.

moment of arranging the containers. According to this,


only the crust residual strength would only be taken
into account. These residual resistance values (which
have been later verified in the laboratory) correspond
with residual cohesions of 0 and 20 kN/m2 and residual
friction angles between 2530 .
4.1 Solution A: Upper soil-cement crust
The calculation scheme of this solutions finite elements model is included in figure 6.
4 cases have been studied which correspond with 2
possibilities for the crust thickness (3 and 4 m) and for
residual cohesions (c ) of 10 and 20 kN/m2 .
InTable 5, the different parameters used for the crust
as well the main results of the calculations made using
the PLAXIS code are summarized.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Material

Table 6. The most significant geotechnical parameters of


the materials.

Figure 7. Scheme of points with equal displacement in


solution A.

c o cu
(kN/m2 )

( )

1*104
515*104
1.5*104
750
750
510*103

010
0

28
36

3
3
7

0
0
0

5*104

32

Material

E (kN/m2 )

Embankment
Pavement
Crust
Muds
Muds (drains)
Consolidated
muds2
Sands

 cu
(kN/m2 /m)
0
0
0
0.9
0.9
1.2
0

See data in table 7


Values more elevated than those in table 4 due to the
improvement caused by the preload.
2

Table 7. Geotechnical characteristics of the crust and results


of the calculations.

Figure 8. Calculation scheme of solution B.

This solution is not considered viable, given that


the settlements are very high (incompatible with the
pavement) and the security coefficients are very low.
In Figure 7 a graph of points with equal displacement is included, which reflects the form of an eventual
failure.
4.2

Case

c (kN/m2 )

( )

e1 (m)

Ffe2

S3max (cm)

B-1
B-2
B-3
B-4
B-54
B-6
B-7
B-84

20
20
10
10
10
10
0
0

25
25
25
25
25
25
30
30

3
3
3
3
4
5
3
4

2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.4
2.8
2.0
2.4

7
7
7
10
9
8
10
9

1
2
3
4

e = crust thickness
Ffe = safety factor in the finite element code
Smax = maximum settlement
Corresponds to the solution adopted in the project.

Solution B: Upper soil-cement crust with


preload and vertical drains

Given the low security coefficients in failure and the


high settlements of the previous solution, solution B
was studied, in which an improvement of the muds
below the crust is carried out by means of a preload
accelerated with drains. Two aims are achieved with
this:
To increase the security coefficient in failure, given
that the application of the preload gives rise to an
increase in the shear resistance of the muds (Ladd,
1991).
To decrease the settlements coming from the action
of the containers to an acceptable level, given that,
once the preload is removed, the settlements would
basically be in a reloading process.
The calculation scheme of the finite elements model
corresponding to this solution is reflected in Figure 8.

Figure 9. Scheme of points with equal displacement in


solution B.

8 cases have been studied that correspond to 3 possibilities for the thickness of the crust (3, 4 and 5 m)
and their friction angle (25 and 30 ) and their residual
cohesion (0, 10 and 20 kN/m2 )
In Table 7 the resistance characteristics of the crust
as well as the main results of the calculations made
using the PLAXIS code are summarized.
In Figure 9 a graph of points with equal displacement Is included, which reflects the form of an eventual
rupture.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 8. Results of the calculations regarding the stability


of solution B.
Caso

Ffe1

Fb2

Fm-p3

Fb-Ffe

Fm-p Ffe

B-1
B-2
B-3
B-4
B-54
B-6
B-7
B-84

2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.4
2.8
2.0
2.4

2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.7
3.1
2.3
2.7

2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
3.0
3.3
2.6
2.9

0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3

0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.5

Ffe = safety factor in the finite element code


Fb = safety factor according to the Bishops method
3
Fm-p = safety factor segn el mtodo de Morgenstern-Price
4
Corresponds with the solution adopted in the project.
1
2

Figure 11. Calculation scheme for solution C.


Table 9. The most significant geotechnical parameters of
the materials.
Material

E (kN/m2 )

c o cu
(kN/m2 )

( )

 cu
(kN/m2 /m)

Pavement
Crust1
Mud
Sands
Columns

1.5*105
1.5*104
750
5*104
3*104

0
0
3
0
50

36
30
0
32
32

0
0
0.9
0
0

Average values within the range considered in the previous


section have been used.

Figure 10. Result of the stability calculations for case B-5


by means of the Morgenstern-Price method.

In addition, calculations employing classical methods have been made regarding failure by means of the
SLOPE/W program, in accordance with Bishop and
Morgensten-Prices methods and using the same characteristics for the materials. In table 8 the main results
of these calculations are shown.
From these results it can be deduced that:
This solution presents settlements compatible with
the future use of the pavement (lower than 10 cm in
10 years).
A difference of 0.30.6 in the safety factor exists
between the calculations using classical methods
and those using finite elements.
The safety factor for the failure of crusts 4 and 5 m
thick is considered admissible.
The influence of the variation, within the adopted
range, of the values for the residual resistance of
the crust with respect to the safety factor is low
(0.3 maximum).
On the other hand, it will be necessary to verify,
once the preload is carried out, that the muds have
improved as expected and that the characteristics of
the crust respond to that assumed.

4.3 Solution C: Crust supported by soil-cement


columns
In case B, studied in the previous section, it is necessary to wait a long period of time before being able to
use the platform.As a result, solution C studies the possibility of constructing the crust and the soil-cement
columns (executed using the deep-mixing technique)
and immediately after constructing the pavement. This
would give rise to significant time saving, even though
it would probably be more expensive. Both the floating columns case and the columns bearing on the sand
layer have been studied.
The calculation scheme of the finite elements model
of this solution is contained in Figure 11.
8 possibilities have been studied, which correspond
with soil-cement crusts 3 and 4 m thick, floating
columns (3 and 6 m below the inferior side of the crust)
and embedded in the sand layer (15 m long) and densities which range from 1 column per 1.5 m2 to 1 column
per 4 m2 .
In Table 10, the parameters that define the different cases studied as well as the main results of the
calculations made are summarized.
In Figure 12 a graph of points with equal displacement is included, which reflects the form of an eventual
failure.

536

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 10.

Table 11. Results of the calculations regarding the stability


of solution C.

Results of the cases studied.


S4max

Case

e1 (m)

Column
density (2 )

Column
length (m)

Ffe3

(cm)

Case

Ffe1

Fb2

Fm-p3

Fb-Ffe

Fm-p Ffe

C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8

4
4
4
4
4
3
4
3

3
3
3
2.25
1.5
2.25
4
3

3
6
15
15
15
15
15
15

1.6
2.0
2.5
2.9
3.2
2.5
2.3
2.2

58
42
17
13
9
14
24
21

C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8

1.6
2.0
2.5
2.9
3.2
2.5
2.3
2.2

2.5
3.0
3.5
4.2
3.2

2.4
2.7
3.1
3.5
4.2
3.3

0.5
0.5
0.6
1.0
0.7

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
1.0
0.8

1
2
3
4

e = crust thickness
m2 per column
Ffe = safety factor in the finite element code
Smax = maximum settlement.

1
2
3
4
5

Ffe = safety factor in the finite element code


Fb = safety factor in the Bishop method
Fm-p = safety factor in the Morgenstern-Price method
In this case the Bishop method does not converge
Cases not calculated.

Figure 13. Results of the calculations regarding stability in


case c-4 using the Morgenstern-Price method.
Figure 12. Scheme of points with equal displacement in
solution C.

In addition, calculations employing classical methods have been made regarding failure by means of the
SLOPE/W program, in accordance with Bishop and
Morgensten-Prices methods and using the same characteristics for the materials. In table 11 the main results
of these calculations are shown.
From this table and the previous one it can be
deduced that:
A difference of 0.51.0 in the safety factor exists
between the calculations using the classical and
finite elements methods.
The solution using floating soil cement columns
ends up not being viable given the low safety factors
and the elevated amount of expected settlements.
the density of the treatment should be between 1.5
and 2.0 m2 per column. In those conditions, the
safety factor against failure is considered to be sufficient and, even if the settlements caused by the
application of the load of the containers were 9
12 cm, in the order of the 10 cm indicated by Spanish

Port Norms, they still could be acceptable due to


the crusts settlement homogenization action. Due to
that effect, it would be more convenient that the crust
be 4 m instead of 3 m despite the fact that an increase
in thickness does not contribute in a significant
manner to the reduction of the total settlements.
On the other hand, given that the calculations
regarding stability by classical methods are bidimensional, it has been necessary to use an equivalent soil
which would consider the characteristics of the muds
and the soil-cement of the columns. Therefore, this
equivalent soil, which has been defined in accordance
with the indications included in Euro Soil Stab (2000),
would have the following characteristics according
with Eq.1, 2 and 3:
cueq = a cucol + (1 a) cumuds

(1)

c eq = a ccol + (1 a) cmuds

(2)

tag eq = a tag col + (1 a) tag muds

(3)

537

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

where:
a = Ac/A, being

(4)

Ac = transversal area of the column


A = influence area of each column
In the case of the finite elements models, which are
also bidimensional, a fictitious column width has been
used (smaller than the real one), which will allow it to
maintain the area ratio.
4.4

Comparative analysis of the different


solutions studied

The analysis that has been made has shown that solution A is not viable despite being the fastest and most
economic option.
Of the remaining two, solution B would probably
be the more economic one, but it needs a long time
before the platform can be put into use, given that it is
necessary to construct the crust, lay out the drains and
the preload, wait until the muds have consolidated, and
remove the preload. This has been the solution finally
chosen in the project, which is currently being executed. In the calculations made for this solution it has
been shown that the influence of the variation in crusts
residual resistance values is low; but it is necessary to
conduct a subsequent investigation in order to verify
the resistance characteristics of the crust and the muds
in a time of use.
Solution C probably has a higher cost than solution
B, but it would guarantee putting the studied zone into
service in less time.

CONCLUSIONS

As a result of the back filling in previous stages of


other areas in the South Dock of the Port of Valencia,
a lagoon of muds with a very soft consistency has
been generated with a surface area of about 65,000 m2
and a volume of around 1,000,000 m3 . This lagoon
is contained within a zone of 140,000 m2 , where the
construction of a port pavement on which containers
will be stored is intended.

In order to study the possible improvement solutions of this lagoon, the construction of a test
embankment was begun in 2003. This embankment
had a fragile failure in the middle of construction
despite the precautions taken.
Setting out from what was learned from the geotechnical investigations carried out in the area, the study of
the test embankments failure and the readings from the
instrumentation that was laid out, a back analysis of the
failure has been made. From it, possible improvement
solutions have been studied with both a finite elements
model and limit equilibrium classical methods.
A project that is currently being carried out has been
drafted based on the conclusions of this study, which
will allow the exploitation under heavy loads of a vast
area of a dock that bears on very particular materials.
REFERENCES
Burgos, M., Samper, F. 2004. Caracterizacin geotcnica de
unas arcillas limosas muy blandas procedentes de relleno portuario en la Drsena Sur del Puerto de Valencia.
Simposio sobre geotcnica ambiental y mejora del terreno. Sociedad Espaola de Mecnica del Suelo. Valencia,
Espaa., pp. 205210.
Burgos, M., Samper, F. 2005. Modelizacin numrica retrospectiva de la rotura de un terrapln de prueba y del
comportamiento de distintas soluciones de mejora de un
relleno portuario en la Drsena Sur del Puerto de Valencia. Jornadas Hispano-Lusas de Geotecnia Sociedade
Portuguesa de Geotecnia. Lisboa, Portugal., pp. 277284.
Direccin General de Puertos y Costas. 1990. Acciones en
el proyecto de obras martimas y portuarias. Recomendaciones para obras martimas. ROM 0.2-90. Ministerio de
Obras Pblicas y Urbanismo. Espaa.
Direccin General de Puertos y Costas. 1994. Proyecto
y construccin de pavimentos portuarios. ROM 4.1-94.
Ministerio de Obras Pblicas y Urbanismo. Espaa.
EuroSoilStab. 2000. Design Guide Soft Soil Stabilisation
Development of design and construction methods to
stabilise soft organic soil.
GEO-SLOPE International Ltd. 1991. Slope/W. Version 5 for
slope stability analysis. Reference manual. Canada.
Ladd, C. 1991. Stability evaluation during staged construction. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. ASCE, Vol.
117, No4, pp. 540615.
Plaxis BV. 2002. Plaxis. Version 8.1. Finite element code for
soil and rock analysis. Reference manual. Netherland.

538

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Slope stability and landslide

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

A new method for slope stability analysis of foundation pit due to


groundwater seepage
Guoxing Chen & Chunzhong Li
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing, P. R. China

Youwei Fan
Nanjing Institute of Surveying, Mapping & Geotechnical Investigation, Co. Ltd., Nanjing, P.R. China

ABSTRACT: The ground water seepage has great influence on the slope stability of foundation pit on soft
sites contained plenty water. In this paper, a new method is proposed to estimate the excavation slope stability
considering the ground water seepage, which is based on the mechanism of seepage action to the slope soils and
the theory of strength reduction elastoplastic FEM by coupling the seepage field and stress field. In this new
method, the universal software ABAQUS is used to simulate the seepage field and analyze the slope stability
by adjusting the magnitude of the shear strength reduction coefficient F continuously. Then by a simplified
example, a comparison is done to verify the new method more reasonable than the three common calculation
methods. From the results, it is found that this new method mentioned above can exactly predict the shape and
position of the potential slip surface of foundation pit slope, and is especially simple and exercisable to describe
the properties of seepage field and the influence of seepage force.

INTRODUCTION

The problems of ground water are unavoidable during


the excavation of foundation pit engineering in soft
sites contained plenty water, which bring great influence to the stability of foundation pit. According to
Yeqing Tang et al. (1999), the engineering accidents
induced by the ground water take the 22% proportion
in all foundation pit accidents.
So the influence of ground water seepage cant be
neglected in the checking computations of slope safety
factor. At present, based on the theory of Bishop Slices
method for the stability analysis of soil slope, the common calculation methods considering the ground water
seepage were proposed on different simple assumptions. But the interaction mechanisms between the
soils and the ground water are not very consistent
with the actual cases of foundation pit engineering in
these methods. It might take hidden troubles to the
engineering once these methods were used in design.
Hence a new method, which can most well analyze
the slope stability of foundation pit due to the ground
water seepage, is very important and valuable for
engineering design.
The slope stability analysis of foundation pit is
much complicated compared to this in the soil slope,
as the supported structures and dewatering measures
are mostly adopted in foundation pit engineering. The

analytic solution already cant well solve these problems. With the development of finite element theory,
it is available to solve these problems. In this paper,
based on the strength reduction elastoplastic FEM theory, a new computation method for the slope stability
analysis of foundation pit was proposed to analyze the
slope stability of foundation pit during the dewatering
and excavation by the universal software ABAQUS. It
is proved that this method is reasonable and feasible
by contrast with the common methods.
2 THE SIMPLIFIED CALCULATION
METHODS OF SLOPE SAFETY FACTOR
CONSIDERING SEEPAGE
2.1 Hydraulic pressure method
The hydraulic pressure method (Jiazheng Pan, 1980)
assumes that the water pressure of any point equals to
the product of the height of this point to the water level
with the water unit weight in the soil mass. That is to
say, the water pressure is linear distribution with the
depth. As shown in Figure 1, the pore water pressures
of ad and bc boundaries are triangle distribution, where
Pai = w .ha , Pbi = w .hb ; and the pore water pressure
of slip surface cd is orthogonal to the side cd, whose
component force in vertical directory is the buoyancy
of water. On the assumption that the water pressure is

541

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

surface. On the basis of Bishop Method, the calculation


formula of safety factor of slope in this method is

bi

b
Fs =

hb

1
cos i +

As this method takes the most disadvantage case


to calculate the safety factor, it is an approximate
calculation method, which need more research.

Wi
c

ha

[ci bi + (Wi + fi sin i ui bi )tgi ]



(3)
Wi sin i + fi cos2 i

tgi sin i
Fs

Pbi
i
Pai

Pcdi

Figure 1. The distribution of hydraulic water pressure.

only in the horizon, the magnitude of hydraulic gradient will be the sine of the tangent angle of phreatic
surface, viz. sin i . On the basis of Bishop Method,
the calculation formula of slope safety factor in the
hydraulic pressure method considering seepage is

1
[ci bi + (Wi ui bi ) tgi ]
tg  sin i
Fs =

cos i +

Fs
Wi sin i + fi cos i

(1)

Here, Fs is the safety factor of slope, fi is the composite


force of every soil slice in horizon, c and  are the
effective shear strength indexes of soils, Wi is the soil
slice weight, ui is the pore water pressure, the other
signs as shown in Figure 1.
2.2

Replaced unit weight method

The basic thought of replaced unit weight method is


explained that the saturated unit weight of soils is
taken to calculate the sliding force and the effective
unit weight is used to calculate the resistant sliding
force. On the basis of Bishop Method, the calculation
formula of safety factor of slope in this method is

1
[ci bi + (W1i + W2i )tgi ]
tg  sin i
Fs =

cos i +

i
Fs

Wi sin i

(2)

Where, W1i is the unit weight of slice soil upwards


the water level, W2i is the effective unit weight of
slice soil below the water level. This method is also
effective stress method in essence. In calculation, the
effective stress indexes c and  were used. Although
this method is easy to handle, it only can be used when
the gradient of water free surface is not precipitous.
Otherwise, there will mush error in the Fs calculation
result, which is unsafe.
2.3

Method of considering most disadvantage


influence of seepage force

In this method it assumes that the seepage force


directly drives the soil to slide along the slipping

3.1

Introduction of theory basis and method

3.1.1 The concept of strength reduction coefficient


The concept of strength reduction coefficient was first
proposed by Zienkiewicz etc. (1975). It was defined
as the ratio between the biggest magnitude of shear
strength generated by the soil mass of slope with
the practical shear stress applied by the outer loads.
According to this concept, the safety factor of strength
reservation is consistent with the safety factor of stability defined in limit equilibrium method (Bishop
1955) in essence. The basal theory of strength reduction is introduced that first an arbitrary value (normally
between the zero and one) is given to the reduction
coefficient F, then by dividing the soil strength indexes
c and with the reduction coefficient F, a new group
of strength parameters, c and will be gained, then
using these new soil strength parameters to handle
numerical test calculation. The iteration calculation
will not be stopped until the state of soil mass satisfies the conditions of present critical state principle
for failure of foundation pit, the corresponding F will
be regarded as the minimum safety factor of the soil
slope. Here, parameter c and are individually gained
by formula [4] and [5]. And elastic modulus E, Poissons ratio and coefficient of permeability of soils
are supposed as constant, not changing with c and .
c=

c
F

= arctg

(4)


1
tan
F


(5)

3.1.2 Coupled pore water diffusion and stress


analysis
In this paper, ABAQUS software was used to simulate
the coupled pore water diffusion and stress analysis
problem in dewatering and excavation engineering of
foundation pit. In the simulation, the completion of
coupling action was implemented by taking the analysis results of seepage field as the loads of stress

542

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

STRENGTH REDUCTION ELASTOPLASTIC


FEM FOR STABILITY ANALYSIS OF
FOUNDATION PIT CONSIDERING
SEEPAGE

field, where the effective stress method was used, taking the slipping soil frame as the research object and
regarding the water as the continuous medium in the
pore. The pore water pressure is total stress including
the hydraulic pressure and seepage pressure. Its basis
theory is as fallows:
The stress equilibrium equation about the seepageconsolidation coupling problem can be expressed in
the effective stress term as
= + uw I

(6)

Where, is the effective stress, is the total stress,


uw is the average of pore water pressure, is the coefficient determined by test, commonly taking = Sr ,
here Sr is the saturation, I is the direction vector.
Under the small deformation suppose, the geometric equation can be expressed as:


uj
1 ui
+
ij =
(7)
2 xj
xi
And more, the strain can be decomposed as
d = (dgvol + dwvol )I + d el + d pl

(8)

Here, dgvol and dwvol are the volume incremental


strains of soil grains and water, d el and d pl are the
elastic incremental strain and plastic incremental strain
of soils.
The continuity differential equation of pore water is
(w n)
+ (w n vw ) + Q = 0
(9)
t
Where, w is the density of water, n is the porosity of
soils, vw is the pore water seepage velocity, Q is the
supply of ground water.
Combined with the Darcys law, the equation of pore
water velocity can be expressed as


uw
k

w g
w =
(10)
Sr nw g
x

3.1.3 Fem numerical simulation using abaqus


software
ABAQUS software has the function to simulate the
development of stress and strain of soil mass and the
interaction between water and soils. According to this,
a numerical simulation model was carried on by this
software.
(1) The choice of yield criterion
The shear strength of soils is the critical one among
the many factors which have great disadvantageous influence to slope stability. The soil mass
of slope will be in stable state unless the maximum shear stress comes to the limit magnitude.
So, the ideal elastoplastic model and the MohrCoulomb yield criterion were taken to solve the
slope stability problem in strength reduction FEM.
The Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion is written as


1
1
I1 sin cos + sin sin
3
3

J2 + c cos = 0
(12)
Where, I1 is the first invariant of stress tensor, J2
is the second invariant of stress partial tensor,
is the stress Rode angle, is the angle of soil
internal friction, c is the cohesion of soil. Because
the Mohr-Coulomb model in ABAQUS uses a
smooth plastic flow potential, it does not always
provide the same plastic behavior as a classical
Mohr-Coulomb model.
(2) The choice of flow criterion
It is determined on the dilation angle, , choosing the associated flow criterion or unassociated
flow criterion for yield equation. When choosing
= , it is associated flow criterion; otherwise it
is unassociated flow criterion. The plastic potential
equation in Mohr-Coulomb model is written as

Where, k is the hydraulic conductivity, g is the gravitational acceleration (assumed constant and in a fixed
direction).
Substituting the formulas (7)(10) to formula (6),
the stress equilibrium equation of coupled pore water
diffusion and stress analysis problem in the term of
variation by the principle of virtual work is



( uw I ) : dV = t.vds + f .vdV
V
S
V

+ Sr nw g.vdV (11)
V

Where, f are body forces (excluding water weight) per


unit volume, = sym(v/x) is the virtual rate of
deformation, v is a virtual velocity field, t are surface
tractions per unit area.

543

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

m sin +


 
sin sin
J2 cos
= constant

3
(13)

Where, m is the average normal stress. When the


magnitude of is 0, there has no shear dilation; but
when the magnitude of is equal to , there has
the biggest shear dilation. In total, the failure load
magnitude gained by unassociated flow criterion is
less than that by associated flow criterion. However
unassociated flow criterion can reduce the shear
dilation only in a certain extent, but the adoption
of magnitude is optional, which will increase
the magnitude errors between the calculation soil
parameters with the practical soil parameters (Yingren Zheng etc. 2002). Upon the general analysis
above, the associated flow criterion, was adopted
to carry out the calculation, viz. taking = .

1.65
1.60

Safety Factor Fs

1:
m

1.55

= 20.1 kN/m3
c = 34.8 kPa
=19

1.50
1.45
1.40

method 1
method 2
method 3
method 4

1.35
1.30
1.25
1.20
1.15

Figure 2. The sketch figure of the excavation slope.

1.10
0

3.2

Contrast analysis by a simplified example

In order to make sure the influence of seepage action


to slope stability of foundation pit, a simplified foundation pit model, as shown in figure 2, was taken to
carry out numerical analysis. The basic conditions are
as follows: the soil is ideal homogeneous, the height of
slope is 10 meters, the water lever lies in h (h is a variable)meters to the top of slope, the ratio of the slope

2.00
1.95
1.90
1.85
1.80
1.75
1.70
1.65
1.60
1.55
1.50
1.45
1.40
1.35
1.30
1.25
1.20

method 1
method 2
method 3
method 4

The Height of Water Level(m)


(b) m=2

Figure 3. The safety factors calculated in the four methods


under different water levels.

Figure 4. The flow velocity of soil seepage field.

is one to m(m is a variable). A contrast analysis of the


four methods introduced above was done to research
the influence of seepage to slope stability in foundation pit, the results are shown in figure 3, figure 4
and 5. Where method 1 stands for hydraulic pressure method; method 2 stands for replaced unit weight
method; method 3 stands for method of considering
most disadvantage influence of seepage force; method
4 stands for the new method proposed by this paper.
From the curves of figure 3, it can be found that
(1) With the water head decrease, the safety factors
are continually increasing. When the water head is
rather high, the calculation results of four methods
have much difference, but that becomes smaller at

544

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

The Height of Water Level(m)


(a) m=1

Safety Factor Fs

(3) The criterion of slope stability based on dynamic


manifestation of soil generalized plastic strain by
ABAQUS
The plastic strain shows the residual component
of all deformation in the yielding or damage soil
mass. The generation and development of plastic strain indicates the extent of soil mass yield
or breakage. So the plastic strain can describe the
state of soil mass in essence. It is reasonable to taking the development of plastic strain as the slope
stability criterion. But how to calculate the magnitude of plastic strain and describe the development
has been a big obstacle to this problem before.
Nowadays the universal software ABAQUS can be
used to solve this problem well, which has strong
post treatment function. In ABAQUS, the calculation results of generalized plastic strain can be
exactly expressed by the access of nephogram,
which clearly show the magnitude and the development of generalized plastic strain and the position
of plastic zone. During the simulation of strength
reduction FEM, first a value is assigned to the
reduction coefficient; then by the numerical calculation of ABAQUS, the results are gained, from the
display of generalized plastic strain in nephogram
it can be easily found whether the soil mass has
been in the critical state; if not, increasing the
reduction coefficient to continue the calculation.
With the dynamic manifestation of the soil generalized plastic strain in ABAQUS software, it can be
regarded as the critical state of slope stability when
plastic strain zone has run-through to the top and
the generalized plastic strain with the displacement
appear infinite development. Then this reduction
coefficient will be defined as the minimum safety
factor of the slope.

unsafe to calculate the safety factor of slope when


the water head is high.
(3) The results calculated by method 4, which considers the practical distribution of pore water
pressure, are smaller than those of method 1 and
a little bigger than those of method 3. This provides that the non-linear distribution of pore water
pressure is more disadvantageous compared with
the simplified linear distribution in foundation pit
engineering. And more, this disadvantage influence increases with the water head. So the real
distribution terms of pore water pressure must be
considered in the calculation of stability in the
foundation pit engineering.

(a) reduction coefficient F=0.900

Moreover, the figure 4 and figure 5 show us that the


new method proposed by this paper can well stimulate
the coupling action between soils and water, and visually describe the process of soil slope damage, which
gives great help to find out the mechanism of slope
damage. In addition, more explanation should be done
to the plastic zone beside the right boundary in figure
5. The appearance of this case mainly owes to the size
of model region. It will disappear if the calculation
region is defined enough big.

(b) reduction coefficient F=1.080

CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, on the base of slope stability theory and


the coupled pore water diffusion and stress analysis,
a new method called strength reduction elastoplastic
FEM was proposed to calculate the safety factor of
foundation pit considering the seepage action by the
software ABAQUS. From the contrast with the other
three safety factor calculation methods, it is proved
that the new method is more reasonable than the other
three methods in the stability safety factor calculation
of foundation pit. The new method can exactly predict
the shape and position of the potential slip surface
of foundation pit slope, and is especially simple and
exercisable to describe the properties of seepage field
and the influence of seepage force.

(c) reduction coefficient F=1.120

REFERENCES
(d) reduction coefficient F=1.162

Figure 5. The nephogram of plastic strain development in


soil slope at the slope ratio m = 1 and water level h = 0.

a lower water head. That indicates that the seepage action has much disadvantage influence on
the slope stability. So the seepage action cant be
ignored in the calculation of stability safety factor
in foundation pit engineering.
(2) The safety factors calculated by replaced unit
weight method are obviously bigger than those of
the other three methods, as it doesnt consider the
seepage action. It can be affirmed that it is partially

YeqingTang, Qimin Li and Jiangyu Cui et al.TheAnalysis and


Solutions about Foundation Pit Accidents [M]. Beijing:
China Architecture and Building Press, 1999.4
Bishop A W. The Use of the Slip Circle in the Stability
Analysis of Slopes [J]. Geostechnique, 1955(5): 717.
Jiazheng Pan. Analysis of Building anti-slide Stability and
Slide Slope (fiest edition) [M]. Beijing: Water Press, 1980.
Zienkiewicz O C, Humpheson C and Lewis R W. Associated
and Non-Associated Visco-Plasticity and Plasticity in Soil
Mechanics [J]. Geostechnique, 1975, 25(4): 671689.
Yingren Zheng, Zhujiang Shen and Xiaonan Gong.
Generalized Plastic Mechanics-The Principles of Geotechnical Plastic Mechanics [M]. Beijing: China Architecture
and Building Press, 2002.11.

545

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

A simplified method for stability analysis of reinforced embankments


Y.H. Chen, T. Zhang & X.H. Ma
Geotechnical Research Institute, Hohai University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P R China

Y.Q. Zhou
The headquarters of northern line of city ring expressway of Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province

M.J. Gao & C.C. Gu


Geotechnical Research Institute, Hohai University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P R China

ABSTRACT: Currently, Swedish method or Dutch method, as well as their revised versions, have been commonly used to estimate the stability of the embankments reinforced by geotextile or other geosynthetic material.
In the stability analysis using these methods, the presence of geotextile is modeled as a resisting force on the
sliding surface, which would generate an additional resisting moment against sliding. In such way, the functions
of geotextile reinforcement are hard to be completely modeled, and this would result in an underestimation
of the safety of the embankment engineering. In addition, numerical analysis of embankment stability such as
finite element method needs much workload. In order to improve it, a new simplified method for the stability
analysis of reinforced embankments is proposed in this paper. The method takes into account both the effect of
the resisting force generated from the reinforcement material on the stability and the changes of the soils stress
and strain states due to reinforcement. These are modeled approximately by using an increasing soil strength
resulting from reinforcement. The assumptions and simplifications made for the calculation of increasing soil
strength are described. It has been shown from case study that compared with the Swedish or Holland method,
the proposed method can reflect reasonably the reinforcement effect, while compared with the finite element
method, it is a bit conservative.

INTRODUCTION

Stability analysis of reinforced embankments is an


emphasis process in reinforced structure design, thus
more studies should be performed not only on design,
but also on engineering practice, to enhance the design
accuracy, reliability and economy. There are many
failure modes of reinforced embankments; different
ground conditions, reinforced types and engineering
condition can induce different failure models. Circular
rotational slides usually occur in reinforced embankments on deep soft ground. There are many analysis
methods of circular rotational slides on reinforced
embankments, however, according to the current studies, the most accurate and simplified method has not
been found because of the analysis method of circular
rotational slides because the theory is behind of the
engineering practice.
In engineering field, the popularized slip circle
analysis methods are still Sweden method and Dutch
method. They both are based on limiting equilibrium
theory and the only difference between them is the
assumption of direction of resistance against sliding

is different, so the difference of the calculation results


is small. Only considering tension force of geotextile at sliding surface in those two methods, it can not
completely reflect the reinforce behavior of geotextile.
Obviously, the safety of project is underestimated.
Finite element method (FEM) can simulate the
actual construction process and also the interaction
between geotextile and soil. If the right model is
applied, the stress and deformation can be simulated
accurately. Applying the reinforced constitutive model
and computational method (Chen and Zhao 2002), the
result is accorded with the actual conditions. However, FEM is very complicated and huge workload is
required. Furthermore, because of so many parameters
are required during calculations, more tests must be
conducted to achieve them. The existing model can not
completely simulate the engineering behavior of soil
and currently there is no reliable criterion to access the
FEM results. All above influence FEM popularization
in engineering practice.
In this paper, the safety factor method for circular
slides of reinforced embankment is improved and simplified. Based on the assumptions and simplifications,

547

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

a new simplified slip circle method of reinforced


embankments is proposed. Some benefits on research
and design are expected in this field. The computational results are also compared with the Sweden
Method and Holland Method. Compared with the
FEM, the results of the simplified method in this
paper is more conservative and compared with Sweden
Method and Holland Method, it is more reasonable.
Therefore, it can be widely applied in engineering
practice.

Figure 1. Induced force destitution.

2 THE CONCEPT OF STRENGTH


INCREASING AND SOLUTION OF
EQUIVALENT FRICTIONAL INDUCED
STRESS

h1

In this paper, besides the resistance force is considered


in the proposed simplified method, reinforced effect of
geotextile on stability is also considered. After reinforced, the soil shall be affected by the frication and
restriction of geotextile, thereby the soil force condition will be changed. The effect is corresponded to
increase soil shear strengthen.
In this paper, the friction of geotextile on soil is
equivalent to lateral stress or confining stress from
external force action, so the lateral stress is defined
as equivalent frictional induced stress. In this paper,
the equivalent frictional induced stress is applied to
replace the friction between soil and geotextile.
For reinforced soil elements, the frication of geotextile can be reflected as equivalent frictional induced
stress, under limiting states, it indicates the increasing
of strengthen of soil. In this case, the heights of soil elements could be regarded as the heights of soil slices,
which could also be generalized from small dimensional soil elements to soil slices, i.e. besides under
the other forces, the soil body of soil slices comprised
geotextile is also under induced stress from geotextile.
Since the height is not small any more, the induced
force distributes along the height is not uniform, but
changes, as shown in Figure 1. The soil within the geotextile laying area and the soil above (h1) and below
(h2) it could be divided into soil slices, see Figure 2.
Analysis on the slice i, if reinforced soil slice and normal soil slice are all under the force Xi and Zi, there
is an additional lateral force, Xadsi inside reinforced
soil slice, compared with the normal soil slice. According to force equivalent and neglecting the thickness of
geotextile, therefore, Xadsi = Ti , Ti denotes the tension
force of geotextile in slice i. We obtain:

adsi dz = Ti
(1)
Since the induced force distribution along the height
is complicated, to simplify it, we can assume that the
induced force is maximum closed to geotextile and null

adsi

h2

Figure 2. Soil slice dividing.

at h1i, above the geotextile and h2i , below the geotextile, and is linear distribution in between, as shown in
Figure 1.
According to the assumption, the induced force can
be obtained from equation (1):
above geotextile,
adsi =

(2)

below geotextile,
adsi =

2Ti
h
(1
)
h1i + h2i
h2i

(3)

Where h is the distance from soil element to geotextile.


Ti and h1i, h2i should be obtained before solution to
the induced stress. The tension force of geotextile is
induced from friction of soil body, as shown in Figure
3 at coordinate x, the increment of tension force along
dx is dT(x):
dT (x) = 2(crs + n tan rs )dx

(4)

Where, crs and rs are cohesion and friction angle of


between applied soil and geotextile. The vertical stress
is given by the expression: n = r(1 ru )f (x), f (x) is
function of the top line of embankment, ris the unit
weight of fill material, ru is pore pressure ratio and
equals to u/rz while considering the pore pressure in
the fill material, T0 is tension force at original point

548

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2Ti
h
(1
)
h1i + h2i
h1i

T
left

right
heght of dam

Tf
from right

z=f(x)

Tmax

T0

T(X)

from left
X

T(x)+dT(x)

Figure 3. The sketch of solution of tension force of geotextile.

of reinforcement. Therefore, the tension force at x is


given by:


T (x) = T0 +

dT (x) = T0 + 2

(crs + r(1 ru ) f (x) tan rs )dx

(5)

From the above equation, the curve of the tension force


of geotextile, T(x) can be calculated, see Figure 3.
Since there are several parameters in equation (5), such
as the applied cohesion and friction angle are related
to the characteristic of soil and geotextile. From the
results of FEM, it can be seen that tension force of
geotextile is distribution and the shape of the curve
is changed along with the filling and consolidation
process, it can not be simulated with simple function.
Therefore, it is assumed that, in normal state, f (x) is a
first-order or constant function, and in limiting state,
the applied cohesions and friction angles are always the
same and the effect of pore pressure can be neglected,
then equation (5) becomes a second-order function:
T (x) = A + Bx + Cx2

(6)

When f (x) is constant, C in above equation will be


0, i.e. T(x) is linear distribution. To avoid too many
parameters influence the applicability, assuming T(x)
is linear distribution, the FEM results of the induced
force calculation in this paper is reasonable while the
deformation of geotextile minor. If it too large, other
assumptions should be followed.
From FEM results, the maximum tension force
occurs at symmetrical axes, which is a firm position
and consistent with practice. Thus, during stability
evaluation, the tension force from geotextile should be
calculated according to the real position of the sliding
surface. However, from the analysis of limiting state,
the maximum tension force could occur at the intersection of sliding slope and geotextile, because at that
position the direction of tension force in both sides of
geotextile are different. Therefore the maximum force
should be at this position while the sliding slope is
selected. In fact, in the cases of one or two reinforced
layers, according to slip circle, the position of sliding

surface of minimum safety factor is also near to symmetrical axes. The results of above two methods are
close, so any one may be applied. In this paper, both
methods are used to compute the applied position of
maximum tension force, the differences are minor. The
magnitude of maximum tension force may be accord
with the magnitude of resistance force. T0 is based on
the results of FEM, it is 0 while there is no pre-tension
force and it is approximate to pre-tension force while
there is pre-tension force. According to above analysis
and assumption, tension force of geotextile in the any
soil slices can be computed.
In the eq.(5), h1i and h2i refer to the upper and
under soil influence range of the geotexile. There is
few research report about the reinforced range of the
geotexile, so its a complicated research and can be
analyzed using FEM method. The elastic mechanics
method can be used to give an approximate calculation when the FEM resources are scarce. Because the
additional stress is induced by the friction between the
geotexile with the soil foundation, the horizontal additional stress caused by the friction can be solved using
the elastic mechanical formula. For the exterior liner
load performed on the half-elastic foundation space,
the additional stress formula is following:
x =

(7)

Its supposed that the distribution form of the horizontal friction of the reinforced material, such as the
trapezoid, rectangle, triangle form Reference [4], after,
do the integral according the formula Reference [7],
we can obtain the horizontal additions stress in all
points of the ground, when compare to the original
horizontal stress, the additional stress is very small in
certain depth, supposes the depth is h2i, after the elastic
analysis of the symmetric three axial test, obtains the
influence depth (in view of shearing stress influence)
of the reinforce z is in the follow solution:
3(3 )f
z = 2R
(8)
16(2 )
In the formula, m is Poisson ratio of the soil, f is the
friction factor between the soil and the geotextile, 2R

549

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2qx3
(x2 + z 2 )2

is the length of the geotextile. Under the condition of


plane strain, the reference shows that z is not beyond
0.3B, and effect depth is between 0.20 and 0.30 of the
width of dam bottom. by FEM calculation.
Based on the following calculations, h2i value has
little influence to the safety factor when the maximum
tension force is conformed, and h2i can be adopted
by the any method. The total calculating depth can be
used for the h2i value when the depth of the foundation
is not large. The total filling height can be adapted to
the h1i value when the upper filling height is not so
large. And it can be adopted by the method like the h2i
value when the filling height is large.
Once depth of influence and the tension force is
determined, additional stress of equation (3) and equation (4) can be obtained, that is, additional stress adsi
of any soil element of slice i. If the result of slice i is
extended to any slice, additional stress of any spot of
reinforced incidence should be calculated. Strength of
soil is increased because of the effect of additional
stress. Towards to the soil element of the spot of x
and from which to geotextile the distance is h, when
it achieves to the state of limit without reinforced, the
Mohr-Coulomb criteria is

1f = 3 Kp + 2c Kp
(9)
where Kp is coefficient of passive pressure,
Kp = tan2 (45 + /2), c and is strength parameter
of soil mass that is not reinforced. When soil is reinforced, state of stress is changed and additional stress
ad occurs. It is assumed that the direction of additional stress is consistent with minor principal stress,
eqution(9) is rewritten as

1f = (3 + ads )Kp + 2c Kp
ads  
= 3 Kp + 2(c +
Kp ) Kp
(10)
2
For soil lying below geotextile, it is obtained by
substituting equation(3) into equation(10)
1f = 3 Kp + 2[c +

Tx
h  
(1
) Kp ] Kp (11)
h1x + h2x
h2x

It is assumed that Tx, h1x and h2x have no direct relations with stress from equation (9) and (11). When
soil mass is reinforced, angle of internal friction of
soil element is constant, while cohesion is increased.
The increase is given as
c =

h 
Tx
(1
) Kp
h1x + h2x
h2x

(12)

Also, when soil lies on the top of the geotextile, the


strength increase of reinforced soil element is obtained
as
h 
Tx
(1
) Kp
(13)
c =
h1x + h2x
h1x

From the above analysis it comes to know that the


geotexitile not only provide the capacity of gliding,
but also cause the strength increasing. A program
of reinforce geotextile glide is given, which consider
the equation 12 and 13 with strength increasing. The
program is based on the current Swedish method or
Bishop method program yy.for with some correction.
For an reinforced embankments, first confirm the
influence area, then the function of h1 and h2 , later
the function of pull force. Follow the same way of
conventional sliding curve method, as a straitness soil
element, when the soil element, the i element for an
example, flow into the reinforce area, take the X coordinate of the symmetry axis of the soil element into
the equation of h1 or h2 and pull force T to acquire
the increasement, which is added to the bottom of
the sliding curve, is taken as the frictional angle of
the bottom soil. When the bottom of the soil element
flow in the reinforce area, re-divide the soil element
to make sure all the soil elements flow in or out the
reinforce area, then increase the strength of soil in this
area. When the soil element flow in different layers,
re-divide the soil element to make sure all of the soil
lay in the same layer, to take the X coordinate and frictional angle respectively. The moment caused by resist
sliding force is added to the resist force moments, the
direction can be chosen as the horizontal or the tangent direction. The maximum pull force can be given
first, for a given position or the point of intersection
of curve and geotexile, varying with the position of
curve automatically.
3.1 A real project
A simple embankment with 15 m calculating depth is
calculated by the compiled program termed yyg.for
based on the above method. Because the height of the
embankment is not high, the top line is chosen for h1.
According to the FEM results, the maximum influenced depth is 12.5 m. And h2 value is showed from
Fig.4. Take account of the biggish influence of the
enforcement under the perpendicular line through the
toe to the lateral displacement of the soil element, the
comparative calculations are also performed with h2
value chosen from Fig.5.
For the convenient compare with the routine Dutch
method and Sweden method, its assumed that the
position of maximum tension force was the intersection of the slide slope with the geotexile, and had
liner distributing. The prestressing force T0 = 2 kN/m
is used.
The parameters of the muddy salty clay, sand layer
in the foundation and filling materials are following:

550

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SIMPLIFIED SLIP CIRCLE METHODS


CONSIDERING GEOTEXTILE STRENGTH
INCREMENT AND A CASE STUDY

Muddy salty clay: the natural density r = 18.7 kN/m3,


the ground lever is near the ground surface,
ccu = 6.0 kPa, cu = 15.0 , the consolidation degree
immediately after the consolidating load is 20%;
Sand layer: the natural density r = 18.0 kN/m3,
cu = 30.0 ;
Filling material: r = 19.0 kN/m3,c = 15.0 kPa,
cu = 20.0
According the parameters, the safety factor
(Fs = 0.947) is calculated by Swedish method while
the embankments have not been reinforced at the end

Figure 4. Enforcement range 1.

Figure 5. Enforcement range 2.

of loaded(210 days). For the project reinforced by


geotextile with soft materials, according to the scene
damage observation, supposing the pulling force and
the circular arc contacts is more reasonable[6], namely
using the improvement Dutch method to calculate, in
fact the result difference is extremely small through the
Swedish method and the Dutch method; In this article
makes the contrast calculation with the Dutch method.
For the size of the resisting force of geotextile, there
are many works can be referred, the article [7] suggests the pulling force can take the ultimate strength
0.50.6 time in this project, this article doesnt do the
key research regarding this; we may select according
to the design request or other literature suggestions.
This article has listed the calculated result when using
different pulling force. Like the table one shows. From
the table one we can see that two results are similar by
using Dutch method and Swedish method. In contrast,
the result using the Dutch method is slightly bigger
than using Swedish method, this also appears more
reasonable. The safety factor was been enhanced from
3.2% to 8.4% by using the Dutch method reinforced,
it was been enhanced from 5.8% to 15% by using
this article method. Regardless of the multitudinous
actual resources, the model experiment or the theoretical analysis by finite element method, we can see
that the safety factor calculated by this article is more
reasonable than by using the Dutch method (Swedish
method), the safety factor can also reflect influence
function which geotextile to the stable.
If the resisting force against slip is taken as 40 kN/m,
namely, the total sum of additional stress is not
changed, and its spread scope is changed, safety factor
is respectively calculated from the effect depth h2 of
geotextile in ground to the ground calculation depth
15.0 m. the volume of safety factor is 1.050 to 1.060
and the change is small. It shows that the effect of
safety factor by the value of h2 in the certain scope is
remarkable. So, the several proposed method by the
paper is used approximately. If the value of h2 is still
taken as 12.5 m, the calculation according to the spread
style of the figure 5-17, the safety factor is 1.054. It
is almost same with the calculation according to the
spread style of the figure 4. The calculation result is
clearly affected by the two methods. In the former

Table 1. The calculation result of safety factor.


Resisting force T(kN/m)
Safety factor Fs

Reinforces Fs to
enhance the
percentage (%)
Note

20

25

30

Swedish method
0.975
0.982
0.989
Dutch method
0.977
0.985
0.992
This article method
1.002
1.015
1.028
Swedish method
3.0
3.7
4.5
Dutch method
3.2
4.0
4.8
This article method
5.8
7.2
8.5
Safety factor without reinforcement: Fs = 0.947;

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

35

40

45

50

55

0.996
1.000
1.040
5.2
5.6
9.8

1.002
1.007
1.052
5.9
6.3
11.1

1.009
1.014
1.064
6.5
7.0
12.4

1.014
1.020
1.077
7.1
7.7
13.7

1.020
1.027
1.089
7.7
8.4
15.0

calculation, the maximum resisting force is thought


to occur at the crossing of the circle and the geotextile. According to the calculation results of FEM, the
location is fixed in symmetry axle. The safety factor calculated by the method proposed in the paper is
10.5%, which is slightly less but the difference is little.
Because the location of the circle is near to symmetry axle. Based on the results, the effect on the safety
factor by the reinforcement effect scope is remarkable
less than the effect by the resisting force. So, when the
method proposed in the paper is used, the study focus
should be on the pulling force of geotextile the similar
to other methods.
4

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A simplified method for reinforced embankments is


proposed in this paper. The method considers not only
the influence of the anti-slide force to the safety, but
also the enhancement of soil strength induced by the
enforcement. The change of the stress-strain state due
to the geotextile is reflected by the variety of the soil
strength. The method has a simple calculating process based on the assumptions and simplifications. It
is assumed that the direction of the anti-slide force
was tangent with the arc, which can be regarded as
the modified Netherland method. And the Sweden
method can also be adopted for the anti-slide force
direction. According to the calculations of the real
case, for the different geotextile and anti-slide force,
the safety factor can be enhanced to 2.98.4% based
on the Netherland method, and its enhanced to 5.8
15.0% using the proposed method in this paper. The
method in this paper is relatively conservative for
the FEM results. From the numerous actual measurements, model tests and analytical solutions such as
FEM, the safety factor using the method of this paper
can reflect the influence of the geotextile to the safety
of the embankment, and it is more reasonable than the
Netherland method and the Sweden method.

Meanwhile, whether using the method of this paper


or not, the calculating results are greatly influenced by
the value of the anti-slide force. So, it is important to
know how to choose the anti-slide force for the real
projects. The in-situ failure tests are recommended to
perfect the design theory of the safety analysis for the
reinforced embankments.
REFERENCES
Chen, Y.H. 2000. Computational theory and methodology
studies on embankment ground improvement by geotextile. PhD thesis, Hohai University, Nanjing.
Chen,Y.H., Zhao, W.B. 2002. Constitutive law of a reinforced
composite soil structure. Journal of Water Resource.
Ding, J.H., Bao, C.G. 1999. Mechanical theory analysis of
reinforced composite soil. Proc. of the 8th Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Beijing, International Academic Publishing Company, pp.
441444.
Rowe, R. K., Soderman, K. L. 1985. An approximate method
for estimating the stability of geotextile-reinforced
embankments. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 22,
pp. 392398.
Wood, R. I., Jewell, R. A. 1990. A computer design method for
reinforced soil structure. Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
Vol. 9(3), pp. 233260.
Wu, J.H., Chen, H. 1999. Discussion on the paper: Limit
analysis of soft ground improvement by geosynthetic
material. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 21(4),
pp. 438443.
Xu, L.X. Composite analysis of reinforced underlayer by
geotextile. Zhejiang University, Hangzhou.
Xu, S.M. 1999. Reinforced effect and dimensional effect of
soft ground improvement by geotextile under embankments. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 21(1),
pp. 126128.
Zhao, J.Z. 1991. Analysis of ground improvement by geotextile and natural road embankment symmetrical failure.
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 13(2), pp.
7381.

552

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Stability analysis of expansive soil slope and its slope remedeations


R.Q. Huang & L.Z. Wu
National Laboratory of Geohazards Prevention, Chengdu University of Technology, China

ABSTRACT: It is easy to induce landslides for cut slope in expansive soil region, especially after lasting
rainfall. Its landslide characteristics are shallow layer and small scale. It is well known to us that Bishops
simplified method of slices and so on is used for calculating stability factor of common earth slope. Due to many
cracks and fissures occurring in the surface of the slope the strength in the superficial layer drops considerably.
Anisotropic mechanical behavior, on the other hand, is showed. In order to analyze these effects uniform cracks
are presumed to distribute in superficial layer of the slope, and inter-slide forces are changed. The slope, which
comprises the superficial part containing many cracks and the non-crack part, is divided into two layers. These
calculating results are compared and analyzed to indicate that cracks and fissures in superficial layers exert an
influence on the slope stability factor. Meanwhile, reinforcement measures for expansive soil cut slope are list
and compared. It is suggested that anchor frame beam be a good method for strengthening the slope, and that
more attentions be pay to research it.

INTRODUCTION

There are some particular kinds of soils formed due to


complex geological process. Expansive soil is a particular clay that possesses such characteristics as swelling
and shrinkage potential, crack and over-consolidation
(Linchang Miao et al. 2002), which endanger the slope
stability. Expansive soil, which leads to destruction,
can be found on almost all countries. It is easy to
induce landslides in shallow layer, especially after lasting rainfall. According to Steinberg, the annual loss
due to the damage caused by expansive soils is up to
100 million in China. There is an urgent demand to
improve our understanding of the fundamental behavior of expansive soil and design methodology for civil
engineering structure constructed on these soils (C. W.
W. Ng, et al. 2003).
There occur lots of shallow landsides during constructions including cutting and fills, especially after
lasting rainfalls. It is very easy to induce slips in superficial layers if cutting slopes have not been supported
in time. The backscarp of the landslides, the scale of
which is small, usually occurs in the middle of the
slopes, and seldom happens at the top of the slopes.
The toe is usually arcuate in shape.
The paper mainly discusses the slide types, and
researches the factor of safety of expansive soil slope
with Bishops method. And shallow slide characteristics will be analyzed in terms of stratification, crack of
expansive soil and ratio of slope. Finally strengthening
methods of expansive soil slopes are compared.

According to main controlling factors landslides in


expansive soil regions can be divided into three types
of slides as follows: 1) The landslides due to burial
fracture plane. When the incline of macro-fracture
plane (including slide fracture plane etc.) is identical to that of slope working surface, unloading lateral
earth pressure of the free face makes shearing stress of
macro-fracture plane increase. And infiltration of rainwater softens the fracture plane, as leads to slide along
the fracture plane and final breakage. Slippage depth is
about 5.0 meters with slide plane of beeline or irregular
curve. This kind of landslide belongs to deep-seated
ones. 2) Arc progressive slope failure: after cut slopes
are cut lateral soil resistance is unloaded so as to cause
rebound deformation. Meanwhile, shearing stress concentration is formed at the slope toe, while tension
stress occurs at the top of the slope (from the middle to the slope top) due to free surface displacement.
Owing to rainfall or water label change of groundwater the strength of expansive soil drops. Local failures
of the slope lead to the results that shearing stress
exceeds shearing strength of expansive soil. Occurrence of the local failure zone gives rise to gradual
spread of shearing stress concentration zone. With the
development of progressive failure two failure planes
are connected and finally form a continuous slide plane
in an arc. Therefore multi-step progressive slips are
formed. Depth of the kind of failure is usually from

553

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

LANDSLIDE CHARACTERISTICS IN
EXPANSIVE SOIL REGIONS

1.5 meters to 5.0 meters, which always occurs at high


cut slope. 3) Superficial slide. Wetting-drying cycles
trigger repeating swelling and shrinkage, and many
cracks and fissures are produced, as leads to distinct
weakening of the strength. Growth of cracks speeds
up infiltration of rainwater into the slope, and effective strength rapidly drops. Finally superficial slides
arise. The kind of slides usually happens with a high
frequency and a small scale, slide depth of which is no
more than 1.5 meters.
Figure 1. Bishops method.

BISHOPS SIMPLIFIED METHOD

The most usual methods of providing an analysis of


stability of slopes in cohesive soil are based on a consideration of limiting equilibrium. It analyses the slope
stability in terms of static and moment balance. It is
assumed that the factor of safety of each slice is equal
to the average of that of all the slice surfaces.
In Bishops stability analysis of earth slopes by the
method of slices considering parallel interslice forces.
Besides the inter-slice forces, there are the body weight
Wi of the ith slice, the normal effective reacting force
at the base of the slice N i , the shear resistance T i along
the base and pore pressure ui li , as shown in Figure 1.
For equilibrium along the vertical direction of the
slice (Bishop A. W,1960)
Wi + Xi T i sin i N i cos i ui li cos i = 0 (1)
or N i cos i = Wi + Xi T i sin i ui li cos i
T i =

fi li
c  li
tan 
=
+ N i
Fs
Fs
Fs

For equilibrium in a vertical direction,




1
c  li

sin i
Wi + Xi ui b
Ni =
m i
Fs
tan 
sin i
Fs


T i R = 0
W i xi
m i = cos i +


Then FS =

1
[c b
m i i i

(2)
(3)

(4)

(5)
(6)

+ (Wi ui b + Xi )tg  ]



(7)
Wi sin i

It is proved that assuming Xi = 0 will only result


in about 1% error to the factor of safety. Thus Fs may
be given by

FS =

+ (Wi ui b)tg  ]

Wi sin i

1
[c b
m i i i

(8)

According to test data strength parameters of


expansive soil are c = 16.16 kPa,  = 17 for
non-weathering layer, = 20 kN/m3 ; c = 10 kPa,
 = 12 , = 20 kN/m3 for weathering layer. The
paper calculates the factor of safety according to
stratification, ratio of slope and crack.

4.1 Effect of stratification of expansive soil


slope
It is well known to all that strength of expansive
soil suffers from the weather. Several wetting-drying
cycles result in weakening of the shallow layer strength
of the slope. Table 1 is calculating results of stability
factors of superficial and deep slides. The depth of
weathering layer is assumed as 2 meters (See Figure 2)
because the air influence depth for the kind of expansive soil is from 2.0 to 2.5 meters. If no stratification is
assumed strength parameters of non-weathering layer
are used for calculating the coefficient of safety.
In Fig. 2 Slide 1 is the shallow gliding mass, and
Slide 2 is the deep gliding mass. If no stratification
is assumed factor of safety for Slide 1 (or superficial
layer) is 1.98, and the one for deep slope is 1.48. Factors
of safety for superficial and deep gliding masses are
respectively 1.36 and 1.48 if stratification is assumed.
The results indicates that it is likely to slide in deep
slide plane under no stratification, and that it is possible to slide in superficial layer if stratification is
considered. In fact there generally occur superficial
slips in expansive soil areas. Therefore stratification
must be considered for calculating stability factors of
expansive soil slopes.

4.2 Effect of ratio of slope


In expansive soil region 1:1.75 ratio of slope is permitted by the Code. The paper analyzes the effects of
ratio of slope on the factor of safety. The calculated
results can be seen in Table 2. When ratio of slope is
1:1 stability factor of Slide 1 (or shallow gliding mass)

554

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CALCULATING RESULTS

Table 1. Stability factor of expansive soil slope with ratio


of slope of 1:1.75.

Table 3. Effect of crack depth on the stability factor of


superficial slide mass.

Work condition

Stratification

Non-stratification

Crack depth/m

Factor of safety

Fs of Slide 1
Fs of Slide 2

1.36
1.47

1.98
1.488

0
0.5
1.0
1.5

1.079
1.03
0.991
0.988

Saturation Line

Frame beam

Weathering Layer

Non Weathering Layer

1------Shallow gliding mass

2------Deep gliding mass


Anchor

Figure 2. Profile of stratified expansive soil slope.


Table 2.

Effect of ratio of slope on the stability factor.

Ratio of slope

Fs of Slide 1

Fs of Slide 2

1:1
1:1.75
1:2

1.079
1.364
1.473

1.229
1.480
1.600

Sand-cement grout
Expansive soil slope

Figure 3. Diagrammatic sketch of anchor frame beam.

is 1.079, and stability factor of Slide 2 is 1.229. However factor of safety for Slide 1 is 1.364 if 1:1.75 ratio
of slope is assumed, which is 0.285 more than that of
1:1. Factor of safety for Slide 1 is 1.473 under ratio of
slope of 1:2, which is 0.109 more than that of 1:1.75.
It is in like manner for Slide 2 (or deep gliding mass).
The factor of safety of expansive soil slope from 1:1 to
1:1.75 presents gentle increment. It is again confirmed
that stratification must be considered for calculation
of stability factor in expansive soil areas.
4.3

Effect of crack

Stability factor of the superficial layer should obtain


more attentions according to the calculations above,.
It is obvious that cracks and fissures affect factor of
safety of shallow layer by reducing the strength, and
that fissures make strength of the shallow slip plane
drop. Calculated stability factors for superficial layer
slide can be seen in Table 3. If cracks arent considered
the factor of safety is 1.079. When depth of the crack is
0.5 meters its factor is 1.03. The factors are separately
0.991 and 0.998 if depths of cracks are 1.0 and 1.5
meters (See Table 3). These show that the cracks in
the surface of the slope have almost no effects on the
factor of safety.

There are usually several kinds of methods for


heightening expansive soil slope as following: 1)
remedeation of slope surface; 2) lowering ratio of the
slope; 3) improving backfill; 4) retaining wall set at the
slope toe; 6) masonry support 7) anchor frame beam.
The frame beam is embedded on unsaturated expansive soil slope by an anchor, thus the slope holding high
stiffness (See Figure 3). At the same time greening
can be taken into account. The anchor is inserted into
expansive soil slopes and fixes frame beam. The frame
beam restrains deformation of expansive soil slope,
especially horizontal deformation, and increases the
slope stability of expansive soil. It can avoid expanding
of cracks and fissures in superficial layers of expansive soil cut slope, and improve stress distributing of
superficial layer of the slope. The whole strength of the
slope is enhanced. Therefore anchor frame beam is a
fine method for strengthening the cut slope due to convenient usage and considering greening. Although the
anchor frame beam has been widely applied to actual
projects corresponding researches about strengthening
mechanism fall behind. It is illogical that the frame
beams were designed just by expansive force (F F
Zhang, B Y Wang, 2000).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

REINFORCEMENT METHODS

REFERENCES

CONCLUSIONS

Based on above analysis the following conclusions can


be drawn:
Stratification must be considered for calculating
stability factor of expansive soil slope. Cracks in the
surface of the slope have almost no effects on the factor of safety. Gentle incline of expansive soil slope
enhances the stability coefficient of the expansive soil
slope.
Anchor frame beam is a fine method strengthening cut slope in expansive soil regions. However
it demands in-depth researches for its reinforcement
mechanism.

Linchang Miu, 2002. Research of soil-water characteristics


and shear strength features of Nanyang expansive soil[J].
Engineering Geology, 65: 261267.
C. W. W. Ng, L. T. Zhan, C. G. Bao et al. 2003. Performance of
an unsaturated expansive soil slope subjected to artificial
rainfall infiltration. Geotechnique, 53(2): 143157.
Bishop A. W., and N. Morgenstern, 1960. Stability coefficients for earth slopes, Goetechnique, 10(4): 129150.
Zhang F. F., Wang B. Y., 2000. Study on strengthening expansive soil cut slope in Nan-kun Railway by using revetment
with anchor frame beam (in Chinese). J of Railway Eng
Society, 67(3): 9295

556

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Determination of non-circular critical slip surface by harmony search


algorithm in slope stability analysis
L. Liang & C. Shichun
School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Da Lian University of Technology, Da Lian ,China

Y.M. Cheng
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT: In this paper, harmony search algorithm is employed to locate the critical failure surface in
slope stability problems. The factors of safety of the potential slip surfaces are obtained by Morgenstern and
Price methods and several published examples are analyzed using the proposed method. The results show that
harmony search algorithm is easy to implement and has performed well in determining the global minimum in
slope stability analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Locating the critical slip surface and calculating the


associated minimum factor of safety are two complementary parts in a slope stability analysis based
on limit equilibrium methods. Due to the indeterminacy of slope stability analysis, different internal
force assumptions are used for different methods of
analyses. Currently, Bishops Method (Bishop, 1955),
simplified Janbus method (Janbu, 1954) and Morgenstern and Prices method (Morgenstern et al, 1965) are
the most popular methods as adopted by engineers in
calculating the factors of safety of slopes. In general,
the differences between different methods of analyses
are small and the most important and difficult work
is the location of general critical failure surfaces. At
present, there are a large number of optimization algorithms developed by different researchers. Grid search
technique is robust but is relatively inaccurate and inefficient because all the trial surfaces are selected before
starting the search. In addition, the search direction is
not affected by the actual geometry of factor of safety
contours. Pattern search algorithm is somewhat more
efficient because the trial points are selected internally as the search proceeds. Other search algorithms
such as DFP method (Chen, 1988), conjugate gradient method (Arai etal, 1985) etc. are usually limited
to simple problems because the derivative of objective
functions are required. It is possible to formulate the
gradient of the objective by finite difference process,
but gradient type method is still limited by failure
to converge and trapped by local minimum. Cheng
(Cheng, 2003) used simulated annealing algorithm to

locate the non-circular critical slip surface and concluded that simulated annealing method can perform
well even for non-convex function with the presence of
many local minima and is very suitable for the analysis of slope stability. Zolfaghari (Zolfaghari, 2005)
adopted simple genetic algorithm in the searching for
the critical slip surfaces. Though the genetic algorithm is a global search algorithm based on concepts
from natural genetics and the Darwinian survival-ofthe-fittest code, the results obtained are more often
a local minimum due to the precocious convergence.
The limitation of simulated annealing algorithm is that
it usually converges relatively slowly. The main objective of this paper is adoption of the harmony search
algorithm with the Morgenstern and Price method in
the location of general critical failure surfaces.
2

Obviously, circular failure mode is a special case of


non-circular failure mode and it is usually not the most
critical case in the slope stability analysis. A general
slip surface is divided into n slices and is associated
with n + 1 vertices. Take a slip surface A with six vertices as shown in Figure. 1 for illustration. There are
altogether ten control variables describing slip surface
A, namely, the x-ordinate of vertices 1, the x and yordinates of vertices 2 to vertices 5 and the x-ordinates
of vertices 6. Generally speaking, the x-ordinates of
vertices 2 to 5 are pre-specified (by geometry of soil
profile or even division) and the y-ordinates of vertices

557

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DESCRIPTION OF A GENERAL SLIP


SURFACE

2
6

i-1

3
4

Figure 1. Typical slip surface A with six vertices.

ui+2

1 and 6 are determined by slope geometry, thus only


six control variables are left for consideration. For
simplicity, the x-ordinates of vertices 2 to 5 can be
calculated using Eq. 1.
x i = x1 +

x6 x1
(i 1), i = 2, ..., 5
5

(1)

So the vector X = (x1 , x6 , y2 , y3 , . . . , y5 ) can represent


slip surface A mathematically. The lower and upper
bounds are given by Eq. 2.
"
L = (l1 , l2 , . . ., l6 )
(2)
U = (u1 , u2 , . . ., u6 )
Where li and ui are the lower and upper bounds to
variable i respectively in vector X . li and ui should
be given before the search for the critical slip surface Firstly the lower and upper bounds to x-ordinates
of vertices 1 and 6 can be specified before analysis,
and then the lower bounds and upper bounds to other
variables could be determined by Eq.1 and the slope
geometry. It is evident that the lower and upper bounds
to the remaining variables are correlated with that of
the first two variables. In other words, the lower and
upper bounds to variables other than the first two can
not be pre-specified, which leads to inconvenience during the optimization. In the present study, the virtual
vector V = (v1 , v2 , . . . , v6 ) is introduced, where v1 to
v6 represent x1 to y5 in X respectively the lower and
upper bounds to variables in V can easily be specified
as Eq 3:
vli = li ; vui = ui
vli = 0; vui = 1.0

i = 1, 2
i = 3, . . .6

(3)

Where vli , vui represent the lower and upper bounds


to variable i in V respectively. When the values of the
first two variables are given, the real lower and upper
bounds to variables 3 to 6 in X are to be determined
(such as Figure 2 illustrated) and the values of y2 to y5
are obtained by Eq.4:
yi = li+1 + (ui+1 li+1 ) vli+1 , i = 2, . . ., 5

(4)

i+1

Figure 2. Strategy for determining the lower bounds and


upper bounds to control variables in X other than the first
two.

Fig.2 illustrates the strategy to determine the lower


bounds and upper bounds to control variables. It is
obvious that the lower and upper bounds to variable
i are associated with the values of variable i-1 and
variable 2. This procedure can guarantee that each slip
surface X generated is kinematically acceptable and
concave.
In the present study, the factor of safety of given
slip surface is calculated using Morgenstern and
Price method assuming f (x) = sin (x). The optimization problem for locating critical slip surface in slope
stability analysis can be formulated as Eq 5.
min Fs(X V )
s.t. L X U
VL V VU

(5)

Where Fs(X) means the factor of safety calculated


using Morgenstern and Price method. m is the number
of control variables(i.e., the number of vertices).
X = (x1 , xm , y2, . . . , ym1 ); V = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vm )
L = (l1 , l2 , . . . , lm ); VL = (vl1 , vl2 , . . . , vlm )
U = (u1 , u2 , . . . , um ); VU = (vu1 , vu2 , . . . , vum )
3

HARMONY SEARCH ALGORITHM

Geem et al. (2001) developed a harmony search metaheuristic algorithm that was conceptualized using the
musical process of searching for a perfect state of

558

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

li+2

harmony. Musical performances seek to find pleasing harmony (a perfect state) as determined by an
aesthetic standard, just as the optimization process
seeks to find a global solution as determined by an
objective function. The harmony in music is analogous to the optimization solution vector, and the
musicians improvisations are analogous to local and
global search schemes in optimization techniques. The
HS algorithm does not require initial values for the
decision variables. Furthermore, instead of a gradient search, the HS algorithm uses a stochastic random
search that is based on the harmony memory considering rate HR and the pitch adjusting rate PR so that
derivative of function is unnecessary. Unlike simulated
annealing algorithm, harmony search algorithm is
population based search algorithm. A harmony memory HM of size M is used to generate a new harmony
which probably is better than the optimum in the current harmony memory. The harmony memory consists
of M harmonies (slip surfaces) and the M harmonies
are usually generated randomly.
Consider
"

i=1

Generates a random number r1 in (0, 1)


No

r1<HR

Generate vM+1,i in the


range (li, ui)

Yes
vM+1,i = vNi
N {1,2,...,M}

vM+1,i remains
unchanged

Generates a random
number r2 in (0, 1)

No

r2<PR

i=i+1
Yes
Yes
i<m

Adjusts vM+1,i

No

HM = {hm1 hm2 , . . ., hmM }


hmi = (vi1 , vi2 , ..., vim )

finish
Figure 3. The flowchart for generating a new harmony.

The search steps of harmony search algorithm in the


optimization of Eq 5 are as follows:
Step 1: initialize the algorithm parameters: HR, PR, M
and randomly generate M harmonies (slip surfaces);
Step 2: generate a new harmony (as shown in Fig.3)
hmM +1 and evaluate it;
Step 3: update the HM; i.e. if the new harmony is better
than the worst harmony in the HM in terms of factor
of safety, the worst harmony is replaced with the new
harmony.
Step 4: repeat steps 2 and 3 until the termination
criterion is met;
Figure.3 shows the flowchart of generating a new
harmony hmM +1 . The termination criterion is not
reported by Geem (2001). In this study, when all the
harmonies in the HM are almost the same, niter new
harmonies will be generated with decreased HR by 0.1
and increased PR by 0.1. If no harmony better than current optimum is obtained in HM, the algorithm stop;
otherwise, the algorithm will continue. In the present
study, the associated parameters are set as follows:
M = 2m; HR = 0.98, PR = 0.1, niter = 100.
Besides, in this study, the algorithms efficiency can
be measured by the number of objective function (factor of safety) evaluation called NOF. Under the same
NOF, the smaller is the factor of safety; the better will
be the algorithm.

4 TEXT EXAPLES
To illustrate the applicability of the harmony search
algorithm, several examples are considered. Example 1 is of a homogeneous slope with the following geotechnical properties: friction angle = 19.6 ,
cohesion c = 3.0 kPa, unit weight = 20.0 kN/m3 .
This example is referred to in Chen (Chen, 2003). The
recommended factor of safety of the critical circular
slip surface is 1.00. In this study, the same example
is analyzed based on non-circular failure surface with
different number of vertices. The minimum factor of
safety of critical non-circular surface is 0.9750 when
the number of vertices is equal to 16 and 0.9760 when
the number of vertices is equal to 21. Figure.4 shows
the associated critical slip surfaces of the present study.
When the number of control variables is 16, the NOF
is up to 5819, when the number of control variables
increases to 21, the NOF increases up to 10717.Table.3
summarizes NOFs for all the examples. The critical
slip surfaces obtained by harmony search algorithm
under different number of vertices are almost identical.
Example 2 is also taken from Chen (Chen, 2003).
This example is a case where a weak layer is sandwiched between two strong layers. The geotechnical
properties for layers 1 to 3 respectively are friction
angle 20 , 10 and 20 ; cohesion 28.5 kPa, 0.0 kPa,
and 28.5 kPa; and unit weight 18.84 kN/m3 for all three
layers. Different researchers used different methods to

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

40
35

48
slope geometry
v16
v21

30
25
20
20

slope geometry
Zolfaghari
V16
V21
V31

50

30

40

50

60

46
44
42

70

40

Figure 4. The critical slip surfaces for example 1.

10

slope geometry

15

20

25

30

35

Figure 6. The critical slip surfaces for example 3.

v16
40

51

v21

30

49

Layer 1

47

Layer 2
Layer 3

45
20

Layer 4

43
20

40

60

80

41
10

Figure 5. The critical slip surfaces for example 2.

15

20

25

30

35

40

Figure 7. The geotechnical feature for example 4.

perform this example and the results obtained range


from 1.24 to 1.27, the recommended result is 1.26.
If the numbers of vertices are equal to 16 or 21, the
corresponding factors of safety are 1.23 and 1.26 and
the critical slip surfaces are shown in Figure.5. The
results obtained by harmony search algorithm are close
to the referee value of 1.26, although the critical slip
surfaces are not compared with those presented by
other researchers (Chen,2003), the critical slip surfaces of this study pass through the horizontal weak
layer as those obtained by other researchers do. The
NOF needed by harmony search algorithm is about
10000 and 70000 respectively under the assumption
of 16 vertices and 21 vertices.
Example 3 is presented by Zolfaghari (Zolfaghari,
2005) with the following geotechnical properties: friction angle = 20 , cohesion c = 15.0 kPa, unit weight
= 19.0 kN/m3 . Zolfaghari adopted Morgenstern and
Price method and simple genetic algorithm to analyze
this example and the results obtained is 1.75. The result
from harmony search algorithm is 1.71 and the comparison of critical slip surface is shown in Figure.6.
The factor safety by harmony search algorithm is 1.71
slightly lower than that obtained by Zolfghari. The critical slip surfaces under different number of vertices are
close to each other. As can be seen from Table 3, harmony search algorithm performs only 7000 and 8000
iterations when the number of vertices is equal to 16
and 21 respectively. With the increase of number of
vertices, the NOF increases by large extent, e.g. NOF
rises up to 40000 when the number of vertices equal
to 31.

Table 1.
layers

(kN/m3 )

c (kPa)

(degree)

1
2
3
4

19.0
19.0
19.0
19.0

15.0
17.0
5.00
35.0

20.0
21.0
10.0
28.0

Example 4 is also referred to Zolfagharis paper


(Zolfaghari, 2005), where a slope in layered soil is performed using genetic algorithm and Morgenstern and
Price method. Figure.7 shows the geometrical features
of the analyzed slope, while Table 1 gives the geotechnical properties in layers 1 to 4. Zolfaghari obtains the
factor of safety of 1.24, while the results of the present
study vary from 1.10 to 1.14 with the different number
of vertices. Fig. 8 summarizes the associated critical
slip surfaces for different number of vertices. The critical slip surfaces obtained by the present study are
drawn and compared with that obtained by Zolfaghari.
In spite of the unclear statement on the number of
vertices in Zolfaghari (2005), it can be seen from Figure 8 that the critical slip surfaces obtained by this
study approach more closely to the inclined weak layer
than that presented by Zolfaghari thereby existing the
possibility of decreasing the factor of safety. Table 3
provides us the NOF used by harmony search algorithm unlike example 3 which is a slope with simple
geometry; example 4 is much more complicated. NOF

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Geotechnical parameters for example 4.

slope geometry
v16
v21
v31
zolfaghari

51
49
47
45

slope geometry
Arai
Sridevi and Deep
Greco
Malkawi
V13
v17
v21

40
30
20
10

43

41
10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Geotechnical parameters for example 5.

40

60

80

100

Table 3. The summary of NOFs for all the examples.

layers

(kN/m3 )

c (kPa)

(degree)

Examples

1
2
3

18.82
18.82
18.82

29.4
9.8
294.0

12.0
5.0
40.0

NOF
13
16
17
21
31

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

20

Figure 10. The comparison of critical slip surfaces of


example 5.

Figure 8. The summary of critical slip surfaces of


example 4.
Table 2.

3689
5819

10416

7065

60000

10717

69981

8127
40420

60000
81510

4422
4632

Layer 1

of 0.413. Fig.10 shows the critical slip surfaces gotten


by different researchers. Because different methods
were used by the above mentioned researchers and the
authors, the factors of safety obtained thus can not
be directly compared. Fortunately, the critical slip surfaces can be compared directly. It is observed that the
critical slip surfaces by this study are different from
those by Arai and Tagyo and by Sridevi and Deep, but
they are close to that by Greco and are almost the same
to that by Malkawi.

Layer 2
Layer 3

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 100

Figure 9. The geotechnical feature of example 5.

used by harmony search algorithm is up to 60000 when


the number of vertices equals 16, while in example
3 the NOF is only 7065 under the same number of
vertices.
Example 5 is taken from Arai and Tagyo (1985)
where there is a layer of soil with low resistance
between two layers of soil with higher strengths. Geometrical features of slope and values of shear-strength
parameters of various layers are reported in Figure.9
and Table 2 respectively.
Arai and Tagyo used Janbus simplified method in
combination with the conjugate gradient method with
a factor of safety of 0.405 obtained; the same example
was also examined by Sridevi and Deep (1991), using
random search technique, Sridevi and Deep obtained
a factor of safety of 0.401; Greco (1996) used Montecarlo method to perform the same problem. A factor
of safety of 0.388 was reached. Malkawi (2001) also
adopted Monte Carlo technique the factor of safety is
0.401and the critical slip surface obtained was very
close to that by Greco In the present study, using
Morgenstern and Price method coupled with harmony
search algorithm, the authors obtain a factor of safety

Based on the harmony search algorithm and Morgenstern and Price method, several homogeneous and
non-homogeneous soil slopes are analyzed. The critical slip surfaces and factors of safety are compared
with those obtained by other researchers. The study has
demonstrated that the proposed method has performed
well and is efficient for slope stability analysis.
REFERENCES
Arai, K, and Tagyo, K. 1985, Determination of non- circular slip surface giving the minimum factor of safety in
slope stability analysis. Soils and Foundation, Vol, 25,
pp: 4351.
Bishop A W 1955, The use of the slip circle in the stability
analysis of slopes. Geotechnique, Vol .5, pp: 717.
Chen Z Y, Shao. C M 1988, Evaluation of minimum factor
safety in slope stability analysis. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol 25, pp: 735748.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSIONS

Chen Z Y.2003, Stability analysis of soil slopes: theories .methods and programs. Beijing:water power press,
pp: 372373.
Cheng Y M. 2003, Location of critical failure surface and
some further studies on slope stability analysis. Computers and Geotechnics,Vol 30, pp: 255267.
Geem Z W, Kim J H, Loganathan G V. 2001 A new heuristic
optimization algorithm: harmony search, Simulation, Vol
76, pp: 6068.
Greco V R. 1996, Efficient Monte Carlo technique for
locating critical slip surface. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol 122, pp: 517525.
Janbu N. 1954, Application of composite slip surface for stability analysis. Proceedings of European conference on
stability of earth slopes. Sweden, pp: 4349.

Malkawi Abdallah I. H, Hassan W F, and Sarma S K (2001),


Global search method for locating general slip surface
using Monte Carlo techniques, Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, vol.127 pp 688698.
Morgenstern N R, Price V E. 1965, The analysis of the
stability of general slip surfaces. Geotechnique, Vol 15
pp: 7993.
Sridevi B and Deep K 1991, Application of global optimization technique to slope stability analysis, Proceeding 6th
International Symposium on Landslides, pp: 573578.
Zolfaghari A R, Heath A C. and McCombie P F. 2005,
Simple genetic algorithm search for critical non-circular
failure surface in slope stability analysis. Computers and
Geotechnics, Vol 32, pp: 139152.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Simple critical state model predicting the response along slip surfaces
Constantine Stamatopoulos
Stamatopoulos and Associates Ltd., Athens, Greece

ABSTRACT: A simple critical state model predicting the response along slip surfaces of both saturated sands
and clays is proposed. The model is based on critical state theory. The model requires only five model parameters.
The model is calibrated and validated from results of ring shear tests.

INTRODUCTION

In saturated soils sometimes displacement occurs


along a region of small width. In this case a localized
discontinuity occurs and displacement accumulates
along a slip surface. This slip surface is sometimes
along a pre-existing fracture, while in other cases it
is formed for the first time. The Vaiont slide (Tika
and Hutchinson, 1999) is a typical example of a slide
on a pre-existing slip surface. On the other hand, a
localized discontinuity, or slip surface, can be formed
in materials with strain softening. In these materials,
once failure develops along a slip surface, strength is
reduced. Thus, further deformation occurs at the same
region, with further reduction in strength.
The two-block (Stamatopoulos et al. 2000, Figure 1) and multi-block (Sarma and Chlimintzas, 2001)
(a)

sliding systems have been developed to simulate displacement along slip surfaces. These sliding systems
model reasonably well the movement of earth masses.
They are useful tools, especially when displacements
are very large and computer codes based on the Finite
Element Methods cannot be applied. Up to now constant resistance was assumed at the slip surface of
these sliding systems models. Yet, in order to simulate
the degradation of strength that occurs at the slip surface of slides, a constitutive model simulating strength
degradation should be introduced.
To start, a literature review of soil response along
slip surfaces, as measured in ring shear tests, is given
in section 2. Then, previous constitutive models are
reviewed in section 3. The new proposed constitutive model is described in section 4. Section 5 gives
calibration of the model and comparison between measurements and predictions. Section 6 gives a way
to implement the proposed constitutive model at the
multi-block sliding system model.

2-(l+1)+2
2-2+2

A2-O, m2-O, W2-O

2-1+2
d(=

do)

A1-O, m1-O, W1-O

b2-1

b2-2

b2-l

b10 cos1

b20 cos2

(b)
A
m=A-Yt/g
W=A-Y

2-(l+1)+2
A2=A2-0-A
m=m2-AYt/g
W2=W2-0-A-Y

2-2+2

u2

2-1+2
A1-O, m1-O, W1-O

do

d(t)

b10 cos1=(b10 +u1)cos1

b2-1-u

b2-2-u

b2-l-u

b20 cos2=(b20 -u2)cos2

Figure 1. The 2-body sliding system model. Deformation


assumed in the model: (a) Initial position, (b) position when
the distance moved by the second body is u2 (Stamatopoulos
et al, 2000).

The best testing device to simulate soil response along


slip surfaces is the ring shear test. In this test, similarly
to field conditions, relative displacement at the slip
surface can be very large, larger than a few centimeters,
or even meters.
Extensive ring shear testing of soils from three different slides are reported in the bibliography. They
involve (a) the Nikawa slide (Sassa et al, 1996), (b) the
4th Avenue Alasca slide (Stark and Contreras, 1998)
and (c) the Vaiont slide (Tika and Hutchinson, 1999).
The initial and final configuration of the Vaiont slide
is given in Figure 2. Table 1 gives the main classification characteristics of the soils of the three slides.
Typical results of the ring shear tests are given in Figures 3 to 6. In the cases of the Nikawa slide and the

563

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

LITERATURE RERVIEW OF SOIL RESPONSE

Figure 2. Typical cross-section of the Vaiont slide (Section


3, Ciabati, 1964).

4th Avenue Alasca slide both the shear stress and the
excess pore pressure versus shear displacement relationships exist. In the case of the Vaiont slide only
the shear stress versus shear displacement relationship
exists. Table 1 presents the main characteristics of the
shear stress-shear displacement relationship.
In addition, the main characteristics of the shear
stress-shear displacement relationship from ring shear
tests on other soils together with the main classification characteristics of these soils are given in table form
by Stark and Contreras (1998). They are presented in
table 2.

Table 1.

Summary of Constant Volume Ring Shear Test Results where much data is available.

No

Location Soil deposit

Clay size fraction


(% < 0.002 m)

o (kPa)

m /o

u at m
(mm)

r /o

u at r (mm)

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11

4th Avenue Alasca

Nikawa (OCR = 1)
Nikawa (OCR = 1.9)
Vaiont sample 3 slow
Vaiont sample 4 fast
Vaiont sample 4 fast
Vaiont sample 3 fast

59
57
56
55
62
0
0
20
20
20
20

100
230
300
400
500
300
230
505
980
505
980

0.28
0.28
0.24
0.23
0.23
0.47
0.61
0.42
0.35
0.45
0.40

1.2
1.1
1.3
1.8
1.8
4.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
10.0
2.0

0.07
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.17
0.15
0.17
0.10
0.15
0.10

55
75
75
120
130
24300
28400
600
600
700
900

slow = speed 0.0145 mm/s


fast = speed 2600 mm/s.
Table 2.

No
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19

Summary of other Constant Volume Ring Shear Test Results (Stark and Contreras, 1998).

Soil
deposit and location
Drammen clay,
Danvik-gate,
Drammen, Norway
Bootlegger Cove clay,
outside Fourth Ave.
landslide, Anchorage,
Alaska
Cohesive alluvium,
Enid Dam,
Enid, Mississippi

Cohesive alluvium,
Jackson, Alabama
Upper Bonneville clay,
Salt Lake City, Utah

Vertical
Clay size
consolidation Preconsolidation
fraction
stress
pressure
p (kPa)
(% < 0.002 m) o (kPa)
70
72
65
47
42
49
45
19
20
17
20
20
51
51
51
33
33
33
33

95
255
400
150
225
400
500
95.8
147
191
287
383
51.8
79.4
100
47.9
95.8
191.5
383

140
140
140
405
405
405
405
122.4
138.9
81.4
143.5
134.5
75.8
75.8
75.8
47.9
95.8
191.5
383

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Undrained
peak shear
strength
ratio m /o

Shear
displ.
at m
(mm)

Undrained
residual
strength
ratio r /o

Shear
displ.
at r
(mm)

0.27
0.22
0.20
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.30
0.19
0.27
0.24
0.23
0.23
0.21
0.23
0.23
0.32
0.36
0.31
0.34

1.1
1.3
1.1
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
2.2
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
0.50
0.35
0.37
0.30
0.60
1.2
2.0

0.09
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.13
0.16
0.14
0.11
0.15
0.12
0.14

19
16
60
95
110
125
140
52
77
70
72
75
36
50
38
39
25
29
36

All test results indicate similarities as well as differences in soil response. As illustrated in Figures 3 to
5, as shear displacement increases, qualitatively similar response is observed: The shear stress increases,
reaches a peak and then progressively decreases

towards a limit value.Accordingly, as illustrated in Figures 3 and 4, as shear displacement increases, the pore
pressure increases at a steadily decreasing rate towards
a limit value. An exception is only one case of overconsolidated (but with low undrained strength) sand,
where negative excess pore pressures are observed
at the initial stages of loading. Generally, it can be
observed that at large displacement, as displacement
increases further, soil shear strength and pore pressure
remains more-or-less constant. The measured final
effective friction angle, in tests where pore pressures
were measured, ranges between 26 to 31 degrees.
Quantitatively, large differences in the values of
the maximum (m ) and residual (r ) soil strengths
are observed: m varies from 11 to 392 kPa, while r
from 7 to 98 kPa. The corresponding ratios (a) m /  o
and (b) r /  o , where  o is the initial effective normal stress, vary (a) from 0.61 to 0.20 and (b) from
0.17 to 0.05, respectively. In addition differences in
the shear displacement at peak and residual strength
are observed: At m shear displacement varies from
0.30 mm to 10 mm, while at r from 19 mm to 24 m.
Yet, the results of tables 1 and 2 illustrate that for given
soil and speed of shearing, r is more-or-less proportional to the vertical consolidation stress. Additional
data illustrating this for the soil of the Vaiont slide

Figure 3. Measured response of ring shear tests on a sample


from the 4th Avenue Alasca slide (Stark and Contreras,
1998).

(a)
0.50

(a)

0.40
0.30
T

/ 'o
0.20
0.10
0.00
0

200

400

600

800

1000

800

1000

Displacement (mm)

(b)

(b)

0.50
0.40
0.30
T

/ 'o
0.20
0.10
0.00
0

200

400

600

Displacement (mm)

Figure 4. Measured response of ring shear tests on a sample from the Nikawa slide: (a) Nornally-consolidated sample,
(b) Sample with OCR = 1.9 (Sassa et al, 1996).

Figure 5. Measured response of ring shear tests on a sample from the Vaiont slide sample 4 for (a)  o = 505 kPa,
(b)  o = 980 kPa (Tika and Hutchinson, 1999).

565

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.4

3.2

0.3

A cyclic interface constitutive model derived on the


basis of an elastoplastic body constitutive law has
been proposed by Aubry et al (1990). Modaressi A.
(1998) describes and implements this model. The following fundamental aspects of this model contribute
to the coupling between the solid skeleton and the pore
pressure:

tr / 'o 0.2

0.1

0.0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

'o (kPa)

Figure 6. Effect of vertical consolidation stress on the residual shear strength ratio (r /  o ). Data from slow tests on
sample 3 from Vaiont soil by Tika and Hutchinson (1999).

(for consolidation stress  o > 100 kPa, that is typical for slip surfaces of slides) is given in Figure 6
by Tika and Hutchinson (1999). It is inferred that
the total residual friction angle is a model parameter
more-or-less-independent of the applied stress.

3
3.1

Effective stresses are used.


Soil response is defined in terms of the distance
from the critical state.
A dilatancy rule is incorporated in the plastic
domain which is also fundamental to predict the
pore pressure at the interface under undrained
conditions.
The dilatancy rule depends on the strain level with
no activation at a very low strain level (hysteresis
domain), full activation in the mobilised strain level
and interpolated value in the medium range.
The plastic hardening moduli depend also on the
degree of the cyclic mobilised friction.
4

LITERATURE REVIEW OF PREVIOUS


MODELS

Model by Aubry et al (1990) and Modaressi A.


(1998)

PROPOSED MODEL

4.1 The model

Model by Modaressi H. et al (1995)

A model predicting the soil response along saturated


slip surfaces has been developed by Modaressi H.
et al (1995). It has similarities with the elaborate
elasto-plastic model developed at Ecole Centrale Paris
and described e.g. by Aubry et al (1993). It uses the
following equations:


As discussed in section 2, laboratory tests illustrate


that at large displacement, as displacement increases
further, soil strength remains more-or-less constant.
Consistently, a critical state model is proposed. The
model uses the following equations
=  r f

(1)

dP = d  = K dut (tan cs /  )

(2)

abs() = r f

where

dP = d  = K dut (tan + abs()/  )

f = 1 b ln [ tan cs /(o tan res )]


During loading, r = tan cs ut /(a + ut )

During loading, r = tan ut /(a + ut )

(4)


In the above equations is the shear stress,  is the normal effective stress, ut is the tangential displacement,
is the friction angle and is the dilation angle.
The function f is not given. It is only stated that it
depends on  and c , where c is the effective normal stress at the critical state (or large strain) under
undrained conditions.
The model has five model parameters: a, K, , ,
c . According to Modaressi et al (1995) the parameter
a typically varies in the range of 105 to 103 . Dimensions are not given. A value of K used in the analysis of
a cohesive slope is 6.1*108 Pa*m. The friction angle
of this slope is taken equal to 10 degrees, while is
taken to vary between 9 and 10 degrees.

In the above equations is the shear stress, is the


effective normal stress, compressive positive,  o is the
initial effective normal stress, P is the excess pore pressure, ut is the shear displacement along the slip surface,
cs is the final steady-state effective friction angle, res
corresponds to the final residual friction angle and a,
K, b are fitting parameters. Shear displacement is in
m and stresses and pressures in kPa. Unloading is not
modelled, as it is assumed that relative motion of slides
is only downslope.
4.2 The model parameters
The new proposed model has five model parameters:
cs , res , b, a, K. These parameters can be estimated
from constant-volume ring shear tests. In particular,

566

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(3a)

the parameters res and cs can be estimated from


the final (residual) shear stress and effective vertical stress: The parameter res equals res = atan(r /  o )
where r is the residual shear stress and  o is the initial
consolidation effective vertical stress. The parameter cs equals cs = atan(r /  r ) where  r is the final
effective normal stress. The effective steady-state friction angle, cs , for sands typically equals 30 and for
clays 26 (Modaressi and Lopez-Caballero, 2001). The
remaining parameters K, b, a are fitting parameters.
4.3

Table 3. Model parameters predicting the response of the


tests described in tables 1 and 2.

Comparison with the previous models

Modaressi A. (1998) proposes that the factor f equals


f = 1 b ln (  /co )

(3b)

where co is the value of the effective normal stress


at the critical state (or large strain) under undrained
conditions. According to critical state theory,
o tan res / tan cs = co

(3c)

it is inferred that equation [3a] has a similar form with


equation [3b].
Compared to equation [3b], equation [3a] is preferred because, as discussed in section 2, for given
soil and speed of shearing, the residual soil strength
is more-or-less proportional to the vertical consolidation stress. Thus, the residual soil friction angle, res ,
unlike co , does not vary for given material.
The model has similarities with the previous model
by Modaressi H. et al (1995), except for (a) the definition of the factor f and (b) taking the dilation angle,
, equal to cs . Taking = cs is consistent with
sophisticated critical state models (e.g. Papadimitriou
et al, 2001) for samples initially looser than the critical state (  o > co ).This condition clearly exists in the
cases considered in the present study.
On the other hand, compared to the model by Modaressi H. et al (1995), the proposed model produces
significantly different results: The previous model
does not predict strain softening, while the current predicts this aspect of soil response that is crucial to the
present work. The previous model results show strong
sensitivity on the model parameter that is not present
in the present model. The previous model uses a friction angle of 10 for clays, which is very different from
the value of 26 that the proposed model uses for cs .
Furthermore, the Modaressi A. (1998) model is
much more sophisticated than the present model
requiring 13 model parameters instead of the 5 parameters of the proposed model.
5

CALIBRATION OF THE MODEL AND


COMPARISON BETWEEN
MEASUREMENTS AND PREDICTIONS

An excel file was constructed solving the equations of


the proposed model. This file was used to estimate the

cs ( )

res ( )

a (104 m)

K
(104 Pa*m)

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19

26
26
26
26
26
30
31
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26

4.0
4.0
4.6
3.4
3.4
9.7
8.7
9.7
5.7
8.5
5.7
5.1
6.3
6.3
6.3
5.7
6.3
6.3
5.7
2.9
4.0
4.0
3.4
7.4
9.1
8.0
6.3
8.6
6.9
8.0

0.15
0.15
0.21
0.22
0.22
0.07
0.07
0.10
0.15
0.10
0.10
0.15
0.30
0.38
0.17
0.15
0.20
0.20
0.33
0.15
0.20
0.23
0.22
0.35
0.25
0.30
0.10
0.10
0.15
0.15

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

5
9
10
10
10
6
0.2
6
9
2
6
10
15
10
6
7
7
9
5
5
7
7
6
3
20
10
6
8
15
15

model parameters of the proposed model that better fit


the test results of chapter 2.
First the ring shear tests where both the shear stressshear displacement and excess pore pressure versus
shear displacement relationships are available were
considered. The obtained model parameters that fit the
shear stress shear displacement and pore-pressure
shear-displacement curves are given in table 3. Figures 7 and 8 give predictions of typical tests from
the soil from the 4th Avenue Alasca and Nikawa
slides respectively. (Here, symbol 2.00E+1 means
2*101 = 20). Table 4 compares the measured with the
predicted response. The ratio of predicted to measured
values for shear stress at different shear displacements
is between 0.58 and 1.54. Regarding pore pressures,
the model qualitatively does not predict the dilation
that occurs at the initial stages of one test. Excluding this, the ratio of predicted to measured values of
pore pressure is between 0.50 and 1.89 in all cases.
It is inferred that the accuracy of the predictions is
reasonable.
Then, the case of soil from the Vaiont slide, where
only the shear stress-shear displacement relationship

567

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Case

shear stress (kPa)

1.00E+02
8.00E+01
Predicted

6.00E+01

Measured
4.00E+01
2.00E+01
0.00E+00
1.00E-05

1.00E-03

1.00E-01

1.00E+01

u (m)

Pore pressure (kpa)

4.00E+02
3.00E+02
Predicted
2.00E+02

Measured

1.00E+02
0.00E+00
1.00E-05

1.00E-03

1.00E-01

1.00E+01

u (m)

Figure 7. Predicted by the proposed model of the measured


response of typical ring shear tests on a sample from the 4th
Avenue Alasca slide (Stark and Contreras, 1998). The case
1.4 is given.

shear stress (kPa)

2.00E+02
1.50E+02
Predicted
Measured

1.00E+02
5.00E+01
0.00E+00
1.00E-05 1.00E-03 1.00E-01 1.00E+01 1.00E+03

u (m)

Pore pressure (kPa)

2.50E+02
2.00E+02

Predicted

1.50E+02

Measured

1.00E+02
5.00E+01
0.00E+00
1.00E-05 1.00E-03 1.00E-01 1.00E+01 1.00E+03

u (m)

Figure 8. Predicted by the proposed model of the measured


response from the Nikawa slide. The case 1.6 is given.

is given was considered. According to the previous discussion, the friction angle is assumed to be 26 . The
obtained model parameters are given in table 3. Figure
9 gives predictions of a typical test. Table 4 compares
the measured with the predicted responseat different
displacements. The ratio of predicted to measured values of the shear stress is between 0.52 and 1.11 in all
cases. It is inferred that the accuracy of the predictions
is reasonable.

Finally, the cases where only the values of peak


and residual shear stress with the corresponding displacements exist were considered. Again, according to
the previous discussion, the friction angle is assumed
26 . The model parameters obtained are given in table
3. Table 5 compares the measured with the predicted
response. The ratio of predicted to measured values of
the shear stress is between 0.98 and 1.07. The ratio of
predicted to measured values of the shear displacement
at peak and residual shear stress is between 0.54 and
2.40. It is inferred that the accuracy of the predictions
is reasonable.
Table 3 indicates that for all cases the model parameter a equals 104 , the parameter res takes values
between 3 and 9 , the parameter K takes values
between 0.4 and 20 (104 ) kPa*m and the parameter
b varies between 0.07 and 0.38. Statistical analyses,
shown in Figure 10, indicates that as clay size fraction
increases, res decreases, K increases and b increases.
Yet, the coefficient of correlation of these relationships
is small.
The value of the model parameter a used (104 )
is within the range of the values 105 to 103 suggested by the previous similar model by Modaressi H
et al (1995). The parameter K affects primarily the
displacement where the residual and peak values of
strength is reached. It decreases as the displacement
where the strengths are reached increases. The typical
value of K given for clays in the previous model study
by Modaressi H et al of 61(104 )kPa*m is somewhat
larger than the range of values of the present model.
The parameter b indicates the manner that the distance from the critical state (= the difference in normal
effective stress from the normal effective stress at the
residual value of strength) affects the shear stress.
According to Modaressi and Lopez-Caballero (2001)
under conventional triaxial loading the parameter b
typically equals 0.1 for sands and 1 for clays. Consistently, the obtained values of the parameter b increases
with fines content. The obtained values are somewhat smaller than those proposed by Modaressi and
Caballero (2001). The difference can be explained
from the fact that soil response of the current model is
in terms of a lower value of residual strength measured
in ring-shear tests compared to triaxial tests (in clays
in triaxial tests cu /  o typically equals 0.2, Modaressi
and Lopez-Caballero, 2001), while section 2 illustrates
that in ring-shear tests it can be as low as 0.07.
Concluding, the proposed model simulates well the
shear stress displacement curves and the middle
and final stages of the pore pressure displacements
curves of ring shear tests. From the five parameters of
the proposed model, the parameter a does not change
and the parameter cs can be approximately obtained
according to the sand/clay differentiation. It is inferred
that in the proposed model the parameters that vary
considerably are three: res , K and b.

568

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 4. The accuracy of the model predictions. Cases of table 1.


Measured
No

u (m)

(kPa)

1.1

0.0012
0.01
0.03
0.055

28
20
12
7

1.2

0.0011
0.01
0.03
0.075

1.3

Predicted
P (kPa)

Predicted/Measured

(kPa)

P (kPa)

15
80
90
95

28.80
15.95
6.96
6.91

12.53
61.34
85.69
85.83

1.03
0.80
0.58
0.99

0.84
0.77
0.95
0.90

64
40
35
16

20
170
180
200

67.60
44.09
17.17
15.85

21.40
118.48
194.23
197.49

1.06
1.10
0.49
0.99

1.07
0.70
1.08
0.99

0.0013
0.01
0.03
0.075

72
50
40
18

30
210
250
260

95.96
69.74
26.84
23.84

34.12
193.86
343.08
351.10

1.33
1.39
0.67
1.32

1.14
0.92
1.37
1.35

1.4

0.0018
0.01
0.03
0.075
0.12

92
75
47
32
24

50
270
320
350
350

92.54
66.80
26.06
23.85
24.0

46.85
200.53
345.09
351.08
350.0

1.01
0.89
0.55
0.75
1.00

0.94
0.74
1.08
1.00
1.00

1.5

0.0018
0.01
0.03
0.075
0.13

115
85
60
35
30

250
350
370
430
450

117.46
92.63
39.26
29.81
30.0

47.09
208.86
412.58
438.85
450.0

1.02
1.09
0.65
0.85
1.00

0.19
0.60
1.12
1.02
1.00

1.6

0.004
0.1
1
24.3

141
100
70
51

50
90
160
220

145
73
51
51

25
170
212
212

1.03
0.73
0.73
1.00

0.50
1.89
1.33
0.96

1.7

0.001
0.1
1
24.8

140
130
50
35

2
30
100
170

122.84
118.73
76.77
35.0

1.62
12.01
94.14
170.0

0.88
0.91
1.54
1.00

0.81
0.40
0.94
1.00

1.8

0.002
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6

212.1
151.5
126.25
101
85.85

204.89
128.27
95.71
84.14
85.85

0.97
0.85
0.76
0.83
1.00

1.9

0.002
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6

343
151.5
126.25
101
98

338.18
140.36
99.79
101
98

0.99
0.93
0.79
1.00
1.00

1.10

0.01
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6

227.25
171.7
136.35
101
75.75

209.29
175
142.96
101.91
84.17

0.92
1.02
1.05
1.01
1.11

1.11

0.002
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.9

392
264.6
235.2
196
147
98

377.51
251.74
159.04
102.46
147
98

0.96
0.95
0.68
0.52
1.00
1.00

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(kPa)

P (kPa)

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROPOSED


CRITICAL STATE MODEL AT THE
MULTI-BLOCK SLIDING SYSTEM MODEL

12
Parameter res

Up to now, the multi-block sliding system model was


based on both the frictional and cohesional resistance
of the Mohr-Coulomb model. The proposed constitutive model applied to the multi-block sliding system is
based only on the friction angle that equals atan(/  o ).
At each block, the friction angle should be adjusted at
each increment in terms of the ratio (/  o ) as predicted
by the constitutive model from the distance moved by
the soil mass. The cohesion should be taken zero.
Furthermore, when the proposed constitutive model
is applied, it is needed first to estimate the equilibrium
shear stress along the slip surface, or equivalently the
equilibrium friction angle at zero displacement. This

10
8
6
y = -0.0232x + 6.9743
R2 = 0.0574

4
2
0
0

10

20

50

60

70

80

70

80

Parameter K (104 Pa*m)

20
y = 0.1344x + 2.8534
R2 = 0.2644

15
10
5
0
10

20

30

40

50

60

Clay particle fraction (%)

2.50E+02
2.00E+02
Predicted
Measured

1.50E+02

Parameter b

shear stress (kPa)

40

25

1.00E+02
5.00E+01
0.00E+00
1.00E-05

30

Particle clay fraction (%)

1.00E-03 1.00E-01
u (m)

1.00E+01

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0

y = 0.0018x + 0.1162
R2 = 0.2129

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Clay particle fraction (%)

Figure 9. Predicted by the proposed model of the measured


response of ring shear tests on a sample from the Vaiont slide.
The case 1.10 is presented.

Figure 10. Variation of the model parameters res , K and b


in terms of clay particle fraction.

Table 5. The accuracy of the model predictions. Cases of table 2.


Measured

Predicted

Predicted/Measured

No.

max
(kPa)

u at m
(103 m)

u at r
(103 m)

r
(kPa)

m
(kPa)

u at m
(103 m)

u at r
(103 m)

r
(kPa)

u at m

u at r

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19

25.65
56.10
80.00
46.50
72.00
124.00
150.00
18.20
39.69
45.84
66.01
88.09
10.88
18.26
23.00
15.33
34.49
59.37
130.22

1.1
1.3
1.1
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
2.2
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
0.50
0.35
0.37
0.30
0.60
1.2
2.0

19
16
60
95
110
125
140
52
77
70
72
75
36
50
38
39
25
29
36

8.55
28.05
44.00
16.50
22.50
44.00
55.00
9.58
7.35
13.37
20.09
22.98
6.73
12.70
14.00
5.27
14.37
22.98
53.62

26.29
57.62
78.41
46.81
73.22
124.18
154.99
19.19
40.48
48.79
68.53
91.20
11.59
18.48
24.14
14.98
33.31
59.24
131.61

0.74
1.08
2.19
1.37
1.59
2.10
2.07
1.2
1.26
1.26
1.56
1.95
1.14
0.40
0.72
0. 2
1.08
0.93
1.56

16
22
40
50
80
108
110
50
46
37
46
69
30
100
20
25
50
30
63

8.55
28.05
43.76
16.37
22.5
44.0
55.0
9.58
7.35
13.26
20.09
22.98
6.73
12.70
14.0
5.27
14.89
22.98
57.54

1.02
1.03
0.98
1.01
1.02
1.00
1.03
1.05
1.02
1.06
1.04
1.04
1.07
1.01
1.05
0.98
0.97
1.00
1.01

0.67
0.83
1.99
0.91
0.99
1.24
1.22
0.53
1.15
1.15
1.30
1.63
2.28
1.14
1.95
2.40
1.80
0.78
0.78

0.84
1.38
0.67
0.53
0.73
0.86
0.79
0.96
0.60
0.53
0.64
0.92
0.83
2.00
0.53
0.64
2.00
1.03
1.75

1.00
1.00
0.99
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.04
1.00
1.07

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

can be estimated by finding the friction angle consistent with a factor of safety equal to unity at the initial
slide configuration using iterations.
7

CONCLUSIONS

A simple critical state model predicting the response


along slip surfaces of both sands and clays is proposed.
The model is based on critical state theory. The model
requires only five model parameters. The model is
calibrated and validated from results of ring shear tests.
The parameters res and cs affect directly the residual (final) shear stress and effective vertical stress: The
parameter res equals res = atan(r /  o ) where r is the
residual shear stress and  o is the initial consolidation effective vertical stress. The parameter cs equals
cs = atan(r /  r ) where  r is the final effective normal stress. The remaining parameters b, a, K are fitting
parameters.
In the ring shear tests analysed, the model parameter
a equals 104 , the parameter res takes values between
3 and 9 , the parameter cs takes values between 26 and
31 , the parameter K takes values between 2(103 ) and
1.5(105 ) kPa*m and the parameter b varies between
0.07 and 0.38. The small value of K corresponds to
the case of the soils of the Nikawa slide, where the
residual soil strength was reached at very large displacement (>10 m). In all other cases the parameter K
varies between 3(104 ) and 1.5(105 )kPa*m.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Project Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides (LESSLOSS)
(Project No. GOCE-CT-2003-505448) funded by the
European Commission.
REFERENCES

Aubry, D., A., Modaressi, H., Modaressi, A. 1990. Constitutive model for cyclic behaviour of interfaces with variable
dilatancy, Computers and Geotechnics 9, pp. 4758.
Ciabati, M. 1964. La dinamica della frana del Vaiont, G. Geol,
Vol. 32, pp. 139154.
Modaressi, H., Aubry, D, Faccioli, E., Noret, C. 1995.
Numerical modelling approaches for the analysis of earthquake triggered landslides. Proceedings: Third International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical
Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, April 27,
Volume II, St. Louis, Missouri.
Modaressi, A. 1998. Laboratoire de Mecanique des Sols,
Structures, Materiaux, Ecole, Centrale Paris, Second
Progress Report, Seismic Ground Displacements as a Tool
for Town Planning, Design and Mitigation (Project ENV4CT97-0392), Commission of the European Communities,
Directorate General XII, November.
Modaressi,A., and Lopez-Caballero, F. 2001. Global methodology for soil behavior identification and its application
to the study of site effects. Proceedings: Fourth International Conference of Recent Advances in Geotechnical
earthquake engineering, San Diego, California, March
(CD-ROM).
Papadimitriou A., Bouckovalas G., Dafalias Y. (2001) Plasticity model for sand under small and large cyclic strains.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenviromental Engineering, ASCE; Vol.127, No. 11, pp. 973983.
Sarma, S.-K., and Chlimintzas, G. 2001. Co-seismic & postseismic displacements of slopes, 15th ICSMGE TC4,
Satellite Conference on Lessons Learned from Recent
Strong Earthquakes, 25 August, Istanbul, Turkey.
Stark, T.-D., Contreras, I.-A. 1998. Fourth Avenue Landslide
during 1964 Alaskan Earthquake. Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenviromental Engineering, Vol. 124, No. 2, pp.
99109.
Sassa, K., Fukuoka, H., Scarascia-Mugnozza, G., Evans, S.
1996. Earthquake-induced landslides: Distribution,
motion and mechanisms, Special Issue of Soils and
Foundations, Japan Geotechnical Society, pp. 5364.
Stamatopoulos, C.-A., Velgaki, E., and Sarma, S. 2000.
Sliding-block back analysis of earthquake-induced slides.
Soils and foundations. The Japanese Geotechnical Society, Vol. 40, No. 6, Dec., pp. 6175.
Tika, T.-E., and Hutchinson, J.-N. 1999. Ring shear tests on
soil from the Vaiont landslide slip surface, Geotechnique,
pp. 5974.

Aubry, D., Benzenati, I., and Modaressi, A. 1993. Numerical predictions for model No. 1, Verification of numerical
procedures for the analysis of liquefaction problems. Arulanandan K. and Scott R. F. (editors), Balkema, Rotterdam,
pp. 4554.

571

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

The other soil parameters in stability limit analysis of soil-nailed


walls in soft soil
Yuwen Yang
Wuhan Geotechnical Engineering and Surveying Institute, Hankou, Wuhan, China

ABSTRACT: In limit analysis, soil parameters, such as dilatancy angle, cohesive force and internal frictional
angle, are generally the important factors to predict the stability of soil nailed walls. This paper discusses effect
of the other two soil parameters, soil moisture content w and its stiffness k, on the upper bound solutions. These
two soil parameters have seldom drawn peoples attention in limit analysis. One hand, by regression analysis of
laboratory tests data, the relations of between soil water content w and the cohesive force C, and between w and
internal friction angle  are established. In result, the w, instead of C and  , is used in upper bound analysis.
On the other hand, for soil in the potential slipping surface where a nail crosses, its dilatancy angle is calculated
to decrease by using a model and within the model, soil stiffness is directly related with upper solutions to the
stability of soil nailed walls.

INTRODUCTION

In the beginning, soil nailed walls, from the technique


of soil nailing, were used to reinforce the slopes in
stiff soil. Afterwards, their applications were extended
to maintain stable slopes in soft soil. During their
applications, most is successful, but occasionally a
few are reported to fail. Figure 1 shows a failed case
of soil nailed wall induced by the rising groundwater
level, coming from a heavy rain and leakage of subsurface pipes. In this failure, much money was lost
and it brought about inconvenience to people who live
nearby. Engineers are currently confronted with the
pressing questions: how to evaluate their stability and
lower failure hazard, especially in soft soil.

A lot of literatures have reported the research results


of predicting the safety of soil nailed walls. Among
them, the perched groundwater within soil nailed walls
is commonly taken as external forces acting on soil
elements. However, as the groundwater level rises,
soil is observed to become softer and softer as its
water content increases when soil body is gradually
submerged. This fact causes a question: how to take
account into the softened soil in stability analysis of
soil nailed walls. In this paper, soil moisture content
is related with its internal friction angle and cohesive
force, respectively, and the water content replaces them
and is employed in stability of soil nailed walls in limit
analysis. During the analysis, the stiffness of both soil
and nails is also applied to determine the value of soil
dilatancy angle where the slipped surface exists and a
soil nail crosses the surface. The soil moisture content
and stiffness have not reported to apply in limit analysis. A case study of soil nailed wall in Wuhan city,
China is finally presented and preliminary conclusions
are drawn in this paper.

Figure 1. Photograph of a collapse case of soil nailed wall


(from a Wuhan news media, August, 2005).

The moisture content is the ratio of the mass of water


to the mass of solids in the soil while the cohesive
force C and internal friction angle  are shear strength
parameters of soil. By investigating test data of many
soil samples, it is found that the value of soil water

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SOIL WATER CONTENT AND ITS RELATION


WITH C AND 

Figure 4. An element and its stresses.

involves w, that will be detailedly presented in the


following sections in this paper.

Figure 2. Relation between w with internal friction angle.

Figure 3. Relation between w with cohesive angle.

content may be correlated with its shear strengths. For


example, the smaller the water content is, the larger
the values of C and  . The accurate and precise relation among them is difficult to obtain because of large
discrete of data. For clay, covering most area of Hankou town, Wuhan, its more than 1000 samples were
collected and experimented in laboratories. Based on
the test results of water content and its corresponding
values of C and  , the regression estimate is applied
to find out their relations. For soil with water content
ranged from 20% to 50%, relationships of between
w and C , and between w and  are constructed and
shown in figures 2 and 3, respectively (Liu et al, 2003).
 = 18.69 ln (100 W) + 77.23

(1)

C  = 71.48 ln (100 W) + 290.16

(2)

The above-illustrated relations are expressed


approximately using equations 1 and 2, which reflect
only varying tendency in clay. For other soils, these
relations are most possible to be incorrect.
After such equations (1) and (2) are established,
in the upper bound analysis, the water content w
can replace the parameters C and  , and then the
basic work rate equation in upper bound method only

The dilatancy angle is one of essential attributes of


soil and its value depends on soil density, components and type and others. In many laboratory tests,
the value of dilatancy angle is measured for all time to
be less than its corresponding internal friction angle
of soil while, according the flow rule, this value must
be equal to  for associated soil. The observed fact
is contradictive to the theory results when determining the value of dilatancy angle. Consequently, it will
be very interesting to find out a way of determining
its appropriate value, especially under circumstances
that a nail crosses a potential slip surface within a soil
nailed wall.
Lets take an element out along the transit layer at
the potential slipping surface shown in Figure 4. The
stresses over the unit area and potential deformation
are illustrated when soil at the layer is experiencing
shear dilation. In the Figure 4, the X-axis in X-Y coordinate system is parallel to the shear plane and the
Y-axis normal to the local surface; the Psx denotes the
shear stress and the Psy is the normal stress of soil over
unit area; the Pnx , Pny represent the normal and tangent
resistant forces of the nail, respectively; is the angle
of the nail inclined to normal direction of the shear
plane; Dc = displacement vector at the shear dilation
plane, and Dcx , Dcy are its two components in the X
and Y directions, respectively; the Ksx , Ksy represent
the tangent and normal stiffness of soil at the shear
plane, respectively; = dilatancy angle, which can be
expressed as
tan =

Psy Ksx
Psx Ksy

(3)

based on the stipulation of X-axle, Psx < 0, so


tan > 0. Here = for associated soil.
Assuming shear failure of soil obeys the MohrCoulomb yield criterion and after reinforcement of the
soil nail is considered to restrict dilation of soil at the

574

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DETERMINING THE DILATANCY ANGLE

transit layer, the equation 3 is deduced to a new one


given as below:
tan =

(Psy + Pny )Ksx


(Psx + Pnx )Ksy

(4)

According to the above stipulations, Psx + Pnx < 0,


and it implies tan > 0 in equation 4.
Using the equation 4, the shear dilatancy angle
is calculated. Lets make the comparison of equation
4 with 3: the size of |Psx + Pnx | in the denominator in
equation 4 is bigger than Psx in the equation 3, and the
value of Psy + Pny in numerator in equation 4 is less
than Psy in the equation 3 because of Pny < 0. Thus we
can readily know that the value of tan determined by
the equation 4 may be less than that by the equation 3.
Consequently, the dilatancy angle is decreased when
allowing for the restraint and restriction of the nail
to the dilation deformation at the shear plane. This
implies that the value of may vary within the range
of  > 0. It is due to the restraint of the anchored
force by the nail on the dilation tendency of soil at
shear plane that makes the dilatancy angle decrease.
From the above discussions, it can further be known
that the size of the dilatancy angle of soil is related not
only with soil density, and the location and inclination
of shear plane, but also with arrangement of the nail,
the stiffness of soil and the nail. The is unnecessarily
equal to the internal frictional angle  of soil because
at shear planes, its size may be less than the value of 
if a nail crosses the plane in potential slipping surface.
Like the moisture content introduced in last section,
the dilatancy angle defined in equation 4 can be used
in the upper bound equation instead of the internal
frictional angle  to evaluate safety of soil nailed walls
that will be studied in the following section.

PREDICTION TO STABILITY OF SOIL


NAILED WALLS

The 3D limit analysis has the similar analytical procedures as 2D problem. For the statement convenience,
select a two-dimensional example of soil nailed wall
shown in the figure 5 to illustrate the procedures.
A profile of soil nailed wall is divided into two regions
along a potential slipping surface : the active and passive regions. For soil body within the active region
and on slipping surface , its stresses at any points are
assumed to be either on or out of the yield surface. In
the region (figure 5), the ij , ij denote the plastic
stresses and kinematic admissible strain incremental
field, respectively; the vi represents the velocity jump
vector at i-th velocity discontinuity plane, satisfying
boundary conditions; the dDi indicates the energy dissipation on unit space; the Pi is an abstracted term of
the external loads causing plastic deformation of soil;

Figure 5. Discretized soil nailed wall.

the Ti is the anchored force provided by the i-th soil


nail. To the active region , it is discretized to a series
of continuous elements, such as prisms with four or
five or six faces. Under the supposition of the perfect
rigid of soil, the energy dissipation within elements
can be neglected. If equating the rate of work done
by external forces to the internal energy dissipation in
active region, namely
n

i=1

m

j=1

j +
j V
P

p

k=1

k =
 k V
W

q


dl al (5)

l=1

then the P will be bigger than or equal to the collapse


loads. In equation 5, the sign A denotes the boundary
of soil nailed wall; the denotes the dot product.
In the equation 5, n, m, p and q denote the number
of the nails, external loads, body forces and interfaces
j , W
 k represent force
of elements, respectively; Ti , P
vectors (KN) of the anchored force of i-th soil nail,
the j-th external force and the body force of the k-th
element, respectively and Vi , Vj , Vk are their corresponding velocity jump vectors (m/s); dl , al represent
the energy dissipation (KN/(m s)) over unit area and
interface size (m2 ) at the l-th velocity discontinuity
plane in an element, respectively.
As with in limit equilibrium methods, the factor of
safety Fs is used to scale the safety of soil nailed wall
and assumed to be more than 1.0. Its definition is based
on the reduction of soil cohesive force C or internal
friction angle  or limit friction force between a nail
and surrounding soil. Fs can be expressed as



Cs = C /Fs

s = tan1 (tan /Fs)
(6)

= /Fs
s
Unifying equations 5 and 6, the value of Fs is determined by iteration computation. The  and C in
equation 6 is replaced by equations 1 and 2, respectively; the in equation 4 substitutes the corresponding
item  in the system 6.

575

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

i +
i V
T

Table 1. The values of parameters of soil.

Soil

Thickness
t(m)

(kN/m3 )

C
(kPa)


( )

(kPa)

(1) fill
(2) clay
(3) Silt clay

1.2
2.8
4.0

18.5
18.7
18.2

4
19
10

15
10
5

15
22
11

5 APPLICATION
A foundation excavation is located in Wuchang town,
Wuhan city, China for building a 15-storey complex
building. The total area of excavation is about 1500 m2
in the shape of rectangular.The excavation depth varies
from 3.0 m to 5.0 m regarding the arrangement of
the various infrastructures. The existing buildings or
underground facilities are more than 10 m far away
from the excavation boundary. In terms of the excavation depth, there are three strata on site from the
top related with the excavation work. Their geologic
conditions are described as below.
1) The topsoil is fill and deposit, consisting of construction rubbish and clay blocks. It is loose with
an average thickness of 1.2 m;
2) Underlying the fill is clay with the average thickness of 2.8 m. It is yellow or grey;
3) The third layer of soil is the grey silt clay with low
shear strength and low permeability. It is a typical
kind of soil in Wuhan city with thickness varying
from 3.8 m to 5.0 m. It is saturated and in liquidplastic state.
The values of characteristic parameters for these
strata are list in table 1.
The values of Ksx , Ksy are assumed to be
1000 KN/m3 and 1000 KN/m3 for clay, respectively.
The groundwater on site is limited and comes mainly
from rainfall. During construction, the surface water
is collected and pumped out from the bottom of the pit.
Allowing for the various excavation depths, the
slops along excavation boundary are divided into five
sections. For each section, it has a different kind of
earth-retaining structure. For two among five sections,
soil nailed wall is selected with the final height of
3.4 m. Two rows of nails, 9 m and 8 m long, respectively, are arranged with the space of 1.5 m 1.2 m
to improve its stability shown in figure 6. A predefined slipping body in soil nailed wall is discretized
into 24 continuous elements of prism and symmetric to the central plane (figure 6). Using the program
3DSNW developed by the author, the factor of safety
is calculated and its value is equal to 2.25 after the
iteration of 7773 times when the dilatancy angle at all
interfaces are selected as their corresponding internal
friction angle of soil body (Yang, 2004).

Figure 6. A case of soil-nailed wall.

Figure 7. Relationship between water content and Fs.

In this case study, water content of clay is assumed


to increase gradually from 20% to 40% while all other
parameters are kept unchanged, and then the above
computing is repeated. Figure 7 demonstrates the calculation results. From this figure, the moisture content
is found to affect the value of Fs remarkably.
In order to consider effect of stiffness of both soil
and nails on the value of Fs , the similar computation
process is repeated again for the same slipping body
while the value of dilatancy angle is determined by
equation 4 on the shear planes in the potential slipping
surface where soil nails cross these planes. Different
result is obtained after iteration computation of 149
times: the factor of safety Fs is reduced from 2.25
to 2.17.
Using one of 2D limit equilibrium methods, Fs is
calculated equal to 1.85 for the same profile of this
soil nailed wall.
This excavation was completed in October 2001.
During construction, the soil-nailed wall was stable and no apparent deformation was observed. This
proves that calculation results in this case study reflect
its actual working states.

576

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

REFERENCES

CONCLUSIONS

Two important parameters, soil moisture content and


its stiffness, are explored in this paper how to affect
upper bound solutions. By establishing relation of
soil moisture content with its corresponding C ,  ,
respectively, the stability of soil nailed walls are associated with the value of moisture content, that has been
neglected in a vast of technical literature. The value of
dilatancy angle of soil is decreased when considering
soil stiffness. Though the results reported in this paper
are just preliminary and some issues remain unsettled, it is expected that they will draw scientists much
attention in future research of limit analysis.

Liu L.X. and Lao J.S. 2003, Determining soil shear strength
with its physical indexes, Urban Investigation and Survey, Vol.3, pp1314.
Yang Y. 2004, Three dimensional limit stability analysis of soil nailed wall (in Chinese). Chinese Journal
of Geotechnical Investigation & Surveying, 2004, No.5,
pp4446.

577

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soil improvement

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Centrifuge study on assessment of geological barrier of soft ground with


floating type sand drains
Binod L. Amatya, Jiro Takemura, Takeshi Ashida & Osamu Kusakabe
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

ABSTRACT: An issue of floating type sand drain (SD) installation in the soft geological barrier of an offshore
landfill site is presented.The issue is investigated through a model test in centrifuge.The sand drain installations in
such ground appreciably contributed to extra settlement in short time as expected and desired but such installations
were found appreciably deteriorating the quality of the barrier ground if an adequate intact depth of the ground
below SD didnt exist. Even a 5m intact depth of low permeable clay barrier is found inadequate to prevent
subsurface contamination under adopted hydraulic boundary. Thus the application of SD in soft barrier ground in
order to attain rapid consolidation and thus an extra depth/space for waste disposal should be considered carefully.

INTRODUCTION

Soft Geological Barrier

With increasing awareness of environmental problems,


a proper solid waste disposal practice for sustainable
environment has been a greater concern these days.
To meet certain environmental standard, many design
standards for waste disposal structures can be found
around the world as per the local needs. Some standards, specifications allow using natural geological
barrier in landfill design for protection of subsurface
environments. Relatively thick marine clay deposits,
normally found in the seabed of coastal areas in Japan,
are used as liner of offshore landfills for municipal
and industrial waste in Tokyo, Osaka (Aburatani et al.
1996; Shimizu, 1996). Growing scarcity of land in a
mega city like Tokyo and massive waste residue generation despite many efforts to reduce waste volume
has induced a necessity of an efficient waste disposal
with maximum use of the landfill capacity. Thus to
increase a capacity of such disposal sites, floating type
sand drains (SD) are installed in the soft barrier ground
to accelerate consolidation settlement and generate
extra depth for waste disposal. Applications of SDs
for reclamation are is very common in Japan. Large
scale sand drain works for the Kansai international
Airport Island (Arai et al., 1991) is one of the examples. Similarly, SDs are also employed for offshore
waste disposal project in Tokyo. But concern raised by
such massive SD installations is the deterioration of
the barrier underneath the landfill waste. An adequate
extra depth of SD free ground is very essential to prevent landfill leakage in the subsurface aquifers. Thus
the main objectives of this research are to investigate
and assess the effects of SDs in such barrier ground

Expected Settlement

Waste

Sand
Drains

Plume
Aquifer

Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of SD construction and its


possible impact.

and know their possible impact in ground water pollution using model scale test in centrifuge. A conceptual
diagram for the case is shown in Fig. 1.

BACKGROUND

To investigate the mentioned problem, an integrated


knowledge of geotechnical and geoenvironmental
field is required. Performance of a soft ground with
sand drains is a pure geotechnical issue, while an application of such composite ground as a barrier in landfill
site is a geoenvironmental issue. In geoenvironmental/

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ground water field, contaminant transport mechanism


in porous media is well established now (Bear &
Verruijit, 1987; Feeze and Cherry, 1979). In the background of such mechanism, the research is conducted.
Flow in porous media is very slow for a typical ground
comprised of clay and pollution migration phenomena
is diffusion dominated (Shakelford, 1989) but flow and
transport will be a complex phenomena once massive
SDs are installed in such low permeable ground. Contamination migration process in the ground will be
coupled with the consolidation process of the ground.
As such modeling in real field condition or full scale
modeling is practically very difficult to handle and
may become simply impossible as flow and transport
process may require to be monitored for decades. In the
glimpses of such reality, an option could be physical
modeling approaches. It is now well established fact
that centrifuge modeling could properly simulate diffusion dominated advection-dispersion phenomena. A
fundamental concept relating flow and transport modeling with centrifuge can be found in many literatures
(Arulanandan et al., 1988; Hensley and Schofield,
1991 etc.).
Modeling the problem through an application of
centrifuge has lot of advantages. Model can simulate
prototype effective stresses. The amount of preloading through surcharge loads for accelerating ground
consolidation can be generated easily. So soil-SD interaction could be simulated to some extend similar to
the real field stress conditions throughout the testing duration. Porosity variation can be modeled in the
ground similar to the prototype during test and this
feature is an important issue while working with offshore soft ground. Besides, transient process such as
consolidation under changing effective stresses, diffusion dominated advection-dispersion contaminant
transport which occurs in long prototype times can
be correctly replicated in a centrifuge model in short
model testing time. Thus the geotechnical centrifuge
which offers an alternative to field test is a mean
by which very high quality date can be economically
obtained which is hard to achieve in field tests.

CENTRIFUGE TEST PROGRAM

Model test was conducted in geotechnical laboratory


of Tokyo Tech using Mark III centrifuge. Specifications and details of the Mark III centrifuge are given
by Takemura et al. (1999). The test area in model comprised of three zones; SD free zone as non SD area
(NSA), SD up to the depth of half of the total barrier
thickness and SD up to the depth of two-third of the
total barrier thickness. SDs of 6.5 mm diameter were
constructed. As test was programmed for 100-G, such
dimension of SD simulates 0.65 m in prototype. As
installation of SDs in such waste prone zone is dubious,

84 mm

Waste (Landfill)

115mm

Clay Deposit

35mm

Aquifer
500 mm

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the model ground.

depth of SDs were varied at different zones to check


their effects and SD free area was also considered for
reference.
The general test procedure involved preparation of
model ground with desire strength and effective stress
profile followed by series of SD constructions, consolidating the ground with surcharge loads and full phase
advection-diffusion transport. The following sections
describe the test layouts, the model preparation, SD
construction, model ground consolidation, contaminant transport modeling, soil sampling and chemical
analysis.
3.1 Model ground description
A three layered model ground was prepared; a dense
sandy layer at base (as aquifer) with dry unit weight
of about 15.0 kN/m3 , soft thick clay layer at mid (as
geological barrier) and loose sandy layer at top(as
waste layer) with dry unit weight of about 13.7 kN/m3.
The schematic diagram of the model ground is shown
in Fig 2. The test was carried out in a strong specimen box (strong box) with inside dimension of 15 cm
width, 50 cm length and 35 cm depth. Model barrier
was constructed using Kaolin clay. Properties of the
Kaolin clay are shown in Table 1. Such clay has low ion
exchange capacity and is less reactive in nature. Thus
selecting such clay, the complication due to sorption
mechanism of ground can be reduced. A dense porous
ground underneath clay layer was modeled using uniformly graded silica sand (grade VI). The physical
properties of silica sand are given in Table 2.
Silica sand was also used for loose sandy ground
over clay layer. This layer was provided to simulate
surcharge weight due to waste deposit on the top of
barrier and was inundated with synthetic solution mix
of red ink and NaCl (Model Contaminant Solution).
A mixture of pilot red ink (INK-350-R) about 16
times diluted with pure water and NaCl (approximately
0.05 mol/lit) was used for a synthetic solution. The purpose of red ink solution is to trace the flow path and
visualize the leakage plume from the SDs easily. Quantitative chemical analysis has not been done regarding
the ink constituents and sorption process between ink
and the soil. Besides NaCl could act as a nonreactive

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Properties of Kaolin clay.


2.61
77.5%
30.3%
47.2%
0.65
0.1
1.6*109 m/sec
115

30

40
NSA-2

NSA-1
50
40

NSA-3

40

Specific Gravity (Gs )


Liquid Limit (WL)
Plastic Limit (WP)
Plasticity Index (IP)
Compression Index (Cc )
Swelling Index (Cs )
Permeability at Void Ratio of 1.6
CEC(meq/100g)

75

500

150

Table 1.

SDA-1

40

SFA-1

SDA-2

SFA-2
40

Non SD Area

SD of 1/2 of H
(1/2 SD area)
Sampling
Area

30

SD of 2/3 of H
(2/3 SD area)

SD

Figure 4. Sand drain configuration in the model ground.


Table 2.

Physical properties of silica sand.

Specific Gravity (Gs )


D50 (mm)
D10 (mm)
Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu )
Coefficient of Curvature (Cc )

40kPa

2.56
0.235
0.174
1.46
0.99

Due to Vertical
Load

Due to seepage
Force

115 mm
Clay

100
kPa
Figure 3. Effective pressure profile during 1-G consolidation stage.

tracer as both Cl and Na+ are nonreactive ion with


very low sorption capacity. Combination of such tracers and the ground could much simplify the flow and
transport mechanism in the ground which is much
complicated by the SDs.
3.2

Model ground preparation

A sandy ground of 35 mm thickness was prepared in


the model container using silica sand. This layer will
serve as a subsurface water bearing strata and also control the bottom hydraulic boundary of the model clay
layer. Basically this layer is considered as uncontaminated aquifer. A pore pressure transducer (PPT or P)
was installed in this layer to determine hydraulic head
during test. Clay slurry with water content of about
2 times the liquid limit was de-aired and poured into
the container on top of the bottom sand layer. Laboratory floor consolidation was conducted stepwise
up to maximum vertical pressure of 40 kPa. Before
40 kPa loading i.e. after completion of the 32 kPa
consolidation, PPTs were inserted into the clay ground

at various depths to monitor pore pressure dissipation in the ground during consolidation. Excess soil
from the model was trimmed off once the consolidation under 32 kPa completes. Trimming of the model
ground was done in such a way that about 100 mm
(10 m in prototype) clay ground would remain once
all consolidation including seepage and centrifugal
consolidation complete.
Seepage consolidation of the model ground was
done applying seepage force with positive pressure of
30 kPa at the top and negative pressure of 30 kPa at the
bottom of the ground through the bottom sand layer.
Details of the vertical and seepage consolidation step
up are explained in Amatya et al. 2006. This consolidation system develops consolidation with 60 kPa more
at base gradually increasing with depth from the top.
The variation of effective stress profile up to this stage
was equivalent to that of the model clay in self weight
consolidation under 100-G (Fig. 3) approximately. The
main purpose of seepage consolidation was to produce
the model ground with strength increasing with depth
and reduce the centrifugal consolidation time. The
ground settlement and PPTs installed in the ground
were continuously monitored during this stage.
Once an adequate degree of consolidation was
achieved by the seepage consolidation process, the
consolidation set up was dismantled and surface of
the clay layer was made clean. Installation of SDs
was done in square grid pattern as shown in Fig. 4
at a spacing of 40 mm*40 mm (equivalent conversion:
4 m*4 m) in normal laboratory floor in 1-G. A hollow plastic straw (6.5 mm diameter) of desire length
was first penetrated in the ground as casing tube and
soil trapped inside the straw was removed by a miniature auger. Silica sand was used to fill the hole for
SD at relative density of about 75%. Finally straw was
drawn out carefully and some minor compaction by
thin rod was performed. Once all SDs were installed,
a require amount of silica sand was poured on the clay
surface (as waste deposit) to generate about 70 Pa overburden load during 100G centrifugation. Finally this
layer was inundated with the contaminant solution. A
typical cross section of the model ground with SDs
and instrumentations is shown in Fig 5. Three potentiometers (PM) were also installed as shown in Fig. 5.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3.3

Modeling advective-diffusive transport

Diffusion dominated transport was maintained during


model set up in centrifuge platform. During the time
no seepage flow in the model was allowed. Such no
seepage flow stage is designated as NSS. Once all set
up works were completed, consolidation of the ground
was maintained for at least 12 hrs in 100-G and finally,
seepage flow was induced in the model by about unit
hydraulic gradient. Such stage is designated as SS.
NSS stage may vary test to test depending upon the
time required for model preparation in 1-G and HighG. SS stage was maintained at lease 30 hrs model time
(about 34 yrs prototype time). The expected effective
stress profile during the SS stage for non SD area
(NSA) is shown in Fig. 6
3.4

Soil sampling and chemical analysis

On completion of the test, the centrifuge was stopped.


The model container was removed from the centrifuge
platform. Soil samples were collected at different location using thin wall sampling tube of 27 mm diameter
(21 mm in some locations of SD). Samplings were
done at SD area (SDA), some other free area designated as non-SD area (NSA) and SD free area
(SFA) at various locations as shown in Fig. 4 throughout the depth. From each sample, moisture content
and Cl content of pore water were determined. The

Cl content was measured using Ion chromatography


machine.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Settlement history and void ratio profile of the


Barrier Ground
The test was conducted for 145.8 hr (166 years) noseepage stage (NSS) (pure diffusion transport period)
and 33.5 hr (38 years) seepage stage (SS) (Advection and diffusion transport period). Total operation
of centrifuge in high G was 52.5 hrs.
The hydraulic gradient applied in the model ground
during SS stage of the test is shown in Fig. 7. A little
fluctuation in the hydraulic gradient was inevitable as
there was continuous draw down and frequent supply
of the model solution. So from the figure, hydraulic
boundary in the model could be understood. Complete
settlement profiles during test are shown in Fig. 8. The
profiles give and idea how the different zones of the
ground went though the consolidation process. In the
SD zone, major settlement was found quite quickly
and was achieved with in very few hours of centrifugal consolidation as expected while the NSA was still
possessing some degree of consolidation settlement
till the end stage of the test. This shows that SDs of the
1.2

PM-2

PM-3

1.0
Hydraulic Gradient(i)

PM-1

84 mm
25 mm
115 mm

Clay 40 mm
Ground 40 mm

NSS
0.4

SS

P
35mm

0.6

0.2

60mm

0.8

75mm

0.0

20

40

Figure 5. Typical cross section of the model ground


with SDs.

80
120
140
60
100
Prototype Time(Years*1.14)

160

180

200

Figure 7. Hydraulic gradient variation in the model.


Prototype Time (Years*1.14)

Due to Over-burdened
Load

Prototype Settlement (mm*100)

70kPa

Due to self weight


of soil

100mm
Clay

Due to seepage
130
kPa

100
kpa

20

40

60

80

100

120 140

160

180

200

0
2
4
NSA
NSA

6
8
10

2/3
2/3 SD
SD Area
Area

12
14

1/2 SD area
area

16

Figure 6. Effective pressure profile during High-G seepage


stage.

Figure 8. Settlement of the ground at various locations.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ground performed quite well from the consolidation


settlement aspect. But distinct difference of settlement
between 1/2 SD area and 2/3 SD could not be observed.
They both were found quite similar. Due to some problem in PM, the initial two hours of consolidation data
could not be monitored for 1/2 SD area.
Moisture content and void ratio profiles for NSA,
SFA and SDA are shown in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 respectively. The m/c for NSA and SFA are found almost
close to each other so they are presented as single profile in average m/c plotting. The derived void ratio
based on m/c and expected void ratio from the imposed
Average Moisture content
20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Prototype Depth (m)

0
2

NSA and SFA


4

SDA
6
8
10

Figure 9. Average moisture content profile for the model at


different locations.

load/stress in the ground is presented in Fig. 10. This


shows that SD area almost achieved full degree of consolidation. The void ratio for SDA was found little
smaller than that for the other areas. This could be also
due to smearing effect in the ground during SD installation. From the figure, it could also be confirmed that
centrifuge generated a barrier ground with void ratio
gradually increasing with depth. This is an important
property of a soft ground and also one of the important
features centrifuge model can generate.
4.2 Contaminant migration and leakage assessment
Landfill leakage was investigated at first by visual
inspection of the model ground during model excavation through section-wise look. Clear bands of red
and yellow color could be seen in the ground as shown
in the Fig. 11. The NSA seemed to be very effective in
protecting the leakage to the bottom aquifer whereas
the 2/3 SD area seemed unable to protect the leakage sufficiently. The yellow band could be seen almost
reaching the bottom depth of the barrier.
To further verify and quantify such flow and transport, Cl ion was investigated through out the depth at
various locations as mentioned before. Fig. 12 shows
the Cl concentration depth profile (CDP) for various
zones. The CDP profile shows that NSA is significantly protecting the leakage while some amount of
Cl has reached the bottom depth of the barrier in the

Void Ratio
0.70

0.90

1.10

1.30

Cl- Concentration (mg/lit)


1.50

1.70

1.90

400

1200

800

1600

2000

Expected Profile

Prototype Depth (m)

Prototype Depth(m)

0.50
0
2

Based on M/C for SFA


4
Based on M/C for NSA
6
Based on M/C for SDA
8

SS = 38 yrs

NSA

SF-A1

SDA-1
SDA-2
8

SFA-2

Figure 12. Chloride CDP for model ground at various


locations.

Figure 11. Model Cross section along 1st SD row.

585

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10

10

Figure 10. Expected and observed void ratio profile of the


barrier ground.

NSS =166 rs

case of both 1/2 SD are and 2/3 SD area. Particularly,


2/3 SD area seems to be unsafe as significant amount
of contamination has penetrated the bottom part of the
barrier. So about 4 m depth of the barrier below 2/3
SD area (before consolidation) has been insufficient
to protect leakage to the subsurface aquifer. Similarly,
about 5.5 m depth of the barrier below 1/2 SD area
(before consolidation) was also found not adequate
enough to prevent the leakage to penetrate down.
Japanese code of practice permits that natural clay
of greater or equal to 5 m thickness with hydraulic
conductivity of less or equal to 107 m/s could be utilized as a liner (Kamon, 2001). But such specification
seems to be insufficient for the ground improved with
SDs. Also the apparent permeability of the ground
increased significantly. The permeability in the model
during the test was found around 2.6*107 m/s which
is significantly larger than the permeability of intact
ground without SD. The chemical test of leachate collected at the end of the test showed about 350 mg/lit
of Cl which also indicates significant contamination
of the bottom sand layer (aquifer).So for the mentioned ground conditions, landfill leakage seems to
be significant.
5

CONCLUSIONS

A centrifuge model test was successfully conducted in


order to study performance of soft geological barrier
ground improved with floating type sand drains. The
installation of sand drains in such ground appreciably contributed for an extra settlement in short time as
expected and desired; whereas such installations was
found appreciably deteriorating the quality of the barrier ground if an adequate intact depth of the ground
below SD didnt exist. In the adopted hydraulic boundary and for the adopted SD spacing & pattern, the test
results showed that the installation of SD up to the
half of its thickness in 11.5 m thick ground has allowed
some pollutant to reach the bottom aquifer. Further, the
installations of SD up to 2/3 of its thickness in 11.5 m
think ground appreciably deteriorated the barrier quality. Such deterioration could also be confirmed from
both apparent mass permeability measurement and

chemical analysis of the discharged leachate from the


model ground. So, if the hydraulic flow in the ground is
not so predominant, the intact 5 m depth of the barrier
ground below SD may be adequate enough to prevent
pollution leakage.
REFERENCES
Aburatani, S., Hayashi, Y. and Nishikawa, T. (1996): Offshore waste disposal by Osaka Bay Phonix Project, Second
International congress on Environmental Geotechnics,
Japan, pp 623628.
Amatya, B.L., Takemura, J., Khan, M.R.A, Kusakabe, O.,
(2006). Centrifuge model test of groundwater pollution
due to construction of pile foundations in waste disposal site. International Journal of Offshore and Polar
Engineering, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp 6572
Arai, Y., Oikawa, K., Yamagata, N., (1991). Large-scale sand
drain works for the Kansai International Airport Island,
International conference on geotechnical engineering for
coastal development (Geo-coast 91), Japan, pp 281286
Arulanandan, K., Thompson, P.Y., Kutter, B.L., Meegoda, N.
J., Muraleertharan, K. K. &Yogachandran, C. (1988). Centrifuge modeling of transport processes for pollutants in
soils. J. Geotech. Engng Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs 114, No. 2,
pp. 185205
Bear, J. & Verrujit, A. (1987). Modeling ground water flow
and pollution. Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel.
Freeze, R. A., and Cherry, J. A. C. (1979). Groundwater.
Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall.
Hensely, P. J. and Schofield, A.N. (1991). Accelerated physical modeling of hazardous-waste transport. Geotechnique
41, No. 3 pp 447465
Kamon, M. (2001). Environmental issues of geotechnical
engineering, Proceedings of the fifteenth international
conference on soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Istanbul, Vol. 4, pp 26292674
Shimizu, K. (1996) Geotechnics of waste landfill. Second
International congress on Environmental Geotechnics,
Japan, pp 14751491.
Shackelford, C.D. (1989). Diffusion of Contaminant through
waste containment barriers, Transportation Research
Record 1219, pp 169182.
Takemura, J., Kondoh, M., Esaki, T., Kouda, M. and
Kusakabe, O. (1999). Centrifuge model tests on double
propped wall excavation in soft clay, Soils and Foundation,
Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 7587

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

The use of dynamic compaction in liquefaction hazards mitigation at


reclaimed lands in Assalouyeh petro-chemical complex-Iran
S.S. Yasrobi
Department of Engineering, Tarbiat Modares Univ., Tehran, Iran

M. Biglari
Pazhoohesh Omran Rahvar Consulting Eng., Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: Assalouyeh Petro-chemical complex is located at south of Bushehr province (southern of Iran)
and is surrounded by Zagross mountain chains from north and Persian Gulf from south. Lands are reclaimed by
hydraulic filling into the Gulf in order to create a platform for the required buildings construction. The filling
depth is variable from 5 to 14 meters and the materials were mostly gravels with fine sands and non-plastic silts.
Heavy dynamic compaction was suggested for densification of materials and mitigation of liquefaction potential
due to specified earthquake levels. The initial subsoil conditions were investigated by bore holes and Standard
Penetration Test.
This paper presents dynamic compaction techniques, used to compact the reclaimed lands with filling depth
of 5 to 14 meters. The trial dynamic compactions were performed in order to find the suitable compaction
pattern and weight and also the field response to dynamic compaction. Liquefaction potential was analyzed and
measured using SPT records and other field tests like large scale in-place density and Plate Load Test (PLT)
were used to verify obtaining design requirements. Analyses showed the suitable compaction pattern and energy
that liquefaction potential was mitigated for the highest design earthquake level.

INTRODUCTION

Pars energy economy specific area is located in Assalouyeh, the south of Iran and north side of Persian
Gulf (Figure 1.). As the necessity of neighboring different petrochemical sites and the lack of the sufficient
flat areas was understood, land reclamation by filling
soil was performed up to 14 m depth in an area about
2200000 m2 .
Regarding to high earthquake hazard in region
and high design loads due to petrochemical industry
structures, improvement of weak filled material for
reduction of liquefaction potential and settlement of
footings carried out. Dynamic compaction technique
was selected for treatment of filling material based on
material type.
Dynamic compaction has become a popular method
worldwide for deep improvement of loose soils in last
decades. The method involves the repeated application of high-energy impacts on the soil surface using
tampers weighing 1040 tones, falling from heights of
1030 m, compacting the soil strata to a considerable
depth.
This paper describes the characteristic of site geological and geotechnical aspects of materials and

Figure 1. Location of project site.

dynamic compaction project in Assalouyeh. Moreover, the performance and efficiency of dynamic
compaction for treatment of filled material is
discussed.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

LIQUEFACTION IN GRAVELY SOILS

Cyclic behavior of gravely soils is to somewhat different with sandy ones. Now there are good investigations which show liquefaction risk in gravely soils
(Evans (1987), Harder (1988), Hynes (1988) and
Andrus (1994)). Documents of past earthquakes such
as Mino-Owari earthquake 1891 in Japan (Tokimatsu
and Yoshimi, 1983), Fuki earthquake, 1948 in Japan
(Ishihara, 1985), Alaska earthquake, 1964 in USA
(Coulter and Migliaccio, 1966), Tangshan earthquake,
1976 in China (Wang, 1984), Borah Peak earthquake,
1983 in USA (Harder, 1988 and Youd et al., 1986),
Poland earthquake, 1992 (Maurenbrecher et al., 1995)
and Hokkaido earthquake, 1993 in Japan (Kokusho
et al., 1995) show the liquefaction risk in gravely soils
(Amini and Chakravrty, 2003).
These soils do, however often differ in behavior
from, sandy soils in two ways: (1) they can be much
more pervious, and so can often rapidly dissipate cyclically generated pore pressures, and (2) due to the mass
of their layer particles, the coarse gravelly soils are seldom deposited gently and so do not often occur in
the very loose states more often encountered with finer
sandy soils. Sandy soils can range from very loose to
very dense, while the very loose state is relatively
uncommon in gravely deposits and coarser soils (Seed
et al., 2003).
The apparent drainage advantages of coarse,
gravely soils can be defeated if their drainage potential is circumvented by either; (1) being surrounded
and encapsulated by finer, less pervious materials, (2)
if drainage is internally impeded by the presence of
finer soils in the void spaces between the coarser particles (3) if the layer or stratum of coarse soil is of large
dimension, so that the distance over which drainage
must occur (rapidly) during an earthquake is large. In
these cases, the coarse soils should be considered to be
of potentially liquefiable type, and should be evaluated
accordingly (Seed et al. 2003).
Kai-Hua Tan (2004) illustrated that in soils by more
than 25% gravel, the liquefaction is affected by gravels and in soils containing more than 50% gravel,
the liquefaction behavior is completely dominated by
behavior of gravel materials. Furthermore he shows
strength against liquefaction in gravel with particles
about 1 in diameter, is two or three times more than
strength of gravel particles about 0.5 in diameter and
more gravel content causes the less volume change
during liquefaction.
Motoki Kazama et al., 2003 directed a research
on liquefaction and settlement in reclaimed ground
with gravely decomposed granite soil by modeling
the Hyogo-Ken Nambu, 1995 earthquake. They have
investigated three models for centrifuge test with
coarse size less than 30 mm, less than 2 mm and
between 2 to 30 mm and modeled reclaimed layer

equal to 16 m depth in 1:40 scale. Their tests results


show independence of the three grain size distribution, shear failure occurred between 8 to 12 m depth
due to strong motion and liquefaction degree was not
uniform in the depth direction.
Also, Amini and Chakratory, 2004, studied about
liquefaction of layered sandy and gravelly deposits.
In their research program series of undrained cyclic
triaxial tests were performed on both uniform and layered sandy gravely specimens with gravel content of
10, 30, 50 and 70%. The results indicated that the
method of sample preparation and the different soil
fabric did not significantly influence the liquefaction
resistance of the sand-gravel composite. It is shown
that the effects of confining pressure are similar for
both homogeneous and layered soil condition.
In this situation, as the soil of reclaimed land is
gravelly, this study can help to define the liquefaction
behavior of gravely soil.

Assaluyeh is located between 52 , 30 , 40 to 52 , 34 ,


19 geographical length and 27 , 32 , 13 to 27 , 25 ,
5 geographical weight in southern band of Zagros
Mountain with high seismic risks.
Seabed dip in Assalouyeh coast is around 4% and
for arriving to an area width 300 m is required to be
filled up to 12 m depth under sea water level and about
2 m above that. Ground profile under seabed consisted
of up to 1 m loose sandy gravel, 0.3 m conglomerate
and the rest layers include dense sandy gravel to gravelly sand with some cementation. This coast is located
near to folded mountains in north. Existence of some
faults around site and earthquake history of region is
showed that the earthquake hazard is serious. Based
on earthquake hazard analysis, design based earthquake magnitude is 7.2 and peak ground acceleration
is 0.3 g.(Yasrobi and Asghari 2004).
Geoseismic risk analysis for Assaluyeh was done
with several methods and average of maximum horizontal acceleration have suggested for 50% probability
(return period 75 years) 0.23 g and for 10% probability
(return period 475 years) 0.42 g. The result of geoseismic investigation shows that Assaluyeh is located in a
very high relative risk in Iran (IIEES, 2000).

FILLING MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Reclamation was done by filling the material in the


sea. These fillings include various depths from 5 to 14
meters. For determining the optimum energy for each
depth at least two patterns were suggested. Total area
of reclaimed land was about 220 hectares and the fill

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

GEOLOGICAL AND GEOSEISMIC OF SITE

materials were classified as silty gravel (GM) and in


some occasion silty sand (SM) according to Unified
Soil Classification System (USCS) (Figure 2.).
Soil natural density before dynamic compaction is
about 18 kN/m3 for top 3 meters and critical water table
depth in mean see level (M.S.L.) is +0.8 m.
To determine the site characterization, some insitu tests including standard penetration tests (SPT),
plate load test (PLT), large scale in place density
test and classification tests were performed before
compaction. Figures (3) to (6) show the borehole
logs.

100
90

DESIGN OF DYNAMIC COMPACTION

The first correlation for predicting the affected depth


by compaction was suggested by Menard and Boris,
1975, which relates affected depth to applied energy:
D<

WH

70

(1)

D: Effective depth (m)


H: High of drop (m)
W: Weight of tamper (ton)
With increasing dynamic compaction projects more
investigators were done to modify this correlation.
Leonards et al., 1980, was suggested equation below
with n = 0.5:

D = n WH

80
Percent Finer by weight

(2)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001

0.01

0.1

1
10
Particle Size (mm)

100

1000

Figure 2. Grain size distribution curve of filling materials.


SPT Number
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

-2

Later researches were illustrating different range


for n coefficient depending on soil type. Mitchell and
Katti, 1981, suggested n = 0.375 to 0.7 for granular
soils and Bjolgerud and Haug, 1983, n = 1.0 for rock
fills. Finally based on researchers suggestion in this
study the first estimate of n-value was assumed equal
to 0.5.
Another important parameter which helps preliminary design is relation between dynamic compaction
energy and standard proctor compaction energy which
was suggested by Lukas, 1995, for permeable granular soils about 33% to 41%, which in this study this
parameter was assumed between 40% and 100%.
Based on these assumptions dynamic compaction
process was designed by 20 to 35 (ton) tamper weight,
8 to 27 drops and 13 to 30 m height in phases with
maximum 17 m grid distance. Falling condition was
restricted fall (not free fall) and detail of design was
according to FHWA (figure 4).

Depth (m)

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12
Z1-T1-BC-BH1

Z1-T2-BC-BH2

Z2-T1-BC-BH3

Z2-T2-BC-BH4

Z3-T1-BC-BH5

Z3-T1-BC-BH6

Z3-T2-BC-BH7

Z3-T3-BC-BH8

Z3-T4-BC-BH9

Z3-T4-BC-BH10

Z4-T1-BC-BH11

Z4-T2-BC-BH12

Figure 3. Before compaction SPT numbers.

Figure 4. A view of dynamic compaction in Assalouyeh.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DETERMINATION OF AFFECTED DEPTH


AND MODIFIED N COEFFICIENT

To evaluate dynamic compaction effects, several standard penetration tests (SPT) were performed according

to ASTM D 1586. The brief tests results are presented


in figures (5) to (8).
Concerning liquefaction hazard thresholds in this
site which was determined based on NCEER, 1997,
and maximum predicted based acceleration and magnitude, the effective depth (D (m)) was calculated.

SPT Number
0

10

20

30

40

SPT Number
50

60

-1

10

20

30

40

50

60

-2

-2

-4
Depth (m)

Depth (m)

-3
-4

-6

-8
-5
-10
-6
-12
-7
Z1-T2-BH4

Z1-T2-BH5

Z1-T2-BH6

Figure 5. SPT results in trial 1 after dynamic compaction.

10

20

30

40

Z3-T2-BH18

Z3-T2-BH19

Z3-T2-BH20

Figure 7. SPT results in trial 3 after dynamic compaction.

SPT Number

SPT Number
0

Z3-T2-BH17

50

60

-1

-2

-2

-4

10

20

30

40

50

60

Depth (m)

Depth (m)

-3
-4
-5

-6
-8

-6

-10

-7

-12

-8

-14

-9
-16
-10
Z2-T1-BH7

Z2-T1-BH8

Z2-T1-BH9

Figure 6. SPT results in trial 2 after dynamic compaction.

Z4-T2-BH34

Z4-T2-BH35

Z4-T2-BH36

Figure 8. SPT results in trial 4 after dynamic compaction.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Z4-T2-BH33

10

Dry Density (kN/m3)

y = 0.4025x

y = 0.3556x

15

20

25

30

-0.5

7
y = 0.2985x

-1
Depth (m)

6
D(m)

10

5
4
3

-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3

-3.5

-4

0
0

10

15

20

25

Before Compaction

30

(WH)^0.5

After Compaction

Figure 12. Large Scale in-place density results.

Figure 9. True n coefficient after dynamic compaction for


5 m distance from W.T.
12
y = 0.3059x
10

y = 0.4025x

D(m)

8
y = 0.2469x
6
4
2
0
0

10

20

30

40

(WH)^0.5

Figure 13. Some views of plate load test.

Figure 10. True n coefficient after dynamic compaction for


3 m distance from W.T.

These figures show the true average of n coefficient


for this site. This value for the region with 5 m distance
from water table level is navr. = 0.35. according to this
curve the maximum n is determine about 0.4 and the
minimum one is about 0.29 and these values are for
effective depth about 6 to 9 meters. For the region with
3 m distance from water table level the same values are
navr. = 0.3, nMax. = 0.4 and nMin. = 0.25.

Figure 11. Some views of large in-site density test.

According to these effective depths it is possible to


modify the assumed n = 0.5. For this purpose effective depth for each region was plotted versus second
root of applied energy ((WH)0.5 ). Figures (9) and (10)
show these correlations for regions with 5 m and 3 m
distance from water table respectively.

To evaluate the compaction effects it was also assisted


from large scale in-situ density and plate load test.
Large scale in-situ density test was done according
to ASTM D 5030 the density pit is 1.8 m in diameter (figure 11.). These tests were performed up to
maximum 3 meters depth. Figure (12) shows several
results of these tests. As it is shown in this figure
density was improved about 3 (kN/m3 ) after dynamic
compaction.
Several plate load tests were performed before
and after dynamic compaction according to ASTM D

591

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

OTHER IN-SITU TESTS

1194 up to maximum 3 m depth (figure 13.). From


these tests subsurface reaction modulus was obtained.
Figure (14) shows these results. According to these
results subsurface reaction modulus improved about
10 (kg/cm3 ) after compaction.

Subgrade Reaction Modulus (kgr/cm3)


0

10

20

30

0
-0.5
Depth (m)

-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5

40

LIQUEFACTION ANALYSIS

Liquefaction analysis according to NCEER, 1997,


has been performed for each borehole with different
earthquake levels. The effect of fine content in these
analyses has been taken in to account. Furthermore
the effect of the liquefiable soil layer depth on ground
surface induced damage was investigated by two methods, Iwasaki, 1982, and Ishihara, 1985.Table (1) shows
the summary of liquefaction analysis before and after
dynamic compaction.
It clearly shows that there was liquefaction risk
before compaction but applying the dynamic compaction has mitigated the liquefaction risk for design
earthquakes.

-3
-3.5

-4
Before Compaction

After Compaction

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Table 1. shows dynamic compaction method can mitigate the liquefaction risk in reclaimed lands with 5 to
14 meters fills.

Figure 14. Plate load tests results.


Table 1.

Summary of dynamic compaction energy effect on liquefaction hazards.

Depth of
Liquefaction
Compaction No. of
liquefiable
Trial Pattern situation
boreholes soil (m)
M = 6.5 aMAX = 0.23 M = 7.0 aMAX = 0.3
2

M = 7.5 aMAX = 0.42

Before
After

1
3

4.6

Not liquefiable
Not liquefiable

Not liquefiable
Not liquefiable

Before
After

1
3

3.3

Before
After

2
4

liquefiable
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefiable
Mitigation of
liquefaction

liquefiable
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefiable
liquefiable
Liquefaction in one Liquefaction without
B.H. without induced induced ground damage
ground damage

Before
After

1
4

5.2

Before
After

1
4

5.6

Before
After

2
4

6.5

Before
After

1
4

11

Before
After

1
4

11

liquefiable
Mitigation of
liquefaction

liquefiable
Liquefaction in one
B.H. without induced
ground damage
liquefiable
liquefiable
Liquefaction in two Liquefaction in three
B.H. without induced B.H. without induced
ground damage
ground damage
liquefiable
liquefiable
Mitigation of
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefaction
liquefiable
liquefiable
Mitigation of
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefaction
liquefiable
liquefiable
Mitigation of
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefaction

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

liquefiable
Liquefaction in one B.H.
without induced ground
damage
liquefiable
Mitigation of liquefaction

liquefiable
Liquefaction in three B.H.
without induced ground
damage
liquefiable
Liquefaction in three B.H.
with induced ground
damage in two B.H.
liquefiable
Liquefaction without
induced ground damage
liquefiable
Liquefaction without
induced ground damage
liquefiable
Liquefaction without
induced ground damage

Test results shows the n value depends on distance


from water table as well as weight of tamper and height
of drop. Furthermore it can be suggested the n coefficient for silty gravel (GM) with some silty sand (SM)
soil under restricted fall (not free fall) are as below:
n = 0.35 distance from W.T. about 5
n = 0.3 distance from W.T. about 3
REFERENCES
Amini, F., and Chakravrty, A., 2003, Liquefaction Testing
of Layered Sand-Gravel Composites, Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 27, No. 1, Paper ID GTJ10390-271,
pp. 3646.
Andrus, R. D., 1994. In situ characterization of gravelly soils
that liquefied in the 1983 Borah Peak Earthquake. Ph.D.
Dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.
Evans, M. D., 1987. Undrained Cyclic Triaxial Testing of
Gravels: the Effect of Membrane Compliance. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of California, Berkeley.
Hynes, M. E., 1988. Pore Pressure Generation Characteristics of Gravel under Undrained Loading. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of California, Berkeley.
Ishihara, K., 1985, Suitability of Natural Deposits During Earthquake, Proceedings of the 11th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 1. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands,
pp. 321376.

Investigation of Geoseismic and seismic risk zonation for


Assaluyeh, 2000, International Institute earthquake Eng.
and seismology, Vol. 3.
Kai-Hua Tan, 2004, Effects of Large-Size Particles on
Liquefaction-Related Behavior of Granular Soils, Masters Thesis, Department and Graduate Institute of Construction Engineering.
Motoki Kazama, Noriaki Sento, Hirofumi Omura, Hirofumi
Toyota, and Masaki Kitazume, 2003, Liquefaction and
Settlement of Reclaimed Ground with Gravelly Decomposed Granite Soil, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 43, No. 3,
pp. 5772.
Seed, R. B., Cetin, K. O., Moss, R. E. S., Kammerer, A. M.,
Wu, J., Pestana, J. M., Riemer, M. F., Sancio, J. B.,
Bray, J. D., Kayen, R. E., and Faris, A., 2003, Recent
Advances in Soil Liquefaction Engineering:A Unified and
Consistent Framework, 26th Annual ASCE Los Angeles Geotechnical Spring Seminar, Keynote Presentation,
H. M. S. Queen Mary, Long Beach, California, April 30,
2003.
Yasrobi, S. S., and Asghari, E., 2004, Dynamic Compaction
in Assaluyes Iran, Proceedings: Fifth International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering
New York, NY, April 1317, 2004, paper No. 8.26.
Youd, T., Harp, E. L., Keefer, D. K., and Wilson, R. C.,
1986, The Borah Peak, Idaho Earthquake of October 28,
1983 Liquefaction, Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 2, No. 1,
pp. 7189.

593

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Optimization of strength and ductility of Class C fly ash stabilized


soft subgrade soils
Sazzad Bin-Shafique
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas - San Antonio, USA

Aykut Senol
Geotechnical Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey

Craig Benson & Tuncer Edil


Dept of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA

ABSTRACT: Self-cementing Class C fly ashes are being increasingly used for stabilizing soft subgrade for
road construction. Fly ash stabilized soils are usually very brittle in nature, which does not follow the philosophy
of flexible pavement structure. This paper discusses how the strength and ductility of Class C fly ash stabilized soft
soils varies with the molding water contents during stabilization. Unconfined compression tests were conducted
on a series of specimens prepared with stabilized soils to determine the strength and strain at failure. Soft
soils were mixed with Class C fly ash at different molding water contents and at different doses to prepare test
specimens. One set of test specimens were molded just after mixing, where as, a second set of test specimens
were molded 2 hrs after mixing to mimic the field delay during construction. All test specimens were allowed to
cure in a wet room for seven days and subjected to test. Test results show that strength is highest at a particular
molding water content and decreases with increasing or decreasing water content, where as, ductility increases
with increasing molding water content and increases rapidly at the wet side of the optimum water content. An
acceptable region is developed and a specified range of water content is recommended to optimize the strength
and ductility of the fly ash stabilized layer.

INTRODUCTION

The staggering increase in the production of fly ash


and its disposal in an environmentally friendly-manner
is increasingly becoming a matter of global concern
(Kaniraj and Gayathri 2003). More than 71 Mg of fly
ash is generated in the US each year as a byproduct
of burning coal at electric power plants. Approximately 40% of this fly ash is re-used in a variety of
beneficial applications; the remainder is landfilled at
considerable expense (ACAA 2004). The increased
cost and potential environmental impacts of landfilling
has caused regulatory agencies to encourage more beneficial use of fly ash (Edil et al. 2002, Senol et al. 2006).
Fly ash is frequently used in Portland cement concrete (Kyper 1992, Prabakar et al. 2004, Agarwal
2005). Efforts are underway to improve the use of fly
ash in several ways, with the geotechnical application
also being an important aspect of these efforts. The
main geotechnical uses of fly ash are in the construction of highway embankments, fills, landfill liners, and
covers (Goh and Tay 1993, Edil et al. 2002, Sobhan and

Mashnad 2003, Aydilek and Arora 2004). One of the


most potential areas for re-using fly ash is for stabilizing soft subgrade soils during highway construction
because a huge amount of fly ash could be utilized in
this application (Edil et al. 2002, Senol et al. 2003,
Bin-Shafique et al. 2004).
A variety of laboratory and field studies have shown
that cementitious fly ashes (Class C) are very effective
in improving the mechanical properties of soft soils
(Ferguson 1993, Turner 1997, Edil et al. 2002, BinShafique et al. 2004). The fly ash stabilized soil is
typically strong and stiff and sometimes stronger and
stiffer than the requirement as a subbase (Nicholson
and Kashyap 1993, Misra 1998, Senol et al. 2006).
Since strength and stiffness of soft soil are main concerns, mixture (soil, fly ash, and molding water) for
stabilization is usually selected based on which one
would provide maximum strength and stiffness (Ferguson 1993, Senol et al. 2003, Bin-Shafique et al.
2004). In fact, in many cases, the strength of the fly
ash stabilized layer is reported as comparable to that
required for base materials (Ferguson 1993, Goh and

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Tay 1993, Edil et al. 2002, Senol et al. 2003). Recent


studies (Kaniraj and Havanagi 2001, Kaniraj and Gayathri 2003, Bin-Shafique et al. 2004) suggest that the
ductility could be highly reduced when mixture is
selected based on strength criteria only, and the stabilization could create a very brittle layer on top of a
soft subgrade, which does not comply with the basic
philosophy of flexible pavement (Huang 1993). If the
fly ash stabilized soil cannot be made ductile enough,
then its use would be limited to only low volume country road and would not/should not be accepted widely
for subgrade stabilization for flexible pavement. Thus,
both the strength and ductility of fly ash stabilized soft
soils should be improved to provide necessary strength
and flexibility to fit in flexible pavements as an ideal
subbase (Kaniraj and Gayathri 2003; Bin-Shafique
et al. 2004).
The primary objective of this paper is to show how
the strength and ductility of fly ash stabilized soils
could be optimized with a little compromise of the
strength that could be achieved from a conventional
strength criteria approach. Improvement of soil ductility by incorporating randomly oriented fiber in the
soils is suggested by many investigators (Wu et al.
1988, Kaniraj and Gayathri 2003, Sobhan and Mashnad 2003). However, this study shows that the ductility
of fly ash stabilized soil could be improved significantly without incorporating any other materials, but
rather just changing the molding water content on the
wet side of the optimum water content.

BACKGROUND

Pavements were constructed at two sites in southern


Wisconsin where soft subgrade were stabilized using
Class C fly ash. One pavement is a 0.3 km-long test section in a segment of Wisconsin State Trunk Highway
(STH) 60 that is located between Lodi and Prairie du
Sac. The other is a 0.7 km city street in the recently constructed Scenic Edge residential sub-division in Cross
Plains, WI. The details of the design, construction, and
post construction assessment have been documented
in our other papers (Edil et al. 2002; Bin-Shafique
et al. 2004). In design phase, laboratory tests were conducted to select a mixture (soil, fly ash, and molding
water content) that would provide necessary strength
as a subbase. Unconfined compression tests were conducted on specimens prepared with soils from Scenic
Edge, fly ash contents of 12%, 16%, and 20%, and
water contents ranging from 12% to 24%. Similar tests
were also conducted on specimens prepared with soils
from STH 60, fly ash contents of 10%, 14%, and 18%,
and water contents ranging from 10% to 22%. Two
sets of specimens were prepared with the soil-fly ash
mixtures for each site. One set was compacted in a
mold immediately after mixing with water (referred

to herein as no delay). The other set was compacted


2 hours after mixing with water (referred to herein as
2-hr delay) to simulate the typical duration between
mixing and compaction that occurs in the field.
Based on the laboratory mix-design, the subgrade
was recommended to stabilize using a fly ash content
of 12% for the Scenic Edge site and 10% for the STH
60 site. The intended molding water content was 1%
wet of optimum (based on total solids) to achieve maximum strength, assuming that a 2-hr delay was realistic.
A nuclear density gage was used to measure the dry
unit weight and the water content that was achieved.
For the Scenic Edge site, the dry unit weight varied
between 93% and 106% of the target dry unit weight
(16.2 kN/m3 ) and averaged 98% (15.9 kN/m3 ). For the
STH 60 site, the dry unit weight varied between 96%
and 107% of the target dry unit weight (16.5 kN/m3 )
and averaged 103% (17 kN/m3 ). For both sites, the
water content varied within 23% of the target mixture
water content.
Samples were collected after compaction using
thin-wall (71 mm diameter) sampling tubes to measure the unconfined compression strength of stabilized
soil. The unconfined compressive strength at both sites
improved significantly after fly ash stabilization. At
some locations, the tube samples were brittle, and
broke into pieces during sampling and extrusion. After
a careful observation, it was found that the tube samples were very brittle where the water contents were at
the dry side of the optimum water content. This observation motivated us to see how the ductility varies with
molding water content of fly ash stabilized soil. Thus,
the stress-strain curves of the unconfined compression
tests were studied for each of the fly ash stabilized
soil specimen. Based on the findings of the study,
an acceptable region is recommended to optimize
strength and ductility instead of choosing mix-design
based on strength criteria only.

3.1 Soils
Subgrade soils were collected from the centerline
of the proposed roadway and tests were conducted
to determine index properties, soil classification,
compaction characteristics, unconfined compressive
strength, and California Bearing Ratio (CBR). A summary of the properties of soils is tabulated in Table 1.
Compaction curves for the subgrade were determined
using the Harvard miniature method using standard
effort (ASTM D 4609). Unconfined compression tests
were conducted following ASTM D 2166 on undisturbed soil specimens (50 mm-diameter and 100 mmheight) trimmed from the tube samples. CBR tests
were conducted on laboratory-compacted specimens

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MATERIALS

Table 1.

Properties of subgrade soils.


Plasticity
Index

Specific
Gravity

LOI
(%)

USCS

AASHTO

Avg.
qu (kPa)

CBR

Soil

Liquid
Limit

WN
(%)

Wopt
(%)

dmax
(kN/m3 )

44

20

2.71

CL

A-7-6 (20)

95

27

20

16.2

39

15

2.70

CL-ML

A-6 (16)

124

25

19

16.5

Classification

Scenic
Edge
STH 60

Notes: LOI = loss on ignition, UCSC = Unified Soil Classification System, AASHTO = Association of American State Highway and Transportation Officials, qu = unconfined compressive strength, CBR = California bearing ratio, WN = natural water
content, Wopt = optimum water content, and dmax = maximum dry unit weight.

ash. The fly ash is comprised primarily (89%) of silt


size particles.

Percent Finer (%)

120
Scenic Edge
STH 60
Columbia Fly Ash

100
80

3.3

60
40
20
0
10

0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001

Particle Diameter(mm)

Figure 1. Particle size distribution curves for the soils and


fly ash.

prepared at the in-situ water content and unit weight


of the subgrade.
The subgrade classifies as A-7-6 or CL at the Scenic
Edge site and A-6 or CL-ML at the STH 60 site. Both
subgrade soils contain more than 90% fines (particles finer than 75 m) and have a 2-m clay fraction
between 15 and 20%. Particle size distribution curves
for the soils are shown in Fig. 1. The in-situ water
content of the subgrades is 67% wet of the optimum
water content based on standard effort (ASTM D 698).
At Scenic Edge, the CBR is 1 and the unconfined
compressive strength ranges between 40 and 180 kPa
(average = 95 kPa). At STH 60, the CBR is 3 and
the unconfined compressive strength ranges between
105 and 136 kPa (average = 124 kPa). Thus, both subgrades are soft to medium stiff soils, which is largely
due to their high water content.

Air-dry soil ground to pass a US No. 10 sieve was


first mixed with the fly ash until the mixture appeared
uniform. Tap water was then sprayed on the soil-fly
ash mixture to achieve a target water content based
on total solids (soil mineral and fly ash solids). Mixing continued during moistening to promote uniform
water content and hydration. Then the soil-fly ash mixtures were compacted in a Harvard miniature mold
(35 mm-diameter and 70 mm-height) using standard
effort (ASTM D 4609).
Compaction characteristics of stabilized soils are
summarized in Table 2. For both soils, maximum
dry unit weight and optimum water content for the
mixture prepared with no delay are comparable
to those for the soil alone. However, for the 2-hr
delay," the maximum dry unit weight is lower and
optimum water content is slightly (1%) higher than
those for the soil alone. Additionally, the maximum
dry unit weight decreases and the optimum water content increases as the fly ash content increases. The
changes in compaction characteristics of the 2-hr delay
mixtures reflect the cementing that occurs as the fly
ash hydrates during the 2-hr delay. Cementing causes
the clods of clay to become stronger, and more difficult to remold. As a result, less solid material can be
compacted into a unit volume.
3.4

3.2

Fly ash

Fly ash from Unit 2 of Alliant Energys Columbia


Power Station in Portage, Wisconsin was used for stabilization of soft soils. The particle size distribution
of Columbia fly ash is shown in Fig. 1. The specific
gravity of the fly ash is 2.68, the lime (CaO) content
is 23%, and the loss on ignition is 0.7%. Accordingly,
per ASTM C 618, this fly ash classifies as Class C fly

Unconfined compression tests

After compaction, each specimen was wrapped immediately in a polyethylene sheet to prevent any desiccation. They were then sealed using a plastic wrap,
and left to cure for 7 days at 25 C and 100% relative
humidity prior to curing according to ASTM D1632,
(that is, protected from the free moisture in 100% relative humidity room at 21 C). The cured samples were
tested for unconfined compressive strength according
to ASTM D 2166.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Stabilized soil

Table 2.

Compaction characteristics of soils and fly ash stabilized soils.


Stabilized Soil (No Delay)

Stabilized Soil (2-hr Delay)

Soil
Type

Fly Ash
Content (%)

dmax (kN/M )

wopt (%)

dmax (kN/M3 )

wopt (%)

Scenic Edge

12
16
20
10
14
18

16.2
16.2
16.0
16.6
16.5
16.4

21
21
22
20
20
20

15.6
15.5
15.5
16.1
15.9
15.8

21
21
22
20
20
20

STH 60

12
2000

1500

10

12% FA No delay
12% FA 2 hr delay
16% FA No delay
16% FA 2 hr delay
20% FA No delay
20% FA 2 hr delay
Soil Alone

Scenic
Edge

Strainat Failure (%)

Unconfined Compressive Strength(kPa)

Notes: dmax = maximum dry unit weight, and wopt = optimum water content.

1000

500

Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)

FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA

No delay
2 hr delay
No delay
2 hr delay
No delay
2 hr delay

6
4
2
Scenic Edge

0
10

15
20
25
Molding Water Content(%)

0
10

30

1600
10% FA No delay
10% FA 2 hr delay
14% FA No delay
14% FA 2 hr delay
18% FA No dealy
18% FA 2 hr delay
Soil Alone

1200

800

STH 60

400

12

15

18

21

24

Molding Water Content (%)

Figure 3. The unconfined compressive strength of fly ash


stabilized soil at STH 60.

RESULTS

Unconfined compressive strength is shown as a function of molding water content and fly ash (FA) content
in Fig. 2 (Scenic Edge) and Fig. 3 (STH 60).
Adding fly ash to both soils increased the compressive strength appreciably (by at least a factor of two,
and as much as a factor of seven). Slightly higher
compressive strengths were obtained at higher fly
ash contents, due to greater cementing in the stabilized soil. For both soils, the maximum unconfined

20

25

30

Figure 4. Strain at failure for fly ash stabilized soils prepared with soils from Scenic Edge site.

compressive strength was obtained approximately at


optimum water content for the no delay condition
and at a water content 1% wet of optimum for the
2-hr delay condition. Lack of sufficient water for
hydration at lower water content, and reduction of contact areas (for bonding) among soil particles at higher
water content is responsible for the reduction in compressive strength as the water content deviates from
optimum. Compaction after a 2-hr delay caused the
strength to decrease by as much as 25%, primarily
because compaction breaks down some of the bonds
that form during the first two hours of hydration.
Strain at failure is obtained from the stress-strain
curve from the unconfined compression tests and is
shown in Fig. 4 (Scenic Edge) and Fig. 5 (STH 60) as
a function of molding water content.
Strain at failure increases with increasing molding
water content and increase rapidly at the wet side of
the optimum water content for all specimens. Strain
at failure is less than 2% for most of the specimens
prepared at the dry side of the optimum water content.
5

DISCUSSION

Since the strength of soft soil is the major concern, the


traditional approach to select a mixture depends on

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

15

Water Content (%)

Figure 2. The unconfined compressive strength of fly ash


stabilized soil at Scenic Edge.

12%
12%
16%
16%
20%
20%

Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)

Strain atFailure(%)

8
10%
10%
14%
14%
18%
18%

FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA

No delay
2hr delay
No delay
2hrs delay
No delay
2hr delay

2
STH 60
0

10

15
20
Molding Water Content(%)

25

1000
12% FA 2 hr delay

Acceptable region

800

600

400
Scenic Edge
200
10

Specified
Range

15
20
25
Molding Water Content (%)

30

Figure 6. Acceptable region and specified range of molding


water content based on strength criteria.

Acceptable region

600
Specified
Range

400
Scenic Edge
200
10

15
20
25
Molding Water Content (%)

30

1000
12% FA 2 hr delay

Acceptable region

800

600
Specified
Range

400
Scenic Edge
200
10

15
20
25
Molding Water Content (%)

30

Figure 8. Acceptable region and specified range of molding


water content based on strength and ductility criteria.

which mixture would provide maximum strength. The


traditional approach was followed to choose the mixtures at both sites for field construction. Fig. 6 shows
the acceptable region and the specified range of
molding water content that was employed for construction at Scenic Edge site. The molding water content
was allowed to vary between 19% and 23% and the
target unconfined compressive strength was 735 kPa.
Fig. 4 shows that strain at failure could be as low as
1.6% (corresponds to 19% molding water content) for
this mix-design, which would be very brittle in nature.
The specified range for water content is moved towards
wet side of the optimum water content in Fig. 7, where
molding water content is allowed to vary between
21% and 25%. This acceptable region would cause
a slight reduction (7.5%) of unconfined compressive
strength, but the strain at failure would improve at least
150%.
For optimization of strength and ductility, a mixture
would be selected in such a way that the maximum
unconfined compressive strength would be at least
2025% higher than the target unconfined compressive strength. For example, lets assume that the target
unconfined compressive strength is 600 kPa for Scenic
Edge site as shown in Fig. 8. The acceptable region

is developed above the target unconfined compressive


strength and to maximize the ductility, the specified range of molding water content is selected from
the maximum water content that would provide the
required target unconfined compressive strength. The
acceptable region showed in Fig. 8 would provide at
least the target unconfined compressive strength and a
strain at failure between 4.25% and 8.25%. The average strain in failure (6.25%) is approximately 400%
higher than that (1.5%) obtained from the acceptable
region based on strength criteria.
This strength and ductility based approach might
have limitations to have a strain at failure not more than
10%, because the unconfined compressive strength
drops sharply as the molding water content increases
at the wet side of the optimum water content.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial support for this study was provided by the
US Department of Energy through the Combustion
By-products Recycling Consortium, the University of
Wisconsin-Madison Consortium for Fly Ash Use in

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

12% FA 2 hr delay

800

Figure 7. Acceptable region and specified range of molding


water content at the wet side of optimum water content.
Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)

Unconfined Compressive Strength (kPa)

Figure 5. Strain at failure for fly ash stabilized soils prepared with soils from STH 60 site.

1000

Geotechnical Applications (funded by Mineral Solutions, Inc., Alliant Energy Corporation, and Excel
Energy Services, Inc.), and the Wisconsin Department
of Transportation (WisDOT). The opinions and conclusions described in the paper are those of the authors
and do not necessarily reflect the opinions or policies
of the sponsors.
REFERENCES
ACAA. 2004. ACAAs CCPs Production and Use Survey.
American Coal Ash Association, Alexandria, VA.
Agarwal, R. K. and Mullick, A. K. 2005. Use of fly ash in
structural concrete How much? Indian Concrete Journal,
Vol. 79, No. 8, pp. 47.
Aydilek, A H. and Arora, S. 2004. Fly ash amended soils
as highway base materials, GSP 126 I, Geotechnical
Engineering for Transportation Projects: Proceedings of
Geo-Trans 2004, pp. 10321041.
Bin-Shafique, M. S., Edil, T. B., Benson, C. H. And Senol A.
2004. Incorporated Fly Ash Stabilized Subbase into Pavement Design-A Case Study, Geotechnical Engineering
157, Issue GE4, pp. 239249.
Edil, T. B., C. H. Benson, S. Bin-Shafique, B. F. Tanyu,
W. Kim, and A. Senol. 2002. Field Evaluation of Construction Alternatives for Roadway over Soft Subgrade.
Transportation Research Record 1786, National Research
Council, pp. 3648.
Ferguson, G. 1993. Use of Self-Cementing Fly Ash as a Soil
Stabilizing Agent. Fly ash for soil improvement, GSP No.
36, pp. 114.
Goh, A. T. C., and Tay, J. H. 1993. Municipal Solid Waste
Incinerator Fly Ash for Geotechnical Applications, J. of
Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 119, No. 5, pp. 811825.
Huang, W. H. 1993. Pavement Analysis and Design. PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Kaniraj, S. R. and Gayathri, V. 2003. Geotechnical Behavior
of Fly Ash Mixed with Randomly Oriented Fiber Inclusions, Journal of Geotextile and Geomembranes, Vol. 21,
pp. 123149.

Kaniraj, S., R. and Havanagi, V., G. 2001. Behavior of


Cement-Stabilized Fiber-Reinforced Fly Ash-Soil Mixtures. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenv. Engineering,
Vol. 127, No. 7, pp. 574584.
Kyper, T. N. 1992. Institutional Constraints to the Use of
Coal Fly Ash in Civil Engineering Construction, Utilization of Waste Materials in Civil Engineering Construction,
ASCE, New York, pp. 3243.
Misra, A. 1998. Stabilization Characteristics of Clays Using
Class C Fly Ash. Transportation Research Record 1611,
National Research Council, pp. 4654.
Nicholson, P. G. and V. Kashyap. 1993. Fly Ash Stabilization
of Tropical Hawaiian Soils. Fly Ash for Soil Improvement,
GSP No. 36, pp. 1529.
Prabakar, J., Dendorkar, N. and Morchhale, R.K. 2004. Influence of fly ash on strength behavior of typical soils.
Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp.
263267.
Senol, A., Bin-Shafique, M.S., Edil, T. B. and Benson, C.H.,
2003. Use of Class C Fly Ash for the Stabilization of
Soft Soil as Subbase, ARI, The Bulletin of the Istanbul
Technical University, Vol. 53, pp. 8995.
Senol, A., Edil, T. B., Bin-Shafique, M. S., Acosta, H.,
and Benson, C. H. 2006. Soft Subgrades Stabilization by Using Various Fly Ashes, Journal of Resources,
Conservation & Recycling, Vol. 46, No. 4, pp. 365376.
Sobhan, K. and Mashnad, M. 2003. Mechanical Stabilization
of Cemented Soil-Fly Ash Mixtures with Recycled Plastic
Strips, Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 129,
No.10, pp. 943947.
Turner, J. P. 1997. Evaluation of Western Coal Fly Ashes for
Stabilization of Low-Volume Roads. Testing Soil Mixed
with Waste or Recycled Materials, STP 1275, American
Society of Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA,
pp. 157171.
Wu, T. H., Beal, P.E., and Lan, C. 1988. In-situ Shear Test
of Soil-root System. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
Division, ASCE, Vol. 114, No. 12, pp. 13761394.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Stabilization of soft clay site for development using Rammed


Aggregate Piers
Waye Sheu
Malcolm-Pirnie, Inc., Schaumburg, IL, USA

Evan M. Vlaeminck
Lowes Companies, Inc., Naperville, IL, USA

Brendan T. FitzPatrick
Geopier Foundation Company, Inc., Blacksburg, VA, USA

Jim Bullard
Geopier Foundation Company, Inc., New Palestine, IN, USA

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the use of Geopier Rammed Aggregate Piers to reinforce and stabilize
a soft clay site at a new retail development outside of Chicago, Illinois (USA). The paper describes the design
approaches for using Rammed Aggregate Piers to reduce settlement magnitudes, increase the time rate of
settlement and improve subgrade support capacity for new construction. Settlement monitoring data from the
site are included to provide comparison between predicted and observed performance. In addition, the data is used
to draw conclusions about the effects of stress concentration on the Rammed Aggregate Piers and its influence
on settlement magnitudes and drainage times. This paper is significant because it provides a documented case
history that describes an option for addressing development of challenging soft soil sites when cost and schedule
are major considerations.

INTRODUCTION

The continued growth and development of large


urban areas within the United States and other countries is leading to a lack of good building sites.
Developers are now investing in sites with challenging soil conditions that were viewed in years
past as being too difficult or costly for construction. These sites often necessitate foundation support
with deep foundations, massive overexcavation and
replacement, subgrade improvement, or wick drains
and surcharge to provide site construction and building
foundation support. The subgrade stabilization solution selection often involves a balance between cost
and time.
2

PROJECT DESCRIPTION

A 177,250 m2 (43.8-acre) site in the Village of Orland


Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago, Illinois, USA,
remained undeveloped for years as challenging soil
conditions presented significant remediation costs and

long construction schedules to potential developers.


With help from an innovative design team, Lowes
Companies, Inc. decided to face the hurdles to develop
the property for new retail development. The proposed
development shown in Figure 1 included a 10,777 m2
(116,000 square foot) Lowes Home Improvement
Store, a series of up to 10 outlot parcels for future
retail development and infrastructure (roadways, parking, utilities and detention ponds) to support the
development.
The Lowes Home Improvement store was a singlestory, steel-frame and masonry block wall structure.
Maximum column and wall loads were on the order
of 445 kN (100 kips) and 88 kN/m (6 kips/ft), respectively. Floor slab pressures for design were 14.3 kPa
(300 psf). The existing site grade across the site ranged
from El. 208.8 m (685 ft) to El. 211.9 m (695 ft). Proposed finished floor elevation (FFE) for the building
was El. 211.6 m (694 ft) while the parking lot was up
to 0.5 meters lower. As much as 3 meters (10 ft) of
new engineered fill was required in many areas of the
site to achieve the building and parking lot finished
elevations.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 1. Picture of site during earthwork construction.

3
3.1

SITE GEOLOGY AND SUBSURFACE


CONDITIONS
Site geology

According to Illinois State Geological Survey, Circular 460, Summary of the Geology of the Chicago
Area, dated 1971, the unconsolidated sediments
underlying the subject property is part of the Carmi
Member of the Equality Formation and also part of
the Wadsworth Member of the Wedron Formation. Soil
types located with in the Equality Formation consist
of lake deposits (silts with sand facies near shorelines). The Carmi Member consists of quiet-water lake
sediments, dominantly well bedded silt, locally laminated and containing thin beds of clay. The site is
also located in the Valparaiso Morainic System of
the Wadsworth Member of the Wedron Formation.
More specifically, a portion of the site is located in
the Clarendon Moraine which is located within the
Valparaiso Morainic System. Moraines located within
the Valparaiso System are slightly pebblier and contain local areas of sandy and gravelly till in the outer
(older) moraines. Bedrock underlying the unconsolidated surficial deposits is Silurian aged dolomite.
The unconsolidated deposits range from 90 to 100 feet
thick at the site.
3.2

Subsurface conditions

Borings performed by Malcolm-Pirnie, Inc. revealed


extremely variable site conditions. In many areas of
the site, stiff clay was encountered below the ground
surface extending to maximum explored depths of
over 18 meters (60 feet). In other areas, where quietwater glacial lake sediments had accumulated, very
soft to soft silty clay was encountered to depths of
up to 7 meters (23 feet) below existing grade. The
zones of soft silty clay exhibited moisture contents
approaching the liquid limits and ranging from about
30 to 40 percent. Undrained shear strengths in the
soft silty clay were on the order of 12 to 24 kPa

(250 to 500 psf). SPT N-values in the soft silty clay


ranged from WOH (weight-of-hammer) to 3 blows per
0.3 meters. Underlying the soft clay, the stiff to very
stiff clay was encountered. SPT N-values in the stiff
clay were between 10 and 25 blows per 0.3 meters. Figure 2 shows a cross-section illustrating the presence of
the zones of soft clay.
Consolidation tests performed on samples of soft
(weak) clay retrieved from depths of 3 to 5 meters
indicated the soils were normally or only slightly overconsolidated. The results of the consolidation tests are
contained in Table 1.
Although not encountered in all boring locations,
groundwater levels at the site were generally near a
depth of 1.9 m (6 feet) below existing grade.

After reviewing the results of the geotechnical exploration, laboratory testing and proposed civil design,
Malcolm Pirnie realized that site preparation and
foundation support was challenged by the deep compressible silty clay which coincidentally corresponded
to the locations requiring the largest amounts of new
engineered fill. Figure 3 illustrates contours of estimated soft soil thicknesses within the building area
and proposed roadways. As detailed in the figure,
the compressible clay soils were encountered within
approximately one-half of the building footprint, while
the compressible soils also extended beneath the roadways in three different locations. The challenge posed
to the Malcolm-Pirnie was to develop a solution
to raise the site grade and provide foundation support while maintaining acceptable levels of settlement
beneath the building and across the site all in the shortest amount of time possible to facilitate the opening of
the retail development.
With as much as 3 meters (10 feet) of new engineered fill required to achieve final grades, driven piles
and structural floor slabs, preloading and wick drains,

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

DESIGN CHALLENGES AND OPTIONS

Figure 2. Cross-section of subsurface conditions.


Table 1.

Consolidation test results.

Characteristic

Sample MB-5 Sample MB-6

Sample depth (m)


Initial moisture content (%)
Initial dry density (g/cm3 )
Compression ratio
(cc /1 + e0 )
Recompression ratio
(cr /1 + e0 )
Estimated OCR1
Coefficient of
consolidation (cm2 /s)

4.65.2
34
1.48
0.07

3.03.6
39
1.33
0.08

0.011

0.015

1.0
0.00084

1.5
0.0010

Overconsolidation ratio.

EPS blocks and light weight fill were initially considered as options for support of building pads and
roadways. The deep foundation and structural slab,
along with light-weight fill and EPS block options
were determined to be very costly, while the preloading and wick drain solution would require an extensive
construction delay period. To meet the demanding
project schedule, Geopier Rammed Aggregate Piers
were also identified for stabilization of the soft soils at
the site and were ultimately selected as a cost-effective
solution to provide a significant reduction in construction schedule and acceptable levels of settlement
control
5

RAMMED AGGREGATE PIER


CONSTRUCTION

Rammed Aggregate Piers (RAPs) are installed


by drilling 610 mm (24 inch) to 915 mm (36 inch)

diameter holes to depths ranging between 2 m and 8 m


(7 feet and 26 feet) below working grade elevations,
placing controlled 0.3 m (1 ft) thick lifts of stone within
the cavities, and compacting the aggregate using a
high-energy beveled impact tamper. During densification, the beveled shape of the tamper forces stone
laterally into the sidewall of the excavated cavity,
thereby increasing the lateral stress in the matrix soil.
The lateral stress increase improves the stiffness of
the matrix soil and also increases the normal stress
perpendicular to the perimeter shearing surface, resulting in improved RAP stiffness and positive coupling
behavior between the matrix soil and the pier. Rammed
Aggregate Pier site improvement increases the composite site stiffness to provide settlement reduction
under new fill and foundation pressures. In addition,
the RAPs act as vertical drains when constructed using
open-graded stone, thereby providing the additional
benefit of accelerated durations for consolidation settlement. Figure 4 pictures RAP installations at the
project site.

The solution involved installing a grid of 0.76 m (30 in)


diameter Rammed Aggregate Piers spaced 3 meters
(9.5 ft) on-center within portions of the building footprint (Area 1) to penetrate the compressible silty clay
soils. Piers were also installed beneath the proposed
wall and column foundation locations to increase stiffness and load carrying capacity. In building areas
where the compressible soils were not encountered,
shallow foundations were placed to bear in the stiff clay

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

RAMMED AGGREGATE PIER DESIGN


APPROACH

Figure 3. Contours of compressible soils.

Figure 4. Rammed Aggregate Pier installations using casing (left).

or engineered fill. Beyond the building area (Areas


2, 3 & 4), additional piers were installed within areas
of the proposed roadways that crossed the zones of
the thick, compressible soils and were subject to thicknesses of new engineered greater than about 1.5 meters
(5 ft).
Figure 5 shows the specific areas of the site selected
for RAP reinforcement.
The piers were installed from a working pad established at the existing site grade after stripping the
topsoil and prior to the placement of the new engineered fill. The piers were installed to depths ranging
from 3 to 7 meters (10 to 26 ft) to tag the underlying
stiff clay. The piers were installed using open-graded
(clean) stone to allow the piers to act as vertical
drainage, thereby facilitating radial drainage and more
rapid settlement rates. Following installation of the
RAPs, one layer of geogrid (i.e. Tensar BX-1200) was

placed over the tops of the piers to help transfer fill


pressures to the stiffer piers as well as to improve the
compaction of the initial fill lifts. Up to 3 m (10 ft)
of engineered fill was then placed over the reinforced
zones up to the floor and parking levels.
Settlement monitoring was performed to evaluate
the time rate and magnitude of immediate and primary
consolidation settlement from the fill placement. Construction of shallow foundations sized for an allowable
bearing pressure of 144 kPa (3 ksf) in the engineered
fill and in the native stiff clay and a 150 mm (6-inch),
lightly-reinforced slab-on-grade followed completion
of primary measured settlement induced by the engineered fill. Post-construction total and differential
building settlements were estimated to be 25 mm (1-in)
and 13 mm (-in), respectively, for structures constructed on the top of the new engineered fill supported
by the reinforced crust of RAPs.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 5. Rammed Aggregate Pier reinforcement areas and settlement platform locations.

6.1

RAP support of engineered fill and


Slab-on-grade floor slabs

Floor load

Figure 6 shows a conceptualized cross-section of a


Rammed Aggregate Pier-reinforced soil mass supporting new engineered fill and a floor slab. Following
RAP installation, new fill placed over the piers arches
to the stiff piers in a conical wedge for supporting the
subsequently placed fill, floor slab and foundations.
The applied pressure to the pier is related to the volume of the cone of arching and the unit weight of the
engineered fill. The engineered fill between the cones
of arching applies pressure on the matrix soil, causing
settlement of the matrix soil between the piers. The use
of a structural geogrid layer allows additional pressure
to be transferred to the stiff RAP, further reducing the
pressure applied from the fill on the matrix soil and
therefore the settlement of the matrix soil between the
piers.
Differential settlements between the RAPs and the
zone of soil between the piers have been shown to be
minimal as a result of the reduced compressibility of
the matrix soil and the positive pier-matrix soil coupling action created during installation of the RAPs
(Minks, et al. 2001, White 2006). Matrix soil settlement from the fill wedge pressure typically occurs
within days or weeks after the RAPs are constructed.
Open-graded stone, used in RAPs, provides reduced
drainage path lengths and accelerates dissipation of
excess pore water. The stress applied to the matrix soil
also increases the confining stress on the RAP and
increases the bulging resistance, allowing the pier to
support additional stress.
The addition of engineered fill and the floor slab
above the wedge of arching results in pressures on

Engineered Fill
Engineered Fill

Soft, compressible
soils

RAP spacing

"competent"
soils

Figure 6. RAP support of engineered fill and floor slabs.

the reinforced soil mass that are then transferred to


the RAPs and the matrix soil in proportion to their
stiffness. The significantly stiffer RAPs attract greater
applied pressures resulting in minor settlement of the
pier. Pressure applied to the matrix soil induces settlement but occurs quickly as a result of radial drainage
to the piers. The inclusion of the RAP-reinforced soil
mass significantly increases the composite stiffness
of the soil, increases the time rate of settlement, and
reduces total settlement from applied fill, floor slab
and foundation pressures.
6.2 Time rate of settlement estimates using RAPs
The presence of stiff granular Rammed Aggregate
Piers not only increases the composite stiffness, but

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

RAP
element

12
/14
/20
05

11
/24
/20
05

20
05
11
/4/

10
/15
/20
05

9/2
5/2
00
5

20
05
9/5
/

8/1
6/2
00
5

7/7
/

20
05

7/2
7/2
00
5

Date

25
0

Settlement (mm)

-25
-50
-75
-100
-125
-150
-175
-200

9001
9002
9003
9004
9005
9006
9007
9008
9009
9010
9011
9012
9013
9014
9015
9016

-225

Figure 7. Settlement monitoring results.

also affords radial drainage to accelerate settlements


at the site. Radial drainage to the RAPs is calculated
using Barrons approach for estimating the settlement
duration (t) from radial drainage to sand drains (1948).
The approach relates the settlement duration to a time
factor (Tr ), the radial coefficient of consolidation (cr ),
and the square of the effective drainage length (de ):
t=

Tr de2
cr

(1)

The time factor is calculated by first evaluating the


diameter ratio (n), which is the ratio of the effective
drain diameter and the constructed diameter of the
installed drain. Effective drain diameters are evaluated
based on geometry for elements spaced in triangular
grids and square grids but range from 5 to 13 percent
greater than the center-to-center spacing for triangular
and square spacing, respectively.
The value of the radial coefficient of consolidation
is commonly assumed to be between equal to or greater
than the vertical coefficient of consolidation value
(cv ). This ratio may be significantly higher in varved or
horizontally stratified soils where depositional history
has created natural radial drainage pathways. Coefficient of consolidation values (cv ) are related to many
factors including soil mineralogy, gradation, and depositional history of the matrix soil (Terzaghi et al. 1996).
For cohesive soils, these values are evaluated from
consolidation tests or may be estimated from correlations with liquid limit values and stress history
(over-consolidation).
Recent research performed by Han and Ye (2001)
describes a modified radial drainage approach that

accounts for stress concentration to stiff aggregate


columns. Stress concentration to the stiff piers reduces
the amount of stress on the matrix soil, which causes
settlement to occur faster and yields a modified
(increased) radial coefficient of consolidation. Han
and Ye suggest that a modified radial coefficient of
consolidation be used in the Barron approach:



1
cr = cr 1 + ns
(2)
n2 1
where ns is the stress concentration ratio. The modified radial coefficient of consolidation is substituted
for the radial coefficient of consolidation in Equation 1
to determine the time required for the dissipation of a
particular percentage of excess pore water pressure.
Research has shown that RAP stress concentration
ratios for footing support range from 4 to 45 (Lawton
and Merry 2000, Hoevelkamp 2002). Stress concentration values in the lower half of the range are typically
used for design.
7

Based on the compressibility of the soft soil, analyses performed to estimate the immediate and primary
consolidation settlement magnitude and duration of
the unreinforced compressible clay suggested the pressure of up to 10 feet of new fill could result in as much
as 0.6 m (24 in) of settlement. More importantly, this
settlement was expected to occur over a period of at
least 2 years.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SETTLEMENT ESTIMATES AND


MEASUREMENTS

200
Hclay < 3m

180

3 m < Hclay < 4.5 m

Measured settlement(mm)

160

4.5 m < Hclay< 6 m


Hclay > 6 m

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Fill height (m)

Figure 8. Settlement under varying fill heights for different clay thicknesses (Hclay).

Additional analyses estimated the fill-induced settlement for the RAP-reinforced conditions to generally
range from less than 25 mm (1 in) up to 150 mm (6 in).
Considering the effects of stress concentration to the
piers, the estimated settlement duration was on the
order of 2 months using increased values for the coefficient of consolidation to account for radial drainage
effects as recommended by Han and Yes approach.
A total of 16 settlement platforms were established
by Gioffre Companies, Inc., general contractor for the
site, prior to the placement of the new engineered fill.
Figure 5 (above) shows the locations of the settlement
platforms around the site. Elevations of the tops of
the platforms were surveyed during a period of time
ranging from July, 2005 through November, 2005. The
settlement monitoring results are plotted with time in
Figure 7.
8

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of the settlement monitoring indicate


that the magnitudes of total settlements ranged from
less than 12 mm (0.5 in) up to 175 mm (7 inches).
Importantly, the majority (90 percent) of the settlements occurred within a week up to slightly greater
than 3 months. Twelve of the sixteen survey locations (75 percent) indicate that the settlement of the
RAP-reinforced soil mass occurred within a period
of 45 days or less from the start of fill placement
and with settlements of less than 55 mm (2.2 in). Survey of several platforms was terminated after the
settlement readings reached an asymptotic level and

the contractor proceeded with structure construction.


The data generally confirms that the settlement magnitude increases with both clay thickness (Hclay) as
well as with applied pressure or fill height as shown
in Figure 8.
The data also indicates that three of the settlement
locations required slightly longer than anticipated
durations to reach the 90 percent consolidation level.
Radial drainage approaches suggest that the settlement
durations are not directly dependent on applied pressure as shown in Equation 1 and that similar settlement
durations would be expected at equally-spaced pier
locations. Certainly, variability of the soil may play a
large role in the observed settlement durations.
In addition, these locations coincide with the areas
of the site containing the thickest deposits of compressible clay as well as larger than average amounts
of new engineered fill. In these areas, the pressure
from the new fill applied to the RAPs is higher than
in other locations. This higher pressure is believed
to result in more deformation of the reinforced zone
and ultimately result in lower stress concentration levels between the piers and the matrix soil. From the
studies of Han and Ye, the lower stress concentration
level results in a lower estimated radial coefficient
of consolidation value. This reduced value of radial
coefficient of consolidation provides possible explanation for the increased settlement durations experienced
within certain locations at the site. This relationship is
shown in Figure 9 that plots times required for 90 percent of the settlement to occur with the corresponding
fill height (applied pressure).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

120
9003
9004
9005
9006
9007
9008
9009
9010
9011
9012
9013
9014
9015
9016

100

t90 (days)

80

60

40

20

0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Fill Height (m)


Figure 9. Effect of fill height (applied pressure) on drainage times required to reach 90% settlement.

Measured Settlement (with RAPs) (mm)

500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

Calculated Settlement (no reinforcement)(mm)


Figure 10. Comparison of estimated unreinforced immediate and primary consolidation settlement and measured settlement
with RAP-reinforcement.

Based on estimated stress concentration values


between the RAPs and the matrix soil, modified
radial coefficient of consolidation values were calculated. The results show values that range from
0.006 to 0.066 cm2 /second with an average value of

0.015 cm2 /second. It is important to note that the average of the results is at least an order of magnitude
greater than the values measured for the coefficient
of consolidation in the vertical direction in laboratory tests, indicating that the radial drainage provides

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

considerably faster times than vertical drainage for the


same drainage path length. As a result, the settlement
from the fill placed on the RAP-reinforced site occurs
at a much faster rate.
Finally, Figure 10 provides a comparison between
the estimated immediate and primary consolidation
settlements resulting from the placement of the different fill heights on the unreinforced soils and the measured settlements occurring on the RAP-reinforced
soils. The Figure illustrates a considerable amount
of improvement in the magnitude of settlements as
evidenced by the departure from the 1:1 relationship. This relationship indicates that the use of the
Rammed Aggregate Piers provides a significant composite stiffening effect on the site to significantly
reduce settlement magnitudes.
9

CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents the results of settlement monitoring data at a soft clay site reinforced with Geopier
Rammed Aggregate Piers. After completing RAP
installation and monitoring settlement, the following
is concluded:
RAPs provide a cost-effective solution for reinforcing soft or compressible soils to support engineered
fill, spread footing foundations, and soil-supported
floor slabs as an alternative to more traditional subgrade improvement methods (surcharging, overexcavation and replacement, etc.).
Measured settlement magnitudes of the RAPreinforced site are considerably lower compared
to the estimated settlements resulting from the
placement fill on unreinforced soils.
Measured settlement durations suggest that the presence of the RAPs provides reduced drainage path
lengths and increased consolidation rates, affording significantly reduced drainage times to achieve
primary consolidation of compressible deposits.
Settlement monitoring data combined with estimates of stress concentration values suggest general
agreement with Han and Yes suggested model for
increased values for radial coefficient of consolidation for increasing levels of stress concentration.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge Gioffre Companies, Inc. for installing and protecting the settlement
platforms and Smith Engineering Consultants, Inc.
for conducting the settlement survey. The authors are
indebted to Dr. Kord Wissmann, PE and Dr. Jorge
Parra, PE for their thorough review of the paper.
REFERENCES
Barron, R.A. (1948). Consolidation of fine-grained soils by
drain wells. Trans. ASCE, Vol. 113, pp. 718742.
Minks, A.G., Wissmann, K.J., Caskey, J.M., and Pando, M.A.
(2001). Distribution of stresses and settlements below
floor slabs supported by RammedAggregate Piers. Proc.,
54th Canadian Geotechnical Conference, CGC, Calgary,
Alberta.
Han J. and Ye, S.L. (2001). Simplified Method for Consolidated Rate of Stone Column Reinforced Foundations.
ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering. Vol. 127, No. 7
Hoevelkamp, K.K. (2002). Rammed aggregate pier soil reinforcement: group load tests and settlement monitoring of
large box culvert. Masters Thesis. Iowa State University.
Lawton, E.C. and Merry, S.M. (2000). Performance of
Geopier Supported Foundations During Simulated Seismic Tests on Northbound Interstate 15 Bridge Over South
Temple, Salt Lake City. Final Report No. UUCVEEN
00-03. University of Utah. December.
Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., and Mesri, G. (1996). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. Third Edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, NY
White, D.J. and Thompson, M.J. (2006) Construction and
Performance Monitoring of a Mechanically Stabilized
Earth Wall Supported by Rammed Aggregate Piers. Draft
Report. Iowa State University. January.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Improvement of soft soils by static SCP using a hydraulically-operated


rotary penetration
R. Shiozaki, K. Uehara, S. Ikenoue, K. Ookori, Y. Umeki & M. Mori
Japan Industrial Land Development Co. LTD, 3-Chome, Kaigan, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan

M. Fukue
Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University, Orido, Shimizu-ku, Shizuoka, Japan

ABSTRACT: To reduce the noise and the vibration during installation of sand compaction piles (SCP), a rotary
force was used to penetrate a casing pipe with a leaning egg-shaped head. Drill bits were installed on the head
to excavate a hole into the soil. Rotary force was applied to the head by a hydraulically-operated rotary drive
and a hydraulic winch. Its advantage is that the rotation of the head can solidify the wall of the excavated hole.
In this study, the feasibility of the technique was examined in terms of a) reduction of noise and vibration,
b) improvement of soft soil and loose sand, c) waste glass as sand drains and SCP. The developed technique
satisfies the Japanese guideline on noise level of 85 dB at a distance of only 4 m, whereas the conventional SCP
method requires a distance of 30 m for the guideline level. The vibration of the ground produced by the rotary
penetration was considerably lower than the guideline level of 75 dB. The N value of the soft soil between SCPs
increased by up to about two times the original value. The excess pore water pressure in soils under loading was
measured in two types of vertical drains using ordinary sands and glass sands made of waste glass, respectively.
The dissipation of the excess pore water pressure was similar for the both cases.

INTRODUCTION

Soft soil ground can be improved by techniques such


as mixing methods with cement, lime or others, promotion of consolidation using various types of drain
works, and sand compaction pile methods using sand
and gravel.
Soft soils are often improved with installation of
sand compaction piles (SCP). The installation of SCP
requires a penetration force of a casing which enables
installation of sand materials into the ground. To
accomplish this, a vibration hammer was used. However, due to the increase in the amount of construction
work in urban areas, the reduction of noise and vibration during the installation of SCPs have become
important factors.
Although the number of research papers on sand
compaction piles is not very abundant, some were published in the early 1990s in Japan. Most of the studies
concerned the improvement of the bearing capacity of
structures (Takemura et al. 1991, Terashi et al., 1991,
Yagyu et al., 1991), and the increase in liquefaction
potential (Akiyoshi et al., 1993, Idriss and Boulanger
2006). Recent trends show a more theoretical approach
(Lee et al., 2004), and also a move to laboratory studies
from field experience (Weber 2004) to understand the

influences of soil properties in terms of stress and pore


water pressure. Recycled materials such as steel slag,
improved sludge, and crushed concrete pieces have
also been examined as pile materials for pilot tests,
instead of sand and gravel.
Matsuda and Kitayama (1999) investigated the
effects of sand compaction pile driving on geotechnical properties of clay, and stated that there were
some adverse impacts on the soils where the piles
were installed. They concluded that in the surrounding area, the unconfined compressive strength of soils
decreased due to the disturbance and did not recover
for more than one year.
2

The main subjects in the use of the conventional sand


compaction pile method and sand drain installment are
as follows:
1) The conventional vibratory hammer makes a relatively high level of vibration of the ground and
causes noise,
2) If the targeted ground consists of sensitive soil, the
installation of the sand pile may reduce the strength
of the soil in and around the improved zone, and

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

BACKGROUND

3) The examination of recycled materials as pile materials to promote them as a replacement for sand
materials which are lacking in supply.

DEVELOPED LEANING HEAD

730

roller

MODEL EXPERIMENTS

The penetration performance of the leaning head was


examined using a small pipe size with a small leaning head. The apparatus used is shown in Figure 2.
The diameter of the pipe used was one tenth of the
actual size. A cylindrical specimen prepared from

bit
Excavated soil

(mm)

Figure 1. Schematic and photo of the developed leaning


head.

210cm

Ascent and
descent device

pedestal
Casing pipe

Glass beads
Cylindrical
specimen

Figure 2. Experimental apparatus for the model experiment.

11cm
2cm 2cm

Purple beads
Black beads
Yellow beads

a) Clayspecimen forpenetration
experiment

b) Crosssection of the specimen


after penetration

Figure 3. Typical result of a penetration performance test.

commercially available clay was used in this experiment. The size of the specimen was 11 cm in diameter
and 20 cm in height. To make the penetration performance visible, three lines of small glass beads with a
diameter of about 1.0 to 1.5 mm were embedded vertically in the clay specimen, as shown in Figure 3a).
Three colours of glass beads, black, purple and yellow
ones, were used.
The penetration speed used was 40 cm/min and the
rotational speed was 11 rpm. These values were based

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

cave

Clay specimen

In this study, one of the features is the use of a leaning


head which enables a low level of vibration and noise,
enlarges the piling materials and compacts laterally
the in situ soil. The characteristics of the developed
leaning head are shown in Figure 1. The head consists
of cutting bits at the tip and a rotating roller which
can compact the cutting wall. The head has a height
of 730 mm and a maximum outer diameter of 520 mm,
while the casing pipe has an inner diameter of 324 mm.

Wall

520

20cm

materials

110cm

Within these items, one of the most challenging subjects may be to reduce the level of vibration and noise.
The last two items are also very important, and they
can be examined at the same time as item 1).
One of the ways to reduce the level of vibration and
noise may be by using static penetration. Considering
the high energy required for the penetration of a casing
pipe, rotating of the casing pipe with a vertical load can
be more suitable.
To reduce the liquefaction potential of sand, it is
required to compact the sand itself due to the displacement of the sand by the piles. For this purpose, it is
considered that the conventional vibrating method may
be more feasible than a static penetration. Therefore, it
is required to add a function for the static penetration
system to compact the in situ soil.
For item 2), if the sensitivity of the soil is high,
any disturbance of that soil will cause a decrease in
its strength. Though the purpose of a sand compaction
pile is essentially to increase the bearing capacity of
the ground, it must be ensured that the bearing capacity
of the soil around the piles will not decrease with time,
but will increase.
To achieve those mentioned above, a KS-EGG technique was developed. The system consists of an engine
to drive the force required, a hydraulic pump to drive
the vertical force to a casing pipe, and a leaning head
to be attached to the tip of a casing pipe.
There are many recycled materials being used for
the compaction pile method. For item 3), recycled glass
was examined, to reduce the liquefaction potential of
fine sand.

Casing
pipe

324

on the similarity rule. After penetration, the specimen was vertically cut as shown in Figure 3b). Since
the clay was laterally expanded due to the penetration of pipe, the lines of the black beads also expanded
towards the left side as a curve, as shown in Figure 3b).
The purple beads prepared initially at the central
line were spiralled on the internal wall formed by
the penetration of the pipe. The yellow beads were
displaced to the right.

110
North eastern
Kansai
Kanto

Level ofvibration (dB)

100

Co

90

nve

ntio

80 Standard 75dB
70

na

lSC

60
50
Background noise

40

KS-EGG

30

FIELD PERFORMANCE

In Japan, the vibration regulation law was established


in 1976. The law provides 75 dB as a standard level to
be observed. The level of vibration must be measured
with test methods provided by the Japanese Industrial
Standard (JIS Z 8735). The measurement instruments
are also provided, and a vibration level meter certified
by the Japanese Government must be used. The source
of the vibration is mainly due to the friction between
the head and soil. Some may be originate from the
penetration of the casing pipe.
The results are shown in Figure 4. There is considerable scattering, because of the different sites,
such as the north eastern part, Kansai (Osaka) area
and the Kanto (Tokyo) area, in Japan. This basically
resulted from the different soil properties. At present,
the soil types have not been analyzed. The result of
the conventional method is also shown in Fig. 4.
Both the KS-EGG and the conventional methods show
trends where the vibration level decreases with distance from the source. However, the vibration level
is considerably lower for the KS-EGG method. Thus,
the KS-EGG technique reduced the level of vibration
by approximately 60%, in comparison to the conventional vibrating method. Since the guideline for the
level of ground vibration is 75 dB, the results obtained
are quite satisfactory. In fact, the operator cannot feel
the vibration at a distance of 5 m from the center of the
casing pipe.
5.2

100

1000

northeastern
Kansai
Kanto

100
Co

nve

90
Standard 85dB

ntio
nal

SC

80
70
Background level

50

KS-

EG

60

10
100
Distancefrom origin (m)

1000

Figure 5. Relationships between level of noise and distance


from source for conventional and KS-EGG methods.
100
90
80 Standard 85dB
KS-EGG
Conventional

70
60
Background noise (Matsuzaka,Tsu)

50

The Japanese guideline for noise is provided as 85 dB


(Japanese Noise Regulation Law, 1968). The conventional SCP method often exceeds this value at a
distance shorter than 20 m. The source of the noise
can be an engine, a hydraulic pump and a rotary drive
installed on the cap of casing pipe.
The measured noise is shown in Figure 5. For comparison, the result obtained using the conventional
method is also presented in the figure. The relationships between noise and distance from the center of
the casing pipe seem to be linear on a semi-log plot.
Though the measurements were made at various sites,

10

110

Noise

40
1

10
100
Distancefrom origin (m)

1000

Figure 6. Relationships between noise and distance from


source for the conventional and KS-EGG methods.

i.e., north eastern part, Kansai area and Kanto area,


the scattering is not large in comparison to the case
of vibration indicated in Figure 4. The result shows
that the KS-EGG method will satisfy the regulatory
standard at a distance longer than a few meters.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 4. Relationships between the level of vibration and


distance from the source for conventional and KS-EGG
methods.

Level of noise (dB)

5.1 Vibration of ground

Level ofnoise (dB)

20

1.9m

N value

1.9m

0.9m 1.35m

Standard penetration test

15

20

25

30

Level (m)
Fine
sand

Installation of Piles

a) A casing pipe is placed on the ground, and a sufficient amount of sand to plug the tip of pipe is
poured into the casing pipe.
b) The casing pipe is penetrated into the soil by rotating with an oil rotary drive and with a vertical
pressure by a winch. When the head reaches the
desired depth, sand materials are packed into the
casing pipe.
c) The casing pipe is reversely rotated during lifting of
the casing pipe and sand materials are discharged
from the tip of the casing pipe.
d) The casing pipe is penetrated again to compact the
sand pile materials and elongate the diameter.
e) After checking that sand material is not residual in
the pipe, it is pulled out.
f) As for step d), the casing pipe is penetrated again.
g) After steps c) to f) are repeated, a pile that is strong
enough and of sufficient length can be installed.
h) The casing pipe is pulled out from the ground.
One of the examples for pile arrangement installed
by the procedure is shown in Figure 7. The distance
between piles is 1.9 m, as indicated in the figure. In
this study, standard penetration tests were performed
to evaluate the improvement of various soils.
Improvement of soft organic soils

A typical example of improvement of a soft organic


soil, peat, is shown in this section. The profile of the
organic soil is shown in Figure 8. At a level from 1 m
to 6 m, the N value for the organic soil is lower than
two. Below a level of 7 m, the N value is greater
than five. Below 10 m, it seems that the N value was
large enough. Therefore, gravel compaction piles were
installed down to 9.8 m.
Figure 8 shows the N value throughout a gravel
compaction pile. Eighty percent of the materials were
of a grain size from 4 to 40 mm. The N values of

-6

-8

Organic
clay

The installation procedures for a sand pile are as


follows:

Clayey
fine sand

-10
Sand/
gravel

-12

Figure 8. N values for the original soils and gravel piles


replaced by the different methods.

the gravel compaction piles formed with the conventional and KS-EGG methods increased from about 2
to greater than 15, as shown in Figure 8. Thus, the
piles increased the bearing capacity of the ground and
it was assured that the KS-EGG method was a feasible
technique to install gravel piles.
5.5 Reduction of liquefaction potential
It is well known that loose and fine sands have a large
potential of liquefaction during earthquake. To reduce
the potential, the sand compaction pile method has
often been used, because the original sand layer will
be compacted by the installation of sand compaction
piles, and because the sand compaction piles with high
permeability will dissipate the pore water pressure in
the original sand layer, induced by the shaking of the
ground (Akiyoshi et al. 1993).
The N value for sand compaction pile and the
increased N value for the original soils are shown in
Figure. 9. As the liquefaction potential can be calculated using the N value of soil, the evaluation for
improvement can also be made with the N value (Idriss
and Boulanger, 2006).
The reduction of liquefaction potential was examined in terms of the N value to determine if the
KS-EGG method is appropriate. The compaction piles
have a diameter of 700 mm and a length of 19.5 m. The
results are shown in Figures 9 and 10.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

-4

peat

Figure 7. Example of sand compaction pile placement.

5.4

10

specimen pile

Loading testin borehole

5.3

KS-EGG
Conventional
Original soil

organic
clay

Horizontal displacement

-2

1.9m

1.9m

0.7m

10

N value
20
30

N value
40

Silityfine sand

-5

30

40

-5

Level (m)

Level (m)

20

KS-EGG
conventional
original

Sandy silt

10

-10

-10

-15
-15

KS-EGG
conventional
original

-20
N values of the sand pile.

-20

Figure 9. N values of the sand pile.

Figure 10. N values of sandy soils between and piles.

The original soils consisted of silty sand (0 to


11.5 m) and sandy silt (below 11.5 m). The N value
for the original soils was relatively low for the upper
layer (less than 10 for top 7 m) and relatively high from
7 m to 19 m, as seen in Figure 9. Figure 9 shows
that the N value of the sand compaction piles installed
by the two methods, i.e., the KS-EGG and the conventional methods is about double that of the original soil.
This is based on the properties of the materials used for
the compaction pile and the degree of compaction (performance of installation). Figure 9 also indicates that
the N value of the pile made by the KS-EGG method
is a little higher than that by the conventional method.
The replacement of the original soil by pile materials will compact the original soil laterally. Figure 10
shows that the N value of the original soils was significantly increased for shallow soils (above 12 m) by
replacement, but not for deep soils (around 15 m).
Since the liquefaction potential is usually higher for a
shallow depth because of the lower overburden pressure, it is usually desired to improve shallow soils. In
this sense, the results show that the improvement by
the KS-EGG method works quite well. It seems that
the performance by the KS-EGG method is comparable to the conventional method. This may be due to the

effect of lateral compaction due to the rotation of the


leaning head.

5.6 Prospective use of waste glass sands as


compaction piles and drain materials
5.6.1 Materials
Because of the lack of natural sand, various kinds of
wastes, such as coal ash, waste concrete, steel slug,
glass have been examined as pile materials. In this
study, waste glass was examined as a sand drain. The
grain size distribution of waste glass was adjusted to
0.075 to 5 mm, as shown in Figure 11. The size of waste
glass was mostly medium sand which can be feasible
as a drain material, in comparison to the limits imposed
by the Californian standards. Herein in this study, the
glass product is called glass sand.
The glass sand has a specific gravity of 2.5 and a
maximum bulk density of 1.66 g/cm3 . The coefficient
of permeability of the glass sand for a compaction
degree of 90% is 1.3 104 m/s. The sand materials,
which were used for the comparison, have a coefficient
of permeability of 9.0 105 m/s. The shear strength
of the glass sand is expressed by which the internal
frictional angle which was 43.1 degrees.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Percentfiner (%)

100

Glass
limitations for use
In practice

80
60

Settlement plate
R-1 S1S4

40
P-1
20
P-2
0
0.01

0.1

10

P-3 Pore water


pressure
meter

100

Grain size (mm)

Figure 11. Grain size distributions of grinded waste glass,


used sands in practice and limitations provided by California
State.
settlement

N value
0

50

Sand drain

Pore water
pressure

Figure 14. Positions of installed settlement plates and pore


water pressure meters.

R-1 GL 0 m
fill

Silt to
silty and

Sand drain

S-1 GL-6 m

S-2 GL-21 m
P-1 to 3GL-24 m

Silt
S-3 GL-34 m

Sandy silt

S-4 GL-49 m

Fine sand
Silt
Sandy silt
Standard levelGL-63.5 m
Clayey sand

Figure 12. Depths of settlement plates and embedded pore


water pressure meters and soil profile.
8.2 m
Cross section
158.85 m
Drain 400

Drain 500

Line A (sand)
sand
38.9 m
glass

Ground plan

Line B (glass)

Figure 13. Ground plan and cross section of embankment


on the soft soil layer.

5.6.2 Materials for drainage


The soil profile and the installation of the drain are
illustrated as shown in Figure 12. Vertical drains were
installed in the 40 m soft clay layer. The length of the

sand drain was 34 m. Pore water pressure meters were


installed at a level of 24 m, as indicated in Figure 12.
To examine the effect of the drain, settlement plates
were installed at elevations of 0, 6, 21, 34, and
49 m. A standard level assumed to be a fixed level
was 63.5 m.
Installation of drains
The ground plan and cross section of the embankment
as consolidation load is illustrated in Figure 13. It took
about two months to make the sand mat. At this site,
both the glass sand and natural sand materials were
used as drain materials and one of them was used to
evaluate the quality, as indicated in Figure 13. The
positions for installation of the pore water pressure
meters and settlement plates are shown in Figure 14.
5.6.3 Settlement due to loading
The increase in load is shown in terms of thickness
of embankment in Fig. 15a). The maximum thickness
of embankment was 8.2 m. The patterns of settlement
for sand and glass sand drains are very similar, as
shown in Figure 15b). For the both cases, the settlement started to occur immediately after the installment
of drains, but the rate was relatively low at the initial
state. The settlement rate increased when the thickness
of embankment became approximately 2 m. This may
concern the consolidation yield stress of soils. After
the embankment was completed, the settlement rates
decreased again. Thus, as far as the settlement is concerned, the glass sands can be used as drain materials.
It is natural that the settlement is in the order of R-1,
S-1, S-2 and S-3, because of the depth measured.
For natural and glass sand, the pore water pressure
induced by loading is shown in Figure 15c). Since P1 is the pore water pressure in the drain materials,
it should be stable and may be a little higher than the
hydrostatic pressure. Since the water level was 2.2 m
from the ground surface, the hydrostatic pressure at
24 m can be approximately 0.215 MPa. On the other

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Embankment (m)

embankment was completed. After reaching the maximum constant load, the pore water pressure tended to
dissipate, thus the pore water pressure decreased. The
patterns of the change in the pore water pressure are
similar for the sand and glass sand drains, as shown
in Figure 15c). It seems that P-2 for the glass sands is
relatively low. However, it may be include some error,
because it should not be lower than P-1.
Thus, the results obtained for both the sand and glass
sands are very similar. Therefore, the glass sand can
be used as materials instead of natural sand. It is concluded that if the grain size distribution of glass sand
is adjusted, they can be used to promote the consolidation of soft clay and to decrease the liquefaction
potential of loose sands.

time (day)
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

8
6
4
2
0

a) Thickness of embankment
0

settlement(cm)

S-3
10
20

S-2

30
40
50

S-1

Sand
materials

R-1

60
0

settlement(cm)

S-3

CONCLUDING REMARKS

10

A new technique for installation of a sand compaction


pile was developed to reduce the vibration of the
ground and noise during construction. The technique
consists of a leaning head which can cut soils by rotating. The feasibility of the technique was examined
in terms of a) reduction of noise and vibration, b)
improvement of soft soil and loose sand, c) sand and
glass materials as SCP.
Furthermore, this rotary penetration technique considerably reduced noise and vibration damage in comparison to the conventional technique. The developed
technique satisfies a restriction on the noise level of
85 dB at a distance of only 4 m, whereas the conventional SCP method requires a distance of 30 m for the
same restriction level. The vibration of ground produced by the rotary penetration was considerably lower
than the restriction level, i.e., 75 dB.
Sand and gravel piles can increase the bearing
capacity for soil foundations. The increased rate is
similar for the KS-EGG and the conventional methods.
The N value of loose sand between SCPs was
increased with the installation of sand piles, up to about
two times of the original value.
The glass sand materials were examined as piles.
The excess pore water pressure in soils under loading was measured in vertical drains using glass sands
made of waste glass. The dissipation of the excess pore
water pressure is similar to the conventional method.
This indicates that the glass sands can also be used
for the vertical drains in soil, which can be applied to
promote the consolidation of soft clay and to decrease
the liquefaction potential of loose sands.

20
S-2

30
40
50

S-1

Waste glass

R-1

60

Pore water pressure(MPa)

0.26

Pore water pressure (MPa)

b) settlement

0.26

Sand materials

0.25
P-2
0.24

P-3

0.23
0.22

P-1

0.21
0.20

Waste glass
0.25
0.24
0.23

P-3
P-2
P-1

0.22
0.21
0.20

c) Pore water pressure


Figure 15. Comparison between drainage effects using
waste glass and sand drains.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
hand, P-2 and P-3 are affected by the excess pore pressure induced by the loading, because the clayey soils
will accumulate the excess pore pressure. Apparently,
P-2 and P-3 shows the maximum values just before the

The authors wish to express their gratitude to Professor


Catherine Mulligan, Concordia University, for her help
and advice in preparing the manuscript.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

REFERENCES
Akiyoshi, T., Fuchida, K., Matsumoto, H., Hyodo, T and
Fang, H.L., 1993, Liquefaction analyses of sandy ground
improved by sand compaction piles, Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering, Vol.12, Issue 5, 299307.
Idriss, I.M. and Boulanger, R.W., 2006, Semi-empirical
procedures for evaluating liquefaction potential during
earthquakes, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering
26, 115130.
Lee, F.H., Juneja, A. and Tan, T.S., 2004, Stress and pore
pressure changes due to sand compaction pile installation
in soft clay, Gotechnique 54, No.1, 116.
Matsuda, H. and Kitayama, N., 1999, Effects of sand compaction pile driving on geotechnical properties of clay
layer, Research report, Faculty of Engineering,Yamaguchi
University, Vol.50, No.1, 2329.
Takemurra, J., Tean, L.B., Suemasa, N., Hirooka, A. and
Kimura, T., 1991, Stability of soft clay improved with

sand compaction piles under a fill, Proc. International


Conference on Geotechnical Engineering for Coastal
Development, Geo-Coast91, Yokohama, 399404.
Terashi, M., Kitazume, M. and Minagawa, S., 1991, Bearing
capacity of improved ground by sand compaction piles, In:
Deep Foundation Improvements: Design, Construction,
and Testing, ASTM STP N1089, 4761.
Weber, T.M., 2004, Development of a sand compaction pile
installation tool for the geotechnical drum centrifuge, XVI
European Young Geotechnical Engineering Conference,
811.
Yagyu, T., Endo, H., Takahashi, K., Yukita, Y. and Umehara,Y., 1991, Strength characteristics of soil improved by
low replacement sand compaction pile, Proc. International
Conference on Geotechnical Engineering for Coastal
Development, Geo-Coast91, Yokohama, 423428.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Promotion of consolidation for dredged soft sediments using


permeable bags
M. Fukue & K. Kita
Tokai University, Shizuoka, Japan

C. Mulligan
Concordia University, Montreal, Canada

K. Uehara & Y. Umeki


Japan Industrial Land Development Co., Tokyo, Japan

T. Inoue
Tokai University, Shizuoka, Japan

ABSTRACT: At present, dumping of contaminated dredged materials into ocean is prohibited. Therefore,
treatment of the dredged materials has become very important in many countries. This study examines a waste
disposal technique using biodegradable bags for contaminated dredged materials. Two types of permeable bags,
woven hemp and a nonwoven made of corn starch, are used. Examination was made on dewatering during pouring
of materials into bags, leaching of chemicals due to dewatering, strength of bags, promotion of consolidation,
biodegradability, etc. The results show that the nonwovens have a lack of strength, leachate concentrations are
satisfactory for the prevention of contamination of environment, and consolidation can be promoted due to the
water path along the surface of the bags.

INTRODUCTION

Dredging of sediments is often used to maintain navigational roots for ships and to clean up contaminated
bottom in estuaries, bays and coastal areas. Up to the
present, dredged materials have been used as materials
for construction (Yozzo et al. 2004), such as reclamation, or have been dumped off shore. The management
guideline for dredged materials is also established in
specific areas (Casado-Martnez et al. 2006). However, the utilization and dumping of the materials
are becoming difficult, because of the contamination
of dredged materials. The dumping of contaminated
dredged materials into the sea has been prohibited
by the London Protocol (1996 Protocol). Therefore,
treatment of the dredged materials has become very
important in many countries.
Contamination of sediments and dredged materials
has been reported by many papers (Santschi 2001, Ho
et al. 2002, Fukue et al. 2006a). Hazardous substances
are possibly adsorbed on organic matter and smaller
particles in the sediments (Fukue et al. 2006b). The
organic matter can be degraded by microorganisms,
or taken up by benthos, and then incorporated in to
the food-chain. The degradation will release hazardous

materials, such as heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic


hydrocarbons (PAHs), nutrients, etc. from the sediments into the water column. This will cause the
pollution of water and eutrophication in closed sea
areas. Thus, water pollution is closely related to the
quality of sediments. This is one of the reasons why
dredging has been performed to protect water quality
in lakes, reservoir, ports and bays.
Basically, the contaminated sediments have to be
carefully treated or disposed of (Fredette and French
2004, EPA 1993). Numerous treatment and remediation techniques for dredged materials have been
proposed by many researchers (Mulligan et al. 2001).
However, the treatment of contaminated sediments
is often difficult, because of the amounts of materials to be treated huge amount. The disposal of
the dredged materials is also difficult in countries
where the cost of land is expensive. Nevertheless,
dredging has to be continuously achieved for several
reasons, including preserving the navigational route
and water depth, cleanup of the bottom for various
purposes, and replacement of sediments for construction. Therefore, field disposal techniques of contaminated dredged materials are proposed (Fukue et al.
2006b).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 1. a) Woven and b) nonwoven bags used in this study.

Figure 2. Set-up of hemp bag on an inclined stand.

Woven bags with sands are being used as antierosion and construction materials. The bags can be
used for soft dredged materials, which can allow dewatering without the diffusion of particles underwater.
The dewatering may be promoted by using permeable
bags, because the woven bags act as the water path
during the consolidation of the materials. Since the
bags are not necessary after the consolidation is completed, biodegradable bags, such as hemp, can be used.
Therefore, in this study, a theoretical examination of
the consolidation of dredged materials with and without bags, and the applicability of two types of bags,
biodegradable bags made of hemp and corn starch are
performed.

Figure 3. Corn starch bag filled with sludge.

2
2.1

EXPERIMENTATION
Materials and experimental procedures

The materials used were sludge obtained from a waterway. The sludge was mixed with seawater and the water
contents were adjusted to 48.3% for the first trial and
98.7% for the second trial. The ignition loss was 7.2%
and the specific gravity was 2.66.
The bags used were made of woven hemp and nonwoven corn stanch, as shown in Figure 1. The thickness
of the nonwoven was represented by the weight of the
texture, as similar to paper. In this study, two types of
the nonwovens, 70 g/m2 and 100 g/m2 , were used. The
dimensions of all the bags were 4.5 m in length and
0.5 m in width. The bags were installed on an inclined
semi-circular stand, as shown in Figure 2.
2.2

Experimental procedures

The bags were filled up with the sludge with a water


content of 48%, by a pump with a flow velocity of
10 m3 /h, as shown in Figure 3. For the sludge with a
water content of 98%, a flow velocity of 4 m3 /h was
used to fill the bag. Since dewatering occurs during the

Figure 4. Dewatering during pouring of sludge into corn


starch bag.

pouring of sludge (Figure 4), the water was collected


to analyze the chemical properties.
Eight bags filled with sludge were installed side by
side on sand materials (Figure 5). Then, the bags were
covered with a 37.5 cm thick sand layer, and then a
rectangular steel container was placed on it as a load
(Figure 6). The load was increased by pouring seawater
into the container, and then settlement of the container
was measured. The final load was 1.3 kN/m2 . After

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

375mm

mound

Pouring performance of sludge into various bags.


Velocity Fill-up Volume
of flow time
poured
(m3 /h) (mins) (m3 )
Breakability

Type of
Bag

Wt
(%)

Hemp
Corn
(70 g/m2 )
Hemp
Hemp
Corn
(100 g/m2 )
Hemp
Corn
(70+100 g/m2 )
Hemp
Corn
(70+100 g/m2 )
Hemp+Corn
(70 g/m2 )
Hemp

48.3
48.3

4
4

4:06
3:00

0.286
0.296

breakable

48.3
48.3
48.3

4
4
4

2:40
2:26
2:16

0.250
0.320
0.327

breakable

98.7 10
98.7 10

1:56
2:04

0.294

breakable

98.7 10
98.7 10

1:45
2:05

0.300
0.338

98.7 10

1:56

0.404

98.7 10

1:54

0.397

810mm

910mm

Container

1,187mm

3,025mm

bag
3,825mm

Seawater
for load
bag

Figure 5. Installation of bags.

3.2 Leachate
The quality of leachate from the sludge must be
evaluated as they may contain hazardous substances
(Moo-Young et al. 2001). Therefore, the leachate from
the bags was examined as follows.

Figure 6. Dewatering and consolidation experiments by


loading.

91 days, the bags were dug out and the water content
of the materials was measured. The degradability of
the bags was also observed.
3
3.1

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


Fill-up time

The time required to fill up the sludge is summarized


in Table 1. The fill up time was longer for a low water
content of the sludge and a lower velocity of the pump.
The shortest fill-up time was 1 min 45 s for a water
content of 98.7% at a flow velocity of 10 m3 /h, while
the longest fill-up time was 4 min 6 s for a water content
of 48.3% at a flow velocity of 4 m3 /h.
Nonwovens made of corn starch were too weak
against shearing. They were easily broken when
smashed against a corner at an acute angle, as shown
Table 1. Therefore, the materials should be improved
for strength. Some of the nonwovens, however, were
not broken by careful treatment, and were subjected to
the consolidation experiment.

Suspended solids and nutrients


The water discharged from the bags during pouring of
the sludge was collected and analyzed. The collected
water contains a small amount of suspended solids. In
the case of the hemp bags, the amount of suspended
solids, SS, was 584 mg/L. The average SS value of
the water from the nonwoven bags was 696 mg/L, and
821 mg/L for the nonwoven bags of 70 g/m2 .
The concentration of nutrients was measured in the
sludge used and leachates from the hemp bags and nonwoven bags. The leachates were collected for 10 min
after immediately pouring the sludge. The suspended
solids in the collected water decreased with time.
The leachates showed relatively low T-N and T-P
concentrations as shown in Table 2. The data for the
sludge used are also presented in Table 2. For the
sludge, the total nitrogen, T-N, was 130 mg/kg and
total phosphorous, T-P, was 640 mg/kg. On the other
hand, the nutrient concentrations for the leachates were
relatively low, as indicated in the table. Because seawater collected from the coast near the experimental site
was used to prepare the sample, the measured values
include ones in the seawater. Unfortunately, the nutrients for the seawater were not measured. However, this
means that the leaching of nutrients from the sludge
was low.
Further experimental study using distilled water
showed that the nutrients can leach from the hemp
and nonwoven themselves, as shown at the bottom of

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 2. The leaching test results were performed using


30 g hemp and 1L distilled water. The results show
that the measurement variables increased with time.
The results also show that pre-washing of hemp will
reduce the amount of the leachates.

where Tv is the time factor, Cv is the consolidation


factor, t is time and H0 is the drainage distance. On
the other hand, settlement of the soils St is given by

Heavy metals
As a typical example, heavy metals, copper, lead and
zinc, in the sludge and suspended solids, SS, were
measured using ICP(AES). The results are shown in
Table 3.
Table 3 shows that the heavy metal concentrations
of the sludge were greater than that of the noncontaminated marine sediments. The background values of marine sediments are approximately 20 mg/kg
for Cu, 20 mg/kg for Pb and 130 mg/kg for Zn (Fukue
et al. 2006a). The leachates from the sludge contained
suspended solids. Therefore, the leachates contained
some heavy metals, as shown in Table 3.

where U (Tv ) is the degree of consolidation, Su is the


ultimate settlement.
Figure 7 shows a comparison of disposal sites with
bags and without bags. For simplicity, the bags have a
rectangular shape, and are piled in order. Without bags,
the drainage distance becomes H because there is no
permeable layer at the bottom. Then, the time factor is
given by

3.3

3.3.1 Theoretical background


It is well known that the consolidation of soils depends
on the drainage distance as
Tv = Cv t/H02

(1)

Tv = Cv t/(H )2

(3)

With bags, the drainage distance will be significantly


reduced as H /2n, where n is the number of piles of
bags. Then, the time factor is given by
(4)

The ratio between Eqs. [4] and [3] compares the


consolidation speeds, which is
Tvb /Tv = 4n2

(5)

Thus, the consolidation using permeable bags is 4n2


times faster than that without bags. There may be variations due to the actual disposal method, the shape of
the bags and the way of piling the bags.

Leachate Characteristics.

Source of leachate
(concentration units)

SS

T-N

T-P

Time

Sludge (mg/kg)
Leachate from
Hemp (mg/L)
Leachate from nonwoven
(70 g/m2 ) (mg/L)
Leachate from nonwoven
(100 g/m2 ) (mg/L)
Leachate from double bag,
hemp and nonwoven
(100 g/m2 ) (mg/L)
Hemp
(mg/30 g)
Hemp (pre-washed)
(mg/30 g)

584

130
1.35

640
1.6

10 min
10 min

821

4.2

1.25

10 min

696

8.2

1.05

10 min

3.8

1.9

10 min

3.3.2 Experimental consolidation


It requires some time for disposed fine sediments
to consolidate. During this time, the organic matter
in the sediments will be degraded by microorganisms. Consequently, the adsorbed substances to the
organic matter will leach from the sediments (Lors
et al. 2004). If primary consolidation will occur before
Permeable materials

5.47
39.4
6.00
26.8

ND
0.12
0.78
1.10

1.18
1.40
0.04
0.14

Load

1 day
7 days
1 day
7 days

1
2
3
4
5
6

Table 3. Heavy metal concentrations in the sludge and


leachates.
Component
Sludge (mg/kg)
SS from hemp bag (mg/L)
SS from hemp bag (mg/L)
SS from corn starch bag (mg/L)
SS from corn starch bag (mg/L)

Cu
47.3
5.09
4.57
5.01
4.08

Pb
41.3
1.98
1.97
1.92
1.97

340
21.70
19.79
22.07
18.93

Zn

with bags
n piles
drainage distance: H/2n
2
Tvb= CV t/ (H/2n)

Without bag
drainage distance: H
2
Tv= CV t/ (H)

Figure 7. Illustration of consolidated materials with bags


and without bags, showing the effect of drainage distance.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(2)

Tvb = Cv t/(H /2n)2

Consolidation

Table 2.

St = U (Tv )Su

the biodegradation of organic matter in sediments


packed into bags, the leaching of hazardous substances which are adsorbed onto organic matter will
be reduced significantly. Therefore, it is desired to
promote the consolidation and minimize the leaching
volume before biodegradation.
The changes in water content after 92 days under
consolidation pressure are presented in Table 4. In the
table, the installed position indicates the position of
the bags (Figure 5). The initial water contents are the
water contents of sludge when they were poured into
the bags, whereas the final water contents are the water
contents when the bags were dug out after the consolidation experiment was ended. The results show that
the water content was reduced significantly, and that
the effect of the type of the bags is not significant.
The settlement due to the consolidation of sludge
was measured for 91 days, when the settlement was
less than 1 mm/10 days, as shown in Figure 8. The load
was increased three times, i.e., 0.6 kN/m2 , 1.0 kN/m2
and 1.3 kN/m2 .
Table 4.

3.4 Biodegradability
Figure 9 shows the dug out bags after the consolidation experiment. The bags crumbled a little and
were easily torn by hand. The biodegradability of the

Changes in water content due to consolidation.


Installed
Position

Initial
w.c.(%)

Final
w.c.(%)

Hemp
Hemp
Corn(70 + 100 g/m2 )
Corn(70 g/m2 )

3
7
6
5

48.3
98.7
98.7
98.7

26.9
33.7
33.8
31.2

load (kN/m2)

Type of Bag

Figure 9. Dug out bags after consolidation experiment.

20
27 days10 kN/m2

1 day 6.0 kN/m2

10

39 days13.5 kN/m2

77 days flattened

00
0.0

settlement (cm)

0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

day
Figure 8. Settlement of a sand embankment due to the consolidation of sludge in eight bags.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

90

100

5 years

6 years

8 years

10 years

12 years

Figure 10. Field biodegradation of nonwoven, estimated based on JIS method.

nonwoven was examined by a conventional method


(Japanese Standard K 6953) at 58 C, and the results
were converted to ones under the natural conditions in
terms of the soil type, microbial community, temperature and pH (Courtesy of Ikenoue et al. 2005). The
results showed that the nonwoven will be completely
biodegraded within 12 years, as shown in Figure 10.
4

CONCLUDING REMARKS

A disposal technique for contaminated dredged sediments was discussed in this paper. Since sediments
are usually so soft they cannot be easily treated. Bags
can be used to enable easier treatment of the dredged
materials and to avoid the dispersion of contaminated
particles.
The use of permeable bags can promote the dewatering during pouring of the sediments into the bags and
the consolidation of the materials under loading. An
examination and experimentation showed that the consolidation speed can be promoted significantly using
permeable bags.
It is noted that the consolidation of materials at
a disposal site is required to lower the dispersion of
contaminants due to the biodegradation of organic
matter contained in dredged sediments. It can be
achieved to complete the primary compression before
the biodegradation of organic matter.
REFERENCES
Casado-Martnez, M.C., Buceta, J.L., Belzunce, M.J. and
DelValls, T.A.,2005, Using sediment quality guidline for
dredged material management in Commercial ports from
Spain, Environment International, Vol.32, 3, 388396.
Fredette, T.J. and French, G.T., 2004, Understanding of
physical and environmental consequences of dredged
material disposal: history in New England and current
perspectives, Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 49, 12,
93102.

Fukue, M.,Yanai, M., Sato,Y., Fujikawa, T., Furukawa,Y. and


Tani, S., 2006a, Background values for evaluation of heavy
metal contamination in sediments, Journal of Hazardous
Materials, Vol. 136, 1, 111119.
Fukue, M., Sato, Y., Uehara, K., Kato, Y. and Furukawa, Y.,
2006b, Contamination of sediments and proposed containment technique in a wood pool in Shizuoka, Japan, J.
ASTM International, Vol.3, 7, 10 page.
Ho, K.T., Burgess,R.M., Pelletier, M.C., Serbst, J.R.,
Ryba, S.A., Cantwell, M.G., Kuhn, A. and Raczelowski,
P., 2002, An overview of toxicant identification in sediments and dredged materials, Marine Pollution Bulletin
44, 286293.
Ikenoue, S., Umeki,Y., Suyama,Y. AndYagi, T., 2005, Applicability of the vertical drain method using biodegradable
plastic in the construction sites, 6th Symposium on Geoenvironmental Engineering, The Japanese Geotechnical
Society, pp. 3740.
Moo-Young, H., Myers, T., Tardy, B., Ledbetter, R., VanaditEllis, W. and Sellasie, K., 2001, Determination of the
environmental impact of consolidation induced convective transport through capped sediments, J. Hazardous
Materials 85, 5372.
Mulligan, C.N., Yong, R.N. and Gibbs, B.F., 2001, An
overview of technology for heavy metal remediation of
dredged sediments, J. Hazardous Materials 85, 145163.
Pelletier, . and Canuel, G. 1988. Trace metals in surface
sediment of the Saguenay fjord, Canada. Marine Pollution
Bulletin, Vol. 19, pp. 336338.
Santschi, P.H., Presley, B.J., Wade, T.L., Garcia-Romero, B.,
Baskaran, M., 2001, Historical contamination of PAHs,
PCBs, DDTs, and heavy metals in Mississippi River Delta,
Galveston Bay and Tampa Bay sediment, Mar. Environ.
Res. 52, 5179.
Yozzo, D.J., Wilber, P. and Will, R.J., 2004, Beneficial
use of dredged material for habitat creation, enhancement, and restoration in New York-New Jersey Harbor,
J. Environmental Management 73, 3952.
1996 PROTOCOL TO THE CONVENTION ON THE PREVENTION OF MARINE POLLUTION BY DUMPING
OF WASTES AND OTHER MATTER, 1972 AND RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE SPECIAL MEETING
http://international.nos.noaa.gov/conv/lonprot.html

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Estimation of the settlement of improved ground with floating-type


cement-treated columns
Ryohei Ishikura, Hidetoshi Ochiai, Kiyoshi Omine, Noriyuki Yasufuku & Taizo Kobayashi
Department of Civil Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

ABSTRACT: In recent times, economy and environmental safety have become very important factors in the
construction of soil structures. Floating-type deep mixing soil stabilization has the advantage of reducing the cost
of construction of soil structures on deep soft soil layers. Therefore, it is important to elucidate the mechanism of
the consolidation settlement of improved ground with floating columns. First, in order to investigate the effects
of the improvement ratio, improvement depth, and arrangement of columns, one-dimensional consolidation
tests were carried out on a model ground with floating columns. The results of the tests were then compared
with those obtained using a settlement model based on the homogenization method with a consideration of the
stress distribution ratio. Finally, loading model tests were conducted under a plane strain condition to simulate
the consolidation deformation of the improved ground. Under these test conditions, it was confirmed that the
settlement of the improved portion can be estimated by using the proposed model.

INTRODUCTION

A technique that combines ground improvements such


as deep mixing, surface stabilization, and lightweight
embankment methods has been developed and this
technique enables the efficient construction of high
standard roads or high embankments on soft ground
with a deep soil layer. Floating-type deep mixing soil
stabilization is a method with acceptable settlement
for maintaining the proper functioning of high standard roads or high embankments on soft ground and
one advantage of this method is that it reduces the cost
of construction of soil structures on deep soft soil layers. In addition, in this type of improved ground, some
unimproved portion is retained under the improved
portion; hence, the ground water in the soft soil layer
can flow smoothly, which is not seen in the endbearing-type stabilization. Therefore, it is important
to predict the consolidation and deformation behaviors
of the improved ground.
Figure 1 shows the several factors that are related
to the settlement of the improved ground. In previous studies, two-dimensional model tests simulating
this type of improved ground were conducted for
investigating the influence of the improvement ratio,
diameter of the column, and improvement depth on the
consolidation settlement.
As one of the test results, it was reported that
improved ground with an improvement ratio of more
than 30% has nearly the same reduction effect of

Improvement
depth

Soft layer

Diameter of
columns

Pitch

Bearing layer

Figure 1. Factors related to the settlement of the improved


ground.

consolidation settlement as improved ground with an


improvement ratio of 100% in the group-column-type
arrangement. It was also reported that the consolidation settlement of improved ground reduces considerably when columns with larger surface areas are used
under the same condition of the improvement ratio.
Further, identical consolidation settlements of the
improved ground are observed when the improvement
volumes are the same. However, the calculation of
the consolidation settlement of improved ground with
floating columns has not been sufficiently established.
In this paper, a model for estimating the settlement
of improved ground is proposed based on the homogenization method with a consideration of the stress
distribution ratio. The test results in this paper are
compared with those of the proposed model.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Improvement ratio
Rigidity of columns
Arrangement of columns

Fill

Column

Box shaped cell

Model
columns

Loading plate

Bellofram cylinder

Soft clay
150 mm

Loading device
Height of specimen
200mm

Length of Column
HP

Table 1. Test Conditions.

double drainage
Earth pressure gauge
Pore pressure transducer

Case 0
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5
Case 6
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5
Case 6

Drainage
port

Figure 2. Apparatus used in the model test.

2
2.1

ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION
TEST

Improvement
ratio
fs (%)

Depth of
model columns
H1 (mm)

Improvement
patterns of
model columns

0
12.6
25.1
37.7
12.6
25.1
37.7
12.6
25.1
37.7
12.6
25.1
37.7

0
110
110
110
110
110
110
150
150
150
150
150
150

Group column
Group column
Group column
Wall
Wall
Wall
Group column
Group column
Group column
Wall
Wall
Wall

Outline of model test

In this chapter, the consolidation property of the


improved ground obtained for a one-dimensional
consolidation test is described and the settlement
reduction effects of the improvement ratio, improvement depth and the arrangement of columns are also
discussed.
2.1.1 Apparatus used in the model test
Figure 2 shows the apparatus used in the model test
under a one-dimensional consolidation condition. This
apparatus consists of a box-shaped cell, loading plates
and loading device. The model tests were carried
out in a drainage condition on the upper and lower
surfaces. Wall friction was reduced by a rubber membrane between the specimen and acrylic plates. The
tests for the improved model ground were conducted
under stress-controlled conditions. The vertical load
and consolidation settlement were measured.
2.1.2 Preparation of model ground
The model ground was prepared using soft clay and
model columns. Kaolin clay was remolded in a slurry
condition with a water content of about 80% and deaired under negative pressure for 1 h. This slurry was
then poured into the consolidation cell up to a depth of
about 260 mm. The specimen was consolidated under a
pre-consolidation pressure of 20 kPa using a bellofram
cylinder for around 2 days. After pre-consolidation,
a model ground with a height of about 200 mm was
obtained. Additionally, earth pressure gauges and pore
pressure transducers were attached to the apparatus
while pouring the soft clay. The earth pressure gauges
have a diameter of 6.5 mm and thickness of 1.0 mm.
The capacity of this gauge is 500 kPa at maximum
load. The pore pressure transducers have a diameter of
6.5 mm and thickness of 5.0 mm. The capacity of this
gauge is 100 kPa at maximum load.

Model columns

Group
columns
type

fs=12.6%

fs=37.7%

Wall
type

Figure 3. Arrangement of model columns.

A model of the column was used instead of the


actual improved column in order to homogenize the
rigidity of the columns. These columns are composed
of urethane and have a diameter of 30 mm and a height
of 110 mm or 150 mm. By an unconfined compression
test, the deformation modulus E of this column was
estimated to be about 50 MPa.
2.1.3 Test procedures and conditions
After the model ground was prepared, consolidation
pressure was applied vertically and increased stepwise
from P = 40 kPa to 80 kPa using a bellofram cylinder. Table 1 lists the test conditions. The depths of
the improved ground are 110 mm and 150 mm. The
improvement ratio, improvement depth, and arrangement of the model columns are different in the cases
listed in the table. Figure 3 shows the arrangement of
the model columns.
In order to investigate the settlement reduction
effect in the arrangement of the model columns,
group-column-type and wall-type improvements are

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

fs=25.1%

Table 2.

Soil Properties of Kaolin clay.

unimproved

Properties
Soil particle density S (Mg/m3 )
Initial void ratio e0
Plastic limit wI (%)
Liquid limit wp (%)
Plastic index Ip
Compression index CC
Swelling index CS

Normalized consolidation settlement

Case0 (unimproved)
Case1(fs=12.6% H=110 mm )
Case2(fs=25.1% H=110 mm )
Case3(fs=37.7% H=110 mm )
Case7(fs=12.6% H=150 mm )
Case8(fs=25.1% H=150 mm )
Case9(fs=37.7% H=150 mm )

0
Group column
type
Consolidation settlement S (mm)

2.71
1.64
50.6
31.0
19.6
0.213
0.053

H=110 mm (Wall)
H=150 mm (Group column)
H=150 mm (Wall)

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Improvement ratio fs (%)


4

Figure 6. Relationship between the normalized consolidation settlement and the improvement ratio (P = 80 kPa).

2.2 Test results and discussions


8

10

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Time T (second)

Figure 4. Relationship between the vertical settlement and


elapsed time (P = 80 kPa).
Case0(unimproved)
Case4(fs=12.6%H=110 mm )
Case5(fs=25.1%H=110 mm )
Case6(fs=37.7%H=110 mm )
Case10(fs=12.6%H=150 mm )
Case11(fs=25.1%H=150 mm )
Case12(fs=37.7%H=150 mm )

0
Wall type
Consolidation settlement S (mm)

H=110 mm (Group column)

0.9

10
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Time T (second)

Figure 5. Relationship between the vertical settlement and


elapsed time (P = 80 kPa).

employed. Table 2 shows the soil properties of kaolin


clay. The compression index Cc and swelling index Cr
are obtained from the results of a standard consolidation test on kaolin clay.

2.2.1 Test results


Figures 4 and 5 show the relationship between the
vertical settlement and elapsed time under 80 kPa of
consolidation pressure in the group-column-type and
wall-type improvements, respectively. As is evident in
these figures, these improved grounds have a similar
consolidation property although the vertical settlements are different. The consolidation reduction effect
increases with the improvement depth for the same
improvement ratio for all the test conditions.
Figure 6 shows the relationship between the final
settlement and improvement ratio for all the test conditions. Each settlement is normalized by that of Case
0 at a consolidation pressure of 80 kPa. The final
settlement decreases gradually with an increase in
the improvement ratio under the same improvement
depth condition. Further, under one-dimensional consolidation, the arrangement of the model columns is
considered to have little influence on the consolidation
reduction effect for the same improvement ratio and
improved depth conditions.
Figures 7 and 8 show the relationship between the
stress distribution ratio b and elapsed time in the
group-column-type improvement. The stress distribution ratio b is defined as the ratio of the stresses
between the model column and soft clay under the
loading plate. This value can be obtained by measuring the stress on the soft clay under the loading
plate. The higher the b value, the lower is the stress
on the soft clay. The experimental values of b are
less than 20 for all the test conditions. However, this
value is larger at a test condition of H = 150 mm than
at H = 110 mm, except for an improvement ratio fs
of 37.7%. This b value increases initially and later

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

20
Coefficient of volume compressibility mv (m2/MN)

H=110 mm (Group column)

Stress concentration ratio b

P=40(kPa)
16
Case1(fs=12.6% H1=110mm )
Case2(fs=25.1% H1=110mm )
Case1(fs=37.7% H1=110mm )
Case7(fs=12.6% H1=150mm )
Case8(fs=25.1% H1=150mm )
Case9(fs=37.7% H1=150mm )

12

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

0.6

H=110 mm (Wall)
P=80(kPa)

H=150 mm (Wall)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0

Time T (second)

16

15

20

25

30

35

40

Figure 9. Relationship between the experimental value of


the coefficient of the volume compressibility of the improved
portion and the improvement ratio.

with an increase in the improvement depth at the same


improvement ratio.
P=80(kPa)

14
Stress concentration ratio b

10

Improvement ratio fs(%)

Figure 7. Relationship between the stress distribution ratio


and elapsed time (group column type).

Case1(fs=12.6% H1=110 mm )
Case2(fs=25.1% H1=110 mm )
Case3(fs=37.7% H1=110 mm )
Case7(fs=12.6% H1=150 mm )
Case8(fs=25.1% H1=150 mm )
Case9(fs=37.7% H1=150 mm )

H=150 mm (Group column)

0.5

12

SETTLEMENT MODEL BASED ON THE


HOMOGENIZATION METHOD WITH
CONSIDERATION OF STRESS
DISUTRIBUTION RATIO

10

In this chapter, in order to estimate the settlement of


the improved ground, a settlement model based on the
homogenization method with a consideration of the
stress distribution ratio is proposed. In particular, the
settlement of the improved portion of the improved
ground is estimated from the soil parameters of the
improved column and soft clay. The results of the onedimensional consolidation test are compared with the
estimated values by using this proposed model.

8
6
4

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Time T (second)

Figure 8. Relationship between the stress distribution ratio


and elapsed time (group column type).

converges on a constant value. It is considered that the


excess pore-water pressure against the applied load
dissipates during the consolidation process and the
total stress on the soft clay decreases gradually.
Figure 9 shows the relationship between the experimental values of the coefficient of the volume compressibility of the improved portion and the improvement ratio. This value is derived from the assumption
that the unimproved portion has the same consolidation settlement as that of the layer at the same
depth in Case 0. As shown in this figure, this value
decreases with an increase in the improvement ratio
for all the test conditions. This value also decreases

3.1 Homogenized material parameter of the


composite ground
Figure 10 shows concept of the homogenized composite ground. This composite ground consists of
improved columns and soft clay. The average stress
increment and average strain increment of the composite ground in the vertical direction are expressed in
Eqs. [1] and [2].
d = fs ds + (1 fs )d

(1)

d = fs ds + (1 fs )d

(2)

The increments of the stress-strain relationships of


the improved column and soft clay are represented in
Eqs. [3] and [4], respectively.
ds = mvs ds

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(3)

(U)

S (U)

homogenized

mv
H1
mvs: improved column

*
mv : soft clay

(L)

Figure 10. Concept of the homogenized composite ground.

d = mv d

(5)

The coefficient of the volume compressibility of the


composite ground in the vertical direction mv in Eq.
[6] is represented using Eq. [1] to Eq. [5];
mv =

fs bmvs + (1 fs )mv
(b 1)fs + 1

(6)

In order to estimate the coefficient of the volume compressibility of the improved portion of the
floating-type improved ground, it is important to evaluate the stress distribution ratio. This value varies
with the difference in the improvement ratio and
improvement depth. In the next section, the fundamental consideration for predicting the stress distribution
ratio is described.
3.2

Evaluation of the stress distribution ratio of the


improved portion

Figure 11 shows the concept for the evaluation of the


stress distribution ratio of the improved portion. This
concept is under the assumption that the improved
columns and soft clay are independent springs with different rigidity and upward friction applied around the
surface of the improved column. These springs deform
independently in proportion to the stress applied on
them. As shown in this figure, H1 and H2 denote
the depths of the improved and unimproved portions,
respectively. mvs and mv denote the coefficients of
the volume compressibility of the improved column
and soft clay, respectively. In the case where the rigid

Figure 11. Concept for the evaluation of the stress distribution ratio of the improved portion.

plate undergoes a constant settlement, s(U) and (U)


denote the vertical stresses on the improved column
and soft clay under the loading plate, respectively.
When an upward friction is applied around the surface
of the improved column, the vertical stresses under
the improved column and soft clay immediately below
the improved portion are denoted by s(L) and (L) ,
respectively. These are defined using Eqs. [7] and [8],
respectively.
S (L) = S (U)

T
Afs

(7)

(L) = (U) +

T
A(1 fs )

(8)

( = Cu)

(9)

T = 2rH1

Here, A is the total area of the improved ground and


T in Eq. [9] is the sum of the upward friction around the
surface of the improved column. It is assumed that in
Eq. [9] is equal to Cu. Cu denotes the undrained shear
strength of the soft clay. is defined as the coefficient
of the friction reduction effect. r and n are the radius
and number of the improved columns, respectively. In
order to evaluate the surface friction, the stress distribution ratios under the loading plate and immediately
below the improved portion are expressed by Eqs. [10]
and [11], respectively.
b = s(U ) /(U )

(10)

b = s(L) /(L)

(11)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

H2

S (L)

Here, fs is the improvement ratio and mvs and mv


denote the coefficients of the volume compressibility of the improved column and soft clay, respectively.
In order to evaluate the stress distribution in the composite ground, the stress distribution ratio b which is
defined as the ratio between the stress in the improved
column and that in the soft clay, is introduced in Eq. [5];
ds = bd

m*v

(4)

The simultaneous equations required to calculate Eqs.


[10] and [11] are expressed in Eqs. [12] and [13],
respectively.

Here, s denotes the average stress between S (U ) and


S (L) and denotes that between (U ) and (L) .
Eq. [12] expresses the relationship between the
stress of the improved columns and soft clay under the
loading plate. Eq. [13] is under the assumption that the
ground surface is deformed equally by the rigid plate.
By substituting Eqs. [7] and [8] into Eqs. [12] and
[13], Eqs. [10] and [11] can be rewritten as Eqs. [14]
and [15], respectively:
*
+
D+2)
s)
2R(D + 1) + (1f
D + f(fSS(1f
R TA
s(U )
fs
S)
*
+
b=
=
(U )
2(D + R) D + (fS D+2) R T
fS (1fS )

mvS

H1

(L)

H
m *v

S(L)

40

fs=12.6%
fs=25.1%
fs=37.7%

35
30

(15)

(16)

Here, R = mv /mvs is the rigidity ratio parameter and


D = H1 /H2 is the depth ratio parameter. Eq. [16] gives
the average stress distribution ratio of the improved
portion.
This b value is obtained from the rigidity and
skin friction of the model columns, the improvement
ratio, and the improvement depth. By substituting Eq.
[16] into Eq. [6], the average coefficient of the volume compressibility of the improved portion mv is
obtained.
Figure 12 shows the concept for the estimation of
the total settlement of the improved ground. As shown
in this figure, under the condition that the average
stress  is constantly applied on the ground surface with the rigid plate, the total settlement of the
improved ground in one dimension can be obtained
from Eq. [17].
(17)

Under a one-dimensional consolidation condition,


the average stress  is regarded as constant in the
vertical direction; this allows the settlement of the
unimproved portion to be calculated easily. It is thus
important to evaluate the average coefficient of the
volume compressibility mv for estimating the total
settlement of the improved ground.

H2

Figure 12. Estimation of the total settlement of the improved


ground.

Estimated b

*
+
s)
2R(D + 1) D (1f
+ R TA

f
s
s(L)
=
b =
fS
(L)
2(D + R) + (1 + R (1f
)D TA
S)

25
20
15
10
5
0

10

15 20 25
Experimental b

30

35

40

Figure 13. Comparison between the experimental and estimated value of the stress distribution ratio under the loading
plate (P = 80 kPa).

3.3 Comparison between the test and estimated


results
In order to verify the proposed model, the experimental values of the stress distribution ratio b and total
settlement S are compared with the estimated ones. It
is considered that in these improved grounds, there is
little interaction among the improved columns. Hence,
the estimated value is obtained under the assumption that the friction applied around the surface of the
improved column is equal to the undrained shear
strength of the soft clay Cu, i.e., = 1.
Figure 13 shows a comparison between the experimental and estimated values of the stress distribution
ratio under the loading plate. The experimental value
is obtained by measuring the stress on the soft clay
under the loading plate. As shown in this figure, the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ave =

(14)

S = mv H1  + mv H2 

(12)

mvS H1 S + mv H2 S (L) = mv H1 + mv H2 (L) (13)

b = (b + b )/2

S(U)

mv

= fs S(U ) + (1 fs )(U )

(U)

Distance between columns

8
H=110 fs=12.6%
H=110 fs=25.1%
H=110 fs=37.7%
H=150 fs=12.6%
H=150 fs=25.1%
H=150 fs=37.7%

Estimated S(mm)

7
6
5

Rigid Plate

L/2

Stress(P P)
0

Improved columns

3
H

1
0

2
3
4
5
6
Experimental S(mm)

Soft clay

r0

Figure 14. Comparison between the experimental and the


estimated value of the total settlement (P = 80 kPa).

experimental values of the stress distribution ratio b


approximately correspond with the estimated ones.
The proposed model expresses the tendency of b to
increase with the improvement ratio.
Figure 14 shows the comparison between the experimental and estimated values of the total settlement.
The estimated values of the total settlement are
obtained using Eq. [17]. In this case as well, the experimental values of the total settlement S approximately
correspond with the estimated ones. Under these
test conditions the interaction among the improved
columns within a small improvement depth is considered to be low. In these cases, the experimental values
approximately correspond to the estimated ones under
the assumption that the skin friction applied around
the surface of the improved column is equal to the
undrained shear strength of the soft clay, Cu. However,
for actual improved ground and a large improvement
depth, the reduction effect of the skin friction should
be carefully evaluated.
3.4

Evaluation of skin friction of improved


columns

The improvement depth of the actual improved ground


is greater than that in the one-dimensional consolidation tests; therefore, it is important to evaluate the
reduction effect of the skin friction applied around surface of the columns for large improvement depths. In
order to investigate the relationship between the skin
friction and the distance between the columns in a
group-column-type improvement for a large improvement depth, FEM analysis using the Cam-clay model
as the constitutive equation was performed using the
axi-symmetric model shown in Figure 15. In this figure, r0 and L denote the radius of the column and
the distance between the columns, respectively. H and

Radius of column

Figure 15. Axi-symmetric model.


Table 3.

Soil parameter
Cc
Cr
0.213
0.053

M
1.32

v
0.25

K0
0.57

Vsat (kN/m3 )
18

Improved column parameter


E(kPa) b
vsat (kN/m3 )
50000 0.25
18

H1 denote the ground depth and improvement depth,


respectively. The ground surface is deformed equally
by the rigid plate. The parameters for the soft clay and
improved column are the same as those assumed in
the model tests, as shown in Table 3. These analyses
are conducted under several conditions with different
values of H, H1 , and L.
Figure 16 shows the relationship between the skin
friction applied around the surface of the improved
column and the distance between the columns. P0
denotes the pre-consolidation pressure. The soft clay
is consolidated under a pre-consolidation pressure P0
of 20 kPa and 40 kPa. denotes the average friction
applied around the surface of the improved column.
This value is obtained from the difference between the
applied stress on and immediately below the columns.
Each average friction is normalized by the preconsolidation pressure P0 . The improvement depth H1
is normalized by the distance between the columns L.
The normalized average friction /P0 decreases with
an increase in H1 /L. It is considered that the average

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Material parameter.

Model columns

Approximate curve
P0=20, P=20 (H1/H=0.75)
P0=20, P=40 (H1/H=0.75)

0.15
0.1
0.05
0

friction applied around the surface of the improved


column changes under several conditions with different values of H, H1 , and L. Consequently, the value
of /P0 is determined using the approximate formula
given in Eq. [18].
(18)

Eq. [18] is rewritten as Eq. [19] under the assumption


that is equal to Cu.
0.25 P0
,
Cu H1 L

(19)

By substituting Eq. [19] into Eq. [9], the sum of


the upward skin friction around the surface of the
improved column T can be obtained. By substituting
T into Eqs. [14] to [16], the average stress distribution
ratio b is obtained.
The test results in chapter 4 are compared with those
obtained by the settlement model using the reduction
effect of the skin friction in this section.
4
4.1

MODEL TESTS WITH THE PLANE STRAIN


CONDITION
Outline of model test

4.1.1 Apparatus used in model test


Figure 17 shows a schematic illustration of the model
ground. This apparatus consists of a container box,
loading plate, and loading device. The loading model
tests were carried out under a drainage condition on
the upper and under surfaces. The front side of the box
was made of transparent plate so that the deformation
behavior of the ground could be measured through

300 mm

the rubber membrane. The loading model tests for


the improved model ground were conducted under a
stress-controlled condition using a bellofram cylinder.
4.1.2 Preparation of model ground
Kaolin clay was used as the soft clay. The clay was
remolded with a water content of about 80%, and
the slurry was poured into the container box up to
a depth of about 800 mm. This slurry was consolidated under a pre-consolidation pressure P0 of 20 kPa
using a bellofram cylinder for approximately 5 days.
Earth pressure gauges and pore pressure transducers
were installed in the container box prior to pouring
the soft clay. After pre-consolidation, a model ground
with a height of approximately 600 mm was obtained.
The model columns used in this test are composed of
urethane, which is the same material used in the onedimensional consolidation tests. The columns have a
diameter of 30 mm and height of 300 mm. The model
columns were installed using the same procedure as
used in the one-dimensional consolidation tests.
4.1.3 Test procedures and conditions
Table 4 lists the test conditions. The arrangement of
the model columns is square in these test cases. After
the model ground was prepared, a vertical pressure
of 5 kPa was applied on the entire ground surface
for about 3 h. The vertical pressure on the improved
area of this model ground was increased stepwise
from P = 30 kPa to 40 kPa using a bellofram cylinder,
and vertical deformation was measured for this area.
A vertical pressure of 5 kPa was applied around the
improved area for the duration of the test.
4.2 Test results and discussions
4.2.1 Test results
Figure 18 shows the relationship between the total settlement and elapsed time for the improved area under
the consolidation pressures of 30 kPa and 40 kPa. As

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Drainage
port

Figure 17. Schematic illustration of the model ground with


floating columns.

Figure 16. Relationship between the skin friction of the


column and the distance between the columns.

Loading plate

950 mm

H1/L

0.25
= , ( Cu)
H
P0
1
L

*double drainage
Earth pressure gauge
Pore pressure transducer
Loading device

300 mm

Height of ground (H)

/P0

0.2

H1=300 mm

0.25

Improved area

300 mm

0.3

Table 5.

Table 4. Test conditions under plane strain conditions.


Improvement Ground Improved
ratio
depth
depth
Arrangement
fs(%)
H(mm) H1 (mm) of columns
Case 0 0
Case 1 19.6
Case 2 28.3

600
560
600

0
300
300

unimproved
group column
group column

Total settlment S (mm)

Case1(P=5 to 30 kPa)

Unimproved
portion
Settlement
S2 (mm)

(P = 5 to 30 kPa)
Case0
36.18
Case1
7.14
Case2
8.95

4.49
4.25

2.65
4.7

(P = 30 to 40 kPa)
Case1
5.15
Case2
4.41

Case1(P=30 to 40 kPa)

2.34
0.66

2.81
3.75

Case2(P=5 to 30 kPa)
Case2(P=30 to 40 kPa)

4
Table 6. Coefficient of volume compressibility of improved
column and soft clay.

6
8

10

mvs (m2 /MN)


mv (m2 /MN)

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000


Time T (min)

Figure 18. Relationship between elapsed time and total


settlement.

P = 5 to
20(kPa)

P = 20 to
30(kPa)

P = 30 to
40(kPa)

0.02
0.83

0.02
1.537

0.02
1.11

30 kPa. The deformation vectors are magnified by a


factor of 5. As shown in this figure, the vertical deformation is particularly evident at the improved area.
The average vertical settlement of the unimproved
portion was measured from the vertical deformation
vector sizes immediately under the improved portion.
The total vertical settlement in the improved area was
measured. The amount of settlement of the improved
portion is obtained from the difference between the
settlement of the unimproved portion and the measured total vertical settlement. Table 5 shows the
improved and unimproved portion settlements S1 and
S2 under a consolidation pressure of 30 kPa and 40 kPa,
respectively.

*Vectors are magnified by a factor 5


0
10
Depth (cm)

Improved
portion
Settlement
S1 (mm)

Total settlement
S(mm)

0
2

Settlement of improved ground.

20
30
40
50
600
0

10

20

30

40 50 60
Width (cm)

70

80

90

Figure 19. Deformation of the model ground under consolidation pressure of 30 kPa (Case2).

shown in this figure, the total settlement in Case 1


under a consolidation pressure of 30 kPa is smaller
than that in Case 2.The total settlement of the improved
ground is considered to be influenced by the model
ground depth because the model ground depth in Case
1 after pre-consolidation is smaller than that in Case 2.
Figure 19 shows the deformation of the model
ground in Case 2 under a consolidation pressure of

4.2.2 Comparison between test results and


estimated value of improved portion
settlement under plane strain conditions
In this section, the test results of the settlement of
the improved portion under plane strain conditions
are compared with the values estimated using the
proposed model.
Table 6 shows the coefficient of the volume compressibility of soft clay and improved columns at some
loading steps.
The mv values are estimated from the soil parameters obtained in the one-dimensional consolidation
tests.
The mv values for the overconsolidated region
(P = 5 kPa to 20 kPa) and normally consolidated

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

mv =

mv =

Cr log (Pf /Pi )


P(1 + ei )

(20)

Cc log (Pf /Pi )


P(1 + ei )

(21)

Here, Cr and Cc denote the swelling index and compression index obtained in the one-dimensional consolidation tests, respectively. Pi and Pf denote the
initial and final consolidation stresses, respectively.
ei is the void ratio when the stress condition is equal
to Pi . P (=Pf Pi ) represents the stress increment.
The coefficient of the volume compressibility of the
improved portion in the plane strain condition mv is
derived using Eq. [6] and the b value obtained in 3.4.
The settlement of the improved portion S1 is expressed
using Eqs. [21] and [22], finally.
S1 = mv1 H1 P1 + mv2 H1 P2
(5 < P < 30)

(22)

S1 = mv3 H1 P3

(23)

(30 < P < 40)

Here, mv1 and mv2 represent the coefficient of the


volume compressibility of the improved portion in the
overconsolidated and normally consolidated regions,
respectively. mv3 represents the coefficient of the volume compressibility of the improved portion in the
P = 3040 kPa range of the normally consolidated
region.
P1 , P2 , and P3 represent the stress increments
at some loading steps.
Figure 20 shows a comparison between the experimental and estimated values of the improved portion
settlement under a plane strain condition. As shown in
this figure, the experimental values of the improved
portion settlement approximately correspond with
those estimated using the proposed model by the
homogenization method with a detailed consideration
of the stress distribution ratio. In addition, it is possible
to estimate the settlement of the improved portion in
overconsolidated and normally consolidated regions
under these test conditions.
5

CONCLUSION

One-dimensional consolidation tests were carried out


on improved ground with floating-type columns in
order to investigate the consolidation settlement effect
of the improvement ratio, improvement depth, and

Settlement of improved portion S1(mm)

region (P = 20 kPa to 40 kPa) are obtained using Eqs.


[19] and [20], respectively.

Estimated (P=5 to 30 kPa)


Estimated (P=30 to 40 kPa)
Experimental (P=5 to 30 kPa)
Experimental (P=30 to 40 kPa)

8
6
4
2
0

10 15 20 25 30
Improvement ratio fs (%)

35

40

Figure 20. Comparison between experimental and estimated values of the settlement of the improved portion.

arrangement of columns. Additional loading model


tests were carried out under a plane strain condition
simulating actual improved ground in order to observe
the ground deformation mechanism. The results of
these tests were compared with those obtained using
the proposed settlement model that employs the
homogenization method with a consideration of the
stress distribution ratio. From the results, the following
conclusions were obtained:
In the one-dimensional consolidation tests,
1) The arrangement of the model columns has little influence on the consolidation reduction effect
under one-dimensional consolidation conditions.
2) The experimental values of the stress distribution
ratios and total settlement approximately correspond to the value estimated by the proposed model.
The stress distribution ratio can be evaluated from
the rigidity of the model columns and skin friction
applied around the surface of the improved column
defined as the undrained shear strength of soft
clay Cu.
In the loading model tests under a plane strain
condition,
3) The experimental values of the settlement of the
improved portion approximately correspond to the
values estimated by the proposed model with a
detailed consideration of the reduction effect of skin
friction applied around the surface of the improved
column.
In future studies, the estimation method of the skin
friction of columns should be verified experimentally
and the stress transmission effect from the improved
portion to the unimproved portion should be discussed
both experimentally and theoretically in order to estimate the total settlement of the improved ground under
a plane strain condition.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
This research was supported by Grant-in-Aid for
Scientific Research (A) (No. 16206049) from the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology, Japan.
The author is grateful to Mr. M. Nakashima, a technical officer at Kyushu University, and Mr. H. Matsui, a
masters student at Kyushu University, for their support
in the experiments.
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Miyano, K., Tsuneoka, N., Furumoto, K. and Ohno, M.
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Yamauchi, K., Ohno, M., Furumoto, K., Kuwano, R. and Tsuneoka, N. (2003): Model test of low improvement ratio
floating type deep mixing method, Proc. of 38th annual
meeting, JSSMFE (in Japanese).
Kitazume, M. and Terashi, M. (2002): Tokyo Workshop 2002
on Deep Mixing, pp. 242260.
Omine, K. and Ochiai, H. (1999): Homogenization method
for numerical analysis of improved ground with cementtreated soil columns, Proceedings of the international
conference on dry mix methods for deep soil stabilization,
161168/Stockholm/Sweden/13-15/October 1999.
Ishikura, R., Ochiai, H., Yasufuku, N., Omine, K. and
Kobayashi, T. (2005): Consolidation and Deformation Properties of Improved Ground with Floating
Type Cement-Treated Columns, Proceedings of Recent

Developments of Geotechnical Engineering in Soft Soil


Ground, pp. 322327, COctober 2005.
Bergado, D.T., Chai, J.C., Alfaro, M.C. and Balasubramaniam, A.S. (1994): Improvement Techniques of Soft
Ground in Subsiding and Lowland Environment, pp.
108121.
Rahman, Z., Takemura, J., Kouda, M. and Yasumoto, K.
(2000): Experimental study on deformation of soft clay
improved by low replacement ratio SCP under backfilled
caisson loading, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 40, No. 5, pp.
1935.
Omine, K. and Ochiai, H. (1992): One-dimensional compression properties of sand-clay mixed soils based on soil
structure, JSCE, (457/III-21), pp. 127136 (in Japanese).
Jung, J.B., Moriwaki, T., Sumioka, N. and Kusakabe, O.
(1999): The consolidation behavior of clay ground
improved by partly penetrated SCP, JSCE (617/III-46),
pp. 101113 (in Japanese).
Miki, H., Yamamoto, C. and Okochi, Y. (2002): Threedimensional analysis of full-scale test embankment on
sensitive clay, 3rd seminar on soft ground improvement
in highway construction.
Moorhouse, D.C. and Sheehan, J.V. (1968): Predicting safe
bearing capacity of pile groups, Civil Engineering.,ASCE,
Vol. 38, No. 10. pp. 4448.
Jenck, O., Dias, D., and Kastner, R. (2005): Soft ground
improvement by vertical rigid piles two-dimensional
physical modeling and comparison with current design
methods, Soil and Foundations, Vol. 45, No. 6, pp. 1530.
Oda, K. and Matsui, T. (1999): Stress sharing mechanism
of soft clay ground improved by sand compaction pile
with low replacement area ratio, JSCE (631/III-48), pp.
339353 (in Japanese).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Improvement for soft soil by soil-cement mixing


Saravut Jaritngam & Sommart Swasdi
Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla U., Thailand

ABSTRACT: Soft soils are well known for their low strength and high compressibility. Usually, due to sedimentary process on different environments, both physical and engineering properties (namely void ratio, water
content, grain size distribution, compressibility, permeability and strength) show a significant variation. Further, they exhibit high compressibility (including an important secondary consolidation), reduced strength, low
permeability and compactness, and consequently low quality for construction. Thus, the soil-cement mixing is
adopted to serves as an excellent foundations, and resist stability during construction process. It has recently
been used to improve the strength and deformation characteristics of these soft clays. For the abovementioned
reasons, a comprehensive laboratory testing programme was carried out in order to study the effect of inclusion
of cement on physical and engineering behaviour of a soft clay. A series of tests was carried out by varying proportion of Portland cement and soft clay. In this paper, the physical characteristics, index properties, unconfined
compressive strength, CBR of soil-cement treated soft clay, the field conditions, the laboratory testing results in
Thailand are given and discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Table 1.

Since the aggregate being used in producing the engineered low strength concrete in-situ is the native
soils, pre-construction soil borings, testing of the mix
design with the in-situ soils is a must. One to two cubic
feet of the soils is sufficient to run the required laboratory, pre-production tests on the soil cement mix.
Various water cement ratios are considered, usually
between 1:1 and 1.5:1 (by weight). The amount of
cement, again by weight, is typically 515% of the
weight of the soil to be treated.
Various methods of soil mixing, mechanical,
hydraulic, with and without air, and combinations of
both types have been used widely in Japan for about 20
years and more recently have gained wide acceptance
in the United States. The soil mixing, ground modification technique, has been used for many diverse
applications including building and bridge foundations, retaining structures, liquefaction mitigation,
temporary support of excavation and water control.
Names such as Jet Grouting, Soil Mixing, Cement
Deep Mixing (CDM), Soil Mixed Wall (SMW), Deep
Soil Mixing, (DSM), Dry Jet Mixing (DJM), and Lime
Columns are known to many. Each of these methods
has the same basic root, finding the most efficient and
economical method to mix cement (or in some cases
fly ash or lime) with soil [1, 2, 3, 4].
At the present time, the total volume of soil mixing work performed in the south of Thailand is about
144,600 cubic meters. Much of their soil mixing

Soil Properties

Unit Values

Specific Gravity, Gs
Liquid Limit, LL (%)
Plastic Index, PI
Soil Classification, USCS
Soil Classification, AASHTO
Unit Weight, ton/m3

2.648
93.00
46.67
CH
A-7-5(20)
1.679

has been to treat soft clays in Thailand, developing


strengths of 520 kg/cm2 (75300 psi).
2

SOIL INVESTIGATION

The site is located in the south of Thailand. Table 1


shows the approximate soil properties based on borelogs. The site is mantled by a layer of 18 m of very soft
clay. The underlying material is a soft clay. The total
unit weight and the standard penetration test (SPT) Nvalue of the soft clay are 1.679 t/m3 and 0 blows/30 cm
respectively. The total unit weight and N-value of the
stiff clay are 1.82.0 t/m3 and exceed 20 respectively.
3

SAMPLE PREPARATION

Soft soil sample was collected from excavations at a


depth of 1 to 3 m.The basic characteristics of the in-situ
soft soil are listed in Table 1.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soil Properties before mixed at Songkla, Thailand.

Cement treated soil samples were prepared as


follows:
A required amount of water was added to the soil
sample and mixed thoroughly by a high speed-rotating
stirrer to obtain saturated conditions. Afterwards a
quantity of cement in powder form was added to the
saturated soil and the whole mixture was stirred in
short time (5 min) to avoid hardening of the soilcement mixture. Quantities of the added cement to
the soil slurry were 0, 5 and 10% w/s.w. (weight by
soil weight). The samples for unconfined compression
(Figure 1) and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests
were kept in plastic bags to prevent moisture loss until
the 1, 7 and 28 days of curing.
3.1 Treated soil characteristics

3.2 Quality control and testing


Several minimum requirements must be satisfied in
order to improve adequately the physical and engineering properties of soft soils. If a soft soil is stabilized by cement, factors as compressive strength
(bearing capacity), durability under environmental
conditions of wetting-drying (strength of cement-soil
bonds), porosity (water or waste leakage through the
pore grains), permeability (containment walls can
be constructed with permeability of approximately
5 107 cm/sec), compression index (consolidationsettlement of foundations) should be taken into
consideration.
Because of the extensive use of cement stabilization
in pavements, CBR determinations have been made.
The relationship between CBR and cement content for
soft clay at Songkla, Thailand treated with different
amounts of cement.
For these reasons, tests of compressive strength and
CBR were carried out for soft clay stabilized with 0,
5 and 10% cement w/s.w., cured for 1, 7 and 28 days.
The main concept in this research work is the study of
the influence of cementing agent on the stabilizationengineering parameters.
4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results for soil-cement mixing for soft clay at Songkla,


Thailand are presented in Figure 2 to 7 and summarised
in table 2 to 5.
Figures 2, 3 and table 2 illustrate the stress-strain
behaviour of treated soil for different cement content after 1, 7 and 28 days curing period, respectively.
It was found that all soil-cement stabilized samples cured for 28 days revealed higher unconfined
compressive strength compared with soil-cement

UCS, (ksc)

The soil mixing, a ground modification technique,


has been used for many diverse applications including
building and bridge foundations, retaining structures,
liquefaction mitigation, temporary support of excavations, water control and structures that protect the
natural environment. This method has a basic target,
to find the most efficient and economical method of
mixing cement with soil, so that, the soft soil obtains
properties more like to those of a soft rock, such as a
clayey shale or lightly cemented sandstone.
The modulus of elasticity and unconfined compressive strengths are typically 1/5 to 1/10 that of normal
concrete. Almost all soil types are amenable to treatment; however, soils containing more than 10% peat
must be tested thoroughly prior to treatment. Mixing of soft, clay soils must be carefully controlled to
avoid significant pockets of untreated soils. However,

there are methods readily available to insure competent


mixing and methods of testing to insure that adequate
mixing and treatment has been achieved.

11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

1 Day
7 Days
28 Days

10 11

Percent of Cement, (%)


Figure 1. Unconfined compression test of soil cement
sample.

Figure 2. Unconfined compressive strength vs. cement


percentage for treated soil.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

40

12

0% Cement

5% Cement

10% Cement

1 Day
7 Days
28 Days

35

10

CBR, (%)

UCS, (ksc)

30
8
6
4

25
20
15
10
5

0
0

0
0

10

15

20

25

30

10

11

Percent ofCement,(%)

time, (days)

Figure 3. Unconfined compressive strength vs. curing time


for treated soil.

Figure 6. CBR vs. cement percentage for treated soil cured


for 1, 7 and 28 days.
40
35

65

0% Cement

60

5% Cement

10% Cement

CBR, (%)

Water Content, (%)

70

55
50
45

30

0% Cement

25

5% Cement

20

10% Cement

15
10

40

35

0
0

30
0

10

15

20

25

10

15

20

25

30

time, (days)

30

time, (days)

Figure 7. CBR vs. curing time for treated soil cured for 1,
7 and 28 days.

Figure 4. Water content vs. curing time for treated soil cured
for 1, 7 and 28 days.

Failure Strain, (%)

Table 2.
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0% Cement

5% Cement

0% Cement

UCS vs. curing time.


% Cement
0%

10

15

20

25

10%

Time,
days

UCS
(ksc)

UCS
(ksc)

UCS
(ksc)

1
7
28

0.536

2.417
3.723
4.821

351
595
799

6.880
8.395
9.626

1184
1466
1696

30

time, (days)

Figure 5. Failure strain vs. curing time for treated soil cured
for 1, 7 and 28 days.

stabilized samples cured for 0 day. The difference


in strength was 799% and 1196% for 5 and 10%
w/s.w. cement respectively. The strength increases
proportionally with increasing cement content. For this
study, the strength increases about 4.5 ksc for every 5%
increase in cement content.
The relationship exists between unconfined compressive strength and cement content, for cement
content up to 10 percent and the curing period of 28

compare with 0% cement.

days. For the data in Figure 2 the relationship between


unconfined compressive strength and cement content
may be expressed, for the most of the data by
(UCS)c = nc + 0.4493
Where (UCS)c = UCS for soil-cement mixed at
cement content, c (ksc), c = cement content (percent
weight by soil weight), n = 0.909 for 28 days of curing.
The water content in relation to cement content of
treated soil aged for 1, 7 and 28 days (Figure 4). The
addition of 5%, 10% cement w/s.w., decreased the

639

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

5%

Table 3. Water Content vs. curing time.

5% and 10%. CBR values increased proportionally


with increases in cement content after initial setting
time of cement was completed. The cement content
caused a major increase in CBR values. For the low
cement content (low strengths) failure in the CBR test
is of the punching type. At higher cement content (high
strengths) a more general shear failure of the soil develops. Data from Mitchell (1981) for other treated soils
are also shown [5].

% Cement
0%

5%

10%

Time,
days

w
(%)

w
(%)

w
(%)

1
7
28

66.87

51.42
40.98
38.21

23
39
43

40.54
38.24
34.21

39
43
49

compare with 0% cement.

Table 4.

Based on the results of this investigation, the following


conclusions can be drawn.

Failure Strain, f vs. curing time.

1. The higher the percentage of cement added the


higher the increment in strength and stiffness of
treated soil.
2. CBR values are improved significantly as the
cement content is increased.
3. The increase of cement content reduces the water
content of soil-cement mixing samples.

% Cement
0%

5%

10%

Time,
days

f
(%)

f
(%)

f
(%)

1
7
28

11.89

10.49
8.39
6.29

12
29
47

5.59
4.48
3.22

53
62
73

compare with 0% cement.

Table 5.

CBR vs. curing time.


% Cement
0%

5%

10%

Time,
days

CBR
(%)

CBR
(%)

CBR
(%)

1
7
28

0.73

7.47
11.64
16.15

923
1495
2112

23.16
27.52
36.00

3073
3670
4832

compare with 0% cement.

water content to about 38.2% and 34.21% correspondingly, in 28 days from 66.87% of the untreated soil.
Figures 5 and table 4 also reveal that higher cement
content treated soil exhibits more ductile behaviour.
More brittle type of failure with low values of failure
strain was observed for lower cement content treated
soil in both curing periods. In general, the failure
strains are less than 1.0%, which indicates that, as compared with soils, the soil-cement mixing is a relatively
brittle material.
Figure 6 and 7 show the effect of cement contents on
cbr values at three conditions of cement content: 0%,

Strength characteristics and CBR values were


improved strongly as the cement content was
increased. Curing time had only marginal effect on
this improvement. The addition of 5, 10% cement
w/s.w., decreased the water content and failure strain
correspondingly.
There is an overall improvement in the strength
characteristics of the soil and this behaviour has been
confirmed from unconfined compression and CBR
tests. This can be realized with increase in the induced
UCS and CBR values. Most of the strength behaviour
are taking place in a time period of about 28 days.
There is an increase in the strength of the soil by about
18 times for 10% cement w/s.w. when compared to the
untreated soil.
After this study, soil-cement mixing was used for
highway construction on soft subsoil for construction
an embankment over soft clay with low strength and
high compressibility, the engineering task is to prevent the failure of embankment and control the subsoil
deformation. Several methods have been developed
for economically and safely constructing embankment
on soft subsoil. Soil-cement mixing method is one
of the methods. With soil-cement mixing, the maximum ground settlement is reduced. It can be used to
strengthen the soft clay as a stiff clay layer. It has been
successful used in this project.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the support provided by Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University,
Thailand for conducting this research.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES
1. Jaritngam, S. [2002]. The soil improvement for
road embankment on soft clay by using jet grouting method, International Conference on Road &
Airfield Pavement Technology, China, pp.144153.
2. Jaritngam, S. [1996]. Method of reducing soil
movements for deep excavations in soft clay,
M.Eng. Thesis, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore.
3. Broms, B. [1983]. Stabilization of soft clay with
lime columns, International Seminar on Construction Problems in Soft Soils, Singapore, pp.120133.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4. Miki, H. [1997]. Design of deep mixing method of


stabilization with low improvement, the first seminar on ground improvement in highways, 27 August
1997, Department of Highways & Japan International Cooperation Agency, Bangkok, Thailand.
5. Mitchell, J.K. [1981]. Soil improvement: stateof-the-art. Tenth International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm, Sweden, June 1519.

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Improving engineering properties of soft clayey soils using


electrokinetics: A laboratory based investigation
Samudra Jayasekera & Steve Hall
School of Science & Engineering, University of Ballarat, Victoria, Australia

ABSTRACT: In this project, an in-situ soil treatment technique using electrokinetics was tested using laboratory experimental models in order to identify the potential of this approach to modify and improve the
engineering properties of soft, low permeable clayey soils, with and without the introduction of a stabilising
agent. Experiments were conducted in the laboratory using soils collected from soft alluvial soil deposit and
basaltic soil deposit in central Victoria, Australia. A layer of soil was placed in glass tanks (900 mm 350 mm
plan area) and compacted to a known density and water content typical of field conditions. Using electrodes
inserted into the soil, a direct current was passed across the soil under a voltage gradient of 0.5 V/cm for period
of 14 days. In separate experiments, distilled water and a saturated lime solution were introduced to the soil via
the anode electrode throughout the experimental duration with the aim of identifying the effectiveness of introduction of stabilising agents to soil using electrokinetics. After electrokinetic processing, soil specimens across
the soil were tested for various engineering properties such as compressive strength, consistency limits, linear
shrinkage, free swell index and compression index. From the results it was observed that the plasticity index of
the soil decreased appreciably indicating increases in soil compressive strength and workability. Both the linear
shrinkage and free swell index decreased by 70% without stabilising agents and by 90% with lime introduction,
indicating the reduction in the potential for volumetric changes in the soils. With electrokinetic treatment alone,
the unconfined compressive strength of the soils increased at least by 30% while in some locations the strength
increase was in excess of 100% while the lime-enhanced electrokinetic treatment led to an almost 200% strength
increase. The decrease in the compression index was between 10% and 15%. These results suggest the potential
of developing this technique to improve the engineering properties of soft clayey soils more effectively and
efficiently with or without the introduction of a stabilising agent.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Soft soils are well known for their low shear strength
and high compressibility. The high shrink swell
potential and low permeability characteristics are
also among the undesirable engineering properties of
soft clayey soils for construction purposes (Abdullah
and Al-Abadi 2005; Anagnostopoulos and Stavridakis
2003; Lo et al. 2000). These poor soil conditions often
make traditional forms of construction expensive, thus
requiring improvement of these engineering properties
before building on it.
Soil replacement, soil densification (by preloading,
compaction, vibrating etc) and soil stabilisation with
additives such as lime, cement and fly ash are amongst
the common soil improvement methods used in many
construction projects. Generally, the aim of these soil
improvement methods is to improve the strength characteristics and to reduce the compressibility of in-situ

soils in order to improve their performance under


applied loadings.
Generally, physical properties of clayey soils are
difficult to improve using conventional soil densification methods. This is mainly due to the low permeability properties and high shrink-swell characteristics
of clayey soils. As a result, chemical stabilization
using different combinations of additives such as lime,
cement, fly ash is considered as a preferred method of
treating and stabilizing clayey soils.
Lime treatment is commonly used to improve the
strength and stiffness properties and reduce shrinkswell potential of clayey soils. However, its use is
limited when conventional mixing is not possible for
reasons of time, access and depth constraints.
1.2

In electrokinetic soil treatment, a direct electric current (d.c.) is applied via electrodes to pass through the
soil. The passing of an electric current causes charged

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Electrokinetic soil treatment

species present in the soil solution (pore fluid, electricity, ions and fine particles) to migrate towards an
oppositely charged electrode.
The transportation of charged species across the
soil involves several mechanisms such as electroosmosis (migration of water through the capillary network
of soil particles under the influence of an electric
field), electromigration (transport of charged chemical species under an electrical gradient) and electrophoresis (movement of charged particles under an
electric field). The combined effects of these complex
electrochemical processes alter the physicochemical
properties of the soil. Using the same fundamental
phenomena of moving charged species across the soil
under an electrical gradient, this technique can also
be used to introduce desirable chemical compounds to
the soil by introducing them at the appropriate electrode. The combined effect of these processes alters
the chemical composition of the medium and thereby
changes the physico-chemical properties of the soil.
The electrokinetic processes in soils occur primarily due to presence of fine particles within the soil; i.e.
clay particles that posses specific mineralogical properties and hence electrically and chemically active.The
presence of diffused double layer (DDL) of clay minerals gives rise to several electrokinetic phenomena
in soil, which may result from either the movement
of different phases with respect to each other including transport of charge, or the movement of different
phases relative to each other due to the application of
electric field (Alshawabkeh 2001).
There are several different chemical, electrical and
electrochemical processes that become active within
the soil-liquid medium, when a soil is subjected to
electrochemical processing. These processes change
the system chemistry and collectively affect the soil
micro-structure and consequently modify many soil
properties.
When a direct current is applied to a soil-liquid
medium, water in the immediate vicinity of the electrodes is electrolysed and oxidation occurs at the
anode, generating an acid front while reduction takes
place at the cathode producing a base front. These
electrolysis reactions are,
2H2 O 2e => O2 + 4H+ at anode
2H2 O + 2e => H2 + 2OH at cathode

engineering characteristics of soil, for example to


dewater and stabilize, to expedite the process of
consolidation and to improve the shear strength
(Casagrande 1951). Some of the subsequent documented evidences include, improving stability of excavations (Chappell and Burton 1975); backfill strengthening and slope stabilization (Chappell and Huggins 1998), acceleration of consolidation (Bergado
et al. 2000; Ewers et al. 2002; Johnston and Butterfield 1977), improvement of physical properties
of an expansive soil (Abdullah and Al-Abadi 2005),
strengthening of a soft marine sediment (Lo et al.
2000) and the treatment of dispersive soils (Jayasekera 2005; Jayasekera and Hall 2005; Jayasekera and
Hall 2006; Jayasekera et al. 2004; Lo et al. 2000;
Sadrekarimi 2005; Sadrekarimi and Sadrekarimi
2003).
It is noticed that although there are encouraging evidences of the possible successful use of electrokinetic
methods in soil stabilisation/improvement, only very
limited studies have appraised the effects of electrokinetic treatments on the engineering properties of soft
clayey soils.
The purpose of this paper is to report and discuss the effects of electrokinetic treatments (with
and without introduction of lime via the anode) on
some engineering properties (unconfined compressive
strength, consistency limits, shrink swell properties
and compression index) of the experimental soils.
2

2.1 Experimental soils


Experiments were carried out on soils collected from
a soft alluvial soil deposit (soil S1) and a basaltic
soil deposit (soil S2) in central Victoria, Australia.
The soils were excavated within the depths of 0.3 m
to 1.2 m below the existing ground surface and were
transported to the laboratory. The physical properties of these soils (untreated) were initially evaluated
(Table 1) and were used as the datum for comparison
of the results following the electrokinetic processing.
2.2 Stabilising agents

and cause the pH to decrease at the anode and increase


at the cathode. The development of this pH gradient (acid/base profile) and its effects on the species
transport through soil porous medium have been
investigated in detail and well documented by many
researchers (Acar and Alshawabkeh 1993; Acar et al.
1990; Eykholt and Daniel 1994; Jayasekera 2004; West
and Stewart 1995).
There are reported instances extending back to the
1930s, about the use of electrokinetics to improve

The stabilising agent selected for this investigation


was lime (Ca(OH)2 ). Lime was selected due to its
widespread use as a soil stabiliser and soil treatment
agent. By using lime, it was expected to evaluate the
efficiency of Ca ions intrusion to the soil under an electric gradient and investigate the effectiveness of lime
treatment in soft soil stabilisation and improvement. In
separate experiments, the soil was continuously supplied with distilled water and saturated lime solution
via the hollow anode electrode. Distilled water was
used to produce the same hydraulic gradient to the soil.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Table 1.

Characteristics of tested soils.


Soil type

Soil Property

S1

S2

Clay content %
Unified Soil Classification
LL (Liquid Limit)
PL (Plastic Limit)
PI (Plasticity Index)
Linear Shrinkage %
Free Swell Index %
In-situ water content %
In-situ density (kg/m3 )
Compressive strength(kN/m2 )
Compression Index (Cc )

32
CH
56
23
33
12.3
65
35
1500
68
0.32

51
CH
72
34
38
32
128
47
1650
97
0.48

2.3

Experimental setup

The laboratory experiments were carried out using the


electrokinetic test methods developed at the University
of Ballarat (Jayasekera et al. 2004).
The tests were conducted in glass tanks of 900 mm
by 350 mm plan area. A layer of soil was placed in the
tank to represent field (in-situ) density and moisture
content such that the compacted thickness of the soil
layer is about 125 mm. Two 25 mm diameter, hollow
mild steel tubes were placed 700 mm apart at both ends
of the tank to serve as electrodes. Mild steel electrodes
were chosen because they are readily available at a low
cost, easy to fabricate and have considerable strength.
Although more inert electrodes such as graphite may
be better, some preliminary experiments indicated that
the effects of iron corrosion at the anode do not significantly affect the performance of the system in moving
water or the major cations through the soil. The soil
samples were then subjected to a direct current (d.c.)
with an initial voltage gradient of 0.5 V/cm for a period
of 14 days. At the end of the processing period, the soil
between the electrodes were divided in to five sections
having average normalized distances of 0.1, 0.3, 0.5,
0.7 and 0.9 from the anode and were tested for their
physical properties.
2.4

Experimental methods

The compressive strength of the soil was evaluated


using a pocket penetrometer. Initially, attempts were
made to retrieve 35 mm core samples from the soil
in the tank by manually pushing a thin walled 35 mm
sampler with a cutting edge into the soil. However,
due to excessively dry and brittle nature of soil and
the significant firmness of soil at some positions, it
was practically impossible to push the thin walled
3 5mm sampler to retrieve good core specimens for
conventional triaxial tests or UC tests. Therefore it
was decided to conduct penetration tests determine
the compressive strength of the soil. The penetration

Figure 1. Schematic of the laboratory set up for electrokinetic treatment of soil.

tests were carried out using a GEOTESTER pocket


penetrometer. Penetration readings were taken at least
at three points (laterally) at each test location.
All other tests on electrokinetically treated soil were
conducted on representative specimens prepared after
drying and homogeneously mixing the entire soil volume collected from each section at the given distance
from anode.
The consistency limits experiments (Liquid Limit
LL and Plastic Limit PL) and linear shrinkage tests
were conducted using the method described in Australian Standard (AS 1289.3.1.1-1995).
Free swell index (FSI) tests were conducted using
the method proposed by Jayasekera and Mohajerani
(2003) as no Australian Standard is available for this
experiment. In this experiment 10 g of fully dried soil
passing 425 m sieve is placed in a 100 ml graduated
cylinder and the initial dry volume of the soil is noted.
The cylinder is then filled with demineralised water
up to 100 ml mark. The gradually swollen volume of
soil-water mix is then recorded every 2 hrs until a reasonable equilibrium volume is reached. The free swell
index (FSI) is calculated using,
FSI = (VL VS )/VS 100
where VS is the initial dry volume of the soil and
VL is the final equilibrium volume of the soil. The
test method is fully described by Jayasekera and
Mohajerani (2003).
3

The results presented in this paper are averaged from


two or more experiments. The duration of electokinetic

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

RESULTS

Table 3. Linear Shrinkage and Free Swell Index of soil S1


and S2 before and after electrokinetic treatments.

Table 2. Consistency properties of soil S1 and S2 before


and after electrokinetic treatments.

Soil
Type

Atterberg Limits
Soil Type

Soil Type

LL

PL

PI

S1

Untreated
EKDW
EKLS
Untreated
EKDW
EKLS

56
52
50
78
70
70

23
26
28
38
39
45

33
26
22
40
31
25

S1

S2

S2

Status

LS

%
decrease

FSI

%
decrease

Untreated
EKDW
EKLS
Untreated
EKDW
EKLS

12.3
3.5
1.2
32
9
2.4

71.5
90

71.8
92.5

65
16
4
128
31
8

75
94

75
94

Compressive strength (kN/m2)

300

treatment is 14 days for both distilled water and lime


enhanced experiments unless stated otherwise.
EKDW indicates that the soil is electrokinetically
treated with distilled water as the anode enhancement
liquid. Similarly, EKLS refers to electrokinetically
treated soils with saturated lime solution as the anode
enhancement liquid.
3.1 Variation of plasticity characteristics
The results of consistency limits are tabulated in
Table 2. These results are for the electrokinetically
treated soil in the middle of the tank (0.5 normalised
distance from anode).
It is observed that there are noticeable decreases
in the PI with electrokinetic treatments. With lime
enhancement, the decrease in the PI is greater for both
soils S1 and S2. It is also noticed that the decrease
in the PI is due to the decreases in the LL and the
increases in the PL.
These observations are generally in conformity with
the observations made by (Rogers et al. 2003) in
electrokinetic stabilisation of clay soils using lime
and (Abdullah and Al-Abadi 2005) in electrokinetic
stabilisation of expansive clay soils using Ca and
K. Jayasekera and Hall (2005); Jayasekera and Hall
(2006) and Sadrekarimi and Sadrekarimi (2003), also
report decreases in the PI in electrokinetic stabilisation
of dispersive soils using lime, although they noticed a
slightly different variation patterns of LL and PL. This
may be due to the presence of Na ions in the dispersive
soils and their effects on the DDL and electrokinetic
processes.
In general, a decrease in PI value indicates the
effects of agglomeration-flocculation reactions and
the subsequent pozzolanic reactions that lead to
decrease in soil plasticity, a major benefit in lime
stabilisation.
From these results, it is noted that with the electrokinetic treatment, the lime could be introduced to
the soil quite easily and efficiently without having to
dry the soil, pulverise and mixing as required in the
conventional lime treatment methods.

200
150
100
50
0
0.9

0.7

0.5

0.3

0.1

Normalised distance from Anode


S1 (untreated)
S1 (EKDW)
S1 (EKLS)

S2 (untreated)
S2 (EKDW)
S2 (EKLS)

Figure 2. Variation of compressive strength with lime and


distilled water enhancement.

3.2 Effects of electrokinetics on swelling and


shrinkage
The swelling and shrinkage was evaluated using linear
shrinkage and free-swell index. The results show that
both linear shrinkage and free swell index decreased
by 70% with electrokinetic treatment alone. With
the introduction of Ca, the decrease is greater than
90%. These results indicate the significant reduction
in the potential for volumetric changes of these soils
(Table 3).
3.3 Variation of compressive strength
characteristics
As can be seen from Figure 2, there are significant
variations in the compressive strengths of soils S1 and
S2 after 14 days of electrochemical processing.
The following major electro-chemical processes
have contributed to the modification of soil strength.

646

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

250

Electroosmosis, which is the migration of water


through the capillary network of soil particles under

and OH ions into the pore solution and subsequent


cation exchange (substitution of calcium ions for
the existing cations at negative sites on the clay
surface) and agglomeration-flocculation reactions
suppress the thickness of the diffused double layer.
With time, the pozzolanic reactions take place and
form cementing bonds and cementing compounds
within the pore space and soil particles. These consequences modify many engineering characteristics such as dispersion, strength, plasticity, volume
change potential, permeability and compressibility
(Kennedy et al. 1987; Rogers et al. 2003).
It is also known that the application of an electric
field induces precipitation of amorphous compounds such as iron oxides and carbonates (Acar
1992; Alshawabkeh 2001). In general, precipitation
of these compounds is aided by an increase in the
alkalinity of the soil pore fluid. The precipitated
iron oxides and carbonates can act as cementing agents, which strengthen the soil inter-particle
bonds.

50
45

Water Content %

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.9

0.7

0.5

0.3

0.1

Normalised distance from Anode


S1 (untreated)
S1 (EKDW)
S1 (EKLS)

S2 (untreated)
S2 (EKDW)
S2 (EKLS)

Figure 3. Variation of water contents of soil S1 and S2 with


lime and distilled water enhancement.

the influence of an electric field. With the electroosmotic flow, the moisture condition across the soil
changes. As differential in soil zeta potential develops (associated with the changes in soil pH and also
the changes in the chemical concentrations in the
pore solution) a change in the electroosmotic potential occurs across the tank. With time, certain areas
in the tank start to dry out relative to other areas
(Figure 3). The location of wet and dry regions
primarily depends on the soil properties such as
permeability characteristics, clay type and content,
DDL characteristics etc. This phenomena is discussed in some detail by Jayasekera et al. (2004)
and Ugaz et al. (1994). For these soils (S1 and S2),
the driest area occurs around a normalised distance
0.3 from anode. As can be seen from Figure 2,
there is a significant increase in the UC strength
corresponding to the driest region across the soil.
Electromigration, which is the transport of charged
chemical species under an electrical gradient. The
transport of Ca2+ and other charged ions and their
interaction with clay minerals can also affect the
soil strength due to the variations in the DDL ionic
concentration and subsequent modifications in the
soil structure. In response to the introduction of
Ca2+ with lime enhancement, an increase in the
soil compressive strength is evident for both soils
S1 and S2, between the normalised distances of 0.2
to 0.8 from anode.
With the introduction of lime, several short-term
and long term chemical reactions take place that
alter the soils physico-chemical properties (Sherwood 1993). The exothermic formation of CaOH2
results in significant improvements in soil workability purely due to dewatering. The release of Ca

These reactions have contributed towards the soil


strength as evident from the recorded significant
increases in the strength for both soils S1 and S2 with
lime enhancement. With distilled water enhancement,
the increase in the compressive strength is in excess
of 100% while with lime enhancement the strength
increased by almost 200%.
3.4 Variation of compression index (Cc )
The compression index was calculated using Skemptons relationship;
Cc = 0.007 (LL-10)
The decrease in the compression index which is
directly related to the LL of the soil is about 10%
with electrokinetic treatments without lime introduction. With the introduction of lime, about 15% decrease
in the Cc was recorded.
4

This paper presents laboratory experimental results of


a study undertaken to investigate the effects of electrochemical treatments on the engineering properties of
two low permeable soft clayey soils. From the results
=7presented, the following conclusions can be made.
The increase in the compressive strength was in
excess of 100% with electrokinetic treatment alone
while the lime introduced electrochemical processing
lead to almost 200% strength increase. The soil type,
clay content and various complex electro-chemical
processes initiated within the medium influences the
variation in the compressive strength.
The consistency limits change with the electrokinetic treatments indicating a noticeable decline in the

647

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSIONS

PI. The LL decreased and PL increased resulting this


decrease in the PI. A greater decline in the PI was
recorded with the introduction of lime via anode.
The results show that both linear shrinkage and free
swell index decreased by 70% with electrokinetic treatment alone. With the introduction of Ca, the decrease
is greater than 90%. These results indicate the significant reduction in the potential for volumetric changes
of these soils.
The decrease in the compression index is about 10%
with electrokinetic treatments without lime introduction. With the introduction of lime, about 15% decrease
in the Cc was recorded.
From these results, it is noted that with the electrokinetic treatment, lime could be introduced to the
soil quite easily and efficiently without having to
go through the quite cumbersome processes such as
drying the soil, pulverising and mixing as required
with the conventional lime treatment methods. This
technique may also overcome the constraints and difficulties due to time, depth and access associated with
many traditional soil stabilising processes.
REFERENCES
Abdullah, W. S., and Al-Abadi, A. M. (2005). Implementation of the electrokinetic processes as an effective method
for soil improvement. International conference on Problematic soils GEOPROB 2005, Famagusta, N. Cyprus,
885894.
Acar, Y. B. (1992). Electrokinetic Soil Processing (A review
of the state of the art). Geotechnical Special Publication,
ASCE, 30(2), 14201432.
Acar, Y. B., and Alshawabkeh, A. N. (1993). Principles of
electrokinetic remediation. Environmental Sci. Technol.,
27(13), 26382647.
Acar, Y. B., Gale, R. J., Putnam, G. A., Hamed, J., and
Wong, R. L. (1990). Electrochemical processing of soils:
Theory of pH gradient development by diffusion and linear
convection. J. Env. Sci. and Health, 25(6), 687714.
Alshawabkeh, A. N. (2001). Basics and application of electrokinetic remediation. Federal University of Rio de
Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro.
Anagnostopoulos, C. A., and Stavridakis, E. I. (2003). Physical and engineering properties of a cement stabilized soft
soil treated with acrylic resin additive. Electronic journal
of geotechnical engineering.
Bergado, D. T., Balasubramaniam, A. S., Patawaran, M. A. B.,
and Kwunpreuk, W. (2000). Electro-osmotic consolidation of soft Bangkok clay with fabricated vertical drains.
Ground Improvement, 4, 153163.
Casagrande, L. (1951). Electro-osmotic stabilization of
soils. Transactions of Boston Society of Civil Engineers,
5183.
Chappell, B. A., and Burton, P. L. (1975). Electro-osmosis
applied to unstable embankment. Journal of the geotechnical engineering division, 733739.
Chappell, B. A., and Huggins, G. (1998). Effect of backfill
strength and stiffness on slope stability. AusIMM98
The Mining Cycle, Mount Isa, Australia, 213217.

Ewers, B., Smith, D., and Fityus, S. (2002). Electro-osmotic


testing of Ballina clay. Enironmental Geomechanics,
Monte Verita, Switzerland, 295301.
Eykholt, G. R., and Daniel, D. E. (1994). Impact of system chemistry on electroosmosis in contaminated soil.
Journal of geotechnical engineering, 120, 797814.
Jayasekera, S. (2004). Electroosmotic and hydraulic flow
rates through kaolinite and bentonite clays. Australian
Geomechanics, 39(2), 7986.
Jayasekera, S. (2005). Electrokinetics to deal with salinity
impacts on urban and rural infrastructure: A laboratory
based investigation. Women Doing Research, Gladston,
Queensland, Australia.
Jayasekera, S., and Hall, S. (2005). Lime enhanced electrokinetic treatments to modify the properties of a salinesodic soil. International Conference on problematic soils
: GEOPROB 2005, Famagusta, N. Cyprus, 913923.
Jayasekera, S., and Hall, S. (2006). Modification of the
properties of salt affected soils using electrochemical
treatments. Journal of geotechnical and geological engineering, Springer (in press).
Jayasekera, S., Mewett, J., and Hall, S. (2004). Effects
of electrokinetic treatments on the properties of a salt
affected soil. Australian Geomechanics, 39(4), 3346.
Jayasekera, S., and Mohajerani, A. (2003). Some relationships between shrink-swell index, liquid limit, plasticity
index, activity and free swell index. Australian Geomechanics, 38(2), 5358.
Johnston, I. W., and Butterfield, R. (1977). A laboratory
investigation of soil consolidation by electro-osmosis.
Australian Geomechanics, 2132.
Kennedy, T. W., Smith, R. J., Holmgreen, R. J., and
Tahmoressi, M. (1987). An evaluation of lime and cement
stabilisation. Transportation research record 1110, TRB.
Lo, K. Y., Micic, S., Shang, J. Q., Lee, Y. N., and Lee, S. W.
(2000). Electrokinetic strengthening of a soft marine
sediment. International journal of offshore and polar
engineering, 10(2).
Rogers, C. D. F., Liaki, C., and Boardman, D. I. (2003)
Advances in the engineering of lime stabilised clay
soils. International conference on problematic soils,
Nottingham, UK.
Sadrekarimi, J. (2005). Effects of pH and duration on the
electro-osmotic treatment of dispersive soils. International conference on Problematic soils GEOPROB 2005,
Famagusta, N. Cyprus, 785792.
Sadrekarimi, J., and Sadrekarimi, A. (2003). Voltage and
duration effects of electroosmotic treatment of dispersive
soils. An international conference on problematic soils,
Nottingham, United Kingdom, 453457.
Sherwood, P. (1993). Soil stabilisation with cement and lime,
State of the art review, Longman publishers, London.
Ugaz, A., Puppala, S., Gale, R. J., and Acar, Y. B. (1994).
Electrokinetic Soil Processing: Complicating features of
electrokinetic remediation of soils and slurries: Saturation
effects and the role of the cathode electrolysis. Chem.
Eng. Comm., 129, 183200.
West, L. J., and Stewart, D. I. (2000). Effect of zeta
potential on soil electrokinetics. Geoenvironment 2000,
15351549.

648

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

3D modelling of deep mixing


Harald Krenn & Minna Karstunen
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

Asko Aalto
Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland

ABSTRACT: Deep mixed columns are commonly used to improve the bearing capacity and reduce settlements
of structures on soft soils. The paper demonstrates 3D numerical modelling of an embankment constructed
on soft Finnish clay improved with deep mixed columns. The stress strain behaviour of the soft clay deposit
is simulated with an advanced constitutive model, namely the S-CLAY1S which accounts for interparticle
bonding, destructuration and plastic anisotropy. In addition the problem is analysed with two other constitutive
models to demonstrate the importance and effect of modelling plastic anisotropy and destructuration in soft soil
deposits. The effect of the different constitutive models, column spacing and column stiffness on the settlements
is discussed. In addition, the increase of the vertical stress in the column and the soil below the embankment and
next to the embankment is demonstrated through a full 3 dimensional numerical simulation.

INTRODUCTION

Deep mixed columns are extensively used to improve


soft soils in order to reduce settlements and improve
the overall stability of embankments constructed on
soft soils. The addition of the deep mixed column into
the soft soil results in a very complex soil-structure
interaction problem. The current design methods are
simple and semi-empirical, and therefore, unable to
represent the complex mechanics of the problem. An
alternative to conventional design methods is to use
numerical techniques, such as finite element analysis.
With numerical modelling, especially 3 dimensional
models, the true geometry can be accounted for. In
addition, the complex stress-strain behaviour of the
soft soil and the column material can be represented
through advanced constitutive models.
The overall response of the embankment is often
dominated by the soft soil. Natural soil deposits tend
to have a significant anisotropy of fabric, due to
the geological history and mainly one dimensional
deposition. For embankment constructed on normally
consolidated or slightly overconsolidated soft clays
the plastic deformations are likely to be dominant.
In addition to anisotropy, natural soils exhibit bonding between the particles. The structure of a natural
soil according to Burland (1990) consists of two parts:
the fabric and the bonding between the particles.
The bonding will be progressively destroyed during
plastic straining. Leroueil et al. (1979) called the

progress destructuration. These features can be represented with the recently proposed S-CLAY1S model
(Karstunen et al. 2006)
The work presented in this paper is carried out as
part of a European Marie Curie Research Training
Network AMGISS (Advanced Modelling of Ground
Improvement on Soft Soils) funded by the EC
(For more information see http:/www.ce.strath.ac.uk/
amgiss/).

Cross section: A-A


Embankment

Plan view: B-B


A

Deep mixed column

c/c
c/c

Figure 1. Schematic drawing of the ground improvement


scheme.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Deep mixed columns

12.5m
5m

2.5

EMBANKMENT

1m

DRY CRUST
Ground waterlevel -1m

Area improved with


deep mixed columns
11m

VANTTILA CLAY

Column diameter
0.6m

30m

Figure 3. a) Geometry of the unit cell b) Finite element


mesh of the unit cell.

Figure 2. Geometry of embankment.

EMBANKMENT ON DEEP MIXED


COLUMNS

It is assumed that the embankment is constructed on a


soft clay deposit that has deep mixed columns installed
in a periodic grid as shown in Figure 1. The diameter
of the columns is taken as 0.6 m, as that is the most
common diameter in industry today. The values for the
material parameters were chosen to correspond to the
soil found in Vanttila, Finland (Koskinen & Karstunen
2004). The deposit has been idealized by representing
it with only two layers (Fig. 2): an over-consolidated
dry crust of 1m underlain by 11 m of soft, almost normally consolidated, clay. The ground water level is
assumed to be at 1 m below ground level.
The geometry of the 2.5 m high embankment is
shown in Figure 2. The area underneath the embankment is improved with deep mixed columns. The c/cspacing in the simulations has been varied from 1.0 m,
1.2 m to 1.4 m to study the influence of the c/c-spacing
on the settlement behaviour of the embankment.
3

NUMERICAL MODELS

The problem has been analysed using two different


3 dimensional models, a true unit cell and a full 3
dimensional model of embankment. The PLAXIS 3D
Foundation Beta finite element code was utilized for
the numerical simulations. In the 3D code, one must
first design a model on a 2D plane and later extent
the model in the third direction (z) to achieve a full
discretisation of the problem.
3.1 True unit cell
With a unit cell the problem is idealised by considering only single column, the surrounding soil and the
overlying embankment fill. This can be considered as
a very crude representation of the columns installed

Figure 4. Finite element mesh of the embankment.

along the centreline of the embankment. It is also a


good tool for parametric studies, as the simulations are
not as time-consuming as full 3D analyses. Figure 3
shows a section of one of the finite element meshes
used in the simulations and a schematic drawing of
the geometry of the unit cell. The mesh consists of
roughly 5000 15-noded wedge elements. No interface
is applied between the column and the soil. The lateral
boundaries are restrained horizontally, and the bottom
is restrained in both directions. Drainage boundaries
are assumed to be at the water level and at the bottom
of the unit cell.
3.2 Full 3D model
Analogously to the unit cell calculations, a full 3D
model was developed. Due to the symmetry of the
embankment, only half of the embankment is represented in the finite element mesh. The width of the
embankment strip (out of plane dimension) is dependent on the c/c-spacing. A section of the finite element
mesh used can be seen in Figure 4.The mesh consists of
approximately 10000 15-noded wedge elements. The
drainage boundaries are the same as for the unit cell.

650

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

a)

CSL

b)

M
1

p
1

pmi

pm

1
CSL

Figure 5. S-CLAY1S yield surface in (a) three-dimensional and (b) triaxial stress space.

3.3

Numerical simulations

With both types of models mesh sensitivity studies


were done to confirm that the meshes were dense
enough to give accurate settlement predictions for all
constitutive models used in the simulations. The problem itself was modelled using small strain analyses.
The construction stages of the embankment and
the installation of the columns are modelled as follows. First, the columns were activated under drained
conditions, followed by a plastic nil step to allow for
equilibrium in the model. Next, the embankment loading is applied under undrained conditions, assuming
the soil above the ground water table and the embankment to be drained. The final stage in each analysis
after the construction of the embankment was the simulation of a consolidation phase via fully coupled static
consolidation analysis.

CONSTITUTIVE MODELLING

4.1 Vanttila clay


The soft clay considered represents Vanttila clay, a soft
post-glacial clay from Espoo, in Southern Finland,
which is a typical example of sensitive Scandinavian clays. Vanttila clay has a high clay mineral
content (48%) with illite as the main clay mineral
(Messerklinger 2002). The natural water content is
very high and exceeds the liquid limit. The stress
strain behaviour of Vanttila clay was investigated by
performing oedometer and triaxial tests on natural
(undisturbed) and reconstituted (remoulded and onedimensionally consolidated) samples. Vanttila clay in
its natural state was found to be highly structured,
with a high degree of initial anisotropy (Koskinen &
Karstunen 2004).
One of the advanced constitutive models chosen
to represent the behaviour of the dry crust and the
soft clay layers was the S-CLAY1S model (Karstunen

et al. 2006). In addition, the S-CLAY1 model (Wheeler


et al. 2003) and standard isotropic Modified Cam Clay
model (MCC) were used in the simulations, as the
anisotropic and isotropic reference models.
The S-CLAY1S model is a critical state model that
is able to account for both initial and plastic strain
induced anisotropy and degradation of bonding. It
seems to give a realistic representation of natural soft
clay behaviour for both drained and undrained triaxial loading (see Karstunen & Koskinen 2004). By
setting certain initial state parameter to zero, and by
using a value for the apparent (slope of the normal compression line) determined from an oedometer
test on a natural clay, instead of the intrinsic value
i of a reconstituted clay, S-CLAY1S reduces to the
S-CLAY1 model that accounts for plastic anisotropy
only, and ultimately to the MCC model.
The yield surface of the S-CLAY1 model is a
sheared ellipsoid, as shown in Figure 3a in general
stress space. The effect of bonding can be described
by an intrinsic yield surface following the ideas by
Gens and Nova (1993) representing the yielding of
an equivalent unbonded soil. (Figure 3b) The intrinsic
yield surface for the natural soil, but with a size of pmi
that is related to pm the size of the yield surface for the
natural clay by
pm = (1 + x) pmi

where x is the amount of bonding. The initial value of x


can be estimated based on the sensitivity (x St 1).
If the soil in-situ can be initially assumed to be
cross-anisotropic, the inclination of the yield surface,
described by a deviatoric fabric tensor (a dimensionless second order tensor that is defined analogously to
the deviatoric stress tensor), can be calculated based
on a scalar parameter , which for normally or lightly
over-consolidated soils is a function of the friction
angle (see Wheeler et al. 2003 for details). The description of initial state with S-CLAY1S model does hence
not require any non-standard laboratory tests.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(1)

S-CLAY1S incorporates three hardening laws. The


first one, similar to that of Modified Cam Clay model,
describes the change in the size of the intrinsic yield
surface and is related to the plastic volumetric strains.
The second and the third hardening law describe,
respectively, the rotation of the yield surface and the
degradation of bonding with plastic straining. Both
processes are assumed to be linked to the evolution of
plastic strains (see Karstunen et al. 2006 for details).
Parameters and relate to the rotation of the
yield surface. Just like the initial value of the , the
value for can be derived theoretically based on the
friction angle of the soil. The value for is typically
between 10/ to 15/. Parameters a and b relate to the
rate of destructuration. Ideally, the values for a and b
are optimised by comparing model simulations with
triaxial test results. However, for most Finnish clays
that the S-CLAY1S has been applied to, a = 9 11
and b = 0.2. The S-CLAY1S model assumes isotropic
elasticity, similar to MCC model and associated flow
rule. The S-CLAY1S model is implemented into the
PLAXIS 3D Foundation Beta version.
The preconsolidation of the soil is modelled by
assuming the given in Table 1 for the vertical
pre-overburden pressure POP. POP is defined as


the POP = p v0
, where p and v0
are, respectively, the maximum past value and the in-situ value
of the vertical effective stress. The coefficient of
the earth pressure at rest, K0 , has been computed
using the formulation by Mayne & Kulhawy (1982):
K0 = (1 sin  )OCRsin  , where OCR is the overconsolidation ratio of the soil layer.
The permeability (k) of the soil deposit was
assumed to be the same in the vertical (y) and horizontal (x) direction, as no information was available
on the permeability in the horizontal direction. Also, a
change in permeability with a change of the void ratio
has not been accounted for in the simulations. The
value of the input parameters for the MCC, S-CLAY1
and S-CLAY1s model are given in Tables 1-3,where e0
is the initial void ratio, the unit weight, the slope
of welling line,  Poissons ratio and M the stress ratio
at critical state.
4.2

Embankment

The embankment is modelled by using a simple Mohr


Coulomb model, assuming the following parameter values: Youngs modulus E = 40,000 kPa,  = 0.3,
friction angle  = 38 , dilatancy angle  = 0 and
= 20 kN/m3 . For computational reasons a small
value of cohesion was assumed (c = 1 kPa).
4.3

Columns

Vanttila clay was one of the test materials for a study


on deep stabilization of soft Finnish clays at Helsinki
University of Technology. The project investigated the

Table 1.

Initial values for state parameters.

Layer

Depth [m]

e0

POP [kPa]

1
2

01
112

1.7
3.2

30
10

0.63
0.46

90
20

Table 2. The values for conventional soil constants.

[kN/m3 ]

kx = ky
[m/day]

1
2

13.8
13.8

0.029
0.032

0.2
0.2

0.25
0.88

1.6
1.2

6.9E-5
6.9E-5

Table 3. The values for the additional soil constants.


Layer

1
2

1.07
0.76

15
40

0.07
0.27

11
11

0.2
0.2

Table 4. Values for the input parameters for the columns.


Eref
50
[kPa]

Eref
oed
[kPa]

Eref
ur
[kPa]

ur


[ ]

c
[kPa]


[kN/m3 ]

12000

12000

27000

0.35

0.8

36

27

15

* Reference stress for stiffness, pref = 100 kPa.

influences of mixing tools and manufacturing process.


Laboratory model tests were followed by full-scale
field tests as reported by Aalto (2003). The properties
of stabilized columns adopted for studies in this paper
correspond to cement columns that were produced
using 150 kg of cement/m3 of Vanttila clay.
The so-called Hardening soil model (Brinkgreve
2002) implemented in the PLAXIS code was utilized to describe the behaviour of the deep-mixed
columns. This model accounts for stress depend stiffness via hyperbolic stress-strain relationship and there
is a distinction between the primary loading and
unloading/reloading. The model incorporates a Mohr
Coulomb failure criterion. The parameters are a reference stiffness for plastic straining due to primary deviatoric loading (Eref
50 ), a reference stiffness for plastic
straining due to primary compression (Eref
oed ), the stiffness and Poissons ratio for elastic unloading/reloading
Eref
ur and ur , respectively) and the parameters for the
Mohr Coulomb failure criterion, namely  , c and  .
Furthermore, an input value for m, the exponent, needs
to be given. As shown by Krenn et al. (2005), the Hardening soil model gives a reasonably good match with
the experimental data on stabilised Vanttila clay, when
the value for the model constants (listed in Table 4)

652

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Layer

were used. The values correspond to soft to mediumstiff columns after Korkiala-Tanttu (1997). The design
guidelines (e.g. EuroSoilStab 2002) suggest that the
permeability of deep mixed column is greater than for
the natural soil. In the simulations the permeability of
the deep mixed material is assumed to be the same as
in the surrounding soil, because it is unlikely that the
introduction of additional fines, in the form of cement,
is notably contributing to an improved permeability.
NUMERICAL PREDICTIONS

-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7

5.1 True unit cell

Influence of the column stiffness on the


settlement behaviour of the unit cell
The influence of the column stiffness on the settlements has been studied by using the S-CLAY1S model

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

Figure 6. Influence of models and column spacing on


settlements.
0.0

c/c 1.0m
c/c 1.2m
c/c 1.4m

-0.2

~17 years
-0.4

~28 years
-0.6

~38 years
-0.8
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

Time [Days]

Figure 7. Influence of column spacing on consolidation


time.

and a unit cell with a 1.0 m c/c-spacing. The results


for the surface settlements are shown in Figure 8. The
reference stiffnesses used are listed in Table 5 below.
The increase of the Eref
50 from 8000 kPa to 12000 kPa
which is an increase in stiffness by 50% results in
a decrease of settlements for the 1.0 m spacing by
approximately 20%. A further increase of the stiffness to 16000 kPa which is an increase by 100 %
decreases the settlements by 44%. This trend can also
be observed for the larger c/c-spacing of 1.2 m and
1.4 m. The effect of the stiffness increase is constant
for the studied column stiffnesses and further investigation would be needed to study the effect with much
higher column stiffnesses.
5.2 True unit cell versus full 3D model
In Figure 9 the settlements for the column at the centreline predicted by the full 3D model are compared to
the prediction of the true unit cell. All simulations presented are preformed with the S-CLAY1S model. In

653

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1.0

c/c - spacing [m]

Settlement [m]

Influence of anisotropy and destructuration


on the settlements behaviour of the unit cell
The predicted vertical displacements for the MCC
model, S-CLAY1 and S-CLAY1S model on the top
of the column are presented in Figure 6. The displacements are shown for the investigated c/c-spacing
of 1.0 m, 1.2 m and 1.4 m, respectively. Based on the
results, increased column spacing results in an increase
in the predicted magnitude of settlements, as expected,
and the increase is in general almost linear. A slight
non linearity can be seen in the prediction with the
S-CLAYS and that would be more apparent with a
further increase of the c/c-spacing. The S-CLAY1S
predicts in general similar settlements as the S-CLAY1
except for the 1.4 m spacing. The settlements for the
S-CLAY1 are 0.75 m compared to the S-CLAY1S with
0.77 m. A large difference in the prediction can be
seen between the MCC model and the anisotropic
models. Interestingly it can be observed that the difference between the isotropic model and the anisotropic
model increases with c/c-spacing. Given the differences between S-CLAY1S and S-CLAY1 are almost
negligible, the effects of bonding and destructuration
are far less important than anisotropy in the case. The
predicted differential settlements (between soil and the
column) were, in general less than 1 mm. Thus, assuming equal strain in the column and the surrounding soil,
as adopted by many conventional design codes, would
be appropriate in the cases considered.
The settlements versus time at the node on top of the
column at the centre of the model for the S-CLAY1S
model are presented in Figure 7. With increasing
c/c-spacing the consolidation time for the primary consolidation increases as expected. The increase of the
c/c-spacing from 1.0 m to 1.2 m increases the consolidation time from 17 years by approximately 11
years to 28 years. Further increase of the c/c-spacing
to 1.4 m more than doubles the time for the primary
consolidation to 38 years.

-0.8

5.1.1

5.1.2

MCC
S-CLAY1
S-CLAY1S

-0.1
Displacements [m]

0.0

Displacements [m]

0.0
E50=8000kPa
E50=12000kPa
E50=16000kPa

-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

c/c - spacing [m]


Figure 10. Deformed mesh after final consolidation of the
embankment.

Figure 8. Influence of column stiffness on settlements.

Both models predicted surface settlements of a similar magnitude for all three c/c-spacing. The same trend
can be observed for the settlements in 1 m which is
the top of the soft clay deposit. In 5 m the true unit
cell predicts slightly greater settlements compared to
the full 3D model. Even in that depth the difference
is marginal in the area of 1 to 2 cm and negligible
for design purposes. That can be explained by the one
dimensional loading which is apparent along the centre line of an embankment. If one is only interested
in the maximum settlements at the centre line of an
embankment some could argue a unit cell is a simple
useful design tool to investigate the settlements along
the centre line.

Table 5. Values of the column stiffnesses.


Eref
50
Column 1
Column 2
Column 3

Eref
oed

[kPa]

8000
12000
16000

Eref
ur

[kPa]

8000
12000
16000

[kPa]

18000
27000
36000

* Reference stress for stiffness, pref = 100 kPa

Surface UC
-1m UC
-5m UC
Surface 3D
-1m 3D
-5m 3D

0.0
Displacements [m]

-0.1
-0.2

5.3 Full 3D model

-0.3

The full 3D model with 1.0 m c/c-spacing and the SCLAY1S model has been used for a detailed study of
the columns below the embankment.

-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

c/c - spacing [m]


Figure 9. Influence of numerical model on settlements of
the column at the symmetry line of the embankment.

Figure 9 the abbreviation UC is used to refer to the true


unit cell and 3D to refer to the full 3D model. Again
the predictions are compared for three c/c-spacing,
1.0 m, 1.2 m and 1.4 m. In addition to the surface settlements, the predicted settlements for 1 m and 5 m
are presented in this figure.

5.3.1 Deformed mesh


The deformed mesh of the model after the end of the
consolidation is shown in Figure 10. The maximum
vertical displacements predicted are about 0.33 m at
the centre line of the embankment. The maximum horizontal displacements are 0.053 m and predicted in a
depth of 1.2 m below mid-slope of the embankment.
This can also be observed in the deformed mesh by
looking at the deformed columns below the slope. The
columns in the middle of the slope are experiencing
most intense shearing at around 1.2 m depth.
After the undrained construction of the embankment the maximum settlement at the centreline has
been estimated as 0.067 m. The maximum horizontal
displacement is 0.037 m at a depth of 2.5 m below
the lower third of the slope. The location of the maximum horizontal displacements changes during the

654

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

a)

0
-20

Vertical stress [kPa]

-40

-1m initial

-60
-80

-1m column

-100
-120

-1m embankment

-140

-1m consolidation

-160
-180
0

b)

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

28

30

0
-20

Vertical stress [kPa]

-40
-60

-3m initial

-80

-3m column

-100
-120

-3m embankment

-140

-3m consolidation

-160
-180
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

Vertical stress [kPa]

c)

-20
-40

-5m initial

-60
-80

-5m column

-100
-120

-5m embankment

-140

-5m consolidation

-160
-180
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

Distance from symmetry axis [m]

Figure 11. Effective vertical stress distribution.

construction stages and the time of the consolidation.


The location of the maximum horizontal displacement
moves closer to the centreline of the embankment and
upwards during consolidation within the soil deposit
in this example.
5.3.2 Effective vertical stresses
The predicted effective vertical stress distributions
along different horizontal profiles are presented in
Figure 11. The labels in the legend box refer to the
depth and the construction stage in the numerical
analyses. The presented construction stages are indicated as follows; the initial vertical stress (initial),
installation of the deep mixed columns (column), end
of the undrained embankment construction (embankment) and the end of the consolidation (consolidation).
Compression is assumed to be negative.
In Figure 11a the effective vertical stresses at a
depth of 1 m are plotted. 1 m is the ground water
level and the boundary between the drained dry crust
and the undrained soft soil deposit. After construction
of the embankment the vertical stress in the column
at the centreline increases to a value of about 80 kPa

and next to the column in the soil the stress increases


to a peak value of about 40 kPa. The stress increase
to 80 kPa in the column is apparent for all columns
up to a distance of 5 m from the symmetry line which
matches the width of the crest of the embankment.
At the end of the consolidation the effective stress
increases further to approximately 160 kPa, with
local maximum at the centre-line column due to the
dissipation of the excess pore pressure. In the surrounding soil the predicted stresses do not increase
significant. This can be explained with the differences
in the stiffness of the soil and the column, and the
resulting arching effect in the embankment due to this
difference in stiffness.
After construction of the embankment the increase
in vertical stress in the column at the centreline is
20 kPa at a depth of 3 m as shown in Figure 11b.
At the same time the effective stress at a distance of
10 m from the symmetry axis to the model boundaries
decreases and is lower than the initial value due to an
increase in excess pore pressures in the soft soil. The
effective vertical stress in the column at the centre line
is again approximately 160 kPa. This is an increase

655

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

of 140 kPa in column stress compared to the initial


stress before the construction of the embankment.
In Figure 11c the vertical stress distribution in 5 m
is plotted. A similar behaviour as explained in Figure 11b can be observed. Interestingly it can be seen
that predicted effective vertical stresses in the column
below the toe of the embankment has further increased
to a value of approximately 70 kPa compared to the
60 kPa in Figure 11b. It can be shown that the effective vertical stress in this particular column increases
with the depth.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

The paper discusses results of three dimensional


numerical analyses of deep mixed columns below an
embankment constructed on soft soil. Two different
numerical models are presented, namely a true unit cell
and a full 3D model of the problem. The soft soil and
the columns are modelled with advanced constitutive
models to account for the real stress-strain behaviour
of both constituents. One of the models used for the
soft clay is the recently developed S-CLAY1S model
which accounts for plastic anisotropy, bonding and
destructuration.
The results demonstrate that for this particular
problem ignoring anisotropy would lead to an underestimation of the vertical displacements. In addition
the effect of the column spacing and different column
stiffnesses has been considered. The results of the unit
cell analyses clearly demonstrate that displacements
in the column and in the surrounding soil are equal in
all cases, which suggest that the assumption of equal
strain, as adopted in conventional analysis, is appropriate for the cases considered. The stress distribution
predicted by the full 3D analysis show an almost constant stress increase with depth in the columns at the
centreline, but a slight increase of stress in the column
installed below the toe of the embankment.
Future work will concentrate on further parametric
studies on the column material and more full 3D simulations to demonstrate the behaviour of the columns
below the embankment under working load conditions
and ultimate loading conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was carried out as part of a Marie Curie
Research Training Network on Advanced Modelling
of Ground Improvement on Soft Soils supported by
the European Community (Contract No MRTN-CT2004-512120). The first author is sponsored by a
Faculty of Engineering Scholarship at the University
of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK.

REFERENCES
Aalto A. 2003. Full scale tests in the field using dry mixing
method. In Vermeer et al. (eds.): Proc. Int. Workshop on
Geotechnics of Soft Soils Theory and Practice. Noordwijkerhout, the Netherlands, 1719 September. Essen: VGE.
505510.
Brinkgreve R.B.J. 2002. Plaxis finite element code for soil
and rock analysis, 2D Version 8.
Burland J.B. 1990. On the compressibility and shear strength
of natural clays. Gotechnique, 40, 329378.
EuroSoilStab, 2002. Development of design and construction methods to stabilise soft organic soils, Design guide
soft soil stabilisation, CT97-0351 2002, (Project No. BE96-3177, European Commission, Industrial & Materials
Technologies Programme (Brite-EuRam III), Brussels).
Gens A., Nova R. 1993. Conceptual bases for a constitutive model for bonded soils and weak rocks. Proceedings
of International Symposium on Hard Soils Soft Rocks,
Athens, 485494.
Karstunen, M. & Koskinen, M. 2004. Undrained shearing of
soft natural clays. In: Numerical Model in Geomechanics, Proc. Of NUMOG IX, Ottawa, Canada, 2527 August
2004. A.A. Balkema, Leiden. Pp. 173179
Karstunen M., Krenn H., Wheeler S.J., Koskinen M.,
Zentar R. 2005b. Effect of anisotropy and destructuration on the behaviour of Murro test embankment. Int. J.
Geomech., 5(2), 8797.
Karstunen M., Wiltafsky C., Krenn H., Scharinger F.,
Schweiger H.F. (2006). Modelling the behaviour of an
embankment on soft clay with different constitutive models. Accepted for publication in Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth.
Geomech.
Korkila-Tanttu, L. 1997. Design guide for deep mixed
columns (Syvstabiloinnin mitoitusohje), Finnish National
Road Administration, FinnRA report 18/1997, Helsinki
(in Finnish).
Koskinen, M. & Karstunen, M. 2004. The effect of structure on the compressibility of Finnish clays. In: Proc. 14th
Nordic Geotechnical Meeting, Ystad, Sweden. Swedish
Geotechnical Society, Report 3:2004, pp. A-11-A-22
Krenn H., Karstunen M., Aalto A. 2005. 2D and 3D numerical
analysis of deep-stabilized columns. Proc. International
conference on deep mixing05, Stockholm, 547554.
Leroueil S., Tavernas F., Brucy F., La Rochelle P., Roy M.
1979. Behaviour of destructured natural clays. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 105(6): 759778.
Mayne P.W., Kulhawy F.H. (1982). K0 -OCR relationship in
soil.ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,Vol. 108,
GT, pp 851872
Messerklinger, S 2002. Personal communication (based on
Clay Mineralogical Investigations. Internal report J391,
Institute for Geotechnical Engineering, Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology, Zurich (in German)).
Wheeler S.J., Ntnen A., Karstunen M., Lojander M. 2003.
An anisotropic elasto-plastic model for soft clays. Can.
Geotech. J., 40(2), 403418.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Trafficability evaluation of PTM treated dredged soil deposit


Seung-Rae Lee, Wi-Yong Byeon, & Hyun-Gu Park
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, KAIST, Daejeon, Korea

Sung-Hyun Jee
Hyundai Engineering and Construction Co. Ltd., Seoul, Korea

ABSTRACT: For the surface stabilization process in a dredged marine clay deposit area, PTM (Progressive
Trenching Method) has been applied. The PTM treated dredged soil has characteristics of having surface crust
zone due to surface drainage condition. The crust surface allows the construction equipments to be applicable in
early stage of stabilization process. However, to ensure the trafficability of the construction equipments, a reliable
estimation of strength parameters for the soil deposit is indispensable and a method for reasonably estimating
the bearing capacity of the multi-layered soil deposits should be applied.
In this study, various field and laboratory tests were conducted to estimate the design parameters in the dredged
soil deposit which is located at southern coastal area in Korea. The DEM (Discrete Element Method) has been
developed for estimating the bearing capacity of multi-layered soil deposits. Besides, the behaviour of a test
embankment on the dredged soil deposits was measured and then it was compared with the results obtained by
the finite element analysis.
To validate the developed DEM, the DEM analysis results were compared with the plate load test results as
well as those obtained by various methods proposed by other researchers. The proposed method provided with
valid solutions. The results of finite element analyses explain the observation data obtained from field monitoring
at the test embankment on dredged deposits.

INTRODUCTION

To acquire the industrial building site, a large area of


the southern costal region in Korea peninsular was
reclaimed using marine clay which has very high water
content over 150%. Immediately after the reclamation,
the dredged area had very low bearing capacity (lower
than 1 t/m2 ) which was unable to sustain construction
equipments. Therefore PTM (Progressive Trenching
Method) has been applied to stabilize the surface of
the dredged area. The PTM promoted the desiccation
process and, consequently, the desiccated crust layer
was formed at the surface.
Nevertheless, the dredged soil underlying the crust
layer retains high water content, high compressibility and it takes a long period to fully consolidate. Therefore induction or promotion method of
consolidation-settlement such as pre-loading method
and installation of vertical drainage was required
to stabilize the overall deposit area. Therefore reliable evaluation of trafficability is required to ensure
the trafficability of construction equipment used in
early stage of surface-reinforcing procedure such as
geo-textile installation or construction of reinforced
embankment.

The trafficability in early stage is mainly related to


bearing capacity of the area. As mentioned above, the
dredged area consists of stiff crust and very soft clay
layers, and it can be considered as double-layered soil
deposit. The established bearing capacity estimation
methods for double-layered soil (Hanna and Meyerhof
1979, 1980; Michalowski and Shi 1995; Okamura et al.
1998; Merifield 1999) are not proper to apply to this
kind of site because of not only the lack of the knowledge on the interactive behaviour between the crust
and underlying clay in bearing, and the design parameter values and strain-stress behaviour of the crust but
also the assumptions in the theories without considering real soil conditions. Besides, if the reinforcement
such as geo-mat or reinforced filling is installed, estimation of bearing capacity becomes more difficult
for the absence of appropriate method. The bearing
capacity estimation method which considers both the
plastic stage at the actual failure and multi-layered soil
with reinforcement is still required. Therefore the careful investigation of strength parameters, stress-strain
behaviour and bearing mechanism of the deposit are
needed for reliable estimation of the bearing capacity.
In the meantime, the repeated loading induced by
construction equipment continually acts on the deposit

657

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

in the construction process. Because the repeated loading on the clay can affect the shear strength and
stability of the deposit (Thiers and Seed 1968; Lefebvre et al. 1989), the effect of repeated loading on the
bearing capacity should be investigated to properly
assess the trafficability during the construction.
In an attempt to estimate the reliable trafficability
of dredged marine clay deposit, five categories of the
works were conducted in this study. The first work
was the site characterization of the test site to gain a
soil profile of the basic geotechnical indices and to
assess the shear strength characteristics and stressstrain behaviour with depth. Including the tests for
basic properties, various filed and laboratory tests such
as field vane test, portable cone penetration test, and

direct shear tests were conducted. The second work


was performing plate load tests to investigate the actual
bearing behaviour and failure pattern of the deposit
and to evaluate the effect of reinforcement for bearing
capacity.The influence of repeated loading on the bearing behaviour was also verified by cyclic plate loading
tests. Based on the results of the tests, bearing capacity estimation program using discrete element method
(DEM) was developed and verified with the results of
several methods proposed by other researchers. The
proposed program was also verified with the results
of plate loading tests on various subject soil and reinforcement conditions. At the last, a test embankment
was constructed to observe the settlement behaviour
of the deposit during the construction of reinforced
filling. The observed behaviour from filed monitoring
was compared with numerically predicted behaviour
by finite element method.
2

SITE CHARACTERIZATION

2.1 Soil profile


The characteristics of the soil near the surface of the
experimental test site were determined by both in-situ
and laboratory tests. Before the tests, visual inspection
was performed and Figure 1 shows the feature of the
site. Two different states of soil were observed at the
depth of 2530 cm as boundary. Complicated crack
pattern can be seen in the upper layer and fluid-like
state of soil followed lower layer.
The soil profile of the test site is presented in Figure 2, where field vane shear strength su-fvt , cone tip

Figure 1. Visual inspection of test site.


SuFVT (t/m2)
0

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Water Content(%)

Cone Tip Resistance


3.0

3.5

10

20

30

40

-10

-40

-20

Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Average

-30

Depth (cm)

Depth (cm)

Depth (cm)

Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Average

-30

20

30

40

-8
-12

-20
Plasticity Index
PlasticLimit
Liquid Limit

-30

Depth ( m)

Depth (cm)

Depth (cm)

-40

-16
-20
-24
-28

-40

-32

Figure 2. The result of tests for site characterization.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

100

110

Matric Suction(kpa)
0

-10

-30

90

-30

50

-10

-20

80

-20

Atterberg Limit (%)


0

70

-50

Void Ratio e
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1

60

-40

-40

-50

50

-10

-10
-20

40

10

15

20

25

30

35

resistance qc , water content w, void ratio e, and atterberg limits PL, LL, PI are plotted against the depth. It is
clearly observed that dramatic change of soil parameters near the surface up to a certain depth (about 30 cm)
and no remarkable change of parameters are shown
after the depth.
From the surface to depth about 50 cm, the shear
strength varies from 3.8 t/m2 to 0.3 t/m2 , water content
50100% and the void ratio e 1.3 to 2.1.
Atterberg limits are as follows; liquid limit LL of
4955%, plastic limit of 1522%, and the plastic limit
of 2832%. The soil profile of the test site is quite
similar compared to the observations in literatures on
desiccated clay deposit (Lutenegger 1995; Konrad and
Ayad 1997); e.g., evolution of crack, increased shear
strength, reduction of void ratio, and low water content
at the surface.
From the results of visual inspection and tests, it
can be inferred that this deposit consists of two layers; desiccated crust and dredged soft clay layers. The
thickness of the crust can be presumed as 30 cm.

3.5

Shear Stress (t/m2)

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5

2.2 Shear strength characteristics and stress-strain


behaviour of the crust layer
Indication of the characteristics of shear strength and
stress-strain behavior was obtained by conducting
direct shear test.
The specimens were carefully sampled from the
desiccated crust at 10 and 20 cm depths and no specimen was sampled below the crust layer because of the
fluid-like state of the underlying clay.
The tests were carried out according to ASTM
D3080-90 and three cases of overburden pressure
were imposed (0.5 t/m2 , 1.5 t/m2 , and 3.0 t/m2 ). The
results are plotted in Figure 3, which shows the shear
stress-shear strain behavior.
The stress-strain curves shown in Figure 3 exhibit
a brittle behavior indicating peak strength at very low
shear strain level. The shear resistance decreases dramatically just after the peak strength and then strain
softening occurs. The stress-strain curves a little fluctuate, which can be understood by the effect of cracked
nature of desiccated clay as shown in Figure 1.
On the other hand, the shear strength does
not increase as overburden pressure increases. The
strength increment due to matric suction can be
neglected. Cementation and pre-consolidation (reduction of void ratio) due to desiccation (Lutenegger
1995) may be a major factor that increases the shear
strength in the desiccated region. The stress-strain
behavior of this test is very similar to the observed
behavior of cemented soil (Nagaraj et al. 1994).

1.0
v= 0.5 t/m2

0.5

v= 1.5 t/m2

0.0

PLATE LOAD TEST

v= 3.0 t/m2
0

(a)

10

15

20

25

30

Shear Strain(%)
2.5

To investigate the actual bearing behavior and the failure mechanism of the deposit and to ensure the effect of
reinforcement for bearing capacity, several plate load
tests were conducted at two test points having different
conditions which are described in Table. 1.

Shear Stress (t/m2)

2.0

Table 1.

1.5

0.5

v= 1.5 t/m2
v= 3.0 t/m2

0.0
0

(b)

Case

Diameter
of plate
D (cm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

30, 40, 75
75
75
75
75
75
100
100

1.0
v= 0.5 t/m2

10

15

20

25

30

Shear Strain(%)

Figure 3. Stress-strain behaviour of the crust in direct shear


test. (a) Stress-strain curve of the crust at 10 cm depth.
(b) Stress-strain curve of the crust at 20 cm depth.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Conditions of the plate load tests.

Condition of reinforcement
No reinforcement
Geo-mat
Crushed rock filling 0.5 m + Geo-mat
Crushed rock filling 0.7 m + Geo-mat
Granite Soil filling 0.5 m + Geo-mat
Granite Soil filling 1.0 m + Geo-mat
Granite Soil filling 1.5 m + Geo-mat
Crushed rock filling 1 m
+ Soil filling 0.5 m + Geo-mat

(a)

Load (t/m2)

Load (t/m2)
0

Settlement (mm)

Settlement (mm)

12

0
10
20
30

D=30cm,site 1
D=40cm,site 1
D=75cm,site 1
D=30cm,site 2
D=40cm,site 2
D=75cm,site 2

40
50

20
40
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5
Case 6
Case 7
Case 8
Case 1, D=75cm

60
80
100

Figure 5. Load-settlement curves of the plate loading tests


with reinforcement.

(b)
Yield Stress (t/m2)

Site 1
Site 2
Average

3.0

Table 2. Yield bearing capacity of plate loading tests with


reinforcement.

2.5

2.0

1.5
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Case

Yield bearing
capacity qy (t/m2 )

Ratio to qy with
No reinforcement (%)

2
3
4
5
6
7
8

2.65
6.00
7.30
4.0
7.0
8.15
9.17

180
408
497
272
476
554
624

Diameterof Plate (cm)

Figure 4. Results of plate loading tests in case 1


(a) Load-settlement curves of the plate loading tests of case 1
(b) Yield bearing capacity for different diameters of the plate
load tests of case 1.

3.1

Bearing behaviour of double-layered soil

Load-settlement curves with no reinforcement (case1


in Table 1) represented in Figure 4.a indicate that
typical punching failure was occurred during the plate
loading test. Brown and Meyerhof (1969) pointed out
that, for stiff layer overlying soft layer, failure occurs
by the footing punching through the top layer and that
punching failure becomes dominant as strength difference between the top layer and bottom layer becomes
larger. Therefore punching is the representative failure pattern of this kind of test site because of the
large strength difference between the crust and underlying soft clay as shown in Fig. 1. Also, from the
Figure 4.b, it is observed that the estimated bearing
capacity is dependent on the width of footing; bearing
capacity decreases as the width of footing increases.
The results correspond to the previous research results
on double-layered clay deposit (Burd and Frydman
1997).

3.2 Effect of reinforcement for bearing capacity


To compensate the low bearing capacity of dredged
clay deposit, various reinforcements were considered
in this construction site as described in Table. 1 and
plate load tests were conducted to verify the effect
of reinforcement to the bearing capacity. The loadsettlement curves of the tests are plotted in Figure 5
and Table 2 shows the yield bearing capacity of each
test and ratio to the yield bearing capacity of case1
with plate diameter 75 cm.
As shown in Figure 5 and Table 2, reinforcements
increased bearing capacity up to 180%624% of bearing capacity with no reinforcement. The results of
crushed rock and granite soil filling were satisfactory to ensure the stability of this site and, particularly,
crushed rock filling gave sufficient reinforcement.
4

The effect of repeated loading on the bearing behavior


was investigated by conducting cyclic plate loading
test. Before the cyclic test, static plate loading tests
was carried out with circular plate (30 cm diameter)
as reference tests. Then, cyclic tests were performed

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EFFECT OF REPEATED LOADING ON


BEARING BEHAVIOR

(a)

24

Permanent Settlement (mm)

Load (t/m2)
5

Settlement (mm)

0
10
20
30
40
Cyclic(D=30cm, load = 0.7Y)
Static (D=30cm)

50

D=30cm, Load = 0.7Y


D=30cm, Load = 0.88Y
D=30cm, Load = 1.06Y
D=15cm, Load = 0.9Y

22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2

60

(b)

10

15

20

25

Number of Cycle

Load (t/m2)
0

Figure 7. Permanent settlement in cyclic plate load test.

Settlement (mm)

settlement converges to certain value, cyclic loading was unloaded and static loading was imposed to
observe the post-cyclic bearing behavior.After the test,
field vane test was conducted to measure the variation
of shear strength during the cyclic test. Figure 6 represents load-settlement curves obtained from cyclic plate
loading test and the permanent settlement developed
during cyclic loading is plotted in Figure 7. With the
scale of cyclic loading, different behaviour has been
obtained in the tests.
In the case that the loading scale is less than yield
stress (Fig. 6a and 6b), settlement induced by repeated
loading increased no more and permanent settlement
converged to a constant value (Figure 7) which is
smaller than the settlement at yield in static test. The
post-cyclic load-settlement behaviour was very similar
to that of static test. These results can be interpreted
as the repeated loading less than yield stress do not
severely affect the bearing behaviour. However, when
the cyclic loading scale was larger than yield stress
(Figure 6.c), settlement increased rapidly as the number of cycle increased and the permanent settlement
increased as well (Figure 7). That is, failure occurred
after few repeats of loadings.

10
20
30
Cylic(D=30cm, load = 0.88Y)
Static (D=30cm)

40
50
60

(c)

Load (t/m2)
0

Settlement (mm)

0
10
20
30
40
50

Cylic(D=30cm, load = 1.06Y)


Static (D=30cm)

60

Figure 6. Load-settlement curves of cyclic plate load test


(a) Cyclic plate load test with load = 0.7Y (b) Cyclic plate
load test with load = 0.88Y (c) Cyclic plate load test with
load = 1.06Y .

with various cyclic loading scales as 70%, 88% and


106% of yield stress obtained by the static test. Considering the low speed and loading repeat time of the
construction equipment used in the dredged area, the
period of cyclic loading was determined as 4 minutes
(2 minutes loading and 2 minutes unloading). If the

5 APPLICATION OF DISCRETE ELEMENT


METHOD (DEM) FOR PREDICTING
BEARING CAPACITY OF MULTI-LAYERED
SOIL DEPOSIT
A Discrete Element Method (DEM) has been adopted
for a reasonable prediction of bearing capacity of
the heterogeneous multi-layered soil deposits. The
developed method is based on the limit equilibrium
method and uses the compatibility condition and equilibrium conditions for the stresses at the boundary.
In DEM, the soil mass is treated as comprising of

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 3. Failure mechanisms of DEM and theoretical


methods.
Assumed failure
Case mechanism

parallel theoretical
method

Punching shear
Failure (crust)
General shear failure
(lower clay)

Meyerhof &
Hanna (1980)
Merifield (1999)
Chen (1975)

Loading spread (filling)


Yamanouchi
Punching shear Failure (crust)
(1979)
General shear failure (lower clay) Houlsby(1989)

(a)
(a)

250

Meyerhof& Hanna (1980)


Upper bound Merifield(1999)
Lower bound Merifield(1999)
Upper bound Chen (1975)
D.E.M

qu(kN/m)

200

150

100

50

(b)
0
1.25

Figure 8. Features of the examples (a) Feature of example


case 1 (b) Feature of example case 2.

1.75

2.00

2.25

cu1/cu2
(b)
300

Okamura
Okamura -D.E.M
Houlsby

250

qu(kN/m)

blocks which are connected by elasto-plastic Winkler


springs. The normal and shear springs complied with
the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. More detailed
description of DEM is well documented in Chang and
Chao (1991). The main advantages of the proposed
method are easy simulation of the tensile reinforcement effects and consideration of a variety of possible
failure modes. Additionally, the distribution of shear
stress and plastic states in the assumed failure plane
can be estimated.
For the validation of the proposed method, some
example problems which could be problematic in this
test site were analyzed by both the theoretical method
and the DEM, and then the estimated bearing capacity
was compared each other. In each analysis of DEM,
same failure mode assumption was used as that of
parallel theoretical method. The features of the examples are shown in Figure 8 and the failure modes of
DEM and theoretical methods for examples are listed
in Table 3.
Figure 9 presents the results obtained from the analyses. The estimated bearing capacity by DEM is quite
similar to those of theoretical methods.
Also, as shown in Figure 10, the estimated plastic
state at failure by DEM is almost identical to theoretically assumed failure surface, and the result indicates

Houlsby-D.E.M
200
150
100
50
0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

0.50

0.55

H(m)
Figure 9. Results of analysis for examples (a) Results of
analysis for example case 1 (b) Results of analysis for
example case 2.

that the assumed failure mode is well simulated by the


DEM program.
The verification of proposed program for field condition was carried out by comparing the result with that

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1.50

(a)
15
Plate loading test
DEM

qf(kN/m2)

12
10
7.5
5
2.5
0
0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

D (m)
(b)
14
12

of the plate load test conducted in the test site. The


ground conditions of the field tests are: no reinforcement, geo-mat reinforced at surface, and embankment
of granite soil on geo-mat with height of 1.5 m. The
failure mechanisms of first and second tests were
modeled as punching failure, but the third test was
considered as local general shear failure within filling
material based on the critical depth criterion proposed
by Michalowski and Shi (1995).
For the reliable estimation of bearing capacity
of double-layered soil deposit, thickness and shear
strength of the crust and underlying soft clay are
very important factors (Burd and Frydman 1997).
Because of the obscure boundary and sudden change
of properties, a determination of the representative
shear strength of the crust and underlying clay was
hard to do. For the DEM analysis, the representative
shear strength of the crust as 1.0 t/m2 which was residual strength value of the crust in direct shear tests
(Figure 2), and shear strength of the underlying soft
clay as 0.2 t/m2 were assumed, and then the thickness
of the crust was back-calculated from the results of
plate loading test (Figure 3) using the equation for the
modified bearing coefficient proposed by Brown and
Meyerhof (1969) who considered punching shear failure mechanisms. The estimated thickness of the crust
was about 20 25 cm.
Figure 11 and Table 4 compare the estimated bearing capacity by both plate load test and DEM analysis.
Although some differences between the test and analysis are shown in the results, the proposed program
results in nearly close value compared to the results of
the tests.

qf (kN/m)

Figure 10. Plastic states at failure by DEM for examples (a)


Plastic state at failure by DEM for case 1 (b) Plastic state at
failure by DEM for case 2.

8
Plate loading test
DEM

6
4
0.2

0.4

0.6
D (m)

0.8

1.0

Figure 11. Comparison of DEM and plate loading test (a)


Comparison of DEM and plate loading test with no reinforcement (b) Comparison of DEM and plate loading test
with geo-mat reinforcement.
Table 4. Comparison of DEM and plate loading test for
reinforced geo-mat and granite soil filling.
Observed (kN/m)

DEM analysis (kN/m)

Error (%)

30

29

3.33

NUMERICAL PREDICTION AND


OBSERVATION BEHAVIOUR IN THE TEST
EMBANKMENT

6.1 Construction of test embankment


In this test area, crushed rock and EPS (Expanded
Polystyrene) block were selected as filling material
to obtain satisfactory trafficability of the construction
equipment and to restrain a large settlement during
the construction. Before constructing the embankment, test embankment was constructed to observe

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

10

120m

100

10m
90
10 m
80

areaB

Distance (m)

areaA
Crushed
Rock
Rock
100 m

70
60

Reinforced
Reinforced
region
region

50
40
30

EPS
EPS

20
area A
areaA

area B
areaB

10
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 100 110 120

Distance (m)
25m

50m

0.5m
0.5m
0.5m
100m

25m

Figure 13. Averaged field vane shear strength contour of


the embankment site within 60 cm depth.

Geomat
Geomat

Sufvt (t/m2)

Figure 12. Construction feature of the test embankment.


0

6.2

Design parameters for numerical analysis

Numerical modeling of the test embankment was carried out and the settlement behavior was predicted by
the finite element analysis.
Because of the spatial variation of properties in the
dredged soil deposit, it was hard to determine a representative shear strength or constitutive relationship.
To overcome such difficulties, field vane tests was
selected as strength parameter estimation tool for this
site as shown in Figure 14. Surface area of the deposit

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

Average : 2.1 t/m2


-20
-30
-40

Average : 0.6 t/m2

-50
-60

Average : 0.3 t/m2

Figure 14. Use of field vane tests for estimating strength


parameters.

was divided in three layers and average shear strength


in each layer was used as representative shear strength
of the layer.
The design parameters required for settlement analysis of test embankment were verified by the comparison of numerical prediction with the plate loading test result conducted with reinforcement. Simple
elasto-plastic model was used for the clay layers and
Drucker-Prager model was used for filling material
such as granite soil, EPS block and crushed rock.
Figure 15 compares the numerical prediction and
the plate loading test results. The design parameters
used in numerical analysis well describes the loadsettlement behavior of plate loading tests, and then
the design parameters were applied to simulate test
embankment construction.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.5

-10

Depth (cm)

the behavior of reinforced deposit, such as the settlement which can seriously affect the trafficability
during construction.
The test embankment was constructed over the
geo-mat with 70 cm height of crushed rock or 60 cm
thickness of EPS block. A multi-stage banking was
conducted: filling with the crush rock or EPS block
within the range of 0 70 m, and additional filling
with granite soil to the height of 150 cm within the
range of 0 110 m as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 13 shows averaged field vane shear strength
contour of the embankment site within 60 cm depth.
The averaged shear strength value of most of the site
was higher than 1 t/m2 which had been considered as
characteristic shear strength of the site after the PTM
had been applied. However, the average shear strength
of the area pointed out in Figure 13 (40 110 m in
reinforced region) was less than 1 t/m2 , and this area
was regarded as problematic area in the construction
process.

0.0

Load (t/m2)
4
6

10
Elevation (m)

Settlement(mm)

20
40
60

Initial

5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5

End of reinforcement filling


End of additional
soil filling

Crushed rock
0

80

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Distance (m)
10
0

: Plate load test withGeomat


: Plate load test with Crushed Rock
: Numerical analysis (Geomat)

5.0

: Numerical analysis (Crushed Rock)

Elevation (m)

Figure 15. Comparison of the numerical prediction with the


plate loading test results.

Settlement behaviour of test embankment

Settlement behavior of test embankment was monitored by measuring elevation of dredged deposit
with profile gage and measuring the elevation of fill
by surface surveying. Figure 16 shows the result of
monitoring for reinforced region at two stages in construction: reinforcement filling and additional filling
with soil. In Figure 16, symbols in hollow circles represent the elevation of filling and symbols in solid circles
represent the elevation of dredged deposit.
As shown in the figure, similar trend of settlement
was monitored for both cases. At the region which
had lower averaged shear strength, large settlement
occurred in common. Because of the less self weight
of EPS block relative to crushed rock, the settlement
at the end of EPS filling is smaller than that at the end
of crushed rock filling. Heaving was found at 60m
distance for EPS reinforcement filling, but no heaving
was found with crushed rock reinforcement filling.
Figures 17 and 18 compare the monitored settlement with numerically predicted settlement. As shown
in the figure, numerical prediction shows reasonable agreement with the monitored behaviour. Large
settlement is predicted at the problematic area (Figure 13), and the results indicate that the numerical
analysis well simulated the settlement behaviour of
test embankment.

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0

EPS
0

20

40

60 80 100 120 140


Distance (m)

Figure 16. Monitoring results (a) Monitored behaviour of


test embankment reinforced by crushed rock (b) Monitored
behaviour of test embankment reinforced by EPS block.

0.0
-0.3
-0.6
-0.9
-1.2
-1.5

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Distance (m)
Settlement at the end of reinforcement filling (monitored)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (monitored)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (numerical)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (numerical)

Figure 17. Monitored and numerically predicted settlement


behaviour of test embankment reinforced by crushed rock.

CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, various test programs and numerical


analyses were performed to evaluate the trafficability of PTM treated dredged soil deposit located at
southern coastal area in Korea. The test programs were
aimed to characterize the site area and to investigate

strength characteristics and bearing behaviour of


deposit considering the effect of repeated loading. In
order to estimate a reliable bearing capacity for trafficability, DEM (Discrete Element Method) has been

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Initial

4.0

1.5

Settlement (m)

6.3

End of reinforcement
filling
End of additional
soil filling

4.5

(6) Test embankment was constructed and settlement


behaviour was monitored in field and also numerically predicted by finite element analysis with
parameters obtained by field test results. The field
measurement and numerical prediction were similar and large settlement occurred at weakest area
which had averaged shear strength less than 1t/m2 .

0.4

Settlement (m)

0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8

REFERENCES

-1.0
-1.2

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Distance (m)
Settlement at the end of reinforcement filling (monitored)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (monitored)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (numerical)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (numerical)

Figure 18. Monitored and numerically predicted settlement


behaviour of test embankment reinforced by EPS block.

adopted. Besides, the behaviour of a test embankment


on the dredged soil deposit was monitored and compared with the finite element analysis results. The
results of tests and numerical analyses allow pointing out the following conclusions on the behaviour of
marine clay dredged deposit.
(1) Stress-strain behaviour of the crust layer shows brittle manner with peak strength at very low strain
and strain softening due to cementation induced by
desiccation.
(2) The failure mechanism of the deposit was punching shear failure due to severe difference in shear
strength between the crust layer and underlying soft
clay.
(3) The effect of reinforcement to bearing capacity
was investigated and geo-mat, granite soil filling
and crushed rock filling provided with sufficient
bearing capacity increasing.
(4) Cyclic plate loading tests were conducted with various loading cases as 0.7, 0.88 and 1.06 times of
yield bearing capacity of the deposit. The results
indicated that load less than the yield bearing capacity does not severely affect the bearing behaviour
of the deposit.
(5) DEM (Discrete Element Method) was adopted to
estimate a reliable bearing capacity of multi-layered
soil such as fill and geo-synthetics. The proposed
computer program was verified with theoretical
examples. Plate loading tests were also conducted
at the test site and good agreement was obtained in
the results.

Brown, J.D. and Meyerhof, G.G. 1969. Experimental Study


of Bearing Capacity in Layered Clays. proceedings the
seventh International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Mexico city, Mexico, Vol. 2, pp.
4551.
Burd, H.J. and Frydman, S. 1997. Bearing capacity of planestrain footings on layered soils. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 34: pp241253.
Chang C.S. and Chao S.J. 1991. Discrete Element Method For
Bearing Capacity Analysis. Computers and Geotechnics,
12: pp. 273288.
Chen, W. F. 1975. Limit analysis and soil plasticity. Amstermdam, Elsevier.
Hanna, A.M. and Meyerhof, G.G. 1980. Ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on sand overlying soft clay.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 17: pp. 300303.
Houlsby G. T., Milligan, G. W. E., Jewell, R. A. and Burd, H.
J. 1989. A new approach to the design of unpaved roads
Part I. Ground Engineering, 22(3): pp.2529
Konrad, J.M. and Ayad, R. 1997. Desiccation of a sensitive clay : Field experimental observations. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal. 34: pp. 929942.
Lefebvre, G. and LeBoeuf, D. and Dremers, B. 1989. Stability
threshold for cyclic loading of saturated clay. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 26(1), pp. 122131.
Lutenegger, A. J. 1995. Geotechnical Behavior of Overconsolidated Surficial Clay Crusts. Transportation Research
Record, No.1479, pp. 6174.
Merifield R. S., Sloan S. W. and Yu H. S. 1999. Rigorous
plasticity solutions for the bearing of two-layered clays.
Geotechnique, 49(4): pp. 471490.
Michalowski, R.L. and Shi, L. 1995. Bearing capacity of
footing over Two-Layer Foundation Soils, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 121(5): pp. 421428.
Nagaraj, T.S., Srinivasa Murthy, B.R. and Vatsala, A. 1994.
Analysis and Prediction of Soil Behaviour. Wiley Eastern,
New Delhi, India
Okamura M., Takemura J. and Kimura T. 1998. Bearing
capacity predictions of sand overlying clay based on limit
equilibrium methods. Soils and Foundation, 38(1): pp.
181194.
Thiers. G.R. and Seed, H.B. 1968. Cyclic stress-strain characteristics of clay. ASTM STP 400, pp. 356.
Yamanouchi, T. and Gotoh, K. 1979. One Suggestion of a
Practical Bearing Capacity Equation for Geonet Works.
Technical Report of Kyushu University, 52(3): pp.201
207.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Comparison of performance between the dry and wet Deep Mixing


method in soft ground improvement
Songyu Liu, Lei Chen & Yongfeng Deng
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing City, P.R. China

ABSTRACT: As the two main types of the Deep Mixing method, Dry Jet Mixing (DJM) and Deep Wet Mixing
(DWM) have the similarity in many aspects, but there is still some difference that is needed to be revealed to
prevent the blindness of the application. This paper concentrates on studying the difference and adoption rules
of these two methods. By single and group pile field tests, the influence on the surrounding soil strength induced
by DJM and DWM installation is compared. An indicator designated as water content ratio is presented in the
paper by statistical analysis on the lab and field tests data as a guideline for the application of DJM and DWM.
1

INTRODUCTION

DJM and DWM are two main types of the Deep Mixing methods, the one jets the cement powder into the
soil by air pressure to form a column by mixing with
in-situ soils, and the others injection is cement slurry.
The soft ground improvement principium of these two
methods are similar, the strength of the columns both
relates to the soil characteristic, water content, cement
content, the construction process and so on. But there is
also some difference between them, as the application
condition, installation disturbance, strength increasing etc, which still recognizes insufficiently and made
the application of them blindly, empirically. Larsson.S
(2005a) reported that DJM needs a little more cement
compared with DWM, and is more adaptive for high
water content soil, but is inconvenient to execute in
the rheological soil; and DWM is applicable for the
soil with a relatively high strength and low water content. The device of DJM is convenience and it does not
induce slurry pumping during construction, but DWM
have a problem of slurry pumping. Several researchers
indicated that water content can be used as an indicator
to guide the applicability of these two methods (Song,
2000; Dong, 1996): When the water content is higher
than 40%, DJM is proposed, else DWM.
This paper compares the installation disturbance
and strength of DJM with DWM by lab experiment
and field test, and proposes a guideline to the adoption
of two methods.
2

INSTALLATION DISTURBANCE ON
SURROUNDING SOIL

Larsson (2005) considers that DJM and DWM make


the similar soil deformation, Deep Mixing methods

Figure 1. Typical soil profile in Lian-Yungang section of


Lian-Yan highway.

induce large lateral displacement at the side and


bottom of the reinforced region ,the maximum can
reach 0.5 m. Other researchers indicate that DWM
method makes larger lateral displacement than DJM
(Kakihara, 1996).Field observations showed that DJM
installation increases the pore water pressure of surrounding soil, even induces the failure in part (Larsson,
2005b, Liu 2005a). The surrounding soil strength
influenced by installation of DJM or DWM need a
further study, this paper performs the field tests at
Lian-Yan Highway in Jiang-Su province.
Figure 1 is the typical soil profile, and the main
characteristic indicate of the soil is shown in Table 1.
The field tests include the single pile and group pile
tests by both DJM and DWM. Section C group pile
test is DJM with the column spacing 1.5 m and length
11 m; Section D group pile test is DWM, the column
spacing is 1.5 m and length is 11 m. Both section C and
D use NO.32.5 cement with content 65 kg/m, column

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.

Main properties of the soil layers.

Age/cause

Layer

Soil characteristics

Geologic properties

Depth (m)

New

Cultivable
soil (1)
Clay (2-1)

Lark taupe, mellow, mainly soft-plastic clay,


contain plant rootstalk
Lark maize gray, stiff plastic soft plastic,
contain few ferromanganese disseminated
matter which is stiff upside and soft below,
inhomogeneous
Gray, saturated, flow-plastic, contain humus,
few conch chipping, with thin sandy loam or
silty sand intercalation in local underlayer
Lark brown yellow, stiff plastic, soft
plastic in part, contain ferromanganese,
sandy loam in part, inhomogeneous

Low strength, high


compressibility
Low strength, high
compressibility, dry
crust in site

0.30.6

New sedimentary
soil

Muck mucky
loam (2-2)
Loam/clay
(4-1)

Much lower strength,


much higher
compressibility
Middling mid-high
strength, middling
compressibility

1.11.3

8.68.9
3.95.3

diameter 0.5 m, cement-soil ratio 20% for DJM, watercement ratio 0.5 for DWM, they all have a jet pressure
about 0.4 MPa, stop the powder/slurry at 0.3 m.
After installation, CPT test and vane shear test are
taken considering different curing time and distance
from the column, to repeal the influence of the soil
strength by installation.
2.1

Cone penetration resistance

CPT test was conducted for surrounding soil at different curing time, the single pile test is with distance 0.2 m, 0.5 m, 1.0 m from the pile respectively,
and group pile test is at 0.2 m and in the middle
of the group, the relation between cone penetration
resistance and depth is shown in Fig. 2.
At a depth of 2 m in the crust, the cone penetration resistance of surrounding soil after DJM/DWM
installation decreases evidently as compared with
undisturbed soil, which also occurs in many other layers (Fig. 2). The relationship between depth and cone
penetration resistance ratio which is defined as the
ratio of the value after installation are shown in Fig. 3
and Fig. 4.
The installation of column disturbs the surrounding
Lian-Yungang strongly-structured natural sedimentary soils, consequently decreasing the shear strength.
With the increase in depth, the cone penetration resistance increases for both DJM and DWM. It is explained
as that when the lateral pressure of surrounding soil
becomes larger, the resistance to installation disturbance increases. At the same depth, the cone penetration resistance increases along with the increase of the
distance from the pile. With equal distance to the column, the cone penetration resistance increases with the
rising of curing age, thats because the soil strength is
recovered with time. Certainly, the mechanical librating energy is undulate in installation, thats why cone
penetration resistance is undulate in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
Comparing with the cone penetration resistance of
DJM and DWM, as shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, these

Figure 2. Cone penetration resistance of DJM/DWM - depth


(14 days).

two methods make the similar installation influence to


surrounding soil strength. The cone penetration resistance of DWM is a little larger than DJM, it means
DJM makes a little great disturbance than DWM. In
addition, the correlation of the date at 0.2 m away from
the column is not very well than date at 0.5 m and
1.0 m, thats because the jetting pressure induced by
installation is much bigger than static earth pressure,
which leading a phenomena considered local failure,

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 3. Cone penetration resistance ratio-depth (single pile).

Figure 4. Cone penetration resistance ratio-depth (group pile).

Figure 5. Cone penetration resistance of DJM/DWM (single pile).

the cement slurry or powder is filtered into the surrounding soil and makes chemistry reaction which
reinforces the nature soil.

STRENGTH COMPARISON BETWEEN


DJM AND DWM

3.1 Unconfined compression test


2.2 Vane strength
In-situ vane shear tests were performed on the surrounding soil in group pile with different curing age.
The result (Fig. 7) is consistent with the rule of cone
penetration resistance. The soil surrounding DJM has
a little higher strength than DWM.

Column samples were obtained at the curing time of


14 and 28 days. Unconfined compressive tests were
performed in lab. Otherwise, a cemented-soil proportion test as a comparison is brought in lab with the
same type and quantity of cement, and the sample
is made in a standard cube mould with the size of

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 6. Cone penetration resistance of DJM/DWM (group pile).

(a) DJM with 1.5m column spacing

Figure 8. Unconfined compression strength of DJM/DWM


in both field and lab test (14days).

(b) DWM with 1.5m column spacing

Figure 7. Vane shear test of group pile(0.2 m away from the


column).

7.07 cm*7.07 cm*7.07 cm. As shown in Fig. 8 and


Fig. 9, the strength in lab is 2.25.0 times to the field,
DWM is lower than DJM both in lab or filed test.

Figure 9. Unconfined compression strength of DJM/DWM


in both field and lab test (28days).

When the date is 28, the difference of them lessens,


the average blow count of DJM (22.8) is 1.4 times to
DWMs(22.8). It means that the prophase strength of
DWM is lower than DJMs.

3.2 SPT result in site


In-situ SPT is performed on columns with different
curing time and depth (every 1.5 m). Fig. 10 is the comparison between DJM and DWM SPT blow count in
the 13th day and 28th day. When the date is 13, the blow
count of DJM is much larger than DWMs, the average blow count of DJM (19.7) is 1.6 times to DWMs.

4 APPLICABILITY OF DJM/DWM
The cases above show DJM and DWM present the
similar reinforcement effects, and DJM behaves a little more preponderance in this region. Obviously, to
choose which, DJM or DWM, for the soil treatment is

670

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

aw=10%(7days)
aw=15%(7days)
aw=20%(7days)
aw=25%(7days)
aw=30%(7days)

unconfined compression
str ength / MPa

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
30

40

Figure 10. Column SPT blow count.

unconfined compression
strength / MPa

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

w0/wl

Figure 11. Cemented-soil strength- w0 /wL .

a puzzle in design. It is always guided by water content


at present. Actually, even with equal cement content,
the soil strength is concerned about the water content
and soil properties. Liquid limit (wL) is considered as
an important soil indicator, w0/wL (the ratio of water
content to liquid limit) is used here to evaluate the
applicability of DJM and DWM.
4.1

Lab experiment result

For DJM and DWM, the important evidence to judge


which one behaves better is the treatment effects for
the soft soil. If in one site, the difference between these
two methods is mainly the cemented-soil strength with
equal cement content. This paper makes a test for LianYungang marine clay with different w0/wL, the data
are shown in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12.
The strength of improved soil with different curing time reaches the peak values when w0/wL is 1.0
(Fig. 11).If w0/wL is much less than 1.0 (when w0 is
lower than wL, the soil is plastic or stiff),the soil cant
provide enough water to make the cement hydrate sufficiently, thus creating less hydrate such as hydrated
calcium silicate and hydrated calcium sulphoaluminate etc, and the un-hydrate cement particle provides
no consolidation effect to the soil while only being the
framework or being filled in the soil. All the causation

80

90

mentioned counteracts the cemented-soil to possess


more strength. As shown in Fig. 11, the soil strength
has the trend of reducing when w0/wL decreasing.
Contrarily, if w0/wL is much more than 1.0(when w0 is
higher than wL, the soil is flow-plastic), the soil water
is superfluous even if the cement hydrates sufficiently.
The more water left, the lower cemented- soil strength
obtained.
To validate the credibility of the findings above,
an unconfined compression test result about ShangHai soft clay with varied water content is collected
here (Lee.J.C, 1998).As shown in Fig. 12, with equal
cement content, the cemented-soil strength reaches the
peak while the water content is within 55%60%. It
means that the cement can make a sufficient hydration and have less water left in these cases. Otherwise,
the experiment result indicates that the liquid limit of
the mentioned soil is 60%, and the soil strength also
reaches the peak when w0/wL is around 1.0.
By the lab test analyses above, it can be proposed
that: when w0/wL is less than 1.0, DWM can reach a
higher strength by injecting more water into the soil
to make the hydration sufficiently. Contrarily, when
w0/wL is larger than 1.0, DJM can do better. Further
more, the depth of the soil and how deep the instrument
can reach should also be considered.
4.2 Field test result
To repeal the relation between cemented-soil strength
and w0/wL further, the paper collects the data from
most of the highway in Jiang-Su Province where the
ground is treated by DJM or DWM. Statistical analyses to these data also validate the standpoints above.
Fig. 13, Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 are the curves about site
strength with corresponding w0/wL when the cement
content are 65 kg/m, 50 kg/m and 45 kg/m respectively.
Figures here present an obvious relationship
between cemented-soil and w0/wL. When w0/wL is
less than 0.9, DWM behaves better, when w0/wL

671

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

70

Figure 12. Cemented-soil strength-water content (Lee. J.C,


1998).

7days
14days
28days
60days

0.8

60
w(%)

4.0

0.7

50

strength / MPa

1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

DWM (28days,65kg/m)
DJM (28days,65kg/m)

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

1.0

1.2

The paper compares the difference between DJM and


DWM in soft ground improvement by field test and
data analysis, and proposes w0/wL as a guideline to
the application of DJM or DWM. The conclusions can
be drawn as follows:
(1) DJM and DWM installation induce similar influence to surrounding soil strength totally. DJM
disturbs the soil a little more than DWM does.
They both make more disturbance to the crust
than soft clay. The strength of soil has a process of
recovery after DJM or DWM installation.
(2) DJM installation leads an evident failure to the
surrounding soil, but the degree of failure is limited in local depth and local direction, the range
of the failure is 0.2 m away from the column.
(3) Field sample test and other detection indicate that
DJM has a larger strength in prophase, and DWM
preponderates over it in anaphase.
(4) Lab experiment and field test show that w0/wL
can be an applicable indicator to DJM and DWM.
If w0/wL is less than 0.9, DWM can be chosen.
If w0/wL is larger than 1.0, DJM is recommended,and if w0/wL is within 0.91.0, these two
methods are alternative.

1.3

w0/wL

Figure 13. Cemented-soil strength-w0 /wL (28 days).


DWM30days,50kg/m
DJM30days,50kg/m

0.8

strength / MPa

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5 0.6

0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

1.1

1.2 1.3 1.4

1.5

REFERENCES

w0/wL

Figure 14. Cemented-soil strength-w0 /wL (30 days).


1.0
DWM50days,45kg/m
DJM50days,45kg/m

strength / MPa

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

w0/wL

Figure 15. Cemented-soil strength-w0 /wL (50 days).

is within 0.91.0, DJM and DWM have comparative effect, and when w0/wL is larger than 1.0, DJM
behaves better. The rule is consistent with the lab test
result.

Larsson, S. State of practice report: Session 6 Execution,


monitoring and quality control, Deep mixing 05, 2005(a).
Tianle Dong, The strength of mixing columns in road
construction [J]. Zhejiang Jianzhu, 1996(4), 2529.
Kakihara, Y., Hiraide, A. and Baba, K. Behavior of nearby
soil during improvement works by deep mixing method.
Proc. of the IS-Tokyo96, Tokyo, 1996, 625630.
Larsson, S., Dahlstrom, M. and Nilsson, B., Uniformity of
lime -cement columns for deep mixing: a field study.
Ground Improvement, 2005(b), 9(1):115.
Liu Songyu, Du Guangyin, Hong Zhenshun, Wu Yankan, On
combined method of dry mixing with vertical drain and
its practice in soft ground improvement, Chinese Journal
of Geotechnical Engineering, 2005(a), 27(8):869875.
Songyu Liu, Zhenshun Hong, "The Research of Interaction
Principle between Deep Mixing Columns and Surrounding Soils and Application in Engineering" research report,
transportation college of Southeast University, 2005(b).9.
Chu Chengfu, On the Soil-cement Mixing Method Adaptation in Special Regional Soft Ground Improvement
[D]:[The master degree thesis].Nanjing: Institute of
Geotechnical Engineering of Southeast University, 2005.
Lee Juncai, Zhou Xianxiang, Liang Yongjin, Influence of
Water Content in Soft Cohesive on the Dry Jet Mixing
Method Reinforce Effect, Journal of Chengdu University
of Technology,1998, Vol.25(3):417421.

672

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSIONS

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

A fundamental study on the remediation of contaminated soil with heavy


metals based on electrokinetic and magnetic properties
Kiyoshi Omine, Hidetoshi Ochiai & Noriyuki Yasufuku
Department of Civil Engineering, Kyushu University, Japan

ABSTRACT: The fundamental issues concerning the remediation of contaminated soils with heavy metals
using electrokinetic and magnetic properties of soils are discussed in this study. Firstly, the influences of magnetic
force or the Lorentz force on the behavior of heavy metal ions was investigated. It was clarified that this
influence on the movement of lead ions in soil is relatively small. Secondly, the ferrite method used for the
disposal of effluents containing heavy metals was applied to the contaminated soil. It is known that ferrite,
which is a compound oxide with iron and heavy metals, has ferromagnetism and its solubility is very low. From
the test results, it was confirmed that the insoluble property of the ferritization-treated soil or the compound
hydroxide for Pb-contaminated soil is much higher over a wide range of pH levels. It was also observed that the
insoluble property of lead increases gradually with the iron content. Furthermore, the magnetic property of the
ferritization-treated soil was investigated. Since the ferritization-treated soil exhibits ferromagnetism, magnetic
separation using a superconducting magnet was attempted. Although ferrite and clay particles could not be
separated adequately, it is suggested that the ferrite method may be one of the techniques for the remediation of
contaminated soil with heavy metals.

INTRODUCTION

There are several remediation techniques for treating contaminated soils with heavy metals. Electrokinetic remediation is recognized as one of the hopeful
technologies for the removal of contaminants from
cohesive soils with low permeability. In recent years,
a number of laboratory and field scale tests have
been performed for investigating the applicability of
electrokinetic remediation in removing various contaminants from soils (e.g., Acar et al. 1993, Acar et al.
1995 and Virkutyte et al. 2002). However, it is difficult
to remove all the contaminants from the soils. This is
because heavy metals are precipitated at the cathode
side due to alkalinization during the electrolysis of
water, thereby restricting the movement of ions due to
the disproportionate electric potential difference.
On the other hand, experimental studies on the magnetic separation of feebly magnetic materials have
been recently conducted under a high-field condition using a superconducting magnet (Yokoyama et al.
2003). There are few studies on the remediation of
contaminated soils using electrokinetic and magnetic
techniques.
Furthermore, the ferrite method has been widely
used for the disposal of effluents including heavy metals in Japan (Okamoto 1976 and Takada 1977). Ferrite
is a compound oxide with iron and heavy metals and

exhibits ferromagnetism. It is known that the solubility


of ferrite is very low and this method is applicable for
effluents with many heavy metals. It is considered that
this method may be used as a remediation technique
instead of the electrokinetic method.
In this study, firstly, the influence of magnetic forces
or the Lorentz force on the behavior of heavy metal
ions are investigated. Secondly, the ferrite method
is applied to Pb-contaminated soil. The insoluble
property of ferritization-treated soil and compound
hydroxide for the contaminated soil are investigated by
an elution test under different pH conditions. Furthermore, the magnetic property of the ferritization-treated
soil is also investigated. Magnetic separation using a
superconducting magnet is attempted. The applicability of the ferrite method for the remediation of the
contaminated soil is discussed based on the test results.

2.1 Fundamental consideration of electrokinetic


and magnetic actions
The electrokinetic phenomenon basically involves two
electrokinetic transport processes electromigration

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

INFLUENCE OF MOVEMENT OF HEAVY


METAL IONS DUE TO ELECTROKINETIC
AND MAGNETIC ACTIONS

Figure 1. Overview of the test to investigate the influence


of magnetic force.

34
Concentration of Pb (mg /l)

and electroosmosis. Electromigration is the transport


of ionic species present in the pore fluid. During this
process, an electrical current is conducted through the
soil-water system. As the ions electromigrate toward
the electrodes, thereby transforming momentum to
water molecules, electroosmosis is generated by an
electroosmotic flow. Electrokinetic remediation is one
of the most promising in situ or ex situ soil decontamination processes. However, there are a few problems
such as the precipitation of heavy metals at the cathode side due to alkalinization during the electrolysis
of water and the restraint on the movement of ions due
to the disproportionate electric potential difference.
On the other hand, experimental studies conducted
under a high-field condition using a superconducting
magnet have come into practical use recently. It is interesting to study the remediation of contaminated soils
using electrokinetic and magnetic techniques.
In this chapter, the following investigations are
performed:
i) The influence of a magnetic force on the movement
of heavy metal ions
ii) The influence of the Lorentz force on the movement
of heavy metal ions

With magnet
Without magnet

33
32
31
30
29
28
1

2.2 Test results and discussions


2.2.1 Movement of heavy metal ion by magnetic
force
Many materials or elements exhibits magnetism; thus,
in a magnetic field, they are attracted or replused. Magnetic force depends on the following factors (Ohara
et al. 1996):
a) Dimension and gradient of the applied magnetic
field
b) Volume of the material or element
c) Difference in the magnetism between the element
and dispersion medium.
Inorganic substances and their ions exhibit slight
diamagnetism. Lead is also a diamagnetic substance.
Although the repulsive force of diamagnetic substances is usually very small, it is considered that the
behavior of heavy metal ions is affected by magnetic
force under high-field conditions.
In order to investigate the movement of lead ions by
a magnetic force, a simple test using a neodymium permanent magnet with a magnetic flux density of approximately 0.5 tesla was performed. An overview of the
test is shown in Fig. 1. Lead-contaminated soil was prepared artificially by mixing a 50 ml lead solution with
a concentration of 1000 mg/l with 100 g of Kaolin clay
(liquid limit = 31.0%, plasticity index = 19.6). The
water content was adjusted to 50%. The neodymium
magnet was placed at the edge of the contaminated soil.
After 24 h, the contaminated soil was divided into five

3
Section

Figure 2. Concentrations of Pb in each section after 24 h.

sections at intervals of 2.5 mm from the edge of the


magnet. A sample of 1 g was taken from each section
and 10 g of distilled water of 10 g was added to it. A
batch test of these samples was performed by shaking
for 6 h using a reciprocating shaker. The supernatant
was separated by centrifugation. The concentrations
of the Pb2+ ions in the filtrates after passing through
0.45 mm membrane pore size filters were analyzed by
atomic absorption photometry.
Figure 2 shows the concentrations of Pb in each section after 24 h. Lead ions are diamagnetic substance;
thus, it was considered that Pb+2 ions are repelled by
the field gradient of the neodymium magnet, and the
concentration of Pb is lower in the sections close to
the magnet. The concentration of Pb in section-1 was
rather low, but a distinct change was not observed. As a
result, it was concluded that the influence of magnetic
force on the movement of heavy metal ions in soil is
very small. This is attributed to the fact that both the
solvent (water) and the lead ions are diamagnetic due
to which the movement of only lead ions in the solution
is difficult. This indicates that a difference in the magnetism between solute and solvent is also an important
factor for the movement of heavy metal ions.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

A (Cathode)
B (Anode)

4
A

A
A

B
B

Concentrationof Pb (mg/l)

Cathode

5
A

B
B

Pbcontaminated
soil

1.5

The Lorentz
force

0.5

Anode
0
1
Kaolin clay

Figure 4. Cross section of the equipment at section-3.

Movement of heavy metal ion by Lorentz


force
The Lorentz force is the force exerted on a charged
particle in an electromagnetic field. The particle will
experience a force due to the electric and magnetic
fields. A positively charged particle will be accelerated in the same linear orientation as the electric field,
but will curve perpendicular to the magnetic field
according to the right-hand rule. It has been confirmed
experimentally that the direction of the water flow of an
electrolyte due to electromigration changes due to the
Lorentz force. However, there are few studies on the
movement of heavy metal ions in contaminated soils
due to the Lorentz force. In order to clarify the effect
of the Lorentz force, the following experiment was
performed on Pb-contaminated soil. Figure 3 shows
an overview of the test and the equipment used. The
cross section of the equipment in section-3 is shown

Figure 5. Measured concentration of Pb in each section


after 12 h.

in Fig. 4. The test specimen was prepared by adding


30 g of Kaolin clay with a water content of 50% into a
container. Pb-contaminated soil (1 g) prepared by the
previous method is placed in the center of section-3.
The neodymium magnets were positioned at the upper
and lower sides of the contaminated soil in section-3,
and an upward magnetic field was applied to a part
of the specimen. After the anode and cathode were set
at the centre and edge of the container, respectively, a
D.C. voltage of 10 V was applied. The concentration
of Pb was measured by dividing the specimen into five
sections as shown in Fig. 3. Furthermore, each section
is divided into the cathode side (A) and anode side
(B). Electric current was applied for 12 h, following
which a sample of 1 g was extracted out from each
section. To these samples, 10 mg of hydrochloric acid
was added, and they were shaken for 6 h under acidic
conditions. The concentration of Pb was measured in
the same manner as in the previous method.
The measured concentration of Pb in each section
except for section-3 is shown in Fig. 5. The Lorentz
force is applied from section-2 to section-4 under
the specific test conditions regarding the electric and
magnetic fields, The concentration of Pb in section4 increases as compared to that of section-2. This
trend is observed at both the cathode side (A) and
the anode side (B). It is observed that the dissymmetric movement of Pb ions is caused by the Lorentz
force. However, the average concentration of Pb in the
contaminated soil in section-3 is 15.3 mg/l, which is
much higher than that of the other sections. It is confirmed that under these test conditions, the movement
of Pb ions due to electromigration is larger than that
due to the Lorentz force. Further, it may be possible to increase the movement of Pb ions considerably
by increasing the intensity of the applied magnetic

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Section

Figure 3. Overview of the test and the equipment used for


the Lorentz force experiment.

2.2.2

field; this is because the Lorentz force is exerted in


the presence of both the magnetic and electric fields.

D.C. power
supply

+
3

REMEDIATION OF CONTAMINATED SOIL


WITH HEAVY METALS BY THE FERRITE
METHOD

H+
Pb 2+

3.1

Fundamental consideration of electrokinetic


and ferrite methods

OH
Pb 2+

Electroosmosis is expected to be a remediation technology for treating contaminated soils with heavy
metals, particularly for cohesive soils for which the
application of flushing is difficult. However, the cathode side becomes alkaline due to the electrolysis of
water such that the heavy metal ions move to a location near the cathode and are deposited as hydroxides;
this makes it difficult to remove the heavy metal ions.
Figure 6 shows transfer of ions in the electrokinetic
method. The problem of the deposition of hydroxide
Pb(OH)2 is easy to resolve in both alkaline and
acidic conditions.
The ferrite method has been used for the disposal
of effluents containing heavy metals. In this study, this
method is applied to Pb-contaminated soil. Ferrite is a
compound oxide with iron and metal. It is known that
the solubility of ferrite is very low and it has ferromagnetism. The process of ferrite formation is shown in
Fig. 7. Generally, white deposits of hexagonal tabular
crystallite
Fe(OH)2 are formed by adding an alkali to an aqueous solution of Fe2+ . If there exists a heavy metal
ion, M, during the process of deposition, a compound
hydroxide with Fe and M is deposited. In other words,
the compound hydroxide is deposited by the following
process:

Pb 2+
OH
H+

Pb (OH) 2

Acidity

Alkaline

Figure 6. Transfer of ions in the electrokinetic method.

FeSO4
Fe2+
Pb2+
Contaminated soil
with heavy metal

NaOH
OH
PbFe2(OH)6
Hydroxide with
iron and lead

Air bubbling and


heat (60~70C)
O2
PbFe2O4
Ferrite
formation

Figure 7. Process of ferrite formation.

xM2+ + (3 x)Fe2+ + 6OH Mx Fe3x (OH)6 (1)


The compound hydroxide with Fe and M exhibits weak
magnetism. The compound hydroxide transforms the
ferrite during the oxidation process by introducing an
air bubble at a high temperature of more than 60 C.
This chemical reaction is indicated as follows:
1
Mx Fe3x (OH)6 + O2 Mx Fe3x O4
2

(2)

It is well known that the ferrite formation shows


ferromagnetism.
In [1] and [2], ferrous ions Fe2+ and hydroxide ion
OH are involved. In the electrokinetic method, it is
easy to elute the ions at the anode side because of
the acidic conditions produced by the generation of
hydrogen ions during the electrolysis of water. On the
other hand, the heavy metal ions are readily deposited
at the cathode side because of the alkali that generates hydroxide ions. In practice, the form of iron is

Figure 8. Overview of the electrokinetic experiment.

determined by the relationship between the oxidation


reduction potential Eh and the pH level. In order to
elucidate this condition, an electrokinetic experiment
was performed, and an overview of this experiment
is shown in Fig. 8. Kaolin clay with iron ions was
placed in a container box with length of 130 mm.
After applying a voltage of 26 V for 24 h, the values of Eh and pH in each section were measured.
The form of hydrated iron oxide under different Eh
and pH conditions are shown in Fig.9 along with the
values measured during the electrokinetic experiment.
The boundary between the existence of iron ions and

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Air
bubble

1200
Fe3+

pH
meter

Temperature
indicator

800
O2
H2O

Eh (mV)

400

Fe(OH)3
Fe2+

Heating at
60~70 ?C

H2O

H2
-400

Fe3(OH)8

Figure 10. Equipment for ferrite formation

Fe(OH)2

mixed with a pH level greater than 10. The compound


hydroxide with Fe and Pb can be generated by agitating the mixtures. Furthermore, ferrite is generated
by heating the compound hydroxide at a temperature of 6070 C and oxidation by introducing air
bubbles slowly for maintaining high alkalinity. The
sample obtained from these processes is referred to as
ferritization-treated soil in this study. In addition, for
comparison, an ideal ferrite sample was also prepared
in an aqueous solution without clay. As indicated in
reactions [1] and [2], when the heavy metal M is lead,
2Fe2+ and Pb2+ combine. Therefore, we used the ratio
2Fe2+ /Pb2+ in mol in this study. In this test, four types
of samples were prepared under the additive conditions
with 2Fe2+ /Pb2+ = 2, 6, 10, and 20.
X-ray diffraction and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) were used for the analysis of the Kaolin
clay, ferritization-treated soil, and the ferrite formation. A grain size analysis and elution test were performed for analyzing the Kaolin clay, the compound
hydroxide with iron and lead, and the ferritizationtreated soil.
In order to investigate the insoluble property of
these samples, a batch test was performed under different pH levels of approximately 2, 4, 10, and 13 and a
liquid-solid ratio of 10:1. The specimens were shaken
in a reciprocating shaker for 6 h, and the supernatant
was separated by centrifugation. The concentrations
of Pb in the filtrates after passing through 0.45 mm
membrane pore size filters were analyzed by atomic
absorption photometry.

-800

10

12

14

pH

Figure 9. Form of hydrated iron oxide under different


Eh and pH conditions and the measured values in the
electrokinetic experiment.

the deposition of hydrated iron oxide is shown by the


broken line in Fig. 9. Based on the test result, it is
considered that the form of iron in the cohesive soil
can be changed under the conditions from ferrous to
hydrated iron oxide by the electrokinetic method. If
both iron and heavy metal ions exist in the solution,
a compound hydroxide with iron and the heavy metal
will be generated. The compound hydroxide is also
expected to exhibit a high insoluble property. Furthermore, the compound hydroxide with iron and heavy
metal ions may transform the ferrite on oxidation and
heating. For a fundamental study on the remediation
of contaminated soil with heavy metal, insoluble effect
in the ferrite method is investigated in the following
section.
3.2

Experimental results and discussions

3.2.1 Preparation and experimental method


Pb-contaminated soil was prepared by adding a standard solution of Pb for atomic absorption analysis
(1000 mg/l) into Kaolin clay with a Pb content of
1 g/kg. The equipment used for ferrite formation
is shown in Fig. 10. First, a prescribed volume of
0.2 mol/l ferric sulfate, FeSO4 , was added to the container, following which sodium hydroxide, NaOH, was

3.2.2 Physical and chemical properties


Figure 11 shows the results of the X-ray diffraction of
each sample. The ideal ferrite formation prepared in
the aqueous solution without clay has several peaks
corresponding to the compound oxide with iron and
lead as well as sodium sulfate Na2 SO4 . In fact, it is

677

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 11. Results of X-ray diffraction of each sample.

found that not only the ferrite, PbFe2 O4 , but also several compound oxides with iron and lead are generated.
On the other hand, it is indicated that the main components of Kaolin clay are silica, SiO, and pyrophyllite
Al2 Si4 O10 (OH)2 . The peak value of ferritizationtreated soil are similar to those of the Kaolin clay. This
is because the ferritization-treated soil contains many
components of the Kaolin clay. However, there are a
few small peak values corresponding the compound
oxide with iron and lead.
The SEM micrographs obtained from the scanning electron microscope are shown in Fig. 12. A flat
clay mineral observed in the particles of the Kaolin
clay. Many particles with an aggregate structure are
observed in the ferrite formation. On the other hand,
it is difficult to distinguish between the Kaolin clay
and ferrite particles in the ferritization-treated soil;
This is attributed to the fact that the Pb content of the
contaminated soil is 1 g/kg and the ratio is very small.
The grain size distributions of the samples are
shown in Fig. 13. The Kaolin clay and compound
hydroxide exhibit almost the same grain size distribution curve. The grain size of the ferritization-treated
soil increases slightly as compared to that of the Kaolin
clay or compound hydroxide. Thus, it may be said that
the ferrite formation is deposited by the combination
of several ions.
3.2.3 Insoluble property of lead
The elution test under the condition of 2Fe2+ /Pb2+ = 20
was performed on the contaminated soil without treatment, the compound hydroxide with iron and lead, and
the ferritization-treated soil. The test results are shown
in Fig. 14. The Pb concentration of the contaminated
soil increases under alkaline and acidic conditions,
because lead is an amphoteric element. In other words,
lead exists as Pb2+ ion under acidic conditions, and it
is deposited as lead hydroxide Pb(OH)2 under weak
alkaline conditions, following which it dissolves as

Figure 12. SEM micrographs by the scanning electron.

Pb2+ ions under strong alkaline conditions. On the


other hand, the Pb concentration of the compound
hydroxide and the ferritization-treated soil decreases
significantly in the entire range compared to that of the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

100

100

Percent passing (%)

80

Concentration of Pb (mg/l)

Kaokin clay
Compound hydroxide
Ferritization-treated soil

60

40

pH=5.8~6.3

Contaminated soil
(Without treatment)

10

Ferritizationtreated soil

1
Waste water standard
0.1
Environmental standard
0.01

20

0.001
0

0
0.1

10

100

10

15

20

25

2Fe2+/Pb2+(in mol)

Grain size (m)

Figure 15. Relationship between concentration of Pb and


2Fe2+ /Pb2+

Figure 13. Grain size distribution of the samples


100

Concentration of Pb (mg/l)

Total content
10
Contaminated soil
(Without treatment)

Compound hydroxide
with iron and lead

0.1

Waste water
standard

0.01

Permanent
magnet

Ferritization-treated soil

Ferritizationtreated soil

(N.D. <0.01)

Environmental
standard

0.001
0

10

12

14

pH

Figure 16. State of the ferritization-treated soil when kept


close to a permanent magnet

Figure 14. Insoluble property by the ferritization

contaminated soil. Particularly, the value of Pb concentration at the alkali condition was not detected for the
measurement limit of 0.01 mg/l. It is considered that
the ferrite method is very effective for the remediation
of insoluble heavy metals in comparison with previous methods such as cement stabilization or the use of
chemical agents.
In order to investigate the influence of the iron content on the insoluble property, the elution test was
performed under different conditions of 2Fe2+ /Pb2+ in
the pH range of 5.86.3. Figure 15 shows the relationship between the concentration of Pb and 2Fe2+ /Pb2+
in mol ratio. As shown in this figure, the insoluble
property of lead appears gradually with an increase
in 2Fe2+ /Pb2+ . The ferrite method was originally used
for the disposal of effluents containing various types of
heavy metals. Although this method is not considered
to be suitable for lead ions, the insoluble property of

lead-contaminated soil is confirmed to be significant


by the increase in the Fe content.
3.2.4 Magnetic property of ferritization-treated
soil
Since ferrite is a ferromagnetic material, it is considered that magnetic separation is possible. For
investigating the magnetic property, the state of the
ferritization-treated soil when placed close to a permanent magnet was observed, as shown in Fig. 16. It
is observed that the ferritization-treated soil is ferromagnetic. This indicates that ferrite formation exists
in the soil. In order to clarify the magnetic separation property of ferrite and clay particles under a
high-maginetic field, an experiment involving magnetic separation using a superconducting magnet was
performed. An extreme magnetic field gradient is generated around the stainless filter under a high-magnetic
field. The magnetic particles are attached to the filter.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

The ferritization-treated soil in slurry was poured into


a hole with the filter under a high-magnetic field of 13
T (tesla). The magnetic material with a total dry weight
of 20% were successfully removed from the treated
soil. However, ferrite and clay particles could not be
separated adequately. In future studies, the effective
separation of ferrite formation from soil is required.
4

CONCLUSIONS

For investigating the influences of magnetic force or


the Lorentz force on the behavior of heavy metal
ions, laboratory-scale tests were performed on Pbcontaminated soil. The ferrite method was also applied
to the contaminated soil and the insolubility of the
ferritization-treated soil or the compound hydroxide
were clarified by an elution test. Furthermore, the
magnetic property of the ferritization-treated soil was
investigated by a magnetic separation test using a
superconducting magnet.
The main conclusions drawn from this study are as
follows:
1) The movement of Pb ions in the contaminated soil
due to magnetic force alone was small. It is considered that a difference between the magnetism
of solute and solvent is also an important factor
affecting the movement of heavy metal ions.
2) When applying electric and magnetic fields simultaneously, the Lorentz force arises. It was confirmed that the Pb ions in the contaminated soil
move slightly due to the Lorentz force. However,
the movement of Pb ions due to electromigration
was larger than that due to the Lorentz force under
the test conditions.
3) The ferritization-treated soil and compound
hydroxide exhibit significant Insolubility over a
wide range of pH. The insoluble effect increases
gradually with the iron content.
4) It was confirmed that the ferritization-treated soil
is ferromagnetic. Although ferrite and clay particles could not be separated adequately under
a high magnetic field, it is suggested that the

ferrite method may be one of the techniques for


the remediation of contaminated soils with heavy
metals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Exploratory Research (No.17656155) from the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology, Japan. The authors would like to thank Dr.
N. Hirota and Dr. H. Okada of Tsukuba Magnet Laboratory, NIMS, for their support in the experiment of
magnetic separation using a superconducting magnet.
The authors also thank Mr. Y. Tajiri of Kyushu University for his cooperation in carrying out the laboratory
tests.

REFERENCES
Acar, Y.B., Alshawabkeh, A.N. and Gale, R.J. 1993. Fundamentals of extracting species from soils by electrokinetics,
Waste Management, Vol.13, pp. 141151.
Acar, Y.B., Gale, R.J., Alshawabkeh, A.N., Marks, R.E., Puppala, S., Bricka, M. and Parker, R. 1995. Electrokinetic
remediation: Basics and technology status, Journal of
Hazardous Materials, Vol.40, pp. 117137.
Ohara, T., Mori, S., Oda, Y., Wada, Y. and Tsukamoto, O.
1996. Feasibility of magnetic chromatography for ultrafine particle separation, IEEJ Transactions on Power and
Energy, 979.
Okamoto, S. 1976. Utility of magnetic scavengers for waste
water treatment, Ceramics, Vol.11, No.3, pp. 234241 (in
Japanese).
Takada, T. 1977. Removal of heavy metal ions from waste
water by ferritization, Journal of Environmental Pollution
Control, Vo.13, No.1, pp. 3741 (in Japanese).
Virkutyte, J., Sillanp, M. and Latostenmaa, P. 2002. Electrokinetic soil remediation critical overview,The Science
of The Total Environment, Vol. 289, pp. 97121.
Yokoyama, K., Oka, T., Okada, H., Fujine, Y., Chiba, A. and
Noto, K. 2003. Solid-liquid magnetic separation using
bulk superconducting magnets, IEEE Transactions on
Applied Superconductivity, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 15921595.

680

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Effect of zeolite and bentonite on the mechanical properties of


cement-stabilized soft clay
A.A.-M. Osman & A. Al-Tabbaa
Cambridge University Engineering Department, Cambridge, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT: Cement-bentonite grouts are used in a wide range of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering applications including the stabilization of soft soils. Yet, it has been well acknowledged that the behavior
of cement-bentonite grouts can be greatly affected by the exposure to aggressive chemicals. The use of zeolite
has been suggested by recent research for enhancing the durability of cement-based grouts especially for sulfate
attack. Hence, an experimental study has been carried out to verify the improvements in the behavior of such
grouts with the use of zeolite in various aggressive environments. This paper will only focus on the mechanical
properties of soft clays stabilized with cement-bentonite and cement-zeolite grouts and addresses the diversity
in their behavior with respect to the use of zeolite. This was carried out using mechanical mixing and compared
with auger mixing with the use of a laboratory-scale auger mixing system. Properties investigated were the
unconfined compressive strength, permeability, secant modulus and microstructure analyses (using scanning
electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction). Tests were conducted at 28, 60 and 90 days. The results show that
the replacement of half of the cement content with zeolite affected neither the permeability nor the strength of
the stabilized soil samples, contrary to expectations because of the zeolites open framework structure. Furthermore, the addition of zeolite increased the stiffness of the soil in comparison to the addition of bentonite. The
microstructural analyses confirmed the contribution of zeolite to the formation of hydration products.

INTRODUCTION

Ground improvement carried out by in-situ mixing of


soft clays with wet binders has become a vital technology used for a wide variety of applications ranging
from stabilizing foundation ground to preventing liquefaction. The main objectives of mixing a binder
with soft clays are to enhance the mechanical properties i.e. strength, permeability and to improve the
durability of weak soils by diminishing the voids and
binding the particles together (Probaha, 2000). The
strength of stabilized clay is dependant on the binder
type, its quantity and the mineralogical properties of
the clay itself (DGSSS, 2001 and Probaha, 2000).
Cement-based grouts in general and cement-bentonite
in particular are the most commonly used grouts for
soil stabilization purposes.
Yet, the use of cement-bentonite grouts, particularly in the presence of extreme aggressive conditions,
provokes concerns over their long-term behavior. It
has been documented that the behavior of cementbentonite grouts as well as clay stabilized with cementbased grout can be significantly damaged by the presence of certain chemicals in the soils especially sulfate
solutions (Sherwood, 1957, Cordon, 1962 Jefferis,
1992 and Garvin, 1999).

Recently, the use of natural zeolite as a partial or


a total replacement of bentonite in cement-bentonite
suspension was investigated by Janotka (1998). Janotka (1998) found that in a 10% sodium sulfate
solution, a total collapse of the cement-bentonite suspension occurred in 30 days whilst no disintegration
took place in the cement-zeolite suspension for a duration of 365 days. Zeolites are aluminosilicates similar
to clay; however they have a rigid three dimensional
structural framework which contains series of channels and cavities in which cations and water molecules
are located (Dyer, 1988), as shown in the schematic
diagram in Figure 1. It has been illustrated that zeolites favor the formation of cement-like hydration
products when mixed with cement which decrease
the permeability (Perraki et al., 2003). Poon (1999)
also concluded that zeolite contributes to the strength
of cement pastes by consuming Ca(OH)2 through
pozzolanic reactions. However, the incorporation of
zeolite as part of a slurry wall material or in a soil-grout
mix is still novel.
Hence, an experimental study has been carried
out to verify the improvements in the behavior of
cement-based grouts with the use of zeolite in various
aggressive environments. This paper will only focus
on the mechanical properties of stabilized soft clay

681

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 2. Chemical composition of the grout constituents


and the silt used by percentage weight.

SiO2
Al2 O3
Fe2 O3
Na2 O
CaO
MgO
K2 O
SO3
H2 O
LOI
Figure 1. A schematic diagram of the structure of
clinoptilolite (Dyer, 1988).

White powder

Specification

Brightness(ISO)
300 mesh residue
+10 microns
2 microns
Moisture content
pH
Yellowness
Specific gravity
Surface area
Oil absorption
Water soluble
salt content
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Plasticity Index
SiO2
Al2 O3

Typical
properties

Chemical
analysis-XRF

78.5 1.5
0.05% maximum
35% maximum
25% maximum
1.5% maximum
5.0 0.5
7
2.6
8 m2 /g
33 g/100 g
0.15%
51%
30%
21%
50%
35%

using both bentonite and zeolite. The effects of soil


type, age, and cement content will also be discussed.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

A high quality kaolin clay (Polywhite China clay) was


used to produce the clay employed in the research.
Table 1 shows the main characteristics of the clay. Two
different moisture contents of 50% and 100% were
used for the kaolin to produce soft to very soft clay. A
natural clay was also modeled. This was made up of
60% kaolin clay and 40% silt with a moisture content
of 50%. Silica flour was used for the silt. The chemical
composition of the silica flour is shown in Table 2. The
liquid and plastic limits of the model clay were 40%
and 28% respectively.

Silt

Zeolite

CaB

20
5
3.7
0.7
63.3

3.0

63.6
21.4
3.8
2.7
0.6
2.0
0.3

5.5

99.3
0.34
0.08
<0.05
<0.02
<0.05
0.04

65.8
10.9
1.6
0.8
2.9
1.1
3.4

13.2

57.0
23.0
2.2
4.8
1.2
2.3
1.2

8.0

Grout No

Grout type

Solids

1
2
3
4
5

Cement
CaB-Cement (1)
CaB-Cement (2)
NaB-Cement
Zeolite-cement

100%
90% cement
50% cement
90% cement
50% cement

10% CaB
50% CaB
10% NaB
50% Zeolite

The cement used was Portland Cement (PC) produced by Rugby cement, UK. Both natural sodium
bentonite (NaB) and calcium bentonite (CaB) were
used and the zeolite used was Clinoptilolite. The chemical composition of the binders and soils used is given
in Table 2.
Five different grouts were used. The details of their
percentage constituents are summarized in Table 3.
Grout 1 consisted of cement alone. Grouts 2 and 3
are cement-calcium bentonite grouts in two different
ratios containing 90% and 50% cement respectively.
Grout 4 is a cement-sodium bentonite grout with the
same ratio as grout 2 and finally grout 5 is a cementzeolite mix with the same ratio as grout 3. For all
those grouts, the water:solid grout ratio was 1:1. Those
grouts were selected based on previous related study
on the grouts alone (Osman, 2003). The Marshal Funnel results for these grouts showed similar viscosity of
around 33 seconds except for grout 3, which was more
viscous.
The grouts were mixed with the clay soils in a high
power food mixer to produce ten different clay-grout
mixes as detailed in Table 4. Most of the mixes were
prepared for the 50% water content clay. Two different soil:grout ratios of 1.5:1 and 3:1 were used. The
mixtures were then placed in plastic moulds, 100 mm
in diameter and 100 mm high for permeability samples, 50 mm in diameter and 100 mm high for strength
samples. The samples were placed in 20 C and 95%
relative humidity in curing tanks. Once the samples

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

NaB

Table 3. The constituents of the grouts used.

Table 1. The main characteristics of Polywhite China clay.


Appearance

PC

Table 4. The clay-grout mixes.

Mix

Clay type

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Kaolin

Soil:grout
ratio

Grout type

Wc
50%

Cement

1.5:1
3:1
1.5:1
3:1
1.5:1
1.5:1
1.5:1
3:1
3:1
1.5:1

Cement-CaB (1)

Kaolin

100%

Kaolin silt

50%

Cement-CaB (2)
Cement-NaB
Zeolite-cement
Cement-CaB (1)
Zeolite-cement
Cement

Figure 3. A photograph of the auger set-up system.

Upper Stop
Switch

Upper
Rack
Guard

Centralised Control Unit

Motor

ROTATION
SPEED
CONTROLLER

Retort
Stand

Grout
Injector

Central
Stop

Grout
PENETRATION
SPEED
CONTROLLER

Lower Stop
Switch Determines
Pile Length

Grout
Release
Hole

Mixing Drum

Auger

Scales to monitor
grout useage

Pinion

Motor

Pump

Lower
Rack
Guard
Manual
Penetration
Speed
Controller

Soil

Original Manual Lowering


Apparatus
Trolley

Figure 2. A labeled schematic diagram of the auger set-up


system.

developed sufficient strength they were removed from


the moulds and returned to the curing tanks to be tested
at 28, 60 and 90 days.
Test performed were the unconfined compressive
strength (UCS), permeability (k), secant modulus
(E50 ) and microstructure, using scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD).
Duplicate samples were used for the permeability and
triplicate samples for the UCS tests.
Furthermore, a laboratory-scale auger set-up was
used to prepare some of the aforementioned mixes. A
schematic diagram and a photo of the set up are shown
in Figures 2 and 3 respectively. The automated system
consists of a vertical track which allows the lowering and raising of the auger rotation motor. Grout is
pumped into the grout injector, from a peristaltic flow
pump, and down the hollow shaft section of the auger.
In order to ensure consistency when constructing

Figure 4. A photograph of the auger head design.

columns, a 3-switch travel-stop mechanism is used.


This means that the column length, grout introduction
rate over the length of the pile and mixing cycles can
be reproduced accurately and consistently. The auger
head used in the experiments is shown in Figure 4.
The auger rotation variable speed motor provided
rotation speeds of between 5 rpm and 50 rpm. The
penetration variable speed motor was set to provide
penetration speeds of between 2 mm/s and 10 mm/s.
The grout injection system used a peristaltic pump
having variable speeds.
Metal drums, 300 mm in diameter and 450 mm in
height, were used to contain the clay during the column
installations.
Initially, a mixing pattern was chosen based on
previous work using the same experimental apparatus, in order to construct the columns. The auger was
penetrated into the clay at a speed of 3 mm/s in a clockwise direction with a rotation speed of 50 rpm to the
required depth of 400 mm. Grouting then took place

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3500

2500

3000

2000

2500
UCS (kPa)

UCS (kPa)

3000

1500
1000

Mix 1
Mix 2
Mix 3
Mix 4
Mix 5
Mix 6
Mix 7
Mix 8
Mix 9
Mix 10

2000
1500
1000

500
500
0
1

5
6
Mix number

10

Figure 5. UCS values for the ten mixes at 28 days.

3.1

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


Density

The densities of all samples were measured prior to


mixing. The average density of the stabilized clay
samples having 50% and 100% water content was
1782 kg/m3 and 1582 kg/m3 respectively. The aforesaid density values were observed to be very consistent
amongst the samples of the same mixes.
3.2

40
60
Time (days)

80

100

Figure 6. UCS values for the ten mixes with time.

on withdrawal of the auger only while the direction of


the rotation was reversed. After injecting the requisite
quantity of grout, two further mixing cycles were performed this entailed duplicating the same procedure
without further grouting to ensure effective mixing
between the clay and the grout. This procedure was
successful with the 100% water content clay. A large
number of single columns were constructed with 3 to
4 columns in each drum.
3

20

Unconfined compressive strength

Figure 5 shows the UCS values for the ten mechanically mixed samples at 28 days. The figure shows
the values to vary considerably reflecting the binder
characteristics and the initial water content of the clay.

UCS. Hence the trend in the UCS is inversely related


to the amount of bentonite present in the grout mix
(comparing mixes 1, 3 and 5).
3.2.3 Effect of zeolite addition
Results obtained from Mixes 1, 5 and 7 were utilized
to inspect the effect of replacing half the cement content with zeolite. Mix 1 consisted of clay (50% initial
water content) stabilized with cement with a soil:grout
ratio of 1.5:1. In mix 5 half of the cement content
was replaced by Ca-bentonite while in mix 7 half of
the cement content was replaced by zeolite. Replacing half the cement content with zeolite (mix 7) had
no effect on the strength in comparison to the much
larger reduction when replaced with bentonite (mix
5). This implies that zeolite plays an important role in
the cement hydration process.
Furthermore, the comparison of mix 9 (in which
50% of the cement was replaced with zeolite) and mix
8 (in which only 10% of the cement was replaced with
bentonite) showed similar UCS results confirming yet
again the role that zeolite plays in the cement hydration
process.

3.2.1 Effect of binder content


Comparing mixes 1 and 2 of the cement only binder
and with soil:grout ratio of 1.5:1 and 3:1 respectively,
one can observe the reduction in UCS due to the
increase in the soil:grout ratio. The same observation can be made comparing mixes 3 and 4 of the
cement-calcium bentonite grout. Thus for those two
binders, the UCS increases with the quantity of the
binder added.

3.2.4 Effect of the soil type and initial


water content
Mixes 4 and 8 used the same binder to treat the clay
with two different water contents of 50% and 100%
respectively. This shows only a small reduction in
strength of 20% at 28 days. However, at late stages
of strength development, the stabilized soil with the
lower initial water content exhibited higher UCS as
illustrated in Figure 6.
And finally, comparing mixes 10 and 1, where the
only difference is that the former clay contained 40%
silt, shows again that the higher the clay content the
lower the UCS.

3.2.2 Effect of bentonite addition


The presence of 10% calcium or sodium bentonite, viz.
mixes 3 and 6 respectively, in the grout gave similar
UCS results but much lower than those of the cement
alone grout (mix 1). Replacing half of the cement content with calcium bentonite (mix 5) further reduced the

3.2.5 Effect of curing time


The variation of UCS with curing time is shown in
Figure 6.
The mainly gradual increase in strength with time
illustrates that cement hydration was proceeding normally with some variations between the mixes. The

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3
Secant modulus (*10^5kPa)

k (m/s)

1.00E-08

1.00E-09

1.00E-10
1

5
6
Mix number

1.00E-11
0

20

40

60

80

0.5

5
6
Mix number

10

3
Mix 1
Mix 2
Mix 3
Mix 4
Mix 5
Mix 6
Mix 7
Mix 8
Mix 9
Mix 10

2.5

100

2
1.5
1
0.5

Time (days)

0
0

Figure 8. Permeability values for the ten mixes with time.

behavior at 90 days does in general follow the trends


observed at 28 days although some of the differences
might have increased or decreased. Apart from that
one obvious change took place and that is the relative performance of mixes 1 and 10. At 90 days the
UCS of mix 1 became higher than that of mix 10. It is
hence expected that kaolin has an increased pozzolanic
behavior with time.
3.3

Figure 9. Secant modulus values for the ten mixes at


28 days.

E50 (10^5 kPa)

k (m/s)
1.00E-10

Mix 1
Mix 2
Mix 3
Mix 4
Mix 5
Mix 6
Mix 7
Mix 8
Mix 9
Mix 10

1.00E-09

2
1.5

10

Figure 7. Permeability values for the ten mixes at 28 days.


1.00E-08

2.5

20

40
60
Time (days)

80

100

Figure 10. E50 values for the ten mixes with time.

structure of the zeolite, but can again be attributed to


its contribution in the hydration reactions and to the
consumption of portlandite (Ca(OH)2 ) formed during the cement hydration. This confirms that zeolite
inclusion favors the formation of hydrating products,
hence decreasing both the porosity and the permeability of the sample which was suggested by Perraki
et al. (2003).

Permeability

The permeability values obtained for the ten mixes at


28 days are illustrated in Figure 7. Apart from mixes 8
and 9 of the 100% water content clay, the permeability values of the remaining mixes are all within half
an order of magnitude range, hence the differences
between them are quite small although the changes
observed are as would be expected and confirms the
behavior observed in the UCS results. In addition the
higher permeability of mixes 8 and 9 is consistent with
the much higher initial water content of the clay.
Figure 8 shows the effect of curing time on the
permeability. The results confirm a general long-term
drop in the permeability of the mixes with time due to
the cementitious products progressively filling up the
voids and strengthening the contacts between the soil
particles.
From the figure, it could also be perceived that
mix 7, where zeolite replaced half of the cement content, exhibited a fairly large decrease in the permeability after 28 days and attained the lowest permeability
at 60 days. This was not expected due to the open

3.4

The secant modulus of the ten mixes at 28 days


is shown in Figure 9. Mixes 1, 2, 7 and 10 which
either contained cement and no bentonite or contained
cement and zeolite in the binder mix, produced the
highest E50 values, i.e. the least compressible mixes.
From the figure, one can also perceive that the addition
of 10% sodium bentonite (mix 6) to the grout significantly decreased the modulus of elasticity. Also the
addition of 10% calcium bentonite to the grout (mix
3) decreased the secant modulus yet to a lower value.
It has to be noted that mix 7 containing 50% zeolite
has a much higher stiffness than mix 5 which contains
50% calcium bentonite. This can be accredited to the
fact that zeolite has a rigid framework containing cavities and apertures where cations and water molecules
are absorbed.
Figure 10 shows the effect of curing time on the
secant modulus for the ten mixes. The results show
that the secant modulus generally increases with an

685

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Secant modulus

Figure 11. The relationship between the UCS and the secant
modulus.

increase in time. Mixes 8 and 9, with the 100% initial


water content, have the lowest values of the secant
modulus as well as the lowest rate of increase with
curing time. The values remained almost constant over
the three months of curing for the two mixes.
The secant modulus (E50 ) of stabilized soils is
generally found to be proportional to the UCS. Relationships have been established for different clay types,
grout types and cement contents. Results obtained
from this study are plotted in Figure 11 which gives the
following relationship between E50 and the UCS. This
relation is consistent with that proposed by ORourke
et al. (1998).
35 UCS < E50 < 150 UCS

3.5

(1)

Microstructural analysis

3.5.1

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)


results
Figure 12 shows typical SEM micrographs for all the
mixes at 28 days whilst Figure 13 shows typical SEM
micrographs for mix 1 at 28, 60 and 90 days.
From Figure 12 it is evident that the amount of
calcium similate hydrates (CSH) and calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH), which are two cement hydration
products, formed in mix 1 is greater and its fabric
seemed less open than that of mix 2 due to the higher
cement content of the former. The same observation
can be made for mixes 3 and 4. The introduction of
10% (calcium or sodium) bentonite to the mix had
no effect on the SEM micrographs compared to mix
1 which contained no bentonite. By replacing half of
the cement content with Ca-bentonite (mix 5), the fabric appeared less porous than mix 4 which justifies
the lower permeability (Figure 7) owing to the high
bentonite content.
The figure also indicates that by adding zeolite
to the mix (mixes 7 and 9), the samples showed an
advanced hydration process compared to what would
be expected despite the fact that only half of the cement

Figure 12. Typical SEM micrographs of all the ten mixes at


28 days.

content was present compared to mix 1. This can be


accredited to the pozzolanic reactions which generally
proceed faster than normal cement hydration reactions, resulting in products that may or may not have
the same structure as those found in Portland cement
but look very similar to them.
The microstructure of mix 8 (100% water content) was obviously more open and large voids can
be detected in comparison to mix 4 (50% water content clay) due to the higher initial water content and
the lower binder content. Finally, the SEM micrograph
of mix 10 at 28 days shows typical hydration products.
The hydration process seems to be complete at 28 days.
Figure 13 shows typical SEM micrographs for mix
1 at 28, 60 and 90 days to illustrate the effect of curing

686

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 13. Typical SEM micrographs of Mix 1 at three different curing times.

Figure 14. Typical XRD patterns for all the 10 mixes at 28 day.

time on the SEM micrographs. It is obvious that with


time, the kaolin particles become less evident and the
degree of reticulation appears to intensify. At 60 and
90 days, fine network of reticulation becomes quite
obvious and the distinction between the cement and the
kaolin phases is practically unfeasible. The increase
in the degree of reticulation can be attributed to an
increase in the amount of CSH. Due to the cement
hydration and the pozzolanic reactions the CSH and
CAH formed filled up the voids and strengthened the
contacts between the soil particles, hence increasing
strength and reducing the permeability. The degree of
hydration varied with every mix due to the different
amount of grout.
3.5.2 X-ray diffraction results
Figure 14 shows typical XRD patterns for all the ten
mixes at 28 days. Peaks of unreacted Alite (C3 S) and

belite (-C2 S), which are the main components of


Portland cement, were virtually undetectable which
confirms that primary hydration was completed by 28
days. Portlandite peaks were more frequent in mixes
1, 3, 6 and 10 with lower soil:grout ratio i.e. with
higher cement content. No portlandite peaks could be
detected at 28 days in the XRD patterns of mixes 7 and
9, also no zeolite peaks appear to be present in any of
the two graphs. This may imply that zeolite was integrated in chemical reactions with the cement in order
to form hydration products that could not be detected
with the use of XRD. A large silica flour peak was
present in mix 10 opposing to a minor kaolin peak in
comparison to all other mixes.
Figure 15 shows typical XRD patterns of mix 3 at
28, 60 and 90 days. By comparing the two plots at 60
and 90 days, it can be seen that the kaolin and portlandite peaks seem to reduce with time with the latter

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 15. XRD patterns for Mix 3 at 28, 60 and 90 days.

1800

Density (kg/m3)

1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Augered-mixed

Mechanically-mixed

Figure 17. Comparison between the densities of the


augered-mixed and mechanically-mixed mix samples.
Figure 16. Typical extruded columns in the 100% water
content stabilised clay.

almost vanishing at the age of 90 days. This suggests


that kaolin was promptly depleted in the pozzolanic
reaction. The exhaustion of kaolin led to the formation
of additional hydration products. Both SEM and XRD
results agreed with the results obtained from strength
and permeability tests.

3.6

Performance of auger-mixed columns

As mentioned formerly some of the abovementioned


mixes were produced using the laboratory-scale auger
mixing system. Only the results of the 100% water
content clay i.e. mixes 8 and 9 will be discussed in this
paper.
The laboratory-scale auger-mixed columns were
found to be mixed effectively and to correlate well
with the mechanically-mixed samples for the clay with
100% water content. Typical extruded columns are
presented in Figure 16. Values of the density, UCS,
permeability and E50 were found to be comparable

to those obtained with the mechanically-mixed


samples.
Figure 17 illustrates a comparison between the densities of the mechanically-mixed and augermixed
samples. The densities of the mechanically-mixed
samples show more consistency; while the augermixed samples show a larger degree of variability. The
average density of the mechanically-mixed mix samples was 1582 kg/m3 whilst that of the auger-mixed
mix samples was 1462 kg/m3 i.e. 10% lower density
was achieved with the auger. This is a relatively comparable result between the two mixing methods for
this very soft clay. The lower densities seen in the
auger-mixed samples were mainly in the top part of
the columns.
The UCS results for the auger-mixed and
mechanically-mixed mix samples are shown in
Figure 18. Again there is clearly a large variability
in the auger-mixed sample results compared to those
mechanically-mixed yet the averages are similar.
The average UCS value for the former was 687 kPa
compared to 622 kPa for the latter. The average UCS
of the auger-mixed samples was higher than that of
the mechanically-mixed samples despite their slightly

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3000

1.00E-08

1.00E-09

2000

k(m/s)

UCS (kPa)

2500

1500

1.00E-10
1000
500

1.00E-11
Augered-mixed

0
Augered-mixed

Mechanically-mixed

Figure
18. UCS
of
the
mechanically-mixed mix samples.

auger-mixed

Mechanically-mixed

Figure 20. The permeability of the mechanically-mixed and


auger-mixed mix samples.

and

3
E50=300UCS

E50=120 UCS

2.5
E50(*10^5)kPa

3000

UCS (kPa)

2500
2000

2
1.5
E50=40UCS
1

1500
0.5

Augered-mixed
Mechanically-mixed

1000
0
0

500

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

UCS (kPa)
0
T

M
Sample position

Figure 19. Correlation between the sample position and its


UCS. (T = top, M = middle and B = Bottom).

lower bulk density. This can be explained by the


fact that the amount of grout present in the augermixed samples was slightly higher than that of the
mechanically-mixed samples because the columns
formed were in general found shorter than expected.
It was also found that the grout was not uniformly
distributed within the column with the top of the
column being the weakest section hence containing the least amount of cement and received the
least effective degree of mixing leading to reduced
density and UCS. The opposite was observed for
the bottom section of the columns. This is clearly
demonstrated in Figure 19 in which the UCS is
plotted against the sample position within the individual columns. The figure shows a clear trend of
increasing UCS with depth. This observation is consistent with observations made in full-scale soil mixing
projects.
Figure 20 shows the permeability of mechanicallymixed samples and auger-mixed ones. An average
value of 1.05 109 m/s was obtained for the former
compared to 1.65 109 m/s for the latter.
The E50 values of stabilized column samples were
found to be proportional to their UCS. A correlation
between the two is plotted in Figure 21 for both the
auger-mixed and the mechanically-mixed samples and

Figure 21. Correlation between the UCS and the secant


modulus for the augered-mixed and mechanically-mixed
samples.

corresponds to the following relationship, but with far


more scatter for the auger-mixed samples:
40 UCS < E50 < 120UCS

CONCLUSIONS

The conclusions that could be drawn from this paper


are as follows:
The greater the amount of grout injected into the
soil, the better the improvement in both the strength
and permeability.
Kaolin has proved to have a highly pozzolanic
behavior and is more involved in pozzolanic reactions than kaolin mixed with silt. With time, an
increase in strength as well as a decrease of permeability would be expected for a pure kaolin
sample.
The presence of 10% of calcium or sodium bentonite does not enhance the permeability of the
stabilized clay as expected. Alternatively, the addition of 50% Ca-bentonite did cause a decrease of
the permeability.
Zeolite contributes in the hydration process with
cement developing hydration products which
decrease the porosity of the sample and hence

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(2)

decrease its permeability. Consequently the replacement of half of the cement content with zeolite
will not cause a permeability increase as would be
expected.
In general, the increase in strength caused by stabilization will be associated with an increase in the
modulus of elasticity of the soil i.e. a decrease in
the ductility. However, the addition of bentonite will
reduce the modulus of elasticity to a lower value
which can be very crucial in some projects. Alternatively, the addition of zeolite increases the stiffness
of the soil due its rigid framework.
Augered-mixed columns were found to be effectively mixed and to correlate well with mechanicallymixed samples for the clay with 100% water content.
Values of the density, UCS and coefficient of permeability were found to be comparable to the ones
that were mechanically-mixed.
It was found that the grout was not uniformly distributed within the column with the top of the
column being the weakest section hence containing
the least amount of cement and received the least
effective degree of mixing leading to reduced density and UCS. The opposite was observed for the
bottom section of the columns.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the National
Deep Mixing Program of the US Federal Highway Administration for their financial support to the
project. They would also like to thank BP Egypt for
their financial support to the first author.

REFERENCES
Cordon, W. (1962), Resistance of soil cement exposed to
sulphates. Highway Research Board Bulletin, Vol. 309,
No. 1962. (cited in Roy et al, 2003).
DGSSS, EuroSoilStab, (2001), Design Guide Soft Soil
Stabilization. Development of design and construction
methods to stabilize soft organic soils. CT97-0351. ProjectNo.:BE 96-3177.
Dyer, A. (1988). An introduction to zeolite molecular
sieves. John Wiley, Chichester
Garvin, S. L. and Hayles, C. S. (1999), The chemical
compatibility of cementbentonite cut-off wall material.
Construction and Building Materials, Volume 13, Issue 6,
pp 329341.
Janotka, I., Stevula, L., (1998), Effect of bentonite and
zeolite on durability of cement suspension under sulfate
attack. ACI Materials Journal, Volume 96, No. 6, pp.
710715.
Jefferis, S. A. (1992), Contaminant-grout interaction. Proceedings of the Conference on Grouting, Soil Improvement, and Geosynthetics, ASCE, GSP No. 30, pp. 1393
1402.
Osman, A. (2003), Permeability of Cement-Bentonite
Mixtures in aggressive environments MPhil thesis,
Cambridge University.
Perraki, T., Kakali, G., and Kontoleon, F. (2003), The
effect of natural zeolites on the early hydration of Portland cement. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials,
Volume 61, Issues 13, pp 205212.
Porbaha, A. (2000). State of the Art in Deep Mixing Technology. Part III: Geomaterial Characterization. Ground
Improvement, 4(3), 91110.
Sherwood, P. (1957). The Stabilization with Cement of
Weathered and Sulphate-Bearing Clays. Geotechnique,
December 1957, 179191.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Enhancement of strength of soft soils with fly ash and lime


P.V. Sivapullaiah
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India

Basavaraj Katageri & R.N. Herkal


Department of Civil Engineering, Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot, India

ABSTRACT: Disposal of large quantities of fly ash, which is an industrial waste, poses a major environmental
problem. To enhance utilization, fly ash is considered for stabilizing of expansive soft soils. Improving the
strength of soil is of major importance. The development of strength depends on the pozzolanic nature of fly ash.
While fly ashes with high pozzolanic reactivity are widely used, the use of fly ashes with less pozzolanic reactivity
is greatly inhibited. As the strength development in natural expansive soil considered in this investigation is very
less with different percentages of Raichur fly ash, an attempt is made to increase the same by addition of lime.
Based on several tests conducted, the optimum lime contents for fly ash and soils are 5% and 8% respectively.
The strength of soil with different fly ash contents of 10 to 40% with lime contents of 5% and 8% has been
determined after curing the compacted samples for different periods. While the strength improvement for any
soil fly ash mixture is substantial with 5% of lime, it is further improved with 8% of lime. Strength of soil fly
ash mixtures with any lime content increases with curing period.

INTRODUCTION

Large quantities of coal are burnt all over the world


for the generation of thermal power and as a result
huge quantities of fly ash are produced. It has been
used in geotechnical engineering for the construction
of embankments, dams, as backfill material behind
retaining walls and for land reclamation fill. Further,
because of its pozzolanic property, the presence of
free lime content and the coarser and inert particles
it can be used for the stabilization of expansive soft
soil (Indraratna et al, 1991). These soils have conventionally been stabilized with lime, cement and other
chemical additives at a very high cost. It is now a
well-accepted fact that the use of fly ash not only minimizes the disposal problem but also saves the cost of
stabilization.
Often lime is added as a supplement to enhance the
properties of the mixture of soil and fly ash (Consoli
et al, 2001). Lime is also used to stabilize weak fly
ash ground to reduce settlement and increase bearing
capacity (Zhou et al, 2002). The low strength of expansive soft soils is improved with the addition of fly ash
(Nelson and Miller, 1992; Sridharan et al., 1997). But,
only fly ashes containing sufficient lime content and
reactive silica develop good strength on addition of
water, whereas fly ashes containing only reactive silica, with insufficient lime content, improve strength

only on the addition of hydrated lime (Sivapullaiah


et al., 1998). There is an optimum lime content at
which the strength of soil fly ash mixture attains good
strength. Similarly, there exists optimum lime content
for each soil. In the present study, the optimum lime
content of soil and fly ash has been determined using
the methods of Sivapullaiah et al (2003). Since the lime
content gets evenly distributed in soil as well as in fly
ash, the lime content required is calculated based on
total weight of soil and fly ash in the mixture. Keeping
this lime content of soil and fly ash mixtures at the
optimum lime content of fly ash, the fly ash content in
the mixture is varied so as to arrive at more beneficial
combination of soil and fly ash. To further improve the
strength of soil fly ash mixtures, addition of another
lime content to the total mixture, which is the optimum
lime content of soft soil, is also considered.

2.1 Soil tested


Natural Indian black cotton soft soil collected from
Navalgund, in Karnataka State, India containing
expansive montmorillonite as the principal clay mineral has been chosen for this study. The physical
and chemical properties of the soil used in this

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

MATERIALS

Table 1.

Table 2.

Physical properties of soil and fly ash.

Properties

Soil

Specific gravity

Fly ash

2.51

Atterbergs Limits
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Shrinkage limit (%)
Compaction characteristics
Maximum dry density, kN/m3
Optimum moisture, content, %
Grain size distribution
Gravel (%)
Sand (%)
Silt and clay (%)
Unconfined compressive
strength, kPa

2.03

89
23
66
12

35

18.5

11.8
35.5

11.7
25.0

06
42
52
112

00
58
42
32

Chemical composition of RFA.

Constituent

Percentage

SiO2
Al2 O3
TiO2
Fe2 O3
MgO
CaO
K2 O
Na2 O
L.O.I

61.10
28.00
1.30
4.20
0.80
1.7
0.18
0.18
1.40

3.2 pH
pH measurements were carried out using a standard
pH meter after calibration.
3.3 Compaction
Compaction tests were conducted on soil fly ash mixtures using mini compaction mould as per procedure
of Sridharan and Sivapullaiah (2005).

PERCENTAGE FINER

120

SOIL-S
FLY ASH

100
80
60

3.4 Unconfined compressive strength

40

The specimens for the unconfined compressive


strength were obtained using a split mould of internal dimension 3.81 cm-diameter and 7.62 cm height
and the tests were conducted according to standard
method (ASTM, Designation D2166-91)). The test
was conducted under a constant rate of 0.061 Cm/min.

20
0
0.001

0.01

0.1
PARTICLE SIZE, mm

10

Figure 1. Grain size distribution curves for soil and fly ash.

3.5 Modified free swell index


investigation are given in Table 1. Grain size distribution curve of the soil is shown in Fig. 1.
2.2

Lime

Modified free swell index (cm3/g) = V/W

Commercially available pure hydrated lime Ca(OH)2


was used in the study.
2.3

The Modified free swell index was determined by the


method proposed by Sridharan et al, 1985 and the free
swell index is calculated using

Where V is the sediment volume for the w gm of soil.

Fly ash

A fly ash of class F category procured from Raichur


thermal Power plant in Karnataka, called Raichur Fly
ash (RFA) is used.
The physical and chemical composition of fly ash
is given in Tables 1 and 2.

The tests were conducted as per the test program


summarized in Table 3.
5

3
3.1

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

METHODS
5.1 Determination of optimum lime content of
fly ash

Liquid limit

Liquid limit tests were conducted using the cone


penetration method according to BS 13771975.

The pozzolanic reactivity of fly ash depends on


the reactive silica and the lime content. Fly ashes

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Details of strength tests conducted.

Weight ratio of
BC soils: RFA

Lime %

Curing period

Soil alone
10:1
10:2
10:3
10:4

0, 5, 8
0, 5, 8
0, 5, 8
0, 5, 8
0, 5, 8

Immediate,
1, 7, 14 &
28 days

LIQUID LIMIT (%)

Table 3.

38.5
38
37.5
37
36.5
36
35.5
35
34.5
34
33.5
0

MFSI VALUES (cc/gm)

LIME CONTENT (%)

Figure 3. Variation of liquid limit with lime for Raichur


fly ash.

3
2.5
2

12

1.5
1
0.5

10

0
0

7
pH

LIME CONTENT (%)


8

S soil
H soil

Figure 2. Variation of modified free swell index with lime


for fly ash.
6

containing sufficient lime content together with reactive silica develop good strength on addition of water,
but fly ashes containing only reactive silica, with insufficient lime content, develop improved strength only
on addition of hydrated lime (Sivapullaiah et al., 1998).
Such a type of fly ash is used in the present investigation. Therefore, it is necessary to add optimal
lime content, since the formation of the maximum
amount of calcium silicate hydrate I occurs at optimum
lime content resulting in development of maximum
strength.
5.1.1 Optimization by modified free swell index
Figure 2 shows the variation of modified free swell
index with percentage of lime for Raichur fly ash. The
modified free swell index of fly ash alone is 1.2. As the
percentage of lime increases, the modified free swell
index increases up to 5% and then decreases. On addition of lime beyond 5%, the free swell volume starts to
decrease as a result of the increasing formation of CS-H (II) compounds (Sivapullaiah et al., 1995). Thus
the optimum lime content of Raichur fly ash is 5%.
5.1.2 Optimization by liquid limit
Variation of liquid limit values of fly ash with varying percentages of lime is presented in Figure 3. The
liquid limit of fly ash alone is 33%. This increases to
37.85% on addition of 5% lime and then decreases.
The predominant effect of the formation of C-S-H (I)
occurs at 5% lime, therefore 5% can be taken as the
optimum lime content of Raichur fly ash.

4
0

6
Lime (%)

10

12

Figure 4. Variation pH with lime for soft soil.

5.2 Optimum lime content of soft soil


5.2.1 by pH method
Eades and Grim (1966) suggested that, the lowest percentage of lime required to maintain a pH of 12.6 is
the optimum lime content (OLC) required to stabilize
the soil. This can be observed in Fig 4, that the pH of
the soil increase with increase in percentage of lime
and attains maximum values near to 12.6 and further
increase in addition of lime decreases the pH.
Hence, 8% lime corresponding to highest values of
pH can be taken as Optimum lime content.
5.2.2 By unconfined compressive strength tests
method
Strength tests are also conducted to determine the
Optimum lime content for soils by conducting unconfined compression tests. From Fig 5, it can be seen that
for any curing period, with increase in lime content
the unconfined strength increases up to certain level
and then decreases gradually indicating that the shear
strength of the soil increases depending on its type.
Thus, the lime content at which UCS value is maximum can be taken as optimal lime requirement of the
soil. Hence, 8% can be taken as the optimum lime
content.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1800

0 day
1 day
7 days
14 days
28 days

1600
1400

2200

UCS (kPa)

1200

1 DAY

1000

7 DAYS

800

14 DAYS

2000
1800

56 DAYS

600

1600

UCS (kPa)

400
200
0
0

6
8
LIME( %)

10

12

14

1400
1200
1000

UCS (kPa)

Figure 5. Variation of unconfined compressive strength


with lime for different periods of curing for soft soil.

600

340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160

400
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

5% lime+ Flyash
Figure 7. Effect of fly ash and 5% lime content on the
strength of soft soil.

0 day
1 day
7 days
14 days
28 days

10

15

20

25

30

35

reduction in cohesion. With any fly ash content the


strength of the soil improves considerably with curing.
This suggests that the fly ash pozzolanic reactivity is
sufficiently high.
5.4 Improving the strength in soil fly ash mixture
wth lime

40

Flyash (%)

Figure 6. Effect of fly ash content on the strength of the soft


soil.

5.3

800

Development of strength in soft soil using


fly ash

The strength of soft soil can be altered by the addition


of fly ash. Many factors of fly ash such as reactivity,
free lime content and silty nature influence the strength
of the soil. Fly ashes containing a sufficient amount
of base- soluble silica are considered to be reactive
fly ashes. The base-soluble silica reacts with lime in
the presence of water and produces cementitious compounds, leading to development of strength (Helmuth,
1987).
The variation of unconfined compressive strength
of soft soil with various percentage contents of RFA
at different curing periods is shown in fig 6.
It can be seen from the figure that the unconfined
compressive strength of soft soil increases immediately on addition of a small amount of 10% fly ash.
With increasing additions of fly ash the strength of the
soil has not further improved. This might be due to
disturbance of the soft soil skeleton and consequent

The strength of a given fly ash also varies with lime


content. It generally increases with an increase in lime
up to a certain percentage of lime, beyond which it may
reduce or the rate of increase in strength is negligible.
(Yudhbir and Honjo, 1991). This lime content is called
the optimum lime content.
Addition of 5% of lime has been considered to
improve the strength of soil fly ash mixture. For 5% of
lime to be available for fly ash, this amount of lime has
been kept with respect to total weight of soil fly ash
mixture. It can be seen from Fig. 7 that the strength
of soil-fly ash mixtures increases with fly ash content in the presence of 5% of lime. It shows that the
fly ash particles, which had not produced pozzolanic
compounds, generated them in the presence of lime.
Thus the curves show steep increase in strength with
increasing fly ash content. Also the strength of soil fly
ash mixtures increases with curing period.
5.5 Improving the strength of soft soil fly ash
mixture with optimum lime content of
the soil
It has been shown above that the strength of any
soft soil fly ash mixture improves the strength due to

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

increasing percentage of fly ash as well as with


curing.
5. Addition of 8% of lime, the optimum lime content of soil, further improves the strength of soil fly
ash mixtures than with 5% lime due to enhanced
strength of soil. Under this condition, the increase
in strength of mixtures gradually reduces with
increase in fly ash content.

0 day
1 day
7 days
14 days
28 days

3500

3000

UCS (kPa)

2500

2000

REFERENCES
1500

1000

500
5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

8% lime+ Flyash

Figure 8. Effect of fly ash and 8% lime content on the


strength of soft soil.

enhanced pozzolanic reactivity of fly ash with lime. In


this series, 5% of lime is also available for the soils.
But it was shown that the optimum lime content of soil
is 8%. To further improve the strength of soil fly ash
mixture, addition of 8% of lime is considered for the
entire soil fly ash mixture. Fig. 8 shows the strength
improvement in soft soil with different fly ash contents
after curing for different periods respectively.
The strength of any soft soil fly ash mixture
increases with increase in lime content from 5% to
8%. However, the improvement in strength generally
decreases as the fly ash content increases. This is
because with increase in lime content only the strength
of soil improves and the improvement in fly ash is
negligible.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results presented in this paper, the


following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The optimum lime content of fly ash used is about
5% as indicated by Modified free swell index and
liquid limit tests.
2. The optimum lime content of soft soil studied
is about 8% as indicated by pH and unconfined
compressive strength tests.
3. The strength of soil improves with fly ash addition. The strength improves with curing period but
increased addition of fly ash was found to be not
favorable. This is because the enhanced pozzolanic
reactivity is upset by disturbance caused to soil
skeleton on addition of fly ash.
4. Addition of 5% of lime, the optimum lime content of fly ash, improves the strength of soil with

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Soil improvement using compaction grouting a laboratory


investigation on the confining pressure and injection rate in
completely decomposed granite
S.Y. Wang
Department of building and construction, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Dave Chan
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Alberta, Canada

K.C. Lam
Department of Building and Construction, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

S.K. Au & L.G. Tham


Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT: Laboratory compact grouting was performed using a modified triaxial test on Hong Kong CDG
(completely decomposed granite) soils to investigate the effect of effective confining pressure and grout injection
rate on the compact grouting effect. In this study, compaction grouting was simulated by expanding a latex
balloon inside a triaxial sample using de-aired water. When the balloon is expanded, it first needs to overcome
the effect of the confining pressure of the soil; further expansion will compact and densify the surrounding
soil. The compact grouting effect can be control by measuring the total void ratio change during injection and
the following consolidation. The injection rate was controlled by a GDS using a volume control technique. The
results of the experiments showed that the effective confining pressure on soil specimen plays an important role
in the effect of compaction grouting, and the injection rate has an effect on the rate of excess pore pressure
dissipation but minor effect on soil density.

INTRODUCTION

Compact grouting is becoming a popular method to


offset subsidence caused during underground excavation (Mair and Hight, 1994). The basic principle
is that grout is injected between the excavation and
building foundations not only to compensate for the
ground loss and stress relief caused by underground
excavation without permeation (Warner, 1992; Garaf,
1992), but also it can density the surrounding soil to
enhance the whole strength of structure. The excess
pore pressure built up during the injection process is
assumed to dissipate by outward radial flow. The consolidation process that follows the compact grouting
is responsible for the increase in the bearing capacity
of surrounding soil with time. As the excess pore pressure in the surrounding soil dissipates, the void ratio
decreases and hence, the strength goes up. Au, (2001)
and Soga et al., (2002) used modified consolidometer to study the compact grouting effect by measuring

the displacement of top face of clay specimen under


the axial-symmetrical conditions. However, they did
not measure the excess pore pressure behavior during
the injection period and the followed consolidation. In
addition, in the tests of Au, (2002), the influence of
effective confining stress on soil behavior is not considered. Therefore, a new experimental apparatus has
been designed, fabricated, and assembled at the City
University of Hong Kong to make the evaluations on
compact grouting behavior. This paper will focus on
the effect of injection rate and confining pressure on
soil-grout behavior for compact grouting with particular emphasis on completely decomposed granite of
Hong Kong.

Ground conditions in the field differ from those found


in the laboratory. However, it is difficult to study the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SCHEMATIC OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Data Log
System

Transducer 2
8

Personal
compute

Transducer 3

6
5

Transducer 4
1
4
2

3
Air
Compressor

GDS Controller

Transducer 1
Figure 2. Modified triaxial cell base and expanded needle.

1:Confining pressure transducer, 2: Pore water pressure transducer,


3: Injection pressure transducer, 4: Back pressure transducer,
5: Balloon, 6: Soil specimen, 7: Porous stone, 8: O ring

Figure 1. Schematic of the ideal compact grouting


experiment.

Table 1. The main property of soil in the experimental tests.


Property

Units

HK CDG

Specific gravity
Optimum moisture
Dry density
Maximum void ratio
Minimum void ratio
Fine content
Permeability
Cohesion
Friction angle

g/cm3
%
g/cm3

%
cm/second
kPa
( )

2.63
12
1.3
1.054
0.477
6
5.92e-4
10
32

of the confining pressure of the soil. Further expansion will compact and densify the surrounding soil.
Due to the compact grouting, the excess pore water
pressure will increase and dissipate with the time in
soil, that is so called consolidation, and the drained
water can be measured by transducer 4. During the
injection, the injection pressure (p) and the injection
rate (q) were measured. Injections were made using
a pressure/volume controller, which can control the
injection rate and volume

2.1 Key components of the apparatus

relationship between the void ratio change, the injection pressure, the injection rate and the confining
pressure in the field. Therefore, we investigated the
injected shapes using laboratory tests.
Fig. 1 shows the triaxial apparatus for injection
tests. The diameter and the height of specimens were
100 mm and 200 mm, respectively. the soil described
in Table 1 was compacted in the apparatus to get the
desired density. The confining pressure 3 was applied
to the specimen through the rubber membrane, and
the confining pressure and pore water pressure can be
measured by transducer 1 and 2, respectively. Then
water was injected into the specimen from the bottom of the specimen in order to provide saturation.
The injection steel injection tube stood in the center of
the specimen, and the water can enter into the balloon
in the end of injection tube. The injection pressure
can be measured by transducer 3. When the balloon is
expanded by water, it first needs to overcome the effect

(1)Modified standard triaxial cell


The function of the modified tri-axial cell was containing the sample in a tri-axial environment in order
to simulate real situation of soil under the ground. The
design of the modified tri-axial cell was based on the
design of standard tri-axial cell. The main different
between the standard tri-axial cell and the modified
tri-axial cell was the upper component of the base of
the cell. It was called base pedestal. In standard triaxial cell, the base pedestal is a steel short and circular
column with two drilled holes distributed near the side
of the face of column. A circular trench is produced
to connect the two holes and let the water to spread
around the surface of the column. In the modified triaxial cell, two drilled holes were produced; however
one of them was located at the center of the surface and
the other was located near the side. A connector was
inserted into the center hole to connect the injection
needle and the base pedestal (see Fig. 2). The modified
consolidometer is also used to house the specimen,
porous stone with a central hole below and atop the
specimen, loading piston, and injection needle during
the experiment as shown in Fig. 2. The porous stones
are used to facilitate one-dimension vertical drainage
of he specimen during specimen preparation, and during and after the grouting process. The loading piston

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Percentage passing (%)

100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.01

0.1

10

Particle size (mm)

Figure 4. Grain size distribution curve.

Figure 3. Detail of injection needle designed.

is used to impose vertical loads on the specimen during the specimen preparation stage and to maintain the
required vertical surcharge during the grout injection
stage. The height of these modified consolidometer
is 280 mm, designed to house a specimen of approximately 100 mm high. The 100-mm diameter modified
consolidometer can be used for single-point injection
experiments using the central injection needle.
(2)Injection needles
A latex balloon has to be installed at the tip of the injection needle to simulate the ideal model of compaction
grouting, i.e., no occurrence of bleeding or solid penetration during the grouting process. For the latex
balloon, it was made by dipping the copper injection
needle into the latex solution. The latex solution should
be cured in air for one hour and the air bubbles on the
top layer of the solution should be removed. A 2 mm
steel rod was inserted into the needle to prevent the
latex solution from clogging the needle before dipping
the needle into the solution. After the first dipping, the
needle was dried at room temperature until the latex
solution was 80% dried. Then the needle was dipped
into the solution again. The progress was repeated until
a membrane of approximately 1.5 mm thickness was
produced. The needle was then wounded around by a
strong wire with high strength and it was further dipped
into the solution until a latex membrane reached a
thickness of 3 mm. (Fig. 3). In order to guarantee no
air trapped in the needle, the needles will be put into
a vacuum chamber to de-aerate the needles
(3)Pressure/Volume Controller
The GDS Standard Pressure/Volume Controller is used
as the injection pressure control device in the experiment. It is a microprocessor controlling the hydraulic
actuator for precise regulation and measurement of liquid pressure and injection volume. De-aired water was

selected as the hydraulic fluid. The instrument was


programmed to ramp or cycle pressure and volume
change as a linear function of time. The maximum
injection pressure and flow volume that can be controlled by the instrument are 2 MPa and 200,000 mm3
with precisions of 1 kPa and 1 mm3 , respectively. The
cylinder of the GDS controller has to be filled with deaired water before each experiment to ensure that the
amount of water is adequate for each injection experiment. It should be inclined at approximately 5 to the
horizontal and flushed with de-aired water to remove
any trapped air from the system. The injection rate is
first set by the user and the injection pressure will be
adjusted and recorded by the controller automatically.

Volume-controlled cavities were expanded in HK


CDG (completely decomposed granite) specimens by
precisely controlled injection of water into a specially
designed latex balloon through an injection needle
embedded in the center of the specimen. Table 1 shows
the physical properties of the sandy soils used. Fig. 4
shows the grain size distribution curves. Specimens
subjected to different effective confining pressure
(50 kPa, 100 kPa, and 200 kPa were prepared in specifically modified triaxial cell. The injection volume
was 7.5 ml. This small volume is to ensure that the
boundary effect is ignored. The injection rate is 5, and
30 ml/min, respectively.
The testing stage can be separated into four steps.
The first step is the saturation of sample. Saturation of the sample is necessary to provide reliable
measurements of the volume change in drained tests.
By passing the carbon dioxide before flushing with
water, the pore pressure response parameter B is guarantee to be 0.981.00, indicating that the samples
were adequately saturated. The second step is the first

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SOIL MATERIAL AND TEST PROCEDURE

consolidation of specimen in order to gain the effective


confining pressure. The third step is injection water
into the needle in the center of specimen. The last step
is the second consolidation till the back pressure and
pore pressure reach equilibrium, that is to say the consolidation finished. It is necessary to note that the last
step is actually including the third step in terms of time.
In other words, the injection begin in third step simultaneously with the consolidation begin in the last step. In
order to comparing conveniently the effect of different
of effective horizontal stress on the compact grouting,
the period of second consolidation is 30 minutes for
all the tests. After the first injection and the followed
consolidation, the second, third and fourth injection
and their followed consolidation were carried out, in
order to study the sequential injection effect.

1100
1000

Injection Pressure(kPa)

900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100

effective horizontal stress=50kPa


effective horizontal stress=100kPa
effective horizontal stress=200kPa

0
-100
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time (Mins)

Figure 5. Injection pressure versus time for different effective confining pressure.

4.1

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND


DISCUSSION

effective horizontal stress=50kPa


effective horizontal stress=100kPa
effective horizontal stress=200kPa

200

Influence of effective horizontal stress on the


compact grouting effect

Figure 5 shows the relationship of injection pressure


versus time. It can be seen that the higher injection
pressure was produced with the effective horizontal
pressure increased from 50 kPa, 100 kPa to 200 kPa. It
is because only if the injection water increases to the
higher pressure so as to expand the balloon due to the
surrounding pressure increased from 50 to 200 kPa,
when the injection volume is controlled to the same
value (7.5 ml) for every injection. It is necessary to
note that for the specimen subjected to the effective
horizontal stress (50 kPa) the injection pressure in the
specimen decreased and became steady very soon after
the injection is finished, while for the specimens subjected to the effective horizontal stress (100 kPa and
200 kPa), the injection pressure decrease gradually and
need a longer time to be steady. This is because the
higher injection pressure induced the higher excess
pore water pressure in the surrounding soil, and the
higher excess pore water pressure dissipation need
longer time. Meanwhile, the excess pore pressure dissipate will in turn influence the injection pressure till
the injection pressure in the balloon meet equilibrium
with the effective stress in the surrounding soil. This
can be confirmed from Figure 6 that the pore water
pressure increased with the effective horizontal pressure increasing, while the dissipation of excess pore
pressure need relatively longer time to end, which
is something like the injection pressure. However, it
is important to note that the behavior of pore water
pressure is due to two reasons. One is the internal
compact grouting, the other one is the confining pressure, and injection pressure and pore water pressure
can influence each other.

Pore Water Pressure (kPa)

160
140
120
100
80
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time (Mins)

Figure 6. Pore water pressure versus time for different


effective confining pressure.

As we know, compact grouting can densify the surrounding soil. The effect can be expressed by the
total void ratio change of specimen (e). Since the
maximum void ratio (emax ) and the minimum void
ratio (emin ) can be measured beforehand, the parameter can be defined the compact grouting densified
efficiency as follow:
=

e
emax emin

Figure 7 showed the densified result of compact grouting for different effective horizontal pressure. It can
be seen that for the three tests, the first injection
always leads to bigger void ratio change, and gradually reduces for the following injections. Additionally,
with the increase of effective horizontal stress, the void

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

180

Injection rate=5ml/min
Injection rate=30ml/min

155

effective horizontal stress=50kPa


effective horizontal stress=100kPa
effective horizontal stress=200kPa

0.22

150

0.20

Pore Water Pressure (kPa)

Void Ratio Change/(Maximum e-Minimum e)

0.24

0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
90

-0.02
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

20

effective horizontal stress=50kPa


effective horizontal stress=100kPa
effective horizontal stress=200kPa

0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
-0.02
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

100

120

0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02

Injection rate=5ml/min
Injection rate=30ml/min

0.00
-0.02
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Figure 10. Void ratio change/(Maximum e-Minimum e)


versus time for different injection rate.

Figure 8. Injection pressure versus time for different injection rate.

ratio change also increase. The highest is 19% for


the test with effective horizontal stress 200 kPa, while
the efficiency for relative low effective horizontal
stress (50 kPa and 100 kPa) is only about 9%. This
proved that the effective horizontal stress really play
an important role in the compact grouting.
Influence of injection rate on the compact
grouting

In order to examine the influence of injection


rate on the compact grouting effect, three tests
were performed at different injection rates (5 and
30 ml/min) on normally HK CDG specimens placed
in the 100 mm diameter modified triaxial cell.
Figures 8 and 9 shows the measured relationships of injection pressure and excess pore water
pressure versus time, individually. It can be that

the injection pressure and pore water pressure


increase with the injection rates increasing. As the
slower injection test (5 ml/min) took longer time to
complete the injection, it was considered that the soil
around the injection point started to consolidate during the injection process, giving a slightly lower peak
pore water pressure and peak injection pressure due
to the excess pore pressure dissipation, while for the
test (30 ml/min), due to the injection time is too fast,
the surrounding soil can be assumed undrained conditions, so that the higher injection pressure and pore
water pressure can be given. Figure 10 shows the densified result of compact grouting for different injection
rate. It can be seen that the efficiency for two tests (5
and 30 ml/min) is about 18% and 19%, respectively.
It was therefore concluded that the effect of injection
rate was relatively minor when a perfect low mobility
grout is used for compact grouting.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

80

Time (Mins)

Time (Mins)

4.2

60

Figure 9. Pore water pressure versus time for different


injection rate.
Void Ratio Change/(Maximum e-Minimum e)

Void Ratio Change/(Maximum e-Minimum e)

Figure 7. Void ratio change/(Maximum e-Minimum e)


versus time for different effective confining pressure.
0.24

40

Time (Mins)

Time (Mins)

CONCLUSIONS
A new laboratory experimental apparatus has been
successfully designed, fabricated, and assembled to
study the fundamental behavior of compaction grouting subjected to triaxial conditions. The injection
pressure, pore water pressure and confining pressure
can be controlled. The compact grouting efficiency
(e/(emax emin )) due to compact grouting and
confining pressure was defined and can be measured
carefully. It is concluded from experimental tests, the
injection pressure, and excess pore water pressure
and compact grouting efficiency increase with the
effective confining pressure increasing. Moreover, the
dissipation of excess pore water pressure and injection
pressure can influence each other due to the consolidation of soil. Additionally, it is examined from
experimental tests that the effect of injection rate was
relatively minor when a perfect low mobility grout is
used for compact grouting.

Au, S.K.A., Soga, K., Jafari, M.R., Bolton, M.D. and Komiya,
K. (2002): Factors affecting long-term efficiency of compensation grouting in clays, accepted for publication
in the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers
Graf, E.D. (1992). Compaction grout. In Grouting, soil
improvement and geosynthetics,ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication. No.30, Vol. 1, pp. 275287. Reston, VA:
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Mair, R.J. and Hight, D.W. (1994): Hydrofracturing pressure of cohesive soil, Journal of the Soil and Foundations, Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Vol.27(1), pp.1422.
Soga, K., Au, S.K.A., Jafari, M.R. and Bolton, M.D. (2002):
Laboratory investigation of multiple injection into clay,
submitted to Geotechnique
Warner, J. (1992). Compaction grout; rheology vs. effectiveness. In Grouting, soil improvement and geosynthetics,
ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication No. 30, Vol. 1,
pp. 229239. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil
Engineers.

REFERENCES
Au, S.K. (2001): Fundamental Study of Compensation
Grouting in Clay, PhD THESIS, University of Cambridge

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

The physical and mechanical properties of lime stabilized high water


content expansive soil
Baotian Wang, Xiaohui Ma & Wenhui Zhang
Geotechnical Institute of Hohai University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China

Haijun Zhang & Guiqi Chen


Provincial Expressway Construction Department of Jiangsu, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China

ABSTRACT: This paper introduces the lime-stabilized technique for improvement of the expansive soils. The
free expansive ratio and other physical properties of natural soil and lime-stabilized expansive soil have been
investigated based on the experiment results. The in-situ CBR tests have been performed on the compacted
pavement. The effects of drying-wetting cycles have been studied for plain compacted soil and lime-stabilized
soil. It shows that the plain compacted soil has significant volume change and lime-stabilized soil is insensitive
with the change of moisture content. The microstructures of the compacted natural soil and the lime-stabilized
soil have been observed with scan electric microscope method.

1 THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE


EXPANSIVE SOIL IN THE NORTH AREA OF
JIANGSU

plasticity
0

20

40

60

Ning-Huai Expressway links Nanjing, the Capital of


Jiangsu and Huaian (at the center area of North
Jiangsu). It has 138 km long and there is 92 km
located on the expansive subsoils and the pavement of
expressway embankment must be built with expansive
soil too.
The basic physical parameters obtained from borehole samples from natural ground to the depth of 6.5 m
meters are shown in Figures 1 through. 4. These figures show that the natural subsoils have high plasticity,
fairly high free volume expansive ratio, low to medium
expansive pressure and fairly high volume shrinkage.

depth/m

2 THE PROBLEM OF EXPANSIVE SOIL AS


THE FILLING OF EXPRESSWAY
EMBANKMENT

Expansive soil has widely distribution in China. The


clayey soil from the ground to the depth of 6 m
in the north area of Jiangsu Province has weak to
medium expansion. If compacted expansive soil is
used as the fill of expressway embankment, cracks will
occur when the filling loses moisture. For example,
the expressway embankment of the expressway from
Huaian to Lianyungang (near Huaian) has a heavy

7
Figure 1. Plasticity index vs depth.

problem in 3 years after the expressway putting into


use. The structure pavement has a lot of cracks with
the maximum wide to 3 cm. The cracks extent 1 to 3
meter depth to embankment. The soil in the cracks is

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

free volume expansive ratio/%


0

20

40

60

80

percent of volume shrinkage/%

100

10

20

30

depth/m

depth/m

4
5

6
Figure 4. Percent of volume shrinkage vs depth.

deformation after the thaw of a snow. Fig. 5 shows the


upheaving deformation near the middle isolation.

Figure 2. Free volume expansive ratio vs depth.

expansive pressure/kPa
20
40
60

3 THE LABORATORY EXPERIMENT OF


THE EXPANSIVE SOIL AND LIME
STABILIZED EXPANSIVE SOIL

80

3.1 The expansive and the shrinkage characters


of natural soil

depth/m

The expansive soil has high structural characters and


moisture sensitivity. When the expansive soil is compacted near optimism moisture content, its volume will
swell and the height of the sample increase if the moisture varies between saturation and initial compaction
moisture content. If the relative height expansive ratio
r is defined as follows.

r =

5
Figure 3. Expensive pressure vs depth.

in liquid state and a wood bar could penetrate a maximum depth of 1.5 meter into the embankment along
cracks. Fig. 5 shows the photos from the standpoint
of the Highway from Suqian to Shuyang (in the north
area of Jiangsu too). The embankment filling of this
highway is compacted expansive soil. In the winter of
2005 to 2006, the pavement occurs a lot of up heaving

(1)

In which,
h the height of the sample after it expanded at the
times i,
hi the height of the sample before it expanded at
times i in which its moisture content reduces to
initial compaction moisture content.
Fig. 6 shows the height variation of compacted
expansive soil and lime stabilized soil when the moisture contents vary in optimism moisture contents and
saturated contents. It shows that the heights of the samples increase with the augment of moisture content
and its height decrease with the water content depressing. The lime stabilized soil has a much lower height

704

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

h hi
hi

Figure 5. The upheaving deformation of the Highway from Suqian to Shuyang.

18

2.5

16
height expansive ratio (%)

height of sample (cm)

natural soil
2.4
2.3
lime content 2%
2.2
lime content 4%
lime content 5%

2.1

14
natural soil

12
10
8

lime content 2%
6
lime content 4%

lime content 5%

2
2.0

1
3
2
4
times of wet-drying cycle

2
3
4
times of wet-drying cycle

Figure 6. The height variation of compacted expansive soil and lime-stabilized soil during wet-drying cycles.

lime content 2%

lime content 4%

Compacted plain soil

lime content 5%

compacted lime stabilized soil

Figure 7. The photos of compacted plain and lime stabilized expansive soil after 6 wet-drying cycles.

variation than natural soil when the lime contents are


4% and 5%.
Although the height of the samples is always higher
than the initials, the area of the samples (2 cm in

height and 6.18 cm in diameter) will shrink during


wetting-drying cycles. Fig. 7 shows the photos of the
samples when they reach initial moisture content after
6 wet-drying cycles. It shows that the plain compacted

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(a) compacted plain expansive soil

(b) compacted lime stabilized soil

Figure 8. The SEM photos of plain expansive soil and lime stabilized soil.
Table 1.

Field testing results of lime contents and CBR.

Site No.1

Site No.2

Site No.3

39 days after
compaction

37 days after
compaction

7 days after
compaction

lime
contents
(%)

CBR
(%)

4.0
4.2
4.0
3.9
3.5
3.1
3.6
3.7
3.3
3.0
3.8

Average
3.6

lime
contents
(%)

CBR
(%)

80.0
102.9
40.3
64.3
60.6
62.6
50.7
67.8
60.3
38.1
31.1

2.8
2.9
3.3
3.1
3.1
3.5
3.7
3.1
4.6
3.7
3.5
2.4
3.0

59.9

3.3

Site No.4
14 days after
compaction

lime
contents
(%)

CBR
(%)

33.3
38.6
43.1
48.1
51.4
60.6
91.0
50.7
55.7
37.9
23.9
40.7
25.0

4.6
4.4
4.9
4.1
4.3
5.2
5.7
4.4
5.0
4.9
4.7
4.8
6.5
6.3

46.2

5.0

expansive soil has an obvious shrinkage at radius


direction but the compacted lime stabilized expansive
soil has not this phenomenon when the lime content
reaches 4% or more. If the embankment of a highway is
made by compacted plain expansive soil, it will occur
swelling deformation in the area of moisture content
arisen. The compacted soil will occur shrinkage cracks
around the drying bound of the soil. The cracks may
develop into the surface pavement as what has happened at the expressway from Huaian to Lianyungang.

lime
contents
(%)

CBR
(%)

lime
contents
(%)

CBR
(%)

26.57
30.14
32.14
27.43
42.57
15.43
28.43
27.14
20.29
29.57
26.00
29.86
42.14
42.14

5.9
5.2
4.7
4.7
4.3
4.7
5.7
4.3
5.9
6.2
6.1
4.6

64.29
70.00
84.29
82.57
69.14
56.86
95.43
98.86
94.29
68.57
56.43
64.29

5.3
5.8
6.1
4.8
4.7
6.5
4.3
6.5
4.5
5.5
6.7

71.4
86.9
80.0
67.1
67.1
80.3
66.3
73.4
53.6
63.0
82.0

30.0

5.2

75.4

5.5

71.9

3.2 The microstructure of the plain and lime


stabilized soil
Expansive soil has a fairly high content of hydrophile
mineral such as montmorillonite and illite. Its
microstructure and minerals change significantly
when lime is mixed in and compacted. It makes the
soil lose the water-sense characters such it is shown
as Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. Fig. 8 shows the SEM photos of
the compacted plain expansive soil and the compacted
lime stabilized soil. The plain soil has a lot of thin sheet

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

15 days after
compaction

minerals but the particles become the shape of plate


and bar for lime stabilized soil after about 200 days it
compacted.
3.3 The CBR values for plain soil and lime
stabilized soil

soil has high volume change potential and low CBR


value, but the compacted lime stabilized soil is a
high quality filling which has a stable volume and
high CBR.
REFERENCES

The CBR value is one of key parameters for the quality control of the pavement. The compacted plain
expansive soil has a CBR value as low as 1.5. The
CBR value becomes very high when the expansive
soil is stabilized with lime. All of the filling of the
embankment of Ning-Huai Expressway is built with
lime stabilized expansive soil. During the construction
of Ning-Huai Expressway, the lime contents and CBR
values are tested in the field experiment sites. Table 1
shows the CBR and the lime content tested in four field
experiment site. The results show that the compacted
lime stabilized soil has a very high CBR value.
CONCLUSIONS
4-1 The natural soil for the case study has high liquid
limits, high plasticity, and low to medium expansion.
4-2 The plain soil has a lot of thin sheet minerals
but the shape of the particles becomes plate and bar.
4-3 The embankment of highway could not be paved
with compacted plain soil because the compacted plain

Kong L. W., Tan L. R. Study on shear strength and swellingshrinkage characteristic of compacted expansive soil [A].
Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Singapore, 2000, 515519
J. M. Reid, A. H. Brookes, Investigation of lime stabilized
contaminated material[J]. engineering Geology, 1999,
53(2), 217231
Arabi M. and Wild S., Micro structure development in cured
soil-lime composite [J]. Journal of Materials Science,
1986, 21(2), 477503
A. I. Al-Mhaidib, M. A. Al-Shamrani. Swelling characteristics of lime-treated expansive soils [J]. Geotechnical
Engineering. 1996, 27(2), 3753
K. J. Osinubi. Influence of compacting efforts and compaction delays on lime-treated soil [J]. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 1998, 124(2), 149155
Jacques Locat, Helene Tremblay, Serge Leroueil. Mechanical
and hydraulic behavior of a soft inorganic clay treated with
lime [J]. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 1996, 33(4),
654669
Canming Li, Baotian Wang, Haixia Zhang. The characteristics of compacted lime stabilized expansive soil. Journal
of Hohai University(Natural Science), 2005, 33, 3840

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Combined preloading compaction and composite ground to treat


the soft subgrade of highway
Gang Zheng, Shuangjue Liu & Huayang Lei
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China

ABSTRACT: Field tests have been performed to study the interaction of cap, pile and soil with gap between
cap and pile head. The test results shown that all load is carried by soil until cap was in contact with pile head
due to the settlement of cap.Based on that, combined preloading compaction and composite ground method, a
new kind of method termed by the author, is presented in this paper. Then numerical analysis was conducted
and analysis results shown the gap in this method can make the subgrade soil carry the load first, during this
process the subgrade soil beneath the embankment is undergoing preloading, the weight of embankment can be
regarded as preload. Then piles join the soil to carry subsequent load after the top-plate settle to be in contact
with pile top. The consolidation and the increase of bearing capacity of subgrade consequently can reduce post
construction settlement.

INTRODUCTION
raft

1.1

Ground treatment methods for highway


subgrade

In the past ten years, China has seen great development of highway construction. Recently several lines
of high-speed passenger railway are under construction and there will be more than 10,000 kilometers
long line to be constructed in 15 years. Some of them
have to be constructed on soft ground and the treatment of soft ground accounts for a considerable part
of the total cost.
There have been more ten kinds of ground treatment
methods adopted in the construction of highway and
high speed railway in China including preloading compaction, dynamic compaction, deep mixing method
(including DDM AND DJM), jet grouting method,
vacuum preloading, composite ground to name but a
few. For composite ground, rigid piles are often used
as ground reinforcement element besides DM column,
sand column or gravel column. It is often call rigid
pile composite ground when rigid pile is introduced
as ground reinforcement element to form composite
ground.
1.2

cushion

pile
Figure 1. Cushion between raft and pile top.

as shown in Fig.1, where pile is called disconnected


pile (Cao et al. 2004, Chi and Song, 2002.). This type
is often used in so called rigid pile composite ground
in China. For the third type of connection, which was
suggested by the author (Zheng, et al. 2004), a gap
is introduced between cap and pile head, as shown in
Fig.2. Foundation thus is resting on soil until foundation is in contact with pile head due to the settlement
of foundation under the vertical load. The gap can also
help circumvent the problem of high stresses in piles
and more bearing capacity of soil surrounding piles
can be mobilized.

Raft (cap) and pile connection

For conventional piled raft foundation, pile head is


normally embedded into raft for a certain length. In
this case pile can carry both vertical and horizontal
loads. Another type of connection is that pile head is
separated from foundation by a layer of sand cushion

2.1 Field tests setup


Field tests were performed to investigate the interaction of foundation (cap), pile and soil. The three types

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

FIELD TESTS

loading plate
raft

load transducer
gap

pressure cell

pile

Case ALoading test of conventional piled raft

Figure 2. Gap between raft and pile top.


loading plate
0.0m

sand cushion

clay
-1.5m

load transducer
pressure cell

silty clay
-4.0m
-4.5m
silt

Case B Loading test of rigid pile composite ground


pile

loading plate

Figure 3. Soil profile at testing site.

of foundation-pile connection as mentioned above


were introduced.The experimental site is located in
a construction site in Tianjin. The soil profile at the
location is presented in Figure 3. The corresponding
groundwater level is 1 m below the ground surface and
remains steady during the tests.
The sketch of the loading tests is shown in Figure 4. Each of the test systems consisted of a single
pile, a loading plate with the dimensions of 1.414 m
length and 1.414 m width. The test piles are precast
concrete piles of 4.5 m long and has a square section of
200 mm 200 mm, bearing on silt. The ultimate vertical bearing capacity of single pile is 350 400 kN
determined by single pile bearing tests.
Case A, as shown in Figure 4, is to simulate conventional piled raft. In case B, a layer of sand cushion of
200 mm thick is laid between loading plate and pile.
In case C, loading plate is not in contact with pile, the
height of the gap was introduced between loading plate
and pile head with height of 10 mm. It is also shown
in Figure 4.
The loads acting on the loading plate were applied
gradually by pressurized oil jack.The piles were instrumented with load transducer to record the load taken
by pile head. The soil-loading plate contact pressure
was measured too by pressure cell. The loading plate

pressure cell
load transducer

Case C Test with gap between pile and loading plate

Figure 4. Sketch of field loading tests.

settlement was measured very with an accuracy of


0.1 mm. For case B, the settlement of pile head and
the soil beneath the sand cushion was also measured.
2.2 Test results
The load carried by pile Pp and that by soil Ps versus
total load P curve obtained from test for case A are
shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that both Pp and Ps
increased with the increase of total load P and soil
carried a little more load than pile did in the early
stage of loading, then pile took more percentage of

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

gap

800

400

Pp

300

Ps

P Pp Ps (kN)

Pp Ps(kN)

500

200

600

P
Pp

400

Ps

200

100

100

200

300

400

500

600

P(kN)

0
500
Ps

400

s(mm)

Pp

300

12

16

20

24

28

Figure 8. Pile, soil and loading plate settlement versus load


curve.

Figure 5. Load sharing between pile and soil in case A.

PpPs(kN)

s(mm)

200
100
P(kN)

0
5
10
15
20
25
30

40

80

120

160
P(kPa)

Case C
NaturaV ground

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Figure 9. Contact pressure-settlement curve.

700

Figure 6. Load sharing between pile and soil in case B.

Pp Ps (kN)

400

Pp
Ps

300
200
100

P (kN)

0
0

200

400

600

800

Figure 7. Load sharing between pile and soil in case C.

load than soil after P exceeding 260 kN. From then


on, Pp increased much faster than Ps with the increase
of total load P.
The load carried by pilePp and that by soil beneath
loading plate Ps versus total load P curve obtained
from case B are shown in Figure 6.
It can be seen that both of Pp and Ps increased with
the increase of total load P, but loading plate took
much more percentage of load than pile did. It is due
to that the sand cushion is too thick compared with the
width of pile cross section.
The load carried by pilePp and that by loading
platePs versus total load P curve obtained from test
of case C are shown in Figure 7. The total load P versus settlement s of loading plate curve is shown in
Figure 8 along with Pp versus settlement s of loading
plate curve and Ps versus settlement s curve.

It can be seen from Figure 7 that the mechanism of


loading plate-sand cushion-pile-soil interaction can be
stated as follows:
1st stage: Since the loading plate was not in contact
with pile head, the loading plate was totally supported
by soil beneath the loading plate. The rate of settlement
was greater than that of 2nd stage.
2nd stage: With the increase of the load, the loading
plate would make contact with the loading plate with
the increase of settlement. As is can be seen from Figure 8, the rate of settlement became much lower than
that in 1st stage since the loading plate made contact
with the pile head. The load increment was shared by
soil beneath loading plate and pile, but was mostly carried by pile. The resistance of soil beneath the loading
plate almost remained constant.
3rd stage: The load carried by pile increased until
the ultimate bearing capacity of pile is reached, the
rate of settlement became much greater, the failure is
going to occur.
2.3 Comparison and discussion of test results
Loading test on natural ground close to case C was also
performed, the load versus settlement curve is plotted in Figure 9. In comparison, the contact pressure
between loading plate and soil versus loading settlement before loading plate making contact with pile
head in case C is also plotted in Figure 9.
From Figure 9 it can be seen that the settlement
of soil beneath the loading plate in case C and that

711

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

of natural ground are quite similar, the pile seemed to


nearly has very little effect on the settlement of loading
plate before loading plate made contact with pile head.
3
3.1

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Method of analysis

By using FEM the interaction of foundation, pile and


soil was analyzed and Modified Cam Clay Model was
used to model the soil behavior.
3.2

Example raft on composite ground

Figure 10 shows the example raft on rigid pile composite ground. Embankment is to be constructed on the
raft. The raft is 0.4 m thick and 7.8 m wide. Piles are
of 10 m long with 2.6 m center to center pile spacing.
A unit section with three piles is taken for analysis.
A simplified soil stratigraphy is also shown in Figure 10. The ground condition is taken as that at the
Yangcun section of high-speed railway connecting Beijing and Tianjin. The bearing stratum of pile base, a
layer of silty clay, is assumed to extend down to the
infinite depth. Its overlaid by a layer of soft clay of 8 m
thick. For the 3D FEM analysis, the soil mass is 40 m
deep, 60 m wide and 2.6 m thick. The soil was modeled by 8 node quadrilateral elements. Three piles were
included in the soil mass considering the geometry.
Soil samples were taken from the construction site
of the high speed passenger railway near Yangcun,
a small town near Tianjin City. Undrained triaxial

tests were conducted to obtain the soil parameters in


Modified Cam Clay Model, as shown in Table 1.
The raft was simply regarded as linear elastic material with elastic modulus E = 2.6 104 MPa, Poissons
ratio = 0.2. The piles used here were jet grouting
columns with Elastic modulus E = 400 MPa, Poissons ratio = 0.22. The piles were also simply regarded
as linear elastic material. Its angle of internal friction = 30 and cohesion c = 50 kPa. The interface
between pile and surrounding soil was modelled by
friction model with friction coefficient = 0.5.
Regarding the pore pressure boundary conditions,
the ground surface is regarded as drained condition
while on both of the two vertical boundary pore water
pressure were maintained equal to their original values
determined by the position of the water table. Throughout the analysis no flow of water was allowed through
the base of the soil mass. Ground water table is 1 m
below ground surface.
There were two kind of pile-raft connection be considered. The first is that pile head is in contact with raft
as conventional piled raft does. The second is that the
pile is disconnected from raft by a gap of 4 cm high.
The total load exerted on the raft is 100 kPa with
an increment of 20 kPa. Each increment of load is
maintained for 10 days before the application of next
increment of load.

3.3 Load sharing between raft and pile


The load sharing between raft and pile are given in
Table 2. The vertical stress at the top of pile is taken
from the inner pile.
It can be seen from Table 2, at the early stage of
loading, the stress at the top of pile is nearly equal to
zero due to the gap but increased very quickly after
pile head made contact with raft, in the mean time
the contact pressure between raft and soil increased
slowly. For composite ground with gap between raft
and pile head, after the total load had been applied, the
contact pressure would reduce with the consolidation
of soil. But it would increase for conventional piled
Table 1.

Characteristics

Clay

Silty clay

Dry unit weight (d %)


Poissons ratio
1
2
M3
Coefficient of permeability(m/s)
Initial void ratio e0

18.1
0.32
0.0284
0.13
0.9
8 109
1.0

19.3
0.28
0.01
0.05
1.0
5 1010
0.7

slope of the swelling line in -lnp space.


slope of the consolidation line in -lnp space.
3
stress ratio at critical state.
1
2

Figure 10. Pile arrangement under the embankment.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Characteristics of tested soils.

raft. For the conventional piled raft, the dissipation of


excessive pore pressure generated directly under pile
base, which is much bigger than that of composite
ground with gap, led to the further penetration of pile
tip down into the ground and thus led to the increase of
contact pressure. For conventional piled raft, Table 2
also shows the increase of stress at the top of inner pile
of even though the contact pressure increased too at the
mean time. This was due to the load taken by the two
Table 2.

Load sharing between raft and pile.

Load(kPa)
With gap

Without
gap

1
2
3

11
22
1 /2
1
2
1 /2

20

40

60

80

100

1003

0.8
20
0.03
571
10
58

391
29
13
933
16
58

854
37
22
1451
22.8
63

1296
45
28
1897
30.1
63

1714
53
32
2320
38.0
61

1908
49
38
2489
48.5
51

vertical stress at the top of pile.


contact pressure between raft and soil.
after 5 years.

12

edge piles decreased with the dissipation of excessive


pressure under the pile base and consequently some
load of them were transmitted to the inner pile.
3.4 Excessive pore water pressure
Figure 11 shows the excessive pore pressure generated
under different load increment.
It can be seen from Figure 11 that the distribution of excessive pore water pressure is quite different
between conventional piled raft and composite ground
with gap between raft and pile head.
For the latter one, the generation of excessive pore
water pressure can be classified into two stages:
1st stage: This stage refers to that the height of gap
gradually became smaller, pile head remained disconnected from raft until the load acting on raft reached
30 kPa . In this stage the load applied was carried by
soil. This led to the bigger excessive pore water pressure generated among pile than that generated under
the pile base. The soil among pile would experience
consolidation and compaction due to the dissipation
of excessive pore water pressure.

10

12

12

composite ground

42
piled raft

51

56

composite ground

piled raft

(b) 30 kPa

(a) 20 kPa

12

30

70

112

18
composite ground
(c) 40 kPa

composite ground
(d) 60 kPa

piled raft

piled raft

108
119
composite ground
(e) 100 kPa

145

composite ground
piled raft
(f) after 5 years

piled raft

Figure 11. Distribution of excessive pore water pressure.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

157

Table 3.

Excessive pore water pressure at the pile base.

Load (kPa)

20

30

40

60

100

1001

With gap
Without gap

5.2
42.6

7.4
51

18.4
70.5

30.1
101.1

108.5
145.2

2.1
2.3

after 5 years.

Table 4.

Settlement and post construction settlement.

settlement
(cm)

20

40

60

80

100

1001

With gap
Without gap

3.74
1.73

5.81
3.45

7.41
5.1

8.95
6.74

10.44
8.37

2.21
2.66

after 5 years.

2nd stage: With the settlement of raft, the raft


finally made contact with pile head under the load
of 30 kPa and pile began to carry most part of the
subsequent load. The contact pressure between raft
and soil remained very small though increased very
slightly. The load was mostly transmitted down to the
soil below the pile base which led to the excessive
pore water pressure under the pile base increased much
more quickly than before. In the mean time, the excessive pore water pressure among pile, especially near
ground surface, still remained very small due to quick
dissipation of excessive pore water pressure during the
interval between each two load increment.
The comparison of excessive pore water pressure
between piled raft and composite ground with gap
is given in Table 3. The different connection of pile
and raft has significant effect on the distribution of
excessive pore water pressure.
3.5

carried much less load than that of the piles of conventional piled raft, much less excessive pore water
pressure was generated in the soil beneath pile base.
Thirdly, although the soil beneath the raft carried more
load than that of conventional piled raft, but the excessive pore water pressure would dissipate quickly due
to much shorter drainage path and higher coefficient
of permeability compared to the longer drainage path
and lower coefficient of permeability of the clay on
which the piles base is resting. All these three aspects
lead to less post construction consolidation settlement.
If the soil among piles is of low permeability, PVD can
be used to accelerate the dissipation of excessive pore
water pressure generated.
CONCLUSIONS

An combined preloading compaction and composite


ground method to treat the soft subgrade of highway
was suggested in this paper. The following conclusions can be drawn from the field tests and numerical
analysis:

Field tests shown that soil beneath raft can take considerable percentage of total load if there is a gap
between pile head and raft (or anything serves as a
cap above pile head) .
The different connections of pile and raft has significant effect on the distribution of excessive pore
water pressure. Much higher excessive pore water
pressure will be generated if conventional piled raft
is adopted.
The composite ground has the advantage over conventional piled raft in terms of post construction
settlement when ground conditions are favorable.
Some piles can be saved to obtain the same post
construction settlement.

Settlement and post construction settlement

The settlement of raft at the center under different load


level is shown in Table 4 including the post construction settlement occurred 5 years after the total load had
been applied.
It can be easily seen from Table 4 that though the
total settlement of raft on composite ground with gap
between raft and pile head is bigger than that of conventional piled raft but things are totally different for
post construction. Its very important to realize that
what designers are concerned most is post construction settlement. Its apparently that composite ground
has the advantage over conventional piled raft in terms
of post construction.
For the composite ground considered in this paper,
there three aspects contribute to the smaller post
construction settlement. Firstly, the soil beneath the
raft was compacted due to the higher contact pressure. Secondly, from Table 2 we can see that the piles

REFERENCES
Gong, X.N. 2000. Development of composite foundation and
its application to highrise building, China civil engineering journal, Vol 32, pp. 110.
Zheng, G. 2002. The determination of the bearing capacity of rigid pile composite ground, Ground Improvement,
Vol. 13, pp. 4455.
Chi, Y.J. and Song,E.X. 2002. Experimental research of
load-bearing and deformation characteristics of rigid pile
composite ground, Journal of China University of Mining
& Technology, Vol. 3, pp. 238241.
Cao, X.D., Wong, I.H., Chang, M.F. 2004. Behavior of model
rafts resting on pile-reinforced sand. America. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. l2,
pp.129138.
Zheng, G., Gao, X.F., Re, Y.H., Wu, Y.H. 2004. A study
on the interaction of cap (foundation), pile and soil.
Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. Vol. 26,
pp. 307312.

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Theoretical analysis and constitutive modelling

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

The use of statistic analysis in predicting of ground and wall


movements in soft clay
Peyman Chaichi & Nader Shariatmadari
Civil department, Iran University of science and technology, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: This article presents the results of analyses on the effective factors of wall and ground movements,
using the measured data collected >40 propped wall cases from various deep excavation in worldwide sites with
soft clay conditions. In this paper we analyses data with Minitab a statistic analyzing software that can analyze data
and give good information like correlation coefficient and cluster analysis of factors and Regression analysis. The
calculated presents that there are not signification correlations between excavation depth, the system stiffness,
and factor of safety against base heave of excavations, Support spacing and ground and wall movements contrary
to other researches but there is signification correlation between maximum vertical settlement and maximum
lateral movement. Results show 2 hmax = 150 v max (mm).

INTRODUCTION

Oslo

Because of rapid growth in urban development, numerous deep excavation projects for high-rise buildings
and subway lines are being executed and more projects
are scheduled in the future. During excavation, an in
situ wall system is constructed to provide stability and
to minimize movements of the adjacent ground. Knowing of effective parameters on ground movements and
correlations between them could help us to design
system better than previous.

San Fransisco

Chicago

vmax/H(%)

v max = hmax
2

v max =0.5 hmax


0
0

PREVIOUS STUDIES

hmax/H(%)

Fig. 1 shows the relationship between normalized


maximum ground settlement v max and normalized
maximum wall movement hmax , as suggested by Mana
and Clough (1981) who obtained their data from various excavations in San Francisco, Oslo,and Chicago.
According to Mana and Clough, in most cases v max
is equal to (0.51) hmax , and the upper limit is
v max = hmax . The magnitude of v max may be greater
than that of hmax for the case histories having a significant soil movement and Mana and Clough described
and reported a statistical correlation of the maximum
wall deflection hmax versus factor of safety against
basal heave of excavations in clays in San Francisco,
Calif, Oslo, Norway, Boston, Mass, and Chicago, III.
Fig. 2 shows the two bounding curves by Mana and
Clough.
Clough and O Rourke (1990) base on several case
histories for soft to medium clay claimed that hmax

Figure 1. Relationship between maximum ground settlement and maximum wall deflection.

and v max requires consideration of the factor of safety


(FOS) against excavation base heave and also the system stiffness which is defined by clough et al (1989) as
(EI/s4 ). Liu and et al(2005) based on a deep excavation in Shanghai soft clays show that all the measured
data lie with a narrow range between v max = (0.4
0.5) hmax and the normalized ground movements are
substantially smaller than those from other sites, probably because of the use of a short excavation section
and active prestressed steel struts. Tomlinson (1991)
suggested that settlements of the ground surface associated with the inward yielding are approximately
equal to or can be somewhat greater than the maximum
horizontal movement in soft clays and observations in

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

3.5

hmax/H (%)

Range of
Values(Mana and
Clough,1981)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Factor of Safety Against Base Heave


Figure 2. Maximum lateral movement versus FOS.

stiff clays suggested a maximum settlement of about


33100% of the maximum inward deflexion.
Ou et al(1993) studied 10 high-quality case histories in Taipei soft clays. All had a high FOS against
base heave values of hmax were within 0.2%H0.5%H,
which are generally greater than those suggested by
clough and O Rourke(1990) but less than what would
be predicted using the Peck(1969) charts. Values of
v max were within 0.5%H0.7%H, which are similar
to those suggested by clough and O Rourke(1990).
Addenbrooke and et al (2000) show the results from
30 nonlinear finite-element analyses of undrained
deep excavation in stiff clay. The soil was modeled
as nonlinear elastic, perfectly plastic potential. They
show an equation (v max = 0.5 hmax ) and the surface
response is clearly associated with the relative stiffness of the support systems. Maximum displacement
decreases with increase of prop stiffness although
increase of prop stiffness from special amount is no
further significant reduction in these maximum wall
and ground movements.

analysis. Regression analysis is used to investigate and


model the relationship between a response variable and
one or more predictors. Calculates the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient between each pair
of variables you list. You can use the Pearson product
moment correlation coefficient to measure the degree
of linear relationship between two variables.
A cluster is a collection of objects, which are similar between them and are dissimilar to the objects
belonging to other clusters.
So, the goal of clustering is to determine the intrinsic grouping in a set of unlabeled data. But how to
decide what constitutes a good clustering? It can be
shown that there is no absolute best criterion, which
would be independent of the final aim of the clustering. Consequently, it is the user which must supply this
criterion, in such a way that the result of the clustering
will suit their needs.
For instance, we could be interested in finding
representatives for homogeneous groups (data reduction), in finding natural clusters and describe their
unknown properties (natural data types), in finding
useful and suitable groupings (useful data classes)
or in finding unusual data objects (outlier detection).
Clustering algorithms can be applied in many fields,
for instance:

DATABASE

The database, comprising some 45 individual case histories, is summarized in Table 1. Main reference is
Long (2001) that summarized some data. This research
is including of soft clay in propped support system.
Some cases have FOS > 3(based on Bjerrum and
Eide(1956)s method of calculations), but we use
FOS = 3 for these cases in the analysis.

STATISTIC

Minitab a statistic analyzing software that can analyze


data and give good information like correlation coefficient and cluster analysis of factors and Regression

4.1 Result of minitab


44 cases were analyzed with Minitab (some factors contain missing values). Results show that there
arent significant Correlations between v max , hmax
and FOS, H(m) , Soil strength, support spaces, EI
although there are inverse correlations between hmax
and H, Support Spaces that is considerable and also
there is a very significant direct correlation between
hmax and v max , which maximum lateral wall movement increase with increase of maximum ground
surface settlement. For analyzing we give a grade
for wall type (Diaphragm = 1, sheet = 2) according of

718

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Geotechnical studies: classification of factors and


studying relation between them.
Social studies: surveying of effective factors in
behavior of people.
Biology: classification of plants and animals given
their features;
Libraries: book ordering;
Insurance: identifying groups of motor insurance
policy holders with a high average claim cost;
identifying frauds;
City-planning: identifying groups of houses according to their house type, value and geographical
location;
Earthquake studies: clustering observed earthquake
epicenters to identify dangerous zones;
WWW: document classification; clustering web log
data to discover groups of similar access patterns.

Table 1.

719

Case
history

Location

Soil at
dredge
level

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

UOB Singapore
HFOK A Singapore
CTC Singapore
MOE I2 Singapore
MOE I9 Singapore
Singapore Bugis
Singapore CBD
Taiwan Tax

Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay

Taiwan Formosa

Soft clay

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

20

Bangkok A
Bangkok C
Bangkok E
Oslo Vaterland 1
Oslo Vaterland 2
Oslo Studenterlu
Oslo Jerbanterlu
Oslo Bank of
Norway
Chicago
Inland Steel
Chicago
Sewage Tr. Tokyo

21
22

Osaka A
Japan 2

18
19

Soil strength
su (kPa)

EI(KN/m2 )

Support
configuration

Support
spacing
(m)

hmax
(mm)

vmax
(mm)

Reference
Wallace et al. (1992)
Davies and Walsh (1983)
Lee et al. (1985)
Tan et al. (1985)
Tan et al. (1985)
Hulme et al. (1989)
Broms et al. (1986)
Ou et al. (1993)

FOS

H(m)

Wall type

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

13
7.3
12
6.8
6.4
18.3
15
7.65

Diaphragm
Sheet piles
Sheet piles
Sheet piles
Sheet piles
Diaphragm
Sheet piles
Sheet

4320000
75700
57440
45436
45436
4320000
70000
40000

Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop

2.6
1.83
2
1.7
1.6
2.29
2.5
1.91

56
60
188
330
100
160
145
69

130
?
150
?
?
?
100
41

18.45

Diaphragm

1280000

Multiprop

2.64

60

42

Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay

30(vane)
15(vane)
20(vane)
18(vane)
18(vane)
40(vane)
1015(vane)
2550(?)
N = 1 to 2
2570(?)
N = 1 to 2
?
?
?
25 (vane)
20 (vane)
40 (vane)
20(vane)
20(vane)

3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3

9.8
18.5
7.2
11
11
16
10
16

Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Diaphragm

1378420
1378420
50000
73800
73800
2500000
2500000
2500000

Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop

3.1
4.6
1.8
2
2
5.3
5
3.2

50
30
220
220
140
42
20
16

?
?
?
270
260
65
?
62

Balasubramaniam et al. (1991)


Balasubramaniam et al. (1991)
Balasubramaniam et al. (1991)
NGI (1962f)
NGI (1962g)
Karlsrud (1981, 1983, 1986)
Karlsrude (1981, 1983)
Roti and Friis (1985)

Soft clay
Soft clay

?
?

3
3

13.4
11

Sheet
Sheet

1055000
50000

Multiprop
Multiprop

4.46
2

150
55

?
?

Fernie and Suckling (1996)


Flaate (1966)

Soft clay

26

8000000

Multiprop

4.3

70

Tominaga et al. (1985)

Soft clay
Soft clay

?
?

3
3

20.6
17.1

Sheet pipe
pile
Diaphragm
Sheet pipe
pile

2500000
34000000

Multiprop
Multiprop

3
4.3

78
26

?
?

Tamano et al. (1996)


Fernie and Suckling (1996)

Ou et al. (1993)

Continued

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1. Continued

720

Case
history

Location

23
24

Lake zone, Mexico


Shanghi-Jin Mao

25

Shanghi-Heng Long

26

Shanghi

27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37

Oslo Enerhaughen
Oslo Telecom
Oslo Gronland 2
Oslo Vaterland 3
Oslo Gunnerus
Vasteras, Sweden
Chicago Subway
Chicago A
Chicago C
Washington
Davidson 1,
San Francisco
Islais 2,
San Francisco
Embarcadero III
Levi Strauss
San Francisco
SNBB San Francisco
H Fok B Singapore
Tokyo Airport
Mexico City

38
39
40
41
42
43
44

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soil at
dredge
level

EI(KN/m2 )

Support
configuration

Support
spacing
(m)

hmax
(mm)

vmax
(mm)

Reference

Diaphragm
Diaphragm

2500000
2500000

Multiprop
Multiprop

2.62
3.93

135
81

?
?

Auvinet and Organista (1998)


Zhao et al. (1999)

18.2

Diaphragm

2500000

Multiprop

3.64

99

Zhao et al. (1999)

17.85

Diaphragm

2500000

Multiprop

3.57

129

Onishi and Sugawara (1999)

20(vane)
20(vane)
25(vane)
34(vane)
35(vane)
30(fall cone)
?
Soft
Soft
30(UU)
10(various)

1.34
0.9
1.3
1.26
1.21
1.5
0.96
1.67
1.18
0.81
0.83

8
8.5
11.5
12
10.5
6.3
19
9.4
8.8
9.1
9.1

Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Soldier piles
Sheet

45000
35850
73800
73800
82350
17000
50000
55250
55250
50160
72500

Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop

2.5
2.25
3.75
2
2
2.1
3
3.05
1.98
2.2
3

40
80
100
125
320
100
60
64
56
254
254

106
93
178
114
600
175
?
?
?
?
?

NGI (1962c)
NGI (1962d)
NGI (1962e)
NGI (1962h)
Aas (1984, 1985)
Broms and Stille (1976)
Flaate (1966)
Gill and Lucas (1990)
Gill and Lucas (1990)
Swanson and Larson (1990)
Clough and Reed (1984)

Soft clay

13(various)

1.22

9.1

Sheet

55250

Multiprop

38

Clough and Reed (1984)

Soft clay
Soft clay

30(various)
Soft

0.99
1.3

13.7
14

Sheet
Sheet

80000
80000

Multiprop
Multiprop

3.4
2.74

150
190

?
?

O Rourke (1992)
Tait and Taylor (1975)

Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay

Soft
15(vane)
Soft
25(UC)

1.3
0.87
1.64
0.95

14
7.3
11
9

Diaphragm
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet

4528466
75700
172000
50640

Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop

2.74
1.83
2.75
1.8

22
235
300
155

?
250
?
?

Tait and Taylor (1975)


Davies and Walsh (1983)
Tanaka (1996)
Rodriguez and Flamand (1969)

Soil strength
su (kPa)

FOS

H(m)

Wall type

Soft clay
Soft/firm
clay
Soft/firm
clay
Soft/firm
clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay

25(various)
N = 1 to 2

3
3

15.7
19.65

N = 1 to 2

N = 1 to 2

Table 2.

Correlation of hmax and some factors.

Parameter

Support
space

v max

Wall type

Correlation
of hmax
P-Value

0.299

0.423

0.86

0.49

0.049

0.004

0.002

Figure 4. Normal probability plot of the residuals (response


is 2 h max ).

Figure 3. Histogram plot of the residuals (response is


2 h max ).

analyses, amount of maximum wall movement could


be more in Sheet walls although amount of correlation
isnt significant.
According of regression (16 cases used), we can
suggest an equation. 1 (on the scale of mm)
2
hmax = 150 v max

Figure 5. Cluster
cluster = 4).

variable

dendrogm

(number

(1)

v max is a predictors variable If knowing that we can


guess a response variable in order (mm) Fig. 3, 4 show
Normal probability and Histogram plot of the residuals
Clustering of factors show factors can be in one
group and relation between them although with
increase of number of clusters we can understand
degree of relation between them. For example with
suggestion of 4 for number of clusters that is shown in
Fig. 5
Cluster 1 is include of FOS, H, EI
Cluster 2 is include of Soil strength
Cluster 3 is include of Wall type, H max , v max
Cluster 4 is include of Support spacing
With suggestion of 6 for number of clusters that is
shown in Fig6
Cluster 1 is include of FOS, H

Figure 6. Cluster variable dendrogm (6 cluster).

721

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

of

NOTATION

Cluster 2 is include of Soil strength


Cluster 3 is include of Wall type
Cluster 4 is include of EI (KN/m2 )
Cluster 5 is include of Support spacing
Cluster 6 is include of Hmax , v max

The following symbols are used in this paper:

in according of clustering, Wall type, H max , v max have


some similarities and common aspect together that this
relationship is more between H max and v max
In regarding of Fig6. Also FOS, H, EI have similarities and this common aspect between FOS and H is
more.
5

hmax
hmax
H
E
I
FOS
S

:
:
:
:
:
:

Maximum wall deflection


Maximum ground surface settlement
Depth of excavation
Modulus of elastisity
Moment of intertia
Factor of safety against basal heave of
excavations
: Support spacing
: unit weight of water

CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

1) According of regression, we could be suggested a


equation
2
hmax = 150 v max (onthescaleofmm)
v max is a predictors variable if knowing that we can
guess a response variable unfortunatly this database
contains missing value but equation1 can help us
for primary predicting.
2) There is a direct significant correlation between
H max and v max also there are no signification
correlation between excavation depth, EI, support
spaces, Soil strength, FOS and ground and wall
movements contrary to other researches. It seems
that sheet walls cause more maximum lateral wall
movement in compare of diaphragm wall.
3) Clustering is one of the best method for classification of factors and finding common aspect between
factors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The writers would like to thank from Mr. Zarpak a
statistic PhD student of Iran University Science and
Technology and Mr Moradi Master Science of Statistic
that help us in this paper.

Addenbrooke, T.I., Potts, D.M., Dabee. B.(2000). Displacement flexibility number for multipropped retaining wall
design ASCE, Vol 126 No.8, pp 718726.
Clough, G.W. and ORourke T.D. (1990) Constructioninduced movements of in-situ walls In Proceedings,
Design and Performance of Earth Retaining Structures,
ASCE Special Conference, Ithaca, NewYork, pp.439470.
Long, M. (2001) Database for retaining wall and ground
movements due to deep excavations. ASCE. Vol 127
No (3), pp 203224
Liu, G.B., Charles, W.W.Ng, ang. Z.W.(2005) Observed performance of a deep multistrutted excavation in shanghai
soft clays. ASCE, Vol. 131 No.8, pp 10041013
Mana, A.I., and Clough, G.W.(1981). Prediction of movements for braced cuts in clay. J. geotech. Engrg. Div.,
ASCE, 107(6), 759777
Ou, C.Y. and Hseih, P.G., and Chiou, D.C.(1993). Characteristics of ground surface settlement during excavation.
Can. Geotech. J., Ottawa, 30, 758767.
Peck, R.B.(1969) Deep Excavation and Tunneling in Soft
ground Proceedings of 7th International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, State-ofthe-Art-Volume, Mexico City
Tomlinson, (1991), Foundation design and construction,
M.Y, New York

722

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Analytic solutions of consolidation of fine-grained compressible


soils by vertical drains
Chin Jian Leo
School of Engineering, University of Western Sydney, Australia

ABSTRACT: Analytical closed form solutions of consolidation assisted by a vertical drain with smear and well
resistance are presented. The solution proceeds in a fully coupled fashion and has the advantage of allowing for
non-uniform initial pore pressure increase that current analytical solutions cannot perform. The closed-form solutions in the present paper may be evaluated in an electronic spreadsheet running on a standard personal computer.

INTRODUCTION
u=0

Analytic solutions such as the ones developed by Barron and Hansbo (Barron, 1948; Hansbo, 1981) remain
popular and widely in use despite the presence of
an increasing number of complex numerical models.
These are often the solutions of choice due to their simplicity and ease of use, especially where incomplete
knowledge of the soil does not justify the use of the
more sophisticated methods. As early as 1948, Barron
presented solutions for two limiting cases of consolidation by vertical drains free strain and equal strain
consolidation. Although Barons solutions have often
been quoted as being closed-form and reasonably easy
to compute, it still requires the use of a numerical integration procedure, such as Simpsons rule, to evaluate
the important result of the degree of consolidation. The
solutions of Hansbo (1981) on the other hand are easy
to implement and may in fact be computed by means
of a hand held scientific calculator.
The present paper presents solutions that can be
computed on an electronic spreadsheet running on
a standard personal computer. These solutions are
obtained by solving the radial and vertical consolidation in a vertical drain setup in a fully coupled fashion
whereas Hansbo (1981) and Barron (1948) did not.
Being able to compute these closed-form solutions on
a spreadsheet would allow the solutions to be readily
accessible to engineers.
2

z
vertical
drain

Undisturbed
soil

u/z =

rs

re
rw
u/r = 0

Figure 1. A typical cylindrical cell representing a vertical


drain surrounded by a smeared zone and undisturbed soil.

PROBLEM SETUP AND DEVELOPMENT OF


CLOSED-FORM ANALYTIC SOLUTIONS

A schematic representation of the problem setup is


shown in Figure 1. Here a vertical drain is surrounded
by a smeared zone and undisturbed soil. At the center

of the cylindrical cell is a drainage well of radius rw


surrounded by a zone of remoulded soil bounded by
an outer radius rs . The drainage well is in turn surrounded by the undisturbed soil extending to a radius

723

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

smeared
zone

vertical
drain

CONSIDERATION OF THE UNDISTURBED


SOIL

The consolidation of an undisturbed soil layer resulting from the imposition of a surcharge loading on the
surface is described by the continuity equation, which
is given by
kh
w

re

Figure 2. A typical cylindrical cell within a network of


vertical drains.

of influence re . The consolidating soft soil has a layer


thickness h and it is freely draining at the top and
impermeable at the bottom. The cylindrical cell is typical in a network of drainage wells which have been
installed to quicken the process of consolidation (Figure 2). Although the cell unit is a simplification of
the real problem, it is not an unrealistic representation
and, besides, it will facilitate the mathematical analysis especially in light of incomplete knowledge of the
soil properties in practice. Barron discussed the cell
unit in his 1948 paper and it is a common inclusion in
current geotechnical textbooks.
The basic assumptions made in developing the solutions in the present paper have been mentioned in
Baron (1948) and Leo (2004), but are stated below
for completeness:
1. All vertical loads are initially carried by the excess
pore-water pressure u.
2. Darcys law is obeyed.
3. All compressive strains within the soil mass occur
in a vertical direction. This arises from the fact that
compression is confined and no shear strain exists.
4. Horizontal sections remain horizontal during the
consolidation.
5. The zone of influence of each well is a circle.
6. Load distribution is uniform over this area.
7. The top of the layer is freely draining but the bottom
is completely impermeable.
The analytic solutions have been derived by considering the dissipation of excess pore pressure and
consolidation behavior in the three sub-domains of
the problem domain. These are the undisturbed soil,
the smeared remoulded zone surrounding the vertical
well and the vertical well itself (Figure 1). A discussion
of the solution techniques follows below.

2 u(r, z, t) 1 u(r, z, t)
+
r 2
r
r
z (z, t)
=
t


+

kv 2 u(r, z, t)
w
z 2
(1)

where u(r,z,t) is the excess pore-water pressure, t is


the elapsed time, kh is the horizontal soil permeability,
kv is the vertical soil permeability, w is the unit weight
of the fluid, r is the radial distance from the center of
the well, z (z, t) is the vertical strain. It may be noted
that the strain is expressed as a function of the z spatial direction whereas the x, y directions are neglected.
This arises from the assumption that the strains occur
only in the vertical direction and shear strains are not
present as the cylinder is laterally confined. Figure
2 shows a typical cell that would be practically constrained horizontally along its vertical sides by the
presence of neighbouring cells, suggesting that this
assumption is not unrealistic. To solve the consolidation problem, it is useful now to introduce the Fourier
sine series defined as,
u(r, z, t) =

Un (r, t) sin n z

(2a)

z (z, t)  zn (t)
sin n z
=
t
t
n=0

(2b)

n=0

where n = (2n + 1) /(2h) and Un (r, t), zn (t) are the


Fourier coefficients of their respective Fourier series
expansions. On the evidence of equation (2a), it is
obvious that the drainage boundary conditions (i.e.
pore pressure) are satisfied rigorously in the z spatial
direction.
If equation (2) were to be substituted into equation
(1) the following equation for each of the Fourier terms
results,
kh
w

2 Un (r, t) 1 Un (r, t)
+
r 2
r
r
zn (t)
=
t

kv 2
Un (r, t)
w n
(3)

Now suppose,
Un (r, t) = An (r)Bn (t)

724

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(4)

Following equation (9), the Fourier component of the


strain rate gives,
#
"
zn (t)
q(r, t) Un (r, t)
4
= mv

(11)
t
(2n + 1) t
t

then substitution into equation (3) yields,


kh
w


2 An (r) 1 An (r)
kv 2
+
An (r)

r 2
r r
w n
1 zn (t)
=
= n
Bn (t) t

(5)

where n is the separation constant. A solution of


equation (5) is,
An (r) = n n [c1n I0 (n r) + c2n K0 (n r) + 1]

(6)

where I0 , K0 are the modified Bessel functions of first


and second kind, zero order respectively, 2n = kkhv n2 ,
n = kvw 2 and c1n , c2n are constants of integration the
n
values of which are to be determined. Now consider
again the part of equation (5) where
1 zn (t)
= n
Bn (t) t

z (z, t) = mv [q(r, t) u(r, z, t)]

(8)

in which mv is the coefficient of volume compressibility, q(r,t) is the applied surcharge then a Fourier sine
expansion of equation (8) gives,
zn (t) sin n z

n=0

= mv




4q(r, t)
Un (r, t) sin n z
(2n + 1)
n=0

(9)

Although the load distribution is assumed uniform over


the area, the effects manifested as applied surcharge
are not necessarily uniform. These depend instead on
the extent of arching and the load transfer mechanism
being developed in the fill material above the soil layer.
Clearly, in the context of this problem, the only way in
which equal strain consolidation is ensured is if the
effects of arching were present in the fill material.
Furthermore, because of the confining nature of the
compression, the coefficient of volume compressibility, mv , is in fact the inverse of the constrained modulus
of elasticity, viz.
mv =

so that,
#
"
zn (t)
q (t) U n (t)
4
= mv

t
(2n + 1) t
t

(7)

Since the vertical strain is related to the effective stress


in the soil,

Given that the strains are equal on any horizontal section an area integral of equation (11) taken from r = rs
to r = re shows,

zn (t) re
2rdr
t
rs
#
 re "
q (r, t) Un (r, t)
4
= mv

2rdr
(2n + 1) t
t
rs
(12)

where,
 re
1
Un (r, t)2rdr
(re2 rs2 ) rs
 re
1
q(t) =
q(r, t)2rdr
(re2 rs2 ) rs
U n (t) =

(10)

U n (t)
n n
=
t
(re2 rs2 )

(14b)

re

[c1n I0 (n r)
rs

+c2n K0 (n r) + 1]2rdr

Bn
= n n
t

Bn
t

(15)

where,

{2c1n [n re I1 (n re ) n rs I1 (n rs )]
2c2n [n re K1 (n re ) n rs K1 (n rs )]}
=
2n (re2 rs2 ) + 1

(16)

In the simplest loading case, which is considered first,


a single step loading of q0 is applied at t = 0, thus

where  , E  are the effective Poissons ratio and


Youngs modulus respectively. The value of mv may
in fact be measured in a laboratory oedometer test.

725

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(14a)

are the radial-averaged applied quantities. It is noted


that q (t) also corresponds to the uniform loading.
Without loss of clarity, the superior bar of q (t) will
be dropped from here onwards for the sake of mathematical convenience, i.e. q(t) will denote the radialaveraged applied surcharge as well as the uniform
loading which may vary with time.
It immediately follows from equations (4) and
(6) that the average rate of change of the Fourier
component of the excess pore pressure is,

(1 + )(1 2 )
(1  )E 

(13)

n n Bn (t)
zn (t)
U n (r, t)
= mv
=
t
t
ch 2n t

(17)

where ch = mkv hw is the horizontal coefficient of consolidation. Combining equations (7) and (17) gives,
Bn
= n Bn
t
where n =
Bn =

ch 2n
n

(18a)
. A solution of equation (18a) is,

an n t
an 8Th /n
e
=
e
n n
n n

(18b)

ch t
where n = 22r2 n , the dimensionless time Th = 4r
2
n e
e
and an is an as yet undetermined constant of integration. The general solution of the excess pore pressure
therefore gives,

u(r, z, t) =

an e8Th /n [c1n I0 (n r)

where c5n , c6n are once again the constants of integration. It may be noted here that in order to ensure
continuity of pore pressure (and flow) at all times,
the same time function Bn (t) must prevail in each of
the three regions. At the interface of the remouldedundisturbed soil, continuity of pore pressure and flow
ensures that the following must hold:
Un (rs , t) = Un (rs , t)
'
'
Un ''
Un ''
kh
=
k
s
r 'r=rs
r 'r=rs

(23a)
(23b)

in which ks is the coefficient of permeability in the


smeared zone. Substituting the appropriate relationships (equations (4) and (22)) into the continuity
equations above it is found that
c1n I0 (n rs ) + c2n K0 (n rs ) + 1 = c5n ln rs + c6n

n=0

+c2n K0 (n r) + 1] sin n z

(24a)

(19)
kh
[c1n I1 (n rs ) c2n K1 (n rs )]
ks

The constants an , c1n and c2n to complete the solution


are yet to be determined but their values depend on
the boundary and initial conditions in the undisturbed
soil mass as well as the conditions in the smeared
remoulded zone and the well resistance in the vertical
drain.

c5n = n rs

3.1

3.1.2 Well resistance


From consideration of continuity and assuming that
there is no consolidation as well as that flow exists in
the vertical well in the z spatial direction only, then
(Barron 1948),
 
2 uw
2 ks u
+
=0
(25)
z 2
rw kw r r=rw

Consideration of remoulded zone and well


resistance

3.1.1 Remoulded zone


The present paper assumes that there is no consolidation in the remoulded zone and the drainage well,
that is consideration is given only to the drainage in
these zones. In keeping with the assumptions of Barron (1948), continuity of flow through the remoulded
zone rw < r < rs therefore gives:
2 u
1 u
=0
+
r 2
r r

(20)

where u is the excess pore pressure in the remoulded


zone. Invoking the Fourier series expansion,

(24b)

where the following Bessel functions relations have


been made used of,
I0 (n r) = n I1 (n r), K0 (n r) = n K1 (n r)

where uw , kw are the pore pressure and the coefficient


of permeability in the well respectively. Expanding uw
as a finite Fourier series gives,
uw (z, t) =

Uwn (t) sin n z

(26)

n=0

u =

Un (r, t) sin n z

and substituting into equation (25) leads to,

n=0

and assuming that


(20) gives

Un (r, t) = An (r)Bn (t)

2 An
1 An
=0
+
2
r
r r

then equation

= n n {c5n ln r + c6n }Bn (t)

(21)

(22)

Uwn = n n

(26)

2 ks c5n
Bn (t)
rw2 kw n2

(27)

Since uw (z, t) = u (rw , z, t) it follows from equations


(22) and (27) that

726

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

c5n
2 ks
n n
Bn (t) = 0
r w kw
rw

so that,

yielding the solution,


Un (r, t)

n2 Uwn +

Suppose that the placement of a single uniform loading q0 at t = 0, leads to an initial excess pore water
pressure u0 , then a Fourier series expansion gives,

2 ks c5n
Bn (t)
rw2 kw n2

n n (c5n ln rw + c6n )Bn (t) = n n


giving,


2 ks 1
ln rw c5n
c6n = 2
rw kw n2

(28)

(29)

where,
n = I0 (n rs ) I1 (n rs )n

(30a)

n = K0 (n rs ) + K1 (n rs )n
 
"
#
rs
kh
2 kh 1
ln
 n = n rs
+ 2
ks
rw
rw kw n2

(30b)

Now, at the radius of influence r = re of the undisturbed soil radial flow ceases, therefore
'
u ''
=0
r 'r=re
and it follows from equation (19) that,
(31)

Solving for c1n and c2n using equations (29), (31) it is


found that,
c1n =

K1 (n re )
n

(32a)

c2n =

I1 (n re )
n

(32b)

n = n K1 (n re ) n I1 (n re )

Finally, to determine the value of the constant an it


is necessary to revert to the initial pore water pressure in the undisturbed soil. Following equation (19),
the radial averaged excess pore pressure at t = 0 is
given as,
1
(re2 rs2 )

an =


n=0

4u0
(2n + 1)

(35)
n

n=0

4u0
(2n + 1)

e8Th /n [c1n I0 (n r)
n

+c2n K0 (n r) + 1] sin n z

(36)

3.2.1 Degree of consolidation for step loading


The average excess pore pressure in the undisturbed
soil may be defined in various ways. The average
excess pore pressure at a particular depth is obtained
by averaging the pore pressure in the radial direction
giving,
 re
1
u (z, Th ) =
u(r, z, Th )2rdr
(re2 rs2 ) rs


4u0
e8Th /n sin n z
(37a)
=
(2n
+
1)
n=0
while the average excess pore pressure at a particular
radius is obtained by averaging over the depth to give,
1
h

u(r, z, Th )dz =


n=0

[c1n I0 (n r) + c2n K0 (n r) + 1]e

8u0
(2n + 1)2 2
8Th /n

(37b)

Finally the overall average excess pore pressure of the


entire undisturbed soil mass is averaged over depth and
radial direction, giving
u (Th ) =
=

[c1n I0 (n r)

1
h


0

h

u (z, Th )dz

n=0

 h

1
4u0
e8Th /n
sin n zdz
h n=0 (2n + 1)
0

rs

+[c2n K0 (n r) + 1]2rdr] sin n z =

and leads to,


an

n sin n z

u (Th ) =

n=0

(33)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

u(r, z, Th ) =

re

an

(34)

Hence, the final solution of the excess pore water pressure in the undisturbed soil for a single loading step
gives,

(32c)

Complete solutions for a step loading

u (z, t = 0) =

4u0
sin n z
(2n + 1)

u (r, Th ) =

where,

3.2

n=0

(30c)

I1 (n re )c1n K1 (n re )c2n = 0

so that,

Backsubstituting equation (28) into equations (24)


shows,
n c1n + n c2n + 1 = 0

u0 =


n=0

8u0
e8Th /n
(2n + 1)2 2

(37c)

Various forms of degree of consolidation (for coupled


radial and vertical drainage) may now be defined based
on the average excess pore water pressure described in
equation (37a), (37b) or (37c). These are as follows,
u0 u (z, Th )
u0

(38a)

u0 u (r, Th )
U (r, Th ) =
u0

(38b)

U (z, Th ) =

U (Th ) =

u0 u (Th )
u0

U (Th ) = 1

n=0

8
e8Th /n
(2n + 1)2 2

Overall ave consolidation over entire mass


of undisturbed soil

(38c)

Now, using equation (38c) the overall average degree


of consolidation of the entire undisturbed soil mass
considering coupled radial and vertical drainage is
therefore given by,

Table 1. Comparison of overall average consolidation (for


entire undisturbed soil mass) calculated from the solutions of
Barron, Hansbo and present paper. Radial drainage without
effects of well smear and well resistance.

(40)

To show the accuracy and/or correctness of the present


solutions, selective comparisons have been made with
the solutions of Barron (1948) and Hansbo (1981)
based on a few test cases.
3.3.1 Radial drainage, no well resistance
Some typical values from the solutions of Barron
(1948), Hansbo (1981) and the present paper for
consolidation by radial drainage only (kv = 0) where
effects of well resistance and smear are not included,
are shown in Table 1. The parameters used in the
calculations are: ch = 7.9 m2 /year, kh = 0.0194 m/year,
h = 10 m, re = 1.8 m, rw = 0.2 m. Since Barron did not
provide an analytic overall average consolidation for
the entire mass of undisturbed soil, it was found by
numerical integration. As there was no well resistance,
Hansbos solution for average consolidation at a particular depth becomes independent of the depth and
should converge to the value of the overall average
consolidation for the entire soil mass. The solutions
of the present paper were computed using 20 Fourier
terms on an Excel spreadsheet, which is typically the

Hansbo (1981)

Present Paper

0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0

0.052
0.101
0.234
0.414
0.657
0.931
0.995

0.053
0.102
0.237
0.417
0.660
0.933
0.995

0.061
0.110
0.241
0.418
0.658
0.931
0.995

Ave consl (at z = h)

Overall ave consl (entire soil)

Th

Hansbo
(1981)

Present
Paper

Hansbo
(1981)

Present
Paper

0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0

0.053
0.127
0.239
0.421
0.745
0.935

0.032
0.093
0.211
0.443
0.831
0.978

0.163
0.305
0.471
0.675
0.909
0.987

0.161
0.292
0.442
0.636
0.892
0.986

case. This is a test case of ideal and specialised flow


conditions so all three solution methods are expected
to give identical results. The maximum absolute difference between any two given solution approaches,
for any nominated time level shown in Table 1, is only
0.009 (at small Th ), thus the solutions are considered
as practically identical.
3.3.2 Radial and vertical drainage with smear and
well resistance
In Table 1, the results from Hansbo and the present
paper, for average consolidation including well resistance for radial drainage only are shown. Both the
radial and the vertical drainage were considered in the
analysis. The same parameters used in the earlier test
were employed again for these solutions, in addition to
adopting the values of kh /ks = 5, ch /cv = 5, rs = 0.45 m
and a finite well permeability of kw = 100 kh . Two sets
of average consolidation values are presented, one at
depth z = h and the other for the entire mass of the
undisturbed soil. The results in Table 2 show that in
a non-ideal vertical drain (where there is a presence
of smear and well resistance), the results are not as
similar, but the differences remain small for practical

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Barron (1948)

Table 2. Comparison of average and overall average consolidation for radial and vertical drainage. Effects of well smear
and well resistance included.

which turns out to be a fairly simple expression and


in contrast to the corresponding, quite unwieldy solution developed by Barron. Moreover, as mentioned
earlier, these solutions can be computed in an electronic spreadsheet and does not require someone with
specialist computing skills.
Solutions for ramp loading and other limiting cases
(no smear, ideal vertical drain and radial consolidation
only) have been presented in Leo (2004) and interested
readers are referred to the paper for details.
3.3 Comparison with other analytic solutions

Th

purposes. Between the solution sets of Hansbo and


the present paper, the maximum absolute difference is
0.086 for the average consolidation at z = h and 0.039
for the overall average consolidation.

The fact that these solutions can be evaluated on


an electronic spreadsheet should enable the solutions
to be readily accessible to users without specialist
computing skills or software.

REFERENCES

CONCLUSION

This paper has presented the development of closedform analytic solutions of equal strain consolidation
assisted by a vertical drain with smear and well resistance. As comparisons made with the corresponding
solutions of Hansbo and Barron have shown that the
differences of these solutions are generally quite small.
Solutions in this paper, however, have been rigorously derived for coupled radial and vertical drainage.

Barron R.A. (1948) Consolidation of fine-grained soils by


drain wells. Trans. ASCE, Vol. 113, Paper No. 2346.
Hansbo S. (1981) Consolidation of fine-grained soils by
prefabricated drains. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Stockholm, 3, pp677682.
Leo, C.J. (2004), Equal strain consolidation by vertical
drains, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 130(3), pp316327.

729

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Improved stress-strain model of soft soil based on


energy dissipation theory
Tinghao Lu
Geotechnical Institute, Hohai University, Nanjing, China

Wei Wang
Department of Civil Engineering, Shaoxing College of Art and Science, Shaoxing, China

ABSTRACT: Stress-strain model of soil plays an important role in soil constitutive law and engineering numerical simulation. In the paper, half-value strength index is employed as a new concept to study the mathematic
behaviour of the soil stress-strain model, and deficiency of traditional hyperbolic model is pointed out. An
improved model with 3 parameters for soil deviator stress-strain is established based on potential energy dissipating theory. Mathematic behaviour of the new model overcomes the deficiency of hyperbolic model. Finally,
good agreement has been found between the proposed model and laboratory test.

and the deviator stress q = (1 3 ) of the soil during


shearing process. The model is written as

INTRODUCTION

Stress-strain behaviour of soft soil has been an important subject of study recently, and it plays an essential
role in soil constitutive law and engineering numerical simulation. Many researchers have studied it for
many years and several empirical models based on
experimental dada have been proposed to describe
the behaviour (Duacan et al. 1970, LI et al. 2002,
WANG et al. 2006). The work of Duacan and Chang
(1970) is important for understanding the stress-strain
behaviour.They proposed a hyperbolic model for it and
this model is used both to theory analysis and to engineering numerical simulation extensively (Habibagahi
et al. 1998, Al-Shayea at al. 2003, Mitaim 2005). However, this model has some limitations (WANG 2006).
To describe the stress-strain behaviour rationally, a
more general model is needed to express the stressstrain relationship of soft soil. The purpose of this
paper is to construct a reasonable model for soft clay
creep based on energy dissipating theory.

2 THE HYPERBOLIC MODEL FOR SHEAR


STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR OF
SOFT SOIL
According to the experimental results, the hyperbolic
model is proposed by Duacan and Chang (1970) to
describe relationship between the deviator strain, ,

q=

(1)

where A and B are two soil parameters.


It is obviously that in equation 1 there is a limit to
the deviator stress, and the limiting deviator stress is
1/B. From equation 1, while the deviator strain is equal
to zero, the initial tangent modulus is 1/A. we can write
"

q() = 1/B
Ei = 1/A

(2)

Thus the two parameters A and B are directly related


to the limiting deviator stress and the initial tangent
modulus, respectively, shown as Figure 1.

HALF-VALUE STRENGTH INDEX AND


MATHEMATIC PROPERTY SET OF
STRESS-STRAIN MODEL

Many experimental data show that hyperbolic stressstrain model can not fit the data accurately. Sometimes, the fitting error is considerable. This error is
originated from the shortcomings of hyperbolic stressstrain model itself. Now, we use a new concept, named
halfvalue strength index of the stress-strain model,
to analyze it.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

A + B

stress fixed. Relatively fixed halfvalue strength index


is the fatal deficiency of hyperbolic creep model. Ideal
model should have the behaviour that equations of its
mathematic property set are independent, respectively.
In order to overcome the model deficiency, energy
dissipating theory is presented to build a new 3paremater creep model.

(1-3)

1
B

Et
1

2B

Ei = 1/A

NEW STRESS-STRAIN MODEL


ESTABLISHING

soil

Under a constant normal stress, the deviator stressstrain behaviour of soil depends strongly on its shearing parameters such as friction angle and cohesion
force. In fact, the process of deviator stress and strain
increasing can be considered as the very process of
friction energy and cohesion energy dissipating. Three
basic postulates are given to deduce the new model:

Define the concept halfvalue strength index is


the deviator strain while deviator stress value of soil is
equal to the half value of the limiting deviator stress of
soil, which is denoted by , shown in Figure 1. The
above definition and Figure 1 show that halfvalue
strength index is a characteristic property to describe
the deviator stress increase performance in terms of
deviator strain, and that the smaller halfvalue strength
index is the quick the deviator stress increase.
Based on equation 1 and the above definition, the
halfvalue strength index of the hyperbolic stressstrain model is expressed as

(1) The shear-resistance energy of soil involves


two parts, namely the friction energy, V1 (),
and the cohesion energy V2 (). At initial state,
they are constant, denoted by V1 (0) and V2 (0),
respectively.
(2) During the shear process, although the dissipated energy of two parts includes energy for
strain increment, energy for heat release and
energy exchange between themselves, the dissipated energy of two parts are both proportionate
to the deviator stress of soft soil, respectively
"
V1 (q) = k1 q
(5)
V2 (q) = k2 q

1
0

Figure 1. Hyperbolic
relationship.

= A/B

stress-strain

model

for

(3)

Define that the mathematic property set of stress-strain


model is the equations set which includes initial tangent modulus, limiting deviator stress and halfvalue
strength index. According to equations 1 and 2, the
mathematic property set of the hyperbolic stress-strain
model is written as

dq

|=0 = 1/A
Ei =
d
(4)
q()
=
1/B

= A/B
Equation set 4 includes three equations but only
involves two undetermined parameters, so it is a
contradictive set. It is evident that, while initial tangent modulus and limiting deviator stress fixed, the
halfvalue strength index can not change in hyperbolic model, relatively. However, a lot of experimental
results indicate that the halfvalue strength index may
change with different clays and loading conditions
while initial tangent modulus and limiting deviator

732

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Where k1 , k2 are parameters corresponding to soil


behaviour and loading condition.
(3) The tangent modulus of soil is right proportionate to the multiplied product by the two existing
residual potential energy parts.
dq
= k3 (V1 (0) V1 (q))(V2 (0) V2 (q)) (6)
d
where k3 is one parameter corresponding to
clay behaviour and loading condition. Given
k = k1 k2 k3 , a = V1 (0)/k1 ,b = V2 (0)/k2 , equation 6
is rewritten as
dq
= k(a q)(b q)
(7)
d
Equation 7 is the differential control equation of
shear stress-strain relationship.
If a is equivalent to b, the result of equation 7
is one hyperbolic model, which is equivalent to
equation 1. If a is not equivalent to b, the result of
equation 7 is
q=

abek(ab) ab
aek(ab) b

(8)

Equation 8 is the very stress-strain model derived


based on energy dissipating theory, and we call
it 3-parameter stress-strain model because of
its three parameters a, b and k (WANG 2006).
Because parameters a and b are symmetric in
equation 8, following discussion is under the
relationship that b is bigger than a.

q = (1-3)

a
(a,b,k)
(a,b,k)

a
2

MATHEMATICAL PROPERTY OF THE


NEW MODEL

5.1

Ei =abk=abk

Basic mathematical property

Differentiating equation 8, we obtain its first order


derivative:
abk(a b)2 ek(ab)
dq
Et =
= 
2
d
aek(ab) b

1
0

(9)

Figure 2. Halfvalue strength index of 3-parameter model.

Equation 9 shows that the first order derivative is


positive, so the equation 8 is a monotone increasing
function with deviator strain. From equation 9 indicates that the initial tangent modulus, Ei , is equal to
abk, namely Ei = abk.
Differentiating equation 9, we obtain the second
order derivative of the new model:


abk 2 (b a)3 ek(ab) aek(ab) + b
d2q
=
(10)
3

d2
aek(ab) b

Then the mathematic property set of the 3-parameter


stress-strain model is written as

dq

|=0 = abk
Ei =

q() = a
(13)

ln
(2b

a)

ln
b

=
k(b a)

Equation 10 shows that the second order derivative of


the new model is negative.
From equation 8, the initial deviator stress q(0) is
equal to zero while deviator strain is zero. It is evident that in equation 8 there is a limit to the deviator
stress too, and the limiting deviator stress is a, namely
q() = a.
According to the first order derivative, the second
order derivative, the initial deviator stress and the limiting deviator stress of the new established model,
the basic mathematic property illustrates that the new
model has same appearance to Fig. 1.

The mathematic property set includes 3 equations


and involves 3 undetermined parameters, so the 3
parameters are independent, respectively.
Equation 13 shows that, while initial tangent modulus and limiting deviator stress is fixed, the halfvalue
strength index can still change under the condition that
multiplied product of parameter b and k is constant,
namely bk = b k , shown as figure 2.
The figure demonstrates that the 3-parameter model
overcomes the deficiency of hyperbolic mode satisfies
the request of ideal stress-strain model discussed in
chapter 2.

6
5.2 Halfvalue strength index and mathematic
property set
Based on the definition of the halfvalue strength
index and the limiting deviator stress expression of
the new model, following equation is written:

abek (ab) ab
a
=
aek (ab) b
2

(11)

So the halfvalue strength index of the new model is


expressed as:
=

ln (2b a) ln b
k(b a)

(12)

The triaxial experiments of one bridge foundation soil


located on Changjiang River, China, were conducted
with more than 200 soil specimens at Hohai University. All experiments specimens were with grey colour
and carried out under consolidated-undrained(CU)
condition.
Simulation of four specimens experimental data is
illustrated in figure 3. In the figure 3, the points denote
the experimental results, and the curves denote the
simulation results under four different normal stresses,
respectively. It should be noted that failure ratio is
employed to verify the failure strain, and the ratio is
equal to 0.95 in the simulation.

733

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

COMPARISON WITH LABORATORY TESTS

for the initial tangent modulus, limiting deviator stress, and they three consist the mathematic
property set of stress-strain model.
(2) The conventional hyperbolic model of soil stressstrain relationship has the deficiency that while
initial tangent modulus and limiting deviator
stress fixed, the halfvalue strength index can not
change, relatively.
(3) A new 3-parameter stress-strain model for soft
clay is established based on energy dissipating
theory and its differential control equation. The
derived model has good mathematical behaviours
and overcomes the deficiency of conventional
hyperbolic creep model.
(4) The simulating results of the new 3-parameter
stress-strain model have the good agreement with
laboratory tests.

600

(13)/kPa

500
400
300
200
100
0

9
(%)

12

15

3=400kPa

3=300kPa

3=200kPa

3=100kPa

18

Figure 3. Simulation of soil stressstrain relationship of


one bridge foundation.

REFERENCES

Figure 3 shows that the simulation results are accurate. However, such simulation accuracy can not be
obtained by hyperbolic creep model.
It should be noted that the accuracy of the proposed
theory is prove only by several CU experiments, and
more experiments should be performed to determine
if the new theory can be applied to more extensive
condition such as UU, CD tesets.
7

CONCLUSIONS

Model for deviator stress-strain relationship of soft


clay is studied in details. Halfvalue strength index
is defined and employed to study the mathematic
behaviour of the stress-strain model and a new
improved model with good mathematic behaviour is
proposed. The basic conclusions are as fellows.
(1) Halfvalue strength index is another mathematic
property of soil stress-strain model excepting

Al-Shayea N, Abduljauwad S, Bashir R, Al-Ghamedy H.


2003. Determination of parameters for a hyperbolic model
of soils. Geotechnical Engineering, 2003, Vol.156, pp.
105117.
Duncan J. M., Chang C. Y.1970. Nonlinear analysis of stress
and strain in soils. ASCE, JSMFD, Vol.96, pp.122142
Habibagahi G, Mokhberi M. 1998. Hyperbolic model for
volume change behavior of collapsible soils. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol.35, pp. 264272.
Li J., Ding D. W. 2002. Nonlinear elastic behavior of fiberreinforced soil under cyclic loading. Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering, Vol.22, pp. 977983.
Mitaim S., Detournay E. 2005. Determination of ground
reaction curve for hyperbolic soil model using the hodograph method. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,Vol.42, pp.
964968.
WANG W. 2005. Study on soil-structure interface model
based on potential energy dissipating principle and its
application. Nanjing: Hohai University
WANG X. N., LU T. H., WANG W. 2006. Two-segment tangent modulus of nonlinear model of soil. Journal of Hohai
University, Vol.34, pp. 204207.

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Application of BP neural network in identifying soil strata by CPTU


Shu-Zhi Ma
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China; Dept. of Engineering, China University
of Geosciences, Wuhan, China

Hong-Biao Jia & Gao-Tou Meng


Dept. of Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China

Shi-Lian Liu
Guangdong Highway Design Institute, Guangdong, China

ABSTRACT: Piezocone penetration test (CPTU) is a new technique of in-site testing of soils, and it is being
used widely in the engineering investigation and soil testing. Because the relations between CPTU parameters
and depth have high nonlinear, conventional methods to identify soil strata, which only depend on experience
or classifying diagram from CPTU through manual operation now, are very taking time and great effort. In
this paper the relation between CPTU parameters and soil types and strata is analyzed, and the structure of BP
Neural network is designed, and the application program is programmed with MATLAB language. This paper
affords the suitable training parameters and their value ranges obtained from the influence analysis of the training
result, and trains and tests the learning stylebooks and the checking stylebooks with the application program.
The results, identifying soil strata by CPTU, have confirmed that BP neural network can be used to carry out the
automatically identifying soil strata.

INTRODUCTION

Piezocone penetration test (CPTU), developed from


the cone penetration test (CPT) in 1980s, is an
advanced in-site testing technique of soils, and it can
be measured the pore water pressure with a pressure
transducer installed within the penetrometer. It can be
used to compute soil physical and mechanical parameters, evaluate soil stress history, classify soil strata,
and identify soil types, and so on. Due to these advantages, it attracts high attention and be used widely in
the geotechnical engineering fields.
The relations between CPTU testing parameters (for
example cone tip resistance, sleeve friction, pore water
pressure) and depth have high nonlinear, so some conventional methods to identify soil strata, which only
depend on experience or classify diagram through
manual operation, are very taking time and great effort.
In this paper, neural network (NN), as an intellectualized information processing system, can be used to
tackle this complex and nonlinear problem. NN, like
human brain, can learn, memorize and discriminate.
Among all NN, BP, most widely used at present, is
such a kind of forward network without feedback, and
is made of an input layer, an immediate layer and an

output layer. This paper discussed the application of


the BP neural network in automatically identifying the
soil strata by CPTU.

The CPTU penetrometer used in this paper is simply


double-bridge probe, it can measure cone tip resistance (qt ) and pore water pressure (u), and the datum
can be used in identifying soils strata in geotechnical
engineering.

2.1 Traditional soil classification chart


The soil classification chart can show the relation
between soil and the parameters including test parameter and combination parameter form cone penetration
test. It is the main method which the technician uses
to identify the soil strata with piezocone penetration
test. From the 1980s to now, people have created the
many soil classification charts, and the typical ones

735

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

RELATION BETWEEN PIEZOCONE


PENETRATION TEST PARAMETERS AND
IDENTIFYING SOIL STRATA

are Robertson, Companella (1986), Senneset, Janbu


(1984), Jones, Rust (1982), technical Code for static
cone penetration (publishing by Institute of China
Railways, 2003) and Meng Gao-tou (china university
of geosciences). Fig.1 is the soil classification charts,
which suggested by professor Meng Gao-tou.
In a word, the parameters for soil classification chart
are difference, but the methods are the same. All methods use traditional statistical analysis according to the
qT / MPa
5

uw e

Line C : Bq 0.02
Sand

......
......

Line B : qT = 1.42Bq + 0.4

Silt

qT
Bq =

Silty clay

umax

umax uw
qT e

Line A : qT = 3.48Bq + 0.18


Clay

1
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

2.2 CPTU curve differences with characteristic of


soil strata
Because soil style difference, its CPTU parameter is
different, and the CPTU curve characteristic is different in different soil strata. The CPTU curve shape
is controlled by the soil characteristic. The soil granule is coarser, the sand content is higher and the cone
tip resistance is higher, and the pore water pressure is
lower in the soil strata, and the soil strength is higher,
and the cone tip resistance is lower. The CPTU curve is
glossy in mud and clay soil, and it is wavy; The CPTU
curve is serrate in sandy clay and sandy soil.The CPTU
curve characteristics for different soils are showed in
table 1, and the soils are graded with the codes.
There is qualitative description for the soils curve
characteristics in the table 1, and the range of the CPTU
parameter is set up. It is the foundation of the soil
classifying and the premise for BP neural network used
to identify soil strata in this paper.
2.3 CPTU parameter changing characteristic with
depth

0.8 Bq

Figure 1. Simplified chart for soil classification with CPTU


(from Meng Gao-tou. 1999).
Table 1.

composite characteristic of parameter to classify the


soil types.

Cone tip resistance, pore water pressure and pore water


pressure ratio are all, and have some characteristics.

CPTU curve characteristics for different soils classification.


qt -h curve

Soil strata

Line type

u-h curve
Data range

Line type

Data range

Bq range

The curve
characteristics
description

Mud and muddy soil

0.150.8 MPa

0300 kPa

00.85

It is smooth, and
there is no
mutation

Clay and
silty clay

Plastic

0.852.5 MPa

150650 kPa

0.10.6

Hard
plastic

More than
2.0 MPa

150300 kPa
0.10.3

It is smooth, and
there is little
undulation. If
these are iron
and manganese
nodules in the soil
strata, the curve
has mutation.

Silty sand

3.06.0 MPa

Less than
200 kPa

0.020.1

Sandy soil

More than
2.0 Mpa, it is
small for lice
soil

10050 kPa

Less than
0.02

There is large
undulate and the
wave crest and
the wave hollow
are a little saw
tooth like.
There is large
undulate and the
wave crest and
the wave hollow
are saw tooth like.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2.3.1 Cone tip resistance characteristic with depth


When the cone is penetrated in the sandy soil, in
the beginning the cone tip resistance increases with
the depth increasing, and after it reached a certain
depth (critical depth) the cone tip resistance reaches
a stable value. In the mud, clayey silt and clay, there
is no critical depth.
When it is penetrated in the same strata, the cone
tip resistance increases with the depth increasing,
and the curve has some wave because the soil is not
uniform, but it is linear increase in the whole.

2.4.2 Data transformation


The processing of data transformation consists of three
methods: equalization, standardization, and normalization.
Equalization is the operation for the column of
every cell in the data set X. After the processing,
the mean value of variable is zero.
Standardization means that every cell will be subtracted by the mean value and then be divided by
the standard deviation of its column. After this processing, the weight is the same, the mean value is
zero, and the variance or standard deviation is 1.
Normalization means that every cell will be subtracted by the minimum value of its column and
then be divided by the range of the same column.
With respect to different dimension, normalization
is a useful method, which is suitable not only for the
original data sets having the same type and range
but also for the ones having distinct type and difference range. After this processing, the data are at the
range of 0 to 1. Equation 1 shows the transformation
expression.

2.3.2 Pore water pressure characteristic with depth


The pore water pressure is correlative with the
soils permeability and compressibility, and the
pore water pressure value increases with the depth
increasing in the same strata.
In sandy soil and silty sand, the pore water pressure
changes largely and its value is small. In clayey soil,
the pore water pressure increases linearly with the
depth increasing.
2.3.3

Pore water pressure ratio characteristic with


depth
The relation between pore water pressure ratio and
depth is determined by the ratio of hyper-pore-water
pressure and cone tip resistance.
If the ratio is constant, the pore water pressure will
not vary following the change of depth. Otherwise,
if it is variable, the pore water pressure ratio will
change too.

2.4

Preprocessing of test data

It is necessary to make preprocessing to test data


because which contain the abnormity and are different
order of magnitude and dimensions for each parameter. The processing consists of the quality assess to the
data themselves and the data transformation.
2.4.1 Quality assess for data source
With respect to CPTU method, the quality of data
source is determined not only by the correctness of
the operation but also by the quality of the instruments,
and soil properties and uniformity etc. For example,
when the penetration in the sea sediment soft soil layer
comprising shells, if the cone meets the shells, the cone
tip resistance may be several tens times than the value
in soft soil, which is an abnormal value. Besides, while
penetration is going on after the finish of dissipation,
the pore pressure of the piezometer can come back
to the previous level after the process of 0.20.5 m,
and within this range, the data can not reflect the realistic nature of soil and it can not stand for the basic
characteristics of soils.
In order to ensure the effects of the neural network,
the data should be excluded when which are abnormal
or not representational.

x ij =

(1)

i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , p
Where: xij is the cell of row i and column j after processing; xij is the cell of row i and column j of original
matrix X; max (xj ) is the maximum one in column j
of original matrix X; min (xj ) is the minimum one in
column j of original matrix X.

DESIGN OF BP NEURAL NETWORK FOR


IDENTIFYING SOIL TYPES

3.1 Structural design of BP neural network


The basic route using BP neural network to identify
soils with CPTU curve is: making study training with
respect to depth, pressure, cone tip resistance and pore
water pressure according to BP arithmetic and then
forecasting the unknown soil using the study results.
Fig.2 is the BP neural network structure designed
according this route and the characteristics of CPTU
parameters.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

xij min (xj )


max (xj ) min (xj)

Input layer includes four neural cells: depth, pressure, resistance and parameter ratio.
Output mode includes five neural cells, which are
denoted by 0 or 1 and form different codes to indicate different soils. In this paper, 10000 stands for
muck and mucky soil, 01000 stands for soft clay,
00100 stands for clay, 00010 stands for silty, and
00001 stands sandy soil.

3.3.3 Motivation function


Homely motivation functions of neutral network in the
tool boxes of MATLAB are tansig, logsig and purelin.
For the three layers, there are six combinations. Adopting the six combinations, training the same leaning
sample under the same condition, based on the error
processing curve, the effectiveness of logsig is the best
and they are more suitable for recognizing the soil layer
with CPTU.

0 1
Depth
0 1
Pore water pressure
0 1
Cone tip resistance
0 1
Pore water pressure ratio
0 1
Figure 2. BP neural network structure.

Study rule adopts additional momentum method,


which takes not only the alternation of error in the
grads direction into account but also the effects of
alternation trends of error curve plane, and permits
the neglect of slight change.
3.2

BP neural network program design

Based on the BP arithmetic, the soil strata identifying


program has been designed and written by MATLAB,
and it can run in the MATLAB user circumstance. The
program is composed of preprocessor block, studying
block, performance testing and application block and
postprocessor block.
3.3

Selection of structural parameters and training


parameters of BP neural network

The design of BP neural network mainly takes the


network layers, number of implication layer neurons,
motivation function, learning rate, initial weight value
and momentum coefficient into account.

3.3.4 Learning rate


The principles of choosing learning rate make it big
ultimately but will not lead to the queasiness of
weighted value, which can present enough energy for
rowing local minimal value and shorten the training
time. Learning through different rates in the same
training time and adopting the test data in a CPTU hole
for recognize soil layer, from the recognizing results,
it is shown that the better of learning rate is 0.040.8.
3.3.5 Momentum coefficient
The momentum coefficient has the effect on mediating weight value during the training process. From the
learning and simulating of different momentum coefficient, it is shown that better results can be obtained
when taking the momentum coefficient as 0.10.9, but
big momentum coefficient should be chose as a bigger one considering the mediating effect of the weight
value.
3.3.6 Initial weight value
The choosing of initial weight value also has effect
on training network, from the results of two initial
methods (initff function and rands function). It is
shown that rands random function should be chose
and makes the initial value between 1 and 1.

3.3.1 Number of network implication layer


Generally, accuracy increase and convergence become
quicker with the multiplication of the layers, but it
needs more training time. Take the number of layers
as 1 and 2 separately, training the same CPTU learning
sample under the same condition. From the analysis of
the error curves, it shown that we can set the number
of layer as 1 in actual processing.

3.3.2 Number of implication layer neurons


Because there are too less neurons, the network can
not identify the samples which have not been learned
and the fault freedom is poor, but the training time is
too long and the error may not be good if there are too
many neurons of the implication layers. Training and
recognizing the BP neutral network, which has different neurons of implication layers separately, and error
processing curves can be obtained. The suitable number of layers is 38 based on the analysis on processing
curves.

Two test sites are selected in this paper as follows:


Lingshan test segment and Hengli test segment.

In order to check the feasibility of identifying soils


with BP neutral network, Jing-Zhu Speedway is chose
as the learning and checking yard.
4.1

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ENGINEERING CASE

Engineering geology condition of the


test site

Lingshan test site: This segment locates at Lingshan


Town, PanYu County, Guangdong Province and is
353.43 miles long. Based on the drilling and insite test results, the stratum of this segment was
obtained: planting soil, 0.71.2 miles thick; silt and
silty clay, 8.416.0 miles thick; silty clay with large
quantity of middling-fine sand, 3.46.4 miles thick;
silty clay, its thickness is more than 12.0 miles.

Identify
log

Drill-log

Hengli test site: This segment locates at Hengli


Town, PanYu County, Guangdong Province. Based
on the drilling and in-site test results, it was shown
that the stratum changed greatly and there were a
large quantity of thin sand layer and silt with fine
sand. The stratum of this segment can be divided
into: planting soil, silt, silt with fine sand, clay,
coarse sand, silt and silty clay.

CPTU parameter with depth curves

2500

5000
qt/kPa

7500

4
6

4.2.1 Selection and processing of testing data


The ability of recognizing network is not strong when
there are less learning samples. The training time is too
long and when there are too many learning samples. In
order to guarantee quantity and representative of the
learning samples, 112 groups of samples are chosen
considering the parameters change with depth in this
paper, these samples contain the frequent soil such as
silty, clay, silty clay, sand, and so on.
The processing type of test data is normalization type; the learning samples and checking samples
should be consistent with the standard values of
relevant parameters during the processing.

4.2.2 Setting construction and training parameters


of BP
The set of neutral network parameters are as follows:
the number of neutrons of input layer is 4 and the number of neutrons of output layer is 5, the number of
implication layer is 1 and the number of neutrons is 4,
the motivation function is logsig function.
The setting of training parameters is as follows: the
learning rate is 0.1, the momentum factor is 0.9, maximal anticipant error is 0.06, and times of maximal
iteration are 100000.

Depth/m

4.2 Implementation of identifying soil layer with


BP neutral network

13.2 .....................

.. .... .... ....


. . .. .. ..... .... .... ....
...17.7
. .. .. . .. .. . .
Unseen
bottom
Legend:

16
18
0

200

u/kPa
400

600
Clay

Mud and muddy soil

... .... .......


.. .... .... .... Sand

Figure 3. Identifying result of CPTU7 by BP network.

silty clay with BP neutral network is not good enough.


May possible causes are as follows:
The static exploration probe may only explore the
drill press and cone tip resistance and needed less
test parameters, the differences between silty clay
and clay were not notable, good results can be
obtained if CPTU were adopted.
The BP neutral network needs to be perfected
further because the results are not good enough.
The results of CPTU7 drill are not accurately consistent with drilling results because of the distance
between them. It is possible situation that CPTU7
drill has indeed disclose the thin sand layer which
may be raised with the existence of lens.

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

The differences of CPTU curve characteristics among


soft soil, sandy soil and cohesive soil are notable and
easy to identify, but the differences between are not
easy to define.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

14

Silty clay

Identifying and analysis of BP neutral network


results

CPTU7 drill locates at the third test segment, the drill


is 18.3 miles deep, and there are total 167 groups
of checking samples after data processed. The comparison between results recognizing with BP neutral
network and actual soil layer is shown in fig.3.
From the previous results of fig.3, it can be shown
that the network can identify the mud and muddy soil,
sand and clay very good but the identifying clay and

qt

12

4.2.3 Training of learning samples


Learning samples is trained with the additional
momentum method. Actual iteration time is 600000
and actual error is 0.595, the weight value and threshold value are stored in document after training for performance test and invocation by application program.

4.3

10

The testing parameters (cone tip resistance and pore


water pressure) in cohesive soil linearly increase with
depth, but those in sandy soil change acutely with
depth.
According to BP arithmetic, the construction of BP
neural network has been designed for the classification of soil types and the division of soil stratum. The
program of BP has been designed and written with
MATLAB. The construction parameters and training
parameters of BP mostly influence the learning effect
of NN. This paper obtains the suitable value range of
the structure and training parameters through the influence analysis of the training result. Based on these,
learning and checking stylebooks are respectively
trained and tested. Prediction soil strata histogram is
closely with the bore strata histogram. The testing
result demonstrated that the design of the construction
of BP is reasonable, the value rage of the structure
and training parameters are suitable, and BP neural
network can be used to identify soil strata.
This research accomplishes identifying soil strata
automation, supplies a new way to deal with the
CPTU datum, and has actual significance in promoting efficiency and precision of CPTU data processing.
How to abstain more effective and practical BP neural network control system needs further study and

improvement. Identifying soil strata by BP neural


network will take important function in CPTU data
processing automation in the future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by National Natural
Sciences foundation of China grant 40172090.

REFERENCES
Meng Gaotou, Liu Shilian, Ma Shuzhi, etc. 2000. Application
research of piezocone penetration test (cptu) in pearl river
delta. Geological science and technology information,
Vol. 19(1), pp. 8185
Jacobs,P.A., and Coutts,J.S. 1992. A comparison of electric
piezocone tips at the Both kennar test site. Geotechnique,
Vol. 42(2), pp. 369375
Liu Shilian. 2000. The application study of in-situ tests of
soils by artificial neural network, eg. Identifying soil strata
by CPTU. Thesis for the master degree of China university
of geosciences.
Zhang Tao, Zhang Wei-li, Cao Kai. 2002. Compartmentalize
soil system based on MATLAB-NNT. Journal of Laiyang
agricultural college, Vol. 19(4), pp. 307309

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

A simplified plastic hysteretic model for multi-directional


nonlinear site response in soft soils
J.M. Mayoral
Institute of Engineering at UNAM, Mexico City

J.M. Pestana
University of California at Berkeley, USA

M.P. Romo
Institute of Engineering at UNAM, Mexico City

R.B. Seed
University of California at Berkeley, USA

ABSTRACT: Muti-directional strong shaking associated to major earthquakes may significantly increase the
amount of non-linear behavior in the free field due to generation of pore pressure that can reduce the soil stiffness
and increase the permanent deformations. An existing simplified effective stress based model formulated to
describe the cyclic behavior of lightly over consolidated clays in simple shear (Pestana and Biscontin, 2000) was
modified to account for hysteretic behavior. The formulation assumes an idealized state of stresses representing
those existing in a DSS (Direct Simple Shear) test, therefore, only a normal stress n and two orthogonal shears
x and y are considered. Two parameters w1 and w2 describe the perfect hysteretic behavior of the soil. These
parameters are obtained throughout a study which consists on fitting with the model representative experimental
modulus degradation and damping curves obtained at a given confining pressure. This paper introduces this
simplified plastic hysteretic model which is able to predict hysteretic behavior, plastic deformation, and the
evolution of pore pressure during cyclic loading. The constitutive model was implemented in a three-dimensional
8-noded brick finite element. A demonstration of the predictive potential of the proposed constitutive law through
the analyses of some hypothetic scenarios is included, as well as comparisons between uncoupled (i.e. a plane
analysis in each component of motion) and coupled analyses (i.e. a bi-dimensional analysis considering both
components of motion simultaneously). Overall, coupled analyses using only the hysteretic component better
predicted the measured response than the uncoupled analyses for the cases studied. The results of the analyses
seem to be highly dependent on the amount of Raleigh damping used, especially for high frequencies. The
consideration of plastic deformations during the simulations seems to provide a better representation of the
cyclic soil response during transient and steady state conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Site response analysis addresses the problem of finding the reaction of a given geological profile to
earthquake loading. The seismic excitation is given
by an input motion (usually an acceleration time
history) that is applied to the geological profile at
prescribed positions. The motions at other locations
of the profile are computed solving the wave propagation problem. Site response analysis constitutes
the cornerstone in the evaluation of the performance
of structures during earthquakes (e.g., Seed, 1975).
Traditionally, methods to conduct site response analysis have been sub-classified into those that solve the

wave propagation problem in the frequency domain,


and those that solve it in the time domain. The first
category, includes programs like SHAKE (Schnabel
et al. 1972), or in its recent version SHAKE91 (Idriss
and Sun, 1992), that performs a one-dimensional site
response analysis, and FLUSH (Lysmer et al. 1975),
that performs two-dimensional site response analyses.
The second category includes programs like QUAD4
(Idriss et al. 1973) and more recently QUAD4M (Hudson et al. 1994). All these programs use an equivalent
linear procedure, in which the nonlinear response of
the system is assumed linear, but using representative stiffness and damping values iteratively derived
to be compatible with a fixed fraction of the peak

741

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

shear strain reached during the earthquake. This fraction usually varies between 0.40 and 0.75 for moderate
to high levels of shaking respectively. Constant soil
properties render poor modelling for cases in which the
level of shear strain may change significantly during
the dynamic event, as can occur during strong ground
motions involving large levels of shaking (e.g., Seed
et al. 1993). Soil nonlinearities during shear deformation are better captured by nonlinear hysteretic material response models. Hysteretic behavior has been
modeled with mechanical models, empirical models
and total (or effective) stress elastoplastic models.
Elastoplastic formulations are frequently implemented
within a finite element framework.
This paper introduces a simplified plastic hysteretic
model (Mayoral, 2002) that is based on an existing
effective stress constitutive law developed to describe
the cyclic behavior of lightly over consolidated clays in
simple shear (Pestana and Biscontin, 2000), but modified to account for hysteretic behavior. The model
was implemented in an 8-noded solid finite element to
study the effects of two directional dynamic loading on
the response of soil deposits, and validated throughout
comparisons with other implementations and experimental results. Then, the predictions capabilities of the
model are explored. Comparisons between uncoupled
and coupled analyses of several cases are included.
The first case studied was the two directional site
response analysis of Treasure Island subjected to different earthquake scenarios. The second case is the
analysis of a deposit of generic stiff soil that was previously studied by Rodriguez-Marek, (2000), using a
total stress-based bounding surface plasticity model
for clay. This model was developed by Borja et al.
(1999) for the multidirectional analysis of clays.
2

SIMPLIFIED PLASTIC HYSTERETIC


MODEL

The need of having a model able to simulate the first


loading branch (also referred by many as backbone),
capture plastic deformations and the evolution of pore
pressure during cyclic loading, and to include hysteretic behavior explicitly in the formulation prompt
the modification of an existing effective stress model.
The formulation assumes an idealized state of
stresses representing those existing in a DSS (Direct
Simple Shear) test, therefore, only a normal stress n
and two orthogonal shears x and y are considered
(c.f., Figure 1).
In this framework, the soil stiffness is obtained splitting the material deformation into elastic and plastic
components as follows:
t
=

1
1
+
[t / ]e
[t / ]p

1
(1)

p
y
x

Z
Y

X
Figure 1. Idealized state of stresses assumed in the simple
plastic model.

Where: t = /n is the shear stress ratio in the normal


shear stress space.
In the formulation proposed herein, the elastic
component of the soil stiffness is given by:


e
=

Gmax
(1 + w1 t )(1 + w2 t2 )

p

1b

n

(2)

The parameter Gmax is the small strain shear modulus


which can be inferred from measurements of shear
wave velocity, while b is a constant describing the
power low variation of Gmax as a function of the normal stress, n , (not the mean stress) in a direct simple
shear test with respect to the value at the normally consolidated state. And p is the maximum normal stress
at failure or maximum past pressure of the specimen.
Parameters w1 and w2 describe the perfect hysteretic
behavior of the soil. These parameters are obtained
throughout a study which consisted on fitting with the
model representative experimental modulus degradation and damping curves obtained at a given confining
pressure.
The plastic component of the soil stiffness
[t / ]p remains the same as in the original formulation, and is different for monotonic and cyclic load.
For monotonic loading, which defines the first loading
branch, is defined as:


p

= Gp

( tan sign(tc . )tc


( tan
(1 + w1 )(1 + w2 2 )

sign(t . )t )

(3)

Where: Gp , is a material parameter characterizing


the backbone for normally consolidated specimens.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Expression [3] also defines the plastic component during cyclic loading for states on the plastic state surface.
The stress ratio is obtained from the state surface with
the expression:
t2 = tan2 [ tan2 + 0.8tc2 1.8t ct ]

   m
(n /p ) m
for < (n /p ) < 1

1 m
(4)
Where: is a material parameter defining the ratio
of the effective normal stress to the maximum normal
stress, p , at failure, and m is a material parameter
defining the slenderness of the state surface.
For a given value of , an increase in the slenderness parameter results in an increase in the undrained
shear stress while the excess pore pressure at peak
shear stress decreases. For a given m, and increase
in causes not only an increase in the shear stress at
large strains but also an increase in the undrained shear
strength as well.The corresponding stress ratio is given
by, tc = c /p = tan (), where is the inclination of
the slope.
The plastic component for states inside the plastic
state surface is described by equation 5:




2 (1 m )
t p
= 1 sign(t . ) t

tan 2

( tan / 1 m

sign(rev . ) max rev

(t rev )


1 max rev
(5)

tan / 1 m
The pore pressure development is controlled by a load
state surface, which also defines the effective stress
rate dependent path during cyclic loading. The orientation of the transitional state surface is uniquely
controlled by the shear stress ratio at the last reversal, rev , while the shape is dependent on the ratio of
the normal stress at the last reversal to the maximum
normal stress corresponding to the initially normally
consolidated state and a strain rate dependent material
parameter, :

   B
tan2
tan2

2
t2 =

n
t
trev
rev
m
m
1
1
nrev
for

t < tan


B = (p /nrev
)2

(6)
(7)

The effective normal stress is found using explicit


relationships, where the pore pressure generation is
a function of previous stress-strain history, magnitude

of cyclic shear stress and current pore water pressure.


This provides a computationally efficient solution to
the pore pressure generation problem.
Surface Active:

1//m

2
2
m
( tan t
m

n = p
(8)
+ (1 ) tan2 + 0.82

rev

1.8t trev
Surface Inactive:

1/B
( tan2 t2 (1 m )



2
2
m
n
nrev

tan +(rev 2.0t trev )(1 )

t < tan

1/B

m tan2


n = nrev

2 +(2 2.0
m)
tan
)(1

t
trev
rev

t tan

(9)
for

As can be seen in the equations presented above, for


increasing values of Gn the relevance of the hysteretic
stiffness component diminishes. With the inclusion
of hysteretic parameters, the model appears to provide a better representation of the soil response during
dynamic transient loading (i.e., site response analysis for a pulse excitation). In the steady state regime
the soil response is mainly hysteretic. This is a better representation of site response to far field ground
motions. Thus, the hysteretic model can be used as an
aid to estimate post earthquake settlements due to pore
pressure dissipation. For large values of Gp , the plastic component of the shear stiffness controls the soil
response and the importance of the elastic component
(and thus the hysteretic behavior) decreases.
The rate of accumulation of plastic deformation
tends to slightly increase due to the hysteretic behavior. However this effect is not significant for practical
purposes. The effect of m on the simulation is independent of the hysteretic response. Thus, overall, it can
be seen that the predictive capabilities of the original
formulation have been expanded with the inclusion of
hysteretic behavior.
This model represents better transient and steady
state loading conditions. Thus, it can be used to
perform near and far field site response analysis.
2.1

Model parameters determination

The simplified plastic hysteretic model presented earlier uses nine parameters w1 , w2 , Gmax , Gp , , , m, ,
and . These parameters can be obtained from standard
monotonic and cyclic DSS test, and typical modulus
reduction and damping curves.
The parameters Gmax and Gp control the stressstrain relationship for normally consolidated specimens. The small strain shear modulus Gmax can be

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

for

Load controlled test

Displacement controlled test

A cyclic displacement controlled test on the same soil


specimen and for the same boundary conditions used
in the load controlled test was conducted. A linear

250
0.48
0.029
30
10
33
0.3
0.4
0.25

0.1

0.1

FEAP
SURFACE

0.05

0.05

-0.05

-0.05

-0.1
0.9

0.92

0.94

0.96

0.98

Normal Effective Stress, n/p

1 -0.1

-0.05

0.05

-0.1
0.1

Shear Strain, x = y (%)

0.1

FEAP
SURFACE

0.05

0.05

-0.05

-0.05

-0.1
0.9

0.92

0.94

0.96

0.98

Normal Effective Stress, n/p

1 -0.1

-0.05

0.05

-0.1
0.1

Shear Strain, x = y (%)

Figure 3. Comparisons of predicted response for a strain


controlled tests using FEAP and Surface.

strain path oriented at 45 degrees with respect to the


loading axis was used. The corresponding simulations
obtained with FEAP and SURFACE are included in
Figure 3. The results are presented in terms of shear
stress-shear strain curves. Again, it can be seen that
the results are in excellent agreement.
3.3 Comparisons with experimental results
The model parameters compiled in Table 2 to simulate the dynamic response of Bay Mud were obtained
previously from parametric studies (Mayoral, 2002,
Biscontin, 2002) and direct simple shear tests results,
performed in Bay Mud under strain controlled conditions by Kammerer (1998). Figure 4 compares the

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Shear wave velocity, Vs (m/sec)


w1 (%)
w2 (%)
Gp

0.1

The first simulation consisted on a cyclic load controlled test performed in a soil specimen with the soil
properties compiled in Table 1. The variation of the
normalized shear stress applied to the sample in each
direction was the same, as it is shown in Figure 2. The
corresponding simulations obtained with FEAP and
SURFACE are depicted in Figure 2 also.The results are
presented in terms of shear stress-shear strain curves.
As can be seen the results are in excellent agreement.
3.2

Value

Figure 2. Comparisons of predicted response for a strain


controlled tests using FEAP and Surface.

MODEL IMPLEMENTATION AND


VALIDATION

The new formulation was implemented in the finite


element program FEAP (Taylor, 2001). The validation
of this implementation was performed by comparing
the results obtained using FEAP to the results obtained
using SURFACE (Pestana, 2000) that is a computer
code where the original model proposed by Pestana
and Biscontin (2000) is programmed, and which had
been previously implemented and validated, and by
comparisons with experimental results obtained for the
San Francisco Bay mud.
3.1

Soil Parameter

Normal Shear Stress, x/p = y/p

Table 1. Parameters for the simple plastic hysteretic model


for validation cases.

Normal Shear Stress, x/ p = y/ p

inferred from values of shear wave velocity in the laboratory (e.g., bender elements) or in the field (e.g.,
seismic CPT test). Parameter Gp determines the stressstrain curve during the first loading and it is obtained
with parametric studies from the stress-strain curve
of a DSS test of a normally consolidated sample.
Parameter also defines the evolution of the excess
pore pressure at large strains and, for a given value
of , it controls the shear strength at large strains
(i.e., 20%). This parameter can be found directly
from the inferred normalized effective stress path in a
standard DSS test at a conventional strain rate. Parameter describes the maximum obliquity, tan ( i.e.,
the slope of the failure envelope in the shear vs. normal stress space). Parameter m controls primarily the
undrained strength and can be obtained from a short
parametric study to fit the effective stress path in a
standard DSS test. The last two parameters and ,
control the observed cyclic behavior and are obtained
by performing a cyclic DSS test at the strain rate of
interest. Parameter controls the effective stress path
during cyclic loading and can be determined by the
rate of pore pressure generation as a function of the
number of cycles. Parameter controls the shear stiffness and thus the accumulation of plastic strain with
increasing number of cycles.

Table 2. Model parameters used in the plastic hysteretic


model to simulate the dynamic response of Bay Mud.
Value

Shear wave velocity, Vs (m/sec)


w1 (%)
w2 (%)
Gp

180
2.1
0.027
30
10
33
0.3
0.4
0.25

Normalized Shear Stress, \ p

Soil Parameter

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.1

-0.1

-0.1

-0.2

-0.2

-0.3

4.1 Treasure island site response analysis

-0.3

-0.4
0

0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Normal Effective Stress, n\ p

-4

-3

-2

-1

-0.4

25

25

Model
Test 15B6

20
Number of Cycles, N

in rock, PGArock , of 0.7 g and 0.3 g in the 0 and


90 degree orientations respectively. The second case
corresponds to a generic low plasticity soil deposit
previously analyzed by others (e.g., Borja et al. 1994,
Rodriguez-Marek, 2000). The input motion again was
the recorded at Kobe earthquake but scaled to PGArock
of 0.3 g and 0.5 g in the normal and parallel component
respectively.

20

15

15

10

10

0
0.6

0.5

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Excess Pore Pressure, u/p

-4

-3

-2

-1
0
1
Shear Strain, (%)

Figure 4. Comparisons of predicted and computed response


of cyclic behavior of Bay Mud

measured and predicted response for the parameters


selected. Note that the agreement is fairly good.
4

MODEL PREDICTIONS

Two cases were studied to explore the predictive capabilities of the implementation and to study the effect
of coupling during bi-directional small to large magnitude events. The first case was the site response analysis of Treasure Island for two earthquake scenarios.
The first scenario considers the input motion recorded
at Treasure Island during the 1993 Gilroy event
(ML = 5.3). The peak ground acceleration ranged from
0.0143 g at the surface to 0.0032 g at 104 m in the
bedrock. The second scenario uses the strong motion
recorded in Port Island during the Kobe earthquake
(Mw = 7.1), scaled to a peak ground acceleration

Subsoil conditions
The geological profile and soil properties of Treasure
Island have been well characterized and are available
in the literature (e.g., Gibbs et al. 1992, Idriss, 1993,
de Alba et al. 1993). The site has been instrumented
with vertical arrays, which measurements for several earthquakes constitute a database for calibration
and validation of constitutive models for site response
analysis (e.g., Lok, 1999, Elgamal, 1996a and 1996b,
Rodriguez-Marek, 2000). Figure 5 shows the soil profile and shear wave velocity distribution with depth
used for the analyses. As can be seen, the geological
profile at the Treasure Island Site consists of about
13 m of sandy fill which is underlain by about 16 m of
Young Bay Mud. Underlying the Young Bay Mud are
alternating layers of dense sands and Old Bay Mud to
a depth of about 91 m. Weathered shale extends from
this depth to about 98 m, where the more competent
sandstone is encountered.
The modulus degradation and damping curves used
for analysis were obtained from best estimates based
on relationships proposed by Vucetic and Dobry
(1991), Sun et al. (1988) and EPRI (1993) for clays
and sands. For the simulation, it was assumed that the
earthquake source was located away from the site and
that the steady state component of the site response
was the most significant. Therefore, only the hysteretic
part of the model was utilized. The model parameters
w1 , and w2 , used during the simulation are presented
in Table 2.
Analyses results
Comparisons in terms of response spectra obtained
at different depths are presented in Figures 6 and
7 for both Gilroy and Kobe scaled ground motions
respectively.
For small level of shaking (first scenario), no significant differences are observed for the coupled and
uncoupled analysis. However, for strong level of shaking the predominant period computed with the coupled
analyses is larger than the predominant period computed with the uncoupled analysis. This is congruent
with the more pronounced degradation of the soil stiffness expected during coupled analysis for this level of
shaking. The amplitude is also affected by the strong
shaking. In general, the amplitude of the peak response

745

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Spectral Acceleration (g)

Surface

1.5

1.5

0.5

0.5

Spectral Acceleration (g)

Elev: -16 m
1.5

1.5

0.5

0.5

Spectral Acceleration (g)

Elev: -31 m

Figure 5. Soil profile and shear wave velocities measured


at Treasure Island by USGS (from Lok, 1999)

0.5

0.5

0.05

0.04

0.04

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.06

0.06

0.05

0.05

1.5

1.5

0.5

0.5

2
0.03

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.1

Elev: -44 m

0.04

Elev: 104 m

0.03

0
0.01

Spectral Acceleration (g)

0.04

Surface

Spectral Acceleration (g)

Spectral Acceleration (g)


Spectral Acceleration (g)

1.5

0.06

0.06

0.05

1.5

Period, T(sec)

(a)

10

0.01

0.1

10

Period, T(sec)

(b)

observed in the coupled analysis is smaller than that


observed in the uncoupled analysis. Some amount of
high frequency noise can be observed on the acceleration response spectra computed. This seems to indicate
that the model is not able to generate enough hysteretic
damping for this small level of shaking.
In all the results, spurious peaks in the response
can be observed. This is most likely due to the inability of the loading-unloading condition to capture the
two-directional effects properly. An unloading condition imposed prematurely by the model when the
direction of soil deformation has not changed yet will
stiff the soil (i.e., the soil stiffness returns to its initial

1.5

0.5

0.5

0
0.1

Period, T(sec)

(a)

10 0.01

0.1

10

Period, T(sec)

(b)

Figure 7. Computed response with uncoupled (dashed line)


and coupled (solid line) analysis for Kobe, 1993 event
(Mw = 6.9): (a) 0 degree (b) 90 degree.

value) leading to the generation of spurious peaks in


the acceleration response spectra

4.2 Generic stiff low plasticity soil deposit response


analysis
The last case was the site response of a generic stiff low
plasticity soil deposit, 45 m deep. The variation of the

746

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1.5

0
0.01

Figure 6. Computed response with uncoupled (dashed line)


and coupled (solid line) analysis for Gilroy, 1993 event
(ML = 5.3): (a) 360 degree (b) 90 degree.

Elev: -104 m

0.08

Vs (m/s)
0

200

400

600

800

0.08

Surface
(Normal)

0.06

1000
Displacement, m

0
20
40
60

0.06

0.04

0.04

0.02

0.02

-0.02

-0.02

-0.04

-0.04

-0.06

-0.06

-0.08

-0.08

Depth(m)

10

80

Normal

15

15

Surface
(Parallel)

Parallel

100

10

Soil
Column
of
Generic
Stiff Soil

120
140

45 m
5

160
-0.08

-0.06

-0.04

-0.02

0.02

0.04

0.06

0
0.08

Displacement, m

180

-1

Surface
Accelerations, g

200
Selected Profile
Median and +_ one standard deviation from 343 profiles

Figure 8. Selected shear wave velocity profile for the Stiff


Soil profile (from Rodriguez-Marek, 2000).

w1 (%)
w2 (%)
Poison Ratio,
Shear wave velocity, Vs
(Mg/m3)

4.0
0.2
0.49
250
1.90

-0.5

BPM
EHM
1
1

-1
1

Normal Component
Accelerations, g

Value

0.5

0.5

Table 3. Model parameters used in the plastic hysteretic


model for the simulation of dynamic response of generic stiff
clay.
Soil Parameter

-0.5

Parallel Component

0.5

0.5

-0.5

-0.5

-1
0

Time (s)

10

15 0

Time (s)

10

15

-1

Figure 9. Comparisons of the predicted response using the


simplified plastic hysteretic model and the total stress based
model.

shear wave velocity with depth assumed for analysis


is presented in Figure 8.
The shear modulus degradation and equivalent
damping curves used in the analysis were obtained
based on those proposed by Seed and Idriss, (1970)
for sands, Vucetic and Dobry (1991) for clays and
model curves suggested by Rodriguez-Marek, 2000.
The model parameters for the generic stiff low plasticity soil are compiled in Table 3. Again only the
hysteretic component of the model was utilized.
The input motion used in this case was the strong
ground record measured at Pacoima Dam downstream,
scaled to a maximum peak ground acceleration of
0.3 g and 0.5 g for the normal and parallel component
respectively.

The predictions obtained were compared to the


results of a total stress bounded plasticity model proposed by Borja (1994) and previously implemented
in FEAP (Rodriguez-Marek, 2000). This model was
extensively calibrated against several case histories
(Borja et al. 1999 and 2000). This is a total stress
model based on bounding plasticity with a vanishing
elastic region to accommodate multi-axial stress reversals. Table 4 shows the corresponding parameters used
in the bounded plasticity model.
Both predictions are compared in Figure 9. Allowing from the fact that different formulations are used
in each model, a good agreement was reached.

747

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 4. Model parameters used in the bounded plasticity


model for the simulation of dynamic response of generic stiff
clay (from Rodriguez-Marek, 2000).
Soil Parameter

Value

h/Gmax
M
R/Gmax
Ho

(Mg/m3)

0.032
1.4
0.005
0.000001
1%
0.49
1.91.95

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, amplitudes and predominant periods computed during the coupled analyses seem to be affected
by the more pronounced degradation of the soil
stiffness, especially for strong shaking. Predominant
periods tend to increase, migrating to higher values
and, in general, the amplitudes of the peak response
observed in the coupled analysis tend to decrease
with respect those observed in the uncoupled analysis.
Some amount of high frequency noise can be observed
on the acceleration response spectra computed. This
seems to indicate that the model is not able to generate enough hysteretic damping for this small level
of shaking. Thus, the results of the analyses seem to
be highly dependent of the amount of Raleigh damping used for high frequencies. The plastic hysteretic
model seems to provide a better representation of the
cyclic soil response during transient and steady state
conditions. Therefore, it can be used to perform site
response analyses for near and far field motions.
REFERENCES
deAlba, P., Bemoit, J.,Youd,T.L., Shakal,A.F., Pass, D.G., and
Carter, J.L. 1993. Deep Instrumentation Array at Treasure
Island Naval Station. USGS Professional Paper.
Biscontin, 2002. Modelling the dynamic behaviour of lightly
overconsolidated soil deposits on submerged slopes. Ph.D.
Dissertation, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Borja, R.I., and Amies, A.P., 1994. Multiaxial Cyclic Plasticity Model for Clays. Journal of Geotech, Engrg., ASCE,
120 (6), June, 10511070.
Borja, R.I., Chao, H. Y., Montans, F.J., and Lin, ChaoHua 1999. Nonlinear Ground Response at Lotung LSST
Site. Journal of Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 125(3), March,
187197.
Borja, R.I., Chao, H. Y., Kossi M. Sama and Gwynn M.
Masada 2000. Modeling Non-linear Ground Response of
Non-liquefiable Soils. Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn.,
29:6383.
Elgamal, A.W. et al. 1996a. Identification and Modeling of
Earthquake Ground Response- I. Site amplification. Soil
Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, May, 409522.

Elgamal, A.W. et al. 1996b. Identification and Modeling of


Earthquake Ground Response-II. Site amplification. Soil
Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, May, 523547.
Gibbs, J.F., Fumal, T.E., Boore, D.M., and Joyner, W.B.,
1992. Seismic Velocities and Geologic Logs from Borehole Measurements at Seven Strong-Motion Stations that
Recorded the Loma Prieta Earthquake. U.S.G.S. OpenFile Report 92287.
Hudson, M., Idriss, I.M., and Beikae, M. 1994. QUAD4M:
A Computer Program to Evaluate the Seismic Response
of Soil Structures using Finite Element Procedures and
Incorporating a Compliant Base. Center for Geotechnical Modeling, Dep. of Civil & Env. Engng, University of
California, Davis.
Idriss, I., and Sun, J., 1992. Users Manual for SHAKE 91.
Center for Geotech. Modeling, Univ. Of California, Davis.
Idriss, I.M., 1993. Assessment of Site Response Analysis
Procedures. Report of Center for Geotechnical Modeling Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of California, Davis.
Idriss, I.M., Lysmer, J., Hwang, R., and Seed, H.B. 1973.
QUAD-4 A Computer Program for Evaluating the Seismic Response of Soil Structures by Variable Damping
Finite Element Procedures. Report No. EERC 73-16,
University of California, Berkeley, CA.
Lok, T. 1999. Numerical Modeling of Seismic Soil Pile Structure Interaction in Soft Clay. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of
California, Berkeley.
Lysmer, J., Udaka, T., Tsai, C.F., and Seed, H.B. 1975. FLUSH
A computer Program for Approximate 3-D Analysis of
Soil-Structure Interaction Problems. Report No. EERC
75-30, University of California, Berkeley, CA.
Mayoral J. M. 2002. Two-directional effects on seismic soilpile-structure interaction in soft clay. Ph.D. Dissertation,
Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Pestana, J.M., and G., Biscontin 2000. A simplified model
describing the cyclic behavior of lightly overconsolidated
clays in simple shear. Geotechnical Engng Report No.
UCB/GT/2000-03, Department of Civil and Environmental Engng., University of California at Berkeley.
Pestana, J.M. 2000. SURFACE users Manual. University
of California, Berkeley.
Rodriguez-Marek, A. 2000. Near-Fault Seismic Site
Response. Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of California,
Berkeley.
Schnabel, P.B., Lysmer, J., and Seed, H.B. 1972. SHAKE
A computer program for earthquake response analysis of horizontally layered soils. Report No. EERC-72/12,
University of California, Berkeley.
Seed, H.B., Pamukcu, S., and Chaney, R. 1975. Earthquake
Effects on Soil-Foundation Systems. Foundation Engineering Handbook. Second Edition. Edited by Hsai-Yang
Fang.
Seed, H.B., and Idriss, I.M., 1970. Soil Moduli and Damping
Factors for Dynamic Response Analysis. UCB/EERC70/10
Seed, H.B., Dickenson, S.E., and Mok, C.M., 1993. Recent
Lessons Regarding Seismic Response Analysis of Soft
and Deep Clay Sites. Seminar Proc., Seismic design and
retrofit of bridges, U.C. Berkeley, EERC, Caltrans, June,
1992.
Taylor et al. 2001. FEAP, A Finite Element Analysis Program.
University of California at Berkeley.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Mathematical description of consolidation test


Guo-Xiong Mei & Jin-Min Zai
College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing, China

Jian-Hua Yin
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China

ABSTRACT: Consolidation and creep problems are important themes for soft soil engineering. Based on the
uncoupling assumption that between the primary consolidation and the secondary consolidation is segregated
artificially, piecewise analytic functions are used to express the primary consolidation stage and the secondary
consolidation stage respectively. However, for most soft soil, the consolidation process and the creep process
are coupled and the character of settlement time curve is obtained by the consolidation test at the same time.
The paper presents a simple and continuous function to express the whole process of consolidation including
immediate settlement stage, the primary consolidation stage and the secondary consolidation stage. And the
features of the continuous function are analyzed. Then the results of the long-term (durations to 18 months)
consolidation test on clays from the Chek Lap Kok formation prove the rightness of the method. In the end, the
parameter meanings of the continuous function are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Consolidation and creep problems are important


themes for soft soil engineering. Based on the uncoupling assumption that between the primary consolidation and the secondary consolidation is segregated
artificially, piecewise analytic functions are used to
express the primary consolidation stage and the secondary consolidation stage respectively. However, for
most soft soil, the consolidation process and the creep
process are coupled and the character of settlement
time curve is obtained by the consolidation test at the
same time. The paper presents a simple and continuous
function to express the whole process of consolidation including immediate settlement stage, the primary
consolidation stage and the secondary consolidation
stage. And the features of the continuous function are
analyzed. Then the results of the long-term (durations
to 18 months) consolidation test on clays from the
Chek Lap Kok formation prove the rightness of the
method. In the end, the parameter meanings of the
continuous function are discussed.
2

settlement Sim , the primary consolidation settlement Sco , and the secondary compression or creep
settlementScr . That is
Sf = Sim + Sco + Scr

(1)

Especially, for sand, Sim = Sf and Sco = Scr = 0.


(2) The settlement St of the soil with t or lgt in time is
monotone increasing. That is:
For clay,
dSt
>0
dt

(2)

dSt
>0
d(lgt)

(3)

Especially, for sand,

dSt
dt

=0

(3) The rate of settlement


with t in time is
monotone decreasing. That is:
d 2 St
0
dt2

(4)
2

Especially, for sand, ddtS2 t = 0.


(4) For clay, there is a inflection point in the curve
of the settlement St versus lgt in time, which is
considered as the demarcation point of the primary
consolidation and secondary compression, and the

749

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

dSt
d(lgt)

dSt
dt

BASIC UNDERSTANDING OF
OEDOMETER TEST

As we all know, some basic understandings of oedometer test are as follows:


(1) The total settlement Sf usually consists of three
partsthe immediate or elastic compression

= 0 and

corresponding time is considered as time of the


end of primary consolidation Teop . That is:
d 2 St
> 0 when t < Teop
d(lgt)2
d 2 St
= 0 when t = Teop
d(lgt)2
d 2 St
< 0 when t > Teop
d(lgt)2

(2) The settlement St of the soil with t or lgt in time is


monotone increasing. That is:
abSf (t/Teop )b
dSt
=
dt
[(t/Teop )b + (a + c)]2 t

(9)

ln10abSf (t/Teop )b
dSt
dSt
= ln10
=
(10)
d(lgt)
d(lnt)
[(t/Teop )b + (a + c)]2

(5)

Because a, b, c, Teop , and Sf are non-negative,


dSt
dSt
0 and d(lgt)
0.
dt
t
(3) The rate of settlement dS
with t in time is
dt
monotone decreasing. That is:

ESTABLISHMENT OF MATHS
EXPRESSION FOR OEDOMETER TEST

d 2 St
dt2

Based on the above sections understanding for the


results of oedometer test, we can establish a simple and
continuous expression for forecasting the experiment
results. That is:

abSf (t/Teop )b
[(t/Teop )b + (a + c)]t2

[(a + c)(b 1)

(b + 1)(t/T eop )b ]

(11)

S t = Sf

(t/Teop )b + c
(t/Teop )b + a + c

(6)

where a, b, c, Teop , and Sf are non-negative parameters


of expression.Teop is the time of end of primary consolidation and Sf is the final settlement. Using more than
four group data (ti , Sti ) (i = 1,2,3,4 . . . n)(n > 4), we
can determine the parameters of expression by optimization method, such as least squares techniques.
Actually, span of the parameters a, b, c is very narrow
due to the following analysis.
The expression for oedometer test has the following
feature:

In order to keep ddtS2 t non-positive constantly, we


have to make b 1.
(4) There exists a demarcation point in the curve of
the settlement St versus lgt in time, when t = Teop .
That is:

(1) The expression can convey the composition of the


final settlement. That is:
t=0
t = Teop
t = >>Teop

c
S t = S0 = Sf
a+c
1+c
St = STeop = Sf
1+a+c
St = S = S f

(7)

So the immediate or elastic compression settlement Si , the primary consolidation settlement Sc ,


and the secondary compression or creep settlement Scr is
c
Sim = S0 = Sf
a+c
a
Sco = STeop S0 = Sf
(8)
(1 + a + c)(a + c)
a
Scr = S STeop = Sf
1+a+c
Especially, for sand, a = 0, so Sim = Sf and
Sco = Scr = 0.

750

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

d 2 St
d(lgt)

= (ln10)2

t < Teop (a + c) b
1

t = Teop (a + c) b
1

t > Teop (a + c) b

d 2 St
d(lnt)

(ln10)2 ab2 Sf (t/Teop )b

[(t/Teop )b + (a + c)]2
t b
[(a + c) (
) ] (12)
Teop

d 2 St
>0
d(lnt)2
2
d St
=0
d(lnt)2
2
d St
<0
d(lnt)2

(13)

So there exists a demarcation point at t = Teop


1
(a + c) b .
In reality, the distinction between the primary
consolidation and the secondary compression is
not clear because secondary compression occurs
as part of the primary consolidation phase especially in soft clays.The mechanics of consolidation
is still not fully understood and to make estimates
of settlement, it is convenient to separate primary
consolidation and secondary compression and the
demarcation point exists at the end of primary
consolidation Teop , that is:
1

t = Teop (a + c) b = Teop and a + c = 1.


For the soil with no clear distinction between the
primary consolidation and the secondary compression, we consider as a + c 1.

1.E+01

lgt/minute
1.E+03 1.E+05

lgt/minute
1.E+07

1.E01
0

Test curve

500

settelement/0.001mm

settlement/0.001mm

1.E01
0

Predict test

1000
1500
2000
2500
3000

Figure 1. slgt curve of the sample of 532B32(10).

1.E+01

1000
1500

1.E+03

Predict curve
2000
3000
4000

lgt/minute

1.E+05

1.E+07

1.00E01
0

Test curve
Predict curve

2000
2500
3000
3500

1.00E+01

400

1.00E+05

1.00E+07

Test curve
Predict curve

800

1200

Figure 4. slgt curve of the sample of 519B08.

(5) There are narrow spans for the parameters a, b, and


c. That is:

lgt/minute
1.E01
0
settlement/0.001mm

0 b 1; a+c = 1 or a+c 1 and a > 0, c > 0.


4 VERIFICATION OF MATHS EXPRESSION
The results of long-term (duration to 18 month) consolidation tests on clays from the Chek Lap Kok formation
are used to verify the rationality of the maths expression. The clays are firm to stiff, light to dark grey silty
clay with occasional organic inclusions. The clays have
a clay content varying from 24% to 51%, a silt content
of 49% to 73% and a sand content of 0 to 3%. The
clays have a liquid limit of 39% to 68%, plastic limit
of 18% to 33%, natural moisture content of 21% to
56% and a bulk density of 1.67 Mg/m3 to 2.06 Mg/m3 .
The experiment curves and best fitting curves by the
presented maths expression are shown in Figs 15.
The reasonable agreement shows the rightness of the
maths expression.

1.E+01

1.E+03

1.E+05

1.E+07

500
1000
1500

Test curve
Predict curve

2000
2500
3000

Figure 5. slgt curve of the sample of 532B32(6).

the influence on calculation results. To simplify the


analysis, only one parameter is changed at one time
in the following section. Unless otherwise stated, all
calculation parameters hereinafter are considered as
Sf = 100, Teop = 10, a = 0.5, b = 0.5 and c = 0.5.
5.1 Influence of the parameter Sf

EVALUATION OF EXPRESSIONS
PARAMETERS

Parameters of the presented maths expression including a, b, c, Teop , and Sf are discussed and analyzed for

Obviously from equation [7], Sf is the final settlement.


Its value reflects directly the magnitude of the final
settlement. When the void of soil is compressed into
zero by external force, this is the upper limit of the

751

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

1.00E+03

1600

Figure 2. slgt curve of the sample of 520ME211.

1.E+07

Figure 3. slgt curve of the sample of 520ME214.

settlement/0.001mm

settlement/0.001mm

1.E+01

1.E+05

Test curve

1000

lgt/minute
1.E01
0
500

1.E+03

20
40

a=0.3

a=0.5

a=0.7
a=1.5

a=1.0

lgt/minute

settlement/cm

settlement/cm

lgt/minute
1.E03 1.E01 1.E+01 1.E+03 1.E+05 1.E+07
0

60

1.E03 1.E01 1.E+01 1.E+03 1.E+05 1.E+07


50
b=0.1
b=0.2
b=0.3
b=0.5
60
b=1
b=5
70
80
90

80

100
100
Figure 7. Influence of parameter b.
Figure 6. Influence of parameter a.
Table 1.

Influence of the parameter a on the settlement.

Immediate settlement
Consolidation settlement
Secondary compression

0.3

0.5

0.7

1.5

62.5
20.8
16.7

50
25
25

41.7
26.5
31.8

33.3
26.7
40

25
25
50

settlement/cm

Parameter a

lgt/minute
1.E03 1.E01 1.E+01 1.E+03 1.E+05 1.E+07
0
c=0.2
c=0.4
20
c=0.5
c=0.6
c=0.8
40
60
80

100

final settlement Sf , that is Sf H/(1 + e), where e is


the initial void ratio and H is the initial height of soil.

Figure 8. Influence of parameter c.


Table 2.

5.2

Parameter c

Influence of the parameter a

The influence of the parameter a is analyzed by defining the parameter a as a = 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, and 1.5.The
curves of lgt in time versus the settlement are plotted
in Fig. 6 and the corresponding values of the immediate settlement, the consolidation settlement, and the
secondary compression calculated by equation [8] are
listed in Table 1. As shown in Figure 6 and Table 1, the
larger the parameter a, the smaller the immediate settlement, the larger the secondary compression, and the
consolidation settlement is growing at the beginning
and is falling at the end.

5.3

Influence of the parameter c on the settlement.

Influence of the parameter b

The influence of the parameter b is analyzed by defining the parameter b as b = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5, 1.0, and
5.0. The curves of lgt in time versus the settlement
are plotted in Fig. 7. As shown in Figure 7, the larger
the parameter b, the flatter the slope of the curve of
lgt in time versus the settlement in the stage of the primary consolidation. It is pointed out that the parameter
b does not influence the proportion of the immediate settlement, the consolidation settlement and the
secondary compression.

Immediate settlement
Consolidation settlement
Secondary compression

0.5

0.7

1.5

28.6
42.0
29.4

44.4
29.2
26.3

50.0
25.0
25.0

54.5
21.6
23.8

61.5
16.7
21.7

5.4 Influence of the parameter c


The influence of the parameter c is analyzed by defining the parameter c as c = 0.2, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6 and 0.8. The
curves of lgt in time versus the settlement are plotted
in Fig. 8 and the corresponding values of the immediate settlement, the consolidation settlement, and the
secondary compression calculated by equation [8] are
listed in Table 2. As shown in Figure 8 and Table 2, the
larger the parameter c, the larger the immediate settlement, the smaller the secondary compression and
the consolidation settlement, and the flatter the slope
of the curve of lgt in time versus the settlement in the
stage of the primary consolidation.
5.5 Influence of the parameter Teop
The influence of the parameter Teop is analyzed by
defining the parameter Teop as Teop = 1, 10, 100, and

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

0.3

settlement/cm

test), a simple and continuous maths expression for


Odometer test coupled the primary consolidation settlement and the secondary compression settlement is
established. The reasonable agreement of the forecast
results and the experiment results of the long term
(duration to 18 months) consolidation test on clays
from the Chek Lap Kok formation proves the rightness of the expression. In the end, the parameters of
expression are discussed and analyzed.

lgt/minute
1.E03 1.E01 1.E+01 1.E+03 1.E+05 1.E+07
50
Teop=1
Teop=10
60
Teop=100
Teop=1000
70
80
90

100

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Figure 9. Influence of parameter Teop .

1000. The curves of lgt in time versus the settlement


are plotted in Fig. 9. As shown in Figure 9, the larger
the parameter Teop , the slower the primary consolidation and the secondary compression. It is pointed out
that the parameter Teop does not influence the shape of
the curve and the proportions of the immediate settlement, the consolidation settlement and the secondary
compression from equation [8].
6

CONCLUSION

Financial supports from the Hong Kong Polytechnic University and from Foundation (205058,
04KJB560048), are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
D. O. K. Lo & J PermchittLong-term consolidation tests on
clays from the Chek Lap Kok formation, Geo Report No.
72, Geotechnical Engineering Office Civil Engineering
Department, HongKong
Muni Budhu (2000). Soil mechanics and foundations, New
York, NY, Wiley.

Based on the characters of curve of times including


logarithm of times versus displacement in the typical one-dimensional consolidation test (the odometer

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Back analysis of three case histories of braced excavations in Boston Blue


Clay using MSD method
Ashraf Osman
Durham University, UK

Malcolm Bolton
Cambridge University, UK

ABSTRACT: This paper illustrates a new design approach conceived within the framework of plasticity theory,
but allowing for strain hardening. Three examples demonstrating the applicability of modified plasticity theory
to predict and control deformations around stiff-propped systems of braced excavations in soft clay soils are
presented.
1

INTRODUCTION

The Finite Element (FE) method can provide a useful


framework to evaluate the performance of geotechnical structures and to estimate the ground movements
around structures. However, one of the most difficult factors to consider in the numerical analyses
of geotechnical problems is the constitutive behavior
of the soil. The soil is quite a complicated material
that always shows a non-linear and sometimes brittle
response. Furthermore, the soil has no unique relationship between strains and stresses. Many states of
strain can correspond to a single state of stress or vice
versa. The stress-strain relation in soil is complicated
and subject to many factors such as stress history and
anisotropy. Although, many aspects of non-linear soil
stiffness are well understood and have been incorporated into numerical models, many of these models
are relatively complex and the parameters lack clear
physical meanings. Also, these analyses require special testing and lengthy computer calculations and
therefore occupy a disproportionate time for practicing engineers. Thus, there are many practical cases
for which these complex and expensive numerical
analyses are not justified. Therefore, there is a need
for a simple unified design approach, which could
relate successfully the real nature of serviceability and
collapse limits to the soil behavior.
The authors developed a new design approach
for braced excavations retaining soft deposits. The
proposed design method treats a stress path in a representative soil zone as a curve of plastic soil strength
mobilised as strains develop. Limit analysis is used to
derive mobilised shear stresses from working loads.
Strains are entered into a simple plastic deformation

mechanism to predict boundary displacements. Hence,


the proposed Mobilisable Strength Design (MSD)
method might satisfy both safety and serviceability
in a single step of calculation.
2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Following ORourke (1993), the incremental lateral
displacement profile of a multi-propped wall retaining
an excavation in soft clay, and subject to excavation of
the soil beneath the lowest level of support, can be
assumed to conform to a cosine function as follows
(Figure 1).


wm
2y
w =
)
(1)
1 cos (
2


Figure 1. Incremental displacements in braced excavation


(after ORourke 1993).

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where w is incremental wall displacement at any distance y from the lowest wall support; wm is maximum
incremental displacement; and  is the full wavelength
of the deformation pattern.
Figure 2 shows a new plastic deformation mechanism for an incremental lateral displacement of a
wall retaining soft clay. In these plane-strain mechanisms, the wall is assumed to be fixed incrementally
in position and direction at the lowest level of props,
which implies that the wall has sufficient strength to
avoid the formation of a plastic hinge. The propping
system is assumed to be stiff. The wall and soil are
deforming compatibly and the soil deformation profile
follows the cosine function of Equation 1. The average
shear strain mobilized in the soil within the assumed
displacement field can be linked to the maximum
incremental displacement:
3
dvol
wm
3
mob = vol
2
(2)

dvol
vol
where is the engineering shear strain defined as
the difference between the major 1 and minor 3
principal strain increments = |1 3 |, and vol
is the volume of the plastic deformation mechanism
shown in Figure 2.
At each stage of the excavation, the strength cmob
mobilised due to the excavation of soil beneath the lowest support can be found using the Principle of Virtual
Work by balancing the virtual loss of potential energy
to the virtual plastic work in distributed shearing.


t vdVol =
cmob dVol
(3)
volume

Detailed derivation and validation is given in


Osman and Bolton (2006a, 2006b).
The corresponding mobilised shear strain mob is
found from the stress-strain curve obtained from a soil
test (e.g. direct simple shear tests) on a representative
undisturbed sample. The maximum incremental wall
movement is then calculated from the corresponding
increment in shear strain (Equation 2). The incremental wall displacement profile is then plotted using
the cosine function of Equation 4. The total bulging
displacement profile at the end of each stage of the
excavation is obtained by accumulating the incremental movement profile at the current excavation stage
with the incremental profiles from previous stages.
The wall often deforms in a cantilever mode before
the installation of the first support level. Clough et al.
(1989) suggest that the movements due to the cantilever mechanism and bulging mechanism can be
added together to obtain the final movement (Figure 3).
Following Bolton and Powrie (1988) and Osman and
Bolton (2004), the deformation around a cantilever
retaining wall can be idealized by means of triangles,
one on each side of the wall, deforming in uniform
shear (Figure 4) such that the mobilized shear strain
mob is twice the wall rotation . The proportional
strength mobilised ( = cmob /cu ) can then be obtained
by Virtual Work, using appropriate integrals in equation 3. The corresponding mobilised shear strain mob
is found from the representative stress-strain curve.
Then, the angle of wall rotation is obtained by

volume

where t is total unit weight of the soil, v is vertical


component of the displacement.
so that:
3
t vdvol
(4)
= 3
cu dvol
where = cmob /cu .

Figure 3. Effect of cantilever stage movement on system


displacement (Clough et al 1989).

Figure 2. Plastic deformation mechanism for braced excavations in clay.

Figure 4. Plastic deformation mechanism for cantilever


retaining walls in undrained conditions.

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dividing the mobilised shear strain by 2 and the displacement at the top of the wall is calculated by
multiplying the angle of wall rotation by the wall
length. This cantilever movement then defines the initial ground displacement profile prior to propping, and
the subsequent bulging displacements are added as
explained above.
This cantilever movement then defines the initial
ground displacement profile prior to propping, and
the subsequent bulging displacements are added as
illustrated in Figure 5.

CASE HISTORIES

The usefulness of the MSD method in practical application will be demonstrated for three case histories of
excavations in the soft deposits of Boston Blue Clay:
the 7-level underground Post Office Square Garage,

Figure 5. Calculation of wall total displacement in the MSD


method.

Boston, the Stata Centre at the Massachusetts Institute


ofTechnology campus, and an excavation for 31-storey
office tower development at 75 State Street, Boston.
3.1 Post office square garage, Boston
The first case history is the Post Office Square Garage
braced excavation in Boston Blue Clay (Whittle et al.,
1993, and Becker and Haley, 1990). The 1400 car parking underground garage was constructed with seven
levels of below-grade structure in the heart of the
downtown financial district of Boston in late 1980s.
The garage occupies a plan area of 6880 m2 , and is
bounded by the intersection of Pearl, Congress, Milk,
and Franklin Streets (Figure 6). The excavation is surrounded by existing buildings up to 40 stories tall. The
site was previously occupied by an old car park of three
storeys (two storeys above the ground and one underground) which was demolished at the beginning of the
construction of the new garage.
The top-down construction technique was used to
provide a stiff, permanent bracing system as excavation proceeded. The initial construction of the roof of
the garage was to create a staging platform throughout the construction process, thus minimizing traffic
tie-ups on nearby streets. The top-down construction
technique is also used to eliminate the use of tie-backs
and temporary props (Becker and Haley, 1990).
The structure consists of a cast-in-place 0.9 m concrete diaphragm around the garage perimeter using the
slurry trench method. The wall extended down into the
bedrock and is braced internally by the floor slabs. The
floor slabs are supported by interior steel columns (Hsection) founded on sockets cast in the bedrock. Both
the diaphragm wall and interior columns were installed
prior to excavation. The slab roof and the seven lower
floors were then cast in sequence from the top-down;
the earth below each slab level was excavated and

Figure 6. Post Office Square Garage site location and adjacent buildings (after Whitman et al. 1991).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

the soil removed through temporary openings in the


slabs. Movable concrete slabs were lowered into position as each floor was excavated. Since the 24 m deep
excavation is very close to nearby streets, utilities
and structures, extensive field monitoring was implemented to observe and document conditions around
excavation. A detailed description of the method of
construction and the performance of the wall is given
in Becker and Haley, (1990) and Whittle et al (1993).
Subsurface soil and rock conditions at the site are
summarized as follows:

method provides a simplified model of the complex


reality for use in design and decision-making. The
following assumptions have been made in the back
analysis of this case history using the MSD method:

1. A surface layer of fill consisting of a heterogeneous


mixture of sand, gavel and construction debris
varies in thickness from 0.6 to 4.0 m.
2. Below the fill, a clay deposit of low plasticity
(Ip = 2030%) ranges in thickness between 10 to
15 m. The overconsolidation ratio ranges from 6 to
2, decreasing with depth (Figure 7).
3. The clay is underlain by a layer of medium dense
to very dense, fine to coarse sand with a varying
amount of fine to coarse gravel. The thickness of
the sand varies from 0.3 to 5.8 m. No sand layer is
observed at locations north and east of Pearl Street.
4. Below the sand, there is a layer of till consisting of a
hard heterogeneous mixture of particles of various
sizes embedded in a compact silty-clay matrix. The
till thickness ranges from 1.5 to 11.6 m.
5. The Bedrock is moderately to severely weathered
argillite containing discontinuous layers of sandstone. The surface of the bedrock layer is located at
elevations ranging from 16 to 20 m.
The soil profile found at Post Office Square is
obviously complex and variable. However, the MSD

The undrained strength of the soil is assumed to be


isotropic and is determined from direct simple shear
data.
The overconsolidation profile is based on the average soil profile assumed by Whittle et al (1993)
as shown in Figure 7. The direct simple shear
data is generated from the overconsolidation ratio
and the normalised value of cu /vo obtained from
undrained direct simple shear tests on Boston blue
clay (Ladd and Edgers1972) as given in Table 1. The
DSS undrained strength profile adopted in the MSD
calculations is shown in Figure 7.
The till and the sand will be stiffer than the clay;
however, a conservative approach is used by assuming that the stiffness of the till and the sand is the
same as the stiffness of the clay. The undrained
strength of the clay is extrapolated to the underlying
layers of sand and till.
Table 1. Ratio of undrained shear strength
to the effective vertical stress (cuo /v ) in the
direct simple shear DSS of shearing mode for
different overconcolidations ratios (OCR).
OCR


cu /vo

1
2
4
8

0.21
0.34
0.60
0.96

Figure 7. Post Office Square Garage structure and Initial soil conditions (after Whittle et al. 1993).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

The selection of a representative value for design


is always a controversial issue in geotechnical engineering. The selection of a representative value for
soil is complicated by the stress-strain behaviour. In
soil, there is no unique relationship between strains
and stresses. Many states of strain can correspond
to a single state of stress or vice versa (Wood, 1990).
The stress-strain relation in soil is complicated and
subject to many factors such as stress history. Since
the clay is assumed to govern the wall behaviour,
and it is overconsolidated with OCR varying from 6
to 2, the stress-strain curve equivalent to OCR = 4
is taken as a representative curve (Figure 8).

Figure 9 presents measurements of lateral deflections of four inclinometers on the perimeter of the site
compared with the MSD predictions. The inclinometers along Pearl Street show large displacements at the
top of the wall. This is due to the fact that, prior to
the roof construction, the excavation is unsupported
with a maximum depth of 6 m and the diaphragm wall
deforms in a cantilever mode. Measurements from
the inclinometers along Milk Street show significantly
less movement at the top of the wall. This is due to a
difference in construction sequence. In these locations,
the slab roof was constructed prior to the excavation.
Two MSD calculations were carried out assuming 0 m

Figure 8. Stress-strain response for Ko consolidated undrained direct simple shear tests on Boston Blue Clay (Ladd and
Edgers, 1972).

Figure 9. Wall movements during construction.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

and 6 m of unsupported excavation. In the MSD the


supports are assumed rigid; no shrinkage is allowed
to occur at the roof slabs. This explains the small differences in the deformation profiles. However, MSD
estimations for the maximum movements, generally,
are in very good agreements with the measured data.
Figure 10 shows a wide scatter in the field settlement measurements of up to 50 mm at locations
adjacent to the excavation. This is can be due to the
variation of construction sequences and soil strata.
Further away from the site, the observed settlement
tapers off rapidly with maximum values ranging from
12 mm at a distance of 15 m to less than 3 mm at 40 m.

The localisation of settlement adjacent to the excavation is predicted successfully by the MSD method.
The figure shows also that the maximum settlement
predicted by the MSD method conforms well to the
field measurements. However, the settlement trough
predicted by the MSD method extends only to 25 m
behind the wall.
Clough and ORourke (1990) suggested a more
conservative trapezoidal settlement profile, based on
observations from several case histories, for excavations in soft to medium clay. Their suggested profile
assumed that the settlement has a maximum value at
locations up to a distance away from the wall equal to
0.75 times the maximum excavation height; then the
settlement decreases to zero at a distance equal to twice
the maximum depth of the excavation. The method of
Clough and ORourke (1990) is used to modify the
MSD settlement profile as shown in Figure 10. The
maximum settlement is assumed to be equal to the
maximum lateral wall movement which is shown to
be a conservative design expedient. Figure 10 shows a
general agreement of the extent of the region of larger
settlements between unmodified and modified MSD
settlement profiles. Although the FE analysis carried
out by Whittle et al. (1993) predicts the extension of the
settlement trough away from the wall, it does not produce a conservative prediction for locations adjacent
to the wall.
3.2 The stata center, MIT campus, Cambridge

Figure 10. Comparison of predicted and measured surface


settlement after the installation of the sixth floor at Boston
Post Office Square Garage.

The new Stata Centre at Massachusetts Institute of


Technology campus was designed with a two storey
basement for underground parking requiring a 13 m
deep excavation.

Surcharge, 600psf
20

22ft
Fill
Organics
Sand
4ft Concrete Slab

-60

Boston Blue Clay

-40

Diaphragm
Wall
(2.5ft thick)

BOE EL. -21ft


Raker 2: El. -10ft
Raker 1: El. +10ft

-50

-80
-100

Bedrock

-120

Diameter
Wall
(ft)
Thickness (ins)
3.0
0.41
3.0
0.80

Raker
Glaciomarine

-50

1
2

Spacing
(ft)
25
25

50

Preload
(kips)
325
530

100

-100

150

Lateral Position Relative to Back of Diaphragm Wall (ft)


Figure 11. Cross section at the north wall (Olsen 2001).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

200

Elevation (ft)

Elevation (ft)

-20

Centerline (@ +187.5ft)

(a)
Figure 12a. In-situ stress conditions (after Olsen 2001).

Figure 13. Comparison of measured and predicted lateral


wall displacement at the end of the excavation at the north
wall of Stata Center.

(b)
Figure 12b. Measured lateral displacements (after Olsen
2001).

The site has a very large rectangular plan area


(approx. 97 m 118 m). The excavation is supported
by a permanent perimeter diaphragm wall of a 9 m
embedded depth. The wall is braced by a combination

of pre-stressed tieback anchors, preloaded raker and


corner bracing elements. The slurry wall was constructed during the period July November 2000 and
the excavation works were completed in June 2001.
Construction details and performance of the structure
is given in Olsen (2001).
The soil conditions consist of fill and organic soil
followed by a layer of marine sand overlying a thick
layer of medium stiff BBC that overlies a thin layer
of glacially deposited soils and bedrock (Figure 11).
Figure 12 shows the in-situ stresses and pore pressure
distribution. The water table is located at a depth of
about 1.2 m in the upper fill layer. The overconsolidation ratios of the BBC (Figure 12) were estimated
from the measured undrained strength profile and the

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Figure 14. Plan and cross section at 75 state street (Becker and Haley 1990).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(Equation 1). In the MSD the supports are assumed


rigid; no shrinkage is allowed to occur at the roof slabs.
This explains the discrepancy in Figure 13. However,
the MSD method predicts the maximum deflection
with reasonable accuracy.
3.3 75 state street, Boston

Figure 15. Measured and predicted wall deflection.

cu /vo OCR relation obtained from DSS (Table 1).


This figure shows that BBC has an overconsolisdation
ratio (OCR) ranging from 5 to 1.5.
This case study uses the MSD method to evaluate
the lateral earth support systems at the north wall supported by inclined rakers reacting against a 1.2 m thick
central concrete base slab (Figure 11). The characteristic undrained stress-strain curve is selected according
to the average soil stiffness of BBC was taken to be
of OCR = 4.0 (Figure 8). since the wall is embedded
into the medium to stiff Boston Blue clay layer, the end
condition is assumed of the restrained type ( = 4/3).
Figure 13 shows the measured displacements, with
the maximum measured deflection at the end of the
excavation shown as 50 mm (2 in). This figure shows
also that the soil beneath the base of the wall deform
laterally following, approximately, the same deformation pattern of the retaining wall. This reinforces the
assumption of having a single function to describe the
deformation of both free-end walls and the soil beneath

The 31-storey office tower development at 75 State


Street includes 6 levels of below-grade parking. The
site has a plan area of 5500 m2 . The development
includes 69500 m2 of above-grade floor area and
35000 m2 of below-grade space for a 700-car garage.
The subsurface condition at 75 State Street consists of
an overburden of fill on top of clay. The bedrock 21 to
31 m below ground surface is a highly altered argillite.
A soil profile, along with a substructure section is
shown in Figure 14.
The sub-grade structure was constructed using the
Up/Down construction technique. The surrounding
diaphragm wall, the permanent structural columns and
foundations were all installed prior to the excavation
using the slurry trench method. The wall extended
down into the bedrock and is braced internally by the
floor slabs, which are in turn supported by 84 interior columns composed of structural steel encased in
concrete. The interior columns are connected to belled
caissons and straight shaft caissons below the lowest
floor level. Details of the construction method and the
performance of the wall were documented by Becker
and Haley (1990).
The MSD calculations were carried out assuming
an average shear strength of 70 kPa which is a typical value in BBC. Figure 6 shows lateral displacement
profiles at three different excavation stages. The DSS
data of OCR = 4.0 (Figure 8) are used as representative stress-strain behavior in the MSD calculations.
The MSD method overestimates lateral displacements
in the early excavation stages (Figure 15). However, its
predictions conform well to the measured data in the
final excavation stages. The differences in the deformation profiles are due to rigid supports assumed in
the MSD method. It can be argued that the overall
functionality of the design method is more important
than any local detailed deviations.
4

Plasticity theory in engineering practice has previously


been confined to the prediction of collapse loads. However, the MSD method shows how non-linear materials
exhibiting plastic hardening can be brought within
the framework of simple plasticity theory through the
assumption of a plastic deformation mechanism. The
MSD method demonstrates the usefulness of Virtual
Work not only in assessing the stability of retaining

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CONCLUSIONS

structures, but also in providing an estimate of working


shear stresses that can lead directly to the prediction
of compatible wall and ground movements.
Examples from the professional field of Geotechnical Engineering have been given to demonstrate the
applicability of this modified plasticity theory to predict and control deformations around stiff-propped
systems of braced excavations in soft clay soils
The non-linear displacements of braced excavations
can be predicted successfully, accurately, and rather
simply by respecting the equilibrium and compatibility of plastic deformations and by using the raw
data of a well-chosen soil test. This challenges the
current consensus of researchers and professionals,
who invariably demand complex numerical analyses
in critical cases.
REFERENCES
Becker, J. M., & Haley, M. X. (1990). Up/down
constructionDecision making and performance. Proceedings of the ASCE Conference on Design and Performance of Earth Retaining Structures, Geotechnical
Special Publication No. 25, ASCE, New York, 170189.
Bolton, M. D. & Powrie. (1988). Behaviour of diaphram walls
in clay prior to collapse. Geotechnique 38(2): 167189.
Clough, G. W., Smith, E. M., & Sweeney, B. P. (1989). Movement control of excavation support systems by iterative
design. ASCE Foundation Engineering Congress, ASCE,
New York, N.Y., Vol.1, 869884.

Clough, G. W., ORourke, T. D. (1990). Construction induced


movements of insitu walls. Design and performance of
earth retaining structures, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 25, ASCE, New York, N.Y., 439470.
Ladd, C. C., and Edgers, L. (1972). Consolidated-undranined
direct simple shear tests on Boston blue clay. Res. Report
R7282, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Olsen, M. B. (2001). Measured performance of a large excavation on the MIT campus. SM thesis, Dept. of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.
ORourke, T. D. (1993). Base stability and ground movement prediction for excavations in soft clay. Retaining
structures, Thomas Telford, London, 131139.
Osman, A. S., & Bolton, M. D. (2004). A new design
method for retaining walls in clay. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 41(3): 451466.
Osman, A. S., & Bolton, M. D. (2006a). Ground movement predictions for excavations in undrained clay,
ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering 132(4):465477.
Osman, A. S., & Bolton, M. D. (2006b). Design of Braced
Excavations to Limit Ground Movements. Proceedings of
Institution of Civil Engineers: Geotechnical Engineering,
159(3): 167175.
Whittle, A. J. (1993). Evaluation of a constitutive model for
overconsolidated clays. Geotechnique, 43(2): 289313.
Whittle, A. J., Hashash, Y. M. A., and Whitman, R. V. (1993).
Analysis of deep excavation in Boston. ASCE Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 119(1): 6990.

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Effect of ratio of influence zone and type of vertical drain on consolidation


of soft clay due to radial flow
A.V. Shroff, Manish V. Shah, Tasneem Khan & Nitin Joshi
Applied Mechanics Dept., The M.S. University of Baroda, India

ABSTRACT: Paper presents experimental model of sand drains & sandwick reinforced soft soil mass to
expedite the in-situ settlement under preloading by radial drainage taking advantage of having more horizontal
permeability than vertical. These tests were conducted in Oedometer described by Rowe and Barden (1966) and
further modified by installing three radial points at different distances from the centre of the Oedometer for pore
pressure measurement during radial flow. The variation of ratio of zone of influence to the diameter of drain has
been varied to access the optimization of drain diameter for better performance with respect to increase of quick
strength by accelerating settlement. The effects of sand drains & sandwick of different n values like 11.04 and
16.93 on consolidation characteristics of Kaolinitic clay were undertaken to investigate the settlement and pore
pressure dissipation characteristics. The degree of consolidation was compared for both drains by keeping time
factor as constant parameter by relating it with Barrons theoretical solution. The Barrons equal strain solution
shows a fair agreement between measured and predicted values.

INTRODUCTION

Due to devastating Bhuj Earthquake (2001) long


coastal belt of Gujarat state (INDIA) was suffered
because of the higher sensitive nature of the coastal
soft clays. Soil has lost its in-situ strength during seismic stresses because of change of metastable card
house structure of illitic coastal soils. Strengthening of
these soft soils by accelerating consolidation through
radial drainage with the help of Prefabricated Vertical
Geodrain help mitigating the danger of becoming soft
clay quick.
To accelerate the consolidation process and gain
strength use of vertical sand filled holes known as
sand drains and sandwicks (cylindrical geotextile bags
filled with saturated sand) wells are used. The drain
well permits the control over the water migrating in
radial (horizontal) direction. This reduces the excess
pore water pressure that is built up in the soil mass and
reduces the drainage path thus increasing the rate of
consolidation manifold. Due to provision of geodrains
most of the settlement will occur during and not after
construction. The advantages are threefold

The aim of the present work is to study consolidation due to radial drainage of Kaolinite clay using
sand drains and sandwicks and study the effect of
n value (ratio of drain dia to sample dia) on consolidation parameters. The hydraulically pressurized
Oedometer described by Rowe and Barden (1966)
and further modified for pore pressure measurement during radial flow is employed in the present
investigation.

Expediting the rate of settlement.


Consequently acceleration in the rate of gain in
shear strength.
Reduction in the lateral transmission of excess
hydrostatic pressure.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE OF THE PAPER

Paper presents experimental model of sand drains


and sandwick reinforced soft soil mass to expedite the rate of consolidation due to radial drainage
taking advantage of having more horizontal permeability than vertical.
The effects of sand drains and sandwick of different n values (ratio of drain diameter to sample
diameter) on consolidation characteristics (coefficient of consolidation Cr due to radial drainage)
of Kaolinitic clay are undertaken to investigate the
settlement characteristics.
The variation of ratio of zone of influence (re ) to the
diameter of drain has been varied to access the optimization of drain diameter for better performance
with respect to increase of quick strength on the
basis of settlement and pore pressure dissipation
characteristics.

To compare coefficient of horizontal permeability


(Kr) for sand drains and sand wicks.
To compare the degree of consolidation (Ur) for
different n values with Barrons solution from
both settlement readings (SR) and pore pressure
dissipation readings (PR).
Comparison of theoretical isochrones and experimental isochrones obtained from pore pressure measurements at various radial distances using Barrons
solution for the case of equal vertical strain
The specific points kept in view while developing the system and analyzing the experimental data
obtained during investigation are as under:
1. System adequacies and the compatibility of settlement measuring set up with recording system.
2. Interaction of radial flow with rate and magnitude
of consolidation.
3. Orientation of particles and drainage path.
4. Tortuosity of the flow in radial and vertical path.
5. Soil structural changes along with changes
in the soil skeleton, intermolecular water and
permeability.
3

Figure 1. Modified Oedometer of 152 mm diameter with


three radial points.

uniform settlement measurement of the sample. For


both the oedometer test diameter to height ratio was
kept constant. The side friction was reduced by means
of application of silicon grease on the walls of the cell.

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

3.1 Rowe oedometer

3.3 Preparation of clay samples

The two different diameters of oedometer i.e. 254 mm


and 152 mm were used for testing the remolded samples. The cell body is machined from aluminum bronze
sating which is resistant to corrosion. The base plate
and top plate are bolted to the flanges while at the base
o ring is provided to make it water seal.
A uniform pressure is applied by means of conventional hydraulic pressure system on the convoluted
rubber jack which transfers uniform pressure on the
soil sample placed in the cell. To achieve equal strain
condition a rigid top platen is inserted between the jack
and the sample. The vertical settlement is measured at
the center of the sample by means of brass hollow rod
attached to the jack and passing out the cell cover to
a suitable dial gauge. Pore pressures are measured at
the three radial points located at 120 degree each with
r/re distances as r/4, r/2 and 3r/4 respectively. (Ref.
Figure 1.)

The sample is made from soft kaolin clay obtained


commercially in the form of powder from the vadodara
city. The clay powder was tested by doing dehydration
test. The specific gravity of clay powder G = 2.592,
liquid limit (LL) = 67%, plastic limit (PI) = 33.43
and belonging to CH (clay of high plasticity) group
according to I.S.Classification system. To ensure full
maturation of the sample the clay was mixed to form
slurry with twice the liquid limit using a de-aired distilled water. After 24 hours of placing the slurry into
the cell a static load of 10 KPa is applied gradually for
the period upto 25 days. The clay is then scribed level
and a filter paper followed by saturated flexible bronze
drain is placed on the top. Free water is poured onto
the drain and the rubber jack is lowered into the position through the water to exclude all air. Before that
initial moisture content and void ratio are determined.
Also the shear strength is measured with the help of
laboratory vane shear apparatus.

3.2

Drainage and pore pressure measurement

Inward radial drainage was provided in our case. The


drainage outlet is via the centre of the settlement hollow rod and a short length of flexible tube leading to
valve at the edge of the cell cover. No vertical drainage
is allowed and so the top of the sample is sealed with
the jack alone or with a rigid impervious top platen
between the sample and the jack. The important factor
in all the above set-up is full control over drainage and

3.4 Preparation and installation of sand drains


The axial hole was formed with a thin walled mandrel,
having area ratio of 0.8 to 1.6 attached with template and guide frame connection. The sand having
specific gravity G = 2.645, coefficient of permeability k = 8.45 103 cm/sec of well graded coarse type
was used. The drain was filled with de-aired saturated
sand with the aid of small diameter flexible tubing by

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

siphoning action to cause nearly no smear. With least


possible time gap a top rigid plate with a porous stone
at the centre was placed.

Table 1. Comparison of time required in minutes for degree


of consolidation for various drains when n = 11.04. (From
settlement readings)

3.5

Ur%

Preparation and Installation of sand wicks

The sandwick consists of prepacked geotextile cylindrical bag (polypropylene) having diameter according
different n values selected. The polypropylene geotextile bag prepared before the test with height equal
to that of sample. The sand and bag are saturated in
water for thorough de-aired saturated sand is filled
in the bag under the syphoic action to get required
density. The wick thus prepared is then inserted in the
predrilled hole, formed by thin mandrel at centre of the
soil sample in the oedometer with help of guide platen
having a two guide screws by the side for correct vertical installation. During installation care is taken for
the full saturation of the sandwick.Water sprinkling is
done to ensure water continuity with porous stone. In
the present investigation n = 11.04 and n = 16.93 are
used for detail study.

Sand Drains
(time in min)
40 kPa
0.6
280
2000

10
50
100

Sandwicks
(time in min)

160 kPa
0.4
240
1400

40 kPa
36
324
1440

160 kPa
20
210
1340

Table 2. Comparison of time required in minutes for degree


of consolidation for various drains when n = 16.93. (From
settlement readings)
Sand Drains
(time in min)

Ur%

40 kPa
110
1000
2700

10
50
100

Sandwicks
(time in min)

160 kPa
10
470
2720

40 kPa
49
600
2400

160 kPa
40
415
2600

3.6 Testing program


0.014

After installation of sample and fixing top platen along


with dial gauge, displacement transducers, pore pressure transducers, bishops apparatus are connected to
their respective locations. Load increment is applied
from constant pressure system to sample through water
filed jacket, with closed position of the drainage
valve at the top plate. Pressures are applied in the
range of 20 kPa, 40 kPa, 80 kPa, 160 kPa and 320 kPa
with p/p = 1.0. Each load increment is kept constant
for about 96 hrs and secondary compression is also
recorded. After completion of the test, the sample is
taken for final moisture content measurement.

40kPa

0.012

160kPa
Cr(cm2/s)

0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

0
0

Barrons (1948) equal vertical strain theory with no


smear and no well resistance has been used to carry
out the analysis for radial consolidation. The average
degree of consolidation for radial drainage, Ur, can be
obtained from:
Ur = 1 e(8 Tvr/f (n))

40

60
Ur%

80

100

Figure 2. Comparison of Cr vs. Ur% for n = 11.04, sand


drains.

(1)

For sand drains at low engineering stress, both


n = 11.04 and n = 16.93 the Cr value does not much
decrease during initial stage of consolidation while
the Cr value decreases rapidly at high pressure
during first 30% of consolidation and thereafter
it remains nearly constant. This nature remains
same even for sand drains with n = 16.93.(Ref.
fig 2,3,4,5)

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

20

In case of sand wicks lower values of Cr are


observed compare to that of sand drains at any
pressures.
From the fig. 6&7 it is clear that the degree of
consolidation (Ur) achieved was more in case of
low pressures, but the overall the Ur achieved by
n=11.04 was greater compare to n = 16.93 for both
drains.
From the fig. 8, it was observed that as pressure
increases the degree of consolidation was achieved
at low time factor (Tvr), which suggests that at

Tvr

0.006
0.0

40kPa
0.005

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

160kPa

0.004

10

40kPa

20

160kPa

30
40

0.003

Ur%

Cr(cm2/s)

0.2

0.002

50
60
70

0.001

80
90

0
0

20

40

60
Ur%

80

100

100

Figure 3. Comparison of Cr vs. Ur% for n = 16.93, sand


drains.

Figure 6. Comparison of degree of consolidation and experimental time factor for n = 11.04, sand drains.
Tvr
0

0.009

40kPa

0.008

160kPa

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

0
10

0.007

20

40kPa

0.006

30

160kPa

40

0.005
Ur%

Cr(cm2/s)

0.01

0.004
0.003

50
60
70

0.002

80

0.001

90

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

100

Ur%

Figure 4. Comparison of Cr vs. Ur% for n = 11.04, sandwicks.

Figure 7. Comparison of degree of consolidation and experimental time factor for n = 16.93, sand drains.
Tvr

0.004

40kPa

0.0035

0.0025
0.002
Ur%

Cr(cm2/s)

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

160kPa

0.003

0.2

0.0015

10

20kPa

20

40kPa

30

80kPa

40

160kPa

50

0.001

60

0.0005

70

320kPa

80

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

90

Ur%

100

Figure 5. Comparison of Cr vs. Ur% for n = 6.93, sandwicks.

Figure 8. Comparison of degree of consolidation and experimental time factor for n = 11.04, sandwicks.

768

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Tvr
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Tvr
0.8

1.2

0.6

0.9

1.2

10

10

20

20

SR
PR

30

30

40

40

50

Ur%

Ur%

0.3

60

50
60

70
70
80
80

90

90

100

100

Figure 9. Comparison of theoretical & experimental Ur for


n = 11.04 under 40 kPa, sandwicks.

Figure 11. Comparison of Ur based on SR & PR at 40 kPa


for n = 11.04, sandwicks.

Tvr
0

0.3

0.6

0.9

Tvr

1.2
0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

0
10

20

10

SR

20

PR

30
30
40

50

Ur%

Ur%

40

60

50
60

70

70

80

80

90

90

100

100

Figure 10. Comparison of theoretical & experimental Ur


for n = 11.04 under 160 kPa, sandwicks.

Figure 12. Comparison of Ur based on SR & PR at 160 kPa


for n = 11.04, sandwicks.

pressures upto 40 kPa there is fast change in rate


of compression compare to lower rate of compressions at higher pressures during initial stages of
consolidation.
From the fig. 9 & 10 it is observed that the experimental and theoretical degree of consolidation was
nearly same, except that for higher pressures lower
degree of consolidation was achieved for the same
time factor.
From fig. 12, 14 & 15, it is clearly noted that degree
of consolidation achieved by pore pressure readings
is comparatively very fast for both n values and for

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

both drains. The Ur achieved by pore pressure readings is nearly 1215% higher to that of settlement
readings.
From fig. 13 it is observed that when the drain diameter decreases (n = 16.93) at low pressures lower
degree of consolidation is achieved compare to that
by higher pressures.
From fig. 16 & 17 shows that the distribution of
excess hydrostatic pressures at three different radial
points for n = 11.04 and n = 16.93. The mid-plane
radial point (R2) was considered to be ideal for comparison of isochrones and degree of consolidation.

Tvr

Tvr
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

0.00
0

0
10

0.60

.9

1.21

.5

10

20

20

SR=160kpa

40kpa

30

PR=160kpa

80kpa

40

30

20kpa

40
50

Ur%

Ur%

.3

160kpa
60

50

320kpa

60

70

70

80

80

90

90

100

100

Figure 13. Comparison of degree of consolidation and


experimental time factor for n = 16.93, sandwicks.

Figure 15. Comparison of Ur based on SR & PR at 160 kPa


for n = 16.93, sandwicks.

Tvr
0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

120

1.2

100

10

80

20
30

(Ur/Uo) %

0
SR=40kpa
PR=40kpa

Ur%

40

R1
R2
R3

60
40

50

20

60

0
0.001

70

0.01

80

0.1

Tvr

90

Figure 16. Theoretical plot of excess pore water pressure


versus time factor for n = 11.04.

100

Figure 14. Comparison of Ur based on SR & PR at 40 kPa


for n = 16.93, sandwicks.

120
R1
100

From fig. 18, 19, 20 & 22 it is observed that experimental isochrones of 40 kPa and 160 kPa for both
n values fits exactly with the theoretical values.
Fast dissipation pore pressure is seen at early stages
of consolidation but more at faster rate in case of
sandwicks with n = 11.04.
From fig. 21 & 22 it is observed that higher rate
of permeability (Kr) is observed for both drains
at n = 11.04 compare to n = 16.93, while specifically sandwicks shows 1.41.6 times higher rate of
permeability compare to sand drains.
Above analysis indicate that n = 11.04 is the ideal
drain which shows high rate of consolidation. Also
it is observed that pore pressure readings seems
to be more reliable for deciding degree of consolidation as in case of settlement readings phase
of secondary consolidation cannot be ignored as

(Ur/Uo) %

R3

80
60
40
20
0
0.001

0.01

0.1

10

Tvr
Figure 17. Theoretical plot of excess pore water pressure
versus time factor for n = 16.93.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

R2

100

Tvr=0.022(T)

100

Tvr(T)=0.027

Tvr=0.022(E)
Tvr=0.044(T)

90

Tvr(E)=0.027

90

Tvr=0.044(E)

Tvr(T)=0.058

Tvr=0.074(T)

80

Tvr(E)=0.058

Tvr=0.074(E)

80

Tvr=0.106(T)

Tvr(T)=0.093

70
Tvr=0.106(E)

Tvr(E)=0.093

Tvr=0.144(T)

Ur/Uo%

60

70

Tvr(T)=0.133

Tvr=0.144(E)

Tvr(E)=0.133

Tvr=0.191(T)
50

Tvr=0.191(E)

Tvr(T)=0.181

60

40

Ur/Uo(%)

Tvr=0.251(T)
Tvr=0.251(E)
Tvr=0.336(T)
Tvr=0.336(E)

30

Tvr(E)=0.181
Tvr(T)=0.239

50

Tvr(E)=0.239

Tvr=0.481(T)

Tvr(T)=0.314

40

Tvr=0.481(E)

20

Tvr(E)=0.314

Tvr=0.541(T)

Tvr(T)=0.42

Tvr=0.541(E)
10

30

Tvr=0.626(T)

Tvr(E)=0.42

Tvr=0.626(E)

Tvr(T)=0.601

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Tvr(E)=0.601

20

Tvr(T)=0.676

Figure 18. Comparison of theoretical & experimental


Isochrones under 40 kPa and n = 11.04, sandwicks.

Tvr(E)=0.676

10

Tvr(T)=0.782

100
Tvr=0.022(E)

Tvr=0.046(E)

0.25

0.5

0.75

r/re

Tvr=0.074(T)

80

Tvr(E)=0.782

Tvr=0.046(T)

90

Tvr=0.074(E)
Tvr=0.106(T)

70

Tvr=0.106(E)

Figure 20. Comparison of theoretical & experimental


Isochrones under 40 kPa and n = 16.93, sandwicks.

Tvr=0.144(T)

60

once the hydraulic gradient is set in drains little bit


compression will continue indefinite times at every
pressures.Also the zone of influence plays an important role as drain diameter increases it becomes more
effective in development and dissipation of pore
pressures. Very few theories really reflect on this
matter.

Ur/Uo%

Tvr=0.144(E)
Tvr=0.191(T)

50

Tvr=0.191(E)
Tvr=0.251(T)

40

Tvr=0.251(E)
Tvr=0.336(T)

30

Tvr=0.336(E)
Tvr=0.481(T)

20

Tvr=0.481(E)

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Tvr=0.541(T)

10

Tvr=0.541(E)
0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

r/re

Figure 19. Comparison of theoretical & experimental


Isochrones under 160 kPa and n = 11.04, sandwicks.

(1) Higher rate of consolidation at less n value. This


is occurring so as the n value increases the surface area of drain gets smaller then the effect of
tortousity increases.
(2) For all n values the time of consolidation will
reduce with increase in pressure resulting into an
increase in the value of coefficient of consolidation.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Kr in cm/sec

4.50E-07

2.00E-07

4.00E-07

1.80E-07

3.50E-07

1.60E-07
1.40E-07
Kr (cm/sec)

3.00E-07
2.50E-07
"n=11.04
"

2.00E-07
1.50E-07

1.20E-07

n=11.04"

1.00E-07
n=16.93

8.00E-08
6.00E-08

1.00E-07

4.00E-08
2.00E-08

5.00E-08
0.1

10

100

1000

0.00E+00
1

log'p' in kPa

Figure 21. Comparison of Kr under different pressures and


drain diameters of sand drains.

10
100
log'p' in kpa

1000

Figure 23. Comparison of Kr under different pressures and


drain diameters of sand wicks.

100
Tvr(T)=0.027
Tvr(E)=0.027

90

Tvr(T)=0.058
Tvr(E)=0.058
80

Tvr(E)=0.093
Tvr(E)=0.093

70

Tvr(T)=0.133
Tvr(E)=0.133
Tvr(T)=0.181

Ur/Uo(%)

60

Tvr(E)=0.181
Tvr(T)=0.239

50

Tvr(E)=0.239
Tvr(T)=0.314

40

Tvr(E)=0.314
Tvr(T)=0.601

30

Tvr(E)=0.601

Figure 24. Kaolin clay sample with central sandwick at the


end of consolidation.

Tvr(T)=0.676
20

Tvr(E)=0.676
Tvr(T)=0.782
Tvr(E)=0.782

10

Tvr(T)=0.420
Tvr(E)=0.420

0
0

0.25

0.5

0.75

r/re

Figure 22. Comparison of theoretical & experimental


Isochrones under 160 kPa and n = 16.93, sandwicks.

(3) As drain diameter increases the value of coefficient


of consolidation increases.
(4) The coefficient of consolidation for a particular pressure increases with increase in degree of
consolidation for lighter loads thereafter it starts

decreasing till it becomes asymptotic with degree


of consolidation axis under heavy loads. The rate
of increase in Cr at lighter loads is lesser then
compared to decrease in Cr at heavier load. This
behavior is seen for all n values.
(5) Horizontal permeability decrease with increase of
pressure under lighter load and then it is more or
less constant for higher intensity loading for radial
drainage.
(6) Also for higher value of drain diameter that is
for lesser value of n the rate of dissipation is
faster compared to lower values. The experimental
isochrones exhibits easy dissipation of pore pressure at all radial distance and rate of dissipation is
higher for radial points which lie nearer to the drain.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

As the consolidation time increases, the isochrones


for radial drainage becomes asymptotic with horizontal axis. With the increase of load intensity, the
respective isochrones of higher load lies above the
previous at any radial time factor.
(7) The degree of consolidation obtained from the pore
pressure readings experimentally are 27% lower
then that obtained by Barrons theory but higher
compare to settlement readings.
(8) As n increases the time required to achieve 50%
dissipation of pore pressure increases because the
drain diameter becomes smaller and the reduced
drainage surface area makes the effect of Tortuosity
more prominent.

Baroda and Head, Applied Mechanics Department


for providing continuous research facilities in the
laboratory.
REFERENCES
Barron R. A. (1948), Consolidation of fine grained soils by
drain wells, Trans A.S.C.E., Vol.113, pp. 718742
Rowe P. W. (1959), Measurement of the coefficient of
consolidation of lacustrine clay, Geotech., Vol.9, No.1,
pp.107-118.
Rowe P. W. and Barden L. (1966), A new consolidation cell,
Geotechnique, 16:2:162.

ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
Authors are highly greatfull to the Dean, Faculty of
Technology & Engineering, The M.S. University of

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Study on the depth of crack propagation of unsaturated expansive soils


Qing Yang, Pei-Yong Li & Mao-Tian Luan
School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering and State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering
Dalian University of Technology, China

ABSTRACT: Cracks in unsaturated expansive soils impose significant influence on engineering properties of
soils. The purpose of this paper is to research the tensile crack propagation depth of unsaturated expansive soils.
A theoretical equation of the depth of crack propagation based on linear elasticity is solved, which considers the
contributions of effective cohesion and effective internal friction angle simultaneously. Then two conditions are
analysed. One is used to define critical matrix suction at the ground surface which can be taken as one of the
criterions to estimate the cracking of the ground surface of expansive soils. Another is employed for determining
the crack propagation depth when the depth of the groundwater level has little influence. Finally, the relationships
with the related factors are compared, such as effective cohesion, effective internal friction angle, Poissons ratio,
matrix suction at the ground surface and the depth of the groundwater level.

INTRODUCTION

(Fredlund et al. 1978)

The expansive soils can be found in many sites, causing serious problems on light buildings, pavements and
slope stability because of the seasonal cycles of wetting and drying (Fredlund et al. 1993;Yang et al. 2004;
Lu et al. 2002; Xu et al. 1998). The expansive soils will
crack when they dry for climatic reason. As expansive
soils in unsaturated states lose water, matrix suction
increase and the tensile cracks begin to propagate.
The presence of the tensile cracks affects an expansive
soils compressibility, strength, permeability, time rate
of consolidation and so on significantly. Cracking in
soils has been studied by many researchers (for example, Chowdhury 1978; Morris et al. 1992; Lloret et al.
1998; Yao et al. 2004).
This paper develops the linear elastic solution of the
tensile crack propagation depth in unsaturated expansive soils, which considers the contributions of effective cohesion and effective internal friction angle at
the same time. Then the expressions for critical matrix
suction at the ground surface, and the crack propagation depth with little influence of the depth of the
groundwater level are derived from it. The compared
results about the related factors are also presented.

2 THEORETICAL EQUATIONS

= c + ( ua ) tan  + (ua uw ) tan b

where c = effective cohesion, ( ua ) = net normal stress state variable, ua = pore-air pressure,
 = effective internal friction angle, (ua uw ) = matrix
suction, b = angle indicating the rate of increase in
shear strength relative to the matrix suction. Then total
cohesion of an unsaturated soil is expressed as
c = c + (ua uw ) tan b

(2)

Cracking can initiate when the horizontal stress at the


tip of a crack becomes more tensile than the tensile
strength of the soil. For unsaturated soils, the tensile
strength t can be written (Morris et al. 1992)
t = T c cot  = T [c +(ua uw ) tan b ] cot  (3)
where T = 0.5 0.7. Thus, the tensile strength of the
unsaturated soils can be expressed as a function of
effective cohesion c , effective internal friction angle
 , and matrix suction (ua uw ). Equation 3 shows that
matrix suction affects both the shear strength and the
tensile strength in unsaturated soils.
2.2 Linear elastic solution of crack propagation
depth in unsaturated expansive soils

2.1 Tensile strength of unsaturated soils


Using two independent stress state variables, the shear
strength of unsaturated soils can be expressed as

As desiccation proceeds and matrix suction increases,


the tensile cracks of unsaturated expansive soils will
propagate downwards further.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(1)

For a given matrix suction, the horizontal strain x


in an elastic soil can be expressed as by stresses x , y
and z
x =

(x ua )
(ua uw )
(y + z 2ua ) +
(4)
E
E
H

where E is Youngs modulus of elasticity for changes


in (x ua ), H is an elastic modulus for changes in
(ua uw ), and is Poissons ratio. If the unsaturated
expansive soil is in the idle or K0 state, x = y = z
and x = 0. Thus,
(x ua ) =

E
(z ua )
(ua uw )(5)
1
H (1 )

where z ua = z, assuming that atmospheric pressure ua = 0, E/H = 1 2 (Morris et al. 1992). If


matrix suction decreases linearly from the matrix
suction at the ground surface S0 to zero at the
depth of the groundwater level W , matrix suction (ua uw ) = S0 (1 z/W ) at any depth. When
the unsaturated expansive soil is to crack, a onedimensional assumption is valid just before cracking.
That is, (x ua ) = t at the tip of the tensile crack.
Hence using the substitutions, Eq. 3 and Eq. 5, the
depth of crack propagation in unsaturated expansive
soils zc can be expressed as
zc =

S0 EF
S0
+E
W

Figure 1. Values of zc for different values of c and  .

(6)

where

1 2 (q )T tan b cot 
1
T c cot 
F =

E=

If the assumption that c = 0 is applied, Eq. 6 can


become the same equation presented by Morris et al.
(1992), i.e., c = 0 is just a special case. So for most
unsaturated expansive soils, Eq. 6 is viable to solve the
linear elastic solution of crack propagation depth.
3 ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON

friction angle, for the reason that the slope coefficient of zc vs. c curves is greater than that of zc
vs.  curves. When effective cohesion c is zero, the
maximum values can be obtained.
Values of zc for different values of S0 are given in
Figure 2. It shows that for given effective cohesion and
effective internal friction angle, the crack propagation
depth increases as matrix suction at the ground surface increases. In the case that c  = 0, crack will not
propagate until the matrix suction at the ground surface exceeds a particular value of matrix suction, the
critical matrix suction at the ground surface S0 , which
can be taken as one of the criteria to estimate cracking
of the ground surface of unsaturated expansive soils.
Setting zc = 0, from Eq. 6
S0 =

Values of zc for different values of c and  using


Eq. 6 are given in Figure 1. Assume that W = 10 m,
S0 = 100 kPa, = 0.3, = 20 kN/m3 , b =  5 ,
and T = 0.5 tan  (Fredlund et al. 1978; Morris et al.
1992).
Figure 1 shows that with increasing of values of c
and  , the crack propagation depth exhibits a descending tendency. However effective cohesion has a greater
influence on the depth than that of effective internal

According to Eq. 7, the critical matrix suction at


the ground surface correlates with the soil parameters,
Poissons ratio, effective cohesion and effective internal friction angle. Values of S0 for different values of
, c and  are given in Figure 3.
Figure 3 shows that with increasing , c and  , the
critical matrix suction at the ground surface exhibits an
increasing tendency. However effective cohesion has a

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(1 )T c cot 
1 2 (1 )T tan b cot 

Figure 2. Values of zc for different values of S0 .

Figure 4. Values of zc for different values of W .

Figure 5. Values of zc for different values S0 ,  and .

crack propagation depth zc when the depth of the


groundwater level has little influence. From Eq. 6
zc =

(7)

Values of zc for different values of the parameters are


given in Figure 5. It shows that the crack propagation
depth increases linearly with increasing matrix suction at the ground surface, but decreases with effective
internal friction angle and Poissons ratio.

Figure 3. Values of S0 for different values of , c and  .

greater influence relatively. For Poissons ratio within


a given range, the value of critical matrix suction does
not change significantly.
Values of zc for different values of W are given in
Figure 4. Assume that S0 = 100 kPa. For given values
of , c and  , the crack propagation depth increases
with increasing groundwater level. But as values of
and  are greater, values of zc show a descending tendency. As the groundwater level increases further, the
crack propagation depth changes little. When W ,
the value of zc will reach a limit value, which is the

CONCLUSIONS

The crack propagation depth of unsaturated expansive


soils has an important dependence on effective cohesion, effective internal friction angle, Poissons ratio,
matrix suction at the ground surface and the groundwater level. With increasing effective cohesion and
effective internal friction angle, the crack propagation depth exhibits a descending tendency, but effective
cohesion has a greater influence relatively. As matrix

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

S0
F
E

suction at the ground surface increases, the crack propagation depth increases. However, matrix suction at
the ground surface must reach critical matrix suction
before cracking. With increasing Poissons ratio, effective cohesion and effective internal friction angle, the
critical matrix suction at the ground surface shows
an increasing tendency, but affected more by effective cohesion. The crack propagation depth increases
with increasing depth of the groundwater level. When
the groundwater level has little influence, the crack
propagation depth increases linearly with increasing
matrix suction at the ground surface, but decreases
with effective internal friction angle and Poissons
ratio.
REFERENCES
Chowdhury, R.N. 1978. Slope Analysis. Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company, New York.
Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil mechanics for
unsaturated soils. Wiley Interscience, New York.

Fredlund, D.G., Morgenstern, N.R., and Widger, R.A.


1978. The shear strength of unsaturated soils. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 15, pp. 313321.
Lloret, A., Ledesma, A., Rodrguez, R., et al. 1998. Crack
initiation in drying soils. Proc. of the Second International
Conference On Unsaturated Soils, Beijing, pp. 497502.
Lu, Z.H., Chen, Z.H., and Sun, S.G. 2002. Study on deformation and strength characteristic of expansive soil with
triaxial tests. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Engineering, Vol. 21, pp. 717723.
Morris, P.H., Graham, J., and Williams, D.J. 1992. Cracking
in drying soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 29,
pp. 263277.
Xu, Y.F., Chen, Y.Z., Liu, S.Y., et al. 1998. Triaxial of
test on unsaturated expansive soils. Chinese Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 20, pp. 1418.
Yang, Q., Zhang, H.Z., and Luan M.T. 2004. Testing study
on shear strength of unsaturated expansive soils. Chinese
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 23, pp.
420425.
Yao, H.L., Cheng, P., and Wu, W.P. 2004. A simplified method
for predicting heave in expansive soil grounds based on
three dimensional shrinkage tests, China. Rock and Soil
Mechanics, Vol. 25, pp. 16881692.

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Soft Soil Engineering Chan & Law (eds)


2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN13 978-0-415-42280-2

Elastic viscoplastic modeling of two cases involving PVD improved


Hong Kong marine clay
Zhen Fang & Jian Hua Yin
Dept. of Civil and Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China SAR

Cheng Zhou
Dept. of Geotechnical Engineering, Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute, Nanjing, China

Jun Gao Zhu


Geotechnical Research Institute of Hohai University, Hohai University, Nanjing, China

ABSTRACT: In this study, a 3-D elastic visco-plastic (EVP) model is incorporated into a finite element package
ABAQUS by means of one User MATerial (UMAT) subroutine. The stress update algorithm and consistent
algorithm modulus for the present algorithm are both formulated and derived. Numerical studies on two cases
involving Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs) improved Hong Kong marine clay are made to demonstrate the
nature of the model and the validation and performance of this UMAT subroutine.

INTRODUCTION

to demonstrate the function and performance of the


model and UMAT subroutine.

To obtain realistic predictions for time-dependent


engineering problem especially for those involving
soft clays, it is essential to use a constitutive model
that account for time dependency of soils. A great
number of constitutive models have been proposed in
the literature, of which an elastic viscoplastic (EVP)
model developed by Yin and Graham (1989) is one.
In a recent decade, this model has been attracted
much attention and undergone rapid developments
due to its good performance in the modeling of soft
soils (Niemunis and Krieg 1996; Yin and Graham
1999; Matsuda et al. 2001; Nash and Ryde 2001; Yin
et al. 2002; Imai et al. 2003; Augustesen et al. 2004;
Liingaard et al. 2004; Zhou et al. 2005). This paper
deals with a three dimensional anisotropic elastic viscoplastic model originated from Yin and Grahams
one dimensional model (Yin and Graham 1989). The
constitutive model is written to be in the increment
form suitable for the finite element analysis and then
is incorporated into finite element code ABAQUS
using a User-defined MATerial subroutine (UMAT)
(ABAQUS 2001a, 2001b). The update stress algorithm
and corresponding consistent tangential modulus are
derived in detail and also presented. Finite element
simulations of two cases concerning the consolidation
of the Hong Kong marine clay installed by Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs) were performed

A non-symmetrical flow surface function for


anisotropic elastic-plastic models suggested by
Dafalias (1987), Korhonen and Lojander (1987),
McGinty et al. (2001), Wheeler et al. (1997; 2003)
is used for this anisotropic 3-D EVP model. The thesis of Zhou (2004) contains a very detailed account
of experimental investigations as well as the development of the flow surface used in this study. The flow
surface function can be written as:
F=



(q p )2
2

(pK p )p = 0
M2
M2

(1)

where, is a measure of the degree plastic anisotropy


of the soil, which can be a constant or a variable
depending on whether an anisotropic (rotational) strain
hardening law is adopted; pK is the mean effective
stress value at which the flow surface intercepts the
axis in the qp plane. For interest of simplification, it
is assumed that = 3(1 K0 )/(1 + 2K0 ).

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

FORMULATIONS FOR FEM


IMPLEMENTATION

By terms of associated flow rule, the viscoplastic strain rate and viscoplastic volume strain rate can
respectively be expressed as:
"
#
F
(2a)
{vp } = S

" #
F
{vp
}
=
S
(2b)
v
p
The viscoplastic volume strain in this model can also
be described as:


vp
v =

r vK

1 + vK vp
Vt0
vKl

rvK = rvK0

2

(
exp


vp = t(vp
n + Hn  + Jn vK )

After some manipulation, analytical expressions can


be obtained for all elements of equation (7). Manipulating equation (5) provides the following expression
for the tangential modulus matrix:
 
= [I + tCne Hn ]1 Cne


(3a)

  = [I + tCne Hn ]1 Cne ( vp
n t tJn vK )
(9)

where I is unit matrix.




pK
+ ln 
V
pK0

(3b)
3

(4)

Herein,



r

rvK vK 2
vK

A=
exp vK r
1+
vp
Vt0
vKl
1 + vKvp vK
vKl
'
'
'
' 
2(q p )
2 

 '
'
+
(p

2p
)
B = '2p pK
K
'
2
2
M
M

  = Cne ( vp )

(5)

3.1 Case 1: One physical model test


Numerical modelling of one physical model test on
the soft clay installed with PVD was done to evaluate
the performance of the present model and subroutine (Fang and Yin 2005). The parameters adopted in
the analysis are listed in the Table 1. Axisymmetric
unit cell model and equal stress condition are used
in numerical modelling. Only drainage at the top is
allowed. The first load 15 kPa is regarded as an initial surface surcharge load to make sure that the initial
stress does not violate the yield condition. The variation of permeability with void ratio for Hong Kong
marine clay used in this study was found to follow:

Using the general time integration, the viscoplastic


strain at the end of the time increment t is given by
vp

(10)

Table 1. Material parameters used in the finite element


analysis for Case 1.

where,   is the effective stress vector; Cne is an


elastic matrix;  is strain increment vector; vp is
viscoplastic strain vector.

n+1 ]
{vp } = t[(1 )vp
n +

CASE STUDIES

k = 2.709e2.2235

The effective stress increment can be written as:

(6)

Herein,

n+1 = vp
n + Hn  + Jn vK
vp

with
vp
vp
and Jn =


vK

780

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

(8)

The stress increment   corresponding to the strain


increment  can be found in the same way, giving

rvK vK
V
, vp
1 + (rvK vK ) vKl

A
B

Hn =

(7)

Thus, through viscoplastic volume strain rate, the


unknown scale factor S in equation (2a, b) can be
determined easily. S is
S=

Therefore, we have

Material
Parameter

Clay

Smear zone

/V
/V
v
M

e0
kv0 = kh0
(105 m/day)
pK0 (kPa)
/V
t0 (day)
rvK0
vp
vKl

0.0161
0.0811
0.3
1.186
29.7
1.70
8.80

0.0161
0.0811
0.3
1.186
29.7
1.70
6.61

17.0
0.0022
1.0
0.0
0.355

17.0
0.0022
1.0
0.0
0.355

The permeability of smear zone is assumed to be 1.3


times smaller than that in intact zone (Sharma and Xiao
2000). The radius of the smear zone is set to be 2 times
the equivalent mandrel radius bases on the findings of
Bergado et al. (1993). In this modelling, the equivalent
diameter of the PVD strip is computed using equation rd = 2(a + b)/ suggested by Hansbo (1979), and
rd = 35 mm. Similarly, the equivalent diameter rm of
model mandrel is 46.5 mm.
Figure 1 shows the predicted and measured settlement. Good agreement can be seen, especially for the
late period of consolidation. Thats because viscous
creep has significant effect on the settlement after
primary consolidation ends.

soil profile and the monitored locations. The model


parameters are listed in Table 2. Fill loading history is
presented in Figure 3.
The initial stress state of the embankment foundation is assumed in a K0 state, as shown in Figure 4. The
initial stress and the maximum past pressure needed
for the calculation are taken from the reference (Zhu
1999). The coefficients of earth pressure at rest are
estimated using the equation:
K0 = 0.51(OCR)0.42

(11)

3.2 Case 2: Hong Kong airport reclamation project

Loading (kPa)

100

upper alluvium
-15
lower marine clay
-20
-25

lower alluvium

-30
Figure 2. Soil profile and four monitored points for Case 2.

60

Soil Layer

40

Upper
marine
Parameter clay

20

Upper
Alluvium

Lower
marine
clay

Lower
Alluvium

0.011
0.065
0.0035
1.0
0
0.459
0.3
1.200
30
0.85
1.6 103

0.015
0.109
0.0074
1.0
0
0.870
0.3
1.113
28
1.15
2.2 105

0.008
0.057
0.0023
1.0
0
0.355
0.3
1.200
30
0.55
8.6 104

Time (day)

0
Settlement (mm)

-10

upper marine clay

Table 2. Material parameters used in the finite element


analysis for Case 2.

80

1
2
3
4

-5
Elevation (mPD)

As an example of practical engineering, Hong Kong


new airport reclamation project is also analyzed. The
Alidrains installed in this project are prefabricated
band-shaped vertical drains with width b = 100 mm
and thickness h = 7 mm. These drains were arranged
in triangular pattern with drain spacing equal to
1.5 m. The equivalent radius of influence of the
drain is re = 0.788 m. The equivalent radius of the
vertical drain, rd = 27.5 mm, as suggested by Long
et al. (1994). The equivalent radius of the mandrel is
rm = 63 mm. The rs is assumed to be 2.5 times of the
equivalent radius of mandrel, that is, rs = 0.158 m. As
for the boundary conditions, the surface of the upper
marine clay and the bottom of the lower alluvium are
treated as free drainage boundaries. Figure 2 shows the

Measured

Predicted

12
16
20
24
28
32

Figure 1. Loading history and measured settlement and


predicted settlement.

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2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

/V
/V
/V
t0 (day)
rvK0
vp
vKl
v
M

e0
kv0
(m/day)
kh0
(m/day)
Ck
OCR

0.011
0.143
0.0076
1.0
0
0.615
0.3
1.113
28
1.60
1.9 104

3.5 104 3.1 103 5.2 105 1.7 103


1.35
1.70

0.425
6.0

0.8
2.5

0.275
2.5

3.2

250

2.8
Settlement (m)

Fill loading (kPa)

300

200
150
100
50

1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4

2.4
2
1.6

Point: measured
Line: computed

1.2
0.8
0.4

0
0

200

400

600 800 1000 1200 1400


Contract Days

200

400

600 800 1000 1200 1400


Contract Days

Figure 3. Fill loading history for Case 2.


Figure 5. Measured and predicted settlements.

Stress (kPa)
0

50

100

150

200

250

This paper presents the implementation of a 3-D elastic viscoplastic model into a finite element code.
Numerical simulations on two cases using the present
model and the subroutine demonstrate that the elastic viscoplastic model is able to capture the major
deformation characteristics of soft clay. At the same
time, the model can be easily implemented in the finite
element analysis by terms of the given stress update
algorithm and consistent tangential moduli. Moreover,
the performance of the algorithm derived in this study
is also validated to be right and efficient.

-5
Vertical stress
Horizontal stress

Elevation (mPD)

-10

-15

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

-20

Financial support from The Hong Kong Polytechnic


University and a grant from Research Grants Committee (RGC: PolyU 5055/02E) of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region Government of China
are gratefully acknowledged.

-25

-30

REFERENCES

Figure 4. Initial stresses used for Case 2.

The permeability is considered to vary with void ratio


in two directions. They follow the following formula:
k = k0 exp [(e e0 )/Ck ]

(12)

The values of Ck for all soils are also given in Table 2.


As can be seen in Figure 5, fairly good agreement
between predicted and measured settlement can be
found.

ABAQUS Users manual. 2001a. Version 6.2. Hibbitt,


Karlsson & Sorensen, Inc. USA.
ABAQUS Theory manual. 2001b. Version 6.2. Hibbitt,
Karlsson & Sorensen, Inc. USA.
Augustesen, A., Liingaard, M. and Lade, P.V. 2004. Evaluation of time-dependent behaviour of soils, International
Journal of Geomechanics, 4(3), 137156
Bergado, D.T., Mukherjee, K., Alfaro, M.C. and Balasubramaniam,A.S. 1993. Prediction of vertical-band-drain
performance by finite element method. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 12, pp.567586
Dafalias, Y. F. 1987. Anisotropic critical state clay plasticity model, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference
on Constitutive Laws for Engineering Materials, Tucson,
Arizona, Vol.1, 513521.

782

2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CONCLUSIONS

Fang, Z. and Yin, J.H. 2005. Physical Modeling of Consolidation of Hong Kong Marine Clay with Prefabricated Vertical Drains.Accepted by Canadian Geotechnical
Journal.
Hanso, S. 1979. Consolidation of clay by band-shaped
prefabricated drains, Ground Engineering, 12(5),
pp.625
Imai, G., Tanaka, Y. and Saegusa, H. 2003. One-dimensional
consolidation modelling based on the isotach law for normally consolidated clays, Soils and Foundations, 43 (4),
173188
Korhonen, K. H. and Lojander, M. 1987. Yielding of Perno
clay, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Constitutive Laws for Engineering Materials,Tucson,Arizona,
Vol.2, 12491255.
Liingaard, M., Augustesen, A., and Lade, P.V. 2004. Characteristics of models for time-dependent behavior of soils.
International Journal of Geomechanics, 4(3), 157177.
Long, R. P. & Alvaro Covo. 1994. Equivalent diameter of
vertical drains with an oblong cross section. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 120(9), 16251629.
Matsuda, H., Sato, H., Mihara, M., Murakami,T. and Sutoh,Y.
2001. Effect of creep deformation on the primary consolidation of clay,
36
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233234. (In Japanese)
McGinty, K., Karstunen, M. and Wheeler, S. J. 2001. Modeling the stress-strain behaviour of Bothkennar clay, Soft
Soil Engineering, Edited by Lee et al., Swets & Zeitlinger,
Hong Kong, pp.263268
Nash, D.F.T., and Ryde, S.J. 2001.Modeling consolidation
accelerated by vertical drains in soils subject to creep.
Geotechnique, 51(3), 257273
Niemunis, A. and Krieg, S. 1996. Viscous behaviour of
soil under oedometric conditions. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 33, 159168

Sharma, J.S.and Xiao, D. 2000. Characteristics of a smear


zone around vertical drains by large-scale laboratory tests.
Candian Geotechnical Journal, 37(6), pp.12651271
Wheeler, S. J. 1997. A rotational hardening elasto-plastic
model for clays, Proceedings of 14th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Soil Foundation Engineering,
Hamburg, Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema, Vol.1, pp.431434.
Wheeler, S. J., Ntnen, A., Karstunen, M. and Lojander, M.
2003. An anisotropic elastoplastic model for soft clays,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 40(2): pp.403418.
Yin, J.H. and Graham, J. 1989. Viscous-elastic-plastic modelling of one-dimensional time-dependent behavior of
clays. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 26, 199209.
Yin, J.H. and Graham, J. 1999. Elastic viscoplastic modeling of time-dependent stress-strain behavior of soils.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 36(4), 736745.
Yin, J.H., Zhu, J.G. and Graham.J. 2002. A new elastic
viscoplastic model for time dependent behavior of normally and overconsolidated clays: theory and application,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 39(1), pp.57171
Zhu, J.G. 1999. Experimental study and elastic visco-plastic
modeling of the time-dependent stress-strain behavior of
Hong Kong marine deposits. Ph.D. thesis, The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Zhou, C. 2004. Development of a new three-dimensional
anisotropic elastic visco-plastic model for natural soft
soils and applications in deformation Analysis. Ph.D. thesis, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong,
China
Zhou, C., Yin, J.H., Zhu, J.G. and Cheng, C.M. 2005.
Elastic anisotropic viscoplastic modelling of the strainrate-dependent stress-strain behavior of K0-consolidated
natural marine clays in triaxial shear tests. Internal Journal
of Geomechanics. 5(3), 218232

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