Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dave Chan
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
K. Tim Law
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton University,
Ottawa, Canada
Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication and the information herein,
no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the authors or editors for any damage to property or
persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Published by: Taylor & Francis/Balkema
P.O. Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden, The Netherlands
e-mail: Pub.NL@tandf.co.uk
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ISBN13: 978-0-415-42280-2
Table of Contents
Preface
XI
Organizing Committee
XIII
Keynote papers
Stability analysis accounting for macroscopic and microscopic structures in clays
K.Y. Lo & S.D. Hinchberger
Soft soil stabilisation with special reference to road and railway embankments
B. Indraratna, C. Rujikiatkamjorn, V. Wijeyakulasuriya, M.A. Shahin & D. Christie
35
57
Experimental study on shear behavior and an improved constitutive model of saturated sand
under complex stress condition
M. Luan, C. Xu, Y. He, Y. Guo, Z. Zhang, D. Jin & Q. Fan
73
95
105
117
123
129
139
145
153
159
Foundation
Pile resistance variations over time for displacement piles in young alluvium
A.A. Hanifah, M.N. Omar, N.F.A. Rahman & T.K. Ong
171
179
189
199
205
213
219
Improvement of a very soft dregded silty clay at the port of Valencia (Spain)
M. Burgos & F. Samper
231
237
A study on dynamic shear modulus ratio and damping ratio of recently deposited soils
for southern region of Jiangsu province along Yangtze River, China
G.-X. Chen, X.-Z. Liu & D.-H. Zhu
245
251
257
267
275
A case study of building damage risk assessment due to the multi-propped deep excavation
in deep soft soil
S.-J. Lee, T.-W. Song, Y.-S. Lee, Y.-H. Song & J.-K. Kim
281
291
Apparent earth pressure of soft soils overlying hard bedrock at South Link in Stockholm
J. Ma, B.S. Berggren, P.-E. Bengtsson, H. Stille & S. Hintze
299
309
315
VI
321
A geotechnical data base development and applying data mining techniques to extract
the common trendes of offshore geotechnical properties of South Pars
Gas Field/Persian Gulf IR-IRAN
H. Shiri GJ. & M.H. Pashnehtala
Inaccurate interpretation of offshore geotechnical site investigation results and risk
associated: A case study of conductors collapse in driving
H. Shiri GJ. & B. Molaei
327
333
341
Dissipation process of excess pore water pressure caused by static pressed pile in soft soil
W. Wang, J. Zai & T. Lu
347
351
357
Material behaviour
Compressibility properties of reconstituted organic soils at Khulna Region of Bangladesh
M.R. Islam, M. Alamgir & M.A. Bashar
367
373
381
385
389
397
403
Experimental study of ageing effect on the undrained shear strength of silty soil
M. Ltifi
415
New relationships to find the hydraulic conductivity and shear wave velocity of soft Pusan clays
K.G. Rao & M. Suneel
421
Geotechnical characteristics of a very soft dredged silty clay and a soil-cement mix
in Valencia Port (Spain)
M. Burgos & F. Samper
427
437
447
457
VII
463
471
481
485
493
499
505
515
Three dimensional nonlinear finite element analyses for horizontal bearing capacity
of deeply-embedded large-diameter cylindrical structure on soft ground
Q. Fan, M. Luan & Q. Yang
521
Numerical modelling of a very soft dredged silty clay improvement in Valencia port (Spain)
F. Samper & M. Burgos
531
541
547
553
557
Simple critical state model predicting the response along slip surfaces
C. Stamatopoulos
563
The other soil parameters in stability limit analysis of soil-nailed walls in soft soil
Y. Yang
573
Soil improvement
Centrifuge study on assessment of geological barrier of soft ground with floating type sand drains
B.L. Amatya, J. Takemura, T. Ashida & O. Kusakabe
The use of dynamic compaction in liquefaction hazards mitigation at reclaimed lands in Assalouyeh
petro-chemical complex-Iran
S.S. Yasrobi & M. Biglari
VIII
581
587
Optimization of strength and ductility of Class C fly ash stabilized soft subgrade soils
S. Bin-Shafique, A. Senol, C. Benson & T. Edil
595
Stabilization of soft clay site for development using Rammed Aggregate PiersTM
W. Sheu, E.M. Vlaeminck, B.T. FitzPatrick & J. Bullard
601
611
619
625
637
643
649
657
Comparison of performance between the dry and wet Deep Mixing method in soft
ground improvement
S. Liu, L. Chen & Y. Deng
667
A fundamental study on the remediation of contaminated soil with heavy metals based
on electrokinetic and magnetic properties
K. Omine, H. Ochiai & N. Yasufuku
673
Effect of zeolite and bentonite on the mechanical properties of cement-stabilized soft clay
A.A.-M. Osman & A. Al-Tabbaa
681
691
697
The physical and mechanical properties of lime stabilized high water content expansive soil
B. Wang, X. Ma, W. Zhang, H. Zhang & G. Chen
703
Combined preloading compaction and composite ground to treat the soft subgrade of highway
G. Zheng, S. Liu & H. Lei
709
717
723
731
735
IX
A simplified plastic hysteretic model for multi-directional nonlinear site response in soft soils
J.M. Mayoral, J.M. Pestana, M.P. Romo & R.B. Seed
741
749
Back analysis of three case histories of braced excavations in Boston Blue Clay
using MSD method
A. Osman & M. Bolton
755
Effect of ratio of influence zone and type of vertical drain on consolidation of soft clay
due to radial flow
A.V. Shroff, M.V. Shah, T. Khan & N. Joshi
765
775
Elastic viscoplastic modeling of two cases involving PVD improved Hong Kong marine clay
Z. Fang, J.H. Yin, C. Zhou & J.G. Zhu
779
Preface
Soft soil is found in many places in the world and especially in coastal cities like Shanghai, Tianjin and Vancouver.
Soft sensitive clay, such as the Quick Clay along the St. Lawrence Seaway and in the Ottawa region in Canada,
provides many challenges to geotechnical engineers when building in or on this material. In many instances, soft
soil has to be treated using a variety of soil improvement techniques to improve its strength, deformation and
hydraulic properties.
The Fourth International Conference on Soft Soil Engineering provided an opportunity for geo-professional,
geotechnical engineers, academic and researchers, to share their experiences and research results on soft soils.
It was a continuation of previous three conferences held in Guangzhou, Nanjing and Hong Kong. The Fourth
International Conference on Soft Soil Engineering was held in Vancouver where there are soft soil problems
since Vancouver is situated at the river delta of the Fraser River. Delegates from over 20 countries gathered in
Hotel Vancouver between October 4 and 6, 2006 to discuss soft soils engineering. The conference dealt with
many technical issues of soft soil engineering such as soft soil construction, ground improvements, constitutive behaviour of soft soils, numerical modeling, hazard mitigation and post hazard ground investigation and
improvements. There were four keynote lectures given by leading professors/engineers from Canada, Germany,
Australia and China who shared their research findings and experiences in dealing with soft soils.
XI
Organizing Committee
Conference Chair
Prof. Dave Chan
Steering Committee
Prof. D. H. Chan Prof. C. F. Lee
Dr. C. K. Lau,
Prof. L. G. Tham
Prof. K. T. Law
Prof. J.H. Yin
International Advisory Committee
Prof. Dave Chan
Dr. H. L. Liu
Dr. Dennis Becker
Dr. Charles Ng
Dr. Dennis Bergado
Prof. Pieter Vermeer
Prof. Buddhima Indraratna Prof. Richard Wan
Dr. Suzanne Lacasse
Dr. H. S. Yu
Dr. K. C. Lam
Prof. Askar Zhusupbekov
Prof. Serge Leroueil
Local Organizing Committee
Dr. Ranee Lai (Chair) Mr. Makram Sabbagh
Dr. Reza Iman
Mr. Daniel Yang
Mr. Gavin Lee
Dr. Mustapha Zerguon
Mr. Howard Plewes
Technical Program Committee
Prof. Tim Law (Chair)
Prof. Julie Shang
Prof. Masaharu Fukue
Prof. Siva Sivathayalan
Dr. Kai Sing Ho
Prof. Keizo Ugai
Prof. Jean-Marie Konard Prof. Baotian Wang
Prof. Maotian Luan
Dr. Quentin Yue
Organized by
The University of Alberta
The University of Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Supported by
The Canadian Geotechnical Society
XIII
Keynote papers
ABSTRACT: Geotechnical Engineering has advanced to the present stage that various types of earth structures
can be designed and constructed safely and economically in most instances. However, in some cases, difficulty
arises either in the form of failure during construction or after many years in existence. The soils in which these
problems occur include but are not limited to highly sensitive clays and stiff fissured clays of various geological
origins. These clays possess pronounced macroscopic and microscopic structures that control the strength and
deformation properties. Macroscopic structures are visible features that include fissures, joints, stratifications
and other discontinuities in an otherwise intact soil mass. Microscopic structures would include soil fabric
and cementation bonds. A typical soft clay deposit usually is composed of a weathered crust at the top that is
fissured and thus macroscopic structures are dominant and soft clay at depth in which microscopic structures
are significant. The properties of these clays are complex, having a stress-strain relationship that exhibits a peak
strength and a post peak decrease in strength, a non-linear failure envelope, strength anisotropy and a significant
decrease in strength with a slower rate of testing or longer time to failure.
This paper explores the implications of microscopic and macroscopic structure on stability problems and the
conditions under which difficulties arise. Results of laboratory and field tests together with case histories show
that the dominant effect of a macroscopic structure is exhibited in the reduction of undrained and drained strength
with the sample size. The mass strength, whether in the undrained or drained condition, is only a fraction of the
intact strength. Design analysis for stability conditions should therefore start with the mass strength at initial
time followed by a reduction in strength as time progresses. A case history of an embankment founded on stiff
fissured clay on which it failed after 32 years is analyzed in detail to illustrate progressive development of plastic
zones with construction details and time. The effect of cementation bonds in influencing the strength properties
of soft clays is studied by artificially deposited bonds using the electro-kinetic process and examination with the
electronic microscope. It is shown that in addition to the classical increase in strength with decrease in water
content, a strength increase occurred with time due to the deposition of cementation bonds by diffusion. An
important bonding agent is identified and its effect on bond strength is compared with bonding in natural clays.
As the height of an embankment founded on a sensitive clay deposit is increased, a plastic zone will develop and
increase in size. The pore pressures at a point will increase at a greater rate when the point is engulfed by the
plastic zone as a result of bond breakage. Concurrently, the strength will drop to the post-peak state. Case histories
of embankments on these clays are analyzed to illustrate the propagation of the plastic zone in controlling the
foundation behaviour at imminent instability. The difference in performance of embankments with different
geometries in the same clay deposit is investigated. It is shown that the stability and subsequent strength changes
are controlled by the loading geometry and extent of the plastic zone. Finally, design considerations are suggested
to accommodate the effects of the macroscopic and microscopic structures in these clays.
INTRODUCTION
Table 1.
Site
LL
PI
LI
Undrained
Strength (kPa)
Sensitivity
References
Nanticoke
Wallaceburg (depth 4.2 m)
Sarnia Till
St. Vallier
St. Louis
St. Alban
Olga
Vernon
55
46
38
60
50
50
60
65
31
18
26
37
23
23
32
40
0.06
1.0
0.16
0.97
1.83
2.4
1.6
1.14
380
37
150
43
43
11
10
30
1
6
2
20
50
14
13
4
Lo et al. (1969)
Becker (1981)
Quigley and Ogunbadejo(1976)
La Rochelle and Lefebvre (1970)
La Rochelle and Lefebvre (1970)
La Rochelle et al. (1974)
Dascal et al. (1972)
Crawford et al. (1995)
The embankment was originally designed for a maximum height of 17 m (locally) with 2:1 slopes. It was
constructed in 1969 as a containment dyke for fly
ash disposal. Surficial instability occurred at various
periods after construction with time to failure of several months to several years. The downstream slope
was flattened in 1977 to 2.75:1. However, instability
occurred at 32 years after construction.
The second case involved a dramatic and most
instructive case record presented by Crawford et al.
(1995) who described two consecutive failures of an
embankment on soft clay, in spite of the fact that two
test embankments were already constructed on either
side of the failures and that the test embankments were
higher than the embankments that failed.
The conditions under which these problems
occurred are explored in this paper. Additional considerations to conventional design methodology are
suggested.
2.2 Anisotropy
The results of triaxial compression tests on specimens
from St. Vallier with their axes trimmed at i = 0 , 45
and 90 from the vertical are shown in Figure 4. The
apparent anisotropy of the strength envelope is evident although the trend of decreasing strength with
an increase in effective stress is less distinct. The
decrease in strength with an increase in effective stress
may be attributed to bond breakage, a progressive
process of damage to the microscopic soil structure
Post-Peak envelope
Figure 8. Summary plot for natural slope failures in Champlain Sea Clay. (after Lo and Lee 1974, with additional
cases)
It has been recognized that the macroscopic structures of a clay can dominate its strength behaviour and
that the strength of the soil mass is only a fraction
of that of the intact material (e.g. Bishop and Little 1967, Lo 1970). Macroscopic structures include
fissures, joints and other discontinuities in an otherwise intact soil mass. For comparison, the effective
stress parameters of some stiff clays in the intact state,
along natural surfaces of weakness, and in the residual state are given in Table 2. It may be seen that
the strength along the discontinuities is much lower
than the intact material but distinctly higher than the
residual strength.
Many hypotheses for the mechanisms of formation
of discontinuities in clays have been put forward that
include but are not limited to:
(a) weathering: one of the generally accepted mechanisms, including cycles of deposition, desiccation,
erosion and redeposition;
Table 2.
Clay
Index
Properties
WL WP WN
%
%
%
Type of
Discontinuities
Strength Parameters
Intact
DisconMaterial
tinuities
Residual
Nanticoke Clay
Ontario
Upper Siwalik
Clay Sukian
Blue London
Clay Wraysbury
Barton Clay
Hampshire
Magho District
Northern Ireland
Shale
cw
w
cr
Reference
r
c
kPa
( )
kPa
( )
kPa
( )
31
36
13
18
15
58
22
17
16
14
58
24
26
60
28
16
Fissure
(depth = 6 m)
Minor Shear
70
27
28
31
20
18.5
16
83
32
30
Fissure
26
38
18
13
Bedding Joint
25
18
Lo & Valle
(1970)
Skempton and Petley
(1967)
Skempton et al.
(1969)
Marsland & Butler
(1967) and Corbett (1967)
Prior and Fordham (1974)
Figure 11. Stress-strain relation of intact and fissure samples-unconsolidated-undrained tests. (after Lo 1970)
Table 3.
Case Record
Bradwell 1
(England)
Bradwell 2
(England)
Wravsbury
(England)
Durgapur
(India)
Dunvegan
(Alberta)
South
Saskatchewan
Witbank
Colliery (South
Africa)
Houston (Texas)
Soil
Type
WL
Structure (%)
Wp
(%)
WN
(%)
Brown
London Clay
Brown
London Clay
Blue
London Clay
Blue
Silty Clay
Clay
Shale
Clay
Shale
Coal
Cut
95
30
33
0.05 97
1.8 54
Cut
95
30
33
0.05 97
1.9 50
Cut
73
28
28
0.0
118
3.3 36
Simons (1967)
Cut
58
20
23.4
0.09 113
8.7 13
Dastidar (1967)
Fill
50
24
22
0.04 217
2.6 83
Cut
70
2.5 28
Pillar
7.4 4300
Bieniawski (1968)
Fissured
Clay
Anchored 65
Sheet
Pile Wall
Su
kPa
IB
Fu
Su,m
kPa
Reference
Skempton and
La Rochelle (1965)
31 900
22
22
Note: IB = Brittleness Index; Su = Undrained Strength from Conventional UU tests; Fu = Factor of Safety used on Su
Su,m = Mass Strength Computed from Failure
* Increases with depth
Table 4.
Soil Deposit
Depth (m)
Sui (kPa)
Su,m (kPa)
Su,m
Sui
Sarnia Till
1.5 (Crust)
3.0 (Crust)
4.5 (Transition)
0.21.2 (Crust)
280
250
150
75 (25)
80 (40)
333
390
371
77
55
104
85
18
18
56
95
97
31
0.20
0.41
0.56
0.24 (east trench)
0.23 (north trench)
0.17
0.24
0.26
0.40
3.3
4.8
6.1
1.42.0
Olga embankment
4.3
5
5.1
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE
Conceptual view of microstructure
soil particles. The vectoral summation of these microscopic deformations are observed as strain in a given
direction.
As the applied stresses are increased, the external stresses are transferred to the points of contact.
Since there is a lack of symmetry in the fabric and
the distribution of bonds, the distribution of normal
and shear forces at the contact points is not uniform.
In addition, distortion of the soil fabric would induce
tensile stress in some contact points. The criteria of
rupture, whether in shear or in tension, will be satisfied at some contact points leading to bond breakage.
The failure at points of contact leads to some particle
re-arrangement (see Figure 13), observed externally
as plastic (irrecoverable) deformation. The stresses
originally carried at the contact points will partly be
transferred to the pore water, increasing the pore pressure and partly to the neighbouring points of contact.
The shearing resistance of the broken contacts would
reduce to that similar to the post-peak strength of the
clay. Therefore, even at external stresses well below
macroscopic failure of a test specimen, bond breakage occurs and produces some plastic deformation
and slight re-arrangement of soil fabric as shown in
Figure 13.
This process was well illustrated by incremental
stress-controlled CIU tests on normally-consolidated
sensitive clays in which both plastic deformation
(creep) and pore pressure at a constant applied stress
increased simultaneously with time (Lo 1961). The
progressive nature of bond rupture during shear can
also be illustrated by Figure 14 in which the modulus of deformation of St. Louis Clay in CIU and CID
tests are plotted against consolidation pressure. It can
be seen that at half of the failure stress, the trend of
10
Figure 14. Variation of modulus of deformation with consolidation pressure for St. Louis Clay (after Lo and Morin
1972).
5.2
11
40
p'=45 kPa
35
yield
30
p'=30 kPa
1-3, kPa
25
yield
2su
20
15
Shear Strength vs Consolidation
Pressure
40
10
su, kPa
30
20
p'
10
su
0
0
su/p'=0.3
10 20 30 40 50
p', kPa
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Axial Strain , %
Figure 17. Results of CIU triaxial tests on natural Yulchon
Clay
Figure 15. Experimental apparatus (All dimensions in mm;
not to scale).
100
10
su = 551e-0.05w
UUp'=15 kPa)
CIU(p'=15 kPa)
CIU(p'=30 kPa)
CIU(p'=45 kPa)
Vane tests
0.1
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
(a) aging a process of bond growth with time without introduction of external agents (Leonards and
Ramiah 1959, Bjerrum and Lo 1963);
(b) electroosmotic consolidation a process of electrically induced water flow from anode to cathode
(see e.g. Casagrande 1949, Mitchell and Wan 1977,
Lo and Ho 1991); and
(c) deposition of cementation bonds under ionic diffusion.
The small increase in strength in the control samples
after 52 days may be attributed to the process of aging
under the constant applied stress of 15 kPa. During
electrokinetic treatment, all three processes would be
operating but the dominant mechanism is electroosmosis as can be seen by the large decrease in water
content at the anode region and little change in water
content at the cathode region. Finally, after the current
is switched off, the mechanism operating would be
Korea reported by Hyundai Engineering and Construction Co. Ltd. (HDEC) in 1996. As expected, the
stress-strain curves in Figure 17 showed no post-peak
decrease in strength.
12
100
(a) Anode Region
100
10
After EK treatment
(7 days)
After 52 days
1
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Anode
Cathode
-0.05w
su=551e
D
EK
D
EK
10
Cathode
Anode
Untreated
soil
1
65
100
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
10
After EK treatment
(7 days)
30
After 52 days
28
26
(pc=15 kPa; Uo=6.2 V)
24
1
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
22
18
16
14
12
10
untreated
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
Axial Strain, %
13
20
Table 5.
2.4
pc'=40 kPa
2.3
2.2
Void Ratio
2.1
2
1.9
Cathode
1.8
1.7
Anode
1.6
1.5
1
10
100
1000
Oxides (%)
Control
EK Treated Soil
SiO2
TiO2
Al2 O3
Fe2 O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
K2 O
Na2 O
P2 O5
Cr2 O3
L.O.I.
Total
56.55
0.72
16.70
5.74
0.09
2.41
1.23
2.96
1.67
0.10
0.01
11.60
99.78
49.90
0.64
14.61
11.78
0.13
1.82
2.50
2.60
1.39
0.95
0.02
13.10
99.45
Properties
Control
EK Treated Soil
5.7
23
6.7
8
11.8
34
26.4
36
14
respectively. It is evident that some amorphous cementation compound(s) were formed and precipitated on
the clay particles.
Finally, it is noted that the iron oxide (Fe2 O3 ) has
been measured in natural St. Alban and Gatineau Clay
(Yong et al. 1979) with values of 5% and 6%, respectively. These values are comparable to that of Yulchon
Clay used in the experiments as shown in Table 6. In
addition, the authors suggested that the oxides would
coat the particles. The EM image in Figure 22 lends
support to this hypothesis.
From this study on electrokinetically induced
cementation bonds, the following observations may
be made:
(1) Iron oxides can act as an effective cementing agent
in soft clays.
(2) Cementation bonds can contribute up to approximately 60% to 70% of the undrained strength of
the clay with brittle behaviour.
(3) Similarly, an overconsolidation ratio of about 2.5
can be induced by electro-cementation.
15
Quigley (1968) performed a mineralogical analysis on a small block sample of the clay and reported
the strong bonding exhibited by the Toulnustouc Clay
is also related to aluminium and iron hydroxide precipitates in the soil. These materials probably form
bonds in two ways: (1) by direct precipitation to form
a cement linking the soil grains together, and (2) by
growing in the mineralogical continuity at the edges
of the clay crystals, thus increasing their size. The
latter would result in increased Van der Waals attractive forces as crystals grow closer together and could
even form cementation bonds if the crystals came into
contact with one another. The reasonableness of this
hypothesis has been supported by the results of the
artificial cementation study in Section 5.4.
An example of very large bond strength is described
in Leroueil and Vaughan (1990) for a mudstone in
Japan (Ohtsuki et al. 1981). An examination of their
data shows that in the normal stress range from 1500
to 3000 kPa, the friction angle is only 8 with the
shear strength of about 1800 kPa. In this stress range,
the shear strength mobilized is therefore mostly bond
strength.
It can be observed from these cases that while the
bond strength in tension is low, the bond strength in
shear of natural material may differ by three orders of
magnitude and may constitute the major component of
the total shearing resistance that are measured in conventional tests in some natural materials. The degree
to which it can be mobilized depends on the nature of
the engineering problem under consideration.
6 ANALYSIS OF THE VERNON
EMBANKMENT
6.1
1. Why was the observational approach, which is generally accepted and now a time-honoured method,
not successful in preventing either the first or
second failure?
2. In what way are the results of the two test fills
misleading? Is the degree of natural horizontal variation of soil properties sufficient to cause the results
of the test fills to be inapplicable?
3. Why did the designed provision of berms not
prevent the second failure?
To investigate these issues, a series of limit equilibrium and finite element analyses were performed
and the results of these analyses are discussed in the
following sections.
6.2
16
Figure 24. Profiles of water contents, Atterberg limits and shear strengths (after Crawford et al. 1995)
Figure 25. Site plan showing location of test fills and failure zones (after Crawford et al. 1995)
to 9 m depth from which the strength increases linearly with depth. Bearing in mind that the depth of
the slip surface lay within the first 15 m depth, three
strength profiles are shown in Figure 28, together with
the 1960 and 1985 measured vane strength. It is considered that the middle profile marked M appears to
be the most representative of the vane strength data
17
Figure 26. Longitudinal section through the embankment (after Crawford et al. 1995)
Figure 27. Height of fill, settlement, and piezometric surface at centre line of station 27+80 during
construction (after Crawford et al. 1995)
18
20
Fill
0
Crust
Depth (m)
-6
-9 Transition Layer
-40
Table 8.
H Strength Profile
M Strength Profile
L Strength Profile
Measured Vane Strength 1985
Measured Vane Strength 1960
-60
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
H Strength Profile
M Strength Profile
L Strength Profile
FS
FS
1.19
1.07
1.00
1.29
1.13
1.04
Table 7. Material properties used in the limit equilibrium analysis of the Vernon
Embankment.
Depth
(m)
Crust Layer
Transition Layer
Soft-Stiff Clay Layer
06
69
940
40
4035
3575
40
4028
2860
40
4024.5
24.552.5
19
Unit Weight,
(kN/m3 )
20
17
17
Unit: Meter
55.0
11.5
11.2
9.4
Step11
Step10
Step9
Step8
Step7
Step6
Step5
Step4
Step3
Step2
Step1
(0.9m)
(0.9m)
(1.1m)
(1.1m)
(1.1m)
(1.1m)
(1.0m)
(1.0m)
(1.0m)
(1.0m)
(1.0m)
9.3
26.7
7.5
1.5
1.0
1.5
1.0
5.0
Figure 29. The numerical construction scheme (The shaded area represents the construction after the first failure).
80
Smooth Boundary
Soomth Boundary
Unit:meter
Rigid Boundary
300
nine layers for the first failure and eleven layers for the
second layer as shown in Figure 29. The mesh used is
shown in Figure 30.
20
Figure 31. Plastic Zones and Velocity Fields at embankment heights of H = 8.3 m and H = 9.4 m
20
20
40
60
80
100
10
0
Su=40kPa
-6m
-9m
-10
Su=28kPa
M-Profile
-20
8.3
7.2
H=3.7m
-30
9.4
4.0
Depth, m
6.1
5.0
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
0
20
40
60
80
Figure 32. Development of the plastic zone in the foundation at increasing embankment height
21
100
20
18
16
14
The beginning of yielding
in FEM analysis
PWP, m
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
10
Embankment Height,m
Figure 33. Measured pore water pressure on 10 m depth at centre line of station 27+80.
Settlement at Centre Line of Embankment, m
0.0
Observed critical height
of the first failure=9.4m
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Calculated settlement with H strength profile
Calculated settlement with M strength profile
Calculated settlement with L strength profile
Measured settlement
-1.0
-1.2
-1.2
0
10
11
12
9.4
10
11
12
Embankment Heigh,m
Figure 34. Settlement of embankment centre vs embankment height with different strength profiles at station 27 + 80
(the first failure).
22
20
Observed critical height of
the second failure=11.2m
-0.2
20
40
60
80
100
H=11.4m
10
-0.4
1.0
1.4
0
-0.6
-6m
-9m
-10
-0.8
Depth, m
0.0
-1.0
-1.2
Calculated settlement with H strength profile
Calculated settlement with M strength profile
Calculated settlement with L strength profile
-1.4
-1.6
0
Su=40kPa
Su=28kPa
M-Profile
-20
-30
-40
10
11
12
13
-50
14
Embankment Heigh,m
-60
-70
-80
0
40
60
80
100
20
10
0
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.4
Depth, m
-6m
-9m
Failure
-10
Su=40kPa
Su=28kPa
M-Profile
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
0
20
40
60
80
100
the road embankment due to the difference in development of the plastic zone under different loading
configurations.
In a subsequent section, case records of well defined
loading geometries will be analyzed to verify the
findings discussed for the Vernon case records.
23
20
In 1957, the Swedish Geotechnical Institute constructed a series of test fills at the Sk-Edeby test field
situated 25 km west of Stockholm Sweden. Figure 39
shows a plan of the test site showing the locations and
dimensions of each test fill. Originally, four circular
fills were constructed at Sk-Edeby of which three fills,
Areas I, II and III, were provided with sand drains
at different spacing to accelerate primary consolidation of the underlying foundation clay; a fourth test
fill, Area IV, was built without sand drains. In 1961,
four years after construction of the original circular
fills, a 40 m long test embankment was constructed
at Sk-Edeby by unloading Area III (see Figure 39).
The test embankment had a crest width of 4 m and
it was built without sand drains permitting comparison of its performance with that of Area IV. Holtz and
Broms (1972) provide a detailed account of the performance and assessment of the circular test fills whereas
the plane strain embankment is described by Holtz
and Lindskog (1972). For both the embankment and
Area IV, the height was 1.5 m with an applied surface
loading of 27 kPa, giving a factor of safety of 1.5.
Based on the case record, the foundation conditions
at Sk-Edeby comprise an upper deposit of postglacial clay underlain by a lower deposit of normally
consolidated glacial clay. Figures 40 and 41 summarize the natural moisture content, Atterberg limits and
the field vane strength profile (SGI vane) for the soils
encountered below the embankment and test Area IV.
For both the test fills, the field vane strength profiles
were measured prior to construction, in 1957 for Area
IV and in 1961 for the embankment, and again in 1971.
Referring to Figure 40, before construction, the
undrained strength of the clay below the test embankment was only 12 kPa near the ground surface decreasing to about 8 kPa at a depth of 3.8 m. Below 3.8 m, the
undrained strength increased from 8 kPa to 14 kPa at
10 m and to 25 kPa at a depth of 14 m. Below test Area
IV (Figure 41), the undrained strength of the clay was
found to decrease from 25 kPa near the ground surface
to about 8 kPa at a depth of 3 m. The strength then
Figure 39. Plan of the Sk-Edeby test field (after Holtz and
Broms 1972).
24
2.0m
1
1
20
1.5m
60
10
15
20
25
30
35
1961
UPPER POST
GLACIAL CLAY
LOCAL
FAILURE
40
-2
LOWER GLACIAL
VARVED CLAY
1971
(Solid) PLASTIC
ZONE
1961
(Hollow)
-4
Depth (m)
-6
1961
(Light)
-8
Used in Analysis
1971
(Solid)
-10
-12
1971
(Dark)
-14
-16
ROCK OR MORAINE
Figure 40. Sk-Edeby Test Field Zones of local failure and subsurface profile from the plane strain test embankment (soil
properties from Holtz and Lindskog 1972).
Natural Moisture Content
Atterberg Limits
15.3m
1.5
0
UPPER POST
GLACIAL CLAY
NO ZONES OF
LOCAL FAILURE
Stress, kPa
1.5m
20
1961
(Light)
40
60
10
15
20
25
30
35
1971
(Solid)
-2
1961
(Hollow)
-4
LOWER GLACIAL
VARVED CLAY
1971
(Solid)
-6
1961
(Hollow)
-8
-10
Used in
Analysis
-12
1971
(Dark)
-14
ROCK OR MORAINE
Figure 41. Sk-Edeby Test Field Zones of local failure and subsurface profile for the circular test fill area IV (soil properties
from Holtz and Broms 1972)
It is concluded from this study that the main difference in behaviour of Area IV compared with that
of the test embankment is due primarily to the loading geometry and its consequent effect on stresses and
zones of failure in the embankment foundation (see
also Law 1975). Given the sensitivity of the Sk-Edeby
Clay which was generally in the range of 7 to 20, it
is most probable that the effect of the microstructure
is significant. Therefore, the absence of strength gain
below the embankment fill after ten years of sustained
loading may be attributed to the process that the clay
was destructured within the zone of local failure. In
contrast, no plastic zone exists below the circular fill
Area and the behaviour of the clay follows the classical concept of strength increase with time of sustained
loading.
was approximately ten times the crest width. Axisymmetric conditions were assumed for theArea IV fill
which was circular. The construction of each embankment was simulated in six lifts and the results of the
analyses are summarized in Figures 40 and 41 which
show the calculated zones of failure in the foundation
after construction. It is noted that the results of the
present analysis are very similar to the results obtained
by Law (1975).
It can be seen by comparing Figures 40 and 41 that
there is a significant extent of plastic zone in the foundation of the Sk-Edeby test embankment whereas
there is no plasticity in the foundation of the Area
IV fill. This illustrates the importance of the loading geometry on embankment performance as in the
Vernon case described previously.
25
7.2
DYKE
PRIMARY
LAGOON
1997 FAILURE
B
2002
FAILURE
S2
SECONDARY ASH
A
S2
FLY ASH
SETTLING
D
DYKE
In clays with pronounced macrostructures mainly constituted by fissures, first time slides of excavated slopes
under long term conditions are well documented. For
example, in cuttings in Brown London Clay, Skempton
(1977) documented twelve cases with time to failure
varying from immediately after excavation (Bradwell
shown in Table 3) to 65 years after construction. The
slopes varied in height from 5 m to 17 m and inclinations from 0.5:1 (Bradwell) to 3.75:1. However, long
term failures of embankments on clay foundations are
relatively infrequent. Perhaps the best known examples
are the Seven Sisters dykes in Manitoba on the banks
of the Red River. Large movements of these dykes, of
heights between 7 to 8 m and downstream slopes of
2:1 to 2.5:1 founded on Lake Agassiz Clay had been
occurring for long periods of time in the order of tens
The Nanticoke Ash Lagoon dyke was built in Nanticoke, Ontario, between 1969 and 1970 on a deposit of
stiff fissured clay. The dyke was constructed to provide containment for the storage of bottom ash and fly
ash produced by the Nanticoke Thermal Generating
Station. Figure 42 shows an air photograph of the ash
storage area.
The Nanticoke Ash Lagoon dyke is an earthfill
embankment comprising predominantly clay fill, a
thin downstream granular shell comprising crushed
rock and a thin zone of rockfill slope protection on
the upstream slope (see Figure 44). The embankment
crest width is 4m, the dyke height varies from 6 m to
locally 17 m and the dyke has a total length of about
2130 m. Initially, the Nanticoke dyke was designed and
built with 2:1 upstream and downstream slopes. The
26
SECONDARY
LAGOON
INTERCEPTER
DITCH
DYKE
4m
El. 197m
2
1
El. 185m
CRITICAL SLIP SURFACE
(Limit Equilibrium Analysis)
2A
El. 177m
El. 175m
2B
El. 174m
ZONE 1
2A
2B
3
4
5
CLAY FILL
UPPER NANTICOKE CLAY (FISSURED)
LOWER NANTICOKE CLAY (INTACT)
BASAL TILL
LIMESTONE BEDROCK
CRUSHED ROCK
Figure 43. Original as-built geometry of the Nanticoke Ash Lagoon dyke Section S2-S2.
AS-BUILT DYKE WITH
2:1 SLOPES (1970)
FLATTENED TO 2.75:1
IN 1977
4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
TENSION
CRACK
El. 193.3m (Raised in 1984)
2.75
1
INTERCEPTOR DITCH
(ADDED IN 1971)
El. 185m
2
1
2A
El. 182m
El. 179m
El. 177m
2B
El. 176m
ZONE 1
2A
2B
3
4
5
CLAY FILL
UPPER NANTICOKE CLAY (FISSURED)
LOWER NANTICOKE CLAY (INTACT)
BASAL TILL
LIMESTONE BEDROCK
CRUSHED ROCK
Figure 44. Summary of modifications made to the Nanticoke Ash Lagoon dyke geometry and operation after construction.
dyke foundation comprises a deposit of overconsolidated (OCR 6) stiff fissured clay overlying basal till
and limestone bedrock. The clay deposit is on average about 8m thick. Figure 43 shows the as-built dyke
geometry and the results of limit equilibrium analysis
to assess the design factor of safety, which was 1.26
for the dyke section considered below.
Since construction of the Nanticoke dyke, there
have been three significant modifications made to the
as-built dyke geometry and its operating conditions.
These changes, not known at the time of the original
design, are summarized in Figure 44. First, in 1971
a 3 m deep interceptor ditch was added 6 m downstream of the original embankment but only adjacent
to the Ash Settling Ponds (see Figures 42 and 44).
The ditch was built to divert runoff from fields to the
west of the storage area. Then, in 1977, the downstream slope of the dyke was flattened from 2:1 to
27
N-Values (blows/ft)
0
204
06
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
TOPSOIL
wP
10-7
10-6
10-5
wL
Depth (m)
(AVERAGE DEPTH)
6 (ZONE 2b)
Predominantly intact
clay.
10
(AVERAGE DEPTH)
300
250
PRESENT STUDY
50mm dia. Samples
'= 28o
c' = 20 kPa
150
100
MASS STRENGTH
(Vallee 1969)
100mm dia. Samples
'm=18o
c'm=13kpa
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Effective Normal Stress,'N (kPa)
RESIDUAL STRENGTH
(All sample sizes)
'r= 15o
c'r= 13 kpa
400
450
500
28
INTACT STRENGTH
(Vallee 1969)
'p=32o
c'p=22kpa
200
Table 9.
Soil Layer
Hydraulic
Conductivity used
in the Analysis (cm/s)
Unit Weight
(kN/m3 )
Cohesion
Intercept
(kPa)
Effective
Elastic
Friction Angle Parameters
(degrees)
(E in kPa and )
kv = kh = 5 108
kv = kh = 5 108
kv = kh = 1 108
kv = kh = 5 107
kv = kh = 5 105
19
19.5
19.5
NA
NA
14
13
13
NA
NA
24
18
18
NA
NA
25000 0.4
30000 0.4
30000 0.4
NA
NA
NA Not modeled because a rigid boundary was assumed at the bottom of the Nanticoke clay deposit.
Peak strength parameters
Mass strength parameters
8.4
29
Discussion of results
PEAK STRENGTH
FOR THE FILL
4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
2
El. 185m
K'o = 1.5
El. 177m
El. 175m
2A
2B
El. 174m
ZONE 1
CLAY FILL
2A UPPER NANTICOKE CLAY (FISSURED)
2B LOWER NANTICOKE CLAY (INTACT)
3 BASAL TILL
4 LIMESTONE BEDROCK
5 CRUSHED ROCK
PEAK STRENGTH
FOR THE FILL
4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
TENSION CRACK
1
El. 189m (Original Design)
2
1
2
1
INTERCEPTOR DITCH
(ADDED IN 1971)
El. 185m
El. 182m
2A
K'o = 1.5
2B
El. 176m
4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
TENSION CRACK
1
El. 189m (Original Design)
2
2.75
1
INTERCEPTOR DITCH
(ADDED IN 1971)
El. 185m
PLASTIC ZONES
El. 179m
El. 177m
2A
K'o = 1.5
El. 182m
2B
El. 176m
4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
TENSION CRACK El. 193.3m (RAISED IN 1984)
1
2.75
1
INTERCEPTOR DITCH
(ADDED IN 1971)
El. 185m
2
1
PLASTIC ZONE
PLASTIC ZONES
El. 179m
El. 177m
El. 182m
2B
El. 176m
(d) After raising the pond level to el. 193.3m (F.S. = 1.20)
Figure 47. Zones of local failure in the Nanticoke dyke and foundation during its operation.
30
2A
K'o = 1.5
4m
El. 197m (15m above ditch invert)
FLATTENED TO 2.75:1
IN 1977
2.75
INTERCEPTOR DITCH
(ADDED IN 1971)
El. 185m
El. 197m
2
1
El. 182m
2A
2B
Figure 48. Zones of local failure using residual strength parameters for the geometry and operating condition
from 1984 to 2002.
31
CONCLUSIONS
capability to predict imminent instability using a conventional design method. From the results of this study,
the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) In sensitive clays, the concept of post-peak strength
developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s which
would allow for strength anisotropy time effects
and progressive failure and is independent of stress
paths remains valid. Design based on a post-peak
envelope would implicitly account for the effects
of microstructure.
(2) Electrokinetically-induced bonding tests showed
that iron compounds, and Fe2 O3 in particular,
are effective bonding agents capable of increasing the strength, inducing brittleness and producing pseudo-overconsolidation, all in substantial
amounts. An important mechanism of formation of
bonding is ionic diffusion.
(3) Mineralogical studies showed that iron compounds
are prevalent in Champlain Sea Clays both in the
soft and very stiff sensitive clays, acting as an
important bonding agent in these natural deposits.
(4) In clay deposits where fissuring is evident, it is
important to appreciate the difference in strength
of the intact material, along the fissures and the soil
mass (operational strength). The strength of stiff
fissured clays, whether in the undrained or drained
state, decreases with an increase in sample size
towards the mass strength in the field. Therefore,
strength determined from conventional U-U tests
on 50 mm samples would be on the unsafe side if
directly used for design.
(5) Field evidence indicates that the fissured crust of
soft to firm clay deposits showed similar behaviour
as stiff-fissured clay. The strength in the crust measured by the field vane test is close to the intact
strength and should therefore be reduced accordingly for the design of embankments on soft clay
deposits.
(6) Results of analysis of the Vernon Embankments and
Sk-Edeby Test Field emphasize the vast difference
in behaviour between different loading geometries
at the same surface loading. The key factor is the
generation and extent of the plastic zone which
delineates the region of damage to the microstructure of soft sensitive clays. Within the plastic zone,
pore pressure increases at a rapid rate and may continue to rise at constant loading due to an increase
in shearing strain causing further bond breakage.
Propagation of the plastic zone to the ground surface led to collapse (Vernon Embankment). For
stable embankments, no increase in strength with
time results within the plastic zone for long periods
(Sk-Edeby Embankment).
(7) As the critical height of the embankment is
approached, the stability of the embankment is
at a meta-stable state. The plastic zone increases
32
33
Quigley, R.M. (1980). Geology, mineralogy, and geochemistry of Canadian soft soils: a geotechnical perspective.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 17(2): 261285.
Rosenqvist, I.T. (1966). Norwegian research into the properties of quick clay a review. Engineering Geology, 1, pp.
445450.
Simons, N.E. (1967). Discussion on shear strength of stiff
clay. Proceedings Geotechnical Conference, Oslo 2, pp.
159160.
Skempton, A.W. (1977). Slope stability of cuttings in brown
London clay. Proceedings, IX International Conference
SMFE (Tokyo), Vol. 3, pp. 261270.
Skempton, A.W. and La Rochelle, P. (1965). The Bradwell
slip: a short-term failure in London Clay. Geotechnique,
Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 221241.
Skempton, A.W. and Petley, D.J. (1967). The strength
along structural discontinuities in stiff clays.Proceedings
Geotechnical Conference, Oslo 2, pp. 2946.
Skempton, A.W., Schuster, R.L. and Petley, D.J. (1969).
Joints and fissures in the London Clay at Wraysbury and
Edgware. Geotechnique, 19 No. 2, pp. 205217.
Trak, B., La Rochelle, P., Tavenas, F. and Leroueil, S. (1980).
A new approach to the stability analysis of embankments
on sensitive clays. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.
17, pp. 526543.
Valle, J. (1969). The influence of fissures on the shear
behaviour of a stiff clay. MESc Thesis, Dept. of Civil
Engineering, Laval University.
Yong, R.N., Sethi, A.J. and La Rochelle, P. (1979). Significance of amorphous material relative to sensitivity in some
Champlain clays. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 16, pp.
511520.
34
Vasantha Wijeyakulasuriya
Dept. of Main Roads, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Mohamed A. Shahin
University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia
David Christie
RailCorp (Sydney), NSW, Australia
ABSTRACT: Much of Australian railway tracks traverse coastal areas containing soft soils and marine deposits.
Pre-construction stabilization of soft formation soils by applying a surcharge load alone often takes too long. The
installation of prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) can reduce the preloading period significantly by decreasing
the drainage path length, sometimes by a factor of 10 or more. The analytical solution based on actual radial
soil permeability is proposed considering the variation of vacuum pressure, and the Cavity Expansion Theory is
employed to predict the smear zone caused by the installation of mandrel driven vertical drains. The predicted
smear zone and the effect of drain unsaturation are compared with data obtained from a large-scale radial
consolidation tests and the results are explained. When a higher load is required to meet the desired rate of
settlement and the cost of surcharge is also significant, the application of vacuum pressure with reduced surcharge
loading can be used. In this method, an external negative load is applied to the soil surface in the form of
vacuum pressure through a sealed membrane system. The applied vacuum pressure generates negative pore
water pressure, resulting in an increase in effective stress and accelerated consolidation, also avoiding the need
for a high surcharge embankment. The analytical and numerical analyses incorporating the authors equivalent
plane strain solution for both Darcian and non-Dracian flow are conducted to predict the excess pore pressures,
lateral and vertical displacements and several selected case histories are analysed and presented. Cyclic loading
of PVDs is also examined in the laboratory in a manner appropriate for railway environments. It is shown that
short PVDs can dissipate excess pore pressure as fast as they are built up under repeated loading conditions. The
research findings verify that the impact of smear and vacuum pressure can significantly affect soil consolidation,
and these aspects need to be simulated properly in the selected numerical approach. Finally, the use of native
vegetation to stabilise soft soils in railway environment is discussed with the aid of preliminary suction models
developed on the basis of evapotranspiration mechanics applied to tree roots.
INTRODUCTION
35
band-shaped
cross section
dw = f(a,b)
Geotextile filter
equivalent circular
cross-section
(Hansbo, 1979)
(1)
Atkinson and Eldred (1981) proposed that a reduction factor of /4 should be applied to Eq. 1 to take
account of the corner effect where the flow lines rapidly
36
Polypropylene core
dw=0.5a+0.7b
Long & Covo (1994)
Relatively
uniform soil
mass
a) uniform bending
Band drain
a
dw=2(a+b)/
Hansbo (1979)
b) sinusoidal bending
H
Weak
zones
Weak
zones
Assumed water
flow net
Pradhan et al. (1993)
de
c) local bending
d) local kinking
e) multiple kinking
C
L
Benchmark and
Dummy piezometer
1 2
1
2a
d + a 2 2 de
4 e
12
Then, dw = de 2 s2 + b
Piezometer
Sub-surfacesettlementplate
(3)
(4)
(5)
37
Sand Blanket
Inclinometer
(2)
Sealed
pa
CL
pa
time
u0
Membrane
Vacuum Pump
Sand Blanket
Peripheral slurry
Trench
pa
Impervious
Slurry Wall
time
u0 = pa
= pa (u0 u) = u
0
Time
-100
100
Maximum excess
pore pressure
0
Time
Vertical effective
stress (kPa)
-100
100
0
Time
-100
(a)
100
p (preloading
pressure
p0 (Vacuum
pressure)
Time
-100
100
Maximum excess
pore pressure
0
Time
-100
100
0
Time
-100
(b)
38
p (preloading
pressure
Excess pore
pressure (kPa)
Excess pore
pressure (kPa)
Stress/
Pressure (kPa)
100
Vertical effective
stress (kPa)
Stress/
Pressure (kPa)
20
CL Smear zone
Settlement (cm)
Heave
-p0
-40
Measured
Predicted
Perfect drain
-80
Smear only
-120
Vacuum
pressure
distribution
-160
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
ks kh
80
60
-k1p0
Undisturbed zone
40
ds/2
Perfect drain
20
de/2
Smear only
0
0
100
200
300
400
Time (days)
Figure 9. Excess pore water pressure variation at piezometer location, P6 (after Indraratna & Redana, 2000; Indraratna
& Chu, 2005).
With vacuum pressure, the inevitable unsaturated condition at the soil-drain interface may be
improved, resulting in an increased rate of consolidation.
2.3
39
expressed as:
e
e0
Slope Cr
Ru =
Slope Cc
p0 (1 + k1 )
8Th
exp
p
2
p0 (1 + k1 )
p
2
1+
(6)
ef
Th = Pav Th
'i
p'c
'i + p
log v
= ln
e
Slope Ck
ef
khi
log kh
ratio
(after
(4) For radial drainage, the horizontal permeability of soil decreases with the average void ratio
(Fig. 12). The relationship between these two
parameters is given by Tavenas et al. (1983):
e = e0 + Ck log (kh /khi ) The permeability index
(Ck ) is generally considered to be independent of
stress history (pc ) as explained by Nagaraj et al.
(1994).
(5) According to Indraratna et al. (2004), the vacuum
pressure distribution along the drain boundary is
considered to vary linearly from p0 at top of the
drain to - k1 p0 at the bottom of the drain, where k1
is a ratio between vacuum pressure at the bottom
and the top of the drain (Fig. 10)
(9)
n kh
+ ln s 0.75
s
kh
U p = 1 Ru
(10)
(11)
(12)
The dissipation rate of average excess pore pressure ratio (Ru = ut /p) at any time factor (Th ) can be
40
(8)
e0
kh
(7)
HCr
log
,
1 + e0
i
i pc
(13a)
p
H
Cr log c + Cc log
,
1 + e0
i
pc
pc i + p
HCc
log
1 + e0
i
where i1 =
(13b)
(13c)
t=
v = k(i io ) for
i i1
(14)
n1
1
1
(1 U h )n1
(18a)
1
n1
3n 1 n(3n 1)(5n 1)
(n 1)2
2
2n (5n 1)(7n 1)
(1(1/n))
1
D
h
+
1
2n
s
ds
h D (1(1/n))
s dw
(18b)
For multi-drain simulation, the plane strain finite element analysis can be readily adapted to most field
situations (Hansbo 1981; Indraratna and Redana 1997;
Indraratna and Redana 2000). Nevertheless, realistic
field predictions require the axisymmetric properties
to be converted to an equivalent 2D plane strain condition, especially with regard to the permeability coefficients and drain geometry (Indraratna and Redana
1997). The plane strain analysis can also accommodate vacuum preloading in conjunction with vertical
drains (e.g. Gabr and Szabo 1997). Mohamedelhassan and Shang (2002) discussed the application of
vacuum pressure and its benefits, but without any vertical drains. Subsequently, Indraratna et al. (2005b)
proposed the equivalent plane strain approach for the
simulation of vacuum pressure for the vertical drain
system.
(15)
(16)
41
Dw
uo
Non-Darcian flow:
Hansbo (1997) stated that at small hydraulic gradients,
conventional linear Darcys law may be replaced by a
non-Darcian flow condition defined by an exponential relationship. Based on non-Darcian flow, Hansbo
(1997) modified the classical axisymmetric solutions.
The pore water flow velocity, v caused by a hydraulic
gradient, i might deviate from the original Darcys
law v = ki, where under a certain gradient io below
which no flow occurs. Then the rate of flow is given
by: v = k(i io ), hence, the following relations have
been proposed:
i i1
When n 1 Eq. (18) gives the same result as the average degree of consolidation represented by Eq. (9),
provided that well resistance is neglected and assuming
= ch and h /s = kh /ks .
for
D2
v = in
(17)
Ru = exp ( 8Th /)
io n
and = n1 i1n k
(n 1)
Darcian Flow:
Indraratna and Redana (1997, 1998, 2000) and
Indraratna et al. (2005b) converted the vertical drain
system shown in Fig. 13 into an equivalent parallel
drain wall by adjusting the coefficient of permeability
of the soil, and by assuming the plane strain cell (a
width of 2B). The half width of the drain bw and half
width of the smear zone bs may be kept the same as
their axisymmetric radii rw and rs , respectively, which
suggests bw = rw and bs = rs .
Indraratna et al. (2005b) proposed the average
degree of consolidation in plane strain condition by:
u
=
u0
p0p (1 + k1 )
8Thp
1+
exp
uo
2
p
p0p (1 + k1 )
u0
2
l z
ks
khp
p = + ()
khp
rs
(19a)
b2
bs
+ s2
1
B
3B
bs
1
(bs bw )2 + 3 (3b2w b2s )
B2
3B
khp
khp
khp
kh
kh
n
ln s + k ln (s) 0.75
(23)
(20a)
(20b)
khp
0.67
=
kh
[ln (n) 0.75]
(24)
For vacuum preloading, the equivalent vacuum pressure in plane strain and axisymmetric are the same.
Non-Darcian Flow:
Sathananthan and Indraratna (2005) determined the
solution for equivalent plane strain under non-Darcian
flow. The converted permeability relationship is
given by:
(21)
hp = 2h
n 1 p
2n2
n
(25)
2f n, rRw
(22)
42
bs
Th
kh B 2
bw
(19b)
kwp
khp k'
hp
where, u0 = initial excess pore pressure, u = pore pressure at time t (average values) and Thp = time factor in
plane strain, khp and khp
are the undisturbed horizontal
and the corresponding smear zone equivalent permeabilities, respectively. The geometric parameters and
, are given by:
2 2bs
3
B
(a) Axisymmetric
u =
0
z
rw
and
Drain
Smear
zone
kw
kh
(28)
q
2
p = rp +
3
3
(31)
rp
r
q
dr
r
(32)
Employing Equations (30)(32), the excess pore pressure due to mandrel driving (u) can be determined
by:
u = (p p0 ) (p p0 )
Smear zone
0.00
50
100
150
200
(33)
43
drain
0.50
region surrounding the drains (r < rp ), the soil properties (permeability and soil anisotropy) are altered
severely at radial distance where u = v0
.
Based on laboratory tests conducted on a largescale consolidometer at University of Wollongong, the
smear zone extent can be quantified either by permeability variation or water content variation along
the radial distance (Indraratna and Redana, 1997;
Sathananthan and Indraratna, 2006). Fig. 15 shows the
variation of the ratio of the horizontal to vertical permeabilities (kh /kv ) at different consolidation pressures
along the radial distance, obtained from large-scale
laboratory consolidation. The variation of the water
content with radial distance is shown in Fig. 16. As
expected, the water content decreases towards the
drain, and also the water content is greater towards
the bottom of cell at all radial locations.
(30)
1.00
Figure 15. Ratio of kh /kv along the radial distance from the
central drain (after Indraratna and Redana 1995).
q = p
1.50
Distance (r)
2.00
1
(M + )(1 OCR 1)
f (M, , OCR) = ln
2
(M )(1 + OCR 1)
(29)
+ tan1 ( OCR 1)
tan1
M
Smear
zone
where,
p = p0
u = ' v0
rp
ln 1
=
2
r
3 3(1 2)
f (M, , OCR)
2 3
M
Vertical drain
70
Smear zone
69
Values
0.15
0.05
1.55
1.1
9.1 1011
0.25
3.6 1011
68
Drain
Table 1. Modified Cam-clay parameters used in consolidometer analysis (Indraratna et al., 2004).
(a)
67
66
65
64
(b)
Unsaturated elements
25
50
100
200
0.04
Drain
(wmax-w)/wmax
0.02
0
0
r/rm
Figure 16. (a) water content, and (b) normalized water content reduction with radial distance at a depth of 0.5 m (after
Sathananthan and Indraratna, 2006).
0.95m
Open
drain
boundary
44
0.225m
15 m
Stage 1
Surcharge load
=40kPa
Perforated Pipe
2.5 m
Settlement (mm)
S1
0.8 m
-20
5m
10 m
10 m
Geomembrane (LLDPE)
S3
S2
Vacuum Pump
S4
LBM
0.0 m
-3 m
Stage 2
Surcharge load
=100kPa
-40
Bentonite
Legend
Surface settlement plate
Stand-pipe piezometer
Extensometer
Electrical piezometer
Inclinometer
-6 m
-9 m
-12 m
PVD, S=1.00 m.
-15m
-60
-100
0
Measurements
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
10
20
Depth (m)
-80
30
10
15
4
4.4
4.8
5.2
5.6
rs/rw
80
60
40
20
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Measurements
0
Surcharge load
100 kPa
10
20
30
Time (Days)
Figure 19. Predicted and measured excess pore water pressure (Indraratna et al. 2004).
45
Vacuumpressure (kPa)
3
2
1
= 18kN/m3
0
0
-20
-40
-60
0
40
80
Time (days)
120
160
Time (days)
Figure 23. Time dependent vacuum pressure (Indraratna
et al., 2005d).
46
-0.3
Inward
-0.2
-0.1
-0.4
Outward
0.1
0.2
-0.8
Model A
Model B
Model C
Model D
Adjusted vacuum
Field measurement
4
Soft clay layer
Field measurement
Model A
Model B
Model C
Model D
-1.2
-1.6
0
40
80
Time (Days)
Depth (m)
Settlement (m)
0
0
8
10
120
160
12
14
0.00
0
-20
0.02
-40
Depth (m)
20
Field measurement
Model A
Model B
Model C
Model D
-60
13 days
12
40
80
Time (Days)
120
16
Unstabilized
13 days
(Failure)
PVD stabilized
20
160
47
0.10
7 years
-80
0
25
50
75
100
2
Consolidation time (years)
(a)
Figure 29. Degree of consolidation at the embankment centreline with time for Area II, Ska-Edeby field study (after
Hansbo, 2005; Sathananthan & Indraratna, 2005).
(b)
48
T2 T1
15
8
4
6
T3
T4
End of cyclic loading
1117 9
66 51 23 20
14 10
68 53 25 22 19 16 13
T4
10
67 52 24 21 18 15
T1
26 12
T2
40
80
40 m
T3
0
120
Time (mins)
85 m
7.2
Numerical analysis
5
29
10
15
45
29
25
20
0.15
0.12
0.03
0.02
by Mohr-Coulomb theory. The two layers of soft normally consolidated clays are conveniently modelled
using the modified Cam-clay theory (Roscoe and Burland, 1968). For typical track conditions, unit weight of
artificially compacted granular fills is assumed around
16.517 kN/m3 with a deformation modulus not more
than 200 MPa. The saturated unit weights of the soft
clay layers is assumed to be 15.516 kN/m3 (deeper
soil layer having the higher unit weight).
The rapid dissipation of excess pore water pressure due to PVDs is clearly beneficial. More than 65%
excess pore pressure dissipation is seen within first
45 months (Fig. 33). In the absence of preloading
embankment or vaccum preloading, the corresponding initial settlements induced by short PVDs is less
than 0.5 m after about 3 months. This settlement can
still be acceptable over a routine maintenance period
by packing more ballast with time. More significant
is the considerable reduction of lateral displacement
in the PVD stabilised soil underlying the compacted
crust (Fig. 34). While long-term lateral displacements
at shallow depths (@ 3 m) could be as large as
250300 mm, the PVDs are shown to decrease the
49
M-C
M-C
S-S
S-S
100
80
Excess pore pressure (kPa)
No PVD
With PVDs @ 1.5m spacing
Percentage Finer (%)
60
40
80
60
40
20
0
0.01
0.1
0
0
100
200
300
Time (days)
400
10
500
10
15
Cone resistanse, qc
1
-4
Depth (m)
-8
50
100
Reduction in
lateral displacement
3
Sleeve friction, fs
4
-12
No PVD
With PVDs @ 1.5m spacing
-16
7
-20
0.1
0.2
50
0.3
Transpiration
Transpiration
Capony
Trunk
Assumed
root zone
or
uptake
volume
Root water uptake
(a)
Water flow
(b)
from conventional vibratory compaction and preloading to increase the shear strength. Particularly in
railway track areas, the use of short PVDs will be most
advantageous for dissipating cyclic pore pressures and
curtailing lateral displacements as described earlier.
The use of short PVDs to facilitate the dissipation
of cyclic pore pressures are imperative to consider
through sound research evidence.
Soil suction
Soil suction retards the free water movement towards
the root zone and affects the transpiration rate. The root
water uptake (S(x, y, z, t)) is represented by a combined
function of the maximum possible root water uptake,
Smax , and matric suction, :
(34)
Conceptual modelling
S(x, y, z, t) = f ()G()F(TP )
where, G() is a function associated with the root density distribution, F(TP ) is a function to consider the
potential transpiration distribution, and (x, y, z, t) is
the root density.
51
(35)
Reference
rmax
zmax
PI
an
w
d
e0
Cc
ks
9m
1.5 m
23
4.9 kPa
1500 kPa
40 kPa
0.60
21 kN/m3
0.13
1010 m/s
Biddle (1983)
Biddle (1983)
Biddle (1983)
Feddes et al. (1978)
Feddes et al. (1978)
Feddes et al. (1978)
Powrie et. al (1992)
Powrie et. al (1992)
Skempton (1944)
Lehane and Simpson (2000)
Parameter
Potential transpiration
The potential transpiration is defined as evaporation
of water from plant tissues to the atmosphere, assuming that the soil moisture content is not restricted. The
potential transpiration is, therefore, estimated by:
TP = ETP EP
(36)
0.5m depth
1200
1000
Line of maxima
800
600
1m depth
400
200
1.5m depth
0
0
rainfall around the tree. As a result, moisture content can increase at the canopy edges, thereby further
contributing to this disparity
Fig. 42 shows the ground settlement at various
depths. In this analysis, only the suction related settlement was considered. On the surface, the predicted
80 mm settlement beside the tree trunk decreases to
less than 20 mm, at a distance 10 m away from the
52
1400
predict accurately. This may be attributed to the complexity of evaluating the true magnitudes of soil
parameters inside and outside the smear zone, correct
drain properties as well as the aspects of soil-drain
interface unsaturation. Therefore, one needs to use
the most appropriate laboratory techniques to obtain
parameters, preferably using large-scale testing equipment. It was found that the smear zone radius was 23
times the radius of the mandrel. The soil permeability
in the smear zone is higher than that in the undisturbed
zone by a factor of 1.52.
For large construction sites, where many PVDs are
installed, the plane strain analysis is sufficient given the
computational efficiency. Recently developed conversion from axisymmetric to plane strain condition gives
good agreement with measured data. These simplified
plane strain methods can be rapidly employed in the
numerical analysis. A finite element code (ABAQUS)
was employed to analyse the behaviour of PVDs and
compared with field measurements. A conversion procedure based on the transformation of permeability
and vacuum pressure was also proposed to establish
the relationship between the axisymmetric (3D) and
equivalent plane strain (2D) conditions. The equivalent plane strain solution was applied for selected case
histories, demonstrating its validity in predicting the
real behaviour. Field behaviour as well as model predictions indicate that the efficiency of vertical drains
depends on the magnitude and distribution of vacuum
pressure as well as the degree of drain saturation during
installation.
The accurate prediction of lateral displacement at
shallow depths depends on the correct assessment of
soil properties including the overconsolidated surface
crust.This compacted layer is relatively stiff, and therefore it resists inward movement of the soil upon the
application of vacuum pressure. The modified Camclay model is inappropriate for modeling the behavior
of the weathered and compacted crust. This surface
crust is sufficient to be modeled as an elastic layer
rather than a soft elasto-plastic medium. The analysis of case histories proves that the vacuum application
via PVD substantially decreases lateral displacement.
As a result, the potential shear failure during rapid
embankment construction can be avoided.
There is no doubt that a system of vacuum-assisted
consolidation via PVDs is a useful and practical
approach for accelerating radial consolidation. Such a
system eliminates the need for a high surcharge load,
as long as air leaks can be prevented in the field. Accurate modeling of vacuum preloading requires both
laboratory and field studies to quantify the nature of
vacuum pressure distribution within a given formation
and drain system.
The ground improvement techniques including
PVDs prior to rail track construction can be applied
in coastal areas containing a high percentage of clayey
10
40
60
Ma
set ximu
tlem m
line ent
Settlement (mm)
20
z=0m
z=1m
80
z=2m
z=6m
100
trunk. As shown in Fig. 42, the location of the maximum settlement is closer to the trunk at shallower
depths, which tends to coincide with the points of
maximum change in suction (Fig. 40).
It was shown that the numerical analysis incorporating the proposed model could predict the variation
of moisture content surrounding the tree trunk. Knowing the moisture content variation, the development of
matric suction can be predicted reasonably well using
the SMCC. Native biostabilisation improves the shear
strength of the soil by increasing the matric suction,
and also decreases the soil movements. This contribution from trees grown along rail corridors and rail slope
is of immense benefit for improving track stability in
problematic soil. In other words, native vegetation generating soil suction is comparable to the role of PVDs
with vacuum pressure, in terms of improved drainage
(pore water dissipation), and associated increase in
shear strength. In addition, the tree roots provide a
natural reinforcement effect, which the current model
has not simulated thus far.
9
CONCLUSIONS
53
Chu, J., and Yan, S.W. 2005. Application of vacuum preloading method in soil improvement project. Case Histories
Book (Volume 3), Edited by Indraratna, B. and Chu, J.,
Elsevier, London, pp. 91118.
Chu, J., Yan, S.W. and Yang, H. 2000. Soil improvement by
the vacuum preloading method for an oil storage station.
Geotechnique, Vol. 50, No. 6, pp. 625632.
Collins, I. F. andYu, H. S. 1996. Undrained Cavity Expansion
in Critical State Soils. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, Vol. 20, pp.
489516.
Feddes, R.A., Kowalik, P. J. and Zaradny, H. 1978. Simulation
of field water use and crop yield. Simulation Monograph.
Pudoc, Wageningen, pp. 930
Gabr M.A., and Szabo D.J. 1997. Prefabricated vertical drains
zone of influence under vacuum in clayey soil. Proceedings of the Conference on In Situ Remediation of the
Geoenvironment, ASCE, 449460.
Hansbo, S. 1979. Consolidation of clay by band-shaped prefabricated drains. Ground Eng., Vol. 12, No. 5, pp. 1625.
Hansbo, S. 1981. Consolidation of fine-grained soils by prefabricated drains. In Proceedings of 10th International
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm, Balkema, Rotterdam, 3, pp. 677682.
Hansbo, S. 1997. Aspects of vertical drain design Darcian or non-Darcian flow. Gotechnique Vol. 47, No. 5,
pp. 983992.
Hansbo, S. 2005. Experience of consolidation process from
test areas with and without vertical drains. Ground
ImprovementCase Histories Book (Volume 3), Edited by
Indraratna, B. and Chu, J., Elsevier, London, Chapter 1.
pp. 349.
Holtz, R.D., Jamiolkowski, M., Lancellotta, R. and Pedroni,
S. 1991. Prefabricated vertical drains: design and performance, CIRIA ground engineering report: ground
improvement. Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, UK, 131 p.
Hird C.C., Pyrah I.C., and Russel D. 1992. Finite element
modeling of vertical drains beneath embankments on soft
ground. Geotechnique, Vol. 42(3), pp. 499511.
Holtan, G.W. 1965. Vacuum stabilization of subsoil beneath
runway extension at Philadelphai International Airport. In
Proc. of 6th ICSMFE, 2.
Indraratna B., and Chu J. 2005. Ground Improvement Case
Histories Book (Volume 3), Elsevier, London 1115 p.
Indraratna B., and Redana I.W. 1997. Plane strain modeling
of smear effects associated with vertical drains, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 123(5), pp. 474478.
Indraratna, B., and Redana, I. W. 1998. Laboratory determination of smear zone due to vertical drain installation. J.
Geotech. Eng., ASCE, Vol. 125 No. 1, pp. 9699.
Indraratna, B., and Redana, I. W. 2000. Numerical modeling
of vertical drains with smear and well resistance installed
in soft clay. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 37, pp.
132145.
Indraratna, B., Balasubramaniam, A. S. and Balachandran,
S. 1992a. Performance of test embankment constructed
to failure on soft marine clay. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 118, No. 1, pp. 1233.
Indraratna, B., Balasubramaniam, A., Phamvan, P. and Wong,
Y.K. 1992b. Development of Negative Skin Friction on
Driven Piles in Soft Clay. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 29, June issue, pp. 393404.
54
55
M. Karstunen
University of Strathclyde, UK
H.P. Neher
Ed. Zblin AG, Technical Head Office, Germany
ABSTRACT: At Stuttgart University an isotropic creep model has been developed, in which Modified Cam
Clay type of ellipses are used to describe the contours of volumetric creep strain rate in p-q plane. Starting from
the simplest case of 1D creep, the 3D formulation of an isotropic creep model is given. This constitutive model has
been implemented in a finite element program and validated by simulating simple lab tests, as published in other
papers. In this paper the isotropic creep model is used to simulate a complex boundary value problem, namely
the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The isotropic model is able to capture many aspects of soil time-dependent behaviour,
but nevertheless further model development is necessary. Therefore a new anisotropic creep model is proposed,
based on the experimental observation of many natural soils. The anisotropic creep model is a straightforward
generalization of the IC model in which the anisotropic fabric tensor is adopted and the Modified Cam Clay
ellipses are replaced by rotated ovals in p-q plane.
INTRODUCTION
When a saturated clay is loaded one usually distinguishes between primary consolidation and secondary
compression. During consolidation excess pore pressures are transferred into effective stresses, whereas
all stresses are constant during secondary compression. Straining at constant stress is referred to as pure
creep.
Pure creep at constant effective stress occurs both
in the laboratory and in the field, but in the most
general situation stresses change with time. In such
general cases one cannot use the traditional logarithmic time-law of secondary compression. Instead, one
needs to express the rate of creep strain as a function
of stress in order to obtain a visco-elastic or a viscoplastic model. In this paper the traditional concept of
secondary compression will straightforwardly be converted into an elastic-visco-plastic model as illustrated
by Figure 1. The elastic strains are typically observed
in unloading and reloading of clays, whereas primary
loading of normally consolidated clays is dominated
by creep strains, i.e. by visco-plastic strains. Indeed,
viscous material behaviour does not only occur during secondary compression, but also during primary
consolidation of NC-clays.
In soil mechanics creep has primarily been studied for one-dimensional compression. The pioneering
results of Buisman (1936) and Garlanger (1972) have
established the logarithmic time law, whilst Bjerrum
(1967) added the concept of a creep dependent preconsolidation stress as also used in the present study.
In these early studies, however, the void ratio is a function of the creep time and such models cannot be used
when stresses vary with time.
The above pioneering research was continued by
various researchers as nicely reviewed by Leroueil
(1987). For one-dimensional compression an elasticviscoplastic model in the sense of Figure 1, has among
others been proposed by Yin and Graham (1999). The
57
1D version of the models presented here are somewhat similar, but in contrast with Yin and Graham,
the concept of a preconsolidation stress as measured
in standard oedometer tests is retained. Fast constant
strain rate oedometer tests (Leroueil et al. 1985; Sllfors 1975) may give e-log lines beyond the normal
consolidation line (NCL), but this does not mean that
one should drop the NCL-concept. Instead, it needs
further consideration as discussed later on. For this
reason the 1D version of the model is described in
detail.
On developing models for general states of stress
and strain, one generally begins with the simplifying
assumption of material isotropy. Similarly, the early
3D creep model by Adachi and Okano (1974) and the
one by Nova (1982) assume material isotropy. This
also applies to the models by Vermeer et al. (1998) and
Yin and Graham (1999). The isotropic creep model by
Stolle et al. (1997) forms the basis of a new anisotropic
creep model described in this paper. It is shown that
this is a viscoplastic version of the well-known Modified Cam Clay model. Moreover, the application of the
isotropic creep model to 3D modelling of the Leaning
Tower of Pisa is presented.
No doubt, natural clays are highly anisotropic and
the final aim of constitutive modelling must be to
describe anisotropic soil behaviour. Pioneering work
in that sense was done by Sekiguchi and Ohta (1977),
Gens and Nova (1993) and Wheeler et al. (2003). The
latter adopted a rotated yield surface in p-q plane which
is embraced as normal consolidation surface in the
present study. It is shown that this rotated oval matches
measured creep lines. Finally, it is demonstrated that
the new anisotropic creep model yields highly realistic stress paths in undrained triaxial extension, and
consequently realistic values for the undrained shear
strength.
strain implies a change of void ratio and it is convenient to formulate the deformation in terms of void
ratio (e). Hence,
e = e e + e c
The elastic change of void ratio is formulated as:
e e =
e c =
(2)
C
ln 10
p
with =
Cc Cs
C
(3)
1D CONSTITUTIVE MODEL
p
ln 10
e c
=
p
Cc Cs
Basic equations
(4a)
for a constant temperature. The influence of temperature on p will be considered in Section 2.7. The
integrated form of Eq. [4a] is
p = po exp
58
Cs
ln 10
2.1
(1)
ln 10 ec
, ec = ec eco
Cc Cs
(4b)
for OCR = 1
e c e cnc 103
e c e cnc 106
2.2
The creep law [3] holds for general states of stress and
strain, as both the effective stress and the preconsolidation stress p may vary as a function of time. In fact,
the latter increases monotonically with creep deformation and for a better understanding of the model it
is convenient to consider the creep law with p being
eliminated. To this end, one has to insert the evolution
Eq.[4b] for p into the creep law [3] to find:
C
e =
ln 10
c
po
ec eco
exp
C/ ln 10
po
= OCR o
(6b)
A logarithmic creep law was first proposed by Buisman (1936), but the above form with was first
introduced by Garlanger (1972). The reference time
depends completely on the initial state of overconsolidation. Consider for instance a standard oedometer
test in which the load is daily increased, as illustrated
Figure 3 and Figure 4. Depending on the permeability
of the sample, the end of consolidation may be reached
in one or more hours after loading, but for the remaining part of the day the sample will creep at a constant
effective stress. The logarithmic Eq. [5] is fully valid
(6a)
59
2000
1D creep model
time resistance rs
1600
0
0
Consider an overconsolidated soil sample being stepwise recompressed. During recompression the sample
is in a state of overconsolidation with OCR > 1. In
this case equation [3] predicts a very low creep rate
and consequently there is very little change of OCR.
This is also reflected by the logarithmic law [6a], as it
yields
C
dec
=
dt
ln 10
1
+ t
1.5
2.5
(8)
It is only for t >> that this rate reduces to the constant value of C, but this is not relevant for the overconsolidated range.
Janbu (1969) introduced the so-called time resistance number rs and Eqs. [6b] and [8] can be used to
derive that
de
C for t >>
dlog t
(10)
(9)
60
Indeed, for overconsolidated states of stress, the reference time is very large and t is consequently
small with respect to . Hence, on a usual time scale
with t << , as relevant in laboratory testing, overconsolidated soils show a very small nearly constant
creep rate. This behaviour is reflected by the upper
set of curves in Figure 4. In soil mechanics it is often
suggested that even overconsolidated clays show logarithmic creep, but this is only true on a very large time
scale. Indeed, it follows from Eq. [6a] that the slopes
of the curves in Figure 4 satisfy the equation
1 + eo
d ln t
=
ln 10 1 + OCR o
rs
d
C
t
0.5
/po
C 1
for << (7)
ln 10
dec
t
= C
textdlogt
+t
800
400
1200
(11a)
p
po
(11b)
respectively. The first expression for ec is the fundamental equation, whereas Eq. [9b] basically defines
the preconsolidation stress as a function of ec . On
eliminating the void ratio, the above two equations
yield
+ t
=
p
po
(12)
+ t
1/
(13)
for t >>
(14)
e = e e + e c =
(15)
Cc
C
Cc
e c =
Cc Cs
Cc Cs ln 10
p
(16)
C
Cc
Cc Cs ln 10
(17)
If is assumed to be one day, the CRS test has to be carried out at the appropriate rate according to Eq. [17].
On the other hand, one may also adjust to any possible
CRS test. This is clear when writing Eq. [17] as
61
Cs
Cc Cs p
ln 10
ln 10 p
Cc
C
1
Cc Cs ln 10 e nc
(18)
2.8
ln 10 c
e + T
Cc Cs
1+e
= ln
1 + eo
o
V
V
= ln (1 +
)
Vo
Vo
(19)
or in integrated form
vol ln (1+
V
V
)
Vo
Vo
for
V << Vo(24)
(20)
which is the usual definition of infinitesimal strain.
62
(23)
where V is the volume of the material element considered and compressive strains are taken positive. Within
the range of small strains, V/Vo and Eq. [23] can be
linearised giving
ln 10 ec
p = po expT exp
Cc Cs
(22)
1+e
= ln
1 + eo
o
(25)
sij = ij p ij
(26)
The ellipses of Modified Cam Clay are taken as contours of volumetric creep rate in p-q plane. Hence the
same volumetric creep rate applies to all stress states
which lie on a particular ellipse. The ellipse which
intersects with the p-axis in pp is referred to as the
normal consolidation surface (NCS), as indicated in
Figure 8.
Just like the oedometric preconsolidation stress p ,
the isotropic one pp must be updated continually during
the analysis according to the evolution of the volumetric creep strain. The evolution of the preconsolidation
pressure is governed by temperature variations as well,
but for the sake of simplicity, the isothermal case will
be considered.
and
(27)
cvol
eij = Cijkl kl
, =
(29)
cvol = sign(d)
pp
ln 10 1 + eo
(28)
63
1
1
3 (1 ) Cs
2 Cs
1+
ln 10 1 + eo
ln 10 1 + eo
q
M 2 p
1
Cc
ln 10 1 + eo
The variable d is introduced in the following. According to Eq. [29] the volumetric creep rate is driven by
peq /pp which is the inverse of the overconsolidation
ratio. This ratio can be considered as a measure of the
distance from the actual state of stress to the NCS.
As in classical elastoplasticity, the 3D creep model
has a flow rule giving the directionof the creep strain
rate. Similarly to the MCC model associated plasticity is assumed and ellipses are thus taken as plastic
potential surfaces. The rate of creep strain can hence
be written as
cij =
peq
ij
(30)
Figure 10. NC-ellipses, Mohr-Coulomb failure line and
tension cut-off of IC model.
cvol
peq
with d =
=1
d
p
q/p
M
2
(31)
|d|
peq
pp
peq
ij
(32)
In order to remain within the framework of a classical continuum and to avoid numerical difficulties, the
dry side of critical state is modelled by a fixed Hvorslev
type failure surface as indicated in Figure 10. In this
way one obviously introduces two extra model constants, i.e. the cohesion c and the friction angle .
It would be most realistic to make c density dependent, but for the sake of convenience the cohesion is
assumed to be constant. In principal stress state the
failure surface is of the Mohr-Coulomb type, as shown
in Figure 11. Because of the failure surface, the total
number of model constants now increases from five up
to eight, as listed in Table 1.
Rough estimates of , , and are also indicated inTable 1, to give an impression of the magnitude
of these constants. An important feature of the ICmodel is that relative steep NC-surfaces can be used
by adopting relatively large values for MNCS . On doing
64
Table 1.
/5
/30
MNCS <=> Konc
0.2
c
0
65
Table 2.
layer
[kN/m3 ]
[]
[]
[]
[ ]
c
[kN/m2 ]
k
[1010 m/s]
POP
[kN/m2 ]
A1N
A1S
B1
B2
B3
B4/B5
B7a
B7b
B8/B9/B10
19.1
19.1
17.3
17.8
16.7
20.0
19.6
17.8
19.0
0.045
0.065
0.15
0.12
0.15
0.07
0.1
0.12
0.1
0.0045
0.0065
0.015
0.012
0.015
0.007
0.01
0.012
0.01
0.0015
0.00217
0.005
0.004
0.005
0.0023
0.0033
0.004
0.0033
34.0
34.0
26.0
26.0
26.0
28.0
27.0
27.0
25.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
104
10
5
5
5
2
5
5
3
140
140
70
50
50
130/200
70
70
70
Table 3.
Jamiolkowski (1999)
5
MG
A2
B6
18.0
18.2
19.1
8700
13700
11600
c
[]
k
[1010 m/s]
4
Settlement [m]
[ ]
st
AGI (1991)
nd
2 calibration analysis
calibration analysis
a)
3
2
1
height 1370
0
1000
height 1278
1500
2000
2500
Time [year]
5.5
58 m
height 1178
center of gravity
Jamiolkowski (1999)
8
st
1 calibration analysis
AGI (1991)
nd
calibration analysis
22.5 m
fill (MG)
sandy and clayey silt(A1)
wP=22%; wL=38%; IC=0.63
upper sand (A2)
3.0 m
-5.4 m
-7.4 m
19.6 m
Inclination []
+3.0 m
0.0 m
horizon A
-17.8 m
-22.0 m
-24.4 m
b)
horizon B
horizon C
0
1000
1500
2000
2500
Time [year]
then a second construction break of about 80 years follows. The subsequent construction of the bell chamber
is simulated by adding volume elements to the tower.
During the following consolidation and creep period
of overall 500 years, consolidation was the major process occurring in the first decade. Creep settlement
observed after such period increased moderately while
inclination almost doubled since the last loading step
(see Figure 13a,b). The simulation of the excavation
66
c
(34)
4p
3p
In order to match creep rate contours shown in Figure 14, the yield surface of the so-called S-CLAY1
67
sin cv
nc
0.204
0.013
0.0017
0.3
1.6
20.0
1.02
0.533
68
(35)
CSL
ACM
SCLAY-1
SSC
MCC
Konc
60
60
CSL
40
MNCS> M
40
20
0
02
20
40
AC model
60
20
MNCS= M
IC model
0
0
20
40
60
AC model
CSL
IC model
CSL
Figure 19. Undrained simulations for soil parameters of
Table 4 and MNCS = M.
Both Figure 18 and Figure 19 demonstrate that extension needs to be modelled anisotropically, otherwise
the undrained shear strength is considerably overestimated.
In this paper a new anisotropic model for creep is proposed. The model is a straightforward extension of
the isotropic creep (IC) model, formulated at Stuttgart
University. First, a complete description of the framework is given, starting from the formulation of the 1D
model to extend then the analysis to the 3D model,
based upon a modified version of MCC to model time
dependent behaviour. A detailled explanation of the
meaning of the parameters involved is given, with particular reference to the time parameter . After a brief
description of the IC model, the analysis of the stability of the Leaning Tower of Pisa is presented as
an example of a 3D boundary value problem solved
through finite element method using the IC model.
69
CONCLUSIONS
supported the European Community through the program Human Resources and Mobility.
REFERENCES
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normally consolidated clay. Soils and Foundations, 14(4):
5573.
Bjerrum, L. 1967. Engineering geology of norwegian
normally-consolidated marine clays as related to settlements of buildings. Gotechnique, 17: 81118.
Boudali, M. 1995. Comportement tridimensionnel et
visqueux des argiles naturelles. PhD Thesis, Universit
Laval, Qubec.
Brinkgreve, R.B.J., and Vermeer, P.A. 2001. PLAXIS Finite
Element Code for Soils and Rock Analyses, 3D Tunnel
Version 1. Balkema.
Buisman, A.S. 1936. Results of long duration settlement
tests. In 1st International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Cambridge, Vol.1,
pp. 103107.
Butterfield, R. 1979. A natural compression law for soils (an
advance on e-log p). Gotechnique, 22: 7178.
Calabresi, G., Rampello, S., Callisto, L., and Viggiani,
G.M.B. 1996. The Leaning Tower of Pisa - Soil parameters for the numerical modelling of the tower resulting
from the most recent investigations, Laboratorio Geotecnico Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale e Geotecnica,
Universit di Roma La Sapienza.
Claesson, P. 2006. Creep around the preconsolidation pressure a laboratory and field study. In CREBS Workshop.
Edited by N.G.I. Oslo.
Den Haan, E.J. 1994. Vertical compression of Soils, Delft
University.
Eriksson, L.G. 1989. Temperature effects on consolidation
properties of sulphide clays. In 12th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Rio
de Janeiro, Vol.3, pp. 20872090.
Garlanger, J.E. 1972. The consolidation of soils exhibiting
creep under constant effective stress. Gotechnique, 22:
7178.
Gens, A., and Nova, R. 1993. Conceptual bases for a constitutive model for bonded soils and weak rocks. In
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Edited by A. Anagnostopoulos, F. Schlosser, N. Kaltesiotis, and R. Frank. Balkema, Rotterdam, Vol.1, pp.
485494.
Hanzawa, H. 1989. Evaluation of design parameters for soft
clays as related to geological stress history. Soils and
Foundations, 29(2): 99111.
Jamiolkowski, M. 1999. Workshop on the Pisa Tower The
Restoration of the Leaning Tower: Present Situation and
Perspectives.
Janbu, N. 1969. The resistance concept applied to deformations of soils. In 7th ICSMFE. Mexico City, Vol.1.
Leroueil, S. 1987. Tenth Canadian Geotechnical Colloquium:
Revent developments in consolidation of natural clays.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 25: 85107.
Leroueil, S. 2006. The isotache approach. Where are we 50
years after its development by Professor Sukljie?
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented was carried out as part of a
Marie Curie Research Training Network Advanced
Modelling of Ground Improvement on Soft Soils
(AMGISS) (Contract No MRTN-CT-2004-512120)
70
Sllfors, G. 1975. Preconsolidation pressure on soft high plastic clays. PhD thesis, Chalmers University of Technology,
Gteborg.
Sekiguchi, H., and Ohta, H. 1977. Induced anisotropy and
time dependency in clays. In 9th ICSMFE. Tokyo, pp.
229238.
Stolle, D.F.E., Bonnier, P.G., and Vermeer, P.A. 1997. A soft
soil model and experiences with two integration schemes.
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Montreal. 24 July 1997. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Vermeer, P.A., and Neher, H.P. 1999. A soft soil model that
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Amsterdam. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 249261.
Vermeer, P.A., Stolle, D.F.E., and Bonnier, P.G. 1998. From
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2003. An anisotropic elastoplastic model for soft clays.
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71
ABSTRACT: A variety of stress-controlled monotonic and cyclic shear tests on saturated loose sand under
various complex initial consolidation conditions and different variation patterns of shear stress are conducted by
using the soil static and dynamic universal triaxial and torsional shear apparatus. Through these experimental
tests, the followings are achieved: (1) Under the application of monotonic shear loading, orientation of principal
stress obviously influences effective stress path and stress-strain relationship. When the orientation of major
principal stress approaches to the vertical, loose sand displays the features of strain-hardening and shear dilatation.
Along with increase of deviation of orientation of major principal stress from the vertical, loose sand displays
obviously different features such as strain-softening and shear-contraction or others. Compared with the effect
of orientation of principal stress, It seems that the coefficient of intermediate principal stress do not remarkably
affect shear deformation behavior of sand. (2) Under the condition of cyclic loading, the influences of orientation
of principal stress at initial consolidation stage are appreciable. The pre-shearing effect of initial deviatoric stress
on application plane of dynamic stress imposes a considerable effect on cyclic behavior and accumulative mode
of residual deformation. (3) Cyclic shear behavior of sand is interrelated to monotonic shear characteristics.
The strain-hardening or/and softening features in monotonic shear test are closely related to cyclic mobility and
flow-slide deformation in cyclic shear test. And occurrence of cyclic mobility and flow-slide is dependent on
initial texture of sand. (4) In the paper, the steady-state concept of modern soil mechanics and the state-dependent
equation of stress-dilatancy are integrated with the empirical stress-strain relationship obtained from measured
data in tests, a refined elasto-plastic constitutive model is proposed and the related parameters are defined
accordingly. It is shown by experimental verification and numerical simulation or prediction of the model that the
proposed model is capable to well display influence of initial stress and physical states on shear behavior of sand.
INTRODUCTION
73
vh
( v - h )/2
(a)
vh
( v - h )/2
(b)
( v - h )/2
(c)
includes direct shear box, simple shear apparatus, triaxial shear apparatus, torsional shear apparatus and
resonance column.
These test apparatus have been playing an irreplaceable important role in understanding of fundamental
deformation behavior and strength properties as well
as constitutive relationship of soils. However, conventional cyclic triaxial shear or/and torsional shear
apparatus are only capable to implement pure shear
state by imposing cyclic deviatoric stress or torsional
shear stress on soil sample and cyclic principal stress
axis changes abruptly for 90 in a cycle of loading
as shown in Figure 1(a) and 1(b) respectively. Both
apparatus can not be simulate complex initial stress
state with different combinations of the coefficient of
intermediate principal stress and orientation of initial
major principal stress and cannot fulfill complex variation pattern of cyclic stresses as induced by wave or
traffic loading.
The soil static and dynamic universal triaxial and
torsional shear apparatus was jointly designed by
Dalian University of Technology and Seiken Corp.,
Inc., Japan and independently manufactured by Seiken
Corp., Inc., Japan in 2001. This new apparatus enables
to simultaneously impose and individually control
both axial pressure W and torque MT as well as outer
chamber pressure p0 and inner chamber pressure pi .
And different combinations of these components can
be fulfilled. Therefore the consolidation and loading
paths under different complex stress condition of soils
can be implemented. This apparatus is composed of
five components including loading system, air-water
transfer system, analogue control system, data acquisition and computer control system, and hydraulic
servo-loading system, as shown in Figure 2.
74
vh
W
1.1.1
MT
pi
2=r
po
(a)
MT
pi
po
3
uo
ui
(b)
pi
po
2=r
(c)
Ri
Ro
(d)
b=
2z
1
arctan
2
z
1
p = m = (1 + 2 + 3 )
3
1
q=
[( 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + (3 1 )2 ]
2 1
q
=
p
75
2 3
;
1 3
b=0.22~0.2
5
b
0 0.22 0.5 0.8 1
0 30 45 60 90
(a) Pattern 1
(b) Pattern 3
160
120
120
b=0.00
b=0.22
b=0.50
b=0.80
b=1.00
80
40
0
60
80
100 120
140
b=0.00
b=0.22
b=0.50
b=0.80
b=1.00
80
40
0
40
p'
01
2
g(%)
Figure 5. Effect of the coefficient of intermediate principal stress on undrained shear behavior under anisotropic
consolidation condition.
The effective stress paths and stress-strain relationships measured in shear tests with pattern 1 are
displayed in Figure 5 for different values of b, e.g.,
b = 0, 0.22, 0.5, 0.8, 1.0. The initial consolidation
ratios are all specified as 0 = q/p = 0.433 while the
orientation of major principal stress is in vertical, i.e.,
0 = 0 . It can be seen that under undrained condition for all these coefficients of intermediate principal
stress, the loose sand displays strain-hardening characteristics and obvious dialatancy feature through shear
loading and ultimately approaches to a steady state at
a certain deviatoric stress ratio. While the orientation
of major principal stress keeps unchanged, the coefficient of intermediate principal stress has no noticeable
influence on effective stress path and stress-strain
relationship as well as flow potential of sands.
4.2 Effect of coefficient of intermediate principal
stress on undrained shear behavior under
isotropic consolidation condition
For pattern 2 with different values of the coefficient of intermediate principal stress, e.g., b = 0, 0.22,
76
0=0
160
40
0
30
60
p'/kPa
120
b=0
b=0.22
b=0.5
b=0.8
b=1.0
80
40
90
120
(a) 0=0
30
60
p'/kPa
90
120
(b) 0=45
2
3
g/%
b=0
b=0.22
b=0.5
b=0.8
b=1.0
120
b=0
b=0.22
b=0.5
b=0.8
b=1.0
80
40
80
=45
40
0
(a)
3
g/%
(b)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
20
160
140 =0
0
0=30
120
0=45
100
0=30
0=45
0=0
80
0=60
0=60
60
C
40
0=90
0=90
20
0
40
60
80 100 120
01
23
45
6 7
p'
(%)
g
(b) Stress-strain
77
160
=0
120
q/kPa
b=0
b=0.22
b=0.5
b=0.8
b=1.0
80
q/kPa
q/kPa
120
=45
q/kPa
160
=0
160
140
140
b=0.22
120
100
100
q PT
80
100
path5( 0=90)
80
60
40
60
20
path4( 0=90)
path3( 0=45)
0
40
40
60
path1( 0=45)
120
path1( 0=45)
80
p'm
120
80
60
40
path2
( 0=45)
100
120
path2( 0=45)
path4( 0=90)
path3( 0=45)
20
0
path5( 0=90)
b=0.22
3 4
g(%)
20
0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
sin
0.8
Figure 10. The effect of effective stress ratio and shear stress
paths on stress-strain relations.
1.0
different flow potential under undrained shear condition. Therefore the loose sand may present different
deformation features such as strain softening or strain
hardening. This may be related to the anisotropic state
of the sample formed in preparation of the sample. In
fact, the sample is prepared in layer and consolidated
due to gravity force. Water drainage in the sample is
downwards or upwards. It is easy to form horizontal
planes of deposition. Therefore, the larger the orientation angle of major principal stress is, or the closer to
horizontal layer plane the orientation of major principal stress is, the easier the sand is compressed and thus
pore water pressure generates rapidly and develops to
a large value.
Through observation of the test results shown
in Figure 8 and Figure 5 and Figure 6, it can be
seen that influence of orientation of major principal stress on flow potential is much more remarkable stronger than that of coefficient of intermediate
principal stress. The tests on undisturbed soil samples conducted by Yoshimine, Ishihara and Matsuzaki
(1995) demonstrated that saturated sand at triaxial extension condition behaves completely different
shear features from that at triaxial compression condition. Strain softening feature is manifested for loose
sand under undrained triaxial compression condition
( = 0 , b = 0). Under undrained triaxial extension
condition ( = 90 , b = 1), However, full static liquefaction is displayed. It was explained by Yoshimine,
Ishihara and Matsuzaki (1995) that such a characteristic is related to orientation of major principal stress
and coefficient of intermediate principal stress. However, experimental data given in this paper justifies the
fact that flow potential under triaxial extension is heavier than that under triaxial compression. Therefore the
effect of rotation of principal stress on shear behavior
of sands may be appreciable and cannot be overlooked
in engineering practice.
Shown in Figure 9 is the effect of orientation of
principal stress on generalized shear stress ratio at
(1) Under the same initial consolidation condition with the orientation of principal stress of
0 = 45 , a comparison of test results of pattern 3 and pattern 4 indicates that prior stress
history does almost not affect the following effective stress path and phase-transformation state
or ultimate steady state of the samples. It is
noted that in pattern 4, the same isotropic stress
state as the initial consolidation state in pattern
3 is attained through unloading from an initial
anisotropic consolidation state and thereafter the
samples in pattern 3 and pattern 4 undergo the
identical shear loading. During further shear loading, the samples reach phase-transformation state
and ultimately approach to stead state of deformation in the almost same way at a nearly identical
deviator stress ratio.
(2) Through the comparison between test data
under anisotropic consolidation condition of
0 = q/p = 0.433 in pattern 3 and under isotropic
condition of 0 = q/p = 0 in pattern 2 for the
same case of 0 = 45 , and comparison between
test results under 0 = 45 in pattern 3 and
under 0 = 90 in pattern 5 for the same case
of b = 0.220.25, it is demonstrated that if
both the orientations of principal stress and the
coefficients of intermediate principal stress are
78
20
20
10
-20
-10
20
10
20 -20
-10
-10
20 -20
10
-10
(z - )/2
(z - )/2
-20
10
20
(z - )/2
(b) 0
-6
-4
-2
20
d/kPa
10
10
-10
-20
(a) 90
6 -6
-4
-2
60
40
40
20
20
30
-20
(b) 0
6 -6
-4
-2
d/kPa
-40 -20
0
-20
50
60
0
0
-20
z/%
-40
30
40
50
-40 -20
20
40
-40 -20
0
0
-10
(z- )/2.0
-20
20
40
(z- )/2.0
(b) 0=90
40
40
20
40 -40 -20
0
0
20
40 -40 -20
(c) 0=90
-40
20
40
-20
-20
(z- )/2.0
20
20
-20
identical for different loading patterns, the effective stress paths and the stress-strain relationships
as well as strain-hardening or softening tendency
under undrained shear condition are basically
similar.
(3) Compared with the effect of fabric anisotropicy
caused by preparation of sample, anisotropic
effect induced by initial stress ratio imposes
relatively less influence on shear behavior of sand.
10
(a) 0=0
40
(c) 180
-40
(z- )/2.0
(d) 0=45
-40
(z- )/2.0
(e) 0=60
79
20
20
Figure 12. Shear stress-strain relations in triaxial-andtorsional coupling shear tests under isotropic consolidation
condition.
5.1
10
20
20
-10
z/%
40
10
n
0
40
20
-10
z/%
60
(c) 180
d/kPa
80
u/kPa
80
20
-20
-20
(a) 90
u/kPa
-10
-10
100
100
10
10
30
d/kPa
15
0
-15
z /%
-30
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
(a) 0=0
20
d/kPa
10
0
-10
z /%
-20
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
(b) 0=30
20
d/kPa
10
0
-10
-20
z /%
(c) 0=45
20
10
d/kPa
0
-10
z /%
-20
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
(d) 0=60
30
10
5
20
30
20
20
/kPa
d
/kPa
d
10
d/kPa
10
10
0
0
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -6
-10
-10
0
-5
-10
-0.3
/kPa
d
z /%
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
-10
-20
0.3
-30
(e) 0=90
z /%
-20
-30
z /%
-20
z /%
80
0
-3
(1) With increase of the orientation of major principal stress relative to the vertical, development of
generalized shear strain becomes more remarkable and strain- softening feature gets more
noticeable.
(2) After undergoing strain softening stage, the sand
under any initial stress state exhibits strainhardening feature. As illustrated in Figure 18,
generalized shear strain develops rapidly within
the first three load cycles. The deformation during this stage is defined as flow-slide deformation
or the sand undergoes flow failure stage which
corresponds to strain-softening stage in monotonic shear. Then strain is alternatively varied
in both directions with no unidirectional accumulation. Consequently, the deformation progressively approaches to steady state which is
defined as cyclic mobility and corresponds to
stepping into the strain-hardening stage during monotonic shear as stated by Hyodo et al
(1994). Therefore, the flow-slide deformation and
cyclic mobility during cyclic shear are closely
related to strain-softening and strain- hardening features during monotonic shear respectively. When deviatoric stress amplitude during
cyclic shear is higher than the lowest strength
in strain-softening stage or in quasi-steady state
during monotonic shear, remarkable flow-slide
/kPa
/kPa
20
20
10
-6
-4
-2
10
0
-10
0
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
-10
z /%
4
6
z /%
-20
-20
-30
-30
(a) IC condition
30
15
/kPa
-15
z /%
-30
01
23
140
100
(a)
monotonic
80
60
cyclic
40
20
3 4
g/%
(b)
100
60
40
40
2
3 4
g/%
(d)
0=0
cyclic
monotonic
60
60
(e)
monotonic
40
40
20
0
20
0
0=0
80
/kPa
q
q/kPa
80
100
120
100
80 monotonic
60
3
g/%
20
cyclic
0
3
g/%
Figure 18. The stress-strain relations under monotonic shear and cyclic shear in torsional shear tests.
81
(c)
100
cyclic
0=0
120
monotonic
80
20
140
0=0
120
q/kPa
q/kPa
140
0=0
120
q/kPa
30
cyclic
3 4
g/%
Shown in Figure 19 is the relations between deviatoric stress and generalized shear strain observed from
triaxial-and-torsional coupling shear tests in the case
of 0 = 60 and b = 0.5. It can be seen that after the
triaxial-torsional coupling shear, stress path enters into
the strain-softening stage with a substantial deformation. This phenomenon is similar to what happens
in cyclic torsional shear tests. When the amplitude
of cyclic stress becomes larger, the flow feature of
deformation gets more obvious.
Under the same initial stress condition, the effective
stress paths measured in both cyclic and monotonic
shear tests are given in Figure 20. The enhanced stress
path for 0 = 45 is shown in Figure 20(f). During
monotonic or cyclic shear, the mean principal stress
keeps unchanged. Variation of pore water pressure
induced by shear-dilatancy or contraction leads to
change of effective stress. Under the condition with
the almost same coefficient of intermediate principal stress of b = 0.220.25 and a given orientation
120
1.5
0=60
1.2
monotonic
100
0.9
monotonic
cyclic
q/kPa
0.6
80
0.3
0
qcyc=15.1kPa
qcyc=13.4kPa
60
1.5
1.2
40
g/%
(a) 0=0
monotonic
cyclic
0.9
20
3
4
g/%
0.6
1.5
1.2
120
100
80
80
60
60
100
=90
0
80
monotonic
cyclic
g/%
0.3
0
1.5
=45
0
(c) 0=60
0.9
p'
(f)
40
60
80
100
monotonic
cyclic
0.6
0.3
1.2
q
0.6
60
40
40
40
20
20
p'
p'
(d)
(e)
0
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 20
(d) 0=90
g/%
5
82
0.9
160
160
140
140 q
140 q =0
=30
120 q 0=45
0
0
120
120
100
100
100
80
80
80
60
60
60
40
40
40
p'
20
p'
p'
20
20
(b)
(a)
(c)
0
0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
q
100
0=60
(b) 0=30
120
g/%
0.3
0
Void Ratio e
(Dilative)
>0
(Contractive)
Steady state line
(p/pa)
83
<0
It is noted that the dependency of dilatancy on initial intrinsic state of material is overlooked in all the
above stress-dilatancy relations that therefore can not
authentically reproduce shear feature of sand. In fact,
it has been observed experimentally that dilatancy of
sand not only depends on deviatoric stress ratio, but
also is closely related to internal state of material.
Especially influence of density can not be ignored.
Based on experimental observation on the feature
of shear response of sand and simplified analysis
of microscopic deformation, a general mathematical
expression of dilatancy such as d = d(, e, Q, C) was
proposed by Li and Dafalias (2000) in order to take
account the dependency of dilatancy on material intrinsic state by using the common terms Q and C to
describe internal state of material excluding void ratio
e. Therefore, the dilatancy given by Li and Dafalias
(2000) is uniquely associated with the current state
including changes of both internal parameters, e and Q,
and external parameter, . This state-dependent dilatancy provides the basis of flow rule of plasticity and
is used in this paper to establish constitutive model
of sand.
The stress-dilatancy equation proposed by Li and
Dafaliad (2000) is expressed as
According to the position of the current state parameter with respect to the steady-state line, the soil is
divided into two types of states, i.e., shear dilative and
shear contractive.
Sand of shear-dilative type denotes the current
state parameter of which is located at left below the
steady-state or critical-state line and volume of the soil
displays expansive feature during shear failure. However, soil of shear contractive-type denotes the current
state parameter of which is located at right above the
steady-state line and volume of the soil displays the
contractive feature during shear failure.
As a fundamental element of elasto-plastic constitutive model of soils, the stress-dilatancy equation is
usually employed as flow rule to define the direction of
plastic flow. For the well-known Cam-clay model, the
original and improved dilatancy equations are given
respectively as
d =M
or
d=
(M 2 2 )
2
d=
dv
d0
[Mc exp (m) ]
p =
Mc
dq
(2)
d=
dv
p
dq
(M )
(1 N )
G N g
0
GN q
=
p
M P + G N g
MP 0
MP + G N q
84
(3)
GN
p + GN
q q
=
(M
)M
p
0
p
p
p
q
(Mp + GN q )2
or
GN
f
p = 0 (GN GN , min )
q
q
2
p
Mp 1 Mp
q
G
=
f
(G
G
)
N
N
N , min
p
(Mp 0 )
q0
q
(7b)
From which the plastic hardening modulus dependent
on deformation is given as
2
p
Mp 1 Mp
q
GN f 0 (GN GN , min )
H p = p
(Mp 0 )
q
(8)
Then the incremental strain can be obtained as below
f
1
1 f
dp +
dq =
(dq dp)
dqp = L =
Hp p
q
Hp
(9a)
d
dvp = Ld =
(dq dp)
(9b)
Hp
(5)
Where
dq = dqe + dqp =
L = dqp =
1 f
dij
Hp ij
+
dp
dq
dq =
3G
Hp
Hp
1
d
d
dq +
dp
dv =
Hp
K
Hp
f
f p
f p
dij +
d = LHp +
d = 0
ij
qp q
qp q
Accordingly, the modulus of plasticity can be written as
Hp =
(7a)
f
qp
(10b)
(6)
=
(G
G
)
exp
f
N , max
N , min
p
q0
q0
q
K =G
85
(10a)
2(1 + )
3(1 2)
(11b)
12
1500
1- 3/kPa
1000
10
8
6
p=50kPa
p=200kPa
p=500kPa
2000
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.7
500
0.7
0.6
-4
600
p'/kPa
-6
(a)
-2
-500
Dr=30%
-1000
Dr=60%
-1500
-2000
Dr=80%
-2500
0
10
20
30
40
dq =
D
C
dq +
dv
A+B
A+B
(12a)
dp =
BD
AC
dq +
dv
A+B
A+B
(12b)
KHp
,
Hp Kd
1200
0.6
02
4
6
(p/pa)0.88
(b)
qss/kPa
1600
1200
800
400
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
p'ss/kPa
Where
C=
900
2000
Hp + 3G
,
3G
300
-10
-12
50
A=
-8
z/%
B=
Kd
,
Hp Kd
D=
Hp
e=0.81-0.01(p/pa)0.88
2500
e = e
(13)
where e and e are respectively the original and correlated void ratios at steady state while Rc and Rcr are
original and arbitrarily-chosen reference relative densities. It is noted that the relative density is defined as
the ratio of current dry density to its maximum dry density. In this paper, the reference relative density is given
at 89%. As shown in Figure 24(b), the steady-state
line correlated by relative density may be considered
to be unique. On the other hand, the measured steadystate line in qss pss space is given in Figure 25. It
can be seen that the steady state line expressed in
term of stress ratio is basically unique, and the stable
stress ratio is qss /pss = 1.386. It is nearly identical to
Mp = 1.4 of the ultimate stress ratio which is measured
from undrained shear tests at = 0 . The fact that the
steady-state line in e-pss space is not unique while the
steady-state line in qss pss space is unique is similar to
the observation for completely-decomposed granites
in Hong Kong area as stated by Luan et al (2000).
86
Rc
Rcr
p=50kPa
p=200kPa
p=500kPa
1E-4
160
G0
600
120
80
GN, min
1/E0
800
200
2E-4
40
0
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
z/%
200
400
p/kPa
600
400
200
0
0.0
0.2
1.1
1.0
0.4 0.6
sin0
0.8
1.0
GN=GN,max
0.9
1.6
0.8
1.5
0.7
1.4
MP
GN =GN,min
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.0
1.3
1.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.1
g/%
1.0
0.0
0.2
0.8
1.0
(14)
(15)
When orientation of major principal stress is in vertical, the value of Mp approaches to that obtained from
drained triaxial tests. Parameter f is used to describe
the extent of plastic strain and it is usually no less than
3 and f = 4 is given here.
87
0.4 0.6
sin0
Elasticity
parameter
State
parameter
G0
e
c
d0
M
B1 , B2
f
C1 , C2
65
0.2
0.88
0.81
0.01
1.07
2.8
630, 490
4
1.4, 0.18
800
800
Eq. 10
Eq. 11
Eq.1
160
40
0=90
0
0.2
40
0=90
0.0
4
g/%
10
g/%
15
20
0.9
120
200
150
q/kPa
1.2
0.6
e=0.70
80
e=0.75
e=0.78
e=0.80
40
0.3
e=0.70
e=0.75
100
e=0.78
50
e=0.80
e=0.82
0
4
g /%
40
80
120
160
p'/kPa
(a) Effective stress paths
e=0.82
0
g/%
For the test cases, the effective stress paths and stressstrain relationships are simulated by the proposed
refined constitutive model with corresponding parameters as shown in Figure 30. It can be seen that
the proposed improved constitutive model can agree
well with the experimental data. The model is capable to reproduce fairly the effect of orientation of
major principal stress on shear- dilation or contraction
88
7.3
20
p=2000kPa
1.5
0.0
15
0.6
0=60
20 40 60 80 100 120
p'/kPa
10
g/%
p=100kPa
0.8
80
q/kPa
0=0
q/kPa
q/kPa
80
1.0
0.4
0=0
120
1.2
0=30
0=45
160
0=30
0=45
0=60
500
Eq. 2
Eq. 2
Eq.13
Eq. 4
Eq. 14
200
120
p=2000kPa
p=1000kPa
p=500kPa
p=200kPa
p=100kPa
400
400
Dilatancy
parameters
Stress-strain
relationship
parameter
Refereed
Equation
Value
1200
q/kPa
Parameter
1200
q/kPa
160
q/kPa
120
=30
80
120
80
2
1: GN, max =800, G N, min =450
40
40
=30
20
40
60 80 100 120
p'/kPa
0 0
g/%
160
1: m=4, d0=1.07
1: m=2.8, d0=1.07
1: m=2.8, d0=2
80
2
3
40
0
80
1: m=4, d0=1.07
1: m=2.8, d0=1.07
1: m=2.8, d0=2
40
=30
=30
0
120
q/kPa
q/kPa
120
20
40
60
80 100 120
p'/kPa
(a) Effective stress paths
3
4
g /%
89
160
q/kPa
q/kPa
120
120
3: G0=150, =0.2
80
40
1: G0=65, =0.2
1
80
2
3
40
2: G0=65, =0.3
3: G0=150, =0.2
=30
0
20
40
160
1: G0=65, =0.2
2: G0=65, =0.3
q/kPa
160
60
80 100 120
p'/kPa
(a) Effective stress paths
=30
0
3
g/%
CONCLUSIONS
90
shear behavior of sands. Compared with the conventional state-dependent constitutive model, the
dependency of the orientation of principal stress
on both effective stress paths and stress-strain relationship are taken into consideration in addition to
the combined effect of both initial confining pressure and void ratio. Therefore it is shown that the
improved model proposed in the paper is capable to fairly reproduce full shear behavior of sand
under complex initial stress condition. The effects
of the orientation of principal stress and the coefficient of intermediate principal stress as well as
other related factors on main feature of undrained
shear behavior of sands can be examined.
Although the correlation of undrained shear
behavior of sands between under monotonic and
cyclic shear has been clarified through comparative experimental tests, the elasto-plastic constitutive model is limited for monotonic shear
and an improved constitutive model for cyclic
shear is required for dynamic analyses and
design of seabeds or marine or offshore structural
foundations.
higher than the lowest shear strength in strain- softening stage during monotonic shear, flow-slide
deformation will take place during cyclic shear.
Therefore cyclic stress level of dynamic design
should be not higher than the lowest strength
or quasi-steady-state strength in strain-softening
stage obtained from monotonic shear tests under
the same initial stress condition. In addition,
the occurrence of cyclic mobility and flow-slide
deformation is associated with initial texture of
sand sample in a certain manner.
(5) Under the condition with the same orientation of
major principal stress and coefficient of intermediate principal stress, the effective deviator stress
ratios respectively at phase-transformation state
and at ultimate steady state of sands during monotonic shear are nearly equal to the peak values of
the effective deviator stress ratio at first occurrence of obvious shear dilatation and at ultimate
steady state of sand subjected to cyclic shear.
Therefore for a specified initial state, both the
peak deviatoric stress ratios at steady-state and at
phase-transformation state can be regarded as two
fundamental characteristic parameters for representation of shear behavior of saturated loose sand
under monotonic or/and cyclic shear condition.
(6) Under the condition with the same initial stress
state, the development mode of peak deviatoric
stress ratio in one load cycle with generalized
shear strain is basically close to the variation pattern of deviatoric stress ratio with generalized
shear strain during monotonic shearing. Furthermore, for any initial stress condition, the measured
relationship between deviatoric stress and generalized shear strain can be well represented by a
hardening-type quasi-hyperbolic equation. Such
an empirical relation offers the physical basis
in establishing nonlinear elasto-plastic constitutive relationship of sands. Finally, combined with
the concept of steady state of deformation in
modern critical soil mechanics, a refined nonlinear elasto-plastic constitutive model of sands
is proposed by simultaneously using the statedependent stress-dilatancy equation and empirical
hyperbolic relation between deviatoric stress ratio
and generalized shear strain obtained from experimental data. The model is capable to take both
initial physical state and texture anisotropy into
account mutually. The model has totally 10 parameters including elasticity parameters, dilatancy
parameters, state parameters and quasi-hyperbolic
parameters. All the related parameters can be
determined or calibrated on the basis of experimental data. The performance of the proposed
model together with the related parameters is verified by comparing the shear response predicted by
the proposed model and experimentally-measured
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Professor Dahong Qiu of Dalian University of Technology
for his continuing support and invaluable advice for
the investigation. The financial support for this study
through the grant 50579006, 50179006 and 50439010
from National Natural Science Foundation of China is
mostly grateful.
REFERENCES
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Cubrinovski M, Ishihara K. 1998a. Modelling of sand
behavior based on state concept. Soils and Foundations,
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Cubrinovski M, Ishihara K. 1998b. State concept and modified elastoplasticity for sand modeling. Soils and Foundations, 38(4):213225
Guo Ying. 2003. Experimental studies on undrained cyclic
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Hyodo M, Tanimizu H, Yasufuku N. 1994. Murata H.
Undrained cyclic and monotonic triaxial behavior of
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34(1):1932
Ishihara K, Towhata I. 1983. Sand response to cyclic rotation
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92
ABSTRACT: Actual field conditions may vary markedly from those assumed in the design. The soil engineers
frequently can compensate for these differences by altering the design, changing the time required, etc., if
the actual field performance of the earth project is measured. In order to measure the settlement in soft soil
foundations, a specific type of instrument, namely magnetic probe extensometer is fixed in position into a
borehole backfilled with grout. In many situations, instrument observations may just reflect unstable backfill,
lack of backfill or backfill that is too stiff or too soft. A two dimensional finite element model, with an idealized
elastic-perfectly plastic interaction between the soil-mass and grout has provided insight into the behaviour and
interaction of the components. These extended finite element analyses of grout-soil mass composites revealed
that there is an optimum grout stiffness to minimize the measurement errors for a soft to medium soil.
INTRODUCTION
will be based on judgment in selecting the most probable values within the ranges of possible values for
engineering properties. As construction progresses
and geotechnical conditions are observed or behavior monitored, the design judgments can be evaluated
and, if necessary, updated. Thus, engineering observations during geotechnical construction are often an
integral part of the design process, and geotechnical
instrumentation is a tool to assist with this observation.
The behavior of embankments on soft ground tends
to be dominated by the properties of the soft ground.
A potential circular failure surface may develop, with
a large portion of the surface in the weak foundation
material as shown in Figure 1a. However, the loading
of the embankment may cause settlement and lateral
bulging of the foundation, as shown in Figure 1b, long
before the rotation failure occurs. The lateral bulging
of the soft ground transfers horizontal tension to the
embankment, which may experience tension cracking,
since it is less deformable than the soft foundation.
Many river sediments consist of soft ground, and a
dam constructed over these materials may behave as
shown in Figure 1.
Even if the design of the dam is adequate, the weight
of the embankment dam on the underlying soil or rock
must be considered. Heavily loaded soil under the dam
may settle, and there will be downward and lateral
movements of the base of the dam. Moreover, even
well-compacted fill material will experience settlements when loaded with overlying material, and poor
compaction procedures will result in greater settlements. If the crest of the dam is initially level, with
95
time it will settle, and the centre of the dam will settle
the most. If the abutments are steep, the settlements
may put the crest of the dam in tension, as shown in
Figure 2, possibly causing cracks transverse to the axis
of the dam.
2
PROBE EXTENSOMETER
3
96
BACKFILLING OF BOREHOLES
Figure 3. Probe Extensometer Installation Fixed in Stable Ground (Courtesy of Soil Instruments Ltd., Uckfield,
England).
97
3.3
Bentonite-cement grout
98
Table 1.
2002).
Application
Ratio by
Weight Weight
Materials
Weight
Water
30
2.5
gallons
94 lbs.
1
(1 sack)
25 lbs.
0.3
(as required)
Portland
Cement
Bentonite
Ratio by
Weight
75
6.6
gallons
94 lbs.
1
(1 sack)
39 lbs.
0.4
(as required)
1
The 28-day compressive strength of this mix is about 50 psi,
similar to very stiff to hard clay. The modulus is about
10,000 psi.
2
The 28-day strength of this mix is about 4 psi, similar to very
soft clay.
controlling the water-cement ratio. This is accomplished by mixing the cement with the water first.
When water and cement are mixed first, the watercement ratio stays fixed and the strength/modulus of
the set grout is more predictable. If bentonite slurry
is mixed first, the water-cement ratio cannot be controlled because the addition of cement must stop
when the slurry thickens to a consistency that is still
pumpable. Making cement-bentonite grout in the field
is a straightforward process. The most effective mixing is done in a barrel or tub with the drill-rig pump,
circulating the batch through the pump in 50 to 200
gallon quantities. The rig pump provides the kind of
jet-mixing required for getting the job done quickly.
Any kind of bentonite powder used to make drilling
mud combined with Type 1 Portland cement and water
can be used, but the appropriate quantity of bentonite will vary somewhat depending on grade of
bentonite, mixing sequence, mixing effort (agitation),
water pH and temperature (Mikkelsen 2002). Grout
mixes should be controlled by weight and proportioned
to give the desired strength of the set grout. The conversion factors contained in Appendix H.10 in Dunnicliff
(1988, 1993) are very helpful in mix design. Two mixes
are given in Table 1 that varies in 28-day strength from
50 psi to 4 psi for water-cement ratios of 2.5 to 6.6
respectively.
The amount of bentonite that is required for the
above mixing procedure would vary due to factors
mentioned earlier. The amount of bentonite shown in
Table 1 should only be used as a guide, but is also
handy for estimating material quantities to be shipped
to the site. With water and cement mixed first, more
bentonite is required than if water and bentonite were
mixed first. This is an advantage from the standpoint
of wanting a low permeability. When the bentonite
solids content increases, the density increases and the
99
permeability is lowered. A lower permeability is generally preferred since cement-bentonite grouts have a
higher permeability than high-density bentonite grout
or chip seals. Thus, it is another good reason for mixing
water and cement before adding bentonite.
Old habits die hard, so that some users will insist on
mixing water and bentonite powder first. This is normally the way drilling mud is mixed and it yields more
slurry per sack of bentonite than the above method.
Also, use of hydrated bentonite with cement added last
is common practice in grouting technology for ground
improvement. Such mixes are highly thixotropic and
rely on industrial type mixing plants and methods. The
cement content is difficult to control under ordinary
borehole installation circumstances.
2D AXISYMMETRIC NUMERICAL
ANALYSIS
The displacement response of a series of spider magnet embedded in a grout column surrounded by clay
materials is investigated for loading in vertical direction using PLAXIS finite element code. PLAXIS is
used to create and to execute a finite element analysis
of the grout-soil composite. The settlement column
is embedded into a soil cylinder with the length of
8 m and radius of 4 m. The automatic mesh generation procedure in PLAXIS allows for local refinement
and generation of the mesh, in two dimensions, relative ease. The two-dimensional mesh consists of
fifteen-noded, triangular material elements and fivenoded, zero-thickness, interface elements. Interface
elements have no thickness, but have shear stiffness
and strength properties that can be specified separately
from the material elements. The settlement column
modeled as a concrete pile is 0.15 m in diameter, 8 m
in length and is embedded in a homogeneous clay
layer. PLAXIS 2D offers a variety of material models. The Mohr-Coulomb material model which allows
for plastic deformation after meeting the failure criteria (strength) is used for elements of intervening
fill, which employs a linearly elastic-perfectly plastic
stress-strain response while the elements within grout
column are considered linearly elastic. The model
geometry only consists of half of the actual geometry due to model axial symmetry. The roller boundary
conditions are applied on all sides of the axisymmetric
block. The PLAXIS model is shown in Figure 5. Properties of the clay materials are summarized in Table 2.
Mohr-Coulomb material parameters that are variable in this analysis are the modulus of elasticity (E),
the cohesion (C) of the clay material and the Poissons
ratio (). Parameter that remain constant is the friction angle ( = 0 ). The soil strengths represented: (1)
a soft to medium clay [C = 25 kPa], (2) a medium to
stiff clay [C = 50 kPa], and (3) stiff clay [C = 100 kPa].
Stiff
Clay
C = 100 kPa
Parameters
Elasticity
modulus,
E (MPa)
Poissons
Ratio,
Density,
(kg/m3)
12.5
25.0
50.0
0.38
0.36
0.35
1800
1800
1800
100
Soil
Soft to
Medium Clay
C = 25 kPa
Table 3.
Soil Type
Steel
Wood
Concrete
Sand
Silt & Clay
/ = 0.54
/ = 0.54
/ = 0.76
/ = 0.55
/ = 0.76
/ = 0.50
Figure 6. Mean Relative Error of Magnetic Probe Extensometer measurements versus relative stiffness for different
soil-grout interface properties. Constant parameters include:
all soil parameters (soft to medium clay) and grout Poisson
ratio ( = 0.35).
101
Figure 8. Mean Relative Error of Magnetic Probe Extensometer Measurements versus Relative Stiffness for Different
Clays. Constant parameters include: grout Poisson ratio
( = 0.35) and grout-soil interface properties (Rinter = 0.66).
Figure 9. Mean Relative Error of Magnetic Probe Extensometer measurements versus relative stiffness for different
outer sheath conditions. Constant parameters include: all soil
parameters, grout Poisson ratio ( = 0.35), and soil-grout
interface properties (Rinter = 0.66).
102
CONCLUSION
103
K.T. Law
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
ABSTRACT: A highway embankment over soft soils has been successfully constructed with the help of simultaneous application of vacuum loading. This method enables a short construction time and little post-construction
settlements. This paper describes a case study using this method of construction. Extensive laboratory tests have
been conducted before and after construction. Field testing and monitoring have also been made to help understand the performance of the foundation soils involved in this method of construction. The study shows that
(1) the installation of the prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) disturbed the soil and reduced its strength; (2) the
observed settlement is larger and faster than the estimated; (3) the vacuum load generated an inward horizontal
movement indicative of the increase in horizontal effective stress which in turn increased the soil strength quite
rapidly and (4) there would be little post-construction settlement resulting from additional load due to surface
paving and live traffic load.
INTRODUCTION
105
Table 1.
Depth (m)
Void ratio
4.04.3
5.05.3
6.06.3
9.09.2
11.511.7
13.413.6
16.316.5
18.018.2
19.219.4
21.321.5
23.423.6
25.425.6
Average
Average change
27.527.7
29.329.5
31.331.5
35.535.7
37.337.5
Average
Average change
38.8
39.7
35.4
27.2
27.7
25.3
30.8
30.7
31.9
34.7
33.2
35.3
32.2
8.4%
36.0
34.1
32.0
22.9
21.3
29.7
2.7%
28.5
32.7
31.3
28.0
26.0
24.6
30.1
27.5
27.6
28.4
32.3
34.7
29.5
1.32
1.29
1.39
1.57
1.56
1.62
1.48
1.48
1.46
1.42
1.43
1.39
1.45
+4.8%
1.38
1.40
1.44
1.67
1.64
1.50
+2.0%
1.49
1.45
1.46
1.56
1.63
1.68
1.52
1.50
1.55
1.53
1.46
1.42
1.52
1.063
1.100
0.952
0.774
0.772
0.667
0.830
0.819
0.855
0.897
0.876
0.935
0.869
9.0%
0.970
0.919
0.897
0.631
0.623
0.819
3.9%
0.800
0.859
0.856
0.727
0.664
0.619
0.804
0.802
0.733
0.770
0.860
0.904
0.791
0.87
0.88
0.64
0.34
0.35
0.23
0.23
0.22
0.27
0.31
0.36
0.40
0.44
38.6%
0.39
0.39
0.25
0.20
0.24
0.30
13.0%
0.30
0.28
0.38
0.31
0.26
0.16
0.18
0.16
0.19
0.18
0.27
0.32
0.27
34.8
31.7
31.4
22.6
21.5
28.9
1.41
1.49
1.46
1.67
1.65
1.53
0.960
0.758
0.889
0.629
0.616
0.787
0.34
0.31
0.21
0.18
0.23
0.26
0.021
0.016
0.010
0.009
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.020
0.010
SITE CONDITIONS
According to site investigation, the compressible subsoils at the site is at least 40 m thick (maximum depth
of boreholes) and consist mainly of clay layers and
silty sand layers. The detailed subsoil profiles can be
divided into six main layers as given in Table 1 and
summarized in the following:
The top soil layer is clayey soil with low liquid
limit and with a thickness varying from 1.3 m to
3.2 m. Layers of silty sand and sand lenses are found
embedded in this top layer which has a water content ranging from 26% to 36%, an average void ratio
0.85, and an average coefficient of compressibility
0.38 MPa-1.
The second layer is soft clay with a thickness of
about 6 m. The average water content is 37% with
a maximum of 52%. Its average void ratio is 1.1,
reaching a maximum of 1.55. The coefficient of compressibility varies from 0.6 MPa1 to 0.9 MPa1 and
the consolidation coefficient from 5.7 104 cm2 /s to
1.3 103 cm2 /s. This layer is the most compressible
layer of the subsoils at this site.
The third layer is clay with low liquid limit with a
thickness ranging from 6 m to 8 m. The water content varies from 28% to 35%, the void ratio from
0.68 to 0.82, the coefficient of compressibility from
0.26 MPa1 to 0.35 MPa-1 , and the consolidation coefficient from 1.5 103 cm2 /s to 6.0 103 cm2 /s.
The method of applying vacuum loading simultaneously with the embankment construction was applied
106
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
107
108
Surface settlements
in the zone with the PVDs with the largest compression being noted in the soft layer. Beneath this zone,
the total compression is 36 cm. Since the boreholes
reached only 40 m in depth, the compression in this
zone is at most 2.4%.
The horizontal deformations measured with the two
inclinometers are similar to each other and the results
of one are shown in Figure 6. It is of interest to note that
when the vacuum was maintained, the top of the inclinometer moved slightly towards the tested area. After
that, when the surcharge and the vacuum were both
109
soil
Soft soil
Depth
(m)
*Time of
primary
cons.
cv
cvr
cv /cvr
(day)
(m2 /day) (m2 /day)
2.55.5 66
5.58.5 62
8.515.5 44
0.008
0.008
0.033
0.021
0.030
0.072
2.63
3.75
2.18
38
0.067
0.154
2.30
Clay wit
low LL
Sity sand 15.525
of the vacuum load has been small and the soils moved
outwards as in an ordinary embankment loading case
without the vacuum.
6.3 Field vane shear strengths
110
(1)
2
ekmt )
2
M
m=1
(2)
111
avi Pi
Hi
1 + e0i
The measured and the estimated settlements at different depths have been compared. The comparison
shows that the measured settlement (36.0 cm) below
the depth of 25 m is much higher than the estimated
value (17.85 cm). This difference is caused partly by
the settlement of the subsoils below the depth of 40 m,
where there is no information on the compressional
characteristics. All settlements in the layers from the
ground surface to the depth of 25 m are also higher
than the estimated values, especially in the top layer
and the soft clay layer.
mv =
av
;
1 + e0
= f (kr,n );
M=
n=
(2m 1)
;
2
Km =
2Cvr
;
re2
re
= radius ratio.
rw
112
Figure 11. Relationship of void ratios obtained from laboratory tests and from estimated settlements.
Note: ee = void ratio estimated using av and change in effective vertical stress
ed = void ratio determined directly on samples taken after
construction
Figure 12. Relationship of void ratios obtained from laboratory tests and from settlement records.
ratio deduced from the settlement records is approximately equal to the directly measured void ratio. This
implies that the horizontal inward movement caused by
the vacuum load has negligible effect on the vertical
settlement.
8
113
DISCUSSION
Table 3.
Reference
Soil characterists
sm /sp
Note
This paper
1.21 to 1.50
1.55
1.11 to 1.37
1.26
1.27
Test area
Along runway
Average of 4 cases
Estimated settlements
obtained based on data
given in the paper
1.26
1.33
0.82
1.03
sensitive clay.
Post-construction settlement
114
CONCLUSIONS
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
shear strength. However, at the end of the embankment construction when the vacuum was released,
the field vane strength regained up to 1.9 times of
the original value.
The observed settlements in different layers are
21% to 50% larger than the estimated values
based on conventional laboratory consolidation
test results. The reason for this phenomenon is due
to softening of the subsoils as a result of mechanical disturbance due to the installation of the PVDs
and secondary compression.
The consolidation coefficients deduced from consolidation settlements under the embankment are
2 to 4 times higher than the values determined
in the laboratory. Three reasons have been suggested for the discrepancy. First, the high hydraulic
gradient created by the vacuum accelerates the
consolidation in the field. Secondly, the PVDs
enable consolidation in the horizontal direction
along which the permeability coefficient. Thirdly,
the smear in the soil caused by installing PVDs has
an opposing effect. The net results that the field
consolidation coefficients are higher than those in
the vertical direction as measured in the laboratory.
Inward horizontal movements have been observed
during the period of vacuum loading. This inward
movement indicates a significant increase in the
effective horizontal stress. This effective stress
increase has been immediate and hence the
strength increase is also immediate, leading to
favourable condition for rapid construction of the
embankment in spite of the decrease in strength
due to the disturbance by the installation of the
PVDs. This horizontal inward movement, however, does not appear to have significant effect
on the vertical settlement based on comparison
of the void ratio measured on soil samples taken
after the completion of the embankment construction and the void ratio deduced with the measured
settlements.
Future loading from paving the road surface and
from traffic will generate a pressure less than the
release of the vacuum.The future loading therefore
will occur in the over-consolidated state with little
further settlement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial supports for this study from The General
Expressway Company of Jiangsu Province, China
and The Natural Science and Engineering Council of
Canada are gratefully acknowledged. Heartfelt thanks
are due to Ms H. X. Zhang and Ms Y. Yun for
conducting the laboratory experiment.
REFERENCES
Barron, R. A. 1948, Consolidation of the fine-grained soils
by drain wells, Transactions of the ASCE, 718742
Bergalo, D.T., Balasubramaniam, A.S., Fannin, R.J., and
Holtz, R.D. 2002, Prefab. Vert. drains (PVDs) in soft
Bankok clay: a case study of the new Bankok International
Airport Project, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.39,
304315
Choa. V. 1989, Drains and vacuum loading pilot test, Proc.
XII, Intl Conf. On Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, 13471350
Das, B.M., 2001, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering
(Fifth edition), Thomson Learning
Imai, G. 1995, Analytical examination of the foundations to
formulate consolidation phenomena with inherent timedependence, Proc. Int. Sym. Compaction and Consolidation of Clayey Soils, Hiroshima, Japan, Vol.2, 891935.
Kjellman, W. 1952, Consolidation of clayey soils by atmospheric pressure, Proc. Conference on Soil Stabilization,
Massachusettes Institute of Technology, Boston, 258263
Law, K. T. 1985, Use of field vane tests under earthstructures, 11th International Conference Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, San Francisco, 893898
Leroueil S., 1988, Tenth Canadian geotechnical colloquium:
Recent developments in consolidation of natural clays,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 25, 85107
Liu C. Y., Chen S. H., 1999, The application of vacuum combined with surcharge in the construction of expressway,
4th Conference of the Application of PVDs in the Soft
Foundations, Hohai University Press, 432438
Lou, Y. 1992, Improvement of soft clay by vacuum loading, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering (In Chinese), Vol.1,
No.2, 5659
Mass F., Spaulding C. A., Wong P. I. C., and Varaksin S.,
2001 Vacuum Consolidation A review of 12 years
of successful development, Geo-odyssey, ASCE, Virginia
Tech-Blacksburg, VA, USA
Ossen, R. E., 1977, Consolidation under time dependent loading, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division,ASCE,
Vol.103, No. GT1, 5560
Shang, J. Q., Tang, M., and Miao, Z. 1998, Vacuum loading
consolidation of reclaimed land: a case study, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 35, No.5, 740749
Shang, S. Z., 1988, Experimental study of vacuum loading
with surcharge in Shanghai Harbor,Transport Engineering
(In Chinese), No.3, 18
Tang, M. and Shang, J. Q. 2000, Vacuum loading consolidation of Yaoqiang Airport runway, Geotechnique, Vol. 50,
No. 6, 613623
Tsuchida, T. 2001, Settlement of pleistocene clay layer in
coastal area, the reason, prediction, and measure, Soft Soil
Engineering, edited by Lee, C.F., Lau, C.K., Ng, C.W.W.,
Kwong, A.K.L., Pang, P.L.R., Yin, J.H., and Yue, Z.Q.
Ye B. R., 1983, The improvement of soft foundations by vertical drains with vacuum loading, Harbor Engineering (In
Chinese), No.1, 2630
115
Timothy C. Siegel
Berkel & Company Contractors, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
ABSTRACT: As part of improvements to a roadway in coastal South Carolina, a portion of the road crossing
reclaimed marshland was widened. The new lanes were constructed on a column-supported embankment consisting of sand fill reinforced by geogrid and supported by vibro-concrete columns that penetrate through the
underlying very soft clays and into the local basement stratum. Shortly after construction, the roadway on the
column-supported embankment began to experience distress characterized by an irregular surface with humps at
the column locations and depressions in the areas between column locations. The differential vertical deformation
between the high and low points was sufficiently significant that the owner closed the roadway almost immediately after completion. Forensic study illustrated that the design applied state-of-practice design techniques;
however, certain design assumptions were not consistent with the fundamentals controlling the column-supported
embankment behavior. This paper describes the original design, construction, and the authors forensic study for
this failure.
1
INTRODUCTION
117
3.2
Design review
118
Ground conditions
arching in the load transfer platform. For a given column spacing, there exists a critical embankment height
at which arching is fully developed. Above the critical height, any additional fill or surcharge loading is
expected to be distributed completely to the columns
with no additional loading of the subgrade between
the columns (Han and Gabr, 2002). Within the various design methods, the assumed critical height ranges
from a minimum of 70% of the edge-to-edge column
119
500
Tension (kN/m)
35
Strain (%)
30
400
25
300
20
15
200
10
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
40
600
90
spacing to a maximum of the center-to-center column spacing (Collin, 2004). For the column geometry
of the subject CSE, the critical embankment height
would range from 1.1 to 2.5 m (3.6 to 8.2 ft) for the
various design methods. As designed and constructed,
the maximum embankment height was 1.1 m (3.6 ft)
and the majority of the embankment was too thin for
arching to fully develop.
In theory, regardless of the degree of arching, it is
possible to fully support the weight of the embankment
on a load-transfer platform that spans the columns.
Giroud et al. (1990) proposed a landfill design procedure that considers the ability of a geosynthetic
beneath a fill to span an underlying void. This tensioned membrane theory, as detailed in TTN:WM3
(Tensar, 1989) was used by the original designers of the
subject CSE. The intention of the design was to have
the horizontal layers of geosynthetic carry the embankment load in tension and transfer the load to the nearby
vibro-concrete columns. For such a design approach, it
is critical to recognize that the vertical displacement of
the embankment fill, the strain in the geosynthetic, and
the resulting tension in the geosynthetic are interrelated. As the fill between columns experiences downward vertical displacement, the geosynthetic begins
to elongate and a tensile stress is mobilized within
the geosynthetic to resist the elongation. For reasons related to geometry, the tensile stress decreases
as the vertical displacement (and the resulting elongation) increases. To avoid a reinforcement strain
failure, a design must achieve compatibility between
the tolerable vertical displacement and the computed
geosynthetic elongation and corresponding mobilized
tensile stress.
Within the original design calculations, the relationship between the strain within the tensioned membrane
and the vertical displacement (i.e., embankment settlement between the columns) was not recognized.
The computations of the geosynthetic strains, vertical displacements, and geosynthetic tension forces
were uncoupled from one another. Due to the strain
incompatibility, the actual CSE was designed and constructed with only three layers of Tensar BX 1200
geogrid with the expectation that the differential settlement would be less than 25 mm (1in.). According
to Tensar, the long term design strengths of BX 1200
are 3 kN/m (208 lbs/ft) and 6.7 kN/m (454 lbs/ft) in
the machine and cross-machine directions, respectively. Thus, the available combined tension in the
three geogrids would be a maximum of 20.1 kN/m
(1362 lbs/ft).
Figure 6 correctly illustrates the theoretical
behaviour of the tensioned membrane in this case.
The solid line is the relationship between surface
settlement and the corresponding required tension.
The dashed line is the relationship between surface
settlement and the geosynthetic strain (or deformed
shape). As the allowable surface settlement decreases,
the maximum reinforcement strain decreases and the
required geosynthetic tension increases. The design
objective for this project was a surface settlement of
25 mm (1in.) which corresponds to a required geosynthetic tension of 268 kN/m (36,750 lbs/ft). This tension
force is more than 10 times greater that the value used
in the original design. Considering that reinforcement
of this magnitude would not be practical (e.g., 88 layers
of BX1200 would be required), correct design calculations would likely have led to selection of a closer
column spacing.
3.4 Forensic exploration observations
The design deficiencies were sufficient to cause a
serviceability failure but construction deficiencies further exacerbated the distress. Construction documents
indicated that 25 of the 700 vibro-concrete columns
were not installed. The omission of a column means
that the design spacing was exceeded in some areas.
The 4% reduction in the number of vibro-concrete
columns likely increased surface settlement in localized areas, but the performance of the entire embankment was inadequate. Additional post-construction
test pit observations by the authors revealed several
conditions that probably did not reflect the designers
intentions. There was no cutoff elevation specified
for the top of the vibro-concrete columns and the
120
CONCLUDING REMARKS
A column-supported embankment (CSE) was constructed across reclaimed marshland. The embankment was relatively thin (maximum height of 1.1 m
(3.6 ft) and the vibro-concrete columns were spaced at
2.5 m (8.2 ft) center-to-center. Shortly after construction, the roadway surface began to deform with humps
at the column locations with depressions between
column locations. The distressed roadway surface distinctly appeared like the reinforced strain failure
mode described the Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills (British Standard
8006, 1995).
The authors forensic study revealed that the design
did not properly consider the embankment height-tocolumn spacing guidelines and the interrelationship
between embankment settlement and elongation (or
strain) of the tension membrane. Because of this, the
tensile resistance available within the geosynthetic
reinforcement that composed the tension membrane
was substantially under-designed. The authors conclude that the primary cause of the deformation-related
failure was that the embankment load exceeded the
tensile resistance available in the geosynthetic layers at
the elongation corresponding to the design settlement.
The authors were requested to consider mitigation measures following the forensic evaluation. Initial
consideration was given to modifying the existing
CSE structure. While the roadway geometry precluded substantial changes in the embankment height,
it could have been possible to add vibro-concrete
columns and/or re-build the load transfer platform
with a greater geosynthetic reinforcement. The owner
decided that a pile-supported structure would be a
more economical and reliable alternative. The distressed CSE is currently being removed and replaced
with a pile-supported, structural flat-slab structure.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge S&ME, Inc.
and Berkel & Company Contractors, Inc. for their
121
ABSTRACT: Department of Highways, Thailand, reconstructed the highway route number 3117 (KlongDanBangbor), which connects two major highways to the eastern part of the country. The highway embankment
constructed on improved soft Bangkok clay; those soil improvement techniques are deep mixing cement column,
shallow cement stabilization, and preload methods. Soft Bangkok clay layer in the reconstruction area is about
1215 meters thick. Total pressure cells, piezometers, inclinometers, settlement plates, and rod extensometers,
have been installed in three soil improvement sections in order to monitor the highway embankment performance
evaluation during and after the reconstruction.
INTRODUCTION
BH-6
4+975
BH-7 BH-8
6+300 7+250
Stiff
Clay
Figure 2. Soil profiles at the construction site (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006)
123
STRIP SODDING
3.0 %
120
STRIP SODDING
3.0%
Figure 3.1. Typical cross-section of the highway embankment on the soft Bangkok clay improved by the preloaded
method.
STRIP SODDING
3.0 %
STRIP SODDING
3.0 %
U-Line
PI=0.9(LL-8)
100
EXISTING ROADWAY
5 CM. WEARING COURSE (AC.60-70)
5 CM.BINDER COURSE (AC. 60-70)
20 CM. CRUSHED ROCK SOIL AGGREGATE TYPE BASE GRADE A OR B
ON C.B.R. 80 % (MIN.)
20 CM. SOIL AGGREGATE SUBBASE GRADE A, B OR C ONLY, C.B.R. 25% (MIN)
SAND EMBANKMENT C.B.R. 10 % (MIN.)
80
BKK Clay
PI=0.87(LL-16)
60
40
A-Line
PI=0.73(LL-20)
20
0
EXISTING ROADWAY
5 CM. WEARING COURSE (AC. 60-70)
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Figure 3.2. Typical cross-section of the highway embankment on the soft Bangkok clay improved by the shallow
cement stabilization.
Figure 4. Plasticity Plots of the Bangkok clay at construction site (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006).
Undrained Shear Strength (10 kPa)
0
3.0 %
12
16
20
3.0 %
Depth (m)
8
12
16
20
EXISTING ROADWAY
5 CM. WEARING COURSE (AC. 60-70)
5 CM. BINDER COURSE (AC. 60-70)
20 CM. CRUSHED ROCK SOIL AGGREGATE TYPE BASE GRADE
A OR B ON LC.B.R. 80 % (MIN.)
20 CM. SOIL AGGREGATE SUBBASE GRADE A, B OR C
ONLY, C.B.R. 25% (MIN)
SAND EMBANKMENT C.B.R. 10 % (MIN.)
24
28
Figure 3.3. Typical cross-section of the highway embankment on the soft Bangkok clay improved by the deep mixing
cement column.
Eight total pressure cells, six piezometers, six vertical inclinometers, four horizontal inclinometers, three
rod extensometers, and twelve settlement plates have
124
GEOTECHNICAL INSTRUMENTATIONS
160
4
y = 111.4x
R2 = 0.4
140
0
120
E50 (MPa)
Depth (m.)
8
12
100
80
60
16
40
20
24
BH-2
BH-6
20
BH-7
28
0.25
0.5
0.75
1.25
1.5
UCS (MPa)
0
80
4
y = 68.4x
R2 = 0.8
70
60
12
E50 (MPa)
Depth (m.)
16
20
24
28
BH-2
BH-6
50
40
30
20
BH-7
10
0
0
0.5
0.75
1.25
UCS (MPa)
125
0.25
40
1st Stage Fill
Preload
Shallow Cement Stabilization
Deep Mixing Cement Column
1.7
3.9
3.4
Settlement at t (cm.)
1-1 Line
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
Figure 10. Total settlement evaluation of the shallow stabilized section following the Asaoka method (after Apimeteetamrong et al., 2006).
Table 2. Total settlement evaluation from various methods.
Evaluation Methods
HIGHWAY EMBANKMENT
PERFORMANCES
Terzaghi
Asaoka
FEM
Preload
Shallow Cement
Stabilization
Deep Mixing Cement
Column
63
51
50
35
50
48
21
22
Unit: cm
30
Settlement evaluation
Three methods are chose to evaluate the total settlements of highway embankments. On the finite element
method, the model to calibrate the soft Bangkok clay
is Cam-Clay model, whereas the Asaokas method
(1978) is based on settlement measurements from
the construction site. The total settlement evaluation of the shallow stabilized section following the
Asaoka method is shown in figure 10. Total settlement
evaluation results are shown in Table 2.
Unit
Depth Weight
(m)
(kN/m3 )
eo
Cc
0-15
15-28
3
2
16
18
Cr
k
(m/sec)
and time rate settlement resulting from the finite element analysis for the deep mixing cement column. On
the deep mixing cement column, the permeability of
cement columns used in the finite element analysis is
1000 times that of the Bangkok clay.
126
Time (years)
0
10
100
150
20
Cv, lab
2Cv, lab
30
Depth (m.)
Settlement (cm.)
50
4Cv, lab
40
10Cv, lab
Monitoring Data
50
15
20
25
8/1/2004
4/2/2004
2/3/2004
1/4/2004
8/5/2004
8/7/2004
8/10/2004
15/2/2005
22/4/2005
17/8/2005
30
Time (years)
0
Settlement (cm.)
0
10
20
30
100
150
200
250
4/2/2004
Monitoring Data
Cv, lab
2Cv, lab
4Cv, lab
10Cv, lab
40
1/4/2004
5
Depth (m.)
50
5/8/2004
10
3/11/2004
22/4/2005
15
Hydrostatic
25
4
8
12
16
5/6/2004
20
Time (year)
Settlement (cm.)
50
20
127
Table 4.
Time (days)
0
38
105
198
262
351
0
47
57
73
84
98
5.6
0
57
79
88
92
98
0
20
47
62
64
67
0
59
88
98
98
99
CONCLUSION
The performance of highway embankments with different soil improvement techniques including 270-day
preloaded technique, shallow cement stabilization and
deep mixing cement column is evaluated. The basic
soil properties used in the evaluation of embankment
performance were evaluated by using geotechnical
laboratories and in-situ soil testing techniques.
The relationship between plastic limit and the liquid limit for the Bangkok clay is bounded between the
U-line and A-line. The undrained shear strength of the
Bangkok clay in this area is around 20 kPa for the soft
Bangkok clay and increases with respect to depth for
stiff Bangkok clay. The initial void ratio is about 2.5
to 4 and tends to decrease with respect to depth. At
the depth of 0 to 20 m., the compressibility index is
about 1.5 to 2.8. The compressibility index tends to
decrease with depth when below 20 meters from the
ground level.
The measurements of total pressure cells, piezometers, inclinometers, settlement plates, and rod extensometers installed in the soils beneath the embankment were obtained. The highway embankment performances including stability analyses, settlement
evaluation, time rate settlement, horizontal displacement, water pressure distribution, and stress distribution were performed by comparing the results from
128
ABSTRACT: Building earth structures on soft soils is one of the toughest challenges in civil engineering.
Due to the fill embankment and surcharges, the settlements associated to the overburden pressures are one of
the major concerns in roadway embankment construction. Several methods of support improvement have been
in practice for years (e.g. excavation/fill replacement, stone filling, Corduroy, etc.), but recently, geosynthetic
reinforcement has been successfully incorporated as an efficient way to improve the weak soil conditions. This
paper focuses on a case study that introduces a geogrid-reinforced roadway embankment located in the Texcoco
Lake, near Mexico City, Mexico. The structure consists of an embankment with variable heights to be built in
two different conditions: dry and saturated. The most critical section was in the saturated zone (lake) where
the maximum embankment height was 2.80 m and the water level was at 1.80 m, leaving only 1.0 m of dry
embankment body. The embankment was built on highly compressible saturated clay layers up to 40.0 m deep,
and moisture of up to 300%.
The paper presents project design information, settlement observations, and performance evaluation. The performance of the embankment was observed during and after construction using inclinometers, and deep and surface
surveying equipment. A presentation of this performance and results about the predicted vs. actual embankment
settlements are included in the paper.
INTRODUCTION
129
2
2.1
CASE STUDY
General project information
130
Table 1.
B.L
No.
DEPTH
m
AVG
N
SOIL TYPE
USCS
cfound
kPa
( )
Gw
%
SM-3
0.02.4
2.46.2
6.29.7
9.713.0
13.016.5
16.519.7
19.723.3
23.333.1
33.136.5
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
29.5
5.5
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
2.6
6.9
7
4.7
5.5
6.4
4.8
5.3
3.3
24.5
19.6
26.5
19.6
42.1
50
59.8
44.1
56.8
5.2
2.4
0.3
3.2
2.6
1
6.8
6.5
15.7
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
The analysis was done using commercial type software (G-Slope) that uses the Modified Bishop method
of analysis which takes into account this kind of circular failures throughout the system being analyzed.
Figure 3 shows the output screen graph for one of
the saturated sections analyzed and displaying the
minimum Factor of Safety of 1.169 related to the
potential failure circle for one of the analyzed sections
under seismic conditions with a horizontal acceleration design coefficient of 0.13 g. In the analysis
process two different conditions were considered: saturated (this condition controlled the design) where the
embankment is flooded, and dry (unsaturated) where
the embankment is above the water table.
Figure 3. Global stability analysis of a section in saturated
conditions.
Settlements: In addition to the stability of the embankment, settlements were one of the most important
issues in this project because this new fill must support
an important highway.
Using conventional geotechnical methods (e.g. onedimensional analysis), and based on test results (e.g.
boring log SM-3 shown in table 3) it was estimated that
the settlements fluctuate approximately 40% to 70%
of the embankment height.
Due to different fill materials on site (Tezontle &
Gravelly soil), it was necessary to do the analyses
using a unit weightAverageValue of 17.5 kN/m3 for the
material identified as Tezontle (volcanic lightweight
material), that is an increase of 59% over the original
project specified value of 11.0 kN/m3 . The settlement
analyses were done based on boring log SM-3 (Table
1) and two specific sections:
a) KM137 + 520 Dry zone
b) Rama 600 (KM600 + 117 KM600 + 317) Saturated zone
Taking in account the above-mentioned variation,
settlement-time graphs were prepared to show four
different curves identified as follows:
1) Project Conditions: according to project requirements
2) Unfavorable Condition: unit weights are higher
than project specifications
131
t (years)
Settlement (cm)
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
20.0
70.0
120.0
170.0
Unfavorable Condition
Favorable Condition
Project Conditions
Average
Material
, kN/m3
, deg
c, kPa
Tezontle
Gravelly soil
14.0
21.0
34.0
38.0
0.0
0.0
Settlement (cm)
t (years)
20.0
100.0
180.0
260.0
340.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
Unfavorable Condition
Favorable Condition
Project Conditions
Average
132
Table 3.
Table 4.
Property
Units
Type II
Type I
Aperture
Stability
Modulus at
20 cm-kg
Rib Shape
cm-kg/deg
3.2
6.5
Rib Thickness
Nominal
Aperture
Size
Junction
Efficiency
Flexural
Rigidity
Minimum
True Initial
Modulus in
Use
MD
CMD
BENCH MARKS
(BNF N )
EMBK KM
N/A
mm
mm
Rectangular
or Square
0.76
2533
Rectangular
or Square
1.27
2533
93
93
mg-cm
250,000
750,000
1
2
3
REINFORC.
TYPE
Center
1&2
3, 4 &
5
6, 7 & 8
9, 10 &
13
Shoulder
Right
Left
18 & 19
11 & 12
15
16 &
17
14 &
BNF1
BNF2
BNF19
BNF18
BNF3
BNF4
BNF5
BNF17
BNF16
Open Piezo.
Pneumatic Piezo.
kN/m
kN/m
250
400
410
620
BNF1
BNF11
BNF12
BNF9
BNF10
BNF13
Inclinometer
BNF15
BNF14
Dry zone
Saturated zone
133
BNF7
BNF8
BNF6
2.5
2229.40
2229.30
2229.20
ELEVATION (m)
2229.10
2229.00
BNF2
2228.90
2228.80
2228.70
2228.60
Open Piezo.
Pneumatic Piezo.
2228.50
2228.40
BNF1
2228.30
2228.20
1-Dec-03 1-Jan-04 1-Feb-04 1-Mar-04 1-Apr-04 1-May-04 1-Jun-04 1-Jul-04 1-Aug-04 1-Sep-04
Inclinometer
DATE
ELEVATION (m)
2229.00
2229.00
2228.90
BNF4
2228.90
2228.80
2228.80
2228.70
BNF5
2228.60
2228.70
BNFRP6
2228.50
2228.60
2228.30
ELEVATION (m)
2228.40
BNF6
2228.20
2228.10
2228.00
1-Dec-03
1-Jan-04
1-Feb-04 1-Mar-04
1-Apr-04 1-May-04
1-Jun-04
1-Jul-04
1-Aug-04
2228.50
BNFRP4
2228.40
2228.30
2228.20
1-Sep-04
DATE
2228.10
BNFRP9
2228.00
2227.90
2227.80
1-Dec-03
EMBK KM
1-Feb-04 1-Mar-04
1-Apr-04 1-May-04
DATE
1-Jun-04
1-Jul-04
1-Aug-04
1-Sep-04
BENCH MARKS
(BNF-RP N )
1-Jan-04
REINFORC.
TYPE
Center
Shoulder
Right
Left
6, 7, 8,
9 & 10
1, 2 & 3
4&5
11 &
12
134
Table 6.
ZONE
EMBK
DRY
1
2
3
5
6
FLOODED
FROM
THEORET.
(%)
CUMULATIVE
AVG3 (cm)
FROM
THEORET.
(%)
11.4
10.7
14.7
14.6
15.2
27
25
34
34
35
10.1
10.5
14.7
13.5
15.2
23
24
34
31
35
Settlement calculated from standard consolidation theories. The effect of reinforcement is not considered.
Maximum average value from different survey readings (BNFs) of a certain embankment.
Average of settlement readings of an embankment, from data between the initial and final reading reported.
43
MAX.
AVERAGE2
(cm)
60.00
60
50.00
50
Pore Pressure (Kg/cm2)
THEORETICAL1
(cm)
40.00
30.00
20.00
40
30
20
10
10.00
0
0
0.00
0
50
100
150
200
Depth:14.55m
Time(days)
Depth:14.5m
Depth:38.5m
Depth:54.5m
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time (Days)
Depth:14.5m
Depth:27m
Depth:38.5m
Depth:54.5m
131
82
13
26
Time (Days)
Depth:22.65m
08
8 160 222
Depth:38.5m
Depth:53.45m
135
250
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
0
50
100
150
Time (Days)
(a)
Depth:14.5m
Depth:22.7m
200
Depth:36.7m
250
Depth:54.5m
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
50
100
150
Time (Days)
200
250
(b)
Depth:14.8m
Depth:29.75m
Depth:37.2m
Depth:54.5m
EMBK #
D
S
D
S
1
2
3
5
6
STAT.
AXIS A AXIS B
AXIS A AXIS B
146 + 085
146 + 135
146 + 210
600 + 174
600 + 261
11.66 10.44
9.57 4.72
37.55 28.42
102.40 15.14
83.29 45.42
18.43
5.51
149.03
50.43
79.47
14.15
9.55
142.08
30.70
51.77
136
2.7
Cost effectiveness
This section of the project consisted on 15 KM of roadway embankments on weak soils, was constructed in
70% of the allotted time, (3 months ahead of schedule).
Consequently considerable monetary savings were
realized.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Based on the results from the instrumented sections, the maximum settlement occurred at the
center of the embankment.
2. The reinforced section where Geogrid Type I and
geotextile (the later as a filter) and Geogrid Type II
(second layer of reinforcement at higher elevation)
were used, performed best in terms of settlement
and stability; this condition allowed to create a
working reinforced platform, improving the poor
bearing capacity of the existing foundation soil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special acknowledgement to Geoproductos Mexicanos S.A. de C.V. (Mexico) for their contribution
in the geogrid/geotextile installation process and site
assistance during the first phase of the project that was
critical on the performance of the reinforced embankments; to the owners consultants Escopo, S.A. de C.V.
(Mexico), for taking the instrumentation readings and
for their efforts and help in providing all the data; and
to the contractor, Obrascn Huarte Lain (OHL), for
giving permission for the use of their proprietary information that helped in the preparation of this paper.
REFERENCES
Bonaparte, R., Christopher, B.R. (1987). Design and Construction of Reinforced Embankments Over Weak Foundations. Transportation Research Record 1153.
137
TPDA(design) = 18,000/day
TPDA(actual) = 60,000/day
138
P. Meng
Dredging International, DEME Group, Belgium
ABSTRACT: The present paper illustrates the outcome of the monitoring of the consolidation behavior of a soft
foundation soil under a large partially submerged sand embankment. Measurements of settlements and excess
pore water pressures showed a good agreement with predictions evaluated using the large strain consolidation
theory. The more conventional small strain theory was shown to overestimate the dissipation of pore water
pressure and underestimate settlements.
INTRODUCTION
As in many harbor areas all around the world, the harbor of Antwerp is experiencing an increasing need
of room for storing excavated soil or dredged material resulting from internal construction projects and
maintenance of its waterways.
Such need has encouraged the design and currently ongoing construction of a partially submerged
embankment, with an approximate height of 27 m,
to divide an existing dock (Doel) and to use the
available space behind the embankment to deposit
dredged material (Fig. 1). The challenge of this
project was the fact that the embankment had to
be built on a very soft soil deposit (not removable
because of geoenvironmental considerations) which
is the result of years of sedimentation and self-weight
consolidation.
139
Table 1.
Index
Value
124.4
46.7
115.0
6.0
13.9
10.4
1.31.4
7.2
1.E-04
permeability
tests
1.E-05
1.E-06
1.E-07
CRS
1.E-08
Oedometer
tests
1.E-09
K = 6x10-12 e5.5174
R2 = 0.8812
1.E-10
1.E-11
SOIL PROPERTIES
10
15
Void ratio
(a)
1.E-07
1.E-08
Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)
1.E-10
K = 6x10-8'v-1.1773
R2 = 0.7572
1.E-11
0
50
100
140
1.E-09
150
(1)
k = 6 1012 e5.52
(2)
10
IMPROVEMENT OF THE
FOUNDATION SOIL
3
4
Dredged
material
5
6
7
8
Sand
9
CONSTRUCTION OF EMBANKMENT
The underwater embankment is still under construction. Today, about 70% of the embankment height was
reached by staged construction. The embankment sand
was put in place in layers of about 2 m, allowing a
period of time in between (1 to 2 months). Currently,
a longer waiting period is being allocated to allow for
consolidation of the foundation soil.
The sand used for the filling operations was mainly
obtained from excavation works for the construction
141
Depth (m)
Construction
works
(Phase 1)
180
160
140
Excess PWP (kPa)
120
100
Consolidation
80
60
40
20
200
300
400
500
600
700
Time (days)
142
100
Time (days)
100
200
300
400
45
500
600
700
Average consolidation degree(%)
0
0
-0.5
Z4
Settlement (m)
-1
Z2
-1.5
Z2:Settlementofthesoft
soildepositunderthe
embankment
-2
Z4SettlementoftheSSIimprovedzoneunderthe
embankment
40
35
30
25
Infinitesimal strain
solutions
20
15
10
Finite strain solution
(pore water pressure)
5
0
0
0.5
1
Time (year)
1.5
-2.5
Estimated final settlement under the current load
-3
Settlements
e
e
=0
g(e)
b(e) +
z
z
z
t
where
k(e) d
w (1 + e) de
k(e)
Gs d
b(e) =
w de 1 + e
g(e) =
143
qc (MPa)
0
10
CSR, CRR
0
0.2
0
-2
-4
-4
-4
-6
-6
-6
-6
-6
-10
-8
-10
-8
-10
10
-2
TAW level
-10
-8
TAW level
-2
-4
TAW level
-2
-4
-8
0
CSR
CRR
-2
TAW level
TAW level
Shear angle p ()
20 25 30 35 40
0
-8
-10
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-14
-14
-14
-14
-14
-16
-16
-16
-16
-16
-18
-18
-18
-18
-18
-20
-20
-20
-20
-20
Quality control of the embankment sand was performed regularly at several stages during the construction by means of CPT tests. Moreover, parameters such
as shear angle () and relative density could be estimated to confirm the design requirements.An example
of typical CPT profile above the soft soil deposit is
given in figure 9. It can be observed that the cone pressure qc increases linearly with depth and an almost
uniform shear angle ranging from 32 to 35 was
evaluated.
Furthermore, the risk of liquefaction of this
hydraulic fill was assessed using the method proposed
by Robertson and Wride (1998). For characterizing the
local seismicity in the area, an earthquake magnitude
of M = 5.5 was assumed and a Peak Ground Acceler-
144
CONCLUSIONS
ABSTRACT: The grillage supporting structure with pre-stressed anchors is a new type of supporting structure
in stabilizing loess slopes, which overcomes the disadvantages of traditional slope supporting structures, such
as restricted slope height, high cost and massive retaining structures. In this paper, the authors propose a new
design method for the optimal design for such supporting structures. The factors dealing with the characteristics
of the anchor bars include the horizontal and vertical spacings, the diameter and the inclination in the design
and these factors have been analysed. The results of analysis show that the construction cost of the anchors is the
most significant component of the total cost of the project. The analysis is consisted of the following steps. 1)
Assume an initial set of values for the spacing and diameter of the anchor bars, and the dimension of the beam
and plates. 2) Based on the contact pressure between the soil and the beams along with the plates, calculate the
internal forces in the beams and the tensile forces on the anchor bars. These forces permit the calculations for
a new set of values required for the dimensions of the beams and the diameter of the anchor bars. 3) Based on
the strengths of the beams and the anchor bars, and the prescribed safety factor for the slope, an optimization
procedure is conducted to obtain a design with the lowest cost. 4) Steps 2 through 3 are repeated until the
difference in cost between two successive calculations is within an acceptably small margin. This method of
design has been compared to the conventional design and it is concluded the spacing of the anchors are the most
important cost factor and that the new design produces a saving of 10 to 20% with the same factor of safety.
INTRODUCTION
145
Ehk
0.875H
(1)
146
(2)
Fb T
Dj qsjk
(3)
(5)
Fb Tj
fy
(6)
where Ajs is the cross section area of the jth anchor and
fy the tensile strength of anchor.
2.2
(4)
j=1
147
m
R + F(Y + H )
n
s0 (wi + q0 bi ) sin i R
i=1
(7)
x'
O'
xj
xj
z'
O
where lni is the length of the jth row of anchors in the ith
soil layer in the resistance zone. Again the summation
is taken over all the soil layers in which the jth row of
anchors has a presence.
This section describes the searching of the critical surface taking into consideration of the dynamic
relationship between the length and diameter of the
anchors and the location of the critical slip surface.
Two assumptions are used based on some observations of actual failures (Zhu 2005):
a) The tangent to any point on the slip surface inclines
from the horizontal within the range of 0 to 90
degrees. Consequently, the centre of the circular
slip surface is located in a certain zone.
b) The slip surface passes through the toe of the
slope. Therefore, one centre location is associated
with only one slip surface for a given depth of
excavation.
After a large number of computations, it is found
that the centre of the critical slip surface lies in rectangle OCDE (Fig. 6). This rectangle has a height of h and
width of 2h, where h is the current depth of excavation.
Normally this rectangle is sufficient for locating the
critical centre. The software, however, automatically
expands the rectangle if the critical centre happens to
fall on any side of it. The right lower corner of the original rectangle is the intersection of the vertical erected
from the toe and the horizontal line extended from the
crest. This corner also serves as the origin (O) of the
co-ordinate system. Fig. 7 shows a typical slip surface
during the computation. The centre of the slip surface
is at O at (-x, -z). In the searching process, several
variables can be obtained as follows.
The radius of the slip surface, R, is given by:
R = (x )2 + (h + z )2
(9)
lfj
Cl n j
z
A
x + xi
R
(10)
(11)
148
B
zj
(8)
zj
qsik lni
Tnj = dnj
n
Lj Cm /x2
(14)
(15)
where f1 (X ), f2 (X ), f3 (X ) are the costs of anchors, horizontal and vertical grillage beams, respectively; Lj the
total length of the jth row of anchor; Cm the unit length
cost of anchor; Cc is the unit volume cost of concrete;
As1 the area of reinforcement of beam in one side; s
the density of reinforcement; Cg the unit cost of reinforcement; As2 the area of stirrups of horizontal beam
per unit length; as the thickness of concrete cover layer;
H the height of slope; Hd is the foundation depth of
structure; As3 is the area of reinforcement in the vertical beam in one side; and As4 the area of stirrups of
the vertical beam per unit length.
The constraint conditions of the grillage supporting
structure with pre-stressed anchors are divided into
four parts.
a. Strength constraints. The tensile force on the
anchor due to the earth pressure should be less than
the ultimate pullout capacity expressed as:
Tnj DLnj qsjk 0 (j = 1, 2, . . . , n)
(16)
1 (fy x6 )2
2 1 f c x 4
(17)
(18)
where Mb is the maximum moment on the horizontal beam; fy the tensile strength of reinforcement; 1
149
(13)
j=1
(12)
1 (fy x10 )2
2 1 f c x 8
(19)
(20)
j=1
R + F(Y + H )
n
s0 (wi + q0 bi ) sin i R
i=1
(21)
c. Limit constraints. According to Technical code for
building slope engineering (CNC 2002), the constraint conditions about the layout of anchors are
given by:
1.5 x1 H
(22)
2.0 x2 4.0
(23)
2.0 x3 H 1.5
(24)
(25)
(26)
An 11 m height of slope was made for a highway in Lanzhou, China. The soil consists of a loess
deposit. The detailed profile is given by a unit weight
= 16.5 kN/m3 , the internal friction angle = 24 ,
and the cohesion c = 18kPa. The slope was stabilized by means of a grillage supporting structure with
prestressed anchors designed using the conventional
method and optimal method proposed here, respectively. The inclination of the wall was 80 from the horizontal and the anchor inclination was at 15 from the
horizontal. There was a uniform surcharge of 10 kPa
on the top of the slope behind the supporting structure.
According to the optimal design method proposed
in this paper, the design results are shown in Table 1.
Compared with the optimal design method and the
original design scheme, the proposal method saved
11.4% of total cost of the project.
This method of design has been compared to the
conventional design and it can be concluded the spacing of the anchors are the most important cost factor
and that the new design produces a saving of 10 to
20% with the same factor of safety.
150
Start
No
Got rid of the worst point and replace it with a new point
No
No
Times of iterationm
Yes
Yes
End
Design
variables
x1
(m)
x2
(m)
x3
(m)
x4
(mm)
x5
(mm)
x6
(mm2)
x7
(mm)
x8
(mm)
x9
(mm)
x10
(mm2)
x11
(mm)
Total cost
(yuan/m)
Original
design
Optimal
design
2.5
3.0
3.0
300
400
980.5
1.227
400
400
1106.8
1.131
5500
2.1
2.8
3.2
250
400
711.2
1.065
300
400
841.2
1.089
4875
A new method for the optimal design for the grillage supporting structure with pre-stressed anchors
is proposed in this paper. The factors dealing with
the characteristics of the anchor bars include the horizontal and vertical spacings, the diameter and the
151
the tensile forces on the anchor bars. These forces permit the calculations for a new set of values required
for the dimensions of the beams and the diameter of
the anchor bars. 3) Based on the strengths of the beams
and the anchor bars, and the prescribed safety factor for
the slope, an optimization procedure is conducted to
obtain a design with the lowest cost. 4) Steps 2 through
3 are repeated until the difference in cost between two
successive calculations is within an acceptably small
margin. This method of design has been applied to an
actual slope in the loess deposit and the results are
compared with those from a traditional method. The
comparison shows that the spacing of the anchors are
the most important cost factor and that the new design
produces a saving of 10 to 20% with the same factor
of safety.
REFERENCES
China National Standard (2002). Technical code for building
slope engineering, Beijing: ChinaArchitecture & Building
Press.
China National Standard (1999). China technical specification for retaining and protection of building foundation excavations. Beijing: China Architecture & Building
Press.
Guo Y.H., Bai J.Y., and Gou L. (2003). Local optimal design
for a frame shear wall structure. Henan Science, 21(4),
471474.
Li S.P. (2002). The theory and application of optimal technology for grouting bolting in slope. Building Science
Research of Sichuan, 28(4), 4749.
Qin S.Q. (2000). Optimum design of soil nailing supporting
structure. Geological Exploration for Non-ferrous Metals,
1, 4144.
152
Janko Logar
Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
ABSTRACT: A detailed study has been performed of the settlements which occurred in the subsoil beneath a
high motorway embankment (the Srmin high embankment), which was built in Slovenia over a two-year period,
between September 2002 and August 2004. This embankment, which had to be built on very compressible
subsoil of low bearing capacity and low permeability, is about 600 m long, and its height varies between 8.5 and
11.5 m. Two measurement methods, using conventional settlement plates and a hydrostatic profile gauge (HPG)
which could be placed in specially installed measuring tubes, were used to obtain settlement profiles at several
locations along the embankment. The results showed that the development of subsoil settlements at two selected
locations was very different, due to the heterogeneity and varying compressibility of the subsoil. The settlements
obtained by measurements using the HPG were very similar to those obtained using settlement plates, which
were located very close to the measuring tubes.
INTRODUCTION
Since the start of Slovenias National Motorway Construction Programme, a large number of high embankments, founded on soft soil, have been built. One of
them, the Srmin high embankment, is located on the
motorway section Klanec Srmin, close to the coastal
town of Koper (see Figure 1).
The Srmin embankment is situated in between the
new Bivje viaduct and an overpass which carries the
153
HOR1
33
12
13
I-2
8
I-6
14
11
69.60
1
99.30
BIVJE
VIADUCT 2
79.50
4a
10
I- 4
79.50
2
HOR
7
I- 3
3a
I-1
1
HOR1
- SETTLEMENT PLATE
- MEASURING TUBE
- STONE COLUMNS
Figure 3. The situation of the discussed section of the Srmin high embankment, showing the system for monitoring its
settlements.
GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS
SETTLEMENT MEASUREMENTS
measure the settlements by means of a hydrostatic profile gauge (HPG). The locations of measuring tubes
HOR-1 and HOR-2 are shown in Figure 3 (measuring tube HOR-3 unfortunately became inaccessible
during the construction works). The measuring tubes
HOR-1 and HOR-2 passed very close to the corresponding settlement plates SP-4 and SP-11, although
they were about 0.5 m higher than these two plates (for
their location, see Figure 3).
The first measuring tube HOR-1 was installed at
the cross-section where the largest settlements were
expected, whereas the second measuring tube HOR-2
was located at the widest cross-section of the embankment. Since the mouth of each of the measuring tubes
was accessible on both sides of the embankment,
the settlement probe was pulled, with a draw-cord,
through the tubes (this was the first time that such
measurements had been performed in Slovenia). The
measurement step was 1 m. The lengths of the two
measuring tubes were 75 m (HOR-1) and 68 m (HOR2). The tubes were installed in a 60 cm deep trench,
which was excavated when the embankment was 1.5
to 2 m high.
3.2 Operation of the hydrostatic profile gauge
154
EMBANKMENT
SP- 4
HOR 1
DISTANCE ( m )
0
SETTLEMENT (cm)
10
10
30
40
50
60
70
80
(REFERENCE MEASUREMENT)
0
10
20
20
H EMBANKMENT ~
= 7,0 m
30
30
40
40
50
H EMBANKMENT ~
= 10,0 m
50
60
60
70
70
20
~ 2,0 m
H EMBANKMENT =
H EMBANKMENT ~
= 11,5 m
80
80
EMBANKMENT
SP- 11
HOR 2
DISTANCE (m)
SETTLEMENT (cm)
4
4.1
RESULTS
Comparison of settlement development at two
different locations
20
30
40
50
60
(REFERENCE MEASUREMENT)
~ 1,5 m
H EMBANKMENT =
~ 7,0 m
H EMBANKMENT =
~ 9,0 m
H EMBANKMENT =
H EMBANKMENT ~
= 10,0 m
70
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
155
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
10
sep.04
mar.05
Settlement (cm)
sep.05
18
16
14
30
40
12
10
50
60
70
80
Date
mar.04
20
sep.02
0
mar.03
sep.03
Date
mar.04
sep.04
mar.05
sep.05
18
10
16
20
14
30
12
40
10
8
50
60
70
80
6
4
2
CONCLUSIONS
156
sep.03
10
mar.03
4.2
sep.02
0
Settlement (cm)
seen from this figure (the two lowest curves) that the
construction of the connecting embankment caused
relatively larger settlements on the southeast side of
the embankment (i.e. on the right hand side of the
measuring cross-section). It can be also seen from this
figure that, similarly to the case of HOR-1, the gradual
reduction in the width of the embankment, as construction proceeded, caused additional settlements mainly
in the middle of the measuring cross-section.
It can be seen that the development of settlements at the two selected profiles was very different,
which is the consequence of the heterogeneity and
different compressibility of the subsoil beneath the
embankment at these two locations.
The last measurements using the HPG were performed in July 2005 (i.e. one year after the embankment had been completed). However, consolidation of
the subsoil has not yet finished, so that the presented
values of the settlements should not be assumed to be
equal to the ultimate values for the stated heights of
the embankment.
REFERENCES
Logar, J. 2002. Geotechnical analysis of the performance of
the Srmin high embankment, founded on the soft soil
reinforced by the stone columns. University of Ljubljana,
Slovenia (in Slovenian) unpublished report, 22 pages.
Ravnikar Turk, M., vanut, P. and iberna, S. 2002. The use
of a hydrostatic profile gauge for settlement measurements
of the Drtijcica dam. Proc. of the 4th SLOCOLD Expert
Meeting, Fala, Slovenia (in Slovenian), pp. 18.
vanut, P. 2003. Settlements of an embankment founded on
a soft soil. Proc. of the 11th International Symposium on
Deformation Measurements, Santorini, Greece, pp. 335
340.
vanut, P., Ravnikar Turk, M. and iberna, S. 2004. Settlements of the Srmin high embankment. Proc. of the
4th Conference of the Slovenian Geotechnical Society,
Rogaka Slatina, Slovenia (in Slovenian), pp. 283288.
157
Tatyana Ter-Emmanuilyan
Ministry of Education and Science, Kazakhstan Academy of Architecture and Construction, Almaty, Republic of
Kazakhstan
Timur Shmanov
Ministry of Defense, Military Engineering Institute of Radio-electronics and Communication, Almaty, Republic of
Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: The paper consist of basis and practical application of the method of full discretization. This
method is a special modification of finite element method for the solving of problems of elastic creep. Practical
application of the method is illustrated with modeling and applied tasks. For example joint calculation of the
foundation of a high-altitude television tower near the city of Almaty (Republic of Kazakhstan) and soil in an
assigned time interval is solved. All of components of evolution of all vectors of displacements and stress tensors
of all elements with and without taking into account of technology of building are determined. Comparison of
the received results with the known date of natural supervision is performed.
INTRODUCTION
Method of full discretization (FDM) special modification of the finite element method (FEM) for the solving of various problems of the elastic creep, offered by
N.Ter-Emmanuilyan (Ter-Emmanuilyan N., 1975).
FDM universal, comparatively simple and obvious engineering method being not step-by-step in
time. It gives an opportunity to determine discrete values of displacements, deformations and stresses in
a calculated interval of time. The method is developed both in variant of displacements, and in variant
of forces. It can be combined with other engineering
numerical methods, such as a method of boundary
elements, a method of finite differences and others
(Ter-Emmanuilyan N., Ter-Emmanuilyan T., 2006).
The FDM allows to take into account: a heterogeneous creep and ageing of materials of any
constructions and foundation soils; physical and geometrical nonlinearity; plasticity; anisotropy; different
modular elastic creep; influence of temperature; presence stressed enforcement and normal armatures in
ferro-concrete; discrete diagrams of erection of constructions (increase or reduction of volumes, change
of operational loadings etc.).
The method is applied at the decision of a wide
class of engineering problems of a linear and nonlinear
elastic creep. For example: plane problems; axisymmetric; three-dimensional; single-layered and multilayered plates and envelopes; bar and thin-walled
systems; stability of plates and bars; contact problems; thermoelastic creep problems; a short-time
high-temperature creep of metals, etc.
The mathematical justification of a FDM as a
version of a method of weighted residuals and also
approximation and discretization error in numerical
solutions is considered. The appropriate algorithms
of the solutions of linear and nonlinear problems of
elasticity, elastic creep and plasticity are constructed.
The package of application software for engineers and
researchers is developed.
The wide class of modelling and applied engineering problems are solved: calculation of evolution of
stress-deformation state in the system tunnel lining rock; reinforced concrete pipe - backfilling;
a heterogeneous thick-walled shell with steel facing at loading and unloading; research of evolution
of stress-deformation state of the vertical supported
shaft at drivage with the preset speed; calculation
in time reinforced concrete wall panels with holes;
calculation of multilayered plates in view of a creep
of some layers; buckling of flexible plates; buckling
of a rod and cylindrical bend of a plate with initial
camber; research on model Shenly at conservative
159
and following loadings; calculation of prestressed ferroconcrete rods; combined calculations of growing
buildings and constructions and their bases (Aitaliev
Sh., Ter-Emmanuilyan T., 2003):
an evolution of stress-deformation state of a foundation ferroconcrete plate on a soil base;
a problem about of influence of non-simultaneity
of erection of buildings on evolution of the stressdeformation state in constructions and basis at the
constrained building of city territories;
calculations of the box-shaped substructure and the
basis of high-altitude television tower on mountain
Kok-Tyube near Almaty city in three variants of
statement of a task: plane, quasi-spatial and spatial;
calculation of a road embankment and its basis;
calculation in time four-level a ferro-concrete construction and its basis, etc.
(i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , p), (j = 2, 3, . . . , p).
Stress-deformation state (SDS) the elastocreep, homogeneous and isotropic body loaded in the age of = 1
at small deformations in static problems completely is
determined, if all are known 15 components of a vector
f (xi , t, ) = [uT (xi , t, ) T (xi , t, ) T (xi , t, )],
(i = 1, 2, 3),
nT
0
0
J
J
0
0
u
0
Lt + 0 = 0
(1)
Lt11
1
+ C (t, 1 ) +
=
E (1 )
d ...
= (t, 1 ) +
d
t
1
+ C (t, )
E()
(t, )
1
d...
.
d
11
0
... 0
1
21 22
... 0
22
E =
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.. ...
pp
p1 p2 p2 p3 . . . pp
(5)
1
tk tk1
tk
i ()d,
(6)
tk1
Or, is simplified,
ik =
ik + i,k1
,
2
(t, ) =
(2)
(7)
1
+ C(t, ).
E()
(8)
160
(4)
Thus
t
(3)
the matrix equations (Eq.1) it is received, after sampling, the system of the algebraic equations having the
form of generalized Hookes law:
x = E1 x E1 ( y + z )
1
0
0 0 ...
1
1
0 0 ...
1 0 ...
0 1
=
0 1 1 . . .
0
... ... ... ... ...
0
0
0 0 1
0
0
0
0
...
1
(10)
an auxiliary matrix,
the bottom triangular matrix generated from
sizes ij :
"
ij =
(ti , j ), (i j)
,
0, (i < j)
(t, ) =
(t, )
.
0 ()
(11)
(12)
(14)
k rtij .
(15)
rij
Further allowing linear matrix algebraic equation concerning a required vector q t of components of movings
in time of all units of system is submitted:
K t q t = R t ,
(16)
161
(t, ) =
where
() = C1 C3 +
Figure 1.
FDM allows to carry out joint calculations simultaneously and to investigate evolution is intense
deformed conditions in a time piece with the detailed
account of technology of all building and installation works, and also sequence of introduction of a
construction in operation. Thus, it is possible to predict evolution is intense deformed conditions of a
construction on any long term for definition of their
durability and reliability. It, in turn, results in economy
of materials and resources.
3.1
Modelling task
= C3 +
A3
,
(t, ) =
1 + (t ) ,
(18)
E
(19)
Spatial task
162
A1 A3
,
163
164
On Figure 5(a,b,c,d) are represented isolines of vertical movings for t3 = 70, t5 = 110, t7 = 160, t20 = 550
day which evidently show evolution of vertical
movings.
Isoareas and isolines components of vertical normal stresses (z ) for four time points are submitted on
Figure 6(a,b,c,d), and on Figure 7(a,b) isoareas and
isolines of components of horizontal normal stresses
(x ,y ) for last time point t20 .
Figure 8(a,b,c) isoareas and isolines of components of tangents of stresses (txy , txz , tzy ) for last time
point t20 .
165
Table 1. Comparison of results of calculations vertical movings v (with the account and without taking into account
technology).
Time
points
Without taking
into account
With the
account
Divergence,
%
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
t6
t7
t8
t9
t10
t11
t12
t13
t14
t15
t16
t17
t18
t19
t20
5,22E-02
6,34E-02
6,49E-02
6,60E-02
6,68E-02
6,78E-02
6,86E-02
6,92E-02
6,98E-02
7,03E-02
7,08E-02
7,12E-02
7,16E-02
7,19E-02
7,23E-02
7,26E-02
7,29E-02
7,32E-02
7,34E-02
7,37E-02
3,78E-03
4,79E-03
5,08E-03
5,30E-03
6,56E-03
7,31E-03
2,69E-02
3,22E-02
3,29E-02
4,73E-02
5,07E-02
5,12E-02
6,56E-02
6,90E-02
6,96E-02
7,01E-02
7,06E-02
7,11E-02
7,15E-02
7,18E-02
92,76%
92,44%
92,17%
91,97%
90,18%
89,22%
60,79%
53,47%
52,87%
32,72%
28,39%
28,09%
8,38%
4,03%
3,73%
3,44%
3,16%
2,87%
2,59%
2,58%
-1,00E-02
-2,00E-02
-3,00E-02
-4,00E-02
-5,00E-02
-6,00E-02
-7,00E-02
-8,00E-02
30
70
110
160
220
280
340
400
460
520
t, [days]
16
24
32
37
45
0.00E+00
-1.00E-02
-2.00E-02
-3.00E-02
-4.00E-02
On Figure 9 are shown isolines and isoareas of components of vertical deformations for last moment of
time t20 .
If necessary received results can be presented as
appropriate diagrams on any chosen planes of sections
for any time point.
Except for it, on Figure 10 diagrams of vertical movings for characteristic units of system are submitted,
and in Table 1 are resulted comparison of results of calculation in time of vertical moving of the central unit
of a box (#995) with the account and without taking
into account technology of construction.
Are constructed diagrams vertical movings to
planes of symmetry for two levels on depth (I-st a
level y = 1 m, II-nd a level y = 9 ) and four
time points (t3 , t5 , t7 , t20 ), appropriate to four stages of
erection Figure 11a,b.
-5.00E-02
-6.00E-02
-7.00E-02
-8.00E-02
t3I
t5I
t7I
t20I
t3II
t5II
t7II
t20II
a)
y
16
24
29
37
1.00E-02
0.00E+00
-1.00E-02
-2.00E-02
-3.00E-02
-4.00E-02
-5.00E-02
-6.00E-02
-7.00E-02
-8.00E-02
t3I
CONCLUSIONS
t7I
t20I
t3II
t5II
t7II
t20II
b)
166
t5I
REFERENCES
167
Foundation
ABSTRACT: The results of a study of pile resistance variations over time by high strain dynamic pile tests
using Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) are presented. A total of twenty-eight prestressed concrete test piles were
driven in two sites of similar geological formation and carefully tested using PDA at various elapsed times after
installation. The variations in resistance of these piles over a maximum elapsed time of 29 days are discussed. The
test results from the two sites are combined and compared to produce a general trend of resistance variation over
time. A new term, resistance gain ratio is introduced to describe the ratio of pile resistance obtained at re-strike
to end-of-drive. Well defined trends are observed when plotting resistance gain ratios against logarithmic time
scale. Finally, general equations for total and shaft resistance gain ratios are derived from such plots. These
general equations form the basis for prediction of magnitude and rate of resistance variation over time after
pile installation in young coastal alluvium for moderate to long displacement piles. The findings provide useful
information for engineers in the planning and design of piled foundation works, and in deciding the minimum
waiting time for load testing of piles.
INTRODUCTION
171
CASE STUDY 1
16 ~ 23 m thick
SOFT CLAY
N = 0 4 blows/ft
3.0
TP2 no shoe,
2.5 mm/blow @ 29.1m. 6.4
12 + 12 + 9 m.
TP3 with shoe,
6.3 mm/blow @ 32.1 m. 8.7
12 + 12 + 9 m. badly damaged at 15 &
21 m at 28day restrike.
12 ~20 m thick
MEDIUM DENSE SILT
N = 10 35 blows/ft
7.0mm/blow @ 30.6 m.
7.2
0.0
V. DENSE SILT
N > 50 blows/ft
7.2
172
GL
0m
12
250
11
225
10
200
Set (mm)
8
7
6
5
4
175
150
125
100
75
3
50
2
25
1
0
0
0
12
16
20
24
28
32
TP2
TP7
TP3
TP9
TP4
TP10
12
16
20
24
28
32
TP1
TP2
TP3
TP4
TP5
TP7
TP9
TP10
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
RGR =
75
25
0
4
12
16
20
24
28
32
TP2
TP3
TP4
TP5
TP7
TP9
TP10
(2)
(3)
173
(1)
50
Resistance at Restrike
Resistance at EOD
CASE STUDY II
+35%
+35%
-35%
1
-35%
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
+35%
GL
0m
3 ~ 9 m thick
SOFT CLAY/LOOSE SILT
N = 0 10 blow s/ft
3
45 ~ 50 m thick
MEDIUM DENSE SILT/SAND
N = 10 30 blow s/ft
-35%
+35%
-35%
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
HIGHLY WEATHERED TO
FRESH GRANITE
100
174
Total
Blow
Count
(no.)
Pile
Ref.
TP1
pipe shoe,
12 + 15 + 15 + 15 m
2.1 mm/blow @ 53.2 m.
30
2755
TP2
pipe shoe,
12 + 15 + 15 + 15 m
1.0 mm/blow @ 52.8 m.
pipe shoe,
12 + 12 + 15 + 15 m
0.9 mm/blow @ 52.3 m.
30
2572
30
2861
pipe shoe,
2
12 + 12 + 12 + 12 m
12.0 mm/blow @ 46.5 m.
pipe shoe,
2
12 + 12 + 12 + 12 m
final length @ 46.5 m.
pipe shoe,
2
12 + 12 + 12 + 12 m
final length @ 46.5 m.
25
1362
25
1654
25
2321
no shoe, 15 + 15 + 15 m
final length @ 43.8 m.
no shoe, 15 + 15 + 15 m
final length @ 44.3 m.
25
2263
25
2091
25
2018
15
1055
TP3
TP4
TP5
TP6
TP7
TP8
TP9
no shoe, 15 + 15 + 15 m
final length @ 43.5 m.
TP11 no shoe, 12 + 12 + 12 m 2
16.2 mm/blow @ 34.5 m.
15
948
0.6
25
2420
25
20
18
25
Set (mm)
Table 2.
Baru.
1755
2282
10
23
2223
5
TP16 no shoe, 15 + 15 + 15 m 2
12.8 mm/blow @ 43.8 m.
18
1450
22
2196
0
0
12
16
20
TP1
2260
TP2
TP3
175
15
800
800
700
700
600
500
400
300
600
500
400
300
200
200
100
100
0
0
12
16
12
16
20
20
TP2
TP3
TP4
TP5
TP6
TP7
TP8
TP9
TP10
TP11
TP12
TP13
TP14
TP15
TP16
TP17
TP18
TP2
TP3
TP4
TP5
TP6
TP7
TP8
TP9
TP10
TP11
TP12
TP13
TP14
TP15
TP16
TP17
TP18
piles driven into the very dense completely weathered granite generally showed a temporary decrease
in resistance during the course of the re-strike program. Such a decrease may be related to relaxation of
the over-consolidated soils at/near the pile toe.
Figures 11 and 12 show the gain ratios versus
elapsed time from EOD on a logarithmic scale for
total and shaft resistances respectively. The gain ratios
obtained at final re-strikes for total resistance ranged
from 1.4 to 3.7 and for shaft resistance, ranged from
2.3 to 5.9. The gain ratios for total resistance are lower
due to under mobilization of resistance or probable
soil relaxation at the pile toe. Similar to case study I,
the data are narrowly banded in an increasing trend and
bounded within 35% of the trend lines.The equations
of the best-fit trend lines for total and shaft resistance
gain ratios are:
Total RGR = 0.13 Ln(day) + 1.79
(4)
(5)
+35%
+35%
-35%
1
-35%
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
176
TP1
+35%
-35%
+3 5%
+35%
+35%
-35%
-35%
0
0.0001
0.001
-35%
0.01
0.1
10
0
0.0001
100
0.01
0.1
10
100
(7)
+35%
-35%
+35%
-35%
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
177
0.001
CONCLUSIONS
(8)
(9)
178
ABSTRACT: We present in this paper the results of a parametric study carried out in a calibration chamber on
instrumented model piles. The aim is to point out group effect on piles within a group through their resulting shaft
friction and tip resistance. The methodology relies on the study of the influence of adjacent piles on a reference
pile. The soil used is a silica sand (Fontainebleau sand). The influence of parameters like pile spacing, number
of piles, and direction of loading are evaluated. The results show a positive effect on shaft friction of the group
effect and a negative effect on tip resistance. Efficiency factors are defined in order to have a better view on the
parameters influencing the response of the pile within a group.
INTRODUCTION
179
are installed with the help of the long jack (at the top)
after the soil mass preparation.
The model pile is a metallic inclusion with a diameter of 20 mm, controlled shaft roughness and equipped
with a miniature force transducer for tip resistance
and instrumented shaft element for elementary shaft
friction measurement.
The tip is conical, the measurement shaft is 200 mm
long. After the installation process, the pile is centered
on the middle of the soil mass for the loading test i.e.
at equal distance from both end plates (250 mm) and
in order to minimize end plates effects.
In addition, Puech (1975) stated that it is necessary to allow a distance of about 5d between the tip
of the model and the bottom end plate to minimize its
influence on tip resistance mobilization. In our device,
the distance between the tip and the bottom plate is
200 mm (i.e. 10d) and the measurement shaft is at a
distance of 20 mm from the tip so that the tip will not
influence the shaft mobilization (Been et al., 1986 ;
Mokrani, 1991).
The ratio between the diameter of the cell and the
model pile diameter is 26, which is acceptable to minimize the effects of the sample size for the tested
inclusions in loose to medium sand (Been et al., 1986;
Foray, 1991).
2.2 Testing procedure
For the jacked pile, after preparation of the soil mass at
a given density and consolidation stresses (anisotropic
(K0 condition)), the pile models are installed using a
jacking rig; the soil around the pile is remoulded.
After the pile installation, the pile is embedded by
500 mm within the sand mass so that the 200 mm skin
friction gauge is not influenced by the top plate and
the tip is at a distance of 10 diameters from the bottom
plate. The behaviour of the model pile in this study
can be assimilated to the behaviour of a pile at those
initial soil conditions (relative density and confining
pressures).
Then, in the case of a single pile, the loading phase
is carried out to get the bearing capacity. As far as
the pile groups are concerned, the next phases depend
on the installation order (see paragraph 3). For example, in the case of an installation order C1 (soil mass
M2) (see paragraph 3), the testing procedure is as
follows:
Preparation of the soil mass
Installation by jacking of the center pile
Monotonic loading of the center pile until failure
in order to get the reference bearing capacity of the
single pile in terms of pile head load, shaft friction
and tip resistance. It will be compared to the bearing
capacity of the group
Installation of the 4 adjacent pile
Loading of the 5-pile group (test M2-G5)
3.1 Objectives
The scope of this work is to point out group effect
on piles through bearing capacity of a group and in
particular on the shaft friction and tip resistance of a
pile within a group.
180
C1
C1
Figure 4. Elementary cells of 5 and 9 piles studied for an
installation order C1.
181
eR
Type
M1
M2
M3
M4
M1-S1
M2-S1
M3-S1
M5-S1
1
1
1
1
C
C
T
T
M1
M6
M3
M4
M2
M11
M1-G5
M6-G5
M3-G5
M5-G5
M2-G9
M11-G9
5
5
5
5
9
9
2.83
4
2.83
4
2,83
2,83
C
C
T
T
C
C
Soil mass
0
Single jacked pile
ID = 0,50 v = 125 kPa h = 50 kPa
-1
-2
-3
(a)
-1
40
20
-20
-40
-60
-3
-2
-1
(b)
-2
60
0
0
(c)
182
25
20
15
v = 125 kPa h= 50 kPa ID = 0,50
eR = 2,83 Installation order C1
Single pile
(testM1-S1)
Group of 5 piles(testM1-G5)
Group of 9 piles(testM2-G9)
10
-1
0
0
12
16
20
183
100
25
20
80
60
40
20
v= 125 kPah
0
Center pile
h 50 kPa
15
5-pile group
v = 125 kPa
10
ID= 0,50
-20
0
(a)
120
(a)
10
h = 50 kPa
Installation order C1
80
40
5-pile group
Central pile
v = 125 kPa h = 50 kPa
Installation order C1
eR= 2,83 (M1-G5)
(M6-G5)
eR=4
-40
0
0
0
(b)
of the pile spacing ratio (2.83 and 4) and similar maximum values obtained (81 and 85 kPa). For a pile
spacing ratio of 2.83, the displacements necessary to
reach the maximum values are 3 mm and the maximum values obtained are 85 kPa. For the tip resistance,
the differences are more important with a tip resistance which is decreasing as the pile spacing ratio is
increasing.
Therefore, the distribution of load on the adjacent
piles might be different as the pile head loads on
the central pile (shaft friction and tip resistance) are
different for the 2 pile spacing ratio studied in this
paper.
Besides, for the shaft friction, the residual stresses
(Figures 5(b) and 9(b)) measured for the pile group
Figure 8. Typical result of the shaft friction (a) and tip resistance (b) on a single pile, a center pile in the cases respectively
of a 5-pile group and a 9-pile group.
3
5-pile group
Central pile
v = 125 kPa h = 50 kPa
Installation orderC1
eR= 2,83 (M1-G5)
(M6-G5)
eR= 4
1
0
(c)
184
(b)
-4
-2
-40
CE =
QPgroup
QP sin gle
(2)
-80
CEPf =
fsgc
fS,max
(3)
-120
CEPq =
QG lim
n Q T
(1)
(4)
185
qPgc
qP,max
2.00
1.50
test
eR
ID
CEPf
CEPq
M1
M6
M3
M4
M2
M11
M1-G5
M6-G5
M3-G5
M5-G5
M2-G9
M11-G9
5
5
5
5
9
9
2.83
4
2.83
4
2.83
2.83
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
C
C
T
T
C
C
1.6
1.55
2.27
1.61
1.18
1.22
0.66
0.57
0.50
0.60
Phung (1993)
T1
T1G
T2
T2
T3
T3
5
5
5
4
6
8
0.38
0.67
0.62
C
C
C
2.56
3.19
2.00
2.00
0.85
1.03
Al Douri (1992)
4PDC1 (v = 100)
4PDC2 (v = 200)
4
4
4
4
md
md
T
T
1.66
1.22
1.83
1.00
Center pile
Installation order C1
ID = 0,50
5-pile group v = 125 kPa h = 50 kPa
9-pile group v = 125 kPa h = 50 kPa
0.50
0.00
0
Soil
mass
0.80
0.67
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0
186
CONCLUSIONS
187
ABSTRACT: Sand columns have been commonly used to support embankments over soft soil. The inclusion
of geosynthetics reinforcement over sand columns is intended to enhance load transfer from soil to columns,
reduce total and differential settlements, and increase slope stability. Therefore, it creates a more economical
alternative. A constructed geosynthetics-reinforced embankment over sand columns at certain high-speed railway
trial embankment, Huaqiao, Kunshan, Jiangsu Province, China was selected for the numerical modeling and
analysis. This embankment was constructed to support railway over very soft soil. The sand columns were
installed in triangular arrangement and column types. A high strength woven geotextile was used above the sand
columns over the soft soil between columns. Instrumentation was installed to monitor the settlements of the
embankment and the strains in the geotextile over time. The computed settlements of the embankment and the
strains in geotextile reinforcement compared reasonably well with the measured results.
INTRODUCTION
189
Depth(m)
Soil Profile
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Vane Strength
Suv(kPa)
AtterbergLimits(%)
Unit Weight(kN/m3)
0
Clay
PL
Wn
LL
Mucky Clay
Clay
Silt clay
silt sand
0
25
25
5
15
16
17
18
19
25
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
20
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Embankment
Geosynthetic
Pile
Soil
2.1
Site condition
Based on bore hole surveying and some in-situ measurements, the roadbed of the railway embankment
section, located from K0+711m mileage to K0+855m
mileage on Huaqiao, Kunshan, Jiangsu Province,
China, consists of artificial earth fill, mucky clay, silty
clay containing some stiff-plasticity clay and dust sand
and the general soil profile and the basic properties
are given in Fig. 1. The roadbed is composed of five
discrete stratigraphic units.
(1) A surface layer of artificial earth fill of brownyellow clay, loose, extending to approximately
3.0 m below ground surface.
(2) A mucky clay, extending approximately from 3.0 m
to 6.5 m below ground surface.
(3) A clay layer of white-grey stiff-plasticity clay,
mixed with brown-yellow clay, extending to
approximately from 6.5 to 12.0 m, and this may
divide into five sub-levels.
(4) The silt mixture of sand and clay layer, extending
approximately from 12.0 to 16.5 m.
(5) The silt clay layer of white-grey, center dense and
saturated, extending approximately from 16.5 to
23.5 m.
soft soil
Firm soil bedrock
The instrumentation comprised magnetic settlement gauges (the deepest gauge is approximately
30 m below ground level), hydraulic profile gauges,
190
Load (kPa)
160
120
80
40
0
03-5-18
03-7-17
03-9-15
03-11-14
04-1-13
04-3-13
04-5-12
Date
Figure 3. The fill thickness/time curve.
(1)
(2)
piezometer
magnetic settlement gauges
(3) 3
inclinometers
Side pile
hydraulic settlement profile gauge
(3) 4
settlement plate
flexible displacement sensor
(3) 5
(4) 1
inclinometers, settlement plate, piezometer, soil pressure sell, deep pressure cell, flexible displacement
sensor.
3
3.1
191
3.2
(1)
1 2
3 2
m = Ap /Ae = D /
l = 3D2 /(6l 2 )
4
2
= 0.0363
w 3l = m 3l 2
w = ml
3D2
3D2
w=
= 0.0725
l
=
2
6l
6l
(3)
Thp
=
1
exp
8
p
u0
(4)
192
(2)
(5)
Or
Chpl t
Chax t
= 2
B2 pl
R ax
(6)
Table 1.
Project
Sand
column
18.7
19
21.25
20
0.99
14
23.6
1
35
1
35
5
35
31.9
44.4
24.5
35.5
36.4
unit weight
kN/m3
19.2
17.8
20.3
18.7
kPa
0.89
14
15.5
1.23
3.7
18.9
21.6
0.98
3
23.2
kPa
92.9
34.3
248.7
Youngs modulus Es
Poissons ratio
MPa
9.29
0.31
Permeability
105 m/d
3.5
105 m/d
4.5
Table 2.
Horizontal
kh100200
Vertical
kv100200
0.69
3.43
0.33
24.9
0.3
12.4
9.67
5.87
5.44
34
Embankments
fill
void ratio e
Consolidated Cohesion C
quick
Friction angle
direct shear
unconfined compression
strength qu
33
Mat
Unit
54
35
119.7
5.4
0.3
11.97
0.30
9
0.30
30
0.31
6.616
0.31
20.0
14.5
14.7
10.7
Pile Number
Depth(m)
6415
6109
6111
0409
0909
1311
5716
5715
6315
5902
3.0
6.0
11.0
15.0
4.29
2.76
2.51
3.28
1.16
2.49
2.55
3.38
0.92
1.90
2.57
4.12
3.18
3.14
2.89
3.83
2.32
1.27
2.89
3.55
7.88
3.40
2.82
2.99
4.22
2.70
2.96
4.00
2.33
4.54
2.39
3.17
1.22
0.87
2.47
3.50
1.22
0.75
10.97
3.78
kpl =
2kax
n
3 ln S + kkaxs ln(S) 34
(7)
4.1 Settlement
The presentation of finite element results and the comparison with the field data are made in this section. The
data included vertical settlements, subsoil lateral displacements, excess pore pressures, and tension strain
in the reinforcements.
193
Time (d)
80
0.1
Excess pore
essure(kPa)Load(kPa)
0.2
0
0.1
100
200
300
400
500
0.2
0.3
0.4
Load(d)
Observed TP
Observed MP
Calculated
Load
60
40
20 0
100
200
300
40
60
FEM Calculated
10
20
30
40
Observered 2.6m
Load
500
20
10
400
50
60
70
0.025
Observed
Calculated
0.020
Strain
Depth (m)
0.015
10
15
20
0.010
0.005
0.000
FEM Calculated
Left day 383 q=136kPa
20
40
60
4.2
100
120
140
Lateral displacement
Figure 8 shows comparison between observed lateral displacement curves with calculated curve, which
small observed lateral displacement in the left side
embankment was affected by construction shortcut.
Figure 8 shows calculated curve in the top of subsoil
are closed to the observed curve but calculated curve in
the bottom of subsoil are bigger than the two observed
curve. The first reason is that PVC inclined tube is
stiff, which can not reflect real lateral displacement,
especially in the bottom. Secondly, the inclined tube
has so small size (70 mm) and the soil is so soft that
soft soil can not work on the tube.
4.3
80
Load (kPa)
25
PERFORMANCES OF PILE-NET
COMPOSITE FOUNDATION
Pore pressure
194
12
E=26464kPa
E=13232kPa
E=6616kPa
10
Observed
Load
E=4466kPa
E=6616kPa
E=13232kPa
E=26464kPa
Axial Forces(kN/m)
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.05 0
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Lateral displacement(mm)
10
10
30
10
12
14
16
70
Settlement (m)
0.1
5
10
0
0.1
10
20
30
40
50
0.2
Depth (m)
0.3
Distance from Center of Embankment (m)
J=100kN/m
J=2000kN/m
J=500kN/m
J=10000kN/m
J=1000kN/m
15
E=6616kPa
E=13232kPa
E=26464kPa
25
195
1.45
E=13232kPa
E=6616kPa
63
1.40
62
64
61
60
59
58
57
1.30
1.25
1.20
1.15
56
J=10000kN/m
J=1000kN/m
1.10
55
1.05
54
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
60
80
100
120
140
(2) Pile can reduce settlement of composite foundation effectively and the center settlements reduced
with increased pile module. Pile module effect lateral displacement very much. Bigger module is,
smaller lateral displacement is.
(3) Pile module has different effect on top of piles
and the middle of piles. Bigger pile module
is, bigger reinforcement axial forces on the top
of piles is. Oppositely, bigger pile module is,
smaller reinforcement axial forces in the middle
of piles is.
(4) Bigger reinforcement stiffness is, smaller different settlement is, especially with high stiffness
reinforcement, which shows high strength reinforcement is useful to reduce different settlement.
Bigger reinforcement stiffness is, bigger lateral
displacement is, but the slope of the curve is
reduce slowly, which shows reinforcement stiffness can work in certain lateral displacement
(5) Reinforcement stiffness is in direct ratio with reinforcement axial forces. Bigger reinforcement is,
bigger reinforcement axial forces are.
(6) Bigger reinforcement stiffness is, smaller pile soil
stress ratio is, which shows reinforcement in pilenet composite foundation can adjust stress on the
piles and soils.
40
40
Observed
Calculated J=1000kN/m
Calculated J=2000kN/m
Calculated J=10000kN/m
60
20
Load(kPa)
Reinforcement stiffness(kN/m)
Axial forces(kN/m)
1.35
120
140
Load (kPa)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
6
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the structural behavior and a parametric study of a reinforced embankment on soft
soil are presented, allowing formulating the following
conclusions.
(1) In this study, FEM calculated results are close to
observed results, which prove the accuracy of the
model and the correction of parameters.
196
REFERENCES
Allen Lunzhu Li. 2000. Time dependent behavior of reinforced embankments on soft foundations. Ph.D. Thesis.
University of Western Ontario, Ontario, Canada.
Bergado D.T., Long P.V. and Murthy B.R.S. 2002. A
case study of geotextile-reinforced embankment on
soft ground. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol. 20,
pp. 343365.
Brinkgreve R B J, Vermeer P A. 1998. Plaxis-Finite Element
Code for Soil and Rock Analyses. Netherlands: Material
Models Manual.
British Standard BS 8006, 1995. Code of Practice for
Strengthened/Reinforced Soil and other Fills.
Bruce, D.A. 2001. An Introduction to the Deep Mixing
Methods as Used in Geotechnical Applications Volume
III: The Verification and Properties of Treated Ground.
FHWA-RD-99-167, pp. 405455.
Gong Xiao-nan. 2002. The Theory and Application of
Composite Foundation. Beijing: China Architecture &
Building Press.
Hird C.C., Pyrah I.C. and Russell D. 1992. Finite element
modelling of wick drains beneath the embankments on
soft ground. Gotechnique, Vol.42, pp. 499511.
Jie, Han, M. A. Gabr. 2002. Numerical Analysis of
Geosynthetic-Reinforced and Pile-Supported Earth Platforms over Soft Soil. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol.128, pp. 4453.
Lin, K.Q. and Wong, I.H. 1999. Use of deep cement mixing to reduce settlements at bridge approaches. Journal of
197
ABSTRACT: Based on the tunnel excavation engineering practice in Nanjing, finite element method is selected
to analysis the influence of building pile foundation induced by adjacent tunnel excavation according to the
different depths. The settlement of soil and building is studied. The bending moment, axial force, shear force and
displacement of the pile and subfloor are also analyzed. Then it draws some significant conclusions to practical
engineering.
INSTRUCTION
Soil parameters.
dry
kN/m3
wet
kN/m3
kx
m/day
ky
m/day
Eref
kN/m2
cref
kN/m2
Parameters
Clay
17
19
106
106
20000
0.33
8.0
26
199
3.1
Structure parameters.
Material EA
Parameters type
kN/m
Structure
Pile
Tunnel
EI
kNm2 /m
d
m
elastic
elastic
elastic
5
10
Total displacement
X-displacement
Y-displacement
15
20
25
30
0
10
15
20
25
5
10
Total displacement
X-displacement
Y-displacement
15
20
25
30
0
10
15
20
Numbering
Depth of tunnel
excavation (m)
Diameter of
tunnel (m)
structure
Distance to
building (m)
Type of foundation
TEST1
TEST2
TEST3
TEST4
TEST5
TEST6
TEST7
5
10
15
20
25
30
530
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
exist
exist
exist
exist
exist
exist
no
5
5
5
5
5
5
Pile foundation
Pile foundation
Pile foundation
Pile foundation
Pile foundation
Pile foundation
200
5
10
15
20
25
30
0
10
15
20
25
20
25
30
0
10
15
20
25
30
23.000
9.110
4.936
3.190
2.500
2.319
20.000
7.813
4.409
3.343
2.643
2.396
Table 5.
10
15
20
25
30
6.42
5.939
2.438
5.202
3.325
4.001
4.638
1.991
4.189
3.986
1.314
3.763
3.058
0.8767
2.929
2.622
0.6163
2.548
201
60
58
56
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
62
54
52
50
48
46
44
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
40
45
62
56
54
62
52
60
50
58
55
60
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
60
50
Site of subfloor(m)
48
46
44
-60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
58
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
56
54
52
50
48
46
44
60
58
56
62
52
60
50
48
46
44
10 20 30 40 50 60
-40
-20
20
58
56
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
54
52
50
48
46
44
-140 -120 -100 -80
-60
-40
-20
20
202
-60
54
-80
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
62
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
60
58
60
56
54
52
50
48
46
44
-140 -120 -100 -80
-60
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
62
62
-40
-20
58
56
54
52
50
48
46
44
20
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
20
40
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
62
60
58
56
54
52
50
48
46
44
40
45
50
55
60
-10
Site of subfloor(m)
-80
-60
-40
-20
20
40
transits from left-high-and-right-low to left-low-andright-high by the tunnel depth of 10 m. When the tunnel
depth is in the extent of pile length (15 m), the axial
force changes greatly. When the tunnel depth is out
of the extent of pile length (15 m), the axial force of
subfloor doesnt changes greatly, the moment on the
left of symmetry reduces little and the moment on the
right of symmetry increases little.
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
62
60
58
56
54
52
50
48
46
3.4
44
-100
-60
-40
-20
20
40
203
-80
the vertical displacement of Point B is decreasing with the depth of excavation when the tunnel
depth is out of the extent of pile length.
(3) Tunnel excavation imports more influence on Pile
A than on Pile B and Pile C. When the tunnel
depth is in the extent of pile length, the flexural
moment, axial force and shear force of pile and
subfloor changes apparently. While when the tunnel depth is out of the extent of pile length, the
flexural moment, axial force and shear force of
pile and subfloor changes little. Accordingly, the
depth of pile length is a typical dividing boundary. So if the tunnel depth is in the extent of pile
length, it is necessary to protect the adjacent pile
foundation.
(4) The change form of the moment, axial force and
shear force of subfloor are antisymmetric and the
forms change with the depth of tunnel excavation
depth.
tunnel depth-5m
tunnel depth-10m
tunnel depth-15m
tunnel depth-20m
tunnel depth-25m
tunnel depth-30m
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
40
45
50
55
60
Site of subfloor(m)
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
1. Chew, S. H., Yong, K. Y., and Lim, A. Y. K. (1997).
Three-dimensional finite element analysis of astrutted
excavation, Procc. 9th Int. Conf. on Computer Methods
and Advances in Geomechanics, Wuhan, China.
2. F.C. Schroeder, D.M. Potts and T.I. Addenbrooke (1994).
The influence of pile group loading on existing tunnels.
Geotechnique 54, No. 6, 351362
3. Liu K.X., Yong K.Y., Lee F.H (1996). A numerical study
on 3-D behavior of excavation-support system, Proc. 2nd
Int. Conf. on Soft Soil Engineering, Nanjing: 137145
4. H.G. Poulos, L.T. Chen (1996). Pile Response Due to
unsupported Excavation-Induced Lateral Soil Movement
[J]. Can. Geotech., 33: 670677.
5. Ou C.Y., Hsieh P.G., Chiou D.C (1993). Characteristics
of ground surface settlement during excavation [J]. Can.
Geotech. J., Ottawa, Canada, 30: 758767.
204
Zhu-Chang Chen
Department of geotechnical engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
Nan-Fu Hong
Department of city and county planning, QuanZhou, Fujian, China
ABSTRACT: Based on the comparison of settlement measurement data of high-rise buildings supported by
driven pile foundation, the effects of composition of compressible strata underlying pile tip and soil situation
surrounding pile on long-term settlement behavior of driven pile foundation are studied. The results show:
that the effects of existence of thick sand layers surrounding pile on settlement behaviors of pile foundation are
significantly dependent on the condition of compressible strata; when compressible strata are mainly composed of
quasi-sand layers (i.e. quasi-sand ratio > 75%), the function of existence of thick sand layer will lead to decrease
pile foundation settlements and improve settlement behaviors remarkably; when quasi-sand ratio is less than
50%,the function of that is disappeared. Therefore, it is a concept with widespeed significance that compositions
of compressible strata always play a leading role for basic characteristics of pile foundation settlement.
INTRODUCTION
The effects of condition of soil layers and construction factor on settlement of pile group of building
are difficult to be precisely simulated and calculated
(Prakoso et al. 2001, castelli et al. 2002). The investigation into the properties and regulations of pile group
settlement need to be combined in plenty of prototype
measured settlement data. Shanghai is typical soft soil
region, driven pile groups are widely used to support
high-rise buildings. Nowadays, the settlement control
is getting more and more strict in the city. To research
the long-term settlement behaviour is more important
according to the existing buildings supported by driven
pile group.
Considering the action of pile driving, people begin
to concern the influence of type of ground on settlement of driven pile group, as well as the influence of
the properties of soil deposits surrounding pile on settlement of driven pile group (Zhang et al. 1999, Dai
et al. 2000).
During the process of working out the calculated methods of pile group settlement of shanghai
standardFoundation Design Code (DBJ08-11-89), 28
prototype observations of buildings supported on pile
foundation were used to judge the applicability of the
205
In order to properly indicate the effect of compressible strata under pile tip on the settlement behavior
for driven pile group, the composition of compressible strata is used as index to reflect the property of
compressibility of compressible strata in the paper.
In the composition of compressible strata, the proportion of plastic clay soil layer to the compressible
strata is expressed as an independent index, because
the plastic state of clay soil behaves the characteristics
of high compressibility and slow deformation speed,
and has quite a different effect on pile group settlement behavior from sand or firm-plastic clay soil in
shanghai region.
In order to further analyze that the influence of existence of thick sand layer surrounding pile on settlement
behavior for driven pile group is related to the composition of compressible strata, the soil layers which
usually appear as compressible strata of pile group in
shanghai region are divided into the following three
classes in the paper (Gao 1992).
(1) Sand soil including fine sand, silty sand, sandy silt,
clayey silt, and clay soil (which is composed of
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
206
(1)
207
582
41.8
No.10
608
85.3
3.8
49.0
33.8
78.8
45.0
21.2
556
Plastic clay
ratio 3 (%)
Quasi-sand ratio(%)
Sand ratio
Firm-plastic clay
1 (%)
ratio 2 (%)
Settlement at
stabilization
(mm)
Time for
settlement
stabilization (year)
Completion
settlement
ratio (%)
Time of
completion
(day)
Settlement
at completion
time (mm)
No. of
project
Condition of
soil layers
surrounding pile
Settlement
at completion
time (mm)
Time of
completion
(day)
Completion
settlement
ratio (%)
Time for
settlement
stabilization (year)
Settlement at
stabilization
(mm)
No.3
71.8
556
86.9
2.54
82.6
Quasi-sand ratio(%)
Sand ratio
Firm-plastic clay
1 (%)
ratio 2 (%)
100
83.6
No.9(1)
56.6
773
72.1
4.75
78.5
50.2
631
62.1
5.58
100
80.8
37.3
584
77.2
4.1
100
48.3
54.0
636
74.6
4.2
Sand Thick 0 m
Sand Thick 0 m
0
75.3
61
Average
0
9.6
100
No. 19
Condition of
soil layers
surrounding pile
16.4
90.4
No.9(2)
Plastic clay
ratio 3 (%)
25.4
Sand Thick 0 m
14.3
72.6
208
Table 3. Pile group settlement behavior under No. 3 combination.
Composition of compressible strata
No. of
project
Settlement
at completion
time (mm)
Time of
completion
(day)
Completion
settlement
ratio (%)
Time for
settlement
stabilization (year)
Settlement at
stabilization
(mm)
No. 18
32.8
333
<32.5
>8.2
>101
Quasi-sand ratio(%)
Sand ratio
Firm-plastic clay
1 (%)
ratio 2 (%)
35.5
35.0
No. 11
40.7
553
36.8
8.3
110.7
Average
36.7
443
<34.7
>8.3
>105.9
Condition of
soil layers
surrounding pile
64.5
85.9
Sand Thick 6 m
0
14.1
14.1
Plastic clay
ratio 3 (%)
Sand Thick 3 m
7.7
58.3
<42.9
>7.4
>117.5
34
126
7.5
45.1
56.8
51.3
No 17
Average
333
29.9
No 16
384
18.7
67.3
No.6
335
29.2
8.1
102.2
18.3
41.7
0.4
81.2
Sand Thick 0 m
58.8
0
41.2
41.2
>124.2
>6.7
<54.2
Settlement
at completion
time (mm)
484
Condition of
soil layers
surrounding pile
Plastic clay
ratio 3 (%)
Quasi-sand ratio(%)
Sand ratio
Firm-plastic clay
1 (%)
ratio 2 (%)
No. of
project
Time of
completion
(day)
Completion
settlement
ratio (%)
Time for
settlement
stabilization (year)
Settlement at
stabilization
(mm)
209
Table 5.
Comparison of pile group settlement behavior between No.1 combination and No.2 combination.
contrast type
Combination 1
Average of
settlement
at completion
time (mm)
Average of
time of
completion
(day)
44.3
582
88.3
3.5
50.2
54.0
636
74.6
4.2
72.6
118.4
83.3
69.1
82.0
91.5
Average of time
for settlement
stabilization (year)
Average of
settlement
stabilization
(mm)
combination possess the same condition of the compressible strata with 3 > 50% (i.e.3 > ), in which
the behavior of pile group settlement for two different type of soil condition (i.e. the existence of thick
sand layer as well as the soft clay and clay layers)
surrounding pile also shows almost close characteristics, namely on the whole possesses low level of
completion settlement ratio (<34.7%and 42.9%, long
time for settlement stabilization (>8.3 years and >7.4
years), large settlement at stabilization (>105 mm and
>117.5 mm) and large settlement after completion
(>69.2 mm and >66.2 mm). However, in the same
condition of soil layer surrounding pile, when the
composition of compressible strata are from > 75%
to < 50% (i.e. 3 > ), it will cause outstanding discrepancy in the behavior of pile group settlement, i.e.
completion settlement ratio is from high to low (from
88.3% and 74.6% to <34.7% and 42.9%), the time
for settlement stabilization is from short to long (from
3.5 years and 4.2 years to >8.3 years and >7.4 years),
settlement at stabilization is from low to high (from
50.2 mm and 72.6 mm to >69.2 mm and >66.2 mm).
The analysis and data described above give a further
proof that the composition of compressible strata play
a leading role for the behavior of pile group settlement, and that the compressible strata with higher
plastic clay ratio is closely related to the characteristics of pile group settlement, such as low level of
completion settlement ratio, long time for settlement
stabilization, high observed settlement at stabilization
and high settlement after completion.
From table 6 it can also be seen that in the condition
of compressible strata with 3 > 50%, in comparison
with the soft clay and clay layers surrounding pile, the
existence of thick sand layers surrounding pile are to
decrease pile group settlement by 9.9% and the completion settlement ratio by 19.1%, and to increases the
time for settlement stabilization by 12.2% and settlement after completion by 4.5%. These data indicate
that, for 3 > 50% the existence of thick sand layer surrounding pile may not always lead the behavior of pile
group settlement to the tendency for improvement. It
should be of note that in the condition of compressible
210
Average of
completion
settlement
ratio (%)
Table 6.
Comparison of pile group settlement behavior between No. 3 combination and No. 4 combination.
contrast type
Combination 3
Average of
settlement
at completion
time (mm)
Average
of time of
completion
(day)
Average of
completion
settlement
ratio (%)
Average of time
for settlement
stabilization
(year)
Average of
settlement
stabilization
(mm)
36.7
443
<34.7
>8.3
>105.9
51.3
384
<42.9
>7.4
>117.5
71.5
115.4
80.9
112.2
90.1
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the comparison of the settlement measurement data of high-rise building supported by pile
foundation in Shanghai, conclusions are drawn as
follows:
(1) When the compressive strata are mainly composed of quasi-sand ( > 75% or 3 < 25%), thick
sand layers around pile exert obvious influence
on reducing the settlement of pile group and
211
REFERENCES
Castelli, F., Maugeri, M., 2002. Simplified Nonlinear Analysis for Settlement Prediction of Pile Groups, America.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 128, pp. 7684.
Chen, R.P., Lin, D.S., Chen, Y.M., 2003. Some problems in
settlement calculation of pile groups, China. Chinese Civil
engineering Journal, Vol. 39, pp. 8994.
Dai, R.L., Chen, H., Yu, Y.Y., 2001. The analysis of soil properties and settlement of pile foundation of shanghai highrise building, China. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol. 23, pp. 627630.
212
V.N. Popov
JSC Karaganda GIIZ and K, Karaganda, Kazakhstan
ABSTRACT: We carried out the static testing of boring piles, which was performed through geotechnology by
CFA on problematic soil grounds in Astana (the new capital of Kazakhstan). This paper summarizes the results
of static pile tests for compression vertical loads. As well, this article presents a comparison table of traditional
geotechnology and new geotechnology CFA during the performing of boring piles. This is important for the
estimation of geoecological effects of boring piles into difficult soil ground for buildings.
INTRODUCTION
ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS OF THE SITE
213
Settlement, mm
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Load, kN
experimental dates;
214
Table 1.
0.3m
The names of
the grounds
, g/cm3
c, kPa
E, MPa
EGE-1
Loam, EGE-2
Clay, EGE-3
2.02
1.86
33
35
18
21
7
7
11m
CONCLUSIONS
the absence of building dust). It is important for construction of bridges, civil engineering constructions
and other buildings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their deep appreciation
to Professor Tadatsugu tanaka from Tokyo University,
Japan for his continual encouragement and scientific
discussion about numerical results by FEM.
REFERENCES
215
ABSTRACT: Due to the large volume of wastewater generated in Samut Prakarn Province located about 20 km
east of Bangkok, Thailand, the Samut Prakarn Wastewater Management Project has been conceived to treat the
wastewater up to 525,000 m3 per day. The wastewater will be treated at a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in
Klong Dan which is located about 50 km east of Bangkok and about 0.5 km from the Gulf of Thailand. The WWTP
site is underlain by a 20 m to 25 m thick stratum of very soft to soft Bangkok clay of which the upper 12 m to 15 m of
the clay stratum can not support any earth embankment with more than 2 m in height without ground improvement.
A 4.2 m high dike structure, approximately 7 km in total length, is needed to form eight wastewater/sludge
ponds required for the wastewater treatment plant. The main functions of the dike structure are to contain
wastewater/sludge, to serve as access road, and in some sections, to function as channel for transporting influent or effluent. To serve the three functions required, a combined road-channel-dike structure is preferred for
construction cost saving and economic land use.
Various conceptual designs of the combined road-channel-dike structure had been developed and evaluated
prior to construction. Finally, a piled raft foundation was selected and designed by using a reinforced-concrete
structure supported by 12 m long pre-stressed concrete piles. During the construction from the years 2001 to
2003, slope failures were avoided by implementing the field observation method. Based on the results of 527
days of monitoring, the combined structure underwent the maximum vertical settlement of about 320 mm and
the highest lateral movement of about 100 mm, without slope and/or structural failures. This paper addresses
the different design approaches developed in the early stage, and the design and performance of the structure
selected for construction.
INTRODUCTION
Station to be treated in the clarifiers. The treated effluent from the clarifiers will then be directed through
a channel and discharged into the Gulf of Thailand
through an ocean Outfall. The sludge will be collected
on site in two Biosolids Storage Ponds.
For all the eight containment ponds needed, the
maximum water depth of the ponds required will be
3.9 m which has to be achieved by constructing a
dike, or an excavation, or the combination of dike and
excavation.
Due to the low bearing capacity of the very soft clay
covering the site and construction difficulty, it would
be beneficial and cost effective to combine the dike,
access road and channel that are needed for containing and transporting the wastewater into one single
structure.
The site for the wastewater treatment plant in Klong
Dan is located in a marshy coastal area, about 0.5 km
from the Gulf of Thailand. The site is covered by a 20 m
to 30 m thick, very soft to hard, clay layer overlying an
8 m to 12 m thick, dense to very dense, sand layer. The
219
This paper describes the design concepts developed and evaluated for a 4.2 m high, combined roadchannel-dike structure at the commencement of the
project prior to selecting the most viable design concept. The final design of the combined road-channeldike structure is based on the piled raft foundation
concept using a reinforced-concrete structure supported by 12 m long pre-stressed piles which are driven
into the very soft clay. The structure will be able to
settle due to the ongoing regional land subsidence and
consolidation of the supporting clay stratum, without
causing any separation between the base of the structure and the supporting subgrade which, if occurred,
will lead to uncontrollable leakage.The design and performance of the combined road-channel-dike structure
are presented in this paper.
2
DESIGN CRITERIA
220
which are covered with mangroves. The general average elevation of the site is +0.60 m above the mean
sea level. Due to its coastal location, the site is subject
to daily fluctuation of seawater level and covered with
a thick stratum of very soft to soft marine clay deposit.
The subsurface soil conditions of the WWTP site
were investigated by more than 50 boreholes drilled
to a maximum depth of 40 m and more than 30 insitu vane shear strength tests. Typically, the soil profile
across the WWTP (Figure 3) consists of a 20 m to 25 m
thick layer of very soft to soft Bangkok clay overlying
a 5 m to 10 m thick, firm to hard, clay layer which is
underlain by an 8 m to 12 m thick, dense to very dense,
sand layer.
The soil stratum that causes problems for the design
and construction of the combined road-channel-dike
structure is the top, 12 m to 15 m thick, very soft clay
stratum. The liquid limits of the very soft clay typically
range from 90 to 130 and the plastic limits from 30 to
50, while the natural water contents vary from 100% to
130%. The variations with depth of the average values
of liquid limit, plastic limit and natural water content
are shown on Figure 4.
The in-situ vane shear strengths of the very soft clay
range from 5 kPa near the ground surface to about
30 kPa at 12 m to 15 m depths. The undrained shear
strength profiles shown on Figure 5 provide the average values of the undrained shear strength measured by
in-situ vane shear testing and unconfined compression
testing.
221
Based on one-dimensional consolidation tests carried out on undisturbed soil samples at various depths,
the over-consolidation ratios of the clay at the WWTP
range from about 0.7 to 1.7 as shown on Figure 6. On
the average, the clay should be considered as normally
consolidated. The compression ratios of the clay typically vary from 0.3 to 0.4. The unit weights of the
very soft to soft clay normally range from 14 kN/m3
to 16 kN/m3 .
4
222
DESIGN ALTERNATIVES
223
Performance/
Constructability
Long-term
settlement
Potential for
leakage
through
structures
base
Potential for
leakage
through the
structure
Long-term
structural
integrity
Long-term
maintenance
effort
Foundation
construction
preparation
ReinforcedConcrete
Structure
Supported
by Long
Piles
Earth
Embankment
Supported by
Improved
Ground
ReinforcedConcrete
Structure
Supported
by Short
Piles
Small
High
High
Very high
Very low
Low
Very low
High
Low
Very stable
Potential for
local collapse
Very stable
Low
High
Low
Require
ground
surface
improvement
to support
heavy
equipment.
Require
ground
surface
improvement
to support
heavy
equipment
Use light
equipment.
No ground
surface
improvement
required.
224
Using the piled raft foundation concept, a reinforcedconcrete structure supported by short piles has been
conceived. The length of the short piles is selected to
be 12 m in order to achieve reasonable pile resistance
while the pile tip is still embedded in the very soft clay
stratum. As a result, the structure is supported by both
the underlying clay and piles, and will settle with the
underlying clay, thereby preventing leakage of retained
wastewater through the underside of the structure.
The final design of the combined road-channel-dike
structure is shown on Figure 8. The basic dimensions
of the structure are 4 m wide road surface, 12 m wide
base at the ground level, and 4.2 m high above ground.
The structure is located 5 m away from a 1:10 (vertical
: horizontal) side slope of a 1 m deep excavation. The
total height of the pond is therefore 5.2 m from the
base of the pond to the top road surface of the structure.
The structure is designed to accommodate a maximum
settlement of 2.0 m in 80 years.
The basic combined road-channel-dike structure is
composed of a reinforced-concrete box supported by
pre-stressed concrete piles. The base of the combined
structure is tied monolithically to a series of 12 m
long pre-stressed I piles. The box of the structure
is formed by two walls, a base and a top floor cover.
The core of the box is hollow to function as channel
225
The combined road-channel-dike structure was constructed from the years 2001 to 2003. The ground
surface at the base of the structure was prepared by
stripping, grading and compacting (kneading) of the
clay subgrade. The 12 m long piles were installed by
using light-weight, framed, percussion pile driving rigs
typically used in Bangkok. The piles were easily driven
to the required elevation. All equipment used in the
construction was controlled by limiting the ground
pressure not to exceed 20 kPa. The superstructure
was subsequently constructed using the normal construction practice for constructing reinforced-concrete
structure. The details of construction have been presented by Boonsinsuk and Chareonsuphong (2001 in
Thai language).
226
227
Figure 11. Variations of pond water level/vertical settlement/lateral movement for Block No.49 Line Y3 with
cumulative days.
Figure 13. Variation of lateral movement along line Y3 at cumulative day 527.
228
a method can be used because the design and construction of the road-channel-dike structure are based
on a design-build-operate contract. The structure had
been constructed without any slope failure and had
performed satisfactorily.
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The design and construction of the combined roadchannel-dike structure based on the piled raft foundation concept was approved by the NVPSKG Joint Venture for the Samut Prakarn Wastewater Management
Project.
REFERENCES
Boonsinsuk, P. and Chareonsuphong, S. (2001), Construction
Method for 4.2 m Height of Channel/Berm in Wastewater Treatment Pond on Very Soft Clay Area, Proceedings First Seminar on Highway Engineering, Pavements and Geotechnical Engineering Nibon Rananand
Seminar, Department of Highways, Bangkok, Thailand,
pp. 201223.
229
Improvement of a very soft dregded silty clay at the port of Valencia (Spain)
Marcelo Burgos
Valencia Port Authority, Spain
Francisco Samper
Geotecnia y Cimientos, S.A., Spain
ABSTRACT: The Valencia Port Authority plans to incorporate a new area of 140,000 m2 for the storage of
containers. A zone with a 65,000 m2 surface in the area has been back filled with about 1,000,000 m3 of dredged
mud of a very low consistency. In order to improve the mud, a project has been put forward that basically consists
of: the creation of a soil-cement crust with the mass-stabilisation method, the installation of vertical drains, the
construction of a horizontal drainage and the placement of a 9 m high preload. Once this is carried out, it will
be necessary to wait for around 9 months for the mud to consolidate, to remove the surcharge and to construct
the pavement. In order to control this process, a complete monitoring system will be installed. In this paper the
project that is currently under construction is described.
INTRODUCTION
+10.0
+5.0
+2.0
+0.0
0.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
GENERAL
FILL
SEA
MUD
ROCK FILL
-10.0
-12.0
-15.0
2
2.1
INITIAL DATA
Structure and geotechnical characteristics of
the subsoil
According to the information that was available (Burgos, Samper, 2004), initially, a draft of about 12 m
existed in the area. The following materials could be
found below that depth:
From level 12 m to level 24 m: Fine sands of
medium compacity (10<N30 SPT<30)
From level 24 m until at least level 31 m:
Clays and sandy silts of medium consistency
(25 kN/m2 < cu <125 kN/m2 ).
A hydraulic filling was subsequently done between
level 12 m to level +2 m, generating a lagoon of
231
Table 1.
Characteristics
Organic matter (%)
Ca content (%)
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Liquid limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Water content (%)2
Dry unit density (kN/m3 )
Void ratio (e)
Compression index (Cc )
Coefficient of vertical consolidation (Cv )
(cm2 /s)
Coefficient of horizontal consolidation (Ch )
(cm2 /s)
Undrained shear strength (cu )
(kN/m2 )1
12
1518
< 10
4060
4060
2545
520
3060
1214
0.9-1.3
0.20-0.25
4*104
8*104
<25 kN/m
3 ADOPTED SOLUTION
The projected jobs basically consist of:
In the upper level (below the dried-up crust), its values round
2-3 kN/m2 , increasing proportionally with the depth until values in the order of 25 kN/m2 in the lower portion of these
muds.
2
The most superficial layer, which has been mixed with
cement, has a water content of 40-60 %.
50
232
+10.0
+10.0
+5.0
VERTICAL DRAINS
+5.0
+2.0
+2.0
+0 .0
0.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
-2.0
+0.0
0.0
STABILIZED MUD
GENERAL
FILL
SEA
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
MUD
ROCK FILL
-10.0
-2.0
-10.0
-12.0
-15.0
SEA
GENERAL
FILL
ROCK FILL
-12.0
-15.0
on them. The main conclusions are that the optimal cement content can be found between 90 and
110 kg/m3 . In the first case, the mix was more homogenous, and in the second, a greater resistance was
expected because of the greater binder content. As a
result, it was decided to execute the crust with 90 kg/m3
in the zone that was going to be stepped on after 7 days,
and with 110 kg/m3 in the zone what was going to be
stepped on after 34 days.
When this article was being written, 75 % of the
crust has been completed.
3.2 Vertical drainage
Figure 5. Fotograph of the execution of the crust.
(width), in front of which the mixer is placed (resting on an already stabilized zone), and starts adding
cement and mixing it with the mud in an operation that
lasts a total ranging from 60 to 90 minutes.
In the first constructed zone, a test area has been
created where cells with cement contents of 70, 90
and 110 kg/m3 and performances of 50 y 70 m3 /h have
been executed. This zone has been studied by means of
boreholes, DPSH type dynamic penetration tests, CPT
tests, pits and laboratory tests. Within the laboratory
tests the following have been performed: sieve granulometric tests, Atterberg limits, calcium content, dry
density, water content, unconfined compressive tests
and direct shear tests with peak and residual strength
measurements.
The main conclusions of this first testing area are
that neither could work go faster than 50 m3 /h nor with
less than 90 kg/m3 . It was also concluded that the best
system for the control of the crusts execution was the
use of CPT tests.
This way, two rows of 180 m 4.5 m cells with
90 and 110 kg/m3 were created, conducting CPT and
geophysical tests (spectral analysis of shallow waves)
233
+11.0
DRAINAGE BLANKET
+10.0
+10.0
DRAINAGE CHANNELS
GENERAL FILL
+5.0
+5.0
+2.5
+2.0
+2.5
+2.0
+0.0
+0.0
0.0
0.0
-2.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
SEA
GENERAL
FILL
-10.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
ROCK FILL
-2.0
SEA
GENERAL
FILL
ROCK FILL
-10.0
-12.0
-12.0
-15.0
-15.0
+10.0
+9.0
+5.0
3.3
GENERAL FILL
Horizontal drainage
+0.5
+0.0
-4.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
-10.0
SEA
GENERAL
FILL
ROCK FILL
-12.0
-15.0
234
+0.0
0.0
+10.0
+10.0
CONTAINERS
+5.0
+5.0
+0.0
+0.5
+2.0
+2.0
60 KN/m2
+3.3
+0.0
+0.0
0.0
0.0
-4.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
-4.0
SEA
GENERAL
FILL
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
ROCK FILL
-10.0
ROCK FILL
-10.0
-12.0
-15.0
-12.0
-15.0
(OUT OF PROJECT)
(OUT OF PROJECT)
+10.0
PAVEMENT
+5.0
+2.0
+3.3
+0.0
+0.5
+0.0
0.0
-4.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
SEA
GENERAL
FILL
ROCK FILL
-10.0
-12.0
-15.0
3.6 Monitoring
SEA
GENERAL
FILL
A job of these characteristics requires intense monitoring. In this case, the following sensors have been
projected and are being placed:
A network of 92 settlement plates, situated every
25 m 50 m, resting on the crust, which will be
leveled with reference to fixed points, installed outside the zone of influence of the jobs to be carried
out. As the height of the preload increases, it will be
necessary to increase the length of the rods attached
to these plates.
3 continuous settlement lines with lengths of up to
350 m
6 bench marks to control the horizontal movements
of the protection dike as a result of applying the
preload.
Subsequent operations
235
CONCLUSIONS
236
ABSTRACT: The Taiwan Area National Expressway Engineering Bureau (TANEEB) is currently constructing
the Taipei-Ilan Expressway. The Toucheng-Suao Section of the Expressway passes the Ilan Plain, in which
subsurface conditions contain soft and weak silt layers. As a result, the subgrade of the pavement structure can
not be easily compacted to the construction specification requirement in this area. Therefore, the geosynthetic
reinforced subgrade is proposed by the contractor for reducing the extra expense of the aggregate material. This
paper begins with introducing the engineering properties of the soft and weak silty soil. Following that, a test plan
for evaluating the technique of applying the geosynthetic reinforcement is described. The performance of the
geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway is investigated considering different thickness of aggregate layers
of the subgrade. Finally, finite element method (FEM) is used to simulate the complicated soil-reinforcement
interaction and to explain the mechanical behaviour of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway.
INTRODUCTION
A similar practical problem of geosynthetic application for the railroad track design has been studied
for saving the amount of aggregate/ballast thickness
by Wu (2003). The subgrade reinforcement design
method of the paved permanent road is initially developed by Holtz et al. (1995). Its principal function is to
transfer the bearing capacity which acts on subgrade
by geosynthetic reinforced material. In accordance
with Haliburton et al. (1981) experience, there are
three possible subgrade restraint mechanics provided
by geosynthetic reinforcement.
1. Lateral restraint of the subgrade through friction
and interlock between the aggregate, soil, and the
geosynthetic. Soft and weak subgrade silt provides
very little lateral restraint in this case, so when the
aggregate moves laterally, ruts develop on the surface
of subgrade.
2. Increase in the system bearing capacity by forcing the potential bearing capacity failure surface to
develop along alternate, higher shear strength surface. This tends to increase the bearing capacity of
the subgrade under loading.
3. Membrane support of the wheel loads. If the
geosynthetic reinforcement has a sufficiently high
tensile modulus, tensile stresses will develop in the
reinforcement to help support the applied wheel loads.
This paper begins with introducing the engineering properties of the soft and weak soil of the Ilan
area. A test plan is explained in detail for evaluating
the technique of applying geosynthetic reinforcement
to reach the requirement for the subgrade structure.
237
The performance of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway is then examined considering different thickness of the subgrade. Finally, finite element
method (FEM) is utilized to simulate the complicated soil-reinforcement interaction and to explain the
mechanical behaviours of the geosynthetic reinforced
subgrade expressway. It is expected that the experience
learned from the Toucheng-Suao Section of the TaipeiIlan Expressway Project could be valuable for other
highway projects dealing with soft and weak subgrade
material in the future.
2
This study deals with the soft and weak subsoil with
high content of fine grained soil of the Ilan area. The
Ilan area is located in the northeastern part of Taiwan
as shown in Figure 1. The subsurface soil of the Ilan
area is relatively poor in the aspect of the engineering
properties. Figure 2 demonstrates the Standard Penetration Test N values (SPT-N) from 726 boreholes we
collected in the Ilan area (Chao, 1998). In addition,
the climate of this area contains lots of rainy days during the whole year. As a result, the ground water table
varies from time to time at the depth close to the ground
surface. Figure 3 shows the map of the ground water
table of the Ilan area.
During the process of the construction works, the
contractor, the Retired Soldiers Engineering Services
Administration (RESA), unexpectedly realized the
difficulty of reaching the construction specification
provided by the TANEEB. Since the subsoil is really
soft and weak, there is almost no possibility to compact the site soil to the degree that TANEEB would
N - Value
0-2
2-5
5 - 10
10 - 30
30 - 100
10
10
10
20 Kilometers
E
5
4
S
2
3
3
2
Study area
2
2
3
2
283
37
9
7
24
7
6
10
20 Kilometers
238
10
47
10
4 2
10
4
11
3 TEST PLAN
For the purpose of understanding the mechanism of
the subgrade structure under loading which uses the
geosynthetic reinforced material, a test plan is proposed by the contractor. The test plan consists of a full
scale road section, which is 100 m in length and 10 m
in width. This section is then separated into 3 parts
for the purpose of evaluating the performance of the
geosynthetic reinforcement with different thickness of
the aggregate layer. The detailed arrangement of the
test section is shown in Figure 6.
The test plan totally contains 4 different thicknesses
of aggregate layers, namely: 15 cm, 25 cm, 40 cm, and
50 cm. The geosynthetic reinforcement material is in
fact composed of a geogrid layer and a geotextile
(nonwoven) layer. The geogrid layer provides tensile
strength resistance to reinforce the subgrade structure
while the geotextile layer provides the function of separation with the soft and weak silty soil underneath
for long term performance consideration. The detailed
arrangement of the section is described as follows:
1. Original design section simply replacing aggregate
material to the depth of 75 cm.
2. Test section A is excavated to a depth of 40 cm,
placed a layer of nonwoven and then a layer of geogrid,
refilled with aggregate material for a depth of 15 cm.
3. Test section B is excavated to a depth of 50 cm,
placed a layer of nonwoven and then a layer of geogrid,
refilled with aggregate material for a depth of 25 cm
(A typical cross-section of the geosynthetic reinforced
subgrade is shown in Figure 7).
Original
Design
Section
Test Section
A
Buffer
Zone
Test Section
B
30 m
30 m
10 m
30 m
239
Failure mechanism of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade expressway is thus become a very interesting
subject that needs to be studied much more extensively. It has been concluded that current experience
with reinforced slope failures indicates that the failure
mechanism are not significantly different from those
for natural slopes, but no such evidence exist for failure
mechanism of geosynthetic reinforced subgrade.
Therefore, in order to have more understanding
on the complicated mechanical behaviour and failure mechanism of the geosynthetic reinforced subgrade structure, the PLAXIS finite element program is
utilized in this study. PLAXIS is a finite element
240
241
Table 1.
Table 2.
Parameter
Material
model
Soil Unit
weight
Youngs
modulus
Poissons
ratio
Cohesion
Friction
angle
Name
Model
Aggregate
MohrCoulomb
20.0
Original
Silt
MohrCoulomb
19.1
Unit
Proof rolling
performance
kN/m3
Failure
condition
Max.
settlement
50000
5000
kN/m
0.35
0.3
0
45
50(0)
0(27)
Original
silty soil
subgrade
Replacing
aggregate
to the depth
of 75 cm
Geosynthetic
reinforced
subgrade
Yes
Yes
No
7.82 cm
4.48 cm
3.54 cm
kN/m2
is 3.54 cm in the case. The reason for this successful alternative can be attributed to the important role
of the geosynthetic reinforcement playing. The soft
and weak subsoil is dramatically strengthen by the
geosynthetic reinforcement, which is an exciting new
engineered material emerging for the civil engineering
community.
As a final point, we can pull together the predicted
results from finite element analysis for the three examples in Table 2. From Table 2, we can easily know that
the outstanding performance of using the proposed
geosynthetic reinforced subgrade by comparing the
amount of maximum settlement as well as the failure
conditions for the three examples.
5
CONCLUSION
This paper deals with a practical problem we encountered in constructing expressway at the location with
soft and weak silt layers underneath. Even the designers have detected this situation and taken extra consideration in advance, the site construction work can
still be more difficult than expectation. The original
designed drawing maybe become an unsuitable and
dissatisfied one. Extraordinary care needs to be taken
242
REFERENCES
Chao, S. J. 1998. Engineering Properties of the Soil of the Ilan
Area, Final Report for the National Center for Research
on Earthquake Engineering of Taiwan (in Chinese).
Chou, N. N. S., Chao, S. J., Chang, C. S., and Ni, J. 1991.
FEM Analysis of Staged Construction for a Reinforced
Earth Wall. ASCE Geotechnical Congress, Boulder, Colorado, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 27, Vol. II,
pp. 11981209.
Guler, E. and Hamderi, M., 2002. Fem Analysis of Reinforced Segmental Retaining Walls with Cohesive and
Granular Backfills. Geosynthetics 7 ICG Delmas,
Gourc & Girard (eds), pp. 103106.
Haliburton, T. A., Lawmaster, J. D. and McGuffey, V. C. 1981.
Use of Engineering Fabrics in Transportation Related
Applications, FHWA DTFH61-80-C-00094.
Holtz, R. D., Christopher, B. R. and Berg, R. R. 1995.
Geosynthetic Engineering. Geosynthetic in Roadways.
Taiwan Area National Expressway Engineering Bureau 1997.
Basic Design Phase Evaluation Report of Geo-mechanical
Test and Investigation, Toucheng-Suao Section, TaipeiIlan Expressway (in Chinese).
Wu, L. L. 2003. Design and Performance Analysis of Geosynthetic Applications in Railroad Track Mitigation, Ph. D.
Dissertation, National Cheng-Kung University, Taiwan.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The technical assistance and the financial support of
the RESA on this research are gratefully acknowledged.
243
ABSTRACT: The southern region of Jiangsu province along Yangtze River is an economically advanced area
in China. Saturated fine sand, silt and soft soils distribute widely in this region. There is a possibility of soft
settlement or sand liquefaction due to earthquake or intercity passenger train vibration in this region. Considering
the regional character and similarity of depositional environment of soils, this paper analyzes the test results of
378 undisturbed samples on 6 types of recently deposited soils. The mean dynamic shear modulus ratio G/Gmax
and damping ratio D curves are presented along with parameters of G/Gmax curve based on Martin-Davidenkov
model and the empirical formula of D curve recommended by authors. Especially, because of particular structural
characteristics of silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata and sand soils in this region, their dynamic property
distinguishes with that of general sand soils in this study.
INTRODUCTION
distribute widely in this area. Especially, the component of sediments in this region is very complicated,
and the underground water level is close to ground
surface. There is a possibility of soft settlement or
sand liquefaction due to earthquake or intercity passenger train vibration. Even it may cause foundation
failure so that there is a great influence on safety
of engineering structures. In the world, the study on
dynamic characteristic of recently deposited soils is
little. However, the study on dynamic shear modulus
ratio and damping ratio of soils is a fundamental work
for the research of ground earthquake resistant. So,
exploring dynamic shear modulus ratio and damping
ratio of recently deposited soils in the southern region
of Jiangsu province along Yangtze River, the reliable
basic data may be used for the evaluation of seismic
safety for engineering sites and earthquake resistant
analyse of engineering structures.
2
245
T13 T9 T12 C16 C39 C10 C8 T16 C51 C4 C31 C30 C50 C40 C85 T23 T22 T5
10
IV
IV
TS
20
Drilling depth(m)
III
30
40
50
II
60
70
80
90
1
2
8
3
9
4
10
5
11
6
12
7
13
246
Table 1. Location of recently deposited soil samples from southern region of Jiangsu province along
Yangtze River.
Soils
Cities
Mucky
silty clay
Clay
Silty
clay
Silt
Sand
soil
Nanjing
Zhenjiang
Changzhou
Wuxi
Suzhou
14
12
9
9
8
6
8
5
9
54
18
11
14
28
19
7
5
8
17
6
6
4
12
15
13
11
12
25
Amount
378
Table 2. Fitting values of parameters for recently deposited soils in southern region of Jiangsu province
along Yangtze River.
Soils
Clay
Mucky silty clay
Silty clay
Silty clay and fine sand
interbedded strata
Silt
Sand soil
Model parameters
A
0 (104 )
D0 (%)
Dmin (%)
Amount
1.17
1.13
1.08
1.03
0.43
0.44
0.46
0.47
3.1
2.7
3.0
3.0
0.94
1.04
1.09
1.35
17.5
19.1
18.4
21.1
1.83
1.40
1.91
1.35
28
52
125
39
1.01
0.93
0.47
0.50
3.4
4.1
1.10
1.29
18.5
21.5
0.94
1.15
45
89
damping ratio because of the similarity of depositional environment of soils in the southern region of
Jiangsu province along Yangtze River. Based on this
finding, through supplementing the test data of 103
samples in the southern region of Jiangsu province
alongYangtze River, this paper analyzes the test results
of 378 undisturbed samples once again and provides
the recommended values of mean curves on dynamic
shear modulus ratio, G/Gmax , and damping ratio, D,
versus shear strain amplitude of the 6 types of
recently deposited soils. The quantities of homogeneous soil samples are larger so that test results in this
paper are more representative, regional and applied
value for engineering practice. Those results have been
applied in the evaluation of seismic safety for sites
of across-river bridges, subways, tunnels and electric establishments in the southern region of Jiangsu
province along Yangtze River.
3 THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA OF DYNAMIC
SHEAR MODULUS RATIO AND DAMPING
RATIO ON RECENTLY DEPOSITED SOILS
The relationship of dynamic shear modulus ratio versus the amplitude of shear strain is expressed using
Martin-Davidenkov model:
G/Gmax = 1 H ( )
"
#A
( /0 )2B
H ( ) =
1 + ( /0 )2B
(1)
(2)
247
(3)
Table 3. Recommended values and standard deviation of G/Gmax and D versus curves on recently deposited soils for
southern region of Jiangsu Province along Yangtze River.
Shear strain amplitude (104 )
Soils
Parameter
0.05
0.1
0.5
10
50
100
G/Gmax
D (%)
(%)
G/Gmax
D (%)
(%)
G/Gmax
D (%)
(%)
G/Gmax
D (%)
(%)
G/Gmax
D (%)
(%)
G/Gmax
D (%)
(%)
0.9817
0.0080
1.71
0.47
0.9848
0.0022
2.17
0.34
0.9833
0.0065
2.13
0.51
0.9814
0.0078
1.25
0.50
0.9821
0.0075
1.12
0.37
0.9836
0.0079
1.25
0.50
0.9645
0.0138
2.00
0.54
0.9702
0.0039
2.47
0.45
0.9675
0.0108
2.35
0.60
0.9644
0.0129
1.39
0.65
0.9661
0.0124
1.35
0.52
0.9691
0.0123
1.40
0.58
0.8160
0.0403
4.07
1.12
0.8722
0.0122
4.35
0.94
0.8606
0.0300
4.05
1.10
0.8519
0.0338
2.75
1.26
0.8661
0.0352
3.01
1.17
0.8730
0.0300
2.65
1.04
0.7489
0.0549
6.02
1.45
0.7799
0.0179
6.06
1.19
0.7599
0.0405
5.80
1.36
0.7478
0.0444
4.42
1.54
0.7630
0.0489
4.70
1.49
0.7802
0.0394
4.20
1.36
0.4042
0.0613
12.75
1.52
0.4485
0.0262
11.86
1.43
0.4081
0.0483
12.35
1.54
0.3911
0.0487
11.90
1.65
0.4135
0.0630
11.20
1.69
0.4270
11.64
0.2667
15.45
0.3053
14.29
0.2653
15.10
0.2502
15.40
0.2685
14.00
0.2735
15.39
0.0801
19.25
0.0974
17.76
0.0753
18.85
0.0682
20.25
0.0747
17.89
0.0707
20.70
0.0451
19.94
0.0559
18.45
0.0412
19.55
0.0368
21.10
0.0404
18.60
0.0367
21.65
Clay
Silty clay
Sand soil
: Standard deviation
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.2
0
1.00E-06
0.1
0.2
0.0
1.00E-05
1.00E-04
1.00E-03
1.00E-02
1.00E-01
248
0.8
G/G max
However, other model parameters have little regularity. For the applied purpose of engineering, the mean
values and standard deviation of the G/Gmax and D
versus on six types of recently deposited soils in
the southern region of Jiangsu province along Yangtze
River are listed in Table 3.
In the southern region of Jiangsu province along
Yangtze River, the silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata soil is a structural soil, and the sand soil is
composed of flaky particle, which differs from general quartz sand. So, the mean G/Gmax and D versus
curves of silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata
soil are compared with that of silty clay in Figure 2.
Figure 2 indicates that the fitting results on G/Gmax
and D versus curves are quite perfection under small
strain range. The mean G/Gmax versus curve of silty
clay and fine sand interbedded strata soil is close to
that of silty clay. But the mean values for D versus
curve of silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata soil
are lower than those of silty clay at 8 104 , and
higher than those of silty clay at >8104 . Similarly,
for the comparison purposes, the mean G/Gmax and D
versus curves of silty clay and fine sand interbedded
strata soil, sand soil and those of sands proposed by
Seed and Idriss (1970) are shown in Figure 3. The
mean G/Gmax versus curves of two soils mentioned
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
1.00E-06
1.00E-05
1.00E-04
1.00E-03
1.00E-02
0.8
G/Gmax
G/Gmax
0.8
0.5
0.0
1.00E-01
0.6
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
1.00E-06
1.00E-05
1.00E-04
1.00E-03
(b) Damping
1.00E-02
0.0
1.00E-0
Figure 3. Comparison of the mean curves of dynamic shear modulus ratio G/Gmax and Damping D versus shear strain
amplitude on silty clay and fine sand interbedded strata with those of sand soils in the southern region of Jiangsu Province
along Yangtze River, China.
Test Data
Mean Curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds
G/Gmax
0.8
0.4
0.3
0.6
D
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
1.00E-061
0.0
1.00E-05
1.00E-04
1.00E-03
1.00E-02
0.5
0.5
G/Gmax
Test Data
Mean Curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
1.00E-06
1.00E-0
0.0
1.00E-05
1.00E-04
0.8
0.4
0.8
0.6
0.3
G/Gmax
Test Data
Mean Curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds
D
0.2
0.4
G/Gmax
0.5
0.1
0.2
1.00E-03
1.00E-02
0.4
0.2
0.1
0
1.00E-06
1.00E-0
0.0
1.00E-05
1.00E-04
0.5
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.3
D
0.2
0.4
G/Gmax
G/Gmax
1.00E-02
1.00E-01
Test Data
Mean Curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds
0.1
0.2
1.00E-03
1.00E-02
Test Data
Mean curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.2
0
1.00E-06
1.00E-01
0.5
0.8
0.1
0.2
0.0
1.00E-04
1.00E-03
1.00E-05
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.0
1.00E-04
0.5
Test Data
Mean Curve
One Standard Deviation Bounds
0.6
0
1.00E-06
1.00E-01
1.00E-05
1.00E-02
(a) Clay
0
1.00E-061
1.00E-03
0.0
1.00E-05
1.00E-04
1.00E-03
1.00E-02
1.00E-01
(e) Silt
Figure 4. Mean curves and one standard deviation bounds of shear modulus ratio and Damping versus shear strain amplitude
on recently deposited soils in the southern region of Jiangsu Province along Yangtze River, China.
249
CONCLUSION
Chen Guo-xing, Xie Junfei, Zhang Ke-xu. 1995. The empirical of soil modulus and damping ratio for dynamic analysis. Earthquake engineering and engineering vibration.
Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 7384.
Chen Guo-xing, Liu Xue-zhu, Zhu Ding-hua, et al. 2006. The
experimental study on dynamic shear modulus ratio and
damping ratio of recently deposited soils in Nanjing city.
Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 28,
No. 8 (In press)
Chen Guo-xing, Zhu Ding-hua, He Qi-zhi. 2003. Development and property test of GZZ-1 free vibration column
test system. Earthquake engineering and the engineering
vibration, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 110114
Guoxing Chen, Jihua Chen, Xuezhu Liu, et al. 2005. Experimental study on dynamic shear modulus ratio and damping ratio of recently deposited soils in the lower reaches
of the Yangtze river. Journal of Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation Engineering. Vol. 25, No. 1 pp. 4957
Hardin B.O., Drnevich V.P. 1972. Shear modulus and damping in soils design equations and curves. Journal of Soil
Mechanics and Foundation. ASCE, Vol. 98, No. SM7,
pp. 603642.
Liu Xue-zhu, Chen Guo-xing, Zhu Ding-hua, et al. 2006.
Dynamic shear modulus ratio and damping ratio of
recently deposited soils in southern area of Jiangsu
province: experimental study. Journal of natural disasters,
Vol.15, No. 3, pp. 116122
Martin P.P., Seed H.B. 1982. One dimensional dynamic
ground response analysis. Journal of geotechnical engineering. ASCE, Vol. 108, No. GT7, pp. 935954.
Wang Gui-you, Pu Wei-bin, Chen Yang. 2002. Seismic
active character before the four mid-strong earthquakes
in the earthquake zone of the south of Changjinag middownstream reach and south Yellow Sea. Seismological
and Geomagnetic Observation and Research, Vol. 23,
No. 3, pp. 3945
Yuan Ren-mao, Sun Hong-wei, Ma Feng-shan, et al. 2005.
Physicochemical and geotechnical characteristic of the
recently deposited soil in Beijing plain region. Quaternary
investigation, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 9399
Yuan Xiao-ming, Sun Rui, Sun Jing, et al. 2000. Laboratory experimental study on dynamic shear modulus ratio
and damping ratio of soil. Earthquake engineering and
engineering vibration, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 133139.
Zhu Long-gen, Xu Cun-sen. 1993. Resonant column device
and its engineering application.Dam observation and
geotechnic testing, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 3237.
REFERENCES
Chen Guo-xing, Liu Xue-zhu. 2004. Testing study on ratio of
dynamic shear modulus and ratio of damping for recently
deposited soils in Nanjing and its neighboring areas. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 23,
No. 8, pp. 14031410.
250
ABSTRACT: A field test site was constructed to evaluate the performance of vertical drains for soft ground
improvement. The test site was heavily instrumented, and good performance data were obtained. Various vertical
drains such as paper drains, pack drains and menard drains were installed with different type and spacing at this
test site. Settlement and lateral displacement in clay foundation treated with paper drains, pack drains and menard
drains during and after embankment construction have been analysed. The relationship between settlement and
lateral displacement of the soft ground at the test site was investigated. It presents an analysis of the settlement
and lateral displacement data recorded, with conclusions regarding the practical effectiveness of the vertical
paper drains, pack drains and menard drains installed. The vertical settlement and lateral displacements were
evaluated using the field test data from instrumentation of settlement plates, extensometers and inclinometers.
The correlation between settlement and lateral displacement was obtained. The improvement of soft ground
treated by vertical drain under embankment on soft clay foundation was investigated.
INTRODUCTION
This study is concerned with the soft ground improvement by paper, pack and menard drains at full-scale
trial field test site at Yangsan area in Korea. The location of trial field test site is shown in Figure 1. A
comprehensive array of 3 embankment was built in the
same field test site with 3 different ground improvement techniques to assess the relative efficiency of
various vertical drain schemes. A typical plan view
of test site is shown in Figure 2. The test site is divided
into 3 sections such as paper drain section, pack drain
section, and menard drain section. This study provides
a means of evaluating the effectiveness of vertical
1.4m*1.4m
men - 2
1.6m*1.6m
men - 3
1.0m*1.0m
1.6m*1.6m
men - 1
pac - 2
pac - 1
1.2m*1.2m
2.0m*2.0m
1.2m*1.2m
Menard Drains
D
0.8m*0.8m
pac - 3
men - 4
pac - 4
Pack Drains
C
1.0m*1.0m 1.0m*1.0m
1.0m*1.0m
1.0m*1.0m
pap - 4
pap - 3
pap - 2
pap - 1
1.5m*1.5m
1.5m*1.5m
1.5m*1.5m
1.5m*1.5m
pap - 5
pap - 6
pap - 7
pap - 8
Paper Drains
drains in improving soft ground subjected to embankment loading. The depth of soft ground is 30 m, and
the depth of vertical drains installed in soft ground is
25 m. The vertical drains were not installed from 25 m
below the ground level to the bottom of the soft clay
layer. Thus, the depth of upper 5 m at the bottom of the
soft clay layer was untreated by vertical drains. The
embankment fill consisted of a granitic residual soil
compacted to a unit weight of 17 kN/m3 . The drain
parameters relevant for the measurement and analysis
are summarised as follows; drain pattern: rectangular, drain length: 25 m, drain spacing: paper
drains(1.0 m, 1.5 m), pack drains(0.8 m, 1.2 m, 1.4 m,
1.6 m), menard drains(1.0 m, 1.2 m, 1.4 m, 1.6 m).
251
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
3.9
20
10
Ym
*
9
1
.
=0
Ym = 0.02*+ 17.06
0
0
50
400
0.4
5
30
Y
m=
0.2 *
4
20
10
0
0
50
400
30
.55
3
*
8
0.1
20
Ym
10
Ym = 0.01*+ 25.39
0
0
50
252
Table 1.
Drains Method
During
Consolidation
Paper Drains
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Ave.
m = 0.19S 3.96
m = 0.19S 3.93
m = 0.24S 2.85
m = 0.2S 2.08
m = 0.2S 1.67
m = 0.21S 0.18
m = 0.1S + 0.49
m = 0.13S 2.18
m = 0.14S 3.45
m = 0.14S 2.68
m = 0.28S 5.42
m = 0.29S 4.31
m = 0.27S 6.78
m = 0.28S 6.15
m = 0.22S 3.5
m = 0.19S 3.18
m = 0.20S 3.24
m = 0.02S + 17.06
m = 0.02S + 17.02
m = 0.09S + 21.1
m = 0.03S + 20.77
m = 0.03S + 21.26
m = 0.04S + 21.02
m = 0.01S + 10.73
m = 0.02S + 10.78
m = 0.06S + 5.7
m = 0.05S + 6.21
m = 0.04S + 22.26
m = 0.04S + 22.5
m = 0.05S + 17.88
m = 0.05S + 18.25
m = 0.01S + 19.8
m = 0.01S + 19.57
m = 0.04S + 17.01
Pack Drains
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ave.
m = 0.19S 6.1
m = 0.17S 2.78
m = 0.19S 1.48
m = 0.18S 3.55
m = 0.22S + 1.03
m = 0.18S 0.18
m = 0.19S 3.4
m = 0.32S 0.16
m = 0.19S 2.08
m = 0.01S + 18.02
m = 0.01S + 18.14
m = 0.01S + 25.48
m = 0.01S + 25.39
m = 0.01S + 21.70
m = 0.01S + 21.49
m = 0.01S + 21.98
m = 0.01S + 22.35
m = 0.01S + 21.82
Menard Drains
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Ave.
m = 0.03S + 2.09
m = 0.03S + 2.09
m = 0.36S 3.07
m = 0.24S 0.45
m = 0.66S 1.02
m = 0.65S 7.62
m = 0.3S 2.04
m = 0.34S 0.69
m = 0.33S 1.17
m = 0.08S 3.36
m = 0.08S 3.36
m = 0.01S + 27.46
m = 0.01S + 26.98
m = 0.03S + 43.65
m = 0.03S + 43.3
m = 0.01S + 27.35
m = 0.01S + 27.45
m = 0.03S + 23.68
Total Ave.
253
0.8
0.4
Original
ground
After drain
installation
0.6
After 1st
embankment
Su(=cu)/ v'
0.6
Su(=qu/2)/v'
0.8
Original
ground
After drain
installation
After 1st
embankment
After 2nd
embankment
After 2nd
embankment
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
10
20
30
40
50
(a) Su = qu/2
(b) Su = cu
0.8
After drain
installation
0.6
After 1st
embankment
After 2nd
embankment
0.4
After drain
installation
0.6
Su(=cu)/v'
Su(=qu/2)/v'
Original
ground
Original
ground
After 1st
embankment
After 2nd
embankment
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
25
50
75
100
25
50
75
100
0.8
Original
ground
After drain
installation
After 1st
embankment
After 2nd
embankment
0.4
0.6
Su(=cu, kg/cm2)
Su(=qu/2, kg/cm )
0.6
Original
ground
After drain
installation
After 1st
embankment
After 2nd
embankment
0.2
0.4
0.2
0
0
v' (kg/cm )
(a) Su = qu/2
254
2
v' (kg/cm2)
(b) Su = cu
Table 2.
Item
Construction sequence
Su = cu
Su = qu /2
Su /v = + PI
Initial condition
After drain Installation
After 1st Embankment
After 2nd Embankment
Average
Initial condition
After drain Installation
After 1st Embankment
After 2nd Embankment
Average
Initial condition
After drain Installation
After 1st Embankment
After 2nd Embankment
Average
0.13 + 0.0052PI
0.03+0.0087PI
0.198 + 0.001PI
0.2 0.001PI
0.188 + 0.003PI
0.19
0.22
0.33
0.25
0.26
0.01 wn
0.01 wn
0.007 wn
0.009 wn
0.005 wn
0.13 + 0.0052PI
0.15 + 0.015PI
0.12 + 0.001PI
0.19 0.0001PI
0.257 0.0009PI
0.19
0.16
0.24
0.27
0.25
0.01 wn
0.009 wn
0.007 wn
0.008 wn
0.0049
Su /c = C
Su /v = wn
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
255
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of a finite difference analysis on a special geosynthetic reinforced soil segmental retaining wall under surcharge loading referred to as a segmental bridge abutment,
both during static serviceability and also subjected to seismic loading with special emphasis on the magnitude of soft bed-soil cohesion. FLAC2D with the FISH programming option of it is used for implementing
the desired model for the numerical analysis. An elastic nonlinear model is used up to the failure (peak), after
which a Mohr-Coulomb softening model is used for plastic behaviour for both static and seismic conditions.
The Duncan Hyperbolic model is used for the nonlinear elastic part under static condition, while the Masing
nonlinear hysteretic loading-unloading rule is used for the nonlinear elastic part under seismic condition. The
reinforced geogrids are modelled by elasto-perfectly plastic cable elements. The slip limit of geogrid reinforcements are determined by some factors such as the confining stresses, perimeter, and friction angle around the
geogrid.
After the numerical modelling verification, effect of the magnitude of soft bed-soil cohesion under both static
and seismic conditions is studied on: 1) facing deformation, 2) displacement and rotation of bridge footing,
and 3) the geogrids load distributions. The results show that there exists a critical value for cohesion of the soft
bed-soil. Segmental bridge abutments can not be stable when the bed-soil cohesion is less than the critical value.
This value is not unique, however, and depends on, for example, loading condition (static or seismic). Finally, a
solution is proposed for when the cohesion of the soft bed-soil is less than the critical value.
INTRODUCTION
257
NUMERICAL MODELLING
(1)
2
max
1 + Gmax
| |
2
Gmax
|
|
1 + 2
r
max
258
(2)
(3)
B= 60 m
Interfaceelement
Reinforcement
200 kN/m
7
8
6
H= 8 m
5
5
H= 6 m
Abutment Face
25 m
3
10 m
Bed-soil
Interface elements
Lo=7.2 m=0.9 H
Interface Elements
1: Face/Soil
5: Bridge Footing/Soil
2: Block/Block
3: Face/Bed-Soil
6: Abutment Wall/Bridge Footing 7: Polystyrene/Soil
4: Reinforced Soil/Bed-Soil
8: Abutment Wall/Polystyrene
Figure 3. Numerical grid, interface elements, and boundary conditions for static analysis of segmental bridge abutment.
B=60 m
Interface element
200 kN/m
Reinforcement
Non-yielding region
H= 6 m
H= 8 m
Non-yielding region
Abutment Face
25 m
10 m
Bed-soil
Interface elements
Lo=7.2 m=0.9 H
Interface Elements
1: Face/Soil
5: Bridge Footing/Soil
2:Block/Block
3: Face/ Bed-Soil
6:Abutment Wall/Bridge Footing 7: Polystyrene/Soil
4: Reinforced Soil/Bed-Soil
8: Abutment Wall/Polystyrene
Figure 4. Numerical grid, interface elements, and boundary conditions for the seismic analysis of segmental bridge abutment.
259
Figure 5. Non-linear hysteretic stress-strain model of Granular soil (Cai and Bathurst, 1995).
(5)
Reinforcement modelling
The reinforcing elements are modeled by elastoperfectly plastic cable elements with no compressive
strength, available in FLAC. The injection layer option
around cable elements was used as the interface to
simulate the frictional behavior of soil-geogrid. The
thickness of this layer was assumed zero and friction angle and cohesion were considered 0.75 and
zero, respectively. Considering the assigned perimeter
around the cable element (in our case equivalent to
2 m which is the unit thickness of the wall in plane
strain condition and doubled for above and below
the geogrid effect) and the confining stress (determined by program), the slip limit or failure criterion
is established.
Bathurst and Cai (1994) studies on two geogrids
(PET & HDPE) showed that the geogrid modulus
does not vary with loading rate for practical purposes.
Therefore, an elasto-perfectly plastic assumption in
seismic loading has sufficient accuracy for geogrids.
2.4
260
Structural components
2.5
15
10
5
0
1
3
4
Stage #
Figure 7. Measured and predicted outward disp. of abutment face in elevation of No. 10 geogrid (Fig. 2) against the
construction stages (Fakharian and Attar, 2006).
1
measured
predicted
Static
0.1g
0.2g
0.3g
0.4g
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.5
1.5
Load (kN/m)
261
Measured
Predicted
20
Elevation (m)
25
analysis, and in Fig. 4 for seismic analysis. The backfill width, B, is extended equivalent to 60 m behind the
face wall segments to minimize the effect of cut-off
boundary on the response. Bathurst & Hatami (1998)
conducted a parametric study and realized that by
extending the backfill width more than five times of
the wall height, the effect of boundary will be negligible. Free-field boundary condition is applied to the left
and right vertical edges close to which a non-yielding
zone is used for soil. A 10-m deep soil layer is placed
in one stage as bed-soil; the stage construction is used
in the model for placing each soil layer, block segment, and geogrid. Interface elements are placed at
the joints between bed-soil and reinforced soil mass
and bottom of block segments, enabling the sliding of
the reinforced soil as well as the base of the front face.
After establishing static stability and resetting of
deformations in all components, the nodes at the base
are subjected to a horizontal variable-amplitude harmonic ground motion re-cord illustrated in Fig. 4
(inset). This is a simplification of real earthquake
records.
Bathurst & Hatami (1998) used this record for
parametric seismic analysis of reinforced walls with
geogrid, and is expressed as:
..
u (t) =
k t
e t sin (2ft)
2
(6)
where: = 5.5, = 55, = 12 are constant coefficient; f = frequency; and t = time; k = Peak amplitude
of the input acceleration assumed as 0.5 g, and the frequency, f = 3 Hz, was selected to represent a typical
predominant frequency of medium- to high-frequency
content earthquakes (inset of Fig. 4). t is time and
varies between 0 and 6 seconds. Equation 1 was implemented in model using the FISH programming of
FLAC and was input as points at time intervals of less
than 0.0008 sec.
3 ANALYSIS RESULTS
3.1
The results show that it is possible to construct reinforced bridge abutments on medium soft soils of 30 to
40 kPa and higher, even under the seismic excitations
studied here. The question is what solutions exist for
seismically active zones with very soft to soft soils.
Two alternatives are presently under study by the
authors. One is the ground improvement techniques
such as soil removal and replacement, soil mixing, soil
262
PRELIMINARY RECOMMENDATION
9
Facing self-weight
measured (hinged)
predicted (hinged)
measured (sliding)
predicted (sliding)
measured (hinged)
predicted (hinged)
Load (kN/m)
7
6
5
vertical
horizontal
4
3
2
1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
6
Load
5
H
Bed-soil
Elevation (m)
4
Reinforcement
0.28
0.18
0.08
Normalized horizontal displacement, x/h
0
-0.02
Figure 10. Profile of abutment facing at end of seismic excitation for different bed-soil Cohesions.
263
MaximumNormalized Horizontal
Displacement of the Front Face, x/h
0.400
Static
0.300
Seismic
0.200
0.100
0.000
10
20
30
40
50
60
Bed-Soil (Cohesion)kN/m2
Figure 11. Effect of bed-soil cohesion on horizontal displacement of abutment facing under static and seismic conditions.
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
0
Bridge Footing
Load
y
0.05
h
x
Abutment Face
0.1
x=1.4m
Cohesion = 20 (kN/m^2)
30
40
50
60
0.15
x=5.2m
0.2
Distance from the abutment face, x (m)
Figure 12. Profile of abutment footing at end of seismic excitation for various bed-soil Cohesions.
0.2
Dynamic
0.15
Static
0.1
0.05
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 13. Effect of bed-soil cohesion on vertical displacement of bridge footing under static and seismic conditions.
264
0.20
Seismic
0.15
Static
0.10
0.05
0.00
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure 14. Effect of bed-soil cohesion on reinforcement load under static and seismic conditions.
Figure 15. Seismic behavior of the reinforced soil bridge abutment on soft-soil: a) original bed-soil, b) improved bed-soil.
reinforced system was the Founders/Meadows segmental bridge abutment under static loads, and the
second was the shaking table 1/6 scale physical model
of a reinforced soil wall.
FLAC2D with the FISH programming option of
it is used for implementing the desired model for
the numerical analysis. An elastic nonlinear model
is used up to the failure (peak), after which a MohrCoulomb softening model is used for plastic behaviour
for both static and seismic conditions. The Duncan
Hyperbolic model is used for the nonlinear elastic
part under static condition, while the Masing nonlinear hysteretic loading-unloading rule is used for the
nonlinear elastic part under seismic condition. The
reinforced geogrids are modelled by elasto-perfectly
plastic cable elements. The slip limit of geogrid reinforcements are determined by some factors such as
the confining stresses, perimeter, and friction angle
around the geogrid.
The main objective of the paper was to study the
effect of bed-soil cohesion variation and critical value
of it on deformation characteristics and reinforcement
loads of the system in static and seismic conditions.
The soft bed-soil cohesion was varied between 20 kPa
to 60 kPa. A variable-amplitude harmonic motion
(shown in the inset of Fig. 4), with a frequency close
to the fundamental frequency of the reference structure was applied to the bottom nodes of the model
mesh.
The main conclusions obtained from the results of
this numerical study are as follows:
There Exist a critical value for cohesion of the soft
bed-soil of reinforced bridge abutments.
The system can not be stable when the bed-soil
cohesion is less than the critical value.
This critical value is not unique in static and seismic conditions. It also changes with variations of
seismic excitation.
The main issue when the bed-soil cohesion is less
than the critical value is lack of external stability,
such as the general rotation of the system.
REFERENCES
Abu-Hejleh, N., Outcalt, S., Wang, T. and Zornberg, J., 2000.
Performance of Geosynthetic-Reinforced Walls Supporting the Foun-ders/Meadows Bridge and Approaching Road-way Structures, Report 1: Design, Materials,
Construction, Instrumentation, and Preliminary Results,
Report No. CDOT-DTD-R-2000-5, Colorado Department
of Transportation.
265
266
ABSTRACT: Soft soil deposits, organic and inorganic in nature, are found in several locations in Malaysia.
Many coastal regions of Malaysia are covered with marine clays. The State of Sarawak in Malaysia has a massive
peat land area that covers 1.7 million hectares or approximately 13 percent of the total land area of the State. The
Sarawak State government plans to develop peat land in the coastal areas for enhanced economic development that
could be initiated with road construction over peat land. However, there is a need to improve the understanding
of the geotechnical behavior of the marine and organic soils of the region. The paper first presents a general
review of the soft soil deposits of Malaysia and then describes the results of the first phase of a study, which
investigates the geotechnical behavior of selected marine and organic soils of North Sarawak.
INTRODUCTION
267
One of the problems faced in the mapping, classification and estimation of the extent of organic soils in
Malaysia is the different definitions used for organic
soils in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak
(Paramananthan and Meling 1999).
Organic soils are found in abundance in the State of
Perak. Mahmood et al (2000) reported that the organic
content of the soil in the area of Teluk Intan in the
State of Perak was 11.4%.The average specific gravity,
liquid limit and plastic limit were 2.54, 83.5% and
48.1%, respectively.
According to Melling et al (1999), there are about
2.7 million ha of peat in Malaysia and Sarawak has the
largest area of peat in the country covering about 1.66
million ha, which constitutes 13% area of the State.
The peat in its natural state is waterlogged and very
acidic.
In the neighbouring country of Brunei Darussalam,
peat swamps cover 90,884 ha, 15.6% of the total land
area. In Belait district they form a contiguous block
with the peat swamps of the Baram Basin in Sarawak.
These peat swamps are recent, having developed only
over the 5-6,000 years (Davies 1999). In north Sumatra, peat has been found at highlands also. Nasution
and Mansor (1999) report that approximately 2000 ha
of peat was found on the southern part of Toba Plateau
at an altitude of 1,114 m above sea level. Peats retain
considerable amount of water. At some sites, the drying and drainage of peat created subsidence of as much
as 4 to 6 m within a period of four years.
Because of the increasing developmental activities
on organic and peat soils, researchers in Malaysia are
paying more attention to geotechnical studies on these
types of soils. Al Raziqi et al (2003a, 2003b, 2003c),
Table 1.
1997).
Soil type
w
%
wL
%
wP
%
Clay
%
Silt
%
cv
m2 /yr
Mining slime
Marine clay
60
100
60
100
30
40
40
50
45
45
4
1
268
269
GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON
SELECTED SOFT SOILS OF NORTH
SARAWAK
Table 2.
Designation
Soil location
CR1
CR2
KB1
KB2
SS1
SS2
BK
Experimental program
270
Table 3.
Soil
BK CR1
CR2
KB1
Table 5.
KB2
SS1
SS2
Table 4.
Soil
BK
CR1
CR2
KB1
KB2
SS1
SS2
wl %
wp %
PI
39
22
17
64
50
14
54
38
16
153
83
70
71
62
9
190
116
74
186
Soil
BK
CR1
CR2
KB1
KB2
SS1
SS2
2.66
2.30
2.51
1.43
1.90
0.99
1.02
(1)
3.0
Other correlations proposed by Huat (2004), Skempton and Petley (1970) and Den Haan (1997) can be
written as in Eqs 2, 3 and 4, respectively.
2.5
G = 1.2 N + 2.7
(2)
G = 1/(0.358 N + 0.357)
(3)
G = 1/(0.362 N + 0.371)
(4)
2.0
G
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
10
20
30
40
N%
50
60
70
80
5.2
Specific gravity
271
12
11.40
BK
KB1
CR1
KB2
CR2
CR1
11.30
10
11.20
Dial 11.10
gage
mm 11.00
10.90
8
Su
KN/m2
6
10.80
10.70
0.1
4
2
10
100
Time, min
1000
10000
0
0
20
40
60
17.90
KB1
17.80
17.70
Dial
gage 17.60
mm
17.50
BK
7.10
7.00
Dial
6.90
gage
6.80
reading,
6.70
mm
6.60
17.40
17.30
0.1
10
100
Time,min
1000
10000
6.50
6.40
0.1
10
100
Time, min
1000
10000
respectively. The final moisture contents of these specimens at the end of loading and unloading were 21.2%,
35.1% and 84.9%, respectively. The change in water
content increases as the organic content increases.
However, due to the definition of water content it does
not manifest as significant increase in specimen compression also. The changes in the thickness of the BK,
CR1, and KB1 specimens at the end of loading and
unloading were 4.7, 4.76 and 5.08 mm, respectively.
Typical consolidation responses of the specimens at
the vertical pressure of 392.4 kN/m2 for soils BK, CR1,
and KB1 are shown in Figs 3, 4 and 5, respectively. The
effect of organic content on the consolidation behavior
is brought out in these figures. The curve in Fig. 3 for
the inorganic Bekenu clay shows the typical response
of predominantly primary consolidation followed by
insignificant secondary consolidation. The curve in
Fig. 4 for the slightly organic clay CR1 shows some primary consolidation followed by significant secondary
consolidation and at the end tertiary consolidation.The
curve in Fig 5 for the peaty soil KB1 shows insignificant primary consolidation, but significant secondary
and tertiary consolidation.
Pressure kN/m2
BK
CR1
CR2
KB1
KB2
49.05
98.10
196.20
392.40
784.80
Average C /Cc
0.021
0.011
0.015
0.012
0.013
0.051
0.048
0.043
0.041
0.054
0.043
0.037
0.039
0.047
0.037
0.077
0.036
0.058
0.055
0.104
0.038
0.042
0.043
0.044
0.014
0.050
0.040
0.058
0.054
272
CONCLUSIONS
273
274
ABSTRACT: Lightweight soil is a cement-treated soil and consists of dredged clayey soil, cement and lightening material. This paper investigates strength characteristics and stress-strain behaviors of reinforced lightweight
soils (RLS) and unreinforced lightweight soils. RLS composed of soft soil, cement and air-foam was reinforced
by waste fishing net in order to increase its compressive strength. Test specimens were fabricated by various
mixing conditions such as cement content, initial water content, air content and content of waste fishing net; and
then several series of unconfined compression tests were carried out. The experimental results of lightweight
soils indicated that unconfined compressive strength increased with increase in cement content, but decreased
with increases in water content and air foam content. Water content of RLS was rapidly decreased up to 7 days of
curing time and converged to constant value. The stress-strain relation and the unconfined compressive strength
were strongly influenced by content of waste fishing net. It was also found that compressive strength of RLS
generally increased by adding waste fishing net, but amount of increase in compressive strength was not proportional to content of waste fishing net. In this test, maximum increase in compressive strength was obtained
at 0.25% content of waste fishing net.
INTRODUCTION
20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
0
1990
1992
1994
1996
Year
1998
2000
2002
net was developed. In this paper, the mechanical characteristics of RLS were investigated using laboratory
tests. RLS was made of dredged soil taken from construction site of Busan New Port, cement, air foam and
waste fishing net. Laboratory tests were performed
to compare behavior characteristics between RLS and
unreinforced lightweight soil, so that the reinforced
effect by waste fishing net on RLS was evaluated.
2
275
25,000,000
Total
Waste
Styro-foam
Fishing Net
Shell
Etc.
1998
343,830
(100)
107,726
(100)
87,340
(100)
36,427
(10.6)
24,153
(22.4)
31,591
(36.2)
1,712
(0.5)
44,124
(41.0)
5,027
(5.8)
19,160
(5.6)
21,650
(20.1)
21,761
(24.9)
254,783
(74.1)
3,286
(3.1)
11,476
(13.1)
31,763
(9.2)
14,513
(13.4)
17,486
(20.0)
1999
2000
AIR
Dredged
Soil
AIR
AIR
Cement
(a) Unreinforced
Waste
fishing net
AIR
Dredged
Soil
AIR
AIR
Cement
(b) Reinforced
Figure 2. The conceptual diagram of unreinforced and
reinforced lightweight soils.
dredged soil, it is necessary to add a chemical ingredient such as cement to increase its shear strength. However chemically treated soil is usually more expensive
than natural soils taken from mountainous area due to
cost of treatments.
Lightweight soil is a cement-treated soil and consists of dredged clayey soil, cementing material
and lightening material, as shown in Figure 2(a).
Lightweight soil is characterized as a material with
276
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Table 2.
Initial
water
content
(%)
Liquid
limit
(%)
Plastic
limit
(%)
125
39.2
18.5
Table 3.
Specific
gravity
Percent
passing
No. 200
sieve (%)
USCS
2.60
81.2
CL
Type
Mixing condition
20
156
2
0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1
7, 14, 28
Protein type of foaming agent was also used as a lightening material, which was expanded twenty times in
volume like shaving cream.
As shown in Table 3, several kinds of specimen
with diameter of 72 mm and height of 148 mm were
prepared. All specimens had cement content of 20%,
water content of 156%, and air foam content of 2%.
To evaluate the reinforced effect of waste fishing net
on the strength of lightweight soil, it was randomly
included into the soil at five different percentages of
contents of waste fishing net, i.e. 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and
1% by weight of raw soil.
Several series of unconfined compression test were
performed at curing time of 7, 14 and 28 days. Unconfined compression test on the specimen was conducted
in a strain rate of about 1%/min (Figure 3). Standard
consolidation test was also performed to investigate
consolidation characteristics of underwater curingand air curing-specimen of lightweight soil.
4
4.1
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Stress-strain behaviors
Stress-strain behaviors of lightweight soils with various mixing conditions such as cement content, initial water content and air content were illustrated in
Figure 4. Compressive stresses of lightweight soil
increased with increase in axial strain. Maximum compressive strengths of cement mixed lightweight soil
occurred at the range of axial strain from 2 to 4%. After
reaching to failure condition, unconfined compressive
stress decreased and stress-softening took place.
As shown in Figure 4, unconfined compressive
strength of lightweight soils increased with increase in
cement content, but decreased with increases in water
content and air foam content.
277
(1)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
Ci8%
Ci12%
Ci16%
Ci20%
20
10
0
4
6
Axial strain (%)
(a) Cement content
10
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Net 0.25%
Without net
4
6
Axial strain (%)
(a) Curing time of 7 days
50
10
45
40
35
30
25
20
Wi125%
Wi156%
Wi218%
Wi250%
15
10
5
0
4
6
Axial strain (%)
(b) Water content
10
100
90
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
Net 0.25%
Without net
20
0
6
8
4
Axial strain (%)
(b) Curing time of 28 days
10
80
70
60
50
40
Ai 1%
Ai 2%
Ai 3%
Ai 4%
Ai 5%
30
20
10
0
4
6
Axial strain (%)
(c) Air form content
100
10
Without Net
Net 0.25%
Net 0.5%
Net 0.75%
Net 1%
10
15
20
Age (Day)
25
30
278
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
6
5.5
Void ratio
qu28 (kPa)
160
150 q = 1.775 q - 20.603
u28
u7
140
R2 = 0.9911
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
50
60
70
80
90
qu7(kPa)
100
110
Underwater curing
Underwater curing
Air curing
Air curing
Air curing
1
10
180
100
1000
Effective stress (kPa)
stress-void
ratio
10000
curve
of
7.E+03
160
6.E+03
140
E50=80qu
5.E+03
120
E50 (kPa)
4.5
3.5
100
80
60
E50=58qu
4.E+03
3.E+03
2.E+03
40
Tc-7day
Tc-14day
Tc-28day
20
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Net (%)
0.8
Tsuchida
E50 = 40~240qu
1.E+03
0.E+00
1.2
Tc-7day
Tc-14day
Tc-28day
10
20 30
40 50
60 70
80
Unconfined compressive stress (kPa)
(a) Unreinforced
90
180
1.E+04
140
1.E+04
120
8.E+03
E50 (kPa)
160
100
80
Without net
Net 0.25%
Net 0.5%
Net 0.75%
Net 1%
60
40
20
0
10
15
20
Curing time (days)
25
E50=85qu
E50=53qu
6.E+03
Tsuchida et al.(2004)
E50 = (40~240)qu
4.E+03
2.E+03
0.E+00
30
Tc-7day
Tc-14day
Tc-28day
50
100
150
200
Unconfined compressive stress (kPa)
(b) Reinforced
279
4.4
Deformation modulus
(2a)
(2b)
(2c)
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was partially supported by grant MNF22004002-3-1-SB010 from the Research Program of the
Korea Maritime Institute Research and Development.
REFERENCES
Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries 2001. Fact Book
of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (in Korean).
Otani, J., Mukunoki T. and Kikuchi Y. 2002. Visualization for Engineering Property of In-situ Lightweight Soils
with Air Foams, Soil and Foundations, Vol 4, No 3, pp
93 105.
Prabaker, J. and Sridhar, R.S. 2002. Effect of Random
Inclusion of Sisal Fibre on Strength Behavior of Soil, Construction and Building Materials, Vol 16, pp. 123 131.
Tsuchida, T. and Egashira, K. 2004. The lightweight Treated
Soil Method, New Geomaterials for Soft Ground Engineering in Coastal Areas, Balkema.
Tsuchida,T. and Kang, M.S. 2002. Use of lightweight treated
soil method in seaport and airport construction projects,
Proc. Nakase Memorial Symposium (Soft Ground Engineering in Coastal Areas, Balkema, Yokosuka, pp. 353
365.
Tsuchida, T. and Kang, M.S. 2003. Case studies of
lightweight treated soil method in seaport and airport
construction projects, Proc. 12th Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,
Singapore, pp. 249252.
Tsuchida, T., Takeuchi, D., Okumura, T. and Kishida, T.
1996. Development of Light-weight Fill from Dredgings, Proc. of Environmental Geotechnics, Balkema, pp
415 420.
Watabe,Y., Itou,Y., Kang, M.S. and Tsuchida, T. 2004. Onedimensional compression of air-foam treated lightweight
geo-material in microscopic point of view, Soils and
Foundations, Vol. 44, No. 6, pp5367.
280
Jae-Kwon Kim
Civil Technology Team, Samsung Corporation, Seong-nam, Korea
ABSTRACT: A case study was conducted by focusing on the method of ground movement prediction adopted in
the design of multi-propped excavation in Singapore deep soft soil. The prediction method was discussed in terms
of green-field angular distortion and horizontal strain. The results of close monitoring works by geotechnical
instrumentation for reinforced concrete frame structure of 12-storey, which is at 6m offset to the retaining wall,
were reviewed and compared with those from design prediction. Damage risk assessment parameters derived
from the monitoring results were in general at 80 100% level of the design prediction in green-field condition.
Analyses of the critical tensile strains caused by bending and shear showed much greater effect of horizontal
strain on building damage than settlement.
INTRODUCTION
Ground excavation induces adjacent ground movement which may cause damages to building structures in various ways. Prediction of ground movement
triggered by the excavation work has been studied
by numerous researchers (Caspe, 1966; Peck, 1969;
Attewell and Woodman, 1982; Attewell et al., 1986;
Bowles, 1997). Excavation-induced ground movement
causes structural movement and consequently damages on structure, for example distortions and severe
cracks on structural elements. The effects of ground
movement on the adjacent structures have also been
the subject of persistent studies of many researchers
(Skempton and Macdonald, 1957; Bjerrum, 1963;
Meyerhof, 1953 and 1956; Polshin and Tokar, 1957;
Burland and Wroth 1974; Wahls, 1981; Boscardin
and Cording, 1989; Franzius, 2003; Son and Cording,
2005).
The authors described here the method of ground
movement prediction and building damage risk
assessment adopted in the design of strutted deep
excavation for 6-lane underground expressway in Singapore deep soft soil deposits. Building damage risk
assessed in the design phase was compared with the
monitored ground and building movement in terms
of angular distortion and horizontal strain. Critical
This project was a part of Kallang Paya Lebar Expressway (KPE) which had been planned as underground
tunnel to get traffic flow more smoothly from South
to North through the central urban area in Singapore
as shown in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows a plan view of
Malaysia
Woodland
KPE C423
Bukit Timah
Orchard
Jurong
Kallang
Sentosa
281
SITE DESCRIPTION
Changi
Airport
Centre Sheetpile
1m D-wall
BLK.
122
Kallang
Formation
OA
0.8m
Transverse
D-wall
Bored pile
Transverse D-wall
proposed retaining system of 45 m wide deep excavation for the construction of underground expressway
and Figure 3 shows a cross sectional view including
more detailed layout of retaining system. The subsurface ground consists of Kallang formation which is
one of typical soft soil layers in Singapore, and the Old
Alluvium (OA). Kallang formation consists of Marine
Clay, Fluvial Clay, Fluvial Sand and Estuarine (Peat
layer). Marine Clay is the most dominant member of
the Kallang formation consisting of recent deposits in
Singapore and has thickness of 15 to 25 m with an average of 20 m. It shows very soft to soft consistency (SPT
N = 0 2) and is intersected into Upper and Lower
Marine Clay by Fluvial Clay or Fluvial Sand (or both).
Fluvial Clay is lightly over-consolidated and
medium stiff (SPT N = 5 10). Fluvial Sand consists
of mainly sandy soil and shows loose to medium dense
condition (SPT N = 8 12). In most cases, Fluvial
282
0.8m D-wall
(3)
(4)
where, x: horizontal distance from the vertical retaining wall, s(x): ground settlement at x, smax : ground
settlement at wall location, W: settlement trough
width. Figure 5 illustrates the basic concept of ground
settlement prediction curve adopted in this project.
Combining Equation (3) with Equation (4) and
adopting n = 1 for clayey soil lead to Equation (5),
20
0
-20
0
-10
20
40
60
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
(5)
where, x: horizontal distance from the vertical retaining wall, h(x): horizontal ground movement at x,
: the ratio of horizontal movement to settlement
(=dh/ds), W: settlement trough width, s(x): ground
settlement at x.
In this project, Equation (5) was adopted for the prediction of horizontal ground movement and the ratio of
horizontal movement to settlement = 0.5 for D-wall
and = 1.0 for sheet pile wall were assumed.
Figure 6 shows an example of ground movement
prediction using Equation (4) and Equation (5), in
which = 0.5, smax = 50 mm and W = 30 m were
assumed. As shown, all movement vectors at any
location derived from settlement and horizontal displacement curve aim at notional centre point. Notional
centre point does not coincide with the actual centre
point of excavation.
3.2
283
30
10
(2)
where, x: horizontal distance from the centre of tunnel, s(x): ground surface settlement at x, smax : ground
surface settlement at tunnel centre, and i: settlement
trough dimension parameter (Attewell et al., 1986;
ground surface distance from the tunnel centre to the
inflection point of settlement curve).
Tunnelling produces substantial amount of horizontal ground movement as well as settlement, and
OReilly and New (1982) proposed a method of horizontal ground movement prediction in the transverse
direction to the tunnel advance, assuming that the
ground movement vector at any location aims at the
same point (tunnel centre), as shown in Equation (3).
h(x) = [n/(z0 z)] x s(x)
Notional
center pt.
(1)
settlement curve
from Pecks method
smax from Bowless method
W = 2i
damage of buildings into architectural damage, functional damage and structural damage. However, each
damage category was not classified quantitatively in
terms of strain level. Burland et al. (1977) proposed
that the building damage be categorized into 6 levels by considering the aspects of visual appearance,
serviceability, and stability; Negligible, Very slight,
Slight, Moderate, Severe, Very severe. They classified the damage levels by crack width, crack frequency
and tensile strain. Boscardin and Cording (1989) also
proposed the damage levels quantitatively by using
angular distortion and tensile strain. Table 1 shows the
damage criteria adopted for this project. The retaining walls over the whole stretch were designed such
that the damage levels might be remained under Slight
damage level.
Building
W @ Ground surface
Clay
DOA
45
FL
W @ top of OA
OA
45-/2
(6)
(7)
(8)
Most of the building damage is initiated by tensile cracking induced by stress increase. Polshin and
Tokar (1957) defined the critical tensile strain as
tensile strain at which visible crack started developing. Skempton and Macdonald (1956) categorized the
284
Table 1.
Damage classification category (after Burland et al, 1977 and boscardin and cording, 1989).
Degree of
Damage
Crack Width
(mm)
Max. Tensile
Strain (%)
0
1
Negligible
Very
Slight
<0.1
0.1 to 1
0 to 0.,05
0.05 to 0.075
Slight
1 to 5
0.075 to 0.15
Moderate
5 to 15 or a number
of cracks greater
than 3
0.15 to 0.3
Severe
15 to 25 but also
depends on number
of cracks
Greater than
0.3
Very
Severe
Hairline cracks
Fine cracks easily treated during normal redecorations.
Perhaps isolated slight fracture in building. Cracks in
exterior brickwork visible upon close inspection
Cracks easily filled. Redecoration probably required.
Several slight fractures inside building. Exterior cracks
visible: some repointing may be required for weather
tightness. Doors and windows may stick slightly.
Cracks may require cutting out and patching. Recurrent
cracks can be masked by suitable linings. Tack-pointing
and possibly replacement of a small amount of exterior
brickwork may be required. Doors and windows
sticking. Utility services may be interrupted. Water
tightness often impaired
Extensive repair involving removal and replacement of
sections of walls, especially over doors and windows
required. Windows and door frames distorted. Floor
slopes noticeably. Walls lean or bulge noticeably, some
loss of bearing in beams. Utility services disrupted.
Major repair required involving partial or complete
reconstruction. Beams lose bearing, walls lean badly
and require shoring. Windows broken by distortion.
Danger of instability.
4E-03
4E-03
Horizontal Strain,
Horizontal Strain,h
3E-03
(4-5) Severe to
Very Severe
2E-03
(3) Moderate
1E-03
0E+00
0E+00
(2) Slight
(1) Very Slight
(0) Negligible
1E-03
2E-03
3E-03
4E-03
5E-03
6E-03
7E-03
3E-03
(4-5) Severe to
Very Severe
2E-03
1E-03
(3) Moderate
(2) Slight
(1) Very Slight
(0) Negligible
0E+00
0E+00 1E-03 2E-03 3E-03 4E-03 5E-03 6E-03 7E-03 8E-03
8E-03
Angular Distortion,
Angular Distortion,
In this project, damage classification chart proposed by Burland (1995) was adopted for the damage
risk assessment of building adjacent to the excavation. However, angular distortion, , introduced by
Boscardin and Cording (1989), was adopted instead
of deflection ratio, /L.
Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the typical damage
classification chart adopted in this project for the reinforced concrete frame structure and low-rise brick
wall building respectively (Mott Macdonald, 1993).
Figure 7 looks like that proposed by Boscardin and
Cording (1989) because their study was focused on
concrete frame structure, which is more sensitive to the
285
Ground level
100
Elevation (mOD)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
0 10 20 30
ux (mm)
110
40
H = 36m, L = 8.5m
X = 15m
G-F = 0m for raft analysis
= 37m for piled analysis
D=16.5m, B=44.5m
Building
20
0
0
20
40
60
Distance from the wall (m)
-20
Foundation Level
-40
-60
-80
Excavation
s(x) @ Ground level(Bilinear wedge)
h(x) @ Ground level(Bilinear wedge)
s(x) @ OA level
h(x) @ OA level
Reference point
3E-03
Horizontal Strain,h
profiles for the Block 122 given in Figure 2 and Figure 3. In case of piled assessment, only the ground loss
(sum of horizontal movement) below the pile toe level
was taken and the procedures of movement prediction
were exactly same as that for ground surface described
in section 3.
Detailed description of the analysis of multipropped excavation itself is beyond the scope of this
paper hence not included in this paper. Damage risk
parameters were easily calculated from the settlement and horizontal movement profiles as shown in
Equation (9) to Equation (12), based on the given information (e.g. offset from the wall, transverse length of
building) of excavation and building.
rigid body tilt; = (sA sB )/L
2E-03
1E-03
Bilinear raft
assessment
Bilinear piled
assessment
(3) Moderate
(2) Slight
(1) Very Slight
(0) Negligible
0E+00
0E+00
(9)
1E-03
2E-03
3E-03
4E-03
5E-03
6E-03
7E-03
Angular Distortion,
(10)
(11)
angular distortion; = s
(12)
where, : rigid body tilt of building, sA and sB : settlement at point A and B, L: transverse length of building,
h : horizontal strain of building, hA and hB : horizontal
displacement at point A and B, s : slope at point A,
XA : distance between reference point B and retaining
wall, W: trough width, and : angular distortion. Figure 11 illustrates simplified geometry of excavation
and adjacent building, Block 122.
Figure 12 shows the results of building damage
risk assessment for Block 122, in which the effect of
soil-structure interaction was not considered. Hence
the results were considered for green-field condition
and the estimated damage was categorized into Slight
level. Boscardin and Cording (1989) suggested that
the effect of soil-structure interaction on the building
damage was substantial and actual building damage
was much smaller than that estimated from green-field
condition. Therefore, it was postulated at design phase
that the damage risk was highly likely much smaller
than Slight damage level shown in Figure 12.
286
G-F
105
95
90
85
LBC
C
AB
80
75
BC
100
Elevation (mOD)
1st Exc.
2nd Exc.
3rd Exc.
4th Exc.
5th Exc.
6th Exc.
1st exc.
2nd exc.
3rd exc.
4th exc.
5th exc.
6th exc.
70
Deflection of building
Settlement bolt
65
60
-10
0
10
20
Horizontal displacement (mm)
El_beam sensor
30
10
50
60
Settlement (mm
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
(16)
(17)
Damage risk parameters calculated from the monitoring data using Equation (13) to Equation (17) are
shown in Figure 17 to Figure 19. It is noted from Figure 17 to Figure 19 that angular distortions do not
carry meaningful variation as excavation advances,
287
(13)
(14)
(15)
Angular distortio
Excavation
Finished
Excavation
Commenced
2.0.E-03
1.0.E-03
0.0.E+00
-1.0.E-03
31-Aug-05
1-Aug-05
2-Jul-05
2-Jun-05
3-May-05
3-Apr-05
4-Mar-05
2-Feb-05
-3.0.E-03
3-Jan-05
-2.0.E-03
3.0E-03
2.0E-03
1.0E-03
0.0E+00
0.0E+00
Angular distortio
1.0.E-03
0.0.E+00
-1.0.E-03
-2.0.E-03
31-Aug-05
1-Aug-05
2-Jul-05
2-Jun-05
3-May-05
3-Apr-05
4-Mar-05
2-Feb-05
3-Jan-05
-3.0.E-03
Date
Horizontal strai
Excavation
Finished
Excavation
Commenced
AB
CD
EF
IJ
KL
MN
OP
QR
ST
5.0.E-04
0.0.E+00
-5.0.E-04
8.0E-03
1-Aug-05
2-Jul-05
d = (/L) [(1/6)(G/E)(L/H)2 + 1]
(19)
bmax = b + h
(20)
dmax = h /2 +
implying that no meaningful settlement was monitored during the full excavation period. Only slight
increase of horizontal strain was monitored near the
final excavation stage as shown in Figure 19.
Figure 20 shows the plot of damage risk parameters
on damage risk assessment chart.As shown, monitored
angular distortions were within 1e-3, giving negligible
damage category in terms of settlement. Horizontal
strains were within 0.75e-4, providing Negligible to
Very slight damage category in terms of horizontal
ground movement.
[(h /2)2 + 2d ]
(21)
288
6.0E-03
31-Aug-05
Date
2-Jun-05
3-May-05
3-Apr-05
4-Mar-05
2-Feb-05
3-Jan-05
-1.0.E-03
-1.5.E-03
4.0E-03
GH-1
GH-2
GH-3
EF-1
EF-2
EF-3
IJ-1
IJ-2
IJ-3
CD-1
CD-2
CD-3
MN-1
MN-2
MN-3
OP-1
OP-2
OP-3
ST-1
ST-2
ST-3
Excavation
Finished
Excavation
Commenced
1.0.E-03
2.0E-03
Angular distortion
Date
2.0.E-03
4.0E-03
AB
CD
EF
IJ
KL-1
KL-2
KL-3
KL-4
MN
OP
QR
ST
Horizontal strain
3.0.E-03
Strain
1.5.E-03
Tensile strain by bending,b
Critical tensile strain by bending,bmax
Diagonal strain by shear,d
Critical diagonal strain by shear,dmax
1.0.E-03
REFERENCES
5.0.E-04
31-Aug-05
1-Aug-05
2-Jul-05
2-Jun-05
3-May-05
3-Apr-05
4-Mar-05
2-Feb-05
3-Jan-05
0.0.E+00
Date
CONCLUSION
289
ORourke, T.D. (1975), A Study of Two Braced Excavations in Sands and Interbedded Stiff Clays, Ph.D. thesis,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Peck, R.B. (1969), Deep excavations and tunnelling in soft
ground, Proc. 7th Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. and Foundation Eng., State of the art volume. Sociedad Mexicnan de
Mecanica de Suelos, A.C., pp.225290.
Polshin, D.E. and Tokar, R.A. (1957), Maximum allowable non-uniform settlement of structures, Proc. 4th Int.
Conf. on Soil Mech. and Foundation Eng., London, Vol.1,
pp.402405.
Potts, D. M. and Addenbrooke, T. I. (1997), A structures
influence on tunnelling-induced ground movements,
Proc. Instn. Civ. Engrs. Geotech. Engineering, Vol.125,
pp.109125.
290
ABSTRACT: Owing to peculiar subsurface seabed condition of stiff soil overlying soft soil, the possibility of
punch-through of jackup spudcan during installation in Southeast Asia is reported to be higher than that in other
parts of the world. In general, the spudcan will punch through if the underlying soft soil is unable to resist the
relatively large load required to install the spudcan through the upper stiff soil. Centrifuge model tests have been
carried out at the National University of Singapore to investigate the spudcan punch-through phenomenon. The
measured spudcan bearing resistance profiles for cases with various thicknesses of overlying stiff soil highlight
the significance of this thickness parameter to the bearing resistance provided by the layered soil system.
Traditionally, SNAME recommends the use of Hanna & Meyerhofs method of bearing capacity of shallow
foundation in layered soils and the projected area method to evaluate the spudcan installation resistance. The
centrifuge test results reveal that the above traditional theories are unable to determine the spudcan resistance
accurately and hence fail to predict the punch-through phenomenon in most cases. This paper presents the
centrifuge test results, the comparison of the test results with theoretical predictions and the recommendations
arising from the comparison.
INTRODUCTION
291
Spudcan
2
2.1
Experimental setup
292
Table 1.
K
N
Table 2.
Figure 3. Locations of sand overlying clay profiles
(Osbourne, 2005).
Hydraulic
cylinder
2.60
80
35
40 m2 /yr
2.0 108 m/s
23
0.9
0.244
0.053
3.35
Specific gravity
Average particle size (mm)
Uniformity coefficient
Dmax , Dmin (mm)
D50 , D10 (mm)
Range of density (kg/m3 )
2.65
0.2
1.3
0.3, 0.115
0.2, 0.163
1335 1645
LVDT
LVDT
Piezocone
Load cell
Spudcan
Sand
NC Clay
Drainage
layer
Valve
293
D (m)
0
0
0.5
qt (MPa)
1.5
2
2.5
3.5
1
2
3
Test
H (m)
su0 (kPa)
( )
qmax (kPa)
T1
T2
T3
T4
3
5
7
10
7.8
13
18
26
42.1
41.1
42.0
42.1
154.78
300.4
559.23
699.54
4
5
SAND
7
NC CLAY
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
u1
u0
qt
15
16
0
50
100
150
200
250
u (kPa)
Figure 5. CPTu results from test T3.
294
1.3
200
300
400
500
600
qmax
1.1
Dcrt
1
2
3
Dpt
0.7
0.6
(5)
(6)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
H/B
SAND
CLAY
9
10
Figure 6, the observations of the half spudcan penetration test reported by Leung (2005) is referred here. It
was established that the departure of the sand wedge
into the clay layer contributed to the reduction in q. The
sand wedge was trapped underneath the spudcan base
and traveled together with the spudcan for the entire
penetration process. In the clay layer, the soil flew
from the base of the sand wedge followed by radial and
upward soil movements. The end boundary of this soil
flow reached the base of the sand layer. The overburden pressure imposed by the sand layer subsequently
increased the resistance of the soil flow, as denoted by
the second peak in Figure 6. However, when the sand
wedge traveled deeper, the influence of the overburden pressure diminished. When the spudcan penetrated
beyond the sand/clay interface, the sand plug was
fully embedded in the clay layer and the deep penetration mechanism became dominant. From this point
onwards, the bearing resistance increased with depth.
5.1
0.8
0.1
1
0.9
0.2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
1.2
700
qu calculated/qu measured
295
1.1
qu predicted/qu measured
(1)
(1)
0.9
(2)
0.8
0.7
(3)
(4)
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
H/B
296
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
(1)
0.9
(2)
(3)
0.8
(4)
CONCLUSIONS
0.7
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5 0.6
H/B
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
(2)
The results of spudcan penetration tests in sand overlying clay carried out on the National University of
Singapore Centrifuge are reported in this paper. A
total of four tests with various sand thicknesses were
conducted. A generic spudcan bearing stress profile
in this layered soil incorporating the punch-through
phenomenon is presented. Comparisons of the measured and calculated ultimate spudcan bearing stress,
qu , using two different methods of analysis, namely,
Hanna & Meyerhof (1980) and projected area method
were carried out by incorporating the recommendations proposed by SNAME (2002). Moreover, different
combinations of formulas were analyzed in order to
provide further insights into how the calculated qu
might be affected by these different analyses. In general, the calculated qu produced by these methods
did not show good agreement with the measured
values for the whole series of test results. This inconsistency reveals that the validity of applying these
methods for spudcan foundation design require further
evaluations.
REFERENCES
Baglioni, V.P., Chow, G.S. & Endley, S.N. 1982. Jackup foundation stability in stratified soil profiles. Proc.
14th Offshore Technology Conference, vol. 4, Paper OTC
4409:363384.
Das, B.M. & Dallo, K.F. 1984. Bearing capacity of shallow
foundations on strong sand layer. Civil Engineering for
Practicing & Design Engineers 3. Pergamon Press, New
York.
Davis, E.H. & Booker, J.R. 1973. The effect of increasing strength with depth on the bearing capacity of clays.
Gotechnique 23(4):551563.
Finnie, I.M.S. 1993. Performance of shallow foundation
in calcareous soil. Ph.D. thesis, University of Western
Australia, Australia.
Goh, T. L. 2003. Stabilisation of an excavation by an embedded improved soil layer. Ph.D. thesis, National University
of Singapore, Singapore.
Hanna, A.M & Meyerhof, G.G. 1980. Design chart for ultimate bearing capacity of foundation on sand overlying soft
clay. Can. Geotech. J. 17:300303.
Hansen, J. B. 1970. A revised and extended formula for
bearing capacity. Danish Geotechnical Institute Bulletin
No. 28.
Jacobsen, M., Christensen, K.V. & Sorensen, C.S. 1977. Gennemlokning af tynde sandlag. Vag og Vattenbyggaren 8/9:
2325.
297
Tatsuoka, F., Zhou, S., Sato, T. & Shibuya, S. 1990. Evaluation method of liquefaction potential and its application.
In Report on seismic hazards on the ground in urban areas.
Ministry of Education of Japan, Tokyo, Japan
Teh, K. L, Leung, C. F & Chow, Y. K. 2006. Performance of
miniature CPTU in sand overlying NC clay through centrifuge modeling. Proc. Int. Con. On Physical Modelling
in Geotechnics, Hong Kong.
Teh, K. L, Leung, C. F & Chow,Y. K. 2005. Spudcan penetration in sand overlying normally consolidated clay. Proc.
Int. Sym. On Frontier in Offshore Geotechnics, Perth,
529534.
Ueno. K. 2000. Methods for preparation of sand samples.
Proc. Centrifuge 98, Tokyo, 2:10471055.
298
ABSTRACT: The apparent earth pressures measured at the South Link Project in Stockholm are used to analyze
the pressure on sheet pile walls at deep excavations in soft soils overlying bedrock. The depths of the excavations
vary from 3 m to 16 m and the toes of the walls are keyed into bedrock. Measured apparent earth pressures are
over the Pecks (1969) envelope for soft clay but approximate to initial stress at rest. The normalized distribution
pattern of the pressures indicates a large apparent earth pressure in the upper part of a test section. The well kept
anchor load contributes to the large apparent earth pressure. This case indicates that the beneficial effect of the
presence of bedrock may be over-shadowed by the low strength of soft soils, especially when the distance from
excavation level to bedrock is larger than the depth of excavation.
INTRODUCTION
299
+30
S1
+25
1/680N
South Link 10
+20
Tunnel structure
1/740N
Excavation
Part IV
Soil surface
1/840N 1/870N
Part III
1/901N
Part I
Part II
+15
1/740S
Rock surface
S5
+10
1/762S
S7
1/840S
S14, S15
1/920S
1/943S
S18-S20 S24-S26
+5
0
-5
Rock surface
1/600
1/700
1/800
1/900
1/1000
1/1100
1/1200
1/1300
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
Geotechnical conditions
300
Earth Pressure H
1
From 1/937S
SL10 data
Ka H
0.49KaH
20+Ka'H
200
4
150
100
50
From 1/937S
0
05
01
00
150
200
Ka'H (kPa)
8
Figure 4. Measured apparent earth pressure versus Rankine
active earth pressure Ka H as cohesion less soil.
From 1/937S
10
SL10 Data
0.89 H(Peck 1969)
12
301
4
4.1
SL10 data
200
40+Ka'H-2c(Ka')0.5
Lateral pressure at rest
150
100
50
0
0
50
100
Ka'H-2c(Ka')0.5(kPa)
150
302
Ka'H-2c(Ka')0.5
Table 1.
Comparison of the cases of deep excavation in soft soil overlying stiff soil or hard rock.
CTE phase II (Wong et al. 1997)
Case
Layers
Layers
Thickness**
(m)
Layers
Thickness
(m)
Geotechnical
conditions
Peat clay,
marine clay and
fluvial deposit
Residual soils
Fill
Weathered soil
1.5
1.5
Fill
Dry crust
1.0
1.0
Weathered rock
8.4
Weathered rocks
Formation level
Excavation depth, H
Ratio of h1 /H
Bedrock
Measured maximum
apparent earth
pressure
Thickness
(m)
Unknown
Great depth
Soft rock
13.3
Hard rock
Great depth
Hard rock
33 m
h 0.3H
Hard rock
<0.2H; <0.8Ka H
(Tschebotarioff 1973),
around 0.49Ka H
h: total thickness of soft soil, fill and dry crust layers; **the estimated thickness; Ka is after Peck (1969), but different value
for case from Yoo (2001) and SL10.
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
8
13
Depth from surface (m)
18
pressure coefficient K0 , the magnitude of wall movement, construction sequence and workmanship. It is
well accepted that the properties of the soft soils, which
are excavated through or in, is one of the key factors, as
all the empirical design diagrams are based on types of
soils, such as sand, soft clay and stiff clay. This section
discusses the influence of the geotechnical conditions,
especially the formation level, such as whether it is soft
soil at excavation level, and the strength of the soft clay.
For the features of the strength of soft soils in Sweden, it is, to some extent, low and unique. In the
Scandinavian soft clays, it has been empirically found
that an effective friction angle can be mobilized when
the effective stresses are lower than the pre-stresses
in geological history. A number of Scandinavian soft
clays have been investigated and the value of effective
303
Anchor 03
400
Anchor 01
500
300
Anchor 05
200
100
Excavation
III finished
0
98-11-15
99-1-4
Excavation
IV finished
99-2-23
99-4-14
Excavation
V finished
99-6-3
Excavation
VI finished
99-7-23
99-9-11
99-10-31
Date
14
Excavation I
12
II
10
III
8
IV
V
VI
4
2
0
-2
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
loads may contribute to the large apparent earth pressures. For SL10, grouting parts of anchors are mainly
installed into hard rock. This gives a good chance of
sustaining the preloads applied to the anchors. Figure 7 shows the monitoring results of anchors in test
section 1/840N. The preloads of the anchors are well
kept as the excavation proceeds. This situation could
have more significant influence on the upper part of
the distribution shape of the measured apparent earth
pressures than on the middle and lower part, since the
magnitude of the former is less than that of the later.
Figure 3 shows that some data from the middle and
lower parts of the test sections fall within the envelope
line of 0.89H, while all data from the top anchor
are over this line. This indicates the beneficial influence of the bedrock. The features of the increment
of lateral displacement due to excavation also points
to this deduction. Figure 8 shows the features of the
lateral displacement increment from preceding excavation stage at test section 1/840N. At this section,
excavation depth is 12.1 m, from relative elevation of
+15 m down to +2.9 m. The Sheet pile wall is backtied with 5 levels of anchors.The excavation is in stages
of I through VI, which is altered by the installation of
anchor 01 through 05, respectively. The bedrock surface is at the elevation of 2.8 m. Lateral displacement
mainly occurs at stages of II through IV, and significantly at stages of II and III. The increment is small or
even negative at stages of excavation V and VI. It indicates that the influence of bedrock becomes significant
when the distance from dredge level to bedrock is less
than excavation depth. The minor or negative magnitude of the lateral displacement increment should
thrust relatively less load on the sheet pile walls during
excavating to lower elevation.
The tie-back anchor space can play a significant role
in the earth pressure distribution acting on a tie-back
wall, and large space can yield a distribution with high
concentration at the tie-back level (Clough and Tsui
1974). For the anchor spaces at section 1/840N, the
spacing of anchor 01 is the largest in both vertical and
horizontal spaces. Together with the well-kept anchor
load (Fig. 7) during the excavation activities, it is not
prude to conclude that there is certain concentration
of stress at the top anchor.
Excavation II
Excavation IV
Excavation VI
Figure 8. Magnitude of increment from preceding excavation stage at test section 1/840N.
Section 1/937S
Surface of soil
+15 m
Opening area
6.0 m
Anchor
Formation level
Monitored anchor
0 m
Surface of bedrock
304
Excavation III
Excavation V
Level of excavation bottom
A
O
(b)
Passive condition
shear stress
(a)
O
(d)
A
(c)
Active stress
C
(a)
Thrust similar
to active thrust
C
Active condition
shear stress
305
CONCLUSION
section. This trend is much different from the trapezoidal design pressure envelope as recommended by
Peck (1969). The larger measured apparent earth pressures in upper levels may be partially attributed to the
arching mechanism of stress transferring during stage
excavation.
The low strength of the retained soils is one of
the key factors influencing the magnitude of lateral
pressures. The benefit of the presence of bedrock is
overshadowed when the distance from excavation level
to the surface of bedrock is larger than the depth of
excavation.
Bedrock provides condition of well kept anchor
loads, especially in the upper part of sheet pile wall.
The well-kept load of top anchor should be transferred
to retained soils through the flexure of the sheet pile
wall.
The magnitude of apparent earth pressure on sheet
pile walls around a vertical open cut area may be as
several times as that on a continuous area.
REFERENCES
ASCE 1997. Guidelines of engineering practice for braced
and tied-back excavation. Edited by the committee on
earth retaining structures of the Geo-Institute.
Bjerrum, L., Clausen,C.J., and Duncan, J.M. 1972. Earth
pressures on flexible structures (a state-of-the-art report),
Proc.5th European Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 2, Madrid, Spain.
Boone, S. J. 2003. Design of deep excavations in urban
environments, A thesis submitted in conformity with the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
Graduate Department of Civil EngineeringUniversity
of Toronto.
Broms, B.B. and Bennermark, H. 1967. Stability of clay at
vertical openings, J. of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, SM1, pp. 7194.
Clough, G.W. and Tsui, Y. 1974. Performance of tie-back
walls in clay. J. of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, GT12, pp. 12591273.
Goldberg, D. T., Jaworski, W. E., and Gordon, M. D. 1976.
Lateral support systems and underpinning, construction
methods. Rep.FHWA-RD-75-128, 129 and 130, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
Hashash, Y. M. A., and Whittle, A. J., 2002, Mechanisms
of Load Transfer and Arching for Braced Excavations in
Clay. J. Geotech. and Geoenvir. Engrg., Vol. 128, pp. 187
197
Hintze, S., Ekenberg, M. and Holmberg, G. 2000. Southern Link Road Construction: Foundation and Temporary
Constructions. Proc. 16th IABSE. Switzerland.
Karlsrud,K., Gjelsvik,V. and Loo,M.M. 2004. Design of toe
support for sheet pile walls driven to bedrock. NGM 2004,
E-47-53.
Lambe, T. W. and Whiman, R.V. 1969. Soil mechanics. Wiley,
New York.
Larsson, R., 1977, Basic behaviour of Scandinavian soft
clays. Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Report No.4,
108pp.
306
Lee, J. K., and Chun, S. G. 1993. Earth pressure distribution on in situ walls in multi-layered ground. J. Korean
Geotech. Engrg., Vol.9, pp. 59-68.
Mayne, P.W. and Kulhawy, F.H., 1982, K0-OCR Relationships in Soil, J. Geotech Engrg. Division, ASCE, Vol. 108,
pp. 851872.
Peck, R. B., 1969, Deep excavations and tunneling in soft
ground. Proc., 7th Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. and Found.
Engrg., State-of-the-Art Rep., State-of-the-Art Vol., pp.
225290.
Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. and Mesri,G. 1996. Soil mechanics
in engineering practice, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
307
ABSTRACT: A laboratory investigation was carried out in which conventional and geogrid encased stone
columns were tested in a small cylindrical tank under strain-controlled condition. These tests were performed on
claybeds stabilized with single columns. Three types of geogrids were used for encapsulation and performance
of stabilized bed with three different diameter columns were investigated for each geogrid. A finite element
simulation of the experimental studies was done and it agrees to a good degree. The hoop stress generated in the
geogrid due to the dilating action of the stone material was responsible for the better performance of the encased
stone column.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
1.2
Literature review
309
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Experimental setup
Table 1.
Netlon
Identification
Wt.
gm/m2
Nova Curtain
(net1)
Square mesh
(net2)
CE121 (net3)
260
Aperture size
Diamond
1 mm 1 mm
Square
4 mm
Diamond
8 mm 6 mm
475
730
Initial Tensile
modulus kN/m
300 mm deep on a standard loading frame as a straincontrolled test. The diameter of the loading plate used
was 2D (D diameter of the stone column) of adequate
thickness and rigidity. The column stabilized bed was
loaded at the rate of 1.27 mm/minute and the load acting on the plate was recorded at regular strain intervals.
Test was continued till the deformation was 20 mm.
The column and the claybed were modeled as axisymmetric to take care for the three-dimensional effects
(Figure 2). The clay was modeled using the soft soil
model; the stone column was modeled as a MohrCoulomb material. The clay is treated as an undrained
material and the stone as a drained material. The
PLAXIS FEM code was used for modeling and the
material models used were verified with the results of
Lee and Pande (1998), which were on stone column
groups. Cam clay model used by Lee & Pande and
Soft soil model of FEM used in this study compare
well with the experimental and numerical results of
Lee and Pande.
The Soft soil model is extensively described in
Vermeer & Brinkgreve (1998), which is similar to
the modified Cam clay model, without softening
behaviour. The yield function used in this, models
the irreversible volumetric strain in primary compression. The failure behaviour is modelled using a Mohr
Coulomb type yield function.
In the case of analysis of encased stone column,
the geogrid element available in the material library
15
40
60
Clay bed
Stone
Column
300mm
Geogrid
Encasing
400mm dia
310
Table 2.
and it develops a passive resistance for the stone column, which is otherwise offered by the surrounding
soil. The lateral pressure thus developed results in an
upward thrust. The stress transferred to the stone thus
increases, which reduces the load on the clay.
4.1 Influence of size of column on load capacity
The load intensities on stabilized bed with columns
of different sizes for a settlement of 10 mm are presented in Figure 5. For a settlement of 10 mm, the
load intensity on stabilized beds with 30mm diameter
columns was observed to be 33.4 kN/m2 , 50.2 kN/m2 ,
78.9 kN/m2 and 107.5 kN/m2 for stone column, column encased with net1, net2 and net3 respectively.
The corresponding load intensities in the case of
stabilized beds with 60 mm diameter column were
13.1 kN/m2 , 31 kN/m2 , 46.8 kN/m2 and 51.8 kN/m2
for stone column, column encased with net1, net2
and net3 respectively. The intensity of load on the
columns decreased with the diameter both in the stone
column and encased stone column stabilized beds.
However, the magnitude of stress in the encased stone
column is highest for the sleeve material having the
highest tensile strength. The effect of tensile strength
Pressure (kN/m2)
0
50
100
150
200
Settlement (mm)
10
15
Parameter
E [kPa]
Clay
[kN/m3 ]
[ ]
c [kPa]
[ ]
k (m/day)
eo
12
24
4
0
2.39e3
0.154
0.062
1.42
Stone
Column
2500
Stone column
within the encasement
45009000#
0.35
16
46
0.1
20
1
0.3
16
46
0.1
10
1
25
Net2 30 mm dia (EXP.)
SC 30 dia (FEM)
311
Pressure (kN/m )
0
20
40
60
80
0
LoadGEC /LoadSC
Settlement (mm)
10
0
20
30
40
15
50
60
70
20
net1
net2
net3
25
Net2 60 mm dia (EXP.)
SC 60 dia (F M)
4
LoadGEC/LoadSC
1
120
0
0
100
20
40
60
80
30mm dia.
40mm dia.
60mm dia.
60
40
20
0
20
30
40
50
Diameter of the column (mm)
sc
net1
net2
60
70
net3
312
40
1.5
30
25
0.25
20
15
0.2
10
35
0.5
5
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
net1
net2
net3
0.15
0.1
Net1 30mmdia
0.05
Net2 30mmdia
Net3 30mm dia
1.5
0.25
4.3
0.5
0.15
0.1
Net1 40mmdia
0.05
313
0.2
0.5
1.5
0.25
0.2
0.15
REFERENCES
0.1
Net1 60mmdia
Net2 60mm dia
0.05
Net3 60mm dia
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
20
30
40
50
60
70
net2
net3
CONCLUSIONS
Bauer G.E and Nabil Al-Joulani 1996. Laboratory and analytical investigation of sleeve reinforced stone columns,
Geosynthetics: Applications, Design and Construction,
De Groot, 463466.
Deshpande, P.M and Vyas, A.V. 1996. Interactive Encased
Stone Column Foundation, Sixth International Conference and Exhibition on piling and deep foundation,
DFI96, ISSMFE, Bombay, 119.
Lee, J.S. and Pande G.N. 1998. Analysis of Stone Column
Reinforced Foundations. Int. J. Numerical and Analytical
Methods in Geomechanics, 22, 10011020.
Malarvizhi S.N. and Ilamparuthi K. 2004. Load versus Settlement of Claybed stabilized with Stone & Reinforced
Stone columns. Proceedings of the 3rd Asian Regional
Conference on Geosynthetics, GEOASIA, Seoul, Korea,
322329.
Malarvizhi S.N., Ilamparuthi K. and Bhuvaneshwari S. 2005.
Finite Element Analysis of Stone columns and Geogrid
encased stone columns. Proceedings of the National Conference on Geotechnics in Environmental Protection, VIII
4851.
Murugesan S. and Rajagopal K. 2004. Finite Element
Analysis of embankments constructed on geosynthetic
reinforced stone columns. International Conference
on Geosynthetics and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
443448.
Priebe, H. J., 1976. An Evaluation of Settlement Reduction in Soil Improved by Vibroreplacement. (en alemn).
Bautechnik, n 53, 160162.
Sivakumar, V., McKelvey D., Graham J. and Hughes, D. 2004.
Triaxial tests on model sand columns in clay, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 41:299312.
Vermeer, P.A. and Brinkgreve, R. B. J. 1998. Plaxis Finite
Element code for soil and rock analyses, Rotterdam,
Balkema.
1. The performance of encased stone column is better than the conventional stone column for all the
diameters studied.
314
Jiun-Liao Hung
Department of Construction Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science & Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the investigation result of the application of lime-column (LC) technique
on expansive soft clay. The research studied the strength distribution surround the installed lime-column in the
radial and vertical direction from the center of column. In this research, the LC was designed as single column
with 50 mm in diameter (D), and the depth was 4D (=200 mm). The soil strength surrounds the LC is determined
by unconfined compression strength (UCS) test and static cone penetration (CPT) test. The test results show
that the LC contributes to enhance the soil strength in radial direction up to 4D from the center of LC. Higher
strength occurs near the LC and decreases with the distance from the LC center. It was also observed that soil
strength tends to increase with time. The CPT results also showed that the installation of LC affected the soil
strength to a depth of 4 D beneath the bottom of LC. This research also confirms that after installation of
LC the water content of soil decreased near the LC, but beyond the distance of 4D in radial direction the water
content remained its original value.
INTRODUCTION
315
EXPERIMENT METHOD
2.1
Soil used
Laboratory test
316
14
3 days
12
7 days
14 days
UCS (kPa)
10
Main-influence
zone
8
6
Before LC
improvement
Effective
influence zone
4
2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
62
Main-influence Before LC
improvement
zone
61
Water content (%)
60
Effective
influence zone
59
3 days
7 days
14 days
58
3 TEST RESULTS
3.1
57
0
Figure 5 shows the development of unconfined compressive strength of soil surround LC at different ages
after installation. The effect of lime on the strength of
soil depends on numerous factors such as type of soil
and lime, curing period, moisture content, temperature, etc. In this study, the unconfined compressive
strength of the soil treated with the lime column has
also been determined in order to compare the variation
in unconfined compressive strength with the distance
from the lime column.
Fourteen days after installation, the soil strength
around LC is higher than that of 3 and 7 days after
installation. It implies that ageing factor has effect on
the soil strength surround LC. Similarly, the strength
of LC will also increase with time due to pozzolanic
reaction.
Most of the strength increase concentrates at the
soil near the side surface of the LC. It is up to 50 mm
or 1 D in radial direction from column. The soil
strength decays associated with distance from LC. The
soil strength in the distance of twice time of diameter
100
150
200
250
317
50
16
12
1xD
10
2xD
20
3xD
30
4xD
40
Depth (cm)
Natural
4
50
50
100
Limecolumn, D
= 50 mm
Main-influence
zone
60
Distance
from LC:
1xD
2xD
3xD
4xD
70
80
0
0
90
Strain, (%)
100
During migration, the lime reacts with the surrounding soil. This reaction consumes some amount of water
and produces reaction product as cementation compound materials. This phenomenon is illustrated in
Figure 6, it can be seen that the water content decreases
due to the lime reaction with water especially in the
influenced zone.
As shown in Figure 7, no clear peak is observed
at the stressstrain curves for the natural samples.
In comparison, the stressstrain curves of the limetreated samples shown in Figure 7 have slight peaks
due to cementation of soil particles resulted by the
pozzolanic compounds from lime reactions. It indicates that soil becomes stiffer and behaves in a slightly
brittle manner after lime treatment.
3.2
CPT test
318
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Shen, S.L., Miura, N., dan Koga, H., 2003, Interaction mechanism between deep mixing column surrounding clay
during installation, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.
40, 293307.
Sivapullaiah, P.V., Sridharan, A., Ramesh, H.N., 2000
Strength behavior of lime-treated soils in the presence
of sulphate. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 37,
13581367.
Tonoz, M.C., Gokceoglu, G., dan Ulusay, R., 2003, A
laboratory-scale experimental investigation on the performance of lime in expansive Ankara (Turkey) clay, Bulletin
Engineering Geology & Environmental, Vol. 62, 91106.
Zhou, C.,Yin, J.H., dan Ming, J.P., 2002, Bearing capacity and
settlement of weak fly ash ground improved using limefly ash or stone columns, Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 39, 585596.
319
ABSTRACT: As part of the closure of tailings facilities in Scotland and Jamaica, in-situ and laboratory testing
was undertaken on both sites on very similar man influenced materials. In-situ testing in Scotland was done
with 4 different methods CPT, DCP, SPT and shearvane. In Jamaica local equipment was limited to DCP and
shearvane. This paper presents a cross comparison and correlation of these results and discusses the variations.
It also highlights the challenges faced with working in developing countries and the problems of accessing areas
of insufficient bearing capacity for standard ground investigation equipment.
INTRODUCTION
2.1 Scotland
OVERVIEW OF INVESITGATIONS
321
CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED
Although a full range of testing equipment is readily available in UK or can easily be brought in from
Europe, this is not the case in Jamaica. Even though
the tenderers indicated that they did have CPT probing and shear vane equipment available, it was only
when requested to view the plant did it become apparent that it was not readily available. The investigation
was therefore limited to dynamic (DCP) probing and
shallow shear vane test. However, the DCP equipment
needed more rods to be of any use and a full shear vane
kit needed to be imported.
In Scotland, the CPT rig was also used for in-situ
shear tests and undisturbed samples were taken from
depths of up to 12 m using a terrier rig.
3.2
4 ASSESSMENT OF RESULTS
4.1 Material properties
To provide the basic properties of the tailings, grading analyses and Atterberg limits were undertaken.
Although the material differed with depth and distance
from discharge, the average material gradings showed
similarities as demonstrated in Figure 1 as follows:
Scotland material:
Equipment access
Laboratory testing
One of the main problems with both sites was the tailings tended to chemically react with anything made
from aluminium. As a large amount of laboratory
322
Grading Composition
(Jamaica)
SAND
CLAY
Shear vane 1
Shear vane 2
Shear vane 4
Depth (m)
13%
29%
58%
SILT
Cu (CPT qc ratio)
Cu triaxial
10
12
14
16
18
Grading Composition
Scotland
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
SAND
Figure 2. CPT Comparison of Cu values.
7%
CLAY
38%
54%
SILT
studies on this material indicated possible cementing and the material does show thixotropic properties.
Both of these factors would be more dominant at low
shear strengths, however it is unclear why this was not
more evident with in-situ testing.
A similar exercise was undertaken using SPT N60
values. For SPT-N values Strouds correlation of
Cu = f1 xN was used with an upper f1 value of 6. These
results are plotted against the Cu values calculated
from CPT- qc and the triaxial tests and are shown in
figure 3.
In most cases SPT was recorded as blows for
300 mm and not per individual increment of 75 mm. It
is apparent that the SPT values are significantly less
sensitive in picking up changes in strength within these
weak soils. This may also be as a result of the investigation method where the shell and auger boring is
causing significant disturbance beyond the excavation
face.
The testing in Jamaica was somewhat limited due
to availability of equipment. The only direct strength
testing that was achievable was a hand operated shear
vane. Access and availability also restricted the use
of equipment like terrier rigs etc to install a casing to
undertake down the hole shear vane tests.
Shear testing was achieved by pushing the vane in
from the surface with sleeved rods and undertaking
tests at various depths until it would no longer penetrate. This achieved good profiling up to a maximum
depth of 4 m. The shear strengths recorded typically
ranged between 10 and 30 kPa with some indication
323
Stiffness, E (Mpa)
0.00
0.00
Cu (6xSPT)
2.00
Cu triaxial
4.00
6.00
8
10
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
Cu (CPT qc ratio)
12
16
14.00
18
16.00
20
40
60
80
18.00
100
20.00
Shear Strength
(Jamaica)
Shear Vane
0.5
DCP PS12
SPT BHS06
CPT DS03
10.00
12.00
Access track
8.00
14
20
Triaxial UU
1
1.5
Depth (m)
2.00
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
0
20
40
60
80
Shear Strength (kPa)
100
On both the Scotland and Jamaica sites dynamic probing was undertaken with varying degrees of success.
One of the main problems was that in these very
weak soils the rods and hammer would fall under their
own weight. Another problem was that results were
recorded as blows/100 mm and not mm/blow making
the test less sensitive to higher penetrations.
To allow comparison of the different in-situ test
methods, all the results were converted to Youngs
Modulus (E).
For SPT, E = 0.8N,
DCP, E = 2.4xblows/100 mm
CPT, E = 2 qc (Schmertmann)
In Scotland all three methods were used in close
proximity and the calculated E values for each are
plotted in Figure 5. The methods do show similar low
strength results however at depths below 12 m the DCP
becomes erratic. This is possibly due to frictional resistance on the rods. The SPT and CPT results do however
follow a similar trend.
324
Stiffness, E (MPa)
0.00
0.00
2.00
5.00
Very Soft
10.00
15.00
20.00
MRP08
MRPM08
4.00
Depth (m)
6.00
Soft
8.00
Dynamic cone penetrometer testing was partially successful in investigating these very weak materials.
Its main benefit was to identify where the strength
increased to about 3540 kPa (soft to firm). If readings are taken as mm/blow, it can be of more benefit
for soft soils.
The DCP is lightweight and easy to operate by hand,
hence it has a significant advantage in getting into difficult positions. It is also robust and is readily available
in many developing (and developed countries). Also,
if it is unavailable, it is easy to construct from scratch.
Further development of the DCP apparatus for use
on very weak materials would be of great benefit for
the investigation of these tailings facilities.
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
5
5.1
CONCLUSIONS
Shear testing
325
326
ABSTRACT: Irans largest natural gas field is South Pars, geologically an extension of Qatars 900-Tcf North
Field. South Pars was first identified in 1988 and originally appraised at 128 Tcf in the early 1990s. This Field
contains 38.6% of the gas resources of Iran and is regarded as the largest offshore gas field in the world. Offshore
geotechnical site investigations are one of the key activities of upstream fields operators to supply the EPC contractors with the required results for designing approaches of offshore complexes. In the mean time a lot of marine
site investigations have been carried into execution within the phases of South Pars development. The authors are
currently trying to create the fundamentals of investigating the small- and large-scale spatial variability of the
South Pars Gas Field in Persian Gulf/IRAN. Part of this investigation is the providing of an extensive data base of
the offshore geotechnical properties of South Pars. Such a data base, will enable a model to be developed of the
large-scale variability of these properties. In addition, this data set will provide a data whereby general trends to be
established, as well as, providing relationships between geotechnical parameters and spatial parameters utilizing
probabilistic and data mining methods like ANN (Artificial Neural Network) in Geotechnical Engineering.
INTRODUCTION
327
GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
328
composite bore holes are developed based on contractual agreements but normally are continues sampling
in the top 20 m for the Flare Tripods and Well head
jacket bore holes and in the first 10 m for the Bridge
Tripod bore holes. Alternate sampling and PCPT are
performed thereafter to the final depth. The scope of
geotechnical investigations are some times different in
various phase but the above description could be could
be considered as a general scope.
LABORATORY TESTING
329
Water content
Density
Torvane
Pocket penetrometer
Motorized laboratory vane
Unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests
Qualitative carbonate testing
Point load strength index testing
Figure 2a. Sample data base spread sheet of one borehole on Microsoft Excel for Laboratory Test Plan.
Site Information:
Site location;
Job number;
Borehole number;
Borehole location and south pars map grid cord.
Date of sampling;
Additional comments.
Spread specification
330
COMMON TRENDS
331
REFERENCES
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
Apart from providing a source of data whereby the spatial variability of the south Pars soil may be modeled,
the data base has a number of additional applications
and benefits as below:
A) It provides the geotechnical engineering Community with a large quantity of data whereby trends
and relationships can be established, as well as
enabling statistical properties to be quantified.
This is due to the large number of test results
contained within the data set.
B) Secondly, the data base provides a mechanism
whereby test results can be checked. For example,
a consolidated un-drained tri-axial test performed
on soil samples can be checked to make sure about
its conformance. Thus, relationships and trends
generated from the data set will enable a quick
and inexpensive check of test results to be made.
C) Thirdly, the data base provides geotechnical data
for preliminary design. Values of un- drained shear
strength, Youngs modulus, bulk unit weight, void
ratio, and so on, can be obtained from relationships
obtained from the collection of data.
10
11
332
Babak Molaei
Offshore Structural Engineering, Theran University
ABSTRACT: A 4-legged jacket structure was installed by an Offshore Installation Contractor (OIC) in the
Persian Gulf. In addition to four open-end pipe piles, six conductors were installed by OIC. During the installation
of the piles and conductors, some cemented layers were encountered, which had not been accounted for in the
foundation design performed by an independent well known offshore geotechnical site investigation contractor
(OGSIC). Six months later, the Drilling Company (DC) hired by Client to execute the wells, reported that all
of the six conductors were presenting anomalies, such as vertical misalignments up to 10o and/or collapse of
the conductors tip and mid height. The DC faced with serious problem in drilling of the wells and in spite of
several times milling the conductors and spending 40 days unpredicted extra time, some of the routes could
not be opened and Client lost millions of dollars due to direct and indirect associated costs and expenses. This
paper presents a complete overview of all engineering, construction and specially geotechnical investigations
and shows that how an inaccuracy in interpretations of the results of an offshore geotechnical site investigation
as the main reason in this case study can cause serious damages to whole project with unbelievable time and
cost impacts some times up to millions of dollars.
INTRODUCTION
A 4-legged jacket structure was installed by an Offshore Installation Contractor (OIC) in the Persian
Gulf. This installation took place in the beginning
of 2004. The water depth is about 40 m. Installation
works was performed by a revolving derrick barge.
In addition to four 42 inch OD, 40 mm TW opened
pipe piles, six 30 inch OD, 1 inch TW conductors were
installed by OIC. Both piles and conductors were
made of EN10025 grade steel, whose yield strength is
355 MPa, and installed using a 400T hydraulic hammer. During the installation of the piles and conductors, some cemented layers were encountered, which
had not been accounted for in the foundation design
performed by an independent offshore geotechnical
site investigation contractor (OGSIC),but in spite of
the heavier driving, there were no occurrences worth
mentioning in any of the installation reports, that could
be seen as an irregular behavior. Six months later, the
drilling company hired by Client to execute the wells,
reported that all of the six conductors were presenting
anomalies, such as vertical misalignments up to 10o
and/or collapse of the conductors tip and mid height.
333
Figure 3. Applied energy per blow as a function of penetration along the conductor.
334
built and installed with just the same length (approximately 129 m) and driven to the same penetration
(approximately 60 m), but conductors 1, 2 and 4 were
damaged and drilling contractor was unable to drill out
the entire soil plug. The aforementioned damage took
place exactly at the final lengths that are indicated for
these 3 conductors.
335
Table 1.
Conductor Slot
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
Driven to 36 m
Driven to 60 m
4
6
6
5
3
1
1
4
5
2
2
3
3
3.1
3.2
336
3.3
337
338
Based on the information referred before the following assessment has been performed to find the main
reasons for the problem:
339
REFERENCES
1. Project specific documents:
Report on Marine Geotechnical Investigation of
Project,
Geotechnical
Engineering,
Jacket
Installation, Pile and Conductors Driving Records,
Daily Drilling Reports, Pile Make-up Drawings
Conductor Make up Drawings Magnetic Particle
and Ultrasonic Examination Reports Conductor Shop
Drawing Controlled Vertical Drilling Data,
2. API-RP2A (2000),
Recommended Practice for Planning,
Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore
Platforms Working Stress Design, 21st edition.
3. Chellis. Pile Foundations. McGraw-Hill, 1961
4. Fellenius B.H., Riker R.E., OBrien A.J. and Tracy G.R.
Dynamic and static testing in soil exhibiting set-up.
Journal of Geotechnical engineering, 1989, Vol. 115,
No. 7, 9841001.
340
5. Lee W., Lee I.M., Yoon S.J., Choi Y.J. and Kwon L.H.
Bearing capacity evaluation of the soil-cement injected
pile using CAPWAP.
6. F. Townsend, M. Hussein & M. Mcvay (eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on the Application of Stress-Wave Theory to Piles, 1996, Orlando,
University of Florida,
7. Seidell, J. and Kolinowski, M., (2000). Pile set-up in
sands, Procedures of the Sixth International Conference on the Application of Stress Wave Measurements
toPiles, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Niyema and Beim, eds.,
Balkema, 267274.
8. Piles and pile-driving. Wessington, A. M., Engineering News Publishing Co., New York
9. Linkins, G., Rausche, F., Thendean, G., and
Svinkin, M., (1996). CAPWAP Correlation Studies.
Fifth International Conference on the Application of
Stress
S.V. Ramaswamy
Civil Engineering Department, Anna University, Chennai, India
ABSTRACT: This paper reports the behavior of circular plate anchors, buried in soft saturated soil under
short-term cyclic loading. The principle parameters studied are the effect of cyclic load ratio level (CLRL)
and time period of loading cyclic on anchor movement. Further the effect of pre-loading on the movement of
anchors in subsequent loading stages and post-cyclic monotonic load-deformation bahaviour of anchors have
been reported. The experimental results indicate that for low intensities of cyclic loading i.e. CLRL of 0.15
and 0.30 elastic equilibrium of anchor movement is attained after few cycles of loading. But for higher CLRL
an unceasing anchor movement is observed with loading cycles. The degradation in cyclic stiffness increases
with increase in amplitude of cyclic loading. Time period of loading cycles have showed considerable effect on
movement of anchors. For given duration of loading, higher frequency cycles cause more movement of anchors
than lower frequency cycles. Pre-loading reduces the movement of anchors in subsequent stages. Post-cyclic
monotonic pullout test showed an increase in initial stiffness of anchors whereas the peak pullout load was found
to decrease marginally over that of an anchor not subjected to any cyclic loading. To prevent any substantial
movement, the amplitude of cyclic loading should be kept below 30% of the static anchor capacity.
INTRODUCTION
341
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Soil characteristics
342
343
time period with some scattering. The slope of average straight lines are not same, it increases with the
increase in loading cycles. The movement of anchor
under cyclic loading is related to the development and
subsequent dissipation of pore water pressure. When
the time period of loading cycles increases the excess
pore water pressure gets more time for its dissipation
causing comparatively higher anchor movement. Further, the linear relationship between anchor movement
with logarithm of time period indicates that the rate
of dissipation of pore water pressure within a loading
cycle decreases exponentially with increase in time.
The curves in Fig. 8 indicate a non-linear relationship between the movement of anchor and duration of
loading. Initially the rate of anchor movement is high
which tends to stabilize with time. For a given duration
of time, cyclic loadings of lower time period produces
higher anchor movement than movements caused by
cycles of higher time period.
344
4.4
Effect of pre-loading
345
CONCLUSION
The magnitude of anchor movement is primarily governed by the amplitude of cyclic loading. The rate of
movement of anchor per loading cycle is maximum
for first cycle and it reduces thereafter. The normalized cyclic stiffness is found to decrease with increase
of amplitude of cyclic loading.
The cyclic stiffness of soil anchor system is found
to stabilize after few loading cycles for anchors subjected to CLRL of 0.15 and 0.30 but, for higher CLRL,
the cyclic stiffness continues to degrade beyond 1000
loading cycles. The normalized cyclic stiffness is
found to decrease with the increase in amplitude of
cyclic loading.
Anchor subjected to cyclic loading and then monotonic pullout shows a stiffer load-displacement behavior at its initial stage compared to anchor not subjected
to any cyclic loading. The relative post-cyclic stiffness of anchors for the present test conditions varies
between 1.129 to 1.329.
The magnitude of ultimate uplift capacity is found
to remain almost constant even with the imposition
of cyclic load, however the magnitude of anchor displacement increases significantly with cyclic loading
intensity.
REFERENCES
Andreadis, A., Harvey, R.C. and Eldon, B., 1981. Embedded Anchor Response to Uplift Loading, J. of Geotech.
Engrg. Div., ASCE, Vol.107, No.l, pp.5978.
Bemben, S.M. and Kupferman, M., 1975. TheVertical Holding Capacity of Marine Anchor Flukes subjected to Static
and Cyclic Loading, Proc. Offshore Technology Conf,
OTC 2185, pp.363374.
Bemben, S.M., Kalajian, E.H. and Kupferman, M., 1973.
The Vertical Holding Capacity of Marine Anchors in
Sand and Clay subjected to Static and Cyclic Loading,
Proc. Offshore Technology Conf., pp.871880.
Bouazza, A. and Finlay, T.W., 1990. Uplift Capacity of
Plate Anchors buried in Two Layered Sand, Soils and
Foundations, Vol.36, No.4, pp.5770.
Das, B.M., 1995. Behavior of Shallow Plate Anchors in
Clay under Sustained Loading, Marine Georesource and
Geotechnology, Vol.13, No.4, pp.417428.
Datta, M., Gulhati, S.K. and Achari, G., 1990. Behavior
of Plate Anchors in Soft Cohesive Soils under Cyclic
Loading, Indian Geotech. J., Vol.20, No.3, pp.206224.
Goldberg, E.D. and Griffin, J.J., 1970. The Sediments
of the Northern Ocean, Deep Sea Research,. Vol.17,
pp.513537.
Meyerhof, G.G and Adams, J.I., 1968. The Ultimate Uplift
Capacity of Foundations, Can. Geotech. J., Vol.5, No.4,
pp.225244
Ponniah, D.A. and Finlay, T.W., 1983. Cyclic Behaviour of
Plate Anchors, Can. Geotech. J., Vol.25, pp.374381.
Singh, S.P., 1998. Behavior of Plate Anchors in Soft Saturated Clay under Monotonic and Cyclic Loading, Ph.D.
Thesis, Anna University, Chennai, India.
Singh, S.P. and Ramaswamy, S. V., 2002. Response of
Plate Anchors to Sustained Cyclic Loading Indian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol.32, No.2, pp.161172.
Sutherland, H.B. 1998., Uplift Resistance of Soils,
Geotechnique, Vol.38, No.4, pp.493516.
346
Jinmin Zai
Geotechnical Institute, Nanjing University of Technology, Nanjing, China
Tinghao Lu
Geotechnical Institute, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
ABSTRACT: The dissipation process of the excess pore water pressure (EPWP) caused by the static pressed pile
installation is one of the most interesting topics to engineers in the profession. In the paper, the dissipation process
of EPWP is analyzed. A new equation to determine the initial EPWP after pile installation is proposed. Time and
depth are adopted to analyze EPWP, and a 3D analytical formula to describe the dissipation process of EPWP is
established. The EPWP at any time and any position around the pile can be calculated by the formula. Position
and time of Mandel effect of the soil during the dissipation process are further studied. Good agreement has been
found between results of the new analytical formula, the finite element method analysis and field measuring.
INTRODUCTION
Static pressed pile is used widely for tall building foundation in soft soil. While static pressed pile installation,
its compaction action to soft soil gives rise to the high
excess pore water pressure (EPWP) around it. After
the installation, the EPWP dissipates gradually and the
bearing capacity of the pile increases due to the increment of the soil effective stress (Juan et al, 2002). At
the same time, the displacement of soil causes various
kinds of environment problems (Fleming, 1992).
The EPWP caused by the pile installation and its
time-dependent dissipation process are of great importance to pile foundation design and pile construction.
The dissipation process is one of the most interesting
topics to engineers in the profession, and considerable research effort has been devoted to it (Randolph
1979; Roy, 1981). But there exist many shortcomings
in traditional discuss, for example, depth and time
effect are not valued enough. So, further study should
be performed to this subject in order to describe the
time-dependent EPWP dissipation process rationally.
In the paper, the dissipation process is analyzed, and
then a 3D analytical formula is derived. Then, example study using the formula is conducted in order
to sight the dissipation process. Finally, comparisons
between result of the new analytical formula, the finite
element method analysis and field measuring, are
conducted, too.
Rp
2
1 ca Z
+ 0.9f cu
+
3 r
Kp = tan2 (450 + )
Es
Rp =
r0
2(1 + )cu
347
(1)
U (t) =
z
r
pile
2 bsj0 (i /a)
Hi
a2 i=1 bsj12 (i )
3(1 ) i 2 cv t
exp
1+
a
r02
(4)
and
Hi =
(5)
Rp
r
2
cu
(2)
0
Define x = i /a,
Hi = F
=F
a
i
a
i
2
ln
2
i
x
x bsj0 (x)dx
(7)
bsj0 (i /a)
2i bsj12 (i )
i=1
3(1 ) i 2 cv t
exp
1+
a
r02
U (t) = 2F
u = F ln
(8)
Rp
1
ca Z (3)
F=
+
2(2cu Kp r0 tan ) ln
3
ln
a
r
r
0
0
+0.9f cu
Equation 8 is the very formula for determining and predicting the 3-dimension dissipating process of EPWP
caused by pile, so the EPWP at any time and any point
Where = r/r0 , a = rmax /r0 , rmax is the maxim influamong soil around the pile can be calculated using it.
ence distance of pile installation. The initial EPWP
is equal to zero when r is equal to rmax . Equation 3
indicates the initial EPWP distribution rationally.
4 BASIC MATHEMATIC ANALYSIS
4.1 Series item n
348
Table 1.
3.5
n=10
n=9
n=5
n=3
n=1
3.0
U(t)/kPa
2.5
2.0
Es
kPa
ca
kPa
cu
kPa
cv
m2 d1
2000
12
12
0.06
20
0.4
0.9
20
1.5
180
1.0
150
t=0d
0.5
t=1d
t=10d
0.0
0
10
15
20
U(t)/kPa
120
25
t=30d
t=60d
90
t=90d
60
30
3.5
0
Equation 3
Equation 9
3.0
10
15
20
2.5
1.5
180
1.0
150
0.5
120
0.0
10
15
20
U(t)/kPa
U(t)/kPa
25
t=0d
t=1d
t=10d
t=30d
t=60d
t=90d
90
60
4.2
30
0
10
bsj0 (i /a)
i=1
2i bsj12 (i )
5.1
(9)
One pile project with saturated soil site locates at Nanjing, China. The length of the static pressed pile is
30.0 m, and the diameter of it is 0.6 m. the simulating
10
Z/m
15
20
349
1.2
From figure 7, it is clearly that the bigger the coefficient of soil consolidation, the quick the dissipating
speed of EPWP and the smaller the value of EPWP.
=3.1
=2.5
1.0
=4.0
U(t)/U(0)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.1
10
t/d
100
1000
6
40
cv=0.06m /d
cv=0.09m2/d
30
U(t)/kPa
CONCLUSIONS
cv=0.12m2/d
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
REFERENCES
U(t)/kPa
0
10
1
2
20
30
40
Equation 8
Field tests
Z/m
FEM
3
4
5
6
Figure 8. Comparison of EPWP between theoretic calculation, measured value and FEM analysis.
It should be noted that coefficient of soil consolidation, cv , determines the value and dissipating speed
of EPWP. Figure 7 shows the distribution of EPWP
with different cv when t = 30 d and z = 10 m. Other
calculating parameters are same to table 1.
350
Yi-Qin Zhou
Headquarter of the Expressway Construction, Wenzhou, China
Zheng Lu
Institute of rock and soil mechanics, Chinese Academic of Science Wuhan, China
Qi Zhou
Headquarter of the Expressway Construction, Wenzhou, China
ABSTRACT: The embankment reinforcement, anchor and anti-slide piles are used to ensure the stability
and control settlement of subgrade. From a series of experiments, long term monitoring and FEM analysis,
physical properties of soft silt in this segment are investigated; construction procedure of high embankment are
suggested, ultimate settlement of the high fill embankment are analyzed; and the internal force and deformation
characteristics of the anchor piles are evaluated. Comparing the results of settlement monitoring with numerical
analytical ones, control criteria for stability calculation of high fill embankment on soft clay foundation are
proposed, and the anticipated effect is obtained.
INTRODUCTION
It is well known that the control of settlement and stabilization of high subgrade beside hill and above soft
foundation in expressway is of great importance for
geotechnical engineering. And there is a technical difficulty in the control of stabilization and settlement
of high fill embankment beside hill and above soft
foundation. Moreover, it is rarely reported on building nearly 20 m high fill embankment beside hill and
above soft foundation.
There is a typical case of embankment beside
hill and above soft foundation in Yong-Tai-Wen
expressway in Wenzhou City. The length of sections
K83 + 050 K83 + 230 from Longtou Ruian to Fenshuiguan Cangnan is about 200 m and its highest fill
embankment is approximately 20 m. It lies between
the foot of mountain and paddy field. Soft silt with
3.2 7.2 m thick is below the right side of the embankment. Dry jet mixing (DJM) piles were used to dispose
soft silt, which diameter of pile is 0.5 m and the distance between two piles is 0.9 m and 1.1 m. There were
block stones in the soft foundation during construction, and some of dry jet mixing (DJM) piles didnot
reach the designed depth. So geogrids and geotextile
were paved in subgrade to decrease unusual settlement
351
ENGINEERING-GEOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS AND ANTI-SLIDE
STABILIZATION MEASURES
Table 1.
Serial
number
Name of
soil-layers
specific
gravity Gs
Natural water
content %
Natural dry
density g/cm3
Void
ratio eo
aV 12
MPa1
Es12
MPa
C
kPa
degree
Silty clay
Clay
Silt soil
2.71
2.66
2.70
30.4
39.2
46.6
1.45
1.29
1.21
0.865
1.078
1.274
0.308
0.321
0.913
7.35
6.45
3.01
16.7
47.4
14.2
29.1
26.6
2.5
piles equivalent to series wall are as follows: elastic modulus is 2 107 kPa, the sectional area of unit
length is 1.21 m2 the inertia moment of unit length
is 0.1476 m4 the thickness is 1.21 m anchor cables is
simulated as concentrated forces, the anchor-hold of
unit length is 228.6 kN declination angel is 30 , the
unit length of prestressed anchor cable can provide
horizontal load 198 kN/m and vertical load 114 kN/m
respectively. The calculated resistant moment and
sheering force of series wall are converted when
researching the resistant moment and sheering force of
piles. DUNCON-ZHANG model (E B(K)) is used in
dividing soil stratums and consolidation drained shear
parameters are shown in the Table 2 , which is situated
in the finished consolidation condition. The construction procedure of anchor piles and fill embankment are
investigated. As a result, the distributing and the development process of resistant moment, sheering force,
axial force and plane displacement are obtained.
The consolidation coefficient of flowing plastic saturated silt and some partly consolidated silt-clay under
50 400 kPa is 0.1 102 cm2 /s with no drainage
system in soft soil. The silt soil stratum in 6 m depth
is considered as unilateral drain. It is needed approximately 7 10 years when the degree of consolidation
reaches 90%, which is much longer than constructing time and monitoring time. In order to simulate the
internal force and reformation that anti-slide piles bear
when the soft soil and fill soil havent consolidated,
some parameters of silt layers, cut and fill layers and
fill layers are modified as shown in Table 3.
The groundwater can diminish the effective stress
in foundation because of the effect of pore water pressure. So that Two cases are simulated respectively in
numerical analytic method. Case one is that neglecting the effect of effective stress in foundation caused
by groundwater. Case two is that the water level of
groundwater is considered as locating on the top of
the silt layers.
352
Table 2.
Name of
soil-layers
Wet unit
weight kN/m3
Rf
C kPa
Kur
Kb
fully decomposed
residual soil
of tuff
Pebble-clay layer
Mucky layer
Clay-crust layer
Cut and fill layer
High of fill
layer over 19 m
18.5
600
0.3
0.75
48
32
1200
500
0.30
18.8
16.4
18.6
20.0
20.0
120
50
80
600
600
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.3
0.3
0.70
0.61
0.65
0.75
0.75
25
28
28
5
5
25
25
25
35
35
240
100
160
1200
1200
38
22
36
500
500
0.40
0.30
0.34
0.30
0.30
Table 3.
Name of layers
Kb
C (kPa)
Silt layer
Fill layer
1000000
28
1
5
35
353
4.2
replacement ratio;
reduction coefficient of shear strength of the
piles (considering dip angle of slide surface and
the position of soil strip)
shear strength converted by unconfined compressive strength
354
Table 4.
Name of
layers
6.2.3
Section K83+196.5
Middle Shoulder
(%)
(%)
Middle Shoulder
(%)
(%)
the top of the settlement plate is great. The compression of this layer increases with the change
of time, but its proportion in total settlement
diminishes gradually.
(3) The proportions of soil layers in total settlement
are shown Table 4
6.2.6 Pore water pressure
From the pore water pressure curve, several results can
be obtained as follows:
(1) The curve and the process of loading are a
close match. Pore water pressure aggrandizes
with increasing grades of loading and dissipates
gradually with the change of time.
(2) The pore water pressure of upside of the sections
dissipates more quickly than that of underside of
the sections because section piezometer tips lie in
the different depth of the same mucky soil layer.
(3) Pore water pressure can totally reflect the consolidation laws. Because the left of this embankment is
filled beside hill and horizontal slopes exist in the
below of this part, the level of groundwater is influenced tremendously by rainfall, the monitoring
pore water pressure is not steady in certain range
and the degree of consolidation is also difficult to
be calculate accurately.
6.3
355
Section K83+175.5
fill embankment beside hill and above soft foundation anchor anti-slide piles retaining structures should
be taken into consideration and the control criteria of
stability can be obtained from analysis of stress-strain
relations. This project is carried out according to the
requirements of [Technical Specification of Constructional Foundation Treatment] (JGJ792002) and the
control criteria are as follows:
(1) The lateral horizontal displacement of slope
feet 3 mm/d, settlement 10 mm/d, the proportion of horizontal displacement to settlement
25 30%.
(2) Monitoring value of anchor cable is less than
designed loading value during filling.
(3) Horizontal displacement of pile 3 mm/d, the
maximum resistant moment of piles 8000 kN m.
7
CONCLUSIONS
(1) High subgrade beside hill and above soft foundation is a special section and show complicated
mechanism with the interaction of inclined foundation rock and soft clay. Anchor anti-slide piles
retaining structures show good control on the settlement and lateral deformation of high subgrade
beside hill and above soft foundation effectively,
and the anticipated effect is obtained.
(2) Real-time monitoring of the internal force and
deformation of high subgrade and anchor antislide piles retaining structures are carried out, the
states are derived and forecasted, comprehensive
monitoring data are obtained, monitoring results
are fed back in time in the process of construction,
the rate of progress of information-oriented con-
356
Li-Bo Wang
Jiangsu Provincial Communication Planning and Design Institute, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
ABSTRACT: Conventional triaxial apparatus was modified to simulate the stress paths happening in the soil
disturbed by underground mining. A series of conventional triaxial tests, biaxial compression extension tests
with loading and unloading was conducted. The influence of the underground mining disturbance on the soil
strength parameters was found based on these tests. The disturbed soil bearing capacity was analyzed using the
parameters determined from the above tests.
INTRODUCTION
357
LABORATORY TESTING
Fraction
angle
Coherent
kPa
15.2
25.4
19.6
96
Porosity
Liquid limit
Plastic
limit
Compressive
modulus (MPa)
0.719
39.2
20.7
12.3
loading
ram
Density
kN m3
Saturation %
pressure
cell
Table 2.
specimen
Soil specimen
Soil types
WL /WP
cu /v
CTCT
cu /v
BCET
Haney in situ
sensitive clay
Boston
sedimentary clay
AGS in situ highplastics clay
44/18
0.268
0.168
41/21
0.33
0.155
71/40
0.32
0.195
triaxial test, direct shear test and biaxial compression extension test indicated that the strength of clay
under undrained condition gradually decreases with
the change of the direction of major stress from vertical
to horizontal (Wang et al. 2001).
The strength from conventional triaxial compressive test (CTCT) and biaxial compression extension
test (BCET) is shown in Table 2. cu is soil strength
under undrained condition. v is the verticalconsolidation stress. The reduction of soil strength induced
by the change of major stress direction reaches about
35 50%. Therefore, the soil strength is anisotropic
(Zhang et al. 1999).
In the soil above mining area, major stress direction changed from vertical to horizontal in the area
of the passive stress state due to underground mining. Therefore, the soil strength from BCET should be
adopted.
Figures 2 and 3 are relations between confining
stress and axial strain and confining stress and lateral
strain, respectively. The relations between the confining stress and axial strain or lateral strain are different
for different initial confining consolidation stress. At
axial strain of 1.6%, confining stress is 420 kPa for
initial confining consolidation of 200 kPa and 530 kPa
for initial confining consolidation stress of 300 kPa.
2.3.2 Biaxial compression unloading test
The purpose of biaxial compression unloading test
is to obtain the compressive strength and the relations between compressive stress and strain. In order
to obtain the relation between biaxial compressive
358
600
500
400
initial consolidation stress
200kPa
initial consolidation stress
300kPa
300
200
700
Table 3.
Test
number
Stress state
of specimen
(kPa)
Recovery of in
situ stress state
(kPa)
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)
(313, 200)
(313, 184)
(313, 168)
(313, 152)
(469, 300)
(469, 270)
(469, 240)
(469, 210)
100
0
-3.5
-3.0
-2.5
-0.5
0.0
25
v-a (%)
20
15
10
5
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.4
log (3)
2.7
3.0
359
(1)
26
600
25
24
500
c (kPa)
3 3 (KPa)
700
400
300
23
22
21
200
20
3=100kPa
3=200kPa
3=300kPa
100
0
19
18
0
10
8
a (%)
12
14
20
40
16
60
80
100
3 (kPa)
600
26
500
24
c (kPa)
1 3 (KPa)
28
400
300
22
20
200
3=100kPa
3=200kPa
3=300kPa
100
0
0
10
12
14
18
16
0.00
16
3 (%)
Test number
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-7
1-8
25.1
24.5
22.3
18.8
24.5
24
21.8
19
15.2
14.7
14.1
14.8
15.8
14.5
14.6
14.7
0.24
0.32
unloading stress. If 3 /3 is defined as loading coefficient, then relation between loading coefficient and
coherence is linear. Figure 7 shows the relation of loading coefficient and coherence. The equation between
loading coefficient and coherence can be obtained
using least squares regression as follows:
(2)
360
0.16
3/3
c = 23.73 /3 + c0
0.08
y=-23.7x+25.9
Table 5.
Table 6.
Test
number
Stress state
of specimen
(kPa)
Recovery of in
situ stress state
(kPa)
Stress state
after disturbed
(kPa)
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(0, 0)
(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(313, 200)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)
(469, 300)
(313, 510)
(313, 570)
(313, 630)
(313, 690)
(469, 600)
(469, 680)
(469, 760)
(469, 840)
Test number
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
31.2
29.2
25.1
21.7
31.1
28.1
24.3
21.7
14.3
15.6
16.3
16.1
15.1
15.8
17.5
17.3
32
700
30
600
28
1 3 (KPa)
500
26
400
24
300
22
3=100kPa
3=200kPa
3=300kPa
200
100
20
0
0
0
8
10
3 (%)
12
14
50
100
150
200
250
300
3 (kPa)
16
600
1 3 (KPa)
500
400
300
3=100kPa
3=200kPa
3=300kPa
200
100
0
0
10
12
14
16
3 (%)
Figure 9. Deviator stress vs axial stress for Test 2-5.
c = 11.43 /c + c0
361
(3)
40
35
30
25
y=-11.4x+31.4
20
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
3/3
xp =
(6)
(7)
'
'
'K0 z xp '
x
in the plastic state xp < |x | (8)
=
x
K0 z
The equations (2) and (3) can be expressed as:
(4)
c = k
x
+ c0
x
(9)
1
1
(z xp ) = c cos + (xp + z ) sin
2
2
=
(5)
362
s + e w
1 + e
(10)
Table 7.
In situ
Dry
Density (kN/m3 )
Soil
name
Depth
(m)
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Sandy
clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Sandy
clay
Clay
Clay
1.8
2.6
2.8
3
3.3
4.8
22.6
25.4
24.3
26.3
30
21.9
2
1.99
1.99
1.96
1.99
2.06
1.63
1.59
1.60
1.55
1.53
1.69
5
5.5
5.7
8.5
31.4
24.3
25
20.5
1.95
2.32
1.93
2.05
1.48
1.63
1.63
1.70
9
10.6
25.2
27.6
1.98
1.93
1.58
1.51
Saturation
(%)
Porosity
(%)
Compressive
Friction Coherence Modulus
angle
(kPa)
(MPa)
91
95
94
94
100
97
100
97
94
93
94
93
87
0.686
0.733
0.711
0.772
0.803
0.615
0.83
0.892
0.73
0.599
0.739
0.812
0.807
9.9
11.4
10.4
6.7
14.8
8.5
15.6
13
20.7
24
20.7
80
34
66
88
48
78
85
81
28
7
28
9.21
7.6
9.51
5.49
3.72
8.78
8.88
9.51
9.45
6.66
14.02
6.06
4.07
(11)
(12)
Friction
angle ( )
5.5
0.73
34
10
Density
(kN/m3)
Depth
(m)
Length-width
(m)
Horizontal
deformation
(mm/m)
19.6
0.5
10 2
4.8e-3
c = 23.73 /3 + c0
The relation between loading coefficient and coherence during loading is:
c = 11.43 /3 + c0
Underground mining has an influence on disturbed soil
friction angle but the influence is very small.
Because of influence of mining disturbing, the
bearing capacity of mining ground changes, and the
formula (12) presented in this paper can calculate
the bearing capacity of mining ground disturbed by
mining.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is funded by Chinese National Science
Fundament Committee (50574088).
363
Coherence
(kPa)
Porosity
Compressive
Modulus
(MPa)
REFERENCES
Grabowski Z, Litwinowicz L. 1991. On soil strength changes
on a mine subsiding thorough. Proceedings of the 10th
European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering. Publ by A.A. Balkema, 809810.
Hu Z.X. 1997. Soil mechanics and environmental soil technics. Shanghai: Tongji Publishing House, in Chinese.
LLitwinowicz. 1985. The influence of horizontal expansion
on soil strength in mining areas. the 3rd International
Conference of Ground Movement and Structure, 397403.
Liang W.M. 2000. The Relative Settlement of A Buildings
Foundation and Its Ground Base Under the Effect of
Mining. Mine Survey, (3), 2528. in Chinese.
364
Material behaviour
ABSTRACT: This study represents the compressibility properties of reconstituted organic soils contents at
Khulna Region of Bangladesh. Reconstituted soils were prepared manually to have the soil samples of required
organic contents with wide variation. Eight different samples of reconstituted soils for the organic contents of
about 5, 6, 13, 19, 25, 30, 35 and 42% were prepared in the laboratory by adjusting the different proportion
of inorganic and organic soil samples with a water content equal to 1.25 times of liquid limits. ASTM (2004)
methods were followed for the determination of compressibility properties of reconstituted soils. The results
show that the compressibility properties of reconstituted organic soils have influenced significantly with the
increase of percentage of organic contents.
INTRODUCTION
367
Table 1.
Physical and index properties of soil samples used to prepare reconstituted soils.
Percentages of Constituted
Soil Particles
Location
OC
(%)
w
(%)
LL
(%)
PL
(%)
PI
Gs
4.75.076 mm
0.076.002 mm
<.002 mm
USCS
Symbol
Beel Dakatia
KUET campus
70
8
250
36
78
40
63
27
15
13
2
2.75
30.5
2.80
49.50
53.80
20.00
43.40
OH
ML
Note: OC = organic content, w = moisture content, LL = liquid limit, PL = plastic limit, PI = Plasticity Index, Gs = specific
gravity and USCS = Unified Soil Classification System.
Collection of Disturbed Soil Samples
368
Compression
dial gauge
Loading
frame
Dead weight
Cylindrical
Consolidation
mold
60
50
R2 = 0.9978
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
friction. The slurry was then poured into the mold and
stirred with steel rod to remove the entrapped air.At the
top of the slurry, a 3 mm thick perforated steel disc with
a filter paper separation was placed as shown in the
Figure 2 and the axial load of 100 kN/m2 was gradually
applied to the sample. Initially the slurry was allowed
to consolidate by the self-weight and the weight of the
porous metal discs for about 24 hours. Then a small
pressure of 3 kN/m2 was applied to the sample for next
24 hours. Similarly, the pressure was increased gradually by about 5, 8, 10, 13, 18, 26, 34, 42, 50, 59, 67,
75, 87, 92 and finally 100 kN/m2 and maintained this
pressure till the end of primary consolidation. After
consolidation the soil cake of 114 to 127 mm length
and 152 mm dia was obtained from reconstituted soils.
2.3.3 Selection of overburden pressure
An external pressure is required to consolidate the
slurry to obtain reconstituted soil samples. Earlier, it
was considered that a pre-consolidation pressure of
276 kN/m2 was about the minimum value which could
make the clay soil just stiff enough to allow setting
up specimens (Kirkpatrick and Khan, 1984). Latter as
the skill in testing has improved and it is found that
the sample is possible to remove at 150 kN/m2 (Kirkpatrick and Khan, 1984). Singh (1992) suggested that
soil containing high organic matter shows large volume changes on loading and expulsion of water, low
shear strength and low dry density. In addition, the
reconstituted organic soil is fully decomposed with
normally loaded state and shows highly compressible
phenomena. So, in this study the reconstituted soils
were prepared in the laboratory in Ko -consolidation
cell by a consolidation pressure of 100 kN/m2 .
ORGANIC CONTENTS IN THE
RECONSTITUTED SOILS
369
70
Perforated base
for drainage
80
2.5
eo = 0.0333*OC + 0.6432
R2 = 0.9168
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
10
20
30
40
Organic content, OC (%)
50
Compression index, Cc
0.8
Cc = 0.015*OC + 0.0812
R2 = 0.9417 (OC: 25 to 42%)
0.7
0.6
Cc = 0.0054*OC + 0.3202
R2 = 0.65 (OC: 5 to 25%)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
The variation of coefficient of consolidation of reconstituted soils with the increase of organic contents is
presented in Table 2 and Figure 6. The figure illustrates
that there is an increasing trend of coefficient of consolidation with the increase of organic contents. It can
be seen from the figure that at a particular applied pressure, say 100 kPa, the value of coefficient of consolidation has changed from 0.00252 to 0.0330 cm2 /sec for
the increase of organic contents from 5 to 42%. Similar increasing trend of coefficient of consolidation are
also observed for other applied pressure ranging from
25 to 800 kPa. From the figure it can be concluded that
the values of coefficient of consolidation is insignificant for low organic contents and then it is significant
for high organic contents. The value of coefficient
of consolidation depends on permeability, void ratio,
compression index and applied pressure (Lambe et al.,
1969). Under applied pressure the settlement of soil
mass depends on the percent of organic contents.
Therefore, due to induced organic matter in the soil
mass, the coefficient of consolidation has changed
significantly, with respect to the applied pressure.
4.4 Variation of coefficient of consolidation with
applied pressure
The variations of coefficient of consolidation of reconstituted soils with the increase of applied pressure
for different organic contents are represented in Figure 7. The figure depicts that there is an increasing
trend of coefficient of consolidation with the increase
of applied pressure for all percentages of organic
contents of the reconstituted soils. For the organic contents of 25%, the value of coefficient of consolidation
increases from 0.008 to 0.013 cm2 /sec for the increase
of applied pressure from 25 to 100 kPa. Similar degree
of increment is also observed for the other organic
contents.
370
Table 2. Coefficient of consolidation with organic contents under different applied pressure on the
reconstituted soils.
Organic
Contents, OC (%)
25.00
50.00
100.00
200.00
400.00
800.00
5.00
6.00
13.00
19.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
42.00
0.00154
0.00237
0.00402
0.00431
0.00788
0.0099
0.01146
0.0135
0.00231
0.00273
0.0045
0.0048
0.00907
0.0103
0.01483
0.0188
0.00252
0.00284
0.00587
0.00617
0.0131
0.0141
0.0158
0.033
0.00652
0.00672
0.0131
0.01652
0.0168
0.0188
0.028
0.0439
0.0252
0.0288
0.0297
0.0312
0.0478
0.0542
0.05939
0.0639
0.0359
0.037
0.0397
0.0437
0.0501
0.0556
0.0605
0.069
0.1
0.09
14
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
12
25
50
100
200
400
800
0.08
25
10
0.03
0.02
0.01
50
100
200
400
800
4
2
0
0
0
0
10
20
30
40
10
20
30
40
50
50
0.10
0.09
42
35
30
25
19
13
6
5
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0
200
400
600
800
1000
371
25.00
50.00
100.00
200.00
400.00
800.00
5
6
13
19
25
30
35
42
11.85
9.61
6.66
5.29
2.89
2.31
1.99
1.6900
9.86
8.352
5.663
5.063
2.528
2.22
1.54
1.21
9.06
8.01
6.88
4.884
2.742
1.877
1.44
0.6889
5.497
4.92
3.742
2.497
1.513
1.44
0.81
0.518
4.903
4.312
2.961
2.624
1.281
0.941
0.673
0.4225
1.384
0.96
0.656
0.561
0.457
0.34
0.263
0.176
14
12
42
35
30
25
19
13
6
5
10
8
6
REFERENCES
4
2
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
CONCLUSIONS
372
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation carried out to study the engineering properties of soft Bangkok clay subjected to temperatures changes varying from 25 C to 90 C. Details of a
modified triaxial test apparatus that can handle temperatures up to 100 C are also presented. The experimental
program includes series of drained and undrained compression triaxial tests, and flexible wall hydraulic conductivity tests conducted at different temperature levels. In the range of temperatures investigated, soft Bangkok clay
was found to exhibit temperature induced volume changes that depended mainly on the stress history and stiffness.
Hydraulic conductivity was found to increase as temperature increased.The results of this study provide additional
data that can enhance the understanding of the thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour concepts of saturated clays.
INTRODUCTION
2 TEST EQUIPMENTS
2.1 Triaxial apparatus
The modified triaxial system, shown in Fig. 1, comprises a metallic triaxial cell with two transparent
windows that can accommodate soil specimens up
to 50 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height. A thermal cutoff unit (25 C) has been used to minimize the
effect of thermal expansion of the connecting tubes.
Three ring heaters were placed on the outer wall of
the cell and the required temperature was controlled
by a K-type thermocouple placed inside the triaxial
cell. The precision of the thermo-controller system
is 0.1 C. A burette with a least count of 0.01 ml
has been used for volume change measurements. The
temperature induced volume change under drained
heating condition in the triaxial tests was measured
373
Table 1.
Transparent
windows
Heater
Specimen
Thermal cutoff
25C
Back pressure
Physical
properties
Thermocouple
Porous
stone
Metallic
cell
Cell pressure
Pore water pressure
transducer
A constant head flexible wall technique using the modified triaxial test apparatus, as shown in Fig. 1, was
used to study the effect of temperature on the hydraulic
conductivity of soft Bangkok clay. The two back pressure lines of the triaxial apparatus were opened to
different constant pressure sources to generate the
required constant hydraulic gradient across the test
specimen. The amount of water flow through specimen
was measured by a burette with a least count of 0.01 ml.
Chemical
properties
Sample
No.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
20.2
78
22
0
1.44
0.39
10.29
4.99
7.3
pc (kPa)
OCR
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
200
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
300
1.5
3
9
Pre-shearing thermal
loading path ( C)
25
25-70
25-90
25-70-25
25-90-25
25
25-70-25
25-90-25
25
25-70-25
25-90-25
25
25-70
25-90
25
25-70
25
25-70
25
2570
the detailed experimental program of undrained compression triaxial tests. Undisturbed soil specimens
where the height and the diameter of the specimen
were 70 and 35 mm, respectively, were also tested.
374
103
60
9095
0.83
2.67
14.9
2.4
Dark gray
5E-9
237
3 TEST SPECIMEN
The drained heating condition applied to triaxial specimens was achieved by raising the soil temperature in
increments of 10 C when the volume change under
the current temperature stabilized as shown in Fig. 2.
Similar technique was adopted byTowhata et al. (1993)
and Delage et al. (2000).
The thermo-mechanical testing path of standard
undrained compression triaxial tests is shown in Fig. 3.
The general testing procedures can be explained as
follows:
1) Isotropic consolidation was imposed up to mean
effective pressure of 200 or 300 kPa (path O to A),
followed by an unloading in some cases (path A
to B) resulting in different overconsolidation ratios
(OCR = 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 9.0).
2) Incremental drained heating (path A to C or B to C)
was conducted for the specimen tested at elevated
temperature. Drained incremental heating/cooling
cycle (path A to C to A or B to C to B) was
conducted for specimen tested after having been
subjected to temperature history.
3) Undrained shearing (path C to D and C to D at
elevated temperature or, path A to E and B to E
for either tests at ambient temperature or after subjected to heating/cooling cycle) was performed by
375
100
Temperature [C]
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
v
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
[%]
p'c=200 kPa,OCR(1)
240
OCR(1.5)-25 C
OCR(1.5)-70 C
OCR(3)-25 C
OCR(3)-70 C
OCR(9)-25 C
OCR(9)-70 C
q [kPa]
240
200
q [kPa]
160
120
80
120
40
25 C
80
70 C
40
90 C
10
12
14
16
a [%]
0
0
10
12
a [%]
120
200
80
u [kPa]
u [kPa]
160
120
40
80
0
40
-40
0
0
10
12
a [%]
8
a [%]
10
12
14
16
376
undrained shear strength increased as the soil temperature increased irrespective of the overconsolidation
ratios. In addition, for normally and lightly overconsolidated specimens (OCR = 1.5), the generated excess
pore water pressure decreased as the soil temperature increased. However, for highly overconsolidated
specimens the excess pore water pressure increased as
the soil temperature increased as shown in Fig. 6 for
specimens of OCR = 3.0 and 9.0.
Figure 7 demonstrates the undrained shear strength
behaviour of soft Bangkok clay specimens at different overconsolidation ratios (1, 2, and 4) subjected to
different temperature histories (25 to 70 to 25 C and
25 to 90 to 25 C) before shearing. The results show
that shear strength increased as the maximum cycling
temperature increased. The results also illustrate that
as the soil temperature increased the excess pore water
pressure decreased whatever the value of OCR.
1.0
0.8
200
0.6
q/pc
q [kPa]
160
120
0.4
80
T=25 C
T=25-70-25 C
T=25-90-25 C
40
0.2
T=70 C
T=90 C
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
a [%]
0.0
0
0.5
0.40
u /uo
a [%]
0.50
0.30
0.4
0.20
0.3
u/pc
0.10
0.00
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
0.2
7.0
a [%]
0.1
OCR(1),25 C
OCR(1),25-90-25 C
OCR(2),25-70-25 C
OCR(4),25 C
OCR(4),25-90-25 C
OCR(1),25-70-25 C
OCR(2),25 C
OCR(2),25-90-25 C
OCR(4),25-70-25 C
0
0
a [%]
Figure 8. Undrained triaxial compression test results of normally consolidated soil tested at different temperatures or
after subjecting to different heating/cooling cycles.
377
240
1.8
200
1.6
160
1.4
Eu/p
a)
120
1.2
80
1
1.E-11
40
T=25C
T= 70C
T=90C
1.8
b)
qf /q
1.6
Figure 9. Undrained secant modulus of normally consolidated soil at different temperatures and temperature histories.
1.2
1
1.0E-18
1.0E-17
1.0E-16
K (m2)
k (T)
w (T)
(1)
where (T) and w (T) are the viscosity and unit weight
of pore water, respectively, at tested temperature T. The
change of water viscosity (in Pa.s) with temperature T (in C) can be estimated after Hillel (1980) as
follows:
(T) = 0.00046575 ln (T) + 0.00239138
(2)
Figure 10.b shows that the intrinsic hydraulic conductivity is temperature independent. Based on the
above observation, the change of hydraulic conductivity with temperature can be attributed mainly to
the variation of viscosity of water with temperature.
Therefore, at constant soil void ratio, the ratio between
the hydraulic conductivity at tested temperature k (T)
and at room temperature k (To ) can be estimated using
the following equation:
378
1.4
25C
50C
70C
90C
25C
50C
70C
25C
200 kPa
90C
50C
300 kPa
70C
90C
400 kPa
Figure 10. a) Effect of temperature on hydraulic conductivity of soft Bangkok clay; b) Effect of temperature on intrinsic
hydraulic conductivity of soft Bangkok clay.
5.4
1.E-09
k (m/s)
0
9
1.E-10
T=25-90-25 C
T=25-70-25C
5.3
25C
50C
70C
90C
k(T)
(To ) w (T)
=
k(To )
(T) w (To )
(3)
4.0
k/k25
3.0
2.0
Calculated
1.0
Measured
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Temperature (C)
CONCLUSIONS
Baldi, G., Hueckel, T., and Pellegrini, R. 1988. Thermal volume changes of mineral-water system in low porosity clay
soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp.
807825.
Campanella, R. G., and Mitchell, J. K. 1968. Influence
of temperature variations on soil behaviour, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering. Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No.
3, pp. 709734.
Chapuis, R. P., and Aubertin, M. 2003. On the use of the
Kozeny-Carman equation to predict the hydraulic conductivity of soils, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 40, pp.
616628.
Delage, P., Sultan, N., and Cui,Y. J. 2000. On the thermal consolidation of Boom Clay. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 37, pp. 343354.
Del. Olmo, C., Fioravante, V., Gera, F., Hueckel, T., Mayor,
J.-C., and Pellegrini, R. 1996. Thermo-mechanical properties of deep argillaceous formations. Engineering Geology, Vol. 41, pp. 87102.
Hillel, D. 1980. Fundamentals of Soil Physics, Academic
Press., New York.
Hueckel, T., and Baldi, M. 1990. Thermoplastic of saturated clays: an experimental constitutive study. Journal
of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 116, No. 12,
pp.17781796.
Hueckel, T., and Pellegrini, R. 2002. Reactive plasticity for
clays during rehydration. Part II. Application to nuclear
waste heating natural analog at Orciatico, Italy. Engineering Geology, Vol. 64, pp. 195215.
Ladd, C.C. 1964. Stress-strain modulus of clay in undrained
shear. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, ASCE, Vol. 90, No. 5, pp.103132.
Laloui, L. 2001. Thermo-mechanical behaviour of soils.
Revue Franaise de Gnie Civil Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 809843.
Ohtsubo, M., Egashira, K., Koumoto, T., and Bergado, D.
T. 2000. Mineralogy and chemistry, and their correlation
with the geotechnical index properties of Bangkok clay:
Comparison with Ariake Clay. Soils and Foundations Vol.
40, No. 1, pp.1121.
Robinet, J. C., Rahbaou, A., Plas, F., and Lebon, P. 1996. A
constitutive thermomechanical model for saturated clays,
Engineering Geology, Vol. 41, No.1, pp. 145169.
Sultan, N., Delage, P., and Cui, Y. J. 2002. Temperature
effects on the volume change behaviour of Boom clay.
Engineering Geology, Vol. 64, pp.135145.
Towhata, I., Kuntiwattanakul, P., Seko, I., and Ohishi, K.
1993. Volume change of clays induced by heating as
observed in consolidation tests. Soils and Foundations,
Vol. 33, No.4, pp. 170183.
Virdi, S. P. S., and Keedwell, M., J. 1988. Some observed
effect of temperature variation on soil behaviour. International Conference on Rheology and Soil Mechanics,
Coventry, pp. 336354.
379
ABSTRACT: When constructing projects such as road embankment bridges approached, dikes or buildings
on soft, compressible soils, significant settlements may occur due to the consolidation of these soils under the
superimposed loads. Consolidation of soft, compressible soils involves the removal of excess pore water from
the soil. This is traditionally done applying a surcharge or preload on the construction area to squeeze out the
water. Compressible soils often have very low permeability, and water is not easily or quickly removed, making
the consolidation time unacceptably long. Vertically drains greatly facilitate the dewatering process, by providing
a suitable conduit to allow the pore water to escape quickly. Vertical drain can be economically installed at close
spacing, shortening the flow path of the water and expediting the consolidation process. Drainage capacity of
vertical drain was tested by laboratory and field test with time elapsed. Various drain materials were sampled in
factory and field application site. The test results were analysed with various test conditions. Drainage capacity
with drain material and test conditions was measured. When a load is placed on a compressible and water saturated
soil, the pressure increase is initially borne by the water within the soil. To achieve accelerated consolidation is
necessary to quickly transfer the load to the soil skeleton by drainage of the water. By installing prefabricated
vertical drains the pressurised pore water can quickly flow in a horizontal direction towards the nearest drains.
The correlation of drainage capacity and reduction of drainage capacity with time was suggested for design and
construction application on soft ground treatment.
INTRODUCTION
381
Slope
1/2 point
0.5m
0.5m
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6
No. 7
Before
installation
(qw(1) )
After
installation
(qw(2) )
Reduction
rate
(qw(2) /qw(1) )
10
20
360
90
50
40
23
6
5
75
89
88
Before
installation
(qw(1) )
After
installation
(qw(2) )
Reduction
rate
(qw(2) /qw )
10
20
360
80
31
21
7
2
1
91
94
94
in Figure 3, used the tester which was imitated Netherlands Standard Drain Discharge Tester of Delft University of Technology. The test equipment is constituted of
cylindrical pressure chamber with diameter of 20 cm
and height of 67 cm, pressurization equipment which
is able to give lateral pressure and water head equipment which is able to control the influx and outflow of
water by adjusting exit gradient.
3.2 Test results and discussion
The test results of small sized discharge capacity were
shown in table 1 and Table 2. Discharge capacity test
382
Pressure
(kPa)
100
10
initial
after 3yrs.
1
0
100
200
Lateral Pressure (kpa)
300
400
(a) 10kPa
(b) 360kPa
results for E type drain and F type drain before and after
installation were illustrated in Figure 4 and 5. The discharge capacity is decreased with increasing of lateral
pressure and is decreased after 3 years comparing with
initial time. The reduction rate of discharge capacity
is 75 88 for E type drain and 91 94 for F type drain
(Holtz etc., 1991)
383
100
F
F
F
(
(
(
2m)
2m)
70cm)
As the result which analyzed the drainage characteristics of drainage due to vertical drain and embankment
load on the soft clay grounds and the strength characteristic changes due to ground consolidation, it was
gotten the conclusion such as following.
10
1
0
10
15
20
25
CONCLUSIONS
30
Elapsed Time(hour)
REFERENCES
Yoon, Seong-Bae(1999), A study on the drainage capacity
evaluation of vertical natural fiber using large sized experimental device Masters degree, Yeongnam University.
Holtz, R.D., Jamiolkowisk, M. Lancellotte, R. and Pedroni,
S. (1991), Laboratory testing of prefabricated wick
drains. ICGECD. GEO-COAST.91. Yokohama, pp.
311316.
Lawrence, C. A. and Koerner, R. M., 1988. Flow behavior of
kinked strip drains. Geo-synthetics for Soil Improvement,
ASCE GSP 18: 2239.
Pradhan, T.B.S. Kamon, M. and Suwa, S.(1991). Design
method for the evaluation of discharge capacity of prefabricated band shaped drains. 9th ARC. Bangkok.
Miura Techiko, Bergado, D.T., Houki Kwanji, Machnaga
Jakma (1989): Experimental study on drainage capacity of plastic drain, Collection of thesis of the faculty of
science and engineering of Saka University, Vol.18, No.
1, 1. pp. 8188.
Miura Techiko, Park, Yeong-Mok, Madhav M.R. (1993),
Basic study on drainage performance of plastic drains,
Theses from Civil Engineering Society, No. 485, III-25,
pp. 3140.
Lateral pressure(3 )
Drain board
1 kg/cm2
2 kg/cm2
4 kg/cm2
87.6 (%)
81.6 (%)
85.5 (%)
88.6 (%)
78.3 (%)
77.2 (%)
83.2(%)
66.6(%)
70.3(%)
vertical state with wind condition, the winding condition decreased 7076% compared with the value
of Qw in a vertical condition. The result on this is
represented in Table 3.
384
ABSTRACT: The degree of settling occurring to a clay layer bearing a certain stress level strongly depends
on the amount of maximum pressure the soil had previously been subjected to (pre-consolidation pressure).
Therefore, laboratory investigation of pre-consolidation pressure Vmax
values for soil settling estimation is of
vital importance.
It is known that the value of Vmax
is derived from the cross plot of the final void ratio versus logV , for each
load increment during consolidation trials. Such time intervals take into account initial, primary and secondary
consolidation, probably caused by gradual soil structure resettling or by progressive inter-particle bond failure
due to the pressure applied.
Actually, in practice, compression characteristics of in situ soils differ from those obtained from oedometer
tests conducted on soil specimens; in many cases, secondary consolidation in the field appears to be negligible
in relation to the value derived from laboratory measurements.
In such cases, the final void ratio for each load increment corresponds to the volume change at the end of
primary consolidation (U = 100%), which results in a total change of the e-logV and, consequently, of the Vmax
value.
The main objective of this laboratory research study was to investigate the difference between Vmax
values
derived from volume change at 24 hours and from volume change at the end of primary consolidation. A
significant number of reconstituted soil specimens were used in the experiments, containing different clay to
fine-sand ratios. All soil specimens were subjected to pre-consolidation pressure before initiating oedometer
tests.
Analysis of experimental results revealed that c values calculated on the basis of volume change at the end of
primary consolidation are higher than those calculated on the basis of volume change at the end of 24 hr loading.
In some cases this difference was as high as 20%.
1
INTRODUCTION
Consolidation pressure Vmax
expresses maximum
load (actual or virtual) in terms of active stress the
saturated soil layer under investigation has being subjected to, to date. Pressure magnitude is graphically
determined through an e-logV plot of coordinates.
Corresponding values are derived after appropriate
processing of measurements made on the oedemeter
from layer specimens tested in the laboratory.
Data on consolidation pressure values reflect timecontinuum variance of loads that might have compressed or de-compressed the soft (problematic) soil.
Methods commonly used for the determination of
Vmax
in the laboratory are:
385
Figure 2. Determination of Vmax
from the curves of
et100 -logV and et24h -logV .
386
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Figure 3. Mould used for the preparation of reconstituted specimens for the oedometer tests.
RESULTS
The final processing of results measurements generates a pair of curves on the e-logV system for every
Experimental consolidation
pressure
Over-consolidation pressure
corresponding to primary
consolidation
Over-consolidation pressure
corresponding to secondary
consolidation
0,5
1,2
CONCLUSIONS
387
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
0,4
Table 1. Over-consolidation pressure values Vmax
at the end of primary and secondary consolidation, in correlation to
changing clay-fine sand weight ratios.
Serial
No
1
Clay %
2
Fine Sand %
3
Determination of Vmax
from the end of
secondary consolidation
t = 24h
4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
0.415
0.46
0.49
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.69
0.75
0.80
0.87
0.92
0.97
1.05
1.09
Specimens
2. Taking into account given experimental overconsolidation pressure values c , for any given
moment, these are almost identical to
Vmax
t100 .
3. This practice is more applicable in cases of clay
soils (increase percentage 17%) and less so for
sandy soils (increase percentage 5%).
4. Given that, according to the application of consolidation theory, deformation of water saturated soils
follows a parallel course to pore water drainage,
the determination of consolidation pressure should,
therefore, be ruled by deformation values at the end
of primary consolidation.
REFERENCES
Calabresi G.. (1980) L influenza delle dimensiani de carnpioni sui parametric di resistenza delle argille sovraconsolidate, intatte e fessurate, AGI, XIV Congresso Nazionale
di Geotecnica, Firenze, vol, 2, pp. 393402.
DAppolonia D.J., Poulos H.G., Ladd C.C., (1971) Initial
Settlement of Structures on Clay, JSMFD, ADCE, SM10,
pp. 13541377.
Experimental
consolidation
pressure c
6
0.47
0.52
0.57
0.63
0.69
0.73
0.78
0.83
0.92
0.93
0.98
1.07
1.04
1.09
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
388
Determination of Vmax
from the end of primary
consolidation
t100
5
Norbert Morgenstern
University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
ABSTRACT: Constant Deviatoric Stress (CDS) loading involves application of a constant deviatoric (shear)
stress to the soil while the applied mean normal stress is being varied. Loose granular soils exhibit a unique
behaviour under such loading. In these soils, significant contraction can initiate before the soil reaches the
critical state condition. In saturated soils, this can lead to the generation of pore pressures and substantial loss of
strength, which can result in flow slides in soil masses. While the initiation of such behaviour has been investigated
experimentally in a number of previous studies, ability of constitutive models to predict such behaviour has been
rarely verified.
In this paper, a critical state constitutive model is used to examine the initiation and severity of volume
contraction of sands subjected to CDS loading. The model, which has been described in detail elsewhere, is
briefly summarized and used to investigate effects of factors such as density, consolidation pressure, anisotropic
consolidation, etc. on the initiation of volume contraction in loose sands. Predicted effects are then compared
with test data where such data is available.
INTRODUCTION
Experimental studies have shown that while finegrained and medium to dense coarse-grained soils
generally dilate under CDS loading, very loose and
loose sands initially experience small or no volume
change, then start to contract substantially as they
approach failure (see e.g. Riemer 1992; Sasitharan
1993; Skopek 1994; and Anderson and Riemer 1995).
Under poor drainage conditions in the field, such
contractive behaviour can lead to the generation of substantial pore pressures and loss of strength, resulting
in catastrophic failures (see Sasitharan 1993).
While a number of experimental studies on the
behaviour of soils under CDS loading have been carried out in the past, ability of constitutive models to
replicate soil behaviour under such loading has been
rarely verified. Stress paths applied to soil samples
in standard laboratory tests such as the conventional
triaxial test do not replicate the CDS stress path, and
models verified using results of such tests may not provide reliable means for predicting the actual behaviour
of soils under CDS loading.
With the current widespread application of computational tools in geotechnical engineering, and the
important implications of the CDS loading on the
stability of earth structures, the need for constitutive
models with verified capability for reproducing soil
behaviour under CDS loading is evident. Such models
389
0.8
Mf,c
q / pc
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
p / pc
-0.2
Mf,e
-0.4
MCS,e
Mp,e
390
Mp,c
0.6
MCS,c
250
CDS Loading
Critical State Line
Measured
Initial Shearing
q (kPa)
200
150
100
50
(a)
0
0
50
100
200 P
150
250
300
p (kPa)
0.86
Ottawa Sand
Measured
predicted
CSL
void ratio
0.84
0.82
0.8
0.78
0.76
(b)
0.74
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
p (kPa)
Monterey No. 0
kp
cv
kPT
h
Gr (kPa)
Kr (kPa)
CSL:
1.2
27.5
33
0.75
1
5000
15000
ecs = 0.0156p2 0.075p
+0.851 (p in MPa)
1.4
20
28.5
1
1
8000
17000
ecs = 0.9233
0.0325 lnp (p in kPa)
391
800
300
700
600
MCS
S4
200
q (kPa)
q (kPa)
250
(a)
500
S2
S5
400
300
100
100
S3
S1
200
Mp
150
50
0
0
100
200
300
400
p (kPa)
0
0
200
400
600
800
p (kPa)
0.86
300
0.84
S2
S3
0.83
S4
S5
0.82
0.81
0.8
100
Modeled Behavior
Critical State Line
Measured
Critical State
200
250
q (kPa)
void ratio
0.85
300
400
150
C
100
50
0
(b)
500
600
50
100
150
200 P
250
300
p (kPa)
700
p (kPa)
Figure 3. CDS tests on anisotropically consolidated Monterey No. 0 sand: (a) Stress paths followed (b) Void ratio
changes.
392
MCS
200
350
MCS
300
YS at critical state
250
Mp,c
B
q (kPa)
200
150
c
100
50
4.3
0
0
100
150
200
250
300
p (kPa)
-50
Mp,e
-100
loading can have important implications on the assessment of stability of slopes consisting of loose granular
soils subjected to increase in pore pressure. In such
cases, stability analyses based on test results from
isotropically consolidated samples may indicate that
a large reduction in confinement (or increase in pore
pressure) can take place without initiating high volume contraction (i. e. the distance between points A
and B in Figure 2 is large). However, since soils in
the field are generally anisotropically consolidated and
will likely have yield surfaces closer to those shown in
Figure 6, a small increase in pore pressure (or decrease
in mean normal stress) may be sufficient to bring the
soil state to the point of collapse (i. e. point B in Figure 6). Stability assessments based on results of tests
on isotropically consolidated samples may therefore
provide unconservative results.
The difference in soil response to loading in different directions or different modes of shearing (e.g.
loading in triaxial compression vs simple shear or
triaxial extension) may also have similar implications on the stability assessment of slopes subjected
to pore pressure increase. It is often observed that
soils loaded in triaxial extension exhibit are more
contractive behaviour than those subjected to triaxial compression (see e.g. Yoshimine 1996). It is also
a common observation that Stress ratios Mp obtained
from triaxial extension are smaller than those obtained
from triaxial compression (see Imam et al. 2002) and
the constitutive model used here accounts for this
393
50
APPENDIX
REFERENCES
Mp,c =
6 sin p,c
3 sin p,c
in TC
(3a)
Mp,e =
6 sin p,e
3 + sin p,e
in TE
(3b)
Anderson, S. A. and Riemer, M. F. 1995. Collapse of Saturated Soil Due to Reduction in Confinement. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 121(2): 216219.
Anderson, S. A. and Sitar, N. 1995. Analysis of rainfallinduced debris flows. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 121(7): 544552.
Been, K. and Jefferies, M. G. 1985. A state parameter for
sands. Geotechnique, 35(2): 99112.
Castro, G., Seed, R. B., Keller, T. O. and Seed, H. B. 1992.
Steady State strength analysis of the Lower San Fernando
Dam Slide. Proc. of the 53rd Canadian Geotechnical
Conference, Montreal, pp. 169176.
Dawson, R. F., Morgenstern, N. R. and Gu, W. H. 1992. Instability Mechanics initiating Flow Failure in Mountainous
Mine Waste Dumps. Contract Report, Phase 1, to Energy,
Mines and Resources Canada.
Eckersley, J. D. 1990. Instrumented Laboratory Flowslides.
Geotechnique, 40(3), 489502.
Imam, S. M. R., Chan, D. H., Robertson, P. K, and Morgenstern, N. R. 2002a. Anisotropic yielding of loose sand.
Soils and Foundations, 42(3): 3344.
Imam, S. M. R., Morgenstern, N. R., Robertson, P. K., and
Chan, D. H. 2005. A Critical State Constitutive Model
for Liquefiable Sand, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 42:
830855.
Lade, P. V. 1993. Initiation of Static Instability in the Nerlerk
berm. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 30(6), 895904.
Manzari, M. T. and Dafalias, Y. F. 1997. A critical state twosurface plasticity model for sands. Geotechnique, 47(2):
255272.
Riemer, M. F. and Seed, R. B. Factors Affecting Apparent
Position of Steady State Line. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(3): 281287.
Rowe, P. W. 1962. The stress-dilatancy relation for static equilibrium of an assembly of particles in contact. Pro.of the
Roy.Soc.A269: 500527.
Sasitharan, S. 1993. Collapse behavior of very loose sands.
Ph.D. thesis, University of Alberta.
Skopek, P. 1994. Collapse behavior of very loose dry sand.
Ph.D.thesis , The University of Alberta.
Wood, D. M., Belkheir, K., and Liu, D. F. 1994. Strain softening and state parameter for sand modeling. Geotechnique,
44(2): 335339.
Yoshimine, M. 1996. Undrained flow deformation of saturated sand under monotonic loading conditions. Ph D
thesis, University of Tokyo.
p
pc
12
=0
M 2 = (5Mp )(Mp )
(1-a)
(2)
and p,c and p,e are the friction angles at the point of
peak q in TC and TE, respectively, and are obtained
from:
sin p,c = sin kp
in TC
(4-a)
in TE
(4-b)
(5)
dp p
= A(Mcs )
dq p
(6)
in which:
Ac = 9/(9 2MPT,c + 3MPT,c )
in TC
(7a)
in TE
(7b)
394
1
for TC
(8a)
for TE
(8b)
(9)
(2.973 e)2
(p/pa )1/2
1+e
(10a)
K = Kr
(2.973 e)2
(p/pa )1/2
1+e
(10b)
d,:
e, ecs :
f:
G, Ga :
395
h:
ABSTRACT: A poro-viscoelastic model is useful for modeling a consolidating soft soil with intrinsic timedependent effects. This paper presents a methodology for identifying (calibrating) the values of the parameters
that go into a general linear poro-viscoelastic soil model. As part of the identification methodology, which is
based around the familiar oedometer test, a semi-analytic solution of consolidation in an oedometer test has
been developed. The methodology then involves using the levenburg-marquadt nonlinear regression technique
to regress the model parameters by fitting the theoretical semi-analytic solutions to the measured oedometer
test data. Although the methodology can be applied to any general poro-viscoelastic model, the paper uses the
3-element, 4-elelment and modified 4-element mechanical poro-viscoelastic models, all of which can potentially
model the creeping soft soil, as examples to illustrate the identification methodology. The modified 4-element
model has been found to give the best results.
INTRODUCTION
397
parameters are then regressed using the LevenburgMarquadt nonlinear regression technique based on
fitting the values of the semi-analytic solutions to the
oedometer test data. The paper further examines the
use of 3-element, 4-element and modified 4-element
models to predict creeping soft soil and deduces
the creep compliance for these models. Finally the
methodology is illustrated using these mechanical
models.
2
PORO-VISCOELASTIC GOVERNING
EQUATIONS
(1)
where (z, t) is the total strain, 0 (z, t) is the immediate (elastic) strain and c (z, t) is the creep strain
resulting from a stress application. For a (linear) poroviscoelastic model, the constituent parts of the strain
described in equation (1) are related to the effective
stress z (z, t) as follow,
0 (z, t) = z (z, t)J0
t
(z, )
d
Jc (t ) z
c (z, t) =
v (z, t)
z (z, t)
kv 2 u(z, t)
=
=
t
t
w z 2
(2)
(3)
(5)
LAPLACE TRANSFORM
(7)
(8)
sz (z, s) =
kv u (z, s)
w z 2
2
(9)
where
J0
J (s) =
+ Jc (s)
s
(10)
(11)
in which
A useful alternate and equivalent form of the constitutive equation is obtained by integrating the convolution
integral by parts so that,
2 =
d
z (z, )
(3b)
(4)
u = Aez + Bez + q
(12)
(13)
in which A, B are the constants of integration, the values of which are to be determined for the oedometer
test as explained below.
398
s2 J w
s2 J
=
.
kv
cv m v
Equations (17a) and (17b) represent the Laplace transform solutions, and to obtain the solutions in real time,
the highly recommended inversion algorithm of Talbot
(1979) was used to invert the solutions numerically.
The solutions in (17) apply to a general strain compliance which up until now has not been specified. The
next section discusses some possible forms of strain
compliance to use.
Surcharge q(t)
z=0
pervious
Soil sample
pervious
2H
5 VISCO-ELASTIC MODELS
z = 2H
q (1 e2H )
(e2H e2H )
q (e2H 1)
B = 2H
(e
e2H )
(14a)
(14b)
so that,
z = sJ q
"
#
(e2H 1) z
(1 e2H )
z
e
e
+
(e2H e2H )
(e2H e2H )
(15)
2H
J = J0 =
z dz
2sJ q (e2H 1)
w =
(e2H + 1)
(17a)
(17b)
Jc (t) =
(19a)
1
E2
1e
E
2
2 t
(19b)
(19c)
399
(18)
(16)
1
E1
J0 =
w =
E2
E2
E1
E1
0
0
Stress input
Stress input
o
Time
Time
Time
Figure 3. 4-elelment (Burgers) model.
Time
Figure 2. 3-element visco-elastic model.
1
(n + 1)
1
J (s) =
+ n+1
+
sE1
s 1
s(s2 + E2 )
Stress input
Time
(20b)
Strain response
0
Time
Figure 4. Modified 4-element model.
IDENTIFICATION OF MODEL
PARAMETERS
(21b)
As previously mentioned, it is necessary to establish
the values of the model parameters, i.e. calibrate the
400
Strain response
Strain response
time (mins)
0.1
0
10
100
0.01
10000
measured
0.02
displacements( cm)
1000
1-element
3-elements
0.03
4-elements
0.04
mod 4-elms
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
values for the 3-element model are then used to provide the initial estimates for the 4-element model and
so on. This strategy is coded into a program capable
of providing estimates of the parameter values ranging
from a single element model to the modified 4-element
model. The user has the option to decide which model
to adopt based on the results of the regression where
the sum-of-squares of the errors, a measure of the
goodness-of-fit, is reported.
For the purpose of illustration, Figure 5 shows the
results of the proposed methodology where experimental data from an oedometer test (Table 2) are
presented along with the solutions yielded by a 1element (Terzaghi) model, a 3-element model, a 4element model and a modified 4-element model. In
the given example, a 1.85 cm thick clay sample was
consolidated under a surcharge pressure of 20 kPa. The
regression analysis yields the parameter values shown
in Table 1 below. The 3-element model did not produce any improvement over the 1-element Terzaghi
model as evidenced by the closeness of the relevant
theoretical curves shown in Figure 5 as well as from
the magnitude of the sum-of-squares error in Table 1.
The 4-elements model and modified 4-elements model
appear to give a better fit than the simpler models,
with the best model being the modified 4-element
model.
Once the model parameters of a chosen poroviscoelastic model have been identified, it can now be
used to predict the long term consolidation of creeping
soil. A number of numerical models have already been
401
Tv=E1kvt/(wh2)
0.1
0
Para-meters
1-elem
Terzaghi
model
cv
0.00753
(cm2 /min)
E1 (kPa)
440
1 (kPa-min) n/a
E2 (kPa)
n/a
2 (kPa-min) n/a
N
n/a
Sum-of0.213
squares
103
of error
3-elems
4-elems
Modified
4-elems
0.00753
0.00919
0.01247
440
n/a
1 105
1 1021
n/a
0.213
103
473.5
1.27 107
1 105
1 1021
n/a
0.104
103
556.8
14656
1 105
1 1021
0.2706
0.787
104
0.25
0.57
1
1.57
2.25
3.07
4
6.25
9
12.25
16
25
36
49
64
100
200
1000
2000
5000
0.0086
0.0093
0.0113
0.0134
0.0154
0.0177
0.0199
0.0233
0.0291
0.0337
0.0374
0.0456
0.053
0.0586
0.0637
0.0709
0.0784
0.0825
0.0866
0.0911
40
1.5
60
80
2.5
100
Up
CONCLUSION
Booker J.R. and Small J.C. (1985), Finite layer analysis of settlement, creep and consolidation using microcomputers, Proceedings 5th International Conference
of Num Meth in Geomechanics, Nagoya, Japan, V(1),
pp318.
Findley W.N., Lai J.S and Onaran K. (1976), Creep relaxation
of nonlinear viscoelastic materials, Dover Publications,
Inc., New York, N.Y.
Leo, C.J. and Xie, K.H. (2001), An efficient solution of onedimensional consolidation of layered soft soils with time
effects, in Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, Proceedings of the 10th IACMAG, Tucson,
Arizona 712 Jan, Vol. 2, pp 17911794. Desai et al.(eds),
Bakema Rotterdam, ISBN 90-5809-183X.
Levenberg K. (1944), A method for the solution of certain problems in least squares, Quarterly of Applied
Mathematics, 2, pp164168.
Marquardt D. (1963), An algorithm for least-squares estimation of nonlinear parameters, SIAM Journal of Applied
Mathematics, 11, pp431441.
Talbot A. (1979), The accurate numerical integration of
Laplace transforms, Journal Inst. Mathematical Applications
Terzaghi, K. (1925). Modern concepts concerning foundation engineering, Journal of Boston Society of Civil
Engineers, 10, VXII.
402
20
Figure 6. Predictions of consolidation and degree of consolidation (Up) with elapsed dimensionless time for a creeping
soft soil.
0.5
displ
Time (mins)
10
Table 2.
displ = wE1/(q0h)
Model
Up
Table 1.
ABSTRACT: This paper examines the utility of full flow penetrometers such as theT-bar and Ball penetrometers
as characterisation tools for peat. Penetration tests were conducted at three peat sites together with in-situ vane
tests and a number of laboratory triaxial tests. The T-bar and Ball are shown to yield a narrower range of N factors
relating penetration resistances to undrained shear strength than the Nkt factor of the CPTU. The T-bar and Ball
are found to overcome many of the difficulties associated with the CPTU in soft peat. In disagreement with
analytical solutions, T-bar resistances tended to be higher than comparative tests using the Ball. It is suggested
that this is due to the structural anisotropy of peat and is a feature of other soils where this phenomenon is
observed. N factors based on excess pore water pressures for the CPTU (Nu ) and Ball (NuBall ) seem to be less
scattered than those based on penetration resistances. The pore pressure parameter from the Ball penetrometer
test (BBall ) is shown to be a useful parameter to identify the relative humification within a peat deposit.
INTRODUCTION
qc and u2 (kPa)
300
qc
u2
fs
12
16
20
fs (kPa)
Figure 1. Typical CPTU from commercial project in peat.
(1) The measured resistance requires minimal correction to provide corrected resistance compared
403
200
100
16
15
Cone (Ir = 300, = -0.5)
14
13
Ball
Upper
12
Tbar
Lower
11
10
9
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
(3) Plasticity solutions based on simplified assumptions of soil behaviour exist which relate the net
resistance to the shear strength of the soil.
Long & Gudjonsson (2004) conducted T-bar penetrometer tests in several Irish soft soils, including
peat, yielding less scattered uniform resistances compared to the CPTU and a high degree of repeatability.
Long (2005) has shown that the pore pressure parameter (Bq ) derived from CPTU tests holds promise as a
profiling tool for peat humification.
The objective of this paper is to examine the ability
of full flow penetrometers to overcome the problems of
the CPTU in peat and to assess the repeatability of the
results. Tests were conducted at 3 locations in Ireland
with both blanket bog and raised bog peat. A number of
in-situ vane tests and laboratory triaxial compression
tests were carried out and the correlation between penetrometer tests and analytical solutions examined. The
Bq parameter as a profiling tool for peat humification
is investigated.
su =
(1)
(2)
404
In-situ testing
u
u2 u 0
=
Nu
Nu
(3)
(4)
As
Ap
(5)
for the T-bar using Equation 6 and for the Ball using
both Equations 7 and 8.
qTbar
NTbar
qBall
su =
NBall
u
uBall u0
=
su =
NuBall
NuBall
su =
(7)
(8)
uBall u0
qBall
(9)
T
k
(10)
405
(6)
Laboratory testing
SITES
4.1 General
Testing of the various penetrometers was conducted at
both a raised and blanket bog site. The raised bog site
is located near Limerick and the blanket bog site is
located on the outskirts of Loughrea, Co. Galway. An
additional T-bar test was conducted on a raised bog site
on the outskirts of Tuam, Co. Galway for correlation
with laboratory strength data.
Raised bogs are different from blanket bogs in a
number of ways but the key difference is in the way
Von Post
Humification
3.2
H5/H6
H7
Marl
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5
10
su (Vane)
406
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5
600
H4/H5
Depth b.g.l. (m)
Von Post
Humification
H6/H7
H7/H8
H5/H6
Von Post
Humification
600
20
10
15
20
0
0.25
0.25
15
Legend
su(Vane)
0.5
H5/H6
0.75
1
0.5
0.75
1
H7
1.25
1.25
1.5
10
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5
H5
Marl
Legend
su(CIUC)
1.5
4.4 Tuam
The Tuam raised bog site consists of 1.3 m of peat
underlain by marl and silts. As can be seen from Figure
6b, the peat humification is generally H5/H6 with a
distinct transition to H7 peat from 1 m 1.25 m. Peat at
this location is quite fibrous to 0.8 m and then becomes
sedge like to 1.25 m. Moisture contents are generally
5
5.1
Limerick
Testing at the Limerick site was the first comparative study of the CPTU, T-bar and Ball conducted in
peat. The results of this comparison in Figure 8a show
the net cone resistances (qnet ) for the CPTU to reduce
from initial values of 0.14 MPa to zero and small negative values before increasing from 0.7 MPa to 1.5 MPa
between 1.5 m and 3.1 m. At the time of writing this
paper, the reasons behind the negative cone resistances
between 0.5 m and 1.3 m are not fully understood and
407
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.004
0.008
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Legend
Ball Test 1
Ball Test 2
T-bar Test 1
T-bar Test 2
Marl
Hydrostatic
Line
Friction Sleeve Resistance, fs (MPa)
0.1
0.2
0.3
Fibrous
Peat
Increasing
Sedge
& Wood
0.004
0.008
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Silty Clay
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Legend
Ball Test 1
Ball Test 2
Tbar
Hydrostatic
Line
qT-bar (MPa)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.4
Fibrous Peat
0.8
Sedgy Peat
1.2
1.6
may be due to slight zero offsets due to temperature variations between the peat mass and the surface.
Excess pore water pressures (u2 ) show a relatively uniform trend with depth. Measured sleeve friction values
(fs ) show a distinct transition at 1 m where the peat
becomes uniform. The results of the Ball and T-bar test
show very good agreement with resistances reducing
408
5.3 Tuam
6.5
6.1 General
Values of Nkt , Nu , NT-bar , NBall and NuBall have been
calculated for 3 sites based on results of in-situ vane
tests for Limerick and Loughrea and on the results of
laboratory CIUC triaxial compression tests for Tuam
shown in Figures 9a to 9c. Only NT-bar results were calculated forTuam as neither CPTU or Ball penetrometer
tests were conducted at this site.
6.2
The range of Nkt factors are between 5.8 and 15.5 when
in-situ vane tests are used to calibrate the relationship.
Nu values varied from 0.7 to 3.2.
6.3
409
Nkt
10
NTbar
15
20
25
10
10
15
Nu Ball
NBall
20
25
10
15
20
25
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
N Factor (Vane)
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
10
Theoretical Value
Randolph & Houlsby (1984)
15
20
25
NTbar
Nu
Nkt
0
10
10
15
25
10
15
20
25
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
Theoretical Value
Randolph & Houlsby (1984)
10
10
Nu Ball
NBall
20
N Factor (Vane)
Figure 9a and 9b. Nkt , Nu , NT-bar , NBall and NuBall factors determined for Limerick and Loughrea.
Table 1.
NTbar
0
10
15
20
25
Site
N Factor
Range
Mean
Std. Dev.
Limerick
Nkt
NBall
NTbar
Nu
NuBall
Nkt
NBall
NTbar
Nu
NuBall
NTbar
1015.5
7.612
7.811
1.92.2
1.31.8
5.812.5
5.49.5
9.113.6
0.73.2
11.6
10.813.3
12.7
8.9
9.6
2.1
1.6
9.8
7.7
10.6
2.3
1.2
12.2
3.9
2
1.7
0.2
0.4
3.5
1.2
1.6
1.1
0.3
1.3
0.5
Loughrea
1
N Factor (CIUC)
Summary of N factors.
Tuam
Theoretical Value
Randolph & Houlsby (1984)
1.5
PERFORMANCE OF PENETROMETERS
410
0.6
0.8
T-bar
Ball
0.1
0.8
Before Correction
After Correction
0.6
0.4
3.4
0.2
0
Cycle (#)
7.4
The Ball penetrometer used in this study has the facility to measure pore water pressures as described in
Section 3.1.2. Figure 12 compares the pore pressure
411
0.4
Degradation Factor
It is interesting to note that although analytical solutions of the T-bar and Ball would suggest that measured
resistances from the Ball should be about 25% greater
than the T-bar when interface friction ratio is 0.4,
measured Ball resistance tend to be less than the Tbar. Comparison of the medians of several Ball tests
with the median of several T-bar tests showed the Tbar resistances to be up to 25% more than the Ball
resistances.
DeJong et al. (2004) conducted similar penetrometer tests on Connecticut Valley varved clay and found
the T-bar to give resistances 38% larger than the Ball.
On the other hand Chung and Randolph (2004) carried out T-bar and Ball tests in reconstituted Burswood
clay and found the T-bar and Ball yielded similar
resistances. Long and Gudjonsson (2004) found large
variance of NT-bar factors in the varved clays ofAthlone
compared to uniform NT-bar factors in the relatively
uniform clays at Portumna. The divergence seems to be
associated with soils where there is a strong structural
anisotropy i.e. varved clays and peats.
0.2
7.2
Extraction/Penetration Ratio
0
10
20
30
40
CPTUu
Ball uBall
Bq Parameter
Von Post
Humification 0
50
Ambient Pore
Water Pressure
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
H5/H6
H7
CPTU Bq
Marl
BBall
8
8.1
CHARACTERISATION OF PEAT
HUMIFICATION
General
Limerick
measured from the Ball and CPTU at Limerick showing the Ball to give a comparable profile but with less
scattered results than the CPTU. The Ball would be
useful for defining parameters that rely on the pore
water pressure e.g. pore pressure parameter (BBall ).
Loughrea
Fibrosity (%)
5
10
15
20
BBall Parameter
25
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Figure 14. Comparison of BBall parameter with humification and fibrosity at Loughrea.
412
Von Post
Humification 0
0
0.25
0.5
H4/H5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
H6/H7
1.75
2
2.25
2.5
H7/H8
2.75
3
3.25
H5/H6
3.5
CONCLUSIONS
The authors are grateful to Lankelma Ltd. who conducted the penetration testing (Andy Barwise, Jamie
Ford, Brian Greorgious, Andy Molloy, Ian Musson
and Martyn Waters). The authors are also grateful
to ESB International Ltd (Henry Bouchier, Bernard
Casey, Samir Hebib, Con Sheehan) and RPS Consulting Engineers (Greg Hayes) who facilitated various
aspects of the fieldwork. The authors are grateful to
Dr. Tom Lunne of the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Prof. Mark Randolph of the Center for
Offshore and Foundation Systems (COFS) and Asst.
Prof. Jason DeJong of University of California Davis
for their comments.
The authors are grateful for the support of the Environmental RTDI Programme 20002006, financed by
the Irish Government under the National Development
Plan and administered on behalf of the Department of
the Environment, Heritage and Local Government by
the Environmental Protection Agency.
REFERENCES
Berre,T. 1982.Triaxial testing at the Norwegian Geotechnical
Institute.ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 5(1/2),
pp317.
413
Carlsten, P. 1988. Geotechnical properties of peat and upto-date methods for design and construction. Swedish
Geotechnical Institute, Varia 215.
Chung, S.F. and Randolph, M.F. 2004. Penetration resistances in soft clay for different shaped penetrometers.
Proc. of 2nd Int. Conf. on Geotechnical and Geophysical
Site Characterization, ISC2, Porto. Vol. 1. pp671677.
Millpress.
DeJong, J.T., Yafrate, N.J., DeGroot, D.J. and Jakubowski, J.
2004. Evaluation of undrained shear strength profile in
soft layered clay using full-flow probes. Proc. of 2nd Int.
Conf. on Geotechnical and Geophysical Site Characterization, ISC2, Porto. Vol. 1. pp679686. Millpress.
Feehan, J. and ODonovan, G. 1996. The bogs of Ireland.
UCD Environmental Institute. ISBN 1-898473-40-4
Greeuw, G., den Adel, H., Schapers, A.L. and den Haan, E.J.
2001. Reduction of axial resistance due to membrane and
side drains. Soft ground technology. Eds Hanson, J.L. and
Termaat, R.J. ASCE Special Pub 112, pp3042.
Landva, A.O. 1986. In-situ testing of peat, ASCE Special
Geotechnical Publication, SP. 6, pp191205.
Lvesque, M.P. and Mathur, S.P. 1979. A comparison of various means of measuring the degree of decomposition
of virgin peat materials in the context of their relative
biodegradability. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, Vol.
59, pp397400.
Long, M. 2005. Review of peat strength, peat characterization and constitutive modeling of peat with reference
to landslides, Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica, Vol. 27,
pp6790.
Long, M. and Gudjonsson, G.T. 2004. T-bar testing in
Irish soils. Proc. of 2nd Int. Conf. on Geotechnical and
Geophysical Site Characterization, ISC2, Porto. Vol. 1.
pp719726. Millpress.
414
ABSTRACT: Basing on an experimental detailed study, this paper presents the storage time effect on the
mechanical behaviour of the western northern Nancy area (France) a silty soil. This study has as objective at
explaining and quantifying the effect of ageing time due to the storage of samples after compaction on the shear
strength. Thats why, a significant number of undrained unconsolidated triaxial shear tests was carried out on
altered samples. These latter were stored safe from the air and the moisture during various periods after being
compacted. The results show an important increase in both the undrained shear strength and the deformation
modulus by silt rigidification during the ageing time at constant volume and in undrained conditions.
INTRODUCTION
415
%
cumul CAILLOUX GRAVIER GROS SABLE LIMON
SAB
FIN
100
figure 1. The geotechnical and mineralogical characteristics are presented in tables 1 and 2:
From results presented above, we can note that the
studied material is plastic silt.
ARGILE
90
80
70
60
50
40
3.1
30
10
100
10
0,1
0,01
0,001
0,0001
Compaction
20
0
1000
Soil
wL (%)
wP (%)
IP
s (g/cm3 )
3.2
Silt
55
30
25
2,64
Table 2.
Mineral type
Percentage (%)
Quartz
Montmorillonite
Feldspaths
Kaolinite
Mica
60
20
11
45
45
416
Realised tests
3
kPa
Aging Period
(days)
3
to
24
16
50
100
200
400
Immediately
after
compaction
and up to
w
%
20
Test Number
Two samples for
each period and
each confinement
pressure at least
328 days
19
18
17
16
15
14
14
16
17
18
19
final dry density (kN/m3)
20
22
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
G6
G7
G8
20
18
18
20
22
24
preparation water content (%)
(a)
26
26
initial water content (%)
15
24
26
24
27
24
21
18
0
22
20
100
200
300
storage time (days)
400
18
16
16
18
20
22
24
final water content (%)
(b)
26
417
the preparation of the different samples. These observations are very useful for the result interpretations.
So, we will consider them thereafter.
T0
185 days
Dviator stress (kPa)
600
400
200
=50 kPa
0
0
6
9
axial stain (%)
12
15
+ T0
185 days
T0
185 days
400
200
=100 kPa
0
0
6
9
axial stain (%)
T0
185 days
12
15
T0
185 days
600
400
200
=200 kPa
0
0
6
9
axial stain (%)
T0
185 days
12
15
T0
185 days
600
400
200
=400 kPa
0
0
12
15
418
T0
185 days
600
+ T0
185 days
T0
185 days
50 kPa
200 kPa
As we have already mentioned, several experimental studies showed that these resistance profits
are often attributed to chemical pore water alteration
and/or solid matter material constituents [Lessard and
Mitchell (1984); Mitchell (1986); La Rochelle, Leroueil and Tavevas (1986) and Graham et al.. (1990)].
In our case, according to the mineralogical material nature (mainly of quartz), we do not expect that
this increase has a chemical origin, i.e. initiated par
the transformations that the material structure could
undergo.
Mesri (1993) defined thixotropic hardening as the
purest soil ageing form, which does not require any
volume changes or chemical alteration. Thus, only
the ageing mechanism appears in samples, which we
protect and preserve without any changes in the composition or in the surrounding conditions. These conclusions were confirmed by Zeevaerts work (1949) on
the Mexico City clay.
The conditions under which we carried out our tests,
and the verifications made by measurements, in particular of the water content and the dry density, show that
the temperature and moisture have only a weak influence on the material. In addition, we took the care to
eliminate the sample groups whose preparation water
content variations were different. Thus, our test results
seem to be caused by a pure ageing mechanism as its
defined by Mesri (1993). We however highlighted the
importance of the influence of this pure ageing on the
mechanical properties of a fine-grained soil.
100 kPa
400 kPa
750
600
450
300
150
0
100
200
300
ageing time (days)
400
50 kPa
200 kPa
100 kPa
400 kPa
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
100
200
300
ageing time (days)
400
400
Suu (kPa)
300
200
100
0
0
100
200
300
ageing time (days)
400
419
CONCLUSION
420
M. Suneel
M.S. Engg. College, Tamilnadu, India
ABSTRACT: So far, several possible kinds of in-situ and laboratory tests have been performed in order to
characterize the Pusan clays. But, the data has not yet been used in the direction of generating new relationships,
which may avoid concern tests or may be used to check the accuracy of results of concern tests in the subsequent
projects. So, in this study, the data from several kinds of field and laboratory tests have been used to generate
different kinds of correlations among different soil parameters. As a result, some new relationships have been
obtained to find the hydraulic conductivity (Kv and Kh ) at any desired void ratios and also some other relations,
to find the shear wave velocity in terms of some basic soil parameters, such as natural water content and plasticity
index, have been obtained. In addition to above new relations, some other existing relations have been checked
for the Pusan clays.
INTRODUCTION
Yangsan
Nakdong River
Jangyu
Hwajeon
Noksan
PNP
Shinho
Eulsokdo
Myeongji
421
Kimhae
3
Unit weight, (kN/m )
t
14 16 18 20 0
0
Initial
Specific gravity,G
s
void ratio, e
o
1
2
3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9
Shinho
Myeongji
Jangyu
Hwajeon
PNP
Kimhae
Eulsukdo
Noksan
Yangsan
5
10
Upper clay
20
25
35
40
45
Upper clay
50
Transition length
30
Lower clay
Depth (m)
15
Liquidity
Plasticity
Natural water
index, LI
index, PI (%)
content,Wn (%)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0
20
40
55
Figure 3a. Basic soil properties of Pusan clays from different sites across the NRE.
compression index, C
0.0
0.4
0.8
c
1.2 0.0
Transition zone
Depth (m)
20
30
Lower clay
40
50
Undisturbed samples have been collected using different kinds of samplers, drilling methods and core
tubes at the objective site. A core tube with cross bars
and wings was used at some locations, whereas the
Dong-A core tube (Chung et al., 2004b and Rao, K.
G., 2005) was used other locations at the same site.
As the objective of this paper is not the sample quality evaluation, it was not discussed here. However, the
results of the sample quality are presented here because
the main results of this paper are from laboratory tests
on undisturbed samples. The sample quality has been
evaluated using one-dimensional consolidation data
using a method proposed be Lunne et al. (1997) and
presented in Figure 4. It can be noticed that most of
the samples were designated as poor quality.
422
'vo
Myeongji
Shinho
Hwajeon
Yangsan
Eulsukdo
Noksan
PNP
Transition length
Lower clay
10
Upper clay
5
Sand bed
41.5m
14m
26m
34m
1
1
42.5m
10
60
0.00
Good
to
fair
0.04
Poor
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.20
1e-5
e/eo
BH-3
BH-4
BH-9
6mm
logkv = 3.01(e/e0)-9.59
2
(R = 0.683)
1e-8
Hwajeon
1e-9
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.0
1.2
e/eo
Hwajeon
1e-6
Kh (cm/sec)
1e-7
Sand column
BH-18
1e-6
1e-7
1e-8
(1)
(2)
1e-9
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
e/e0
423
1000
Very poor
2cm
Excellent
100
45.5m
50
BH-9
37.5m
40
16m
26m
30
Lower clay
Depth (m)
20
BH-3
kh / kv
Upper Clay
10
BH-3
BH-4
BH-9
BH-14
BH-18
1.6
1.8
Pusan New Port (N-1)
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.2
void ratio, e
void ratio, e
Hwajeon
1.0
0.8
1.0
0.8
7
0.6
0.6
Depth Measured Predicted
0.4
8m
The purpose of this study is to develop new correlations between Vs obtained from SCPT and physical
indexes and cone penetration data to estimate Vs in
silty sand and silty clay soils. The values of Vs obtained
from new correlations were compared with those from
the existing correlations and the measured from SCPT.
Figure 10 shows the correlation between VS and different soil parameters, such as sleeve friction (fs ), cone
tip resistance (qc ), natural water content (Wn ), Plasticity index (PI) and initial void ratio (e0 ), and the corresponding relationships are presented in Equation 3 to
Equation 7 respectively.
40m
43m
21m
0.2
1e-9
1e-8
1e-7
1e-6
0.2
1e-9
1e-5
1e-8
1e-7
1e-6
1e-5
log kv(cm/sec)
log kv(cm/sec)
1.8
Hwajeon
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.2
1.2
void ratio, e
void ratio, e
1.0
0.8
0.6
Depth Measured Predicted
0.4
8m
Vs = 3.51 fs + 96.33
(3)
1.0
Vs = 0.086qc + 92.33
(4)
0.8
Vs = 1122.1(Wn )0.4863
(5)
Vs = 672.37(PI )0.4358
(6)
Vs = 192.27(e0 )0.5345
(7)
0.6
Depth Measured Predicted
0.4
21m
0.2
1e-9 1e-8 1e-7 1e-6 1e-5 1e-4
log kh(cm/sec)
16m
14m
0.2
1e-8
1e-7
1e-6
1e-5
log kh(cm/sec)
The measured shear wave velocities at the two locations BH-3 and BH-9 were used as the reference
shear wave velocities and compared with the estimated
shear wave velocities using Eq. 3 to Eq. 7. Figure 11
presents the shear wave velocities measured and estimated using the correlations developed in this study
as well as existing studies (Mayne and Burns, 1995).
It can be seen that the shear wave velocities estimated
from different correlations follow the same trend such
as measured values of shear wave velocities at both
the locations BH-3 and BH-9 as shown in Fig. 8.15(a)
and (b) respectively. It can be concluded that as the
new relations generated in this study have shown very
promising results compared to those measured at the
same locations, they can be used directly to estimate
the shear wave velocity at any locations where the
necessary data is available.
8
CONCLUSONS
424
400
vs (m/s)
BH-9
Vs = 3.51fs + 96.33
BH-3
300
(r =0.53)
100
200
300
400
500
SCPT
f(e0)
f(wn)
f(PI)
100
(a)
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
fs (kPa)
10
400
BH-3
BH-9
300
Vs =0.086qc+ 92.33
Depth (m)
600
200
(r2 = 0.53)
200
100
Vs =(10.1 Logqc-11.4)1.67(fs/qc*100)0.3
15
f(qc)
(b)
f(fs)
20
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
qc (kPa)
25
300
Vs (m/s)
BH-9
BH-3
200
30
Vs =1122.1(Wn)-0.4863
(r2 = 0.34)
100
(c)
0
0
20
40
60
80
Wn (%)
300
100
200
300
400
500
600
f(fs)
100
10
(d)
0
0
10
20
30
40
f(qc)
50
PI (%)
20
300
100
BH-9
BH-3
(e)
0
0.6
0.8
30
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
40
2.2
eo
50
soil parameters. As a result, some excellent relationships were generated, based on which the following
concluding remarks can be drawn:
(1) Geotechnical properties of Pusan clays depend on
their geological depositional environments
60
425
Vs = 192.27 (e0)
2
(r = 0.38 )
200
Depth (m)
Vs (m/s)
-0.5345
Upper clay
SCPT
f(e0)
f(wn)
f(PI)
200
Lower clay
vs (m/s)
(3) Hydraulic conductivities measured using new relationships show very good agreement with those
measured in laboratory.
(4) Also, new relationships were obtained, using very
basic soil parameters, to estimate shear wave velocity, which also showing very good agreement
with those measured by in-situ test (SCPT) and
estimated by other correlations.
(5) These shear wave velocities can be used to estimate the small strain shear modulus (results are not
presented here).
REFERENCES
Chung, S. G., Baek, S. H., Ryu, C. K., and Kim, S. W. 2003.
Geotechnical characterization of Pusan clays. Proceedings
of Korean-Japan Joint workshop, 810 April 2003.
426
Francisco Samper
Geotecnia y Cimientos, S.A., Spain
ABSTRACT: The Valencia Port Authority plans to incorporate a new area of 140,000 m2 for the storage of
containers. In this area there is a zone called the lagoon with a surface of 65.000 m2 . It has been back filled
with about 1.000.000 m3 of dredged mud. The consistency of this mud is very low and the water content is
higher than the liquid limit. One of the activities that will be carried out will be the construction of a 4 m thick
crust of soil-cement using the mass-stabilization improvement method. This will allow the circulation of heavy
machinery, which was not possible before. In this paper the geotechnical characteristics of the mud and the
soil-cement mix are described, with special focus on its residual shear strength.
INTRODUCTION
+10.0
INITIAL DATA
Structure and geotechnical characteristics of
the underground
According to the information that was available (Burgos, Samper, 2004), initially, a draft of about 12 m
existed in the area. The following materials could be
found below that depth:
From level -12 m to level 24 m: Fine sands of
medium compacity (10 < N30 SPT < 30)
From level -24 m until at least level 31 m:
Clays and sandy silts of medium consistency
(25 kN/m2 < cu < 125 kN/m2 ).
+5.0
+2.0
+0.0
0.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
SEA
MUD
ROCK FILL
-10.0
-12.0
-15.0
2.2
427
GENERAL
FILL
+10.0
+5.0
+2.0
+0.0
0.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
-10.0
-2.0
STABILIZED MUD
GENERAL
FILL
SEA
MUD
ROCK FILL
-12.0
-15.0
50
428
Table 1.
cu (kN/m2)
Characteristics
10
15
20
25
0
12
1518
<10
4060
4060
2545
520
3060
1214
0,91,3
0,200,25
4*104
2
4
Depth (m)
6
8
10
8*104
12
<25 kN/m2
14
see Figure 6.
the most superficial zone, which has been mixed with
cement, has water contents of 40-60 %.
3
see Figure 7.
2
70
60
qc (MN/m2)
50
40
10
15
30
20
10
5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Depth (m)
LIQUID LIMIT, WL
with the goal of verifying the hypotheses made regarding the characteristics of the muds.
The main characteristics of the muds are summarized in the Table 1.
In Figure 7, the results of the vane tests carried out
on the mud once the crust was constructed (This is the
reason for the absence of results for the first 4 m) are
summarized. These values, lower than the theoretical
ones, show that the muds are underconsolidated. On
the other hand, being somewhat more elevated, these
values differ slightly from those used in the project,
leaving the hypotheses made on the safe side.
Once the crust was completed, a CPTU campaign has also been carried out. The average cone tip
resistance is shown in Figure 8
Given the low cone tip resistance of these muds (See
Figure 9), it cannot be used to deduce values of their
undrained shear strength (cu).
15
(1)
429
10
qc (kN/m2)
50
100
150
200
2000
300
UCS (kN/m2)
0
0
2
4
1500
1000
500
0
Depth (m)
30
50 Kg/m3
45
Days
100 Kg/m3
60
75
90
150 Kg/m3
10
12
14
Figure 9. Detail of CPTU test in mud.
cu (kN/m2)
0
Depth (m)
15
10
15
20
25
6
8
10
12
14
430
2000
UCS (kN/m2)
UCS (kN/m2)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
15
30
45
Days
60
75
50 Kg/m3
100 Kg/m3
70 Kg/m3
150 Kg/m3
1000
500
90
15
30
45
60
75
90
Days
Figure 14. UCS for 90 kg/m3 and binder B.
70
60
PLASTICITY INDEX, Ip
UCS (kN/m2)
1500
1500
1000
50
40
30
20
10
500
15
30
45
Days
60
75
50 Kg/m3
100 Kg/m3
70 Kg/m3
150 Kg/m3
90
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
LIQUID LIMIT, WL
431
10
Ca (%)
15
16
17
18
20
20
30
40
50
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
70 kg/m3
mud
90 kg/m3
110 kg/m3
4
110 kg/m3
90 kg/m3
432
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,6
Depth (m)
Characteristics
( )
c (kN/m2 )
Peak resistance
Residual resistance
(first test)
Residual resistance
(second test)
Residual resistance (Average)
44
29
51
47
32
22
31
34
90 kg/m3
50
100
150
200
250
Characteristics
( )
c (kN/m2 )
Peak resistance
Residual resistance
(first test)
Residual resistance
(second test)
Residual resistance (average)
42
31
32
37
32
39
32
38
110 kg/m3
300
350
400
0
100
90
80
70
c(kN/m2)
Depth (m)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20
30
40
50
60
()
4
70 kg/m3-7 days
110 kg/m3-7 days
90 kg/m3-7 days
design value
70 kg/m3-28 days
110 kg/m3-28days
90 kg/m3-28 days
433
Peak-90 kg/m3
Residual-90 kg/m3
q c = Nc Cu
(2)
10
15
20
Depth (m)
110 kg/m3
70 kg/m3
90 kg/m3
qc (MN/m2)
0
10
average
50 th percentile
design value
Figure 22. Cone tip resistance of the CPT tests with ages
greater than or equal to 28 days.
FUTURE STUDIES
434
depth (m)
N20 DPSH
0
CONCLUSIONS
435
ABSTRACT: Inhomogeneous soft clay deposits can either be natural or constructed. Naturally occurring inhomogeneous soft clay deposits are typically varved and sedimentary clays encountered in lacustrine environments.
The constructed variety usually involves the introduction of regions of highly permeable zones, in the form of
columns or layers into an otherwise homogeneous clay region, in order to enhance the consolidation process. A
more recent development relates to land reclamation using dredged material. Where voids are present between
dredged clay lumps, significant compression can occur in a built-up layer of fill. This research presents an
experimental study and a computational treatment of an idealized situation where the soft clay composite consists of spheres of clay separated by a deformable granular material (ballotini). A one-dimensional bench-scale
consolidation test was conducted on the composite. The time-dependent response of the soil composite was computationally modelled, using a poroelasto-plastic model where the constitutive behaviour of the spherical clay
inclusion is represented by Cam-clay and a quasi-linear elastic model is used to describe the granular material.
INTRODUCTION
437
Figure 1. (a) Schematic profile of reclamation fill (b) dredging of stiff clay lumps using clamshell (After Robinson et al.
2005).
438
draining vent
ballotini
4.2 cm
16.8 cm
geotextile
5.2 cm
base plate
water inlet
Side view
7.6 cm
Plane section
439
plunger
clay spheres
stainless steel
container
Weight Holder
Data Acquisition
Load Cell
LVDT
Scissor Jack
Plunger
Water Container
Water Inlet
Consolidation Cell
440
2000
Effective pore pressure at
failure = 145.4 kPa
Effective pore
pressure at failure
= 32.1 kPa
150
200
100
Effective stress
paths
Total Stress
paths
50
3 kPa500
Experiment
Quasi-linear
model
1500
3 kPa400
1000
3 kPa300
3 kPa200
500
3 kPa100
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
6 sin
3 sin
(1)
1 + 23
3
q = 1 3
(2)
(3)
0.015
0.02
441
0.01
Axial Strain
0.005
(5)
1
1
ij ji ii2
2
6
(7)
(8)
Interface
The constitutive models developed for the reconstituted silty clay and ballotini were implemented in the
ABAQUS code to predict the mechanical response
of the composite sample under an overall oedometric state. Based on the symmetry in arrangement of
the clay spheres in each layer, a region with a section
angle of 22.5 was modelled including a hemisphere
and a 22.5 cut representative of the outer and the
central clay spheres respectively (Figure 6). Another
simplifying assumption was made in which identical
behavior was considered for each of the four layers
forming the composite sample. The steel plunger that
constrained the upper boundary to ensure uniform settlement was also modelled by taking into account a
layer with higher stiffness compared to the components of the soil sample (E = 2 107 kPa, = 0.4).
For this analysis, a 20-node brick element (C3D20RP)
442
Table 1.
Material
Constitutive
model
Clay
Cam-clay
Model parameters
Stress
Ratio (M )
Swelling Index
(e ln P scale)
Compression Index
(e ln P scale)
Initial Void
Ratio
Permeability
(cm/s)
1.55
0.0104
0.05464
0.63
5 108
Initial Void
Ratio
Permeability
(cm/s)
0.73
1.24 103
Parameter A (Eq. 5)
Ballotini
Hydraulic conductivity
properties
Quasi-linear
400
443
continuity equation for pore fluid is also derived considering Darcys law for the constitutive behavior of
the pore fluid flow through the porous media. At
each load step, the displacement of the sample after
a period of 1 day was determined. At the termination
of the last load step, less than 0.05% discrepancy was
observed in the axial strain obtained from numerical
and experimental results, which is indicative of a close
agreement between the experimental observations and
the computational modelling (Figure 7).
The time-dependent behavior of soil is commonly
associated with the pore fluid dissipation or timedependent compaction of the grains due to the viscoplastic response of the soil skeleton. In the numerical analysis conducted in this study, the effect of
the former phenomenon was taken into account by
incorporating fluid conductivity of both materials in
the coupled pore fluid-stress analysis. However, the
numerical results reached their ultimate deformation
faster than the experimental counterpart. This difference can be attributed to the visco-plastic behavior
of the ballotini, which was not considered in the
quasi-linear model for this material in the computational modelling. The progress of the axial compression with time is shown in Figure 8 and compared
with the numerical results.The different scales adopted
for the initial load step attributed to higher axial displacements and the shorter period required to reach
the ultimate axial compression compared to the other
loading steps.
Stress partitioning is one of the main objectives of
soil reinforcement for soft soils. The reduction of the
loads transmitted to the softer regions of a soil will
reduce the overall settlement of the reinforced soil;
the major portion of the structural loads will be carried
by the reinforcing elements (e.g. either sand columns
within the soft clay or dispersed sand between the soft
lumps) (Balaam & Booker 1981; Mitchell & Huber
1985).
The results of the numerical analysis conducted in
this study indicated that the normal stress in the centre
of the outer clay spheres (pointA) is 0.69 0 where 0 is
the average normal stress applied to the sample, while
the normal stress at point B, located in the ballotini, is
estimated at 1.27 0 (Figure 9). The maximum normal
600
900
Numerical
500
700
400
Point C
800
Experimental
300
200
Point B
600
Axial pressure applied
on the plunger
500
400
300
200
100
100
0
3.5
3.75
4.25
Strain (%)
4.5
4.75
Point A
Time (day)
1000
Settlement (Experimental results)
Experimental
3
Numerical
2
600
7
400
6.5
200
1
0
0
(a)
10
Time (min)
15
0
0
(b)
Time (day)
Figure 8. Compression of the composite sample vs. time (a) Initial load step (b) Second to the last load step.
444
800
7.5
Settlement (mm)
Settlement (mm)
CONCLUSIONS
considered in the numerical modelling by conducting coupled diffusion-stress analysis on the composite
model. Computational analysis showed that the pore
pressure generated in the clay spheres dissipated in
4.5 min to 8 min, whereas the ultimate settlement in
the experiments was reached in a period of almost
one day. By comparing the results obtained from the
numerical analysis and experimental results it was
noted that the time-dependent response of the sample is more related to the visco-plastic behavior of
the granular regions. Therefore better prediction of
the time-dependent response of the sample can be
obtained by considering a visco-plastic constitutive
model for ballotini.
Stress partitioning, another factor that enhances
the mechanical response of the composite foundation,
was also examined in this study. This phenomenon
is related to the distribution of the load due to the
interaction between different parts of the composite specimen. The numerical results show that the
maximum normal stress in the clay medium is approximately 37% of that in the ballotini region. Hence, the
deformation of the soft clay lumps during the consolidation process would be significantly less than
in homogeneous clay layers as a consequence of the
lower stresses applied to the lumps when dispersed in
granular media.
REFERENCES
AASHTO 1996. Standard Specification for Highway
Bridges, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington.
Abid, M.M., and Pyrah, I.C. 1990. Consolidation behavior
of finely laminated clays. Computers and Geotechnics,
10(4): 307323.
Balaam, N.P., and Booker, J.R. 1981. Analysis of rigid rafts
supported by granular piles. International Journal for
Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics,
5(4): 379403.
Bo, M.W., Bawajee, R., and Chao, V. 2001. Reclamation using
dredged materials. In Proceedings of the International
Conference on Port and Maritime R&D and Technology.
Singapore, Vol.1, pp. 455461.
Booker, J.R., and Small, J.C. 1987. A method of computing the consolidation behavior of layered soils using
direct numerical inversion of Laplace transforms. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in
Geomechanics, 11(4): 363380.
Bourgeois, E., Corfdir, A., and Dormieux, L. 1997. Double time scale analysis of the consolidation of a twostrata poroelastic layer with high permeability contrast.
Transport in Porous Media, 29(1): 1526.
Cai, Y.Q., Xu, C.J., and Yuan, H.M. 2001. One dimensional
consolidation of layered and visco-elastic soils under
arbitrary loading. Applied Mathematics and Mechanics,
22(3): 353360.
Chen, W.F. 1994. Constitutive Equations for Engineering
Materials: Plasticity and Modeling. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
445
446
ABSTRACT: This paper presents an experimental technique that can be employed to investigate the mechanical
behavior of a soft silty clay, with a consistency close to that of its liquid limit. Such soft deposits can occur either
naturally or be reconstituted for laboratory studies. The testing of soft clays needs to address the problematic
nature of the consistency, which limits the application of conventional sample retrieval and preparation procedures
for laboratory testing. This experimental research proposed a series of unconsolidated undrained tests that will
enable the determination of the undrained shear strength of the soft material. The laboratory testing includes
fall cone penetration tests to validate the results obtained from triaxial tests. The investigations also include a
series of consolidated tests, including conventional oedometer tests and consolidated undrained tests with pore
pressure measurement, aimed at describing the mechanical properties of a soft silty clay at both small and large
strains.
INTRODUCTION
447
448
3.2
Sample preparation
The clay was mixed with distilled water using a paddlerotary mixer to achieve a moisture content close to its
liquid limit of 25% (Figure 3a). During mixing, water
was gradually added to the clay paste and the consistency of the paste was estimated using the Casagrande
liquid limit apparatus. From the samples taken from
different batches, it was observed that the water content of the paste varied between 23% and 25%.The clay
paste was then kept in sealed containers for 3 weeks to
allow for moisture equilibrium.
To prepare a triaxial specimen, the clay paste was
first compacted in 3 layers inside a PVC split mould
(Figure 3b), using a 625 g plunger to minimize trapped
air inside the clay sample (20 impacts per layer). The
split mould, with internal diameter of 9 cm and 15.5 cm
height, was held together by two steel ring clamps
and placed on the base of a Proctor mould. The membrane was then stretched over the split sampler with an
internal diameter of 35.5 mm and the cutting edge was
attached to one end. Another PVC tube was employed
to gradually push the sampler into the compacted clay
and the entry of the clay to the sampler was observed
through openings of the PVC tube (Figure 3c). When
the clay soil completely filled the sampler, the clamps
were removed and the mould opened to retrieve the
449
Figure 3. Preparation of triaxial specimen from soft clay (a) Mixer (b) Split mould (c) Retrieving the clay sample (d) Sample
extraction.
Table 1. Triaxial unconsolidated undrained test specifications.
Estimation of B value
Test
no.
Water
Content
(%)
Diameter
(cm)
Height
(cm)
Back
Pressure
(kPa)
Confining
Pressure
(kPa)
Confining
Pressure
Increase (kPa)
Pore Pressure
Increase (kPa)
B Value
1
2
3
4
24.2
25.4
25.8
25.6
3.50
3.55
3.55
3.40
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
300
300
300
300
50
100
100
150
70
70
70
70
69.3
69.7
69.1
69.5
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
4 E m tm 1
Dc
(1)
450
30
25
Cone Penetration (mm)
5
4
Test 1
Test 2
Test3
Test 4
average
3
2
20
15
Evaluated Liquid Limit
of the clay using
BS 1377 (1975)
10
5
1
0
22
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
24
26
28
30
32
0.2
Strain
3.3
k Q
h2
(2)
4
451
effects are encountered in naturally deposited soft layers, including marine clay and lacustrine clay, and in
offshore activities associated with land reclamation.
Several soil improvement techniques have been developed to resolve excessive settlement problems, and
include the installation of different types of sand drains
and prefabricated wick drain systems that can accelerate the consolidation process and the occurrence
of settlement (Balasubramaniam et al. 1980; Bergado
et al. 1990; Bergado & Balasubramaniam 1993). The
pre-loading stage is the main agency that can accelerate the settlement of the soft clay deposits and reduce
the settlements associated with the construction loads.
The settlements related to the pre-loading stage can
be divided into three different categories. The relative
importance and the magnitude of each type of settlement depends on several factors, including soil type,
compressibility and hydraulic properties. The immediate settlement of the layer, which is more severe in
reclaimed nonhomogeneous lumpy clay fills, occurs
due to the closure of the voids between the clay lumps.
Several experimental and theoretical studies have been
conducted to estimate the settlement of the lumpy fills,
which usually takes place rapidly in the early stage
of loading and before initiation of primary consolidation (Nogami et al. 2004; Robinson et al. 2005).
Primary consolidation is the main factor contributing
to the settlement in sedimentary layers such as natural
varved clay or hydraulically-placed marine clay soil
deposits. Secondary consolidation, which is not the
predominant settlement in the clay layers, occurs in the
long-term period under construction loads (Bergado &
Balasubramaniam 1993).
During the process of consolidation, the consistency and strength of the layers changes with alterations in moisture content. The drained behavior of the
soft clay is therefore an important issue that should be
taken into account before each construction project;
such consideration may indicate the efficiency of the
preloading phase especially for clays with a high
hydraulic conductivity and a low plasticity index.
4.1
452
Table 2.
Test
no.
Effective
Confining
Pressure
(kPa)
Back
Pressure
(kPa)
Isotropic
Consolidation
Pressures (kPa)
Initial
water
content %
Water content
after
consolidation %
B value
1
2
3
4
5
50
100
150
200
200
300
305
305
305
305
2550
50100
75150
100200
100200
23.2
25.0
25.3
25.0
25.0
1.98
1.98
1.98
2.01
1.98
19.3
18.6
18.0
17.2
17.1
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.99
180
Test 1- 3 = 50kPa
Test 2- 3 = 100kPa
Test 3- 3 = 150kPa
Test 4- 3 = 200kPa
Test 5- 3 = 200kPa
160
140
In this research program, one-dimensional consolidation tests were performed to determine the consolidation characteristics of the Montral silty clay.
The assessment of the consolidation settlement of soft
clays is also important to geotechnical design involving such soil deposits, whether they occur naturally or
are created by dredge and fill operations.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
0.05
0.1
Strain
0.15
0.2
150
Effective pore
pressure at failure
= 32.1 kPa
100
Effective stress
paths
Total Stress
paths
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
453
1.9
2.1
21.2
100
17.02
0.55
0.29
0.14
0.024
1.9
2.04
22.2
100
16.99
0.58
0.29
0.13
0.016
0.024
0.48
Test 1
Test 2
0.43
Virgin Compression
curve
0.38
Recompression
curve
0.33
0.28
10
Elastic unloading
curve
100
Effective normal stress (kPa)
1000
(3)
Considering a liquid limit of 25% for the reconstituted Montral silty clay, the compression index Cc
is estimated at 0.13. Nagaraj & Murthy (1985) also
suggested the following relationships for estimating
compression and swelling indices from measured values of the liquid limit and the specific gravity Gs of
the clay:
Cc = 0.2343(LL/100)Gs
(4)
Cs = 0.0463(LL/100)Gs
(5)
REFERENCES
AASHTO 1996. Standard Specification for Highway
Bridges, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington.
American Society for Testing and Materials 1999. ASTM
Standards 04.08.
454
CONCLUSIONS
Balasubramaniam, A.S., and Chaudry, A.R. 1978. Deformation and strength characteristics of soft Bangkok clay.
ASCE- Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division,
104(9): 11531167.
Balasubramaniam, A.S., Brenner, R.P., Mallawaaratchy,
G.U., and Kuvijitjaru, S. 1980. Performance of sand drains
in a test embankment in soft Bangkok clay. In Proceedings
of the Southeast Asian Conference on Soil Engineering.
Taipei, Taiwan, Vol.1, pp. 447468.
Baldi, G., Hight, D.W., and Thomas, G.E. 1988. A reevaluation of conventional triaxial test methods. In
Advanced Triaxial Testing of Soil and Rock. ASTM,
Philadelphia. pp. 219263.
Belviso, R., Ciampoli, S., Cotecchia, V., and Federico, A.
1985. Use of the cone penetrometer to determine consistency limits. Ground Engineering, 18(5): 2122.
Bergado, D.T., and Balasubramaniam, A.S. 1993. Improvement of soft Bangkok clay using vertical drains. Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 12(7): 615663.
Bergado, D.T., Singh, N., Sim, S.H., Panichayatum, B., Sampaco, C.L., and Balasubramaniam, A.S. 1990. Improvement of soft Bangkok clay using vertical geotextile band
drains compared with granular piles. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 9(3): 203231.
Berre, T. 1985. Suggested international code for soil engineering practice for triaxial compression tests. Norwegian
Geotechnical Institute, Internal report 56103-30.
Bjerrum, L. 1954. Geotechnical properties of Norwegian
marine clays. Geotechnique, 4(2): 169.
Brown, P.J., and Huxley, M.A. 1996. The cone factor for a
cone. Ground Engineering, 29(10): 3436.
Casagrande, A., and Fadum, R.E. 1940. Notes on Soil Testing
for Engineering Purposes. Harvard University- Graduate School of Engineering- Publications Soil Mechanics
Series, 8(268): 74p.
Cassidy, M.J., Byrne, B.W., and Randolph, M.F. 2004. A comparison of the combined load behaviour of Spudcan and
caisson foundations on soft normally consolidated clay.
Geotechnique, 54(2): 91106.
Crawford, C.B. 1968. Quick clays of Eastern Canada. Engineering Geology, 2(4): 239265.
Day, R.W. 1999. Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering:
Design and Construction. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Day, R.W. 2001. Soil Testing Manual: Procedures, Classification Data, and Sampling Practices. McGraw-Hill,
New York.
Eden, W.J., and Crawford, C.B. 1957. Geotechnical properties of Leda clay in the Ottawa area. In Proceedings of
the 4th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering. London, Vol.1, pp. 2227.
Goldscheider, M., and Scherzinger, T.H. 1991. Laboratory
tests on the soft clayey soil of an old city. In Proceedings
of the International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering. Florence, Vol.1, pp. 101106.
Hansbo, S. 1957. A new approach to the determination of the
shear strength of clay by fall-cone test. In Proceedings of
the Royal Swedish Geotechnical Institute, Vol.14, pp. 47.
Hanzawa, H., Matsuda, E., and Makoto, H. 1980. Evaluation
of sample quality of sandy soil obtained by the modified
Bishop sampler. Soils and Foundations, 20(3): 1732.
Henkel, D.J., and Gilbert, G.D. 1952. The effect of rubber
membrane on the measured triaxial compression strength
of clay samples. Geotechnique, 3(1): 2029.
455
456
ABSTRACT: Bentonite is naturally occurring clay having high swelling potential and very low permeability.
It is used as the main component of landfill liners and as backfill material of nuclear waste disposal. Heat is
generated, both in landfill and nuclear waste disposal facilities. Thus it is necessary to study the behaviour of
bentonite due to different levels and different sequences of heating. It was found from the investigation that index
parameters like liquid limit, plastic limit are not affected by heating significantly. A modified consolidation cell
was used to measure the temperature inside the soil and pore water pressure at the bottom of the specimen.
Bentonite slurry was heated to 75 C in drained and undrained conditions. It was found that undrained heating of
bentonite caused rapid increase in pore water pressure. The removal of heating in the undrained condition caused
development of significant negative pore water pressure. In the case of drained heating the increase of pore water
pressure was very small compared to the undrained case. In the drained condition there was no development
of negative pore water pressure. A relationship is established between pore pressure increment to temperature
increment ratio with permeability in the undrained condition.
2 TESTED MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION
Japanese Bentonite was used in this experimental program. The results were close to as reported by Komine
(2004). The index properties are as below.
3 TEST EQUIPMENTS
A consolidation cell was modified to measure the temperature (T) inside the soil at two locations and a
Pore Pressure Transducer (PPT) was placed at the bottom to measure the pore water pressure (uw ). The cell
has two parts (i) Outer cell where the hot water is
circulated from a hot water tub, and (ii) Inner cell
where the soil placed inside a stainless steel metal ring
(Height = 20 mm and Dia = 60 mm) and a piston with
bottom porous stone over the soil to provide vertical
Table 1.
457
Sl No.
Item
Bentonite
1
2
3
4
5
438
42
396
68
5.82
Table 2.
Sl no
Item
Output
1
2
Rated Capacity
Permissible
temperature range
Temperature effect
on rated output
1 MPa
20 to 165 C
0.1% R.O./10 C
4 TEST METHODS
In this experimental program, Bentonite slurry was
made at twice liquid limit. Then the slurry was placed
inside the stainless steel ring, having a height of 2 cm
and diameter of 6 cm. Filter papers were placed at the
top and bottom of the soil. A stainless steel plate without any hole was placed at the top of the ring to isolate
the bentonite slurry to simulate an undrained condition. Whereas a stainless steel plate with holes was
placed at the top of the ring to simulate a drained
condition. In both cases the piston was placed over
the stainless steel plate, but no pressure was given. A
dial gauge was placed over the piston to monitor any
movement of the piston. Then the inner cell was filled
with water and closed by tightening screws around.
The outer cell was also filled with water and connected
by pipes to hot water tub for giving 6 hours of heating. Fig.2 to Fig.5 show the testing method used. To
simulate extreme conditions both in landfill and deep
geological buffer a temperature increase from 20 C
to 75 C was provided. A cyclic temperature effect was
also investigated to find the hot and cold cyclic effects.
458
150
80
125
Temperature, T(C)
100
60
75
50
50
40
25
30
20
-2
10
-2000
T
uw
70
-50
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000
Time, t(min)
140
0
20 C
0
75 C
120
450
425
400
375
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
350
25
50
75
-60
100
No of blows (N)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Tempeature, T(C)
5 TEST RESULTS
The effect of temperature on the index properties of
bentonite was investigated. In this test, the soil was
thoroughly mixed with distilled water at a moisture
content half of the original liquid limit, covered it with
aluminum foil paper and kept under hot water for 24
hours. Then it was taken out for the Liquid limit (wL )
and Plastic Limit (wP ) test. Liquid limit test was performed using Casagrandes apparatus; it was found
that the liquid limit dropped slightly due the effect
of higher temperature (Fig.6), only about 6%, whereas
plastic limit drops for 42% to 39%, which was insignificant. Thus it was found that the effect of heating on
the index properties is not significant. Komine and
Ogata (1998) also reported that heating bentonite in the
dry powder state for one day below 1100 C caused no
significant reduction of absorbing power of bentonite.
In the case of undrained test, the soil was kept under
a constant temperature of 20 C until the pore water
pressure became constant as shown in Fig.7. Then the
temperature was raised for 20 C to 75 C by circulating hot water around the bentonite slurry kept inside
the stainless steel ring. It was found that due to the
effect of temperature the pore water pressure began
to rise very sharply, as shown in Fig. 8. There was a
small drop in the excess pore water pressure at 50 C
and then pore pressure became stable upto 75 C. This
may be due the fact that the arrangement between soil
particles and pore water started to change significantly,
resulting in a volume decrease at a higher temperature
more than 50 C and thus the pore water pressure was
changed to accommodate the new arrangement. Campanella and Mitchell (1968) mentioned that volume
of soil mass decreased due to increase in temperature
under the undrained condition. It is also clear that the
effective stress would reduce due to the application of
heat in the undrained condition, creating an overconsolidated (OC) state. The ratio of pore water pressure
increase (duw ) to the temperature increase (dT) was
found to be 1.5.
459
90
80
T
uw
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
80
T
uw
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
Time, t(min)
5000
10000
15000
20000
Time, t(min)
Illite
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
Bentonite (duw/dT=1.20)
1.0
0.8
0.6
1E-14
1E-13
1E-12
1E-11
1E-10
1E-9
1E-8
1E-7
1E-6
Permeability, k(m/s)
(1)
460
Kaolinite
3.4
duw/dT(kPa/C)
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
Campanella, R.G. and Mitchell, J.K. 1968, Influence of temperature variations on soil behaviour. Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division. Vol 94, No SM3.
pp 709734.
Komine, H. 2004, Simplified evaluation on hydraulic conductivities of sand-bentonite mixture backfill. Applied Clay
Science, Vol 26, pp. 1319.
Komine, H. and Ogata, N. 1998, Thermal influence of
compacted bentonite for nuclear waste disposal. Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Environmental
Geotechnics, Vol 1, pp. 3439.
Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. 1979. Soil Mechanics, SI
version, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Newyork. p. 286.
Mitchell, J.K. 1993. Fundamental of soil behaviour. 2nd ed.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Newyork. pp. 332333.
Rowe, R.K. 2005, Long-term performance of contaminant
barrier systems. Geotechnique 55, No 9, pp. 631678.
Yoshida et al. 1996. Theoretical study on temperature distribution in a sanitary landfill, Proceedings of the 2nd
International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics,
Vol 2, pp. 323328.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Initial discussions with Professor Jiro Kuwano of
Saitama University, Japan, regarding this research is
gratefully acknowledged.
461
ABSTRACT: The paper studies the effect of organic content on compressibility and undrained strength. A
representative organic material and a standard soil material were chosen as a basis for controlled laboratory
tests. The carbon is made from carbonized wood fully pulverized. The soil used in the mixtures was fine sand.
Oedometer tests illustrated that the compressibility of the sand-carbon mixtures increases as the carbon content
increases and density decreases. Triaxial undrained tests illustrated that the critical state line is steeper as the
carbon content increases. In addition, the friction angle at large strain increases as carbon content increases. An
empirical expression predicting the parameters of the critical state line with the carbon content is obtained.
INTRODUCTION
Site related studies are of great value for the specific locations from which samples of soils and organic
deposits were taken and tested. Yet, if a general study
of the geotechnical properties of organic deposits is to
be addressed, standardization is needed.
The paper studies the effect of organic content on
compressibility and undrained strength. A representative organic material and a standard soil material were chosen. Oedometer and triaxial undrained
tests were performed at different organic content and
density and were analyzed in terms of critical state
theory.
Carbon used in the mixtures was derived from manufactured carbonized wood commercially available
because it is used for outdoor barbecuing. It was fully
pulverized in order all the material to pass through the
No 200 sieve. It is chemically stable with liquid limit
110%, plasticity index zero, specific gravity 1.62 and
carbon content (by ASTM D2974) 95%.
Its nonplasticity and specific gravity are consistent
with the properties of organic materials as determined
by Stamatopoulos and Kotzias (1981), Kotzias and
Stamatopoulos (1983) and (1984), and Vick (1983).
Grain size distribution of the carbon is given in Figure 1. Comparisons between the properties of the
carbon and lignite from the power plant of Megalopolis, Greece, reported by Stamatopoulos and Kotzias
(1981) are shown in Table 1. Specific gravity of grains,
water content, liquid limit and plasticity index of the
carbon fall within the range of the values of lignite.
463
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS
w
1
x
1
(1 p)/Gsand + p/Gcarbon d
(1)
(2)
(a)
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
MAXDRY
MAX30% water content
(b)
Void ratio
4
3
2
1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
464
MAXDRY
MAX30% water content
COMPRESSIBILITY
0.850
2.20
0.800
2.00
0.750
1.90
VOID RATIO, e
VOID RATIO, e
2.10
0.700
0.650
1.80
1.70
1.60
1.50
0.600
1.40
0.550
1.30
1.20
0.500
10
100
1000
10
10000
100
1000
10000
2.40
1.00
2.30
0.90
2.20
2.10
VOID RATIO, e
VOID RATIO, e
0.80
0.70
0.60
2.00
1.90
1.80
1.70
0.50
1.60
0.40
1.50
0.30
1.40
10
100
1000
10000
10
1000
10000
465
100
1.2
550
160
500
140
450
120
400
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
100
350
u (kPa)
1
- (kPa)
1
3
1.4
300
250
40
150
20
100
50
20
20
40
60
Dro ( %)
80
60
200
0
0
80
100
p=1
0.8
0.15
Linear (p = 1)
Linear (0.8)
Linear (0)
Linear (0.15)
550
4.5
500
450
4.0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
AXIAL STRAIN (%)
2 4
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
AXIAL STRAIN (%)
3.0
350
300
/
1
3
- (kPa)
250
200
Lignite from
Megalopolis
Current
carbon
1.5 to 2.5
130 to 240
100 to 250
0 (mainly)
1.0
0.15
1.6
120 to 140
110
0
0.8
0.09
50
0
0.15
0.80
1.0
*
0.09
0.26
0.35
0.009
0.022
0.030
0.035
0.5
0
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
'oct (kPa)
0.0
SOIL STRENGTH
2.0
1.0
100
2.5
1.5
150
)
ess = CS CS ln (oct
*Cannot be defined.
(3a)
(3b)
466
2 4
3.5
400
0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
2.5
(a)
0.5
Coefficient CS
void ratio
2
1.5
1
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10
100
1000
10000
octss (kPa)
p =0
0.8
Log. (0.15)
0.075
1
Log. (0.6)
0.15
Log. (1)
Log. (p = 0)
y =0.3099x +0.0661
R2 =0.8562
0.4
0.2
0.4
Coefficient cs
5
4
qss =
0.8
(b)
0.6
Log. (0.8)
Log. (0.6)
oct-ss
/M
0.6
p
y= 2.7275x +0.975
R2 =0.8572
3
2
1
(4)
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
q = (1 3 )
M = 6 sin ss /(3 sin ss )
CS = 0.05 + 0.36 p
(5a)
(5b)
(5c)
5
Coefficient cs
3
2
1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Coefficient CS
(6)
DISCUSSION
Comparison with previous study of sand-silt
mixtures
467
y= 8.7413x +0.4055
R2 =0.9877
CS
CS
R2
0
0.075
0.15
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.07
0.14
0.09
0.2
0.26
0.45
1.15
1.55
1.14
1.98
2.87
4.32
0.78
0.82
0.85
0.93
0.7
0.89
Table 4.
Comparison of equations [5] and [7] illustrate similar trends: As fines/carbon content increases, the
parameters CS and CS increase. Yet, in equations [5]
the parameters CS and CS increase more rapidly with
fines/carbon content than in equations [7]. This may be
a result of the different fines material: carbon instead
of silt. In addition it can be observed that the relations
in the present study have better correlations. This may
be due to the fact that the present data is from one
material from one researcher.
Furthermore, Bouckovalas et al (2003) derived the
following empirical expression that approximately
predicts the factor M in terms of f:
CS
CS /
0.15
0.80
1.00
0.09
0.26
0.45
0.09
0.26
0.35
1.00
1.00
1.29
M = 1.25 + 0.1 f
(a)
1.50
1.40
M
(8c)
1.30
1.20
y = 0.0012x +1.2325
2
R =0.1188
1.10
1.00
0
20
40
60
80
100
Dr (%)
(b)
1.50
1.40
M
1.30
1.20
y =0.2724x +1.1861
R2 =0.7213
1.10
1.00
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
CONCLUSIONS
Figure 13. Factor M versus (a) relative density (Dr) and (b)
carbon content (p).
(7a)
(7b)
(7c)
468
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was funded by the General Secretariat of
Research and Technology of Greece (Project no DP23
with title X-Soils). Mr Chrysanthos Mavridis and Mr
Alexandros Xenakis assisted in the performance of
laboratory tests. Mr Skevos Halkitis and Mrs Lydia
Balla assisted in the analysis of the test results.
REFERENCES
Atkinson J. 1993. An introduction to the mechanics of
soils and foundations. McGraw-Hill international series
in Civil Engineering, 337 pages
Been, K., and Jefferies, M.-G. 1985. A state parameter for
sands. Geotechnique, 35(2): pp. 99112.
Bouckovalas, G.-D., Andrianopoulos, K.-I., and Papadimitriou, A.-G. 2003. A critical state interpretation for the
cyclic liquefaction of silty sands. Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering 23, pp. 115125.
Kotzias, P., and Stamatopoulos, A. December 1983. Sensitivity of Very Hard Pliocene Marl. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE.
Stamatopoulos, A., and Kotzias, P. June 1981. Geotechnical Properties of Lignite. Tenth International Conference
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 4/55,
Stockholm.
Kotzias, P., and Stamatopoulos, A. May 1984. Stability of an
Erratic Tailings Deposit. Proceedings, International Conference on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering,
University of Missouri Rolla.
Vick, S.-G. 1983. Planning, Design, and Analysis of Tailings
Dams. Wiley.
Kirkaldy, J.-F. 1963. Minerals and Rocks. Blandford Press,
London.
Date
do
[kN/m3 ]
02.12.04
02.12.04
07.12.04
29.12.04
07.02.05
08.02.05
14.02.05a
14.02.06b
07.04.05
12.11.04a
12.11.04b
29.11.04
03.12.04
23.12.04
24.12.04
27.12.04
16.12.04
17.12.04
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.15
15.70
14.42
14.91
15.21
14.72
15.70
14.72
15.70
15.70
13.73
13.73
12.65
15.70
14.72
12.75
14.22
15.70
12.16
469
octss
[kPa]
1220
220
460
980
1210
950
640
1240
875
530
530
240
962
485
232
330
1085
107
1.23
1.03
1.09
1.18
1.15
1.17
1.07
1.20
1.23
1.09
1.09
1.21
1.15
1.25
1.21
1.35
1.25
1.17
8 APPENDIX B. (continued)
Date
do
[kN/m3 ]
octss
[kPa]
20.12.04
21.12.04
29.12.04
30.11.04
29.11.04
25.04.05
26.04.05
28.04.06
26.04.07
24.5.04
13.05.05
03.05.05
04.05.05a
04.05.05b
12.04.05
13.04.05
19.04.05
20.04.05a
20.04.05b
10.05.05
11.05.05
26.04.06a
26.04.06b
26.04.06c
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
12.36
13.73
14.72
13.73
15.99
9.03
11.18
10.10
10.59
9.52
6.57
6.57
4.51
5.98
5.10
5.59
5.69
5.10
5.59
3.53
5.59
3.60
3.80
4.00
242
395
415
245
749
115
570
402
385
144
295
345
100
130
198
270
217
193
313
100
368
82
120
127
1.34
1.36
1.19
1.31
1.24
1.43
1.42
1.45
1.29
1.45
1.49
1.34
1.45
1.38
1.50
1.44
1.42
1.44
1.45
1.45
1.42
1.42
1.37
1.42
470
Nadia Benahmed
CEMAGREF Groupement dAix en Provence, Aix-en-Provence, France
ABSTRACT: Natural soft clays are structured as a result of their history of deposition, cementing and aging.
The natural clay possesses a higher void ratio and greater undrained strength than its reconstituted counterpart
due to its structure, and thus exists outside the state boundary surface for the reconstituted material. To examine
the evolving damage to the structure of natural Bothkennar soft clay as it is subjected to plastic volumetric and
deviatoric strains, tests have been conducted on natural and reconstituted samples in CRS oedometer and triaxial
stress-path apparatus equipped with bender elements. The shear stiffness at very small strain Go (determined
using bender elements) has been used as an indicator of the degree of damage. When normalised by a void ratio
function, Go of the natural clay has been compared to the normalised stiffness of the reconstituted clay at the
same stress state. Changes of normalised stiffness reveal the underlying clay behaviour and have shown that the
plastic volumetric strain and plastic deviatoric strain result in similar structural degradation.
INTRODUCTION
471
BOTHKENNAR CLAY
Top cap
72%
79%
37%
1.34
5%
25 kPa
1.6
O-ring
Polished
stainless steel
oedometer
ring
O-ring
Rubber
grommets
Miniature pore
pressure
transducer
Lateral transmitter
benders (HH and
HV)
Lateral receiver
benders (HH
and HV)
O-ring
Vertical receiver
bender (VH)
Brass
sintered disc
Pedestal
b) Triaxial specimen
Figure 1. Installation of bender elements on samples.
soil. The lateral benders mounted in small pots embedded in triaxial specimens are 5 mm wide by 4 mm long.
The pots are held in place by a rubber grommet in a
similar manner to that used to mount the mid-height
pore pressure transducer. The arrangements of bender
elements used for CRS oedometer and triaxial samples
are shown in Figure 1.
In most of the tests described here the signal used
to generate the shear wave was a sine pulse with a frequency of 5 kHz, 90 phase shift and an amplitude of
20 Vpp using a TG1010 function generator. Determination of the travel time of the shear wave was based
on identifying the point of the first arrival in the time
domain. The point selected was taken as the abrupt
deviation of the signal, allowing for the near field
effects for the VH direction. Examples of the excitation and typical shear wave signals are illustrated in
Figure 2 with the points of the first arrival indicated.
In some instances a sound card installed in the computer controlling the test was used to generate the
sine pulse. The data acquisition system comprised a
472
Rubber
membrane
Brass sintered
disc
Vertical transmitter
element (VH)
O-ring
Vertical transmitter
bender (VH)
Vertical receiver
bender (VH)
Brass sintered
disc
Pedestal
HV
0.5
1.5
HH
2.00
1.90
1.80
1.70
1.60
1.50
1.40
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00
*
10
100
'v (kPa)
Time (ms)
1000
Transducers
Transmitter
Benders
BN 2CRS
BR 1CRS
Void Ratio,e
VH
500
400
300
200
100
0
2 -100
-200
-300
-400
-500
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 0
-10
-15
-20
-25
2.20
BN7
BR8
2.00
Datascan
Sample
Amplifier
VH
HV
HH
Receiver
Benders
Switching
Box
Signal
Amplifiers
1.60
1.40
Sound
Card
Signal
Generator
VH
HV
HH
Void Ratio, e
1.80
Serial Port
Logic signal lines
1.20
8255I/O
Card
0.80
10
Stepper Motor
and CRSP
Pressure
Controls
Picoscope ADC216 with an automatic multiplex system, developed in the Geomechanics laboratory at the
University of Bristol for automatic collection of bender
reading data. It is shown schematically in Figure 3.
DESTRUCTURATION PROCESSES IN
LABORATORY CONDITIONS
1000
473
100
p' (kPa)
1.00
ADC-216
Parallel
PC
Port
Oscilloscope
90
70
60
50
40
30
20
Ko =0.65 Line
First yield
point from
BN7
2
1
10
0
-10
Possible bounding
surface
q/p'e
q (kPa)
80
10
20 30 40
50 60
70
80
90
-1
-20
-2
-30
-3
-40
-4
-50
-5
6
7
8
9
Possible
normalised
bounding surface
p' (kPa)
p'/p'e
4.2
Deviatoric straining
(1)
i ni j
Go(ij) = Sij F(e)OCR k p(1-ni-nj)
r
(2)
474
In-situ
aging
Void ratio e
A1
A2
B1
Reconstituted clay
log (')
(3)
Natural
structured clay
Shear modulus
Go
A
A2
B
B1
A1
log (')
Normalised
shear
modulus
Go/F(e)
)current Goij
(4)
in which the *-* line represents normal consolidation line on an e-log Go plot for a reconstituted sample.
Shibuya (2000) has used metastability index in assessing structure in one dimensional consolidation tests on
Ariake clay, Bangkok clay, and Louiseville clay.
The second framework for normalisation is based
on equation 3. Figure 8 indicates the expected relationships that stem from equation 3 in which it is assumed
that the effects of structure can be expressed purely
by the structure terms Sij . In this study measurements
of Go have first been made on reconstituted (fully
destructured) Bothkennar clay from which the void
ratio function F(e) and stress indices were determined.
In comparing natural and reconstituted soils to correctly identify effects of microstructure, it has proved
important to normalise the data to a common void ratio
and to a common effective stress state. For this purpose
we have chosen to apply the void ratio function from
the tests on reconstituted clay when interpreting the
data for the natural clay.
6.2
A
A1A2
B
B1
log (')
The void ratio index xij varies from soil to soil. Jamiolkowski et al. (1995) carried out bender element
and resonant column tests on six Italian clays, and
found that the void ratio index varies from 1.11 to
1.52. Shibuya and Tanaka (1996) proposed an index
of 1.5 for their tests on Holocene clays. Shibuya
et al. (1997) formulated F(e)ij in term of specific volume, and obtained an index of 2.4 from 17 different
clays tested in-situ and in the laboratory including
Bothkennar clay.
A simple way (method 1) to obtain the void ratio
function is to compress the sample in order to reduce
its void ratio, returning periodically to a common
isotropic stress state (Nash et al. 1999). Such a test
may readily be carried out in a triaxial cell, and by
measuring Go at the same stress state the influence of
stress function is eliminated.
If a soil sample is subjected to one dimensional
loading, the horizontal and vertical stresses may be
related through the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K. Equation 2, with previously defined void ratio
function and neglecting the effect of OCR, can be
modified to
Govh,1D = Svh,1D K nh exvh v nv+nh
(6a)
(6b)
(6c)
F(e)ij = exij
Equation 6 enables the void ratio index and the combination of stress indices to be determined by iteration
(5)
475
xvh
xhv
xhh
Table 3.
Method 2
3.58
3.69
3.96
3.41
3.72
3.67
Void ratio, e
Table 2.
nvh
nhv
nhh
0.164
0.167
0.175
2.00
1.90
1.80
1.70
1.60
1.50
1.40
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00
BN2CRS
BR1CRS
0.27
1
MI(Govh)e
*
1
10
100
1000
Govh (MPa)
a) e-log Go
1000
*
Govh(MPa)
100
10
BN2CRS
BR1CRS
*
1
10
100
'v(kPa)
1000
b) log Go-log v
6.3
Destructuration assessments
log Go -log v is considered, it does not show any significant difference between the two samples, suggesting
that the shear stiffness alone, without consideration of
void ratio, cannot throw light on the determination of
structure of the natural clay. Similar trends may be seen
in Figure 10 in which VH bender data from triaxial test
BN7 (natural) are compared with BR8 (reconstituted).
Comparison of Figures 9a and 10a, shows that data
from the CRS oedometer tests are very similar to those
from triaxial tests for both natural and reconstituted
samples indicating the uniqueness of *-* line. This
suggests that there is no effect of strain rate on the
e-log Go relationship.
6.4.1.2 Assessment using void ratio normalisation
An alternative way of exploring the damage to the
clay structure is to normalise the data using the
trends observed for the reconstituted clay. It would
be expected that when the natural clay is compressed
sufficiently to fully destroy its structure it would
exhibit the same void ratio and Go as the reconstituted clay sample. Figure 11 shows that when the VH
shear stiffness data from BN7 were normalised by
the void ratio function and plotted against v h , the
normalised stiffness initially lays above that for the
reconstituted clay (test BR8). As the clay was compressed along the normal consolidation line the data
476
2.20
1000
MI(Govh)
1.40
1.20
0.27
1.00
0.80
10
100
Overconsolidated
Region
10
100
Govh (MPa)
a) e-log Go
100
1000
1000
10000
100000
1000
0.3
nvh
100
*
Svh
Govh (MPa)
100
0.25
80
0.2
60
0.15
40
10
1
10
100
p' (kPa)
0.1
Svh
20
BN7
BR8
0.05
0
0
1000
100
200
300 400
p'max (kPa)
500
600
b) log Go-log p
1000000
'v'h(kPa2)
Svh
BN7
BR8
120
0.3
100
0.25
80
0.2
60
0.15
nvh
40
0.1
Svh
20
100
0.05
0
1
4
p'max/p'e
10
100
nvh
1.60
NCL
nvh
Void ratio, e
*
1.80
Govh/F(e) (MPa)
BN7
BR8
2.00
1000
10000
100000
1000000
'v'h (kPa2)
477
Svh =
3.34(pmax /pe )2
0.003(pmax /pe )2
5.97(pmax /pe )
+ 19.24
Goij (MPa)
In-situ state
Isotropic state
G0(vh)
(7)
10
100
(8)
DISCUSSION
Two methods have been used to make a quantitative assessment of the changing structure of natural
1000
'i'j (kPa2)
10000
a) Goij vs 'i'j
1000
Goij/F(e) (MPa)
Degradation in Goij/F(e)
at in-situ state
4%
100
2%
8%
G0(vh)/F(e)
10
10
100
1000
'i'j (kPa2)
10000
60
0.3
45
Bonding
0.2
MI(Govh)e
0.1
30
15
Fabric
0.0
-0.1 0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
0
2.2-15
-0.2
-30
MI(Govh)e
Svh
-0.3
-0.4
-45
-60
Void Ratio, e
478
8%
10
4%
2%
Svh
nvh = 0.25
0.009(pmax /pe )
100
% Change in Goij/F(e)
0%
VH
-10%
HV
HH
-20%
-30%
-40%
-50%
-60%
-70%
-80%
0%
10%
20%
30%
479
480
Shi-Cheng Ma
Civil Engineering and Mechanics college of Xiangtan University, Xiangtan, China
ABSTRACT: As a new type of construction material with appropriate behavior and economy, soil cement
is widely applied in many engineering fields, such as water conservancy, communications and civil engineering. Because long-term mechanical behavior of soil cement construction is directly affected by its rheological
behavior, the rheology theory will provide more dependable and reasonable safety guarantee to soil cement
construction when it is applied in design of structure.
According to the results of the unconfined compression tests and rheologiacal tests on laterite cement and
sandy soil cement, this paper compared the mechanical behavior of soil cement on the condition of soaking or
un-soaking. The tests provide some data to the application of these two kinds of soil cement. Based on the data
provided by the previous tests, many tests for rheological behavior of soil cement were done.
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
481
Site
Dry density
(g/mm3 )
Water
content (%)
Classification
S1
S2
2.63 103
1.844 103
25
20
Sandy soil
Redeposited laterite
Cement
ratio (%)
S1
S2
4
7
10
13
10
Model
(MPa)
PL
(MPa)
DPL
(mm)
77.52
99.48
129.91
184.19
242.00
29.83
70.62
219.68
1.33
1.31
1.87
2.07
4.89
0.52
0.55
0.82
2.86
1.62
1.67
1.53
1.50
2.02
1.53
1.57
1.33
1.44
482
Rheological behavior
483
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Complication Committee of Geotechnical Engineering
Handbook, 1994. Geotechnical engineering handbook,
China. China Architecture and Building Press.
Cui J.Y., 2001. Analysis research of the mechanics properties
on cement deep mixing pile, China. Chinese Journal of
Foundation Engineering, Vol. 11, pp. 58.
Liang R. W., and Zhang M., and Bai X. H., .2001. Analysis
of laboratory test result of cemented soil, China. Chinese
Journal of Rock and Soil mechanics, Vol. 22, pp. 211213.
Ministry of Construction P. R. China, 1999. Specification
for soil test (SL237-1999), China. China Architecture and
Building Press.
Ministry of Construction P. R. China, 1999. Standard of
method for soil test (GB/T50123-1999), China. China
Architecture and Building Press.
Sun Jun, 1999. Rheology and engineering application of rock
and soil, China. China Architecture and Building Press.
Xiao L., and Wang C. Y., and Guo H. S., 1985. Construction material soil cement, China. Water Conservancy and
Electric Power Press.
Yu Y. H., and Yang X. H., 2003. Experiments of mechanics property of cement-loess, China. Chinese Journal of
Changan University (Natural Science Edition), Vol. 23,
pp. 2932.
484
ABSTRACT: A solution to the progressively destructurated undrained strength is derived in the framework of
critical state theory and progressive destructuration concept. The analytical solution can be used to investigate
the influences of anisotropy, degrees of structure and destructuration, Lodes angle and visco-plastic volumetric
strain rate on the progressively destructurated undrained strength of natural soils. Generally, the soil parameters
involved in the proposed solutions can be determined from laboratory experiments.
INTRODUCTION
It is increasingly accepted that natural soils are microstructured under anisotropically deposited K0 condition (Burland 1990; Leroueil and Vaughan 1990).
Bonds between soil particles or aggregates usually
exhibit that the peak strength envelope of the overconsolidated soils is above that of the same soil when
non-structured. For example, Leroueil et al. (1997)
and Saihi et al. (2002) reported from triaxial tests that
large deformation strengths of overconsolidated sensitive eastern Canada clays and softened clay shales
from southern Italy, lie well above the critical state
line obtained on the reconstituted material. Leroueil
and Vaughan (1990) and Leroueil (2001) indicated that
the void ratio of the natural soils, its stress history and
the strength of the bonds between particles or aggregates can be reflected in the limit state curves of natural
soils. When an effective stress path reaches the limit
state curve, a large proportion of the bonds are broken, and the stiffness, peak strength envelope and the
yield stress and the compression index of the natural
soils are consequently decreased. Destructuration can
be reached by compression, shearing and possibly by
swelling in particular conditions respectively.
In the well-known modified Cam clay (MCC)
model, the shape of the yield locus is assumed symmetrical about the mean effective stress axis. However,
many natural clays were studied and their yield surfaces exhibited strong anisotropy. For example, Tavenas and Leroueil (1979) found that the limit state curve
of natural clay was more or less elliptically symmetrical about the in situ stress state or K0 line. A study
by Graham and Houlsby (1983) also indicated that
the yield loci of anisotropically consolidated natural
485
(1)
p'K
p'K
p'u
p'
0,0
line
V1
line
V2
1 + 3 tan2 (1 / )
1
into M ( , ) = (3 + 3 tan ) + (3 3 tan3 )
/ to get the
3
3 cos 6 ]}, K = (3 sin )/(3 + sin ) in
Xins function (1988). With the explicit shape function g( , ) or implicit function M ( , ) of failure
surfaces, Equation 1 can be written as:
Q = (q K0 p )2 /M 2 [g( , )2 K2 0 /M 2 ]
(pK0 p )p = 0
Q = (q k0 p )2 /M 2 ( , )
(2b)
=
pK0
k
pu
(4)
1 + 2K OC
0
vi ; K0OC is the current value of the
stress, p =
3
coefficient of earth pressure at rest; vi is the initial
vertical effective stress.
For an element of soil in the ground which has an
initial vertical effective stress vi and overconsolida
tion ratio OCR (OCR = v,max
/vi , where v,max
is the
maximum vertical effective stress that the element of
soil has been subjected to), the horizontal effective
stress is given by
(5)
As noted above, the maximum vertical and horizontal effective stress that the soil element has ever
experienced are given by
= (OCR)vi
v,max
486
general M ( , ).
Based on the critical state theory (Roscoe and
Burland 1968; Muir Wood, 1990), the progressively
destructurated concept (Leroueil and Vaughan, 1990;
Leroueil, 2001), and according to the method in Potts
and Zdravkovic (1999), the undrained strength at progressively destructurated state can be derived using the
anisotropic flow surface function as follows:
or
[1 k20 /M 2 ( , )](pK0 p )p = 0
'
ln p
(6)
h,max
= K0NC v,max
(7)
pi
1+
(8)
(OCR)vi
(9)
, h,max
,
Because the stress state associated with v,max
qi and pi is normally consolidated, it must lie on
the visco-plastic flow surface. Consequently, using
Equation 2 we can get
pK0 = pi +
(qi K0 pi )2
pi [M 2 ( , ) K2 0 ]
vp
vp
(12)
(VK0 )0
pu
pK0
pi
pK0
k
= (OCR)vi
2
(1+2K NC )
1 + 2K NC
3 1 K0NC K0 3 0
0
+
NC
2
2
3
(1 + 2K0 )[M ( , ) K0 ]
1 + 2K0NC
2
K (1+2K NC )
1K0NC 0 3 0
(OCR)(1 + 2K NC ) + 9(OCR)
vp
VK0
vp
(VK0 )0
)Cp (1 )
(13)
When the undrained strength is mobilized, the soil element is at the critical state, with stresses qds and pds .
These stresses are related by the equation
qds = pds M ( , )
(14)
M ( , ) + K0
2M ( , )
(15)
where pK0 , VK0 , (pK0 )0 , and (VK0 )0 are mean effective pressures and visco-plastic volumetric strains at
the current state and reference state (at a strain
rate low enough), respectively; the coefficient Cp is
the slope of the mean effective pressure (log) versus
visco-plastic volumetric strain rate (log) curve (Kim
and Leroueil, 2001).
Substituting Equations 8 and 9 into Equation 10
and rearranging in consideration of the variation of the
mean effective pressure pK0 with strain rate, provides
the following expression for the current hardening
pK0 ,ds
vp
pds
=
pK0 ,ds
pu
k
2M ( , )
M ( , ) + K0
(16)
Consequently,
pK0 ,ds = pu
2M ( , )
M ( , ) + K0
k
(17)
487
)C p
vp
VK0
(10)
In this paper, the mean effective pressure of the natural structured soil, pK0 lies on the K0 axis (Zhou
et al., 2005) and corresponds to the value of mean
effective pressure on the pi axis in the mean effective
pressure versus volumetric strain diagram.
Leroueil et al. (1985) have illustrated a variation of
the apparent preconsolidation pressure with strain rate.
In a similar way, we assume a variation of the mean
effective pressure of the natural structured soil,pK0 ,
with strain rate. Leroueil et al. (1985) and Leroueil and
Marques (1996) showed that the variation of apparent
preconsolidation pressure with strain rate is about the
same for most inorganic clays, i.e., 712% per logarithm cycle. The corresponding values of the slope
of the preconsolidation pressure (log) versus viscoplastic volumetric strain rate (log) curves are between
0.03 and 0.05 as same as those given by Mesri et al.
(1995). Similarly, we adopt a relationship of mean
effective pressure of the natural structured soil, pK0 ,
with strain rate as
vp
pK0 = (OCR)vi
2
(1+2K NC )
1 + 2K NC
3 1 K0NC K0 3 0
0
+
NC
2
3
(1 + 2K0 )[M 2 ( , ) K0 ]
qi = (1 K0NC )(OCR)vi
2K0NC
parameter
3(OCR)vi cos [M ( , ) + K0 ]
=
2
2
(1+2K NC )
1 + 2K NC
3 1 K0NC K0 3 0
0
+
NC
2
3
(1 + 2K0 )[M 2 ( , ) K0 ]
0.6
2(1+2K0oc )M ( ,)
3M ( ,)+3K0
vp
VK0
)Cp (1 )
vp
(VK0 )0
M0
M1
K0oc
0.75
0.03
0.008
0.06
1.243
1.143
0.50
Su /'z
0.2
K
0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
(18)
Figure 2. Relationship of the normalized progressively
destructurated undrained strength vs. the anisotropic parameter k0 at = 30 and D = 0.4.
1.0
Su /'z
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
D
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
The obtained solution to the progressively destructurated undrained strength is used for an example of
parametric analysis. The basic parameters used are
summarized in Table 1.
Figures 2 to 6 give the relationship between the
normalized progressively destructurated undrained
strength Su /z and the anisotropic parameter K0 ,
the degree of destructuration D, the initial degree of
structure 0 , Lodes angle , and the visco-plastic
vp
488
0.4
0.8
K0 ]
Cp
1.0
K (1+2K NC )
1K0NC 0 3 0
NC
0
OCR 1+2K
+ 3(OCR) (1+2K NC )[M 2 ( ,)2
3
K0
1.0
1.0
S u / 'z
S u / 'z
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
0.0
1.E+00
1.3
1.0
vp
VK0 (10-10)
1.E+02
1.E+04
1.E+06
Su /'z
0.8
0.6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
0.4
0.2
0.0
-30
-10
10
30
CONCLUSIONS
The analytical solution to the progressively destructurated undrained strength allows for the evaluation
of the dependency of it on the degree of inherent anisotropy, the destructuration state, the general
stress state and the strain rate of soils. The parametric study shows that the normalized progressively
destructurated undrained strength Su /z increases with
increasing anisotropic parameter K0 , initial structure
parameter 0 and visco-plastic volumetric strain rate,
489
Leroueil, S. and Vaughan, P. R. 1990. The general and congruent effects of structure in natural soils and weak rocks.
Geotechnique, 40(3): 467488.
Leroueil, S. and Marques, M. E. S. 1996. Importance of
strain rate and temperature effects in geotechnical engineering: state of the art. In Proc.ASCE Conv., Washington,
Geotechnical Special Publication, No. 61, pp.160.
Leroueil, S., Guerriero, G., Picarelli, L. and Saihi, F. 1997.
Large deformation shear strength of two types of structured soils. In Proceedings of the international symposium
on deformation and progressive failure in geomechanics,
Nagoya, pp. 217222, Pergamon.
Leroueil, S. 2001. Natural slopes and cuts: movement and
failure mechanisms, Geotechnique, 51(3): 197243.
Matsuoka, H. and Nakai, T. 1974. Stress-deformation and
strength characteristics of soil under three different principal stresses, In Proc. Jap. Soc. Civ. Eng. (JSCE), 232,
pp. 5970.
Mesri, G., Shahien, M., and Feng,T. W. 1995. Compressibility
parameters during primary consolidation. In Proceedings
of the International Symposium on Compression and Consolidation of Clayey Soils, IS-Hiroshimas 95, Hiroshima,
Vol.2, pp. 10211037.
Muir Wood, D. 1990. Soil behavior and critical state soil
mechanics. Cambridge University Press.
Potts, D. M. and Zdravkovic, L. 1999. Finite element analysis in geotechnical engineering: theory. Thomas Telford,
London, UK,
Roscoe, K. H. and Burland, J. B. 1968. On the generalized
stress-strain behavior of wet clay. In: Engineering Plasticity, Heyman, J. and Lekie, F. A. (Eds.), Cambridge
University Press, pp. 553609.
490
ABSTRACT: In this article, behavior of cantilever retaining walls with various flexibilities, which retain
saturated cohesive soil behind, is studied using numerical modeling. Generally, pattern of lateral earth pressure
behind retaining walls is complex and this complexity becomes greater for clayey soils. In this investigation,
effects of different wall bending stiffnesses, and backfill drainage conditions on the failure height and on the
lateral earth pressure are investigated using finite elements. Comparison between the obtained results from
numerical simulation and those based on empirical or conventional design methods indicate that soil-structure
interaction and c drainage conditions play important roles in the analysis and design of flexible retaining walls
which are not fully addressed in the classical methods of analysis. At the end of the paper advantages and
limitations of the classical methods are discussed.
1
INTRODUCTION
The finite element code Plaxis [4] has been used for
the course of numerical simulations in this study. This
ID
Cu
kPa
C
kPa
d
kN /m3
sat
kN /m3
E
kPa
Eu
kPa
ko
C5
C9
25
40
0
0
5
9
20
22
18.5
18.5
20
20
2500
5000
2250
4500
0.495
0.495
0.35
0.35
0.74
1.11
493
Table 2.
ID
Types of wall
EI
kNm2 /m
EA
kN /m
CRW
DW
SPW
SSW
2.3E06
2.3E06
7.5E04
1.5E04
2.8E10
2.8E07
4.0E06
4.0E06
0.17
0.17
0.35
0.35
Walls are assumed to be long enough so that deformations in the direction of wall length are negligible and
the problem is considered in plane strain conditions.
Dimensions, geometry and boundary conditions are
494
Table 3.
Cu
kPa
C
kPa
ka
kp
kac
kpc
0.490
2.040
1.400
2.856
25
9
0.455
2.198
1.349
kau
kpu
2.45
2.45
2.45
2.45
2.965
40
Conventional
m
Blum
Conventional
Blum
kNm/m
4.80
3.50
5.55
5.29
4.41
3.42
5.13
5.13
1704.03
127.66
1806.63
391.20
1260.60
112.12
1352.16
345.61
Failure
height m
Maximum bending
moment kNm/m
Maximum
horizontal
displacement m
Type of
wall
Failure
height m
Maximum bending
moment kNm/m
Maximum
horizontal
displacement m
CRW
DW
SPW
SSW
6.5
6.0
5.5
4.5
2170
1600
1120
752.7
1.54
1.62
3.34
3.53
CRW
DW
SPW
SSW
10
10
10
10
1120
1110
500.7
339.0
0.85
0.90
0.99
1.03
Failure
height m
Maximum bending
moment kNm/m
Maximum
horizontal
displacement m
CRW
DW
SPW
SSW
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
388.6
374.8
327.0
220.1
0.94
0.99
1.06
1.17
Failure
height m
Maximum bending
moment kNm/m
Maximum
horizontal
displacement m
CRW
DW
SPW
SSW
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
2180
1640
1190
867
1.27
1.37
1.60
2.01
495
496
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper effects of the wall flexibility on the lateral earth pressure distribution behind retaining walls
in drained and undrained conditions have been studied. It has been shown that in undrained conditions
changes in wall bending stiffness has little effect on
the failure height and it is nearly constant for all types
of walls with different flexibilities. It is observed that
in undrained conditions classical methods estimate
smaller failure heights compare to the numerical methods. Also, the calculated maximum bending moment
using the classical methods is generally less than the
calculated values in the numerical analysis; therefore, designing with classical methods will lead to an
underestimation of wall cross-section design. Drained
conditions compare to undrained conditions have a
less failure height, induce more maximum bending
moment, and create more horizontal displacement at
the top of the retaining wall. Therefore, in the design
of retaining walls drained condition is more critical. Concerning the change in the direction of bending
moment from negative to positive in passing from
undrained condition to drained condition over time,
it is recommended to reinforce the concrete walls in
both sides on the basis of the bending moment obtained
from numerical analysis.
REFERENCES
[1] Bazrafshan M., Amir, 2005, Numerical analysis of
interaction between flexible retaining wall and saturated cohesive soil in short term (undrained) and
long term (drained) conditions, MSc thesis, civil eng.
Faculty, Sharif University of Technology, Iran.
[2] Bjerrum, L., Frimann Clausen, C.J., and Duncan, J.M.,
1972, Earth pressure on flexible structures, Compusrendus du V CEMSTF, Vol. 2, 169196.
[3] Blum, H., 1931, Einspannungs verhaltnisse bei Bohlwerken, Berlin, W. Ernst & Sohn, 32.
[4] Brinkgreve, R. B. J., and Vermeer, P. A., 2002, PLAXIS
finite element code for soil and rock analyses, version
8, Balkema.
[5] Budhu, M., 2000, Soil mechanics and foundations,
John Wiley & Sons.
[6] Building on soft soils, 1996, CUR, Balkema.
[7] Clayton, C. R. I., Milititsky, J., and Woods, R. I., 1993,
Earth pressure and earth-retaining structures, 2nd Ed.,
Chapman & Hall.
[8] Clough, G.W., and ORourke, T.D., 1990, Construction induced movements of in situ walls, Proc. Of the
Conf. on Design and Performance of Earth Retaining
Structures, Cornell University, 439470.
497
[9] Clough, R.W., and Woodward, R.J., 1967, Analysis of embankment stresses and deformations, Proc.
ASCE, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division, 93(SM4), 529549.
[10] Das, B. M., 1990, Principal of geotechnical
engineering, 2nd Ed., PWS-KENT.
[11] Delattre, L., 2001, A century of design methods for
retaining walls, BLPC.
[12] Haliburton, T.A., 1968, Numerical analysis of flexible
retaining structures, Proc. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div.
ASCE.
[13] Liu, C., and Evett, J. B., 1984, Soil properties, testing
measurement and evaluation, Prentice-Hall.
[14] Peck, R.B., 1969, Deep excavation and tunneling in soft
ground, Comptes-rendus du VII CIMSTF, 225290.
[15] Peck, R.B., 1943, Earth pressure measurements in open
cuts Chicago subway, Trans. ASCE, 108, 10081036.
[16] Potts, D. M., 1993, The analysis of earth retaining
structures, Proceedings of the Conference Retaining Structures, Cambridge, C. R. I. Clayton (editor),
Thomas Telford, 167186.
[17] Puller, M., 1996, Deep excavations: A practical manual, Thomas Telford.
[18] Rowe, P.W., 1955, A theoretical and experimental analysis of sheet pile walls, Proc Instn. Civ. Engrs, Pt I,
Vol 4, 3269.
[19] Rowe, P.W., 1952, Anchored sheet pile walls, Proc.
Instn. Civ. Engrs, Pt I, Vol 1, 2770.
[20] Simon, B., 1995, Commentaires pour le choix des
coefficients de reaction pour le calcul des ecrans de
soutenement, Revue francaise de Geotechnique, 71,
1119.
[21] Terzaghi, K., 1936, Distribution of lateral pressure of
sand on the timbering of cuts, Proc. First Int. Conf. Soil
Mech., Vol. 1, 211215.
[22] Terzaghi, K., 1955, Evaluation of coefficients of subgrade reaction, Geotechnique, 4, 297326.
[23] Tschebotarioff, G.P., Brown, P.P., 1948, Lateral earth
pressure as a problem of deformation or of rupture,
Comptes-rendus du II CIMSTF, Vol. II, 8186.
[24] Winkler, E., 1867, Die lehre von elastizitat und festigheit, Prague, H. Dominicus.
498
Facheng Zhuo
Shanghai Tunnel Bureau, Shanghai, China
Yanzhi Zhu
Dept. of Civil Engineering & Architecture, Zhongyuan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, China
Xiaopeng Ji
Foundation Engineering Division, Avic Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Beijing, China
ABSTRACT: According to geological conditions, properties of terrane and soil offered by Guangzhou No.3
Metro Line, three different numerical models are built upon three shielding construction plans of thrusting with
same advance at the same time, thrusting with opposite advance at the same time, and thrusting with sequential
advance. This paper forecasts and evaluates the influence of ground settlement due to two-tunnel shielding
construction. The influence of ground deformation by expanding metro-station is also modeled under four
different reinforcement measures. The investigation shows: different settlement occurs in different construction
plan; the ground settlement enlarges based on shield expanding construction and the influence range in cross
direction enlarges as well.These results can support the constructing the metro-stations by expanding the shielding
tunnels directly and provide a method to predict the ground deformation. It also offers theoretical reference for
promoting the shielding construction.
INTRODUCTION
With the increase of the city intensity and the highrise buildings, the available surface space decreases.
The underground space is also occupied with pipelines
of different uses. How to utilize and create the underground space more effectively has become an important subject of current city modernization. One of the
best choices is to adopt shield method to develop
the underground space. Shield method, one modern
construction technique that undermines the tunnel
underground, has been used in construction for about
200 years. However, even the most advanced shield
technique causes ground settlement unavoidably. The
buildings, structures or the underground pipelines are
influenced in different extent. If the tunnel excavated
is connected to or under the building, it constitutes
a threat to use, even the security of the building
(Chow. 2004). The range and value of the settlement
can be effectively controlled by accurately predicting
the influence of ground settlement and construction
499
PROJECT OVERVIEW
Table 1.
Soil Layer
Thickness
(m)
Density
(Kgm3 )
Bulk Modulus
(MPa)
Shear Modulus
(MPa)
Internal Friction
Angle ( )
Cohesive
Strength (KPa)
1.90
2.5
9
2.4
8
36.2
2140
1990
1980
2000
2310
2410
4.67
2.47
3.58
3.48
4.33
917
2.15
1.63
1.65
1.80
2.60
423
27.7
19.6
22.8
28.3
35.0
45.0
11.0
22.5
49.2
46.1
48.3
785.0
3
3.1
FLAC3D MODELING
Brief introduction of FLAC3D
500
6m
6m
shield 2
11.0m
6m
6m
shield 1
11.0m
6m
11.0m
shield 2
6m
shield 2
shield 1
Excavated tunnel
Figure 2. Three kinds of construction schemes (A) state of two tunnels shielding construction with same advance; (B) state
of two tunnels shielding construction with opposite advance; (C) state of two tunnels shielding construction with sequential
advance.
501
0
-2
-4
Settlement /mm
Settlement /mm
-5
-10
-15
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-20
-16
-18
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
-70
Horizontal Direction /m
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Horizontal Direction /m
Shield 1
Shield 2
Settlement/mm
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-60
-40
-20
20
40
60
Horizontal Direction /m
both sides and the tunnel center. This shows that the
settlement influence around this range can be ignored.
The settlement in the center of the tunnel is 18.35 mm;
while in the position of two separate shield machines
the values are 19.37 mm and 20.26 mm respectively.
When the distance from the center of the tunnel
increases, the law of settlement is found to be roughly
linearly distributed.
4.3.2 Two tunnels shielding construction with
opposite advance
In this scheme, one shield machine thrusts in one
tunnel while the other thrusts in opposite advance.
The results show that, when the distance between two
shield machines is less than 40 m, surface lift or fracture phenomenon in the construction period is serious.
Figure 6 shows the ground settlement when the distance is more than 40 m. From the figure, we can find
that the maximum value is 13.66 mm and the law of
settlement is roughly linear within the distance of 35 m
502
directly; the maximum value is 43mm and the influence region is 60 m from both sides to the centre of
the station. The settlement is the minimum when consolidating by grouting and anchoring stock, and the
maximum value is 25 mm. The consolidated effect by
excavating with grouting is better than excavating with
anchor stock.
5
0
Settlement /mm
-5
-10
-15
-20
CONCLUSIONS
-25
-30
REFERENCES
-35
-40
-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Horizontal Direction /m
503
ABSTRACT: This paper proposes a three-dimensional numerical modeling of an embankment over soft ground
improved by vertical rigid piles. Arching occurs in the embankment fill, leading to partial load transfer onto the
piles as well as surface settlements reduction and homogenization. The piles, the soft ground and the embankment
are simulated with a continuum model. A representative unit cell from the pile grid is taken into account. The
performance of the improvement system is analyzed and the constitutive model impact for simulating the soft
soil and embankment material behavior is investigated. The numerical results are compared to existing design
methods in terms of load transfer onto the piles.
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Problem description
505
al. 2004, Naughton and Kempton 2005), as also highlighted in section 7 of this paper. Moreover, none of the
existing design methods predict the surface settlement,
as pointed out by Love and Milligan (2003).
Better understanding of the precise mechanisms
by which the loads are transferred onto the piles is
then needed. In France, a national research project has
begun (entitled ASIRI for Amlioration des Sols par
Inclusions RIgides, translated as Soil Improvement
using Rigid Piles). The aim of this project is to edit
guidelines for the design, the construction and the control of soft ground improvement by vertical rigid piles.
1.3 Three-dimensional aspect of the problem
The studied problem is fully three-dimensional due to
the vault shape in the embankment fill. Each vault is
supported by three or four pile caps, depending if the
regular pile grid is triangular or square respectively.
When using a numerical approach to handle this
problem, axi-symmetric two-dimensional models can
be implemented (Han and Gabr 2002), but the vault
shape will then be considered as a circular umbrella,
which does not represent reality. Plane strain models also have already been implemented, but Kempton et al. (1998) compared such models with fully
three-dimensional approaches and showed that twodimensional models can not simulate properly the
real system behavior. A full three-dimensional modeling then appears essential in the prediction of piled
embankment performance. Full three-dimensional
numerical modeling of piled embankment problems
(simulating explicitly the soft soil) were already performed by Wong and Poulos (2001), Aubeny et al.
(2002), Laurent et al. (2003) and Steward and Filz
(2005).
NUMERICAL MODEL
A regular square grid is studied (Fig. 2). The pile diameter is equal to 0.35 m and the pile spacing is s = 2 m.
The choice of the geometry is arbitrary but is deduced
from average values of piled embankment site data
collection (Brianon 2002). The area ratio is the proportion of the soft soil area treated covered by the piles.
It is here equal to 2.4%, which is a small value. Piled
embankment and pavement sites also present higher
area ratio values when pile caps are placed on the top
of the piles.
Due to symmetry conditions, only a unit cell as presented in figure 2 needs to be modeled. The numerical
model thus contains only a quarter of a rigid pile. The
numerical model is shown in figure 3. The soft soil,
the rigid pile and the embankment are explicitly simulated. The calculations are performed using the finite
difference code Flac3D (Itasca 2002).
s = 2m
Pile
d = 0.35m
Numerical model
Unit cell
Elementary grid
part
Pile
A
Y=1m
Soft soil
Z
Y=0m
Y
X
X=0m
Top view
Rigid stratum
506
X=1m
To respect the limit conditions due to system symmetry, the nodes situated on the vertical plane located
at X (Y) = 0 m and X (Y) = 1 m are fixed in the X (Y)
direction. The nodes situated at Z = 0 m (bottom of
the model) are fixed in all direction, as a rigid stratum
is considered.
The soft ground layer is 5 m-thick and it is composed of a very soft soil layer, under the ground
water level, and a 1 m-thick superficial dry crust, usually stiffer or over-consolidated (Vepslinen et al.
1991, Chai et al. 2002). No interface elements are
place between the rigid concrete piles and the soft
soil, assuming that there are no relative displacements
between pile and soil, and then the skin friction is
considered infinitely rough.
The embankment is set up in 0.5-m thick successive
layers up to a maximum height equal to 5 m. At each
new embankment layer installation, calculation is performed until static equilibrium is reached under self
weight. When the embankment is 5 m-high, overloads
are placed on the embankment top up to a maximum
value equal to 100 kPa (equivalent to 5 m additional
embankment material, the embankment unit weight
being 20 kN/m3 ). The loading is performed in drained
conditions: the effect of soft soil time consolidation is
not taken into account.
3
The embankment material and soft ground behavior are modeled using several constitutive models, in
order to evaluate the important features of the behavior
which have to be taken into account.
Deviatoric stress (kPa)
Embankment
(1)
K
m
163
0.5
0.4
42
0 kPa
5.4
Janbus
parameters
600
400
Experimental results
Mohr-Coulomb model
CJS2 model
200
0
0
10
Axial strain (%)
15
20
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
507
value
800
3.1
Parameter
Table 3.
Parameter
value
Elastic part
G0
Koe
n
5 MPa
13 MPa
0.6
Deviatoric
mechanism
Rc
A
Rm
Kop
0.6
0.27
0.001 Pa1
0.35
0.9
Isotropic
Parameter
Dry crust
Compressible layer
M
e
pc ini
0.13
0.05
1.19
3.07
0.3
110 kPa
0.11
0.08
1.07
1.61
0.3
pini + 10 kPa
50 MPa
However, important features of the granular material behavior are not taken into account with the
Mohr-Coulomb model, as non-linearity and dilatancy
before failure. The embankment granular material
behavior is then also modeled using an elastoplastic model with two hardening mechanisms, the CJS2
model (Maleki et al. 2000), adapted to granular material behavior modeling. This model has two isotropic
hardening mechanisms, one for the deviatoric stresses
and one for the isotropic stresses. The elastic part is
non-linear. This model was implemented successfully
in the user defined model interface for a use in the
Flac/Flac3D code.
The parameters identified on the triaxial test results
are given in table 2 and the triaxial test numerical modeling results are given in figure 4. For this material and
for the determined set of parameters, the CJS2 model
lightly overestimates the contractive behavior of the
material.
The CJS2 model and the parameter identification
are more complex than for the Mohr-Coulomb model,
but no adaptation of the model is needed to simulate
the non-linear behavior of the granular material. However, neither the Mohr-Coulomb model, nor the CJS2
model is able to simulate the observed strain softening
behavior.
Table 4.
Parameter
Dry crust
Compressible layer
Ej (for 3 = 40 kPa)
2.53 MPa
0.3
27
0 kPa
0
1.17 MPa
0.3
30
0 kPa
0
Table 5.
Parametric study.
Soft deposit
Embankment
MohrCoulomb
CJS2
Mohr-Coulomb
Cam Clay
Smc Emc
Scam Emc
Smc Ecjs
Scam Ecjs
3.2
Soft soil
The marine soft deposit of Muar in Malaysia is simulated in this study. This soft deposit has been widely
described and simulated numerically (Indraratna et
al. 1992), in particular using the modified Cam
Clay model (Roscoe and Burland 1968). This deposit
presents a superficial dry crust over a saturated compressible layer. Average values for the Cam Clay model
parameters are taken from the literature for both parts
of the deposit. Parameters are indicated in table 3.
Mohr-Coulomb model parameters are determined
from the Cam Clay model parameter from table 3.
To take account for non-linear behavior, the Youngs
modulus is updated at each new embankment layer
508
PARAMETRIC STUDY
-0.2
Settlement (m)
0
Smc
Scam
-0.4
-0.6
0
-0.1
Smc Emc
Scam Emc
Scam Mcjs
-0.2
-0.3
0.03
Differential surface
settlement (m)
Smc-Emc
Scam-Emc
Scam-Ecjs
0.02
0.01
0
0
6.1
Point C
Point B
0.5m
sC
Embankment
H
sB
Surface settlements
Pile
509
Soft soil
Smc-Emc
Scam-Emc
Scam-Ecjs
Embankment
0.02
0.6
0.4
Smc Emc
Scam Emc
Scam Ecjs
0.01
0.2
0
0
0
10
1
Smc Emc
Scam Emc
Scam Ecjs
0.8
SRR
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
2
4
6
8
Equivalent embankment height (m)
10
Figure 11. Stress reduction ratio (SRR) according to equivalent embankment height.
Results obtained with the various constitutive models are equivalent; one of the reasons is probably
because the shear strength of the fill is equivalent for
each modeling.
Some authors use the term Stress Reduction Ratio
or SRR (Russell and Pierpoint 1997, Horgan and
Sarsby 2002, Naughton and Kempton 2005, etc.) for
estimating the magnitude of arching, as suggested by
Low et al. (1994). The SRR is defined as the ratio of
the average vertical stress acting at the soft ground surface to the average vertical stress due to embankment
fill ( H, where is the unit weight of the fill and
H the fill height) and eventual surface overload. When
no arching occurs, the SRR is equal to 1. The SRR can
be directly estimated from the efficacy E value and the
area ratio using equation 2:
SRR = (1 E)/(1 )
(2)
510
6.3
Overloads
0.8
Efficacy
0.03
a H
Hc
7.1
envelops are not concentric. A relation giving the average vertical stress acting on the soft subsoil is obtained
by considering soil element equilibrium in the vault
axis. The analytical approach used in the German
standard is also presented by Kempfert et al. (2004).
Svano et al. (2000)
In the SINTEF method, Svano et al. (2000) assume
that a wedge of soil as illustrated in figure 13 is carried by the pile cap. If the height of fill is higher than
Hc , all additional fill weight and overload are transmitted to the piles. The slope is expected to range
between 2.5 and 3.5 and needs to be calibrated as it can
be considered as a material parameter (Van Eekelen
2001).
BS8006 (1995)
The British standard for designing piled embankment
is based on Marston and Anderson (1913) formula to
assess vertical stress on buried conduits:
qp /( H) = (Cc a/H)2
(4)
511
(3)
Table 6.
0.7
0.6
Concept
Parameters
Hewlett and
Randolph (1988)
EGBEO (2004)
Analytical vault
model
Analytical vault
model
Wedge of soil
a, s, H, Kp
Marston formula
Russell and
Pierpoint (1997)
Combarieu (1988)
Equilibrium of
sliding soil mass
Negative friction
0.5
Efficacy
Method
0.1
0
a, s, H,
(correlated to )
a, s, H
Hewlett
and
Randolph
(1988)
a, s, H, K,
Combarieu (1988)
Combarieu (1988) proposed a method based on negative friction along concentric cylinder surfaces centered on the pile in both the embankment fill and the
soft soil. This method is therefore considered as global.
When considering shearing only in the embankment
fill, this method is identical to Russell and Pierpoint
(1997) approach if using the same coefficient of horizontal earth pressure K. The average vertical stress
acting on the soft soil qs is given by equation 5. The
value of K tan ranges between 0.5 and 1 for dense
granular soils (Combarieu 1988).
qs = /m (1 exp(m H ))
(5)
(6)
Combarieu Numerical
(1988)
analysis
512
EGBEO
(2004)
a, s, H, K tan
7.2
0.3
0.2
a, s, H, Kp
0.4
minimum embankment height of 2 m cancels the surface differential settlements and that the settlements
in the embankment are reduced by 50% compared to
the non-reinforced case. This reduction can be much
larger for a better quality embankment fill over a more
compressible subsoil layer. Terms were defined and
used to assess the load transfer onto the piles. The
efficacy indicates that up to 60% of the total embankment weight plus overloads were carried by the piles,
whereas they cover only 2.4% of the soft ground area.
The stress reduction ratio quantifies the reduction of
the average vertical stress acting on the soft subsoil
and can be determined directly from the efficacy value.
It reached a minimum value equal to 0.4. It was also
shown that the load transfer mechanisms are dependant
to the embankment height as the efficacy increases
with the height.
A parametric study was performed on the constitutive model implemented for the embankment and the
soft ground. No large difference was recorded when
using the Mohr-Coulomb model with non-linear elasticity or the two-mechanism elastoplastic CJS2 model
for the embankment material and the Mohr-Coulomb
model with non-linear elasticity or the modified Clay
model for the soft ground deposit. Nevertheless, even
if they are more complex than the Mohr-Coulomb
model, the CJS2 model and the modified Cam Clay
model do not require a special implementation of non
linearity to simulate a realistic soil behavior.
It is important to notify that the studied case is fictitious and a validation of the numerical model would
be necessary by comparing with experimental results.
Experimental in site data will be available in the frame
of the research project ASIRI and comparison will be
performed.
This numerical model will be used to perform parametric studies on the geotechnical and geometrical
parameters, in order to clearly underline the parameters which should inevitably appear in a simplified
design method. In particular, the precise impact of the
granular embankment parameters such as the friction
angle, the dilatancy and the rigidity should be investigated, as well as the cohesion as the embankment
can be made of treated granular material (with lime
or cement, Dano et al. 2004). Moreover, the precise
influence of the soft subsoil compressibility in combination with the embankment characteristics should be
analyzed.
Last part concerned a comparison of the numerical results with current design methods to assess the
soil arching in the embankment fill. Several methods
were presented and it was shown that they are based on
various concepts to model the soil arching. The comparison in terms of efficacy showed that the design
methods and the numerical analysis yield different
results. The range of efficacy values for an embankment height equal to 5 m is between 0.44 and 0.60,
513
514
ABSTRACT: Embankment construction on soft clay can result in the development of significant lateral soil
movement. This soil deformation in soft clay layer induces considerably horizontal passive loading to the adjacent
pile foundations and probably causes serviceability problem due to excessive lateral displacement or bending of
the piles. In order to investigate the complex soil-pile interaction, the three-dimensional finite element analysis is
employed in this study. The passive p- curves are presented as the common p-y curves may not properly describe
the actual behaviour of passively loaded piles under lateral ground movement. It is found that the generated p-
curves are obviously dependent on pile spacing. The passive p- curves stiffen, whereas the active p-y curves
soften when pile spacing decreases. A better understanding of behaviour of passively loaded piles adjacent to
embankment constructed on soft Bangkok clay is achieved.
INTRODUCTION
Embankment
lateral ground
movement
Generally, the withstanding piles against the horizontal ground movement can be analysed by empirical methods based on field measurements and the
result of laboratory experiments, pressure-based methods, displacement-based methods and sophisticated
515
Soft clay
Table 1.
initial pile
position
initial soil
centerline profile
deformed soil
centerline profile
final pile
position
equivalent plane
deformation
Parameters
Soft clay
Pile and
pile cap
4.4
0.40
14.0
11.3
0
27.0
0.20
25.0
5.0
initial soil
centerline profile
15.0
p
eq
2.0
final pile
position
deformed soil
centerline profile
equivalent plane
deformation
20.0
numerical analyses (Stewart 1999). The reliable estimation of the free-field soil displacement is a dominant issue to successfully study the response of that
passive pile (Chen and Poulos 1997).
The magnitude of ultimate soil resistance of a single
passive pile varies from 9cu to 12cu (Randolph et al.
1984 and Chen 1994). The limiting lateral soil resistance is defined as equal to 2cu due to the near-surface
effects, then increased linearly up to 9cu at a depth of
three pile diameters and remained constant below that
depth (Broms 1964).
The variation of the ultimate soil resistance p with
depth and the relative soil-pile displacement are
presented in the term of p- curves. Bransby (1996)
stated that the traditional active p-y curves may not
properly describe the soil-pile response of passively
loaded pile under lateral ground movement. This is
because the actively loaded pile is pushed laterally
into the surrounding soil and the soil is dragged with
the pile. Therefore, the pile deflection y is the sum
of relative soil-pile displacement and the global soil
displacement y (see Figure 2a).
In case of passive lateral loading under undrained
and plain strain conditions, the value can be estimated
from the difference between an equivalent uniform
displacement eq and pile displacement relative to the
initial pile position p as shown in Figure 2b. The result
from centrifuge model tests conducted by Stewart
516
5.0
1.0
4.0
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
0,0
2
31
0.40x0.40 @ 1.20 m
@2.00 m
Embankment
1,0
2,0
3,0
very soft to
soft clay
Depth (m)
12.0
4,0
5,0
medium clay
6,0
7,0
3.1
8,0
Soil elements
517
20
15
10
z = 4.5 m @ 3B spacing
0,011
0,008
0,006
0,004
0,002
0,000
z = 4.5 m @ 5B spacing
0
/B
Bransby, M. F. 1996. Difference between load-transfer relationship for laterally loaded pile groups: active p-y or
passive p-. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 122(12), pp. 10151018.
Bransby, M. F., and Springman, S. 1999. Selection of loadtransfer functions for passive lateral loading of pile
groups. Computers and Geotechnics, Vol. 24(3), pp.
155184.
Broms, B. B. 1964. Lateral resistance of piles in cohesive soils. Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Division. ASCE, Vol. 90(2), pp. 2763.
Broms, B. B. 1972. Stability of flexible structures (piles
and pile groups). Proc. of the 5th ECSMFE, Vol. 2, pp.
239269.
518
CONCLUSIONS
Randolph, M. F. and Houlsby, G. T. 1984. The limiting pressure on a circular pile loaded laterally in cohesive soil.
Geotechnique, London, Vol. 34(4), pp. 613623.
Stewart, D. P. 1992. Lateral loading of piled bridge abutments
due to embankment construction. Ph.D. thesis, University
of Western Australia, Perth, Australia.
Stewart, D. P. 1999. Discussion: Analysis of piles subjected
to embankment induced lateral soil movement. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 125(5), pp. 425426.
519
Maotian Luan
State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China; Institute
of Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian,
China
Qing Yang
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Dalian University of Technology,
Dalian, China
ABSTRACT: Large-diameter cylindrical structure is a new type of coastal hydraulic structure which is suitable
for soft ground. Up to now appropriate computational procedure and analysis method for horizontal bearing
capacity of such a type of structure are still not available. In the paper, a series of three-dimensional numerical
analyses are carried out for the structures. The effect of strength anisotropy of soft soils on bearing capacity of
the structure and foundation is examined. Based on the computational results, such two patterns of instability
as single-sided failure mechanism and double-sided failure mechanism of the structure and foundation are
employed. It is shown that single-sided failure mechanism is more likely to occur. Influence of cyclic softening
of soft soil ground caused by wave loading on horizontal bearing capacity of structure is then investigated. It is
demonstrated that horizontal bearing capacity of the structure is considerably reduced when the cyclic nature of
wave loading imposed on structure is taken into account.
INTRODUCTION
521
strength anisotropy of soft soil on bearing capacity of large-diameter cylindrical structure must be
investigated.
2.1 Hills yield criterion
For transversely isotropic soil, the commonly-used
Hills criterion of yield can be expressed as
f = J1/2 k = 0
J = a1 (z x )2 + a1 (z y )2 + a2 (x y )2
2
2
2
+(zx
+ yz
) + 2(a1 + 2a2 )xy
(1b)
522
(1a)
the computational model of the structure used for analysis. In the figure, L denotes the embedment depth, La
is the height of the structure above the mudline, D is
the diameter of the cylinder, t is the wall thickness, P is
the wave-induced external lateral load, Lp is the height
of the loading action point above the mudline, G is the
gravity of the structure and the soil.
2.3
Parametric studies
La
P
Lp
G
L
t
523
Pn
3
E=320Sussv
=1 crack
E=800Sussv
=1 crack
E=320Sussv
=0.5 crack
E=800Sussv
=0.5 crack
E=320Sussv no crack
E=800Sussv no crack
0
0
0.05
0.1
dn
Figure 3. The load-deformation relations computed for
different soil modulus and friction coefficient.
affect bearing capacity of the structure, for singlesided failure mechanism, however the load-carrying
capacity seems to increase with soil unit weight. In
reality, as shown in Figure 4(b), the passive and active
wedges are almost symmetric, leading to the total net
work done by the self-weights to vanish. Alternatively,
the weight of the soil lifted behind the cylinder is the
same as that pulled down on the opposite side, thus
resulting in no net energy dissipated due to gravity.
This observation has been implied in the limit analysis method proposed by Maotian Luan et al. (2005)
and Qinglai Fan et al. (2004). In addition, the bearing
capacity for single-sided failure mechanism is lower
524
Pn
no crack
crack
10
kN/m3
Figure 6. Effect of soil effective unit weight on the computed bearing capacity factor.
6
5
Pn
4
3
Lp=0.75D
Lp=0.75D
Lp=0.05D
Lp=0.05D
2
1
0
crack
no crack
crack
no crack
0.03
dn
0.06
Table 1.
Strength
Sutc /Sussv
Sute /Sussv
Supm /Sussv
Isotropic
AI case A
AI case B
AI case C
0.866
1.33
1.04
1.04
0.866
0.96
0.55
0.55
1
1
1
0.55
to discuss the effects of strength anisotropy on bearing capacity of T-bar and Ball-bar, the pressuremeter
strength is regarded by Randolph (2000) as the same as
the triaxial-extension strength. In the following analyses, these two cases are considered. The soil strengths
in various shearing modes are listed in Table 1. For
the large-diameter cylindrical structure with the same
diameter, numerical analyses are conducted for two
different aspect ratios of L/D = 1 and L/D = 1.85.
525
4
L / D=1
3
L/D = 1
Pn
131.667
case A
case A
case B
case B
case C
case C
crack
no crack
crack
no crack
crack
no crack
0.04
0.08
dn
Figure 8. Effect of strength anisotropy of soil on bearing
capacity of the structure with the aspect ratio of L/D = 1.
8
L / D=1.85
Pn
case A
case A
case B
case B
case C
case C
crack
no crack
crack
no crack
crack
no crack
0
0
0.05
dn
Strength
no crack
crack
no crack
crack
isotropic
AI case A
AI case B
AI case C
3.4
3.7
3.3
2.8
3.0
3.1
2.7
2.4
6.7
7.3
6.6
5.4
6.0
6.3
5.8
5.0
0
0
0.1
526
L/D = 1.85
engineering due to its sophistication. A practicallyapplicable simplified procedure is required for engineering purpose. The concept of cyclic strength based
on experimental tests which was proposed by Andersen et al. (1988) has been widely used in evaluation
and analysis of overall stability of gravity platform
and foundations subjected to wave loading. The cyclic
strength cyc is defined as the resultant of initial static
shear stress and cyclic shear stress acting on the shearing plane that drives the soil element to reach failure
criterion of deformation after a specified number of
load cycles, i.e., cyc = (s + d )f . It is obvious that
the cyclic strength, which is defined from experimental tests, relies on the loading pattern and the initial
shear stress as well as the number of cycles. Therefore
the cyclic strength can be achieved by virtue of the
empirical relation between the cyclic strength and initial shear stress for a given number of cycles and the
initial shear stress obtained from FEM-based numerical analyses. The cyclic strength defined in such a
manner can be directly used in any pseudo-static limit
equilibrium method. A pseudo-static model based on
the Mises yield criterion is developed by Jianhua Wang
et al. (2005) for evaluation of cyclic bearing capacity of
soft ground through investigation of general features of
cyclic strength of soft soil. In the pseudo-static method
based on cyclic strength, initial stresses of foundation
are assessed by static FEM analyses. Then the empirical relation between cyclic strength and initial shear
stress which is obtained by soil tests for a given number of cycles together with the computed initial shear
stresses is employed to determine the cyclic strength
of soil elements in the foundation. Afterwards, the
finite element analyses are performed for the structure and foundation under the combined action of both
static loads including self-weight and wave-induced
cyclic load action to compute the ultimate load where
reduced soil strengths due to cyclic softening effect
are employed. In the conventional pseudo-static analyses based on the concept of cyclic strength, however,
the nonlinear characteristics of soil before failure is
usually overlooked. In order to fully reproduce nonlinear behaviour of soft soils, the hyperbolic stress-strain
relationship proposed by Duncan and Chang is incorporated with Mises yield criterion to constitute a
nonlinear elasto-perfectly plastic model. Numerical
implementation of such a combined model is fulfilled
on the framework of the software package ABAQUS.
Three dimensional nonlinear finite element numerical analyses are conducted by using the proposed
procedure as above for the deeply-embedded largediameter cylindrical structures on soft ground. The
cyclic bearing capacity of the structure together with
foundation against overturning with consideration of
cyclic softening effect of soil under wave action is
achieved and then is compared with the ultimate loads
under monotonic loading condition.
Where Ei is the initial modulus of soil, max is maximum shear stress on the shearing plane, Su is undrained
static strength and Rf is failure ratio which usually
lies between 0.750.95. Based on general experience, failure ratio of Rf = 0.8 and Initial modulus
of Ei = 320Su are used empirically in the following
analyses. Meanwhile, by virtue of the equivalence
principle of octahedral shear stress, the equivalent
shear stress under general shear condition for a specific soil mass in foundation can be related to the static
strength q = s = 1 3 for soil sample determined
by triaxial test as following (e.g., Jianhua Wang et al.
2005)
1
q = (1 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + (3 1 )2 (4)
2
Finite element analysis is conducted by the following procedures. (1) The undrained static strength Su
of the soil is taken as the failure criterion and the
nonlinear elasto-perfectly plastic model is constituted
by combining Duncan-Chang hyperbolic stress-strain
relationship and Mises yield criterion. Stress analysis of the structure together with foundation under
static loads including self-weight is made by finite
element method. (2) Based on the computed static
stress of soil foundation, cyclic strength under different stress condition for various locations of soil
elements in foundation can be determined by using
both empirical relations of cyclic strength and initial stress achieved from cyclic triaxial test or direct
shear test, as well as correlation between the actual
stress state of foundation and shear strength of soil
sample in laboratory test. (3) The cyclic strength of
soil element defined in the above manner is taken as
failure criterion, re-evaluation of stresses of the structure and foundation subjected to combined action of
both static loads and wave-induced cyclic load is conducted by finite element analysis. The relation between
lateral load induced by wave-loading and horizontal
displacement of the structure at the mudline is gained
and the cyclic bearing capacity of the structure can be
determined by the procedure as proposed above.
After the cylindrical structure is penetrated into the
soft soil, the structure together with soil foundation
is loaded by the self-weight and gravity force of both
super-structures and backfills. Static shear stresses s
in foundation is non-uniformly distributed. When the
structure is further subjected to wave-induced loading, cyclic stresses d in addition to initial stresses are
527
(3)
2.5
1.5
1.5
Pn
Pn
2.5
0.5
0.5
0
0
0.05
0.1
dn
0.03
0.06
dn
Figure 10. The computed relation between load and displacement considering cyclic nature of soil strength by
different soil model with no consideration of crack.
Figure 11. The computed relation between load and displacement considering cyclic nature of soil strength by
different soil model with consideration of crack.
imposed on soil elements in the foundation. If the combined stress of both initial and cyclic components, i.e.,
(s + d ), exceeds its cyclic strength, the soil element
tends to failure. Then redistribution of stress takes
place, high stress will be transferred to the neighbourhood of the soil elements with high stress. The failure
region may get through the soil mass and thus induce
overall loss of stability of the large-diameter cylindrical structure. For convenience of comparison, finite
element modelling together with boundary conditions
are all identical to those as given in Figure 2.
The following empirical equation of shear strength
which is presented by Andersen et al. (1993) from
cyclic direct simple shear tests for a given number of
cyclic loading of N = 1000 is employed in the analyses
cy
s
= 0.42 + 0.87
f
f
cy
s
= 0.47 + 0.53
f
f
s
0.15
f
s
when 0.15
1
f
when 0
(5a)
(5b)
528
Pn
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Professor Dahong Qiu of Dalian University of Technology
for his continuing support and invaluable advice for
the investigation. The financial support for this study
through the grant 50179006 from National Natural
Science Foundation of China is mostly grateful.
2
Lp=0.75D
Lp=0.75D
Lp=0.05D
Lp=0.05D
0.03
dn
crack
no crack
crack
no crack
0.06
REFERENCES
CONCLUDING REMARKS
529
Ladd, C. C. 1991. Stability evaluation during staged construction. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division,
ASCE, Vol. 117(4), pp. 540615.
Luan, M. T. and Fan, Q. L. 2005. Numerical analyses of
bearing capacity of large-diameter cylindrical structure
on soft soil against lateral loads. Proceedings of the
2nd China-Japan Geotechnical Symposium, Shanghai, pp.
161166.
Randolph, M. F. 2000. Effect of strength anisotropy on
capacity of foundations. Proceedings of Booker Memorial
Symposium, Perth, pp. 313327.
Wang, J. H., Li, C., and Moran, K. 2005. Cyclic undrained
behavior of soft clays and cyclic bearing capacity of a
single bucket foundation. Proceedings of 15th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Seoul,
Korea, pp. 377383.
Wang, Y. Z., Zhu, Z. Y., and Zhou, Z. R. 2004. Dynamic
response analysis for embedded large-cylinder breakwaters under wave excitation. China Ocean Engineering, Vol.
18(4), pp. 585594.
Zhu, C. H. 2002. Computation of earth pressure on
large diameter cylinder under service ultimate state (in
Chinese). Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
Vol. 24(3), pp. 314318.
530
Marcelo Burgos
Valencia Port Authority, Spain
ABSTRACT: The Valencia Port Authority plans to incorporate a new area of 140.000 m2 in order to store
containers on it. This area contains a 65.000 m2 lagoon that has been back filled with about 1.000.000 m3 of
dredged mud. The consistency of this mud is very low and its water content is higher than the liquid limit. In
this paper, the numerical modeling of several improving solutions has been developed; from these solutions one
has been selected for the construction that is currently taken place. In addition, a parametric study is included
regarding the variation of the characteristics of the soil-cement mix that is currently being made and their
influence on safety against shear failure and on predicted settlements.
INTRODUCTION
2.1
531
INITIAL DATA
Table 1.
Characteristics
Organic matter (%)
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Liquid limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Water content (%)
Dry unit density (kN/m3 )
Void ratio (e)
Compression index (cc)
Coefficient of vertical
consolidation (cv) (cm2 /s)
Coefficient of horizontal
consolidation (cv) (cm2 /s)
Undrained shear strength
(cu) (kN/m2 )1
12
<10
4060
4060
2545
520
3060
1214
0,91,3
0,200,25
4*104
8*104
50
100
150
200
ESCALE
<25 kN/m2
Figure 2. General arrangement.
+10.0
+5.0
+2.0
+0.0
0.0
-5.0
INNER
HARBOUR
GENERAL
FILL
SEA
MUD
ROCK FILL
-10.0
-12.0
-15.0
2.2
532
Table 2.
Material
(kN/m3 )
K (m/day)
E (kN/m2 )
Embankment
Dry mud1
Mud
Mud_P12
Mud_P23
Mud_14
Mud_25
Dike
Sands6
18,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
16,5
18,0
20,5
0.864
1,2*103
1,2*103
1,2*102
7*103
1,2*102
7*103
0,2
8,64
1*104
5*103
750
750
750
4*103
4*103
5*104
5*104
Table 3.
Material
c o cu
(kN/m2 )
( )
cu
(kN/m2 /m)
Embankment
Dry mud1
Mud
Mud_P12
Mud_P23
Mud_14
Mud_25
Dike
Sands6
10
37
3
3
3
5
5
5
0
28
0
0
0
0
0
0
38
32
0
0
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0
0
In tables 2 and 3 the values for the geotechnical parameters of different materials in their most
representative case have been collected.
In Figure 5, a graph of points with equal displacement is included, which correctly adjusts to the form of
failure observed and the magnitude of the movements
measured
533
One of the singularities of the job studied is the difficulty of creating a work platform over such soft
soils.
As a result of this, the solutions studied are based on
the creation of a soil-cement crust, constructed from
the edges of the lagoon, and subsequently from the
crust itself towards non-stabilized zones, given that the
tool that mixes the soil with the cement is installed in
the arm of an excavator, which rests on soil already
stabilized.
This crust will be constructed using the mass stabilization technique (developed from the deep-mixing
technique). Its function, apart from allowing the movement of heavy machinery to the inner part of the
lagoon, is that of reinforcing the soil, allowing it
to bear in the future, with an adequate security coefficient, the uncompensated loads coming from the
containers. This action has been simulated, in accordance with Spanish Port Norms (R.O.M. 02-90) and
the service characteristics, as a load of 60 kN/m2 ,
which is applied over an undefined 16 m wide strip.
As has been pointed out earlier, this crust is made
mixing cement with the mud. The thicknesses considered in the calculations have been 3, 4 and 5 m, which
respond to usual values for this type of jobs.
In this way, different solutions have been studied,
progressively more complex and expensive, which are
explained below. These solutions would be:
Solution A: Construction of only the crust
Solution B: Construction of the crust and application of a preload, accelerated with vertical drains, in
order to improve the muds found below the crust.
Solution C: Construction of the crust supported by
soil cement columns either floating or placed on the
bearing sandy layer.
In the studied solutions, a bidimensional elastoplastic model with the Mohr-Coulomb criterion in the
hypothesis of plane strain has been used first of all,
carrying out analyses with the PLAXIS finite elements
code. In the second and third solution classical failure
calculations have also been made.
The residual resistance values of the crust have been
used in order to make these calculations, given that, if it
had not broken before placing the containers (Solution
B) due to the greater rigidity of the crust in comparison to the muds, a progressive rupture phenomenon
in the mud-crust system could have initiated at the
Pavement
Crust
Mud
Sands
1.5*105
1.5*104
750
5*104
c o cu
(kN/m2 )
0
1
3
0
( )
cu
(kN/m2 /m)
36
25
0
32
0
0
0.9
0
c (kN/m2 )
( )
e1 (m)
Ffe2
S3max (cm)
A-1
A-2
A-3
A-4
20
20
10
10
25
25
25
25
3
4
3
4
1.2
1.5
1.1
1.4
85
60
94
64
1
2
3
534
Material
c o cu
(kN/m2 )
( )
1*104
515*104
1.5*104
750
750
510*103
010
0
28
36
3
3
7
0
0
0
5*104
32
Material
E (kN/m2 )
Embankment
Pavement
Crust
Muds
Muds (drains)
Consolidated
muds2
Sands
cu
(kN/m2 /m)
0
0
0
0.9
0.9
1.2
0
Case
c (kN/m2 )
( )
e1 (m)
Ffe2
S3max (cm)
B-1
B-2
B-3
B-4
B-54
B-6
B-7
B-84
20
20
10
10
10
10
0
0
25
25
25
25
25
25
30
30
3
3
3
3
4
5
3
4
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.4
2.8
2.0
2.4
7
7
7
10
9
8
10
9
1
2
3
4
e = crust thickness
Ffe = safety factor in the finite element code
Smax = maximum settlement
Corresponds to the solution adopted in the project.
8 cases have been studied that correspond to 3 possibilities for the thickness of the crust (3, 4 and 5 m)
and their friction angle (25 and 30 ) and their residual
cohesion (0, 10 and 20 kN/m2 )
In Table 7 the resistance characteristics of the crust
as well as the main results of the calculations made
using the PLAXIS code are summarized.
In Figure 9 a graph of points with equal displacement Is included, which reflects the form of an eventual
rupture.
535
Ffe1
Fb2
Fm-p3
Fb-Ffe
Fm-p Ffe
B-1
B-2
B-3
B-4
B-54
B-6
B-7
B-84
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.4
2.8
2.0
2.4
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.7
3.1
2.3
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
3.0
3.3
2.6
2.9
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.5
E (kN/m2 )
c o cu
(kN/m2 )
( )
cu
(kN/m2 /m)
Pavement
Crust1
Mud
Sands
Columns
1.5*105
1.5*104
750
5*104
3*104
0
0
3
0
50
36
30
0
32
32
0
0
0.9
0
0
In addition, calculations employing classical methods have been made regarding failure by means of the
SLOPE/W program, in accordance with Bishop and
Morgensten-Prices methods and using the same characteristics for the materials. In table 8 the main results
of these calculations are shown.
From these results it can be deduced that:
This solution presents settlements compatible with
the future use of the pavement (lower than 10 cm in
10 years).
A difference of 0.30.6 in the safety factor exists
between the calculations using classical methods
and those using finite elements.
The safety factor for the failure of crusts 4 and 5 m
thick is considered admissible.
The influence of the variation, within the adopted
range, of the values for the residual resistance of
the crust with respect to the safety factor is low
(0.3 maximum).
On the other hand, it will be necessary to verify,
once the preload is carried out, that the muds have
improved as expected and that the characteristics of
the crust respond to that assumed.
536
Table 10.
Case
e1 (m)
Column
density (2 )
Column
length (m)
Ffe3
(cm)
Case
Ffe1
Fb2
Fm-p3
Fb-Ffe
Fm-p Ffe
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
3
3
3
3
2.25
1.5
2.25
4
3
3
6
15
15
15
15
15
15
1.6
2.0
2.5
2.9
3.2
2.5
2.3
2.2
58
42
17
13
9
14
24
21
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
C-5
C-6
C-7
C-8
1.6
2.0
2.5
2.9
3.2
2.5
2.3
2.2
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.2
3.2
2.4
2.7
3.1
3.5
4.2
3.3
0.5
0.5
0.6
1.0
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
1.0
0.8
1
2
3
4
e = crust thickness
m2 per column
Ffe = safety factor in the finite element code
Smax = maximum settlement.
1
2
3
4
5
In addition, calculations employing classical methods have been made regarding failure by means of the
SLOPE/W program, in accordance with Bishop and
Morgensten-Prices methods and using the same characteristics for the materials. In table 11 the main results
of these calculations are shown.
From this table and the previous one it can be
deduced that:
A difference of 0.51.0 in the safety factor exists
between the calculations using the classical and
finite elements methods.
The solution using floating soil cement columns
ends up not being viable given the low safety factors
and the elevated amount of expected settlements.
the density of the treatment should be between 1.5
and 2.0 m2 per column. In those conditions, the
safety factor against failure is considered to be sufficient and, even if the settlements caused by the
application of the load of the containers were 9
12 cm, in the order of the 10 cm indicated by Spanish
(1)
c eq = a ccol + (1 a) cmuds
(2)
(3)
537
where:
a = Ac/A, being
(4)
The analysis that has been made has shown that solution A is not viable despite being the fastest and most
economic option.
Of the remaining two, solution B would probably
be the more economic one, but it needs a long time
before the platform can be put into use, given that it is
necessary to construct the crust, lay out the drains and
the preload, wait until the muds have consolidated, and
remove the preload. This has been the solution finally
chosen in the project, which is currently being executed. In the calculations made for this solution it has
been shown that the influence of the variation in crusts
residual resistance values is low; but it is necessary to
conduct a subsequent investigation in order to verify
the resistance characteristics of the crust and the muds
in a time of use.
Solution C probably has a higher cost than solution
B, but it would guarantee putting the studied zone into
service in less time.
CONCLUSIONS
In order to study the possible improvement solutions of this lagoon, the construction of a test
embankment was begun in 2003. This embankment
had a fragile failure in the middle of construction
despite the precautions taken.
Setting out from what was learned from the geotechnical investigations carried out in the area, the study of
the test embankments failure and the readings from the
instrumentation that was laid out, a back analysis of the
failure has been made. From it, possible improvement
solutions have been studied with both a finite elements
model and limit equilibrium classical methods.
A project that is currently being carried out has been
drafted based on the conclusions of this study, which
will allow the exploitation under heavy loads of a vast
area of a dock that bears on very particular materials.
REFERENCES
Burgos, M., Samper, F. 2004. Caracterizacin geotcnica de
unas arcillas limosas muy blandas procedentes de relleno portuario en la Drsena Sur del Puerto de Valencia.
Simposio sobre geotcnica ambiental y mejora del terreno. Sociedad Espaola de Mecnica del Suelo. Valencia,
Espaa., pp. 205210.
Burgos, M., Samper, F. 2005. Modelizacin numrica retrospectiva de la rotura de un terrapln de prueba y del
comportamiento de distintas soluciones de mejora de un
relleno portuario en la Drsena Sur del Puerto de Valencia. Jornadas Hispano-Lusas de Geotecnia Sociedade
Portuguesa de Geotecnia. Lisboa, Portugal., pp. 277284.
Direccin General de Puertos y Costas. 1990. Acciones en
el proyecto de obras martimas y portuarias. Recomendaciones para obras martimas. ROM 0.2-90. Ministerio de
Obras Pblicas y Urbanismo. Espaa.
Direccin General de Puertos y Costas. 1994. Proyecto
y construccin de pavimentos portuarios. ROM 4.1-94.
Ministerio de Obras Pblicas y Urbanismo. Espaa.
EuroSoilStab. 2000. Design Guide Soft Soil Stabilisation
Development of design and construction methods to
stabilise soft organic soil.
GEO-SLOPE International Ltd. 1991. Slope/W. Version 5 for
slope stability analysis. Reference manual. Canada.
Ladd, C. 1991. Stability evaluation during staged construction. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. ASCE, Vol.
117, No4, pp. 540615.
Plaxis BV. 2002. Plaxis. Version 8.1. Finite element code for
soil and rock analysis. Reference manual. Netherland.
538
Youwei Fan
Nanjing Institute of Surveying, Mapping & Geotechnical Investigation, Co. Ltd., Nanjing, P.R. China
ABSTRACT: The ground water seepage has great influence on the slope stability of foundation pit on soft
sites contained plenty water. In this paper, a new method is proposed to estimate the excavation slope stability
considering the ground water seepage, which is based on the mechanism of seepage action to the slope soils and
the theory of strength reduction elastoplastic FEM by coupling the seepage field and stress field. In this new
method, the universal software ABAQUS is used to simulate the seepage field and analyze the slope stability
by adjusting the magnitude of the shear strength reduction coefficient F continuously. Then by a simplified
example, a comparison is done to verify the new method more reasonable than the three common calculation
methods. From the results, it is found that this new method mentioned above can exactly predict the shape and
position of the potential slip surface of foundation pit slope, and is especially simple and exercisable to describe
the properties of seepage field and the influence of seepage force.
INTRODUCTION
analytic solution already cant well solve these problems. With the development of finite element theory,
it is available to solve these problems. In this paper,
based on the strength reduction elastoplastic FEM theory, a new computation method for the slope stability
analysis of foundation pit was proposed to analyze the
slope stability of foundation pit during the dewatering
and excavation by the universal software ABAQUS. It
is proved that this method is reasonable and feasible
by contrast with the common methods.
2 THE SIMPLIFIED CALCULATION
METHODS OF SLOPE SAFETY FACTOR
CONSIDERING SEEPAGE
2.1 Hydraulic pressure method
The hydraulic pressure method (Jiazheng Pan, 1980)
assumes that the water pressure of any point equals to
the product of the height of this point to the water level
with the water unit weight in the soil mass. That is to
say, the water pressure is linear distribution with the
depth. As shown in Figure 1, the pore water pressures
of ad and bc boundaries are triangle distribution, where
Pai = w .ha , Pbi = w .hb ; and the pore water pressure
of slip surface cd is orthogonal to the side cd, whose
component force in vertical directory is the buoyancy
of water. On the assumption that the water pressure is
541
bi
b
Fs =
hb
1
cos i +
Wi
c
ha
tgi sin i
Fs
Pbi
i
Pai
Pcdi
only in the horizon, the magnitude of hydraulic gradient will be the sine of the tangent angle of phreatic
surface, viz. sin i . On the basis of Bishop Method,
the calculation formula of slope safety factor in the
hydraulic pressure method considering seepage is
1
[ci bi + (Wi ui bi ) tgi ]
tg sin i
Fs =
cos i +
Fs
Wi sin i + fi cos i
(1)
cos i +
i
Fs
Wi sin i
(2)
3.1
c
F
= arctg
(4)
1
tan
F
(5)
542
field, where the effective stress method was used, taking the slipping soil frame as the research object and
regarding the water as the continuous medium in the
pore. The pore water pressure is total stress including
the hydraulic pressure and seepage pressure. Its basis
theory is as fallows:
The stress equilibrium equation about the seepageconsolidation coupling problem can be expressed in
the effective stress term as
= + uw I
(6)
(8)
w g
w =
(10)
Sr nw g
x
Where, k is the hydraulic conductivity, g is the gravitational acceleration (assumed constant and in a fixed
direction).
Substituting the formulas (7)(10) to formula (6),
the stress equilibrium equation of coupled pore water
diffusion and stress analysis problem in the term of
variation by the principle of virtual work is
( uw I ) : dV = t.vds + f .vdV
V
S
V
+ Sr nw g.vdV (11)
V
543
m sin +
sin sin
J2 cos
= constant
3
(13)
1.65
1.60
Safety Factor Fs
1:
m
1.55
= 20.1 kN/m3
c = 34.8 kPa
=19
1.50
1.45
1.40
method 1
method 2
method 3
method 4
1.35
1.30
1.25
1.20
1.15
1.10
0
3.2
2.00
1.95
1.90
1.85
1.80
1.75
1.70
1.65
1.60
1.55
1.50
1.45
1.40
1.35
1.30
1.25
1.20
method 1
method 2
method 3
method 4
544
Safety Factor Fs
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
(d) reduction coefficient F=1.162
a lower water head. That indicates that the seepage action has much disadvantage influence on
the slope stability. So the seepage action cant be
ignored in the calculation of stability safety factor
in foundation pit engineering.
(2) The safety factors calculated by replaced unit
weight method are obviously bigger than those of
the other three methods, as it doesnt consider the
seepage action. It can be affirmed that it is partially
545
Y.Q. Zhou
The headquarters of northern line of city ring expressway of Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province
ABSTRACT: Currently, Swedish method or Dutch method, as well as their revised versions, have been commonly used to estimate the stability of the embankments reinforced by geotextile or other geosynthetic material.
In the stability analysis using these methods, the presence of geotextile is modeled as a resisting force on the
sliding surface, which would generate an additional resisting moment against sliding. In such way, the functions
of geotextile reinforcement are hard to be completely modeled, and this would result in an underestimation
of the safety of the embankment engineering. In addition, numerical analysis of embankment stability such as
finite element method needs much workload. In order to improve it, a new simplified method for the stability
analysis of reinforced embankments is proposed in this paper. The method takes into account both the effect of
the resisting force generated from the reinforcement material on the stability and the changes of the soils stress
and strain states due to reinforcement. These are modeled approximately by using an increasing soil strength
resulting from reinforcement. The assumptions and simplifications made for the calculation of increasing soil
strength are described. It has been shown from case study that compared with the Swedish or Holland method,
the proposed method can reflect reasonably the reinforcement effect, while compared with the finite element
method, it is a bit conservative.
INTRODUCTION
547
h1
adsi
h2
at h1i, above the geotextile and h2i , below the geotextile, and is linear distribution in between, as shown in
Figure 1.
According to the assumption, the induced force can
be obtained from equation (1):
above geotextile,
adsi =
(2)
below geotextile,
adsi =
2Ti
h
(1
)
h1i + h2i
h2i
(3)
(4)
548
2Ti
h
(1
)
h1i + h2i
h1i
T
left
right
heght of dam
Tf
from right
z=f(x)
Tmax
T0
T(X)
from left
X
T(x)+dT(x)
T (x) = T0 +
dT (x) = T0 + 2
(5)
(6)
surface of minimum safety factor is also near to symmetrical axes. The results of above two methods are
close, so any one may be applied. In this paper, both
methods are used to compute the applied position of
maximum tension force, the differences are minor. The
magnitude of maximum tension force may be accord
with the magnitude of resistance force. T0 is based on
the results of FEM, it is 0 while there is no pre-tension
force and it is approximate to pre-tension force while
there is pre-tension force. According to above analysis
and assumption, tension force of geotextile in the any
soil slices can be computed.
In the eq.(5), h1i and h2i refer to the upper and
under soil influence range of the geotexile. There is
few research report about the reinforced range of the
geotexile, so its a complicated research and can be
analyzed using FEM method. The elastic mechanics
method can be used to give an approximate calculation when the FEM resources are scarce. Because the
additional stress is induced by the friction between the
geotexile with the soil foundation, the horizontal additional stress caused by the friction can be solved using
the elastic mechanical formula. For the exterior liner
load performed on the half-elastic foundation space,
the additional stress formula is following:
x =
(7)
Its supposed that the distribution form of the horizontal friction of the reinforced material, such as the
trapezoid, rectangle, triangle form Reference [4], after,
do the integral according the formula Reference [7],
we can obtain the horizontal additions stress in all
points of the ground, when compare to the original
horizontal stress, the additional stress is very small in
certain depth, supposes the depth is h2i, after the elastic
analysis of the symmetric three axial test, obtains the
influence depth (in view of shearing stress influence)
of the reinforce z is in the follow solution:
3(3 )f
z = 2R
(8)
16(2 )
In the formula, m is Poisson ratio of the soil, f is the
friction factor between the soil and the geotextile, 2R
549
2qx3
(x2 + z 2 )2
Tx
h
(1
) Kp ] Kp (11)
h1x + h2x
h2x
It is assumed that Tx, h1x and h2x have no direct relations with stress from equation (9) and (11). When
soil mass is reinforced, angle of internal friction of
soil element is constant, while cohesion is increased.
The increase is given as
c =
h
Tx
(1
) Kp
h1x + h2x
h2x
(12)
550
Reinforces Fs to
enhance the
percentage (%)
Note
20
25
30
Swedish method
0.975
0.982
0.989
Dutch method
0.977
0.985
0.992
This article method
1.002
1.015
1.028
Swedish method
3.0
3.7
4.5
Dutch method
3.2
4.0
4.8
This article method
5.8
7.2
8.5
Safety factor without reinforcement: Fs = 0.947;
551
35
40
45
50
55
0.996
1.000
1.040
5.2
5.6
9.8
1.002
1.007
1.052
5.9
6.3
11.1
1.009
1.014
1.064
6.5
7.0
12.4
1.014
1.020
1.077
7.1
7.7
13.7
1.020
1.027
1.089
7.7
8.4
15.0
552
ABSTRACT: It is easy to induce landslides for cut slope in expansive soil region, especially after lasting
rainfall. Its landslide characteristics are shallow layer and small scale. It is well known to us that Bishops
simplified method of slices and so on is used for calculating stability factor of common earth slope. Due to many
cracks and fissures occurring in the surface of the slope the strength in the superficial layer drops considerably.
Anisotropic mechanical behavior, on the other hand, is showed. In order to analyze these effects uniform cracks
are presumed to distribute in superficial layer of the slope, and inter-slide forces are changed. The slope, which
comprises the superficial part containing many cracks and the non-crack part, is divided into two layers. These
calculating results are compared and analyzed to indicate that cracks and fissures in superficial layers exert an
influence on the slope stability factor. Meanwhile, reinforcement measures for expansive soil cut slope are list
and compared. It is suggested that anchor frame beam be a good method for strengthening the slope, and that
more attentions be pay to research it.
INTRODUCTION
553
LANDSLIDE CHARACTERISTICS IN
EXPANSIVE SOIL REGIONS
fi li
c li
tan
=
+ N i
Fs
Fs
Fs
sin i
Wi + Xi ui b
Ni =
m i
Fs
tan
sin i
Fs
T i R = 0
W i xi
m i = cos i +
Then FS =
1
[c b
m i i i
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
+ (Wi ui b)tg ]
Wi sin i
1
[c b
m i i i
(8)
554
CALCULATING RESULTS
Work condition
Stratification
Non-stratification
Crack depth/m
Factor of safety
Fs of Slide 1
Fs of Slide 2
1.36
1.47
1.98
1.488
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
1.079
1.03
0.991
0.988
Saturation Line
Frame beam
Weathering Layer
Ratio of slope
Fs of Slide 1
Fs of Slide 2
1:1
1:1.75
1:2
1.079
1.364
1.473
1.229
1.480
1.600
Sand-cement grout
Expansive soil slope
is 1.079, and stability factor of Slide 2 is 1.229. However factor of safety for Slide 1 is 1.364 if 1:1.75 ratio
of slope is assumed, which is 0.285 more than that of
1:1. Factor of safety for Slide 1 is 1.473 under ratio of
slope of 1:2, which is 0.109 more than that of 1:1.75.
It is in like manner for Slide 2 (or deep gliding mass).
The factor of safety of expansive soil slope from 1:1 to
1:1.75 presents gentle increment. It is again confirmed
that stratification must be considered for calculation
of stability factor in expansive soil areas.
4.3
Effect of crack
555
REINFORCEMENT METHODS
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
556
Y.M. Cheng
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
ABSTRACT: In this paper, harmony search algorithm is employed to locate the critical failure surface in
slope stability problems. The factors of safety of the potential slip surfaces are obtained by Morgenstern and
Price methods and several published examples are analyzed using the proposed method. The results show that
harmony search algorithm is easy to implement and has performed well in determining the global minimum in
slope stability analysis.
INTRODUCTION
locate the non-circular critical slip surface and concluded that simulated annealing method can perform
well even for non-convex function with the presence of
many local minima and is very suitable for the analysis of slope stability. Zolfaghari (Zolfaghari, 2005)
adopted simple genetic algorithm in the searching for
the critical slip surfaces. Though the genetic algorithm is a global search algorithm based on concepts
from natural genetics and the Darwinian survival-ofthe-fittest code, the results obtained are more often
a local minimum due to the precocious convergence.
The limitation of simulated annealing algorithm is that
it usually converges relatively slowly. The main objective of this paper is adoption of the harmony search
algorithm with the Morgenstern and Price method in
the location of general critical failure surfaces.
2
557
2
6
i-1
3
4
ui+2
x6 x1
(i 1), i = 2, ..., 5
5
(1)
i = 1, 2
i = 3, . . .6
(3)
(4)
i+1
(5)
Geem et al. (2001) developed a harmony search metaheuristic algorithm that was conceptualized using the
musical process of searching for a perfect state of
558
li+2
harmony. Musical performances seek to find pleasing harmony (a perfect state) as determined by an
aesthetic standard, just as the optimization process
seeks to find a global solution as determined by an
objective function. The harmony in music is analogous to the optimization solution vector, and the
musicians improvisations are analogous to local and
global search schemes in optimization techniques. The
HS algorithm does not require initial values for the
decision variables. Furthermore, instead of a gradient search, the HS algorithm uses a stochastic random
search that is based on the harmony memory considering rate HR and the pitch adjusting rate PR so that
derivative of function is unnecessary. Unlike simulated
annealing algorithm, harmony search algorithm is
population based search algorithm. A harmony memory HM of size M is used to generate a new harmony
which probably is better than the optimum in the current harmony memory. The harmony memory consists
of M harmonies (slip surfaces) and the M harmonies
are usually generated randomly.
Consider
"
i=1
r1<HR
Yes
vM+1,i = vNi
N {1,2,...,M}
vM+1,i remains
unchanged
Generates a random
number r2 in (0, 1)
No
r2<PR
i=i+1
Yes
Yes
i<m
Adjusts vM+1,i
No
finish
Figure 3. The flowchart for generating a new harmony.
4 TEXT EXAPLES
To illustrate the applicability of the harmony search
algorithm, several examples are considered. Example 1 is of a homogeneous slope with the following geotechnical properties: friction angle = 19.6 ,
cohesion c = 3.0 kPa, unit weight = 20.0 kN/m3 .
This example is referred to in Chen (Chen, 2003). The
recommended factor of safety of the critical circular
slip surface is 1.00. In this study, the same example
is analyzed based on non-circular failure surface with
different number of vertices. The minimum factor of
safety of critical non-circular surface is 0.9750 when
the number of vertices is equal to 16 and 0.9760 when
the number of vertices is equal to 21. Figure.4 shows
the associated critical slip surfaces of the present study.
When the number of control variables is 16, the NOF
is up to 5819, when the number of control variables
increases to 21, the NOF increases up to 10717.Table.3
summarizes NOFs for all the examples. The critical
slip surfaces obtained by harmony search algorithm
under different number of vertices are almost identical.
Example 2 is also taken from Chen (Chen, 2003).
This example is a case where a weak layer is sandwiched between two strong layers. The geotechnical
properties for layers 1 to 3 respectively are friction
angle 20 , 10 and 20 ; cohesion 28.5 kPa, 0.0 kPa,
and 28.5 kPa; and unit weight 18.84 kN/m3 for all three
layers. Different researchers used different methods to
559
40
35
48
slope geometry
v16
v21
30
25
20
20
slope geometry
Zolfaghari
V16
V21
V31
50
30
40
50
60
46
44
42
70
40
10
slope geometry
15
20
25
30
35
v16
40
51
v21
30
49
Layer 1
47
Layer 2
Layer 3
45
20
Layer 4
43
20
40
60
80
41
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Table 1.
layers
(kN/m3 )
c (kPa)
(degree)
1
2
3
4
19.0
19.0
19.0
19.0
15.0
17.0
5.00
35.0
20.0
21.0
10.0
28.0
560
slope geometry
v16
v21
v31
zolfaghari
51
49
47
45
slope geometry
Arai
Sridevi and Deep
Greco
Malkawi
V13
v17
v21
40
30
20
10
43
41
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
40
60
80
100
layers
(kN/m3 )
c (kPa)
(degree)
Examples
1
2
3
18.82
18.82
18.82
29.4
9.8
294.0
12.0
5.0
40.0
NOF
13
16
17
21
31
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
20
3689
5819
10416
7065
60000
10717
69981
8127
40420
60000
81510
4422
4632
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Based on the harmony search algorithm and Morgenstern and Price method, several homogeneous and
non-homogeneous soil slopes are analyzed. The critical slip surfaces and factors of safety are compared
with those obtained by other researchers. The study has
demonstrated that the proposed method has performed
well and is efficient for slope stability analysis.
REFERENCES
Arai, K, and Tagyo, K. 1985, Determination of non- circular slip surface giving the minimum factor of safety in
slope stability analysis. Soils and Foundation, Vol, 25,
pp: 4351.
Bishop A W 1955, The use of the slip circle in the stability
analysis of slopes. Geotechnique, Vol .5, pp: 717.
Chen Z Y, Shao. C M 1988, Evaluation of minimum factor
safety in slope stability analysis. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol 25, pp: 735748.
561
CONCLUSIONS
Chen Z Y.2003, Stability analysis of soil slopes: theories .methods and programs. Beijing:water power press,
pp: 372373.
Cheng Y M. 2003, Location of critical failure surface and
some further studies on slope stability analysis. Computers and Geotechnics,Vol 30, pp: 255267.
Geem Z W, Kim J H, Loganathan G V. 2001 A new heuristic
optimization algorithm: harmony search, Simulation, Vol
76, pp: 6068.
Greco V R. 1996, Efficient Monte Carlo technique for
locating critical slip surface. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol 122, pp: 517525.
Janbu N. 1954, Application of composite slip surface for stability analysis. Proceedings of European conference on
stability of earth slopes. Sweden, pp: 4349.
562
Simple critical state model predicting the response along slip surfaces
Constantine Stamatopoulos
Stamatopoulos and Associates Ltd., Athens, Greece
ABSTRACT: A simple critical state model predicting the response along slip surfaces of both saturated sands
and clays is proposed. The model is based on critical state theory. The model requires only five model parameters.
The model is calibrated and validated from results of ring shear tests.
INTRODUCTION
sliding systems have been developed to simulate displacement along slip surfaces. These sliding systems
model reasonably well the movement of earth masses.
They are useful tools, especially when displacements
are very large and computer codes based on the Finite
Element Methods cannot be applied. Up to now constant resistance was assumed at the slip surface of
these sliding systems models. Yet, in order to simulate
the degradation of strength that occurs at the slip surface of slides, a constitutive model simulating strength
degradation should be introduced.
To start, a literature review of soil response along
slip surfaces, as measured in ring shear tests, is given
in section 2. Then, previous constitutive models are
reviewed in section 3. The new proposed constitutive model is described in section 4. Section 5 gives
calibration of the model and comparison between measurements and predictions. Section 6 gives a way
to implement the proposed constitutive model at the
multi-block sliding system model.
2-(l+1)+2
2-2+2
2-1+2
d(=
do)
b2-1
b2-2
b2-l
b10 cos1
b20 cos2
(b)
A
m=A-Yt/g
W=A-Y
2-(l+1)+2
A2=A2-0-A
m=m2-AYt/g
W2=W2-0-A-Y
2-2+2
u2
2-1+2
A1-O, m1-O, W1-O
do
d(t)
b2-1-u
b2-2-u
b2-l-u
563
4th Avenue Alasca slide both the shear stress and the
excess pore pressure versus shear displacement relationships exist. In the case of the Vaiont slide only
the shear stress versus shear displacement relationship
exists. Table 1 presents the main characteristics of the
shear stress-shear displacement relationship.
In addition, the main characteristics of the shear
stress-shear displacement relationship from ring shear
tests on other soils together with the main classification characteristics of these soils are given in table form
by Stark and Contreras (1998). They are presented in
table 2.
Table 1.
Summary of Constant Volume Ring Shear Test Results where much data is available.
No
o (kPa)
m /o
u at m
(mm)
r /o
u at r (mm)
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
Nikawa (OCR = 1)
Nikawa (OCR = 1.9)
Vaiont sample 3 slow
Vaiont sample 4 fast
Vaiont sample 4 fast
Vaiont sample 3 fast
59
57
56
55
62
0
0
20
20
20
20
100
230
300
400
500
300
230
505
980
505
980
0.28
0.28
0.24
0.23
0.23
0.47
0.61
0.42
0.35
0.45
0.40
1.2
1.1
1.3
1.8
1.8
4.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
10.0
2.0
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.17
0.15
0.17
0.10
0.15
0.10
55
75
75
120
130
24300
28400
600
600
700
900
No
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
Summary of other Constant Volume Ring Shear Test Results (Stark and Contreras, 1998).
Soil
deposit and location
Drammen clay,
Danvik-gate,
Drammen, Norway
Bootlegger Cove clay,
outside Fourth Ave.
landslide, Anchorage,
Alaska
Cohesive alluvium,
Enid Dam,
Enid, Mississippi
Cohesive alluvium,
Jackson, Alabama
Upper Bonneville clay,
Salt Lake City, Utah
Vertical
Clay size
consolidation Preconsolidation
fraction
stress
pressure
p (kPa)
(% < 0.002 m) o (kPa)
70
72
65
47
42
49
45
19
20
17
20
20
51
51
51
33
33
33
33
95
255
400
150
225
400
500
95.8
147
191
287
383
51.8
79.4
100
47.9
95.8
191.5
383
140
140
140
405
405
405
405
122.4
138.9
81.4
143.5
134.5
75.8
75.8
75.8
47.9
95.8
191.5
383
564
Undrained
peak shear
strength
ratio m /o
Shear
displ.
at m
(mm)
Undrained
residual
strength
ratio r /o
Shear
displ.
at r
(mm)
0.27
0.22
0.20
0.31
0.32
0.31
0.30
0.19
0.27
0.24
0.23
0.23
0.21
0.23
0.23
0.32
0.36
0.31
0.34
1.1
1.3
1.1
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
2.2
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
0.50
0.35
0.37
0.30
0.60
1.2
2.0
0.09
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.13
0.16
0.14
0.11
0.15
0.12
0.14
19
16
60
95
110
125
140
52
77
70
72
75
36
50
38
39
25
29
36
All test results indicate similarities as well as differences in soil response. As illustrated in Figures 3 to
5, as shear displacement increases, qualitatively similar response is observed: The shear stress increases,
reaches a peak and then progressively decreases
towards a limit value.Accordingly, as illustrated in Figures 3 and 4, as shear displacement increases, the pore
pressure increases at a steadily decreasing rate towards
a limit value. An exception is only one case of overconsolidated (but with low undrained strength) sand,
where negative excess pore pressures are observed
at the initial stages of loading. Generally, it can be
observed that at large displacement, as displacement
increases further, soil shear strength and pore pressure
remains more-or-less constant. The measured final
effective friction angle, in tests where pore pressures
were measured, ranges between 26 to 31 degrees.
Quantitatively, large differences in the values of
the maximum (m ) and residual (r ) soil strengths
are observed: m varies from 11 to 392 kPa, while r
from 7 to 98 kPa. The corresponding ratios (a) m / o
and (b) r / o , where o is the initial effective normal stress, vary (a) from 0.61 to 0.20 and (b) from
0.17 to 0.05, respectively. In addition differences in
the shear displacement at peak and residual strength
are observed: At m shear displacement varies from
0.30 mm to 10 mm, while at r from 19 mm to 24 m.
Yet, the results of tables 1 and 2 illustrate that for given
soil and speed of shearing, r is more-or-less proportional to the vertical consolidation stress. Additional
data illustrating this for the soil of the Vaiont slide
(a)
0.50
(a)
0.40
0.30
T
/ 'o
0.20
0.10
0.00
0
200
400
600
800
1000
800
1000
Displacement (mm)
(b)
(b)
0.50
0.40
0.30
T
/ 'o
0.20
0.10
0.00
0
200
400
600
Displacement (mm)
Figure 4. Measured response of ring shear tests on a sample from the Nikawa slide: (a) Nornally-consolidated sample,
(b) Sample with OCR = 1.9 (Sassa et al, 1996).
Figure 5. Measured response of ring shear tests on a sample from the Vaiont slide sample 4 for (a) o = 505 kPa,
(b) o = 980 kPa (Tika and Hutchinson, 1999).
565
0.4
3.2
0.3
tr / 'o 0.2
0.1
0.0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
'o (kPa)
Figure 6. Effect of vertical consolidation stress on the residual shear strength ratio (r / o ). Data from slow tests on
sample 3 from Vaiont soil by Tika and Hutchinson (1999).
(for consolidation stress o > 100 kPa, that is typical for slip surfaces of slides) is given in Figure 6
by Tika and Hutchinson (1999). It is inferred that
the total residual friction angle is a model parameter
more-or-less-independent of the applied stress.
3
3.1
PROPOSED MODEL
(1)
dP = d = K dut (tan cs / )
(2)
abs() = r f
where
(4)
In the above equations is the shear stress, is the normal effective stress, ut is the tangential displacement,
is the friction angle and is the dilation angle.
The function f is not given. It is only stated that it
depends on and c , where c is the effective normal stress at the critical state (or large strain) under
undrained conditions.
The model has five model parameters: a, K, , ,
c . According to Modaressi et al (1995) the parameter
a typically varies in the range of 105 to 103 . Dimensions are not given. A value of K used in the analysis of
a cohesive slope is 6.1*108 Pa*m. The friction angle
of this slope is taken equal to 10 degrees, while is
taken to vary between 9 and 10 degrees.
566
(3a)
(3b)
(3c)
cs ( )
res ( )
a (104 m)
K
(104 Pa*m)
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
26
26
26
26
26
30
31
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
4.0
4.0
4.6
3.4
3.4
9.7
8.7
9.7
5.7
8.5
5.7
5.1
6.3
6.3
6.3
5.7
6.3
6.3
5.7
2.9
4.0
4.0
3.4
7.4
9.1
8.0
6.3
8.6
6.9
8.0
0.15
0.15
0.21
0.22
0.22
0.07
0.07
0.10
0.15
0.10
0.10
0.15
0.30
0.38
0.17
0.15
0.20
0.20
0.33
0.15
0.20
0.23
0.22
0.35
0.25
0.30
0.10
0.10
0.15
0.15
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
9
10
10
10
6
0.2
6
9
2
6
10
15
10
6
7
7
9
5
5
7
7
6
3
20
10
6
8
15
15
567
Case
1.00E+02
8.00E+01
Predicted
6.00E+01
Measured
4.00E+01
2.00E+01
0.00E+00
1.00E-05
1.00E-03
1.00E-01
1.00E+01
u (m)
4.00E+02
3.00E+02
Predicted
2.00E+02
Measured
1.00E+02
0.00E+00
1.00E-05
1.00E-03
1.00E-01
1.00E+01
u (m)
2.00E+02
1.50E+02
Predicted
Measured
1.00E+02
5.00E+01
0.00E+00
1.00E-05 1.00E-03 1.00E-01 1.00E+01 1.00E+03
u (m)
2.50E+02
2.00E+02
Predicted
1.50E+02
Measured
1.00E+02
5.00E+01
0.00E+00
1.00E-05 1.00E-03 1.00E-01 1.00E+01 1.00E+03
u (m)
is given was considered. According to the previous discussion, the friction angle is assumed to be 26 . The
obtained model parameters are given in table 3. Figure
9 gives predictions of a typical test. Table 4 compares
the measured with the predicted responseat different
displacements. The ratio of predicted to measured values of the shear stress is between 0.52 and 1.11 in all
cases. It is inferred that the accuracy of the predictions
is reasonable.
568
u (m)
(kPa)
1.1
0.0012
0.01
0.03
0.055
28
20
12
7
1.2
0.0011
0.01
0.03
0.075
1.3
Predicted
P (kPa)
Predicted/Measured
(kPa)
P (kPa)
15
80
90
95
28.80
15.95
6.96
6.91
12.53
61.34
85.69
85.83
1.03
0.80
0.58
0.99
0.84
0.77
0.95
0.90
64
40
35
16
20
170
180
200
67.60
44.09
17.17
15.85
21.40
118.48
194.23
197.49
1.06
1.10
0.49
0.99
1.07
0.70
1.08
0.99
0.0013
0.01
0.03
0.075
72
50
40
18
30
210
250
260
95.96
69.74
26.84
23.84
34.12
193.86
343.08
351.10
1.33
1.39
0.67
1.32
1.14
0.92
1.37
1.35
1.4
0.0018
0.01
0.03
0.075
0.12
92
75
47
32
24
50
270
320
350
350
92.54
66.80
26.06
23.85
24.0
46.85
200.53
345.09
351.08
350.0
1.01
0.89
0.55
0.75
1.00
0.94
0.74
1.08
1.00
1.00
1.5
0.0018
0.01
0.03
0.075
0.13
115
85
60
35
30
250
350
370
430
450
117.46
92.63
39.26
29.81
30.0
47.09
208.86
412.58
438.85
450.0
1.02
1.09
0.65
0.85
1.00
0.19
0.60
1.12
1.02
1.00
1.6
0.004
0.1
1
24.3
141
100
70
51
50
90
160
220
145
73
51
51
25
170
212
212
1.03
0.73
0.73
1.00
0.50
1.89
1.33
0.96
1.7
0.001
0.1
1
24.8
140
130
50
35
2
30
100
170
122.84
118.73
76.77
35.0
1.62
12.01
94.14
170.0
0.88
0.91
1.54
1.00
0.81
0.40
0.94
1.00
1.8
0.002
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
212.1
151.5
126.25
101
85.85
204.89
128.27
95.71
84.14
85.85
0.97
0.85
0.76
0.83
1.00
1.9
0.002
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
343
151.5
126.25
101
98
338.18
140.36
99.79
101
98
0.99
0.93
0.79
1.00
1.00
1.10
0.01
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
227.25
171.7
136.35
101
75.75
209.29
175
142.96
101.91
84.17
0.92
1.02
1.05
1.01
1.11
1.11
0.002
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.9
392
264.6
235.2
196
147
98
377.51
251.74
159.04
102.46
147
98
0.96
0.95
0.68
0.52
1.00
1.00
569
(kPa)
P (kPa)
12
Parameter res
10
8
6
y = -0.0232x + 6.9743
R2 = 0.0574
4
2
0
0
10
20
50
60
70
80
70
80
20
y = 0.1344x + 2.8534
R2 = 0.2644
15
10
5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
2.50E+02
2.00E+02
Predicted
Measured
1.50E+02
Parameter b
40
25
1.00E+02
5.00E+01
0.00E+00
1.00E-05
30
1.00E-03 1.00E-01
u (m)
1.00E+01
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
y = 0.0018x + 0.1162
R2 = 0.2129
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Predicted
Predicted/Measured
No.
max
(kPa)
u at m
(103 m)
u at r
(103 m)
r
(kPa)
m
(kPa)
u at m
(103 m)
u at r
(103 m)
r
(kPa)
u at m
u at r
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
25.65
56.10
80.00
46.50
72.00
124.00
150.00
18.20
39.69
45.84
66.01
88.09
10.88
18.26
23.00
15.33
34.49
59.37
130.22
1.1
1.3
1.1
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
2.2
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
0.50
0.35
0.37
0.30
0.60
1.2
2.0
19
16
60
95
110
125
140
52
77
70
72
75
36
50
38
39
25
29
36
8.55
28.05
44.00
16.50
22.50
44.00
55.00
9.58
7.35
13.37
20.09
22.98
6.73
12.70
14.00
5.27
14.37
22.98
53.62
26.29
57.62
78.41
46.81
73.22
124.18
154.99
19.19
40.48
48.79
68.53
91.20
11.59
18.48
24.14
14.98
33.31
59.24
131.61
0.74
1.08
2.19
1.37
1.59
2.10
2.07
1.2
1.26
1.26
1.56
1.95
1.14
0.40
0.72
0. 2
1.08
0.93
1.56
16
22
40
50
80
108
110
50
46
37
46
69
30
100
20
25
50
30
63
8.55
28.05
43.76
16.37
22.5
44.0
55.0
9.58
7.35
13.26
20.09
22.98
6.73
12.70
14.0
5.27
14.89
22.98
57.54
1.02
1.03
0.98
1.01
1.02
1.00
1.03
1.05
1.02
1.06
1.04
1.04
1.07
1.01
1.05
0.98
0.97
1.00
1.01
0.67
0.83
1.99
0.91
0.99
1.24
1.22
0.53
1.15
1.15
1.30
1.63
2.28
1.14
1.95
2.40
1.80
0.78
0.78
0.84
1.38
0.67
0.53
0.73
0.86
0.79
0.96
0.60
0.53
0.64
0.92
0.83
2.00
0.53
0.64
2.00
1.03
1.75
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.04
1.00
1.07
570
can be estimated by finding the friction angle consistent with a factor of safety equal to unity at the initial
slide configuration using iterations.
7
CONCLUSIONS
Aubry, D., A., Modaressi, H., Modaressi, A. 1990. Constitutive model for cyclic behaviour of interfaces with variable
dilatancy, Computers and Geotechnics 9, pp. 4758.
Ciabati, M. 1964. La dinamica della frana del Vaiont, G. Geol,
Vol. 32, pp. 139154.
Modaressi, H., Aubry, D, Faccioli, E., Noret, C. 1995.
Numerical modelling approaches for the analysis of earthquake triggered landslides. Proceedings: Third International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical
Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, April 27,
Volume II, St. Louis, Missouri.
Modaressi, A. 1998. Laboratoire de Mecanique des Sols,
Structures, Materiaux, Ecole, Centrale Paris, Second
Progress Report, Seismic Ground Displacements as a Tool
for Town Planning, Design and Mitigation (Project ENV4CT97-0392), Commission of the European Communities,
Directorate General XII, November.
Modaressi,A., and Lopez-Caballero, F. 2001. Global methodology for soil behavior identification and its application
to the study of site effects. Proceedings: Fourth International Conference of Recent Advances in Geotechnical
earthquake engineering, San Diego, California, March
(CD-ROM).
Papadimitriou A., Bouckovalas G., Dafalias Y. (2001) Plasticity model for sand under small and large cyclic strains.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenviromental Engineering, ASCE; Vol.127, No. 11, pp. 973983.
Sarma, S.-K., and Chlimintzas, G. 2001. Co-seismic & postseismic displacements of slopes, 15th ICSMGE TC4,
Satellite Conference on Lessons Learned from Recent
Strong Earthquakes, 25 August, Istanbul, Turkey.
Stark, T.-D., Contreras, I.-A. 1998. Fourth Avenue Landslide
during 1964 Alaskan Earthquake. Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenviromental Engineering, Vol. 124, No. 2, pp.
99109.
Sassa, K., Fukuoka, H., Scarascia-Mugnozza, G., Evans, S.
1996. Earthquake-induced landslides: Distribution,
motion and mechanisms, Special Issue of Soils and
Foundations, Japan Geotechnical Society, pp. 5364.
Stamatopoulos, C.-A., Velgaki, E., and Sarma, S. 2000.
Sliding-block back analysis of earthquake-induced slides.
Soils and foundations. The Japanese Geotechnical Society, Vol. 40, No. 6, Dec., pp. 6175.
Tika, T.-E., and Hutchinson, J.-N. 1999. Ring shear tests on
soil from the Vaiont landslide slip surface, Geotechnique,
pp. 5974.
Aubry, D., Benzenati, I., and Modaressi, A. 1993. Numerical predictions for model No. 1, Verification of numerical
procedures for the analysis of liquefaction problems. Arulanandan K. and Scott R. F. (editors), Balkema, Rotterdam,
pp. 4554.
571
ABSTRACT: In limit analysis, soil parameters, such as dilatancy angle, cohesive force and internal frictional
angle, are generally the important factors to predict the stability of soil nailed walls. This paper discusses effect
of the other two soil parameters, soil moisture content w and its stiffness k, on the upper bound solutions. These
two soil parameters have seldom drawn peoples attention in limit analysis. One hand, by regression analysis of
laboratory tests data, the relations of between soil water content w and the cohesive force C, and between w and
internal friction angle are established. In result, the w, instead of C and , is used in upper bound analysis.
On the other hand, for soil in the potential slipping surface where a nail crosses, its dilatancy angle is calculated
to decrease by using a model and within the model, soil stiffness is directly related with upper solutions to the
stability of soil nailed walls.
INTRODUCTION
573
(1)
(2)
Psy Ksx
Psx Ksy
(3)
574
(4)
The 3D limit analysis has the similar analytical procedures as 2D problem. For the statement convenience,
select a two-dimensional example of soil nailed wall
shown in the figure 5 to illustrate the procedures.
A profile of soil nailed wall is divided into two regions
along a potential slipping surface : the active and passive regions. For soil body within the active region
and on slipping surface , its stresses at any points are
assumed to be either on or out of the yield surface. In
the region (figure 5), the ij , ij denote the plastic
stresses and kinematic admissible strain incremental
field, respectively; the vi represents the velocity jump
vector at i-th velocity discontinuity plane, satisfying
boundary conditions; the dDi indicates the energy dissipation on unit space; the Pi is an abstracted term of
the external loads causing plastic deformation of soil;
m
j=1
j +
j V
P
p
k=1
k =
k V
W
q
dl al (5)
l=1
Cs = C /Fs
s = tan1 (tan /Fs)
(6)
= /Fs
s
Unifying equations 5 and 6, the value of Fs is determined by iteration computation. The and C in
equation 6 is replaced by equations 1 and 2, respectively; the in equation 4 substitutes the corresponding
item in the system 6.
575
i +
i V
T
Soil
Thickness
t(m)
(kN/m3 )
C
(kPa)
( )
(kPa)
(1) fill
(2) clay
(3) Silt clay
1.2
2.8
4.0
18.5
18.7
18.2
4
19
10
15
10
5
15
22
11
5 APPLICATION
A foundation excavation is located in Wuchang town,
Wuhan city, China for building a 15-storey complex
building. The total area of excavation is about 1500 m2
in the shape of rectangular.The excavation depth varies
from 3.0 m to 5.0 m regarding the arrangement of
the various infrastructures. The existing buildings or
underground facilities are more than 10 m far away
from the excavation boundary. In terms of the excavation depth, there are three strata on site from the
top related with the excavation work. Their geologic
conditions are described as below.
1) The topsoil is fill and deposit, consisting of construction rubbish and clay blocks. It is loose with
an average thickness of 1.2 m;
2) Underlying the fill is clay with the average thickness of 2.8 m. It is yellow or grey;
3) The third layer of soil is the grey silt clay with low
shear strength and low permeability. It is a typical
kind of soil in Wuhan city with thickness varying
from 3.8 m to 5.0 m. It is saturated and in liquidplastic state.
The values of characteristic parameters for these
strata are list in table 1.
The values of Ksx , Ksy are assumed to be
1000 KN/m3 and 1000 KN/m3 for clay, respectively.
The groundwater on site is limited and comes mainly
from rainfall. During construction, the surface water
is collected and pumped out from the bottom of the pit.
Allowing for the various excavation depths, the
slops along excavation boundary are divided into five
sections. For each section, it has a different kind of
earth-retaining structure. For two among five sections,
soil nailed wall is selected with the final height of
3.4 m. Two rows of nails, 9 m and 8 m long, respectively, are arranged with the space of 1.5 m 1.2 m
to improve its stability shown in figure 6. A predefined slipping body in soil nailed wall is discretized
into 24 continuous elements of prism and symmetric to the central plane (figure 6). Using the program
3DSNW developed by the author, the factor of safety
is calculated and its value is equal to 2.25 after the
iteration of 7773 times when the dilatancy angle at all
interfaces are selected as their corresponding internal
friction angle of soil body (Yang, 2004).
576
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
Liu L.X. and Lao J.S. 2003, Determining soil shear strength
with its physical indexes, Urban Investigation and Survey, Vol.3, pp1314.
Yang Y. 2004, Three dimensional limit stability analysis of soil nailed wall (in Chinese). Chinese Journal
of Geotechnical Investigation & Surveying, 2004, No.5,
pp4446.
577
Soil improvement
ABSTRACT: An issue of floating type sand drain (SD) installation in the soft geological barrier of an offshore
landfill site is presented.The issue is investigated through a model test in centrifuge.The sand drain installations in
such ground appreciably contributed to extra settlement in short time as expected and desired but such installations
were found appreciably deteriorating the quality of the barrier ground if an adequate intact depth of the ground
below SD didnt exist. Even a 5m intact depth of low permeable clay barrier is found inadequate to prevent
subsurface contamination under adopted hydraulic boundary. Thus the application of SD in soft barrier ground in
order to attain rapid consolidation and thus an extra depth/space for waste disposal should be considered carefully.
INTRODUCTION
Expected Settlement
Waste
Sand
Drains
Plume
Aquifer
and know their possible impact in ground water pollution using model scale test in centrifuge. A conceptual
diagram for the case is shown in Fig. 1.
BACKGROUND
581
84 mm
Waste (Landfill)
115mm
Clay Deposit
35mm
Aquifer
500 mm
582
30
40
NSA-2
NSA-1
50
40
NSA-3
40
75
500
150
Table 1.
SDA-1
40
SFA-1
SDA-2
SFA-2
40
Non SD Area
SD of 1/2 of H
(1/2 SD area)
Sampling
Area
30
SD of 2/3 of H
(2/3 SD area)
SD
40kPa
2.56
0.235
0.174
1.46
0.99
Due to Vertical
Load
Due to seepage
Force
115 mm
Clay
100
kPa
Figure 3. Effective pressure profile during 1-G consolidation stage.
at various depths to monitor pore pressure dissipation in the ground during consolidation. Excess soil
from the model was trimmed off once the consolidation under 32 kPa completes. Trimming of the model
ground was done in such a way that about 100 mm
(10 m in prototype) clay ground would remain once
all consolidation including seepage and centrifugal
consolidation complete.
Seepage consolidation of the model ground was
done applying seepage force with positive pressure of
30 kPa at the top and negative pressure of 30 kPa at the
bottom of the ground through the bottom sand layer.
Details of the vertical and seepage consolidation step
up are explained in Amatya et al. 2006. This consolidation system develops consolidation with 60 kPa more
at base gradually increasing with depth from the top.
The variation of effective stress profile up to this stage
was equivalent to that of the model clay in self weight
consolidation under 100-G (Fig. 3) approximately. The
main purpose of seepage consolidation was to produce
the model ground with strength increasing with depth
and reduce the centrifugal consolidation time. The
ground settlement and PPTs installed in the ground
were continuously monitored during this stage.
Once an adequate degree of consolidation was
achieved by the seepage consolidation process, the
consolidation set up was dismantled and surface of
the clay layer was made clean. Installation of SDs
was done in square grid pattern as shown in Fig. 4
at a spacing of 40 mm*40 mm (equivalent conversion:
4 m*4 m) in normal laboratory floor in 1-G. A hollow plastic straw (6.5 mm diameter) of desire length
was first penetrated in the ground as casing tube and
soil trapped inside the straw was removed by a miniature auger. Silica sand was used to fill the hole for
SD at relative density of about 75%. Finally straw was
drawn out carefully and some minor compaction by
thin rod was performed. Once all SDs were installed,
a require amount of silica sand was poured on the clay
surface (as waste deposit) to generate about 70 Pa overburden load during 100G centrifugation. Finally this
layer was inundated with the contaminant solution. A
typical cross section of the model ground with SDs
and instrumentations is shown in Fig 5. Three potentiometers (PM) were also installed as shown in Fig. 5.
583
3.3
PM-2
PM-3
1.0
Hydraulic Gradient(i)
PM-1
84 mm
25 mm
115 mm
Clay 40 mm
Ground 40 mm
NSS
0.4
SS
P
35mm
0.6
0.2
60mm
0.8
75mm
0.0
20
40
80
120
140
60
100
Prototype Time(Years*1.14)
160
180
200
Due to Over-burdened
Load
70kPa
100mm
Clay
Due to seepage
130
kPa
100
kpa
20
40
60
80
100
120 140
160
180
200
0
2
4
NSA
NSA
6
8
10
2/3
2/3 SD
SD Area
Area
12
14
1/2 SD area
area
16
584
30
40
50
60
70
80
0
2
SDA
6
8
10
Void Ratio
0.70
0.90
1.10
1.30
1.70
1.90
400
1200
800
1600
2000
Expected Profile
Prototype Depth(m)
0.50
0
2
SS = 38 yrs
NSA
SF-A1
SDA-1
SDA-2
8
SFA-2
585
10
10
NSS =166 rs
CONCLUSIONS
586
M. Biglari
Pazhoohesh Omran Rahvar Consulting Eng., Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT: Assalouyeh Petro-chemical complex is located at south of Bushehr province (southern of Iran)
and is surrounded by Zagross mountain chains from north and Persian Gulf from south. Lands are reclaimed by
hydraulic filling into the Gulf in order to create a platform for the required buildings construction. The filling
depth is variable from 5 to 14 meters and the materials were mostly gravels with fine sands and non-plastic silts.
Heavy dynamic compaction was suggested for densification of materials and mitigation of liquefaction potential
due to specified earthquake levels. The initial subsoil conditions were investigated by bore holes and Standard
Penetration Test.
This paper presents dynamic compaction techniques, used to compact the reclaimed lands with filling depth
of 5 to 14 meters. The trial dynamic compactions were performed in order to find the suitable compaction
pattern and weight and also the field response to dynamic compaction. Liquefaction potential was analyzed and
measured using SPT records and other field tests like large scale in-place density and Plate Load Test (PLT)
were used to verify obtaining design requirements. Analyses showed the suitable compaction pattern and energy
that liquefaction potential was mitigated for the highest design earthquake level.
INTRODUCTION
Pars energy economy specific area is located in Assalouyeh, the south of Iran and north side of Persian
Gulf (Figure 1.). As the necessity of neighboring different petrochemical sites and the lack of the sufficient
flat areas was understood, land reclamation by filling
soil was performed up to 14 m depth in an area about
2200000 m2 .
Regarding to high earthquake hazard in region
and high design loads due to petrochemical industry
structures, improvement of weak filled material for
reduction of liquefaction potential and settlement of
footings carried out. Dynamic compaction technique
was selected for treatment of filling material based on
material type.
Dynamic compaction has become a popular method
worldwide for deep improvement of loose soils in last
decades. The method involves the repeated application of high-energy impacts on the soil surface using
tampers weighing 1040 tones, falling from heights of
1030 m, compacting the soil strata to a considerable
depth.
This paper describes the characteristic of site geological and geotechnical aspects of materials and
dynamic compaction project in Assalouyeh. Moreover, the performance and efficiency of dynamic
compaction for treatment of filled material is
discussed.
587
Cyclic behavior of gravely soils is to somewhat different with sandy ones. Now there are good investigations which show liquefaction risk in gravely soils
(Evans (1987), Harder (1988), Hynes (1988) and
Andrus (1994)). Documents of past earthquakes such
as Mino-Owari earthquake 1891 in Japan (Tokimatsu
and Yoshimi, 1983), Fuki earthquake, 1948 in Japan
(Ishihara, 1985), Alaska earthquake, 1964 in USA
(Coulter and Migliaccio, 1966), Tangshan earthquake,
1976 in China (Wang, 1984), Borah Peak earthquake,
1983 in USA (Harder, 1988 and Youd et al., 1986),
Poland earthquake, 1992 (Maurenbrecher et al., 1995)
and Hokkaido earthquake, 1993 in Japan (Kokusho
et al., 1995) show the liquefaction risk in gravely soils
(Amini and Chakravrty, 2003).
These soils do, however often differ in behavior
from, sandy soils in two ways: (1) they can be much
more pervious, and so can often rapidly dissipate cyclically generated pore pressures, and (2) due to the mass
of their layer particles, the coarse gravelly soils are seldom deposited gently and so do not often occur in
the very loose states more often encountered with finer
sandy soils. Sandy soils can range from very loose to
very dense, while the very loose state is relatively
uncommon in gravely deposits and coarser soils (Seed
et al., 2003).
The apparent drainage advantages of coarse,
gravely soils can be defeated if their drainage potential is circumvented by either; (1) being surrounded
and encapsulated by finer, less pervious materials, (2)
if drainage is internally impeded by the presence of
finer soils in the void spaces between the coarser particles (3) if the layer or stratum of coarse soil is of large
dimension, so that the distance over which drainage
must occur (rapidly) during an earthquake is large. In
these cases, the coarse soils should be considered to be
of potentially liquefiable type, and should be evaluated
accordingly (Seed et al. 2003).
Kai-Hua Tan (2004) illustrated that in soils by more
than 25% gravel, the liquefaction is affected by gravels and in soils containing more than 50% gravel,
the liquefaction behavior is completely dominated by
behavior of gravel materials. Furthermore he shows
strength against liquefaction in gravel with particles
about 1 in diameter, is two or three times more than
strength of gravel particles about 0.5 in diameter and
more gravel content causes the less volume change
during liquefaction.
Motoki Kazama et al., 2003 directed a research
on liquefaction and settlement in reclaimed ground
with gravely decomposed granite soil by modeling
the Hyogo-Ken Nambu, 1995 earthquake. They have
investigated three models for centrifuge test with
coarse size less than 30 mm, less than 2 mm and
between 2 to 30 mm and modeled reclaimed layer
588
100
90
WH
70
(1)
D = n WH
80
Percent Finer by weight
(2)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
Particle Size (mm)
100
1000
10
20
30
40
50
60
-2
Depth (m)
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
Z1-T1-BC-BH1
Z1-T2-BC-BH2
Z2-T1-BC-BH3
Z2-T2-BC-BH4
Z3-T1-BC-BH5
Z3-T1-BC-BH6
Z3-T2-BC-BH7
Z3-T3-BC-BH8
Z3-T4-BC-BH9
Z3-T4-BC-BH10
Z4-T1-BC-BH11
Z4-T2-BC-BH12
589
To evaluate dynamic compaction effects, several standard penetration tests (SPT) were performed according
SPT Number
0
10
20
30
40
SPT Number
50
60
-1
10
20
30
40
50
60
-2
-2
-4
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
-3
-4
-6
-8
-5
-10
-6
-12
-7
Z1-T2-BH4
Z1-T2-BH5
Z1-T2-BH6
10
20
30
40
Z3-T2-BH18
Z3-T2-BH19
Z3-T2-BH20
SPT Number
SPT Number
0
Z3-T2-BH17
50
60
-1
-2
-2
-4
10
20
30
40
50
60
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
-3
-4
-5
-6
-8
-6
-10
-7
-12
-8
-14
-9
-16
-10
Z2-T1-BH7
Z2-T1-BH8
Z2-T1-BH9
Z4-T2-BH34
Z4-T2-BH35
Z4-T2-BH36
590
Z4-T2-BH33
10
y = 0.4025x
y = 0.3556x
15
20
25
30
-0.5
7
y = 0.2985x
-1
Depth (m)
6
D(m)
10
5
4
3
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
-3.5
-4
0
0
10
15
20
25
Before Compaction
30
(WH)^0.5
After Compaction
y = 0.4025x
D(m)
8
y = 0.2469x
6
4
2
0
0
10
20
30
40
(WH)^0.5
591
10
20
30
0
-0.5
Depth (m)
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
40
LIQUEFACTION ANALYSIS
-3
-3.5
-4
Before Compaction
After Compaction
Table 1. shows dynamic compaction method can mitigate the liquefaction risk in reclaimed lands with 5 to
14 meters fills.
Depth of
Liquefaction
Compaction No. of
liquefiable
Trial Pattern situation
boreholes soil (m)
M = 6.5 aMAX = 0.23 M = 7.0 aMAX = 0.3
2
Before
After
1
3
4.6
Not liquefiable
Not liquefiable
Not liquefiable
Not liquefiable
Before
After
1
3
3.3
Before
After
2
4
liquefiable
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefiable
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefiable
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefiable
liquefiable
Liquefaction in one Liquefaction without
B.H. without induced induced ground damage
ground damage
Before
After
1
4
5.2
Before
After
1
4
5.6
Before
After
2
4
6.5
Before
After
1
4
11
Before
After
1
4
11
liquefiable
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefiable
Liquefaction in one
B.H. without induced
ground damage
liquefiable
liquefiable
Liquefaction in two Liquefaction in three
B.H. without induced B.H. without induced
ground damage
ground damage
liquefiable
liquefiable
Mitigation of
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefaction
liquefiable
liquefiable
Mitigation of
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefaction
liquefiable
liquefiable
Mitigation of
Mitigation of
liquefaction
liquefaction
592
liquefiable
Liquefaction in one B.H.
without induced ground
damage
liquefiable
Mitigation of liquefaction
liquefiable
Liquefaction in three B.H.
without induced ground
damage
liquefiable
Liquefaction in three B.H.
with induced ground
damage in two B.H.
liquefiable
Liquefaction without
induced ground damage
liquefiable
Liquefaction without
induced ground damage
liquefiable
Liquefaction without
induced ground damage
593
Aykut Senol
Geotechnical Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey
ABSTRACT: Self-cementing Class C fly ashes are being increasingly used for stabilizing soft subgrade for
road construction. Fly ash stabilized soils are usually very brittle in nature, which does not follow the philosophy
of flexible pavement structure. This paper discusses how the strength and ductility of Class C fly ash stabilized soft
soils varies with the molding water contents during stabilization. Unconfined compression tests were conducted
on a series of specimens prepared with stabilized soils to determine the strength and strain at failure. Soft
soils were mixed with Class C fly ash at different molding water contents and at different doses to prepare test
specimens. One set of test specimens were molded just after mixing, where as, a second set of test specimens
were molded 2 hrs after mixing to mimic the field delay during construction. All test specimens were allowed to
cure in a wet room for seven days and subjected to test. Test results show that strength is highest at a particular
molding water content and decreases with increasing or decreasing water content, where as, ductility increases
with increasing molding water content and increases rapidly at the wet side of the optimum water content. An
acceptable region is developed and a specified range of water content is recommended to optimize the strength
and ductility of the fly ash stabilized layer.
INTRODUCTION
595
BACKGROUND
3.1 Soils
Subgrade soils were collected from the centerline
of the proposed roadway and tests were conducted
to determine index properties, soil classification,
compaction characteristics, unconfined compressive
strength, and California Bearing Ratio (CBR). A summary of the properties of soils is tabulated in Table 1.
Compaction curves for the subgrade were determined
using the Harvard miniature method using standard
effort (ASTM D 4609). Unconfined compression tests
were conducted following ASTM D 2166 on undisturbed soil specimens (50 mm-diameter and 100 mmheight) trimmed from the tube samples. CBR tests
were conducted on laboratory-compacted specimens
596
MATERIALS
Table 1.
Specific
Gravity
LOI
(%)
USCS
AASHTO
Avg.
qu (kPa)
CBR
Soil
Liquid
Limit
WN
(%)
Wopt
(%)
dmax
(kN/m3 )
44
20
2.71
CL
A-7-6 (20)
95
27
20
16.2
39
15
2.70
CL-ML
A-6 (16)
124
25
19
16.5
Classification
Scenic
Edge
STH 60
Notes: LOI = loss on ignition, UCSC = Unified Soil Classification System, AASHTO = Association of American State Highway and Transportation Officials, qu = unconfined compressive strength, CBR = California bearing ratio, WN = natural water
content, Wopt = optimum water content, and dmax = maximum dry unit weight.
120
Scenic Edge
STH 60
Columbia Fly Ash
100
80
3.3
60
40
20
0
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
Particle Diameter(mm)
3.2
Fly ash
After compaction, each specimen was wrapped immediately in a polyethylene sheet to prevent any desiccation. They were then sealed using a plastic wrap,
and left to cure for 7 days at 25 C and 100% relative
humidity prior to curing according to ASTM D1632,
(that is, protected from the free moisture in 100% relative humidity room at 21 C). The cured samples were
tested for unconfined compressive strength according
to ASTM D 2166.
597
Stabilized soil
Table 2.
Soil
Type
Fly Ash
Content (%)
dmax (kN/M )
wopt (%)
dmax (kN/M3 )
wopt (%)
Scenic Edge
12
16
20
10
14
18
16.2
16.2
16.0
16.6
16.5
16.4
21
21
22
20
20
20
15.6
15.5
15.5
16.1
15.9
15.8
21
21
22
20
20
20
STH 60
12
2000
1500
10
12% FA No delay
12% FA 2 hr delay
16% FA No delay
16% FA 2 hr delay
20% FA No delay
20% FA 2 hr delay
Soil Alone
Scenic
Edge
Notes: dmax = maximum dry unit weight, and wopt = optimum water content.
1000
500
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
No delay
2 hr delay
No delay
2 hr delay
No delay
2 hr delay
6
4
2
Scenic Edge
0
10
15
20
25
Molding Water Content(%)
0
10
30
1600
10% FA No delay
10% FA 2 hr delay
14% FA No delay
14% FA 2 hr delay
18% FA No dealy
18% FA 2 hr delay
Soil Alone
1200
800
STH 60
400
12
15
18
21
24
RESULTS
Unconfined compressive strength is shown as a function of molding water content and fly ash (FA) content
in Fig. 2 (Scenic Edge) and Fig. 3 (STH 60).
Adding fly ash to both soils increased the compressive strength appreciably (by at least a factor of two,
and as much as a factor of seven). Slightly higher
compressive strengths were obtained at higher fly
ash contents, due to greater cementing in the stabilized soil. For both soils, the maximum unconfined
20
25
30
Figure 4. Strain at failure for fly ash stabilized soils prepared with soils from Scenic Edge site.
DISCUSSION
598
15
12%
12%
16%
16%
20%
20%
Strain atFailure(%)
8
10%
10%
14%
14%
18%
18%
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
No delay
2hr delay
No delay
2hrs delay
No delay
2hr delay
2
STH 60
0
10
15
20
Molding Water Content(%)
25
1000
12% FA 2 hr delay
Acceptable region
800
600
400
Scenic Edge
200
10
Specified
Range
15
20
25
Molding Water Content (%)
30
Acceptable region
600
Specified
Range
400
Scenic Edge
200
10
15
20
25
Molding Water Content (%)
30
1000
12% FA 2 hr delay
Acceptable region
800
600
Specified
Range
400
Scenic Edge
200
10
15
20
25
Molding Water Content (%)
30
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial support for this study was provided by the
US Department of Energy through the Combustion
By-products Recycling Consortium, the University of
Wisconsin-Madison Consortium for Fly Ash Use in
599
12% FA 2 hr delay
800
Figure 5. Strain at failure for fly ash stabilized soils prepared with soils from STH 60 site.
1000
Geotechnical Applications (funded by Mineral Solutions, Inc., Alliant Energy Corporation, and Excel
Energy Services, Inc.), and the Wisconsin Department
of Transportation (WisDOT). The opinions and conclusions described in the paper are those of the authors
and do not necessarily reflect the opinions or policies
of the sponsors.
REFERENCES
ACAA. 2004. ACAAs CCPs Production and Use Survey.
American Coal Ash Association, Alexandria, VA.
Agarwal, R. K. and Mullick, A. K. 2005. Use of fly ash in
structural concrete How much? Indian Concrete Journal,
Vol. 79, No. 8, pp. 47.
Aydilek, A H. and Arora, S. 2004. Fly ash amended soils
as highway base materials, GSP 126 I, Geotechnical
Engineering for Transportation Projects: Proceedings of
Geo-Trans 2004, pp. 10321041.
Bin-Shafique, M. S., Edil, T. B., Benson, C. H. And Senol A.
2004. Incorporated Fly Ash Stabilized Subbase into Pavement Design-A Case Study, Geotechnical Engineering
157, Issue GE4, pp. 239249.
Edil, T. B., C. H. Benson, S. Bin-Shafique, B. F. Tanyu,
W. Kim, and A. Senol. 2002. Field Evaluation of Construction Alternatives for Roadway over Soft Subgrade.
Transportation Research Record 1786, National Research
Council, pp. 3648.
Ferguson, G. 1993. Use of Self-Cementing Fly Ash as a Soil
Stabilizing Agent. Fly ash for soil improvement, GSP No.
36, pp. 114.
Goh, A. T. C., and Tay, J. H. 1993. Municipal Solid Waste
Incinerator Fly Ash for Geotechnical Applications, J. of
Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 119, No. 5, pp. 811825.
Huang, W. H. 1993. Pavement Analysis and Design. PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Kaniraj, S. R. and Gayathri, V. 2003. Geotechnical Behavior
of Fly Ash Mixed with Randomly Oriented Fiber Inclusions, Journal of Geotextile and Geomembranes, Vol. 21,
pp. 123149.
600
Evan M. Vlaeminck
Lowes Companies, Inc., Naperville, IL, USA
Brendan T. FitzPatrick
Geopier Foundation Company, Inc., Blacksburg, VA, USA
Jim Bullard
Geopier Foundation Company, Inc., New Palestine, IN, USA
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the use of Geopier Rammed Aggregate Piers to reinforce and stabilize
a soft clay site at a new retail development outside of Chicago, Illinois (USA). The paper describes the design
approaches for using Rammed Aggregate Piers to reduce settlement magnitudes, increase the time rate of
settlement and improve subgrade support capacity for new construction. Settlement monitoring data from the
site are included to provide comparison between predicted and observed performance. In addition, the data is used
to draw conclusions about the effects of stress concentration on the Rammed Aggregate Piers and its influence
on settlement magnitudes and drainage times. This paper is significant because it provides a documented case
history that describes an option for addressing development of challenging soft soil sites when cost and schedule
are major considerations.
INTRODUCTION
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
601
3
3.1
According to Illinois State Geological Survey, Circular 460, Summary of the Geology of the Chicago
Area, dated 1971, the unconsolidated sediments
underlying the subject property is part of the Carmi
Member of the Equality Formation and also part of
the Wadsworth Member of the Wedron Formation. Soil
types located with in the Equality Formation consist
of lake deposits (silts with sand facies near shorelines). The Carmi Member consists of quiet-water lake
sediments, dominantly well bedded silt, locally laminated and containing thin beds of clay. The site is
also located in the Valparaiso Morainic System of
the Wadsworth Member of the Wedron Formation.
More specifically, a portion of the site is located in
the Clarendon Moraine which is located within the
Valparaiso Morainic System. Moraines located within
the Valparaiso System are slightly pebblier and contain local areas of sandy and gravelly till in the outer
(older) moraines. Bedrock underlying the unconsolidated surficial deposits is Silurian aged dolomite.
The unconsolidated deposits range from 90 to 100 feet
thick at the site.
3.2
Subsurface conditions
After reviewing the results of the geotechnical exploration, laboratory testing and proposed civil design,
Malcolm Pirnie realized that site preparation and
foundation support was challenged by the deep compressible silty clay which coincidentally corresponded
to the locations requiring the largest amounts of new
engineered fill. Figure 3 illustrates contours of estimated soft soil thicknesses within the building area
and proposed roadways. As detailed in the figure,
the compressible clay soils were encountered within
approximately one-half of the building footprint, while
the compressible soils also extended beneath the roadways in three different locations. The challenge posed
to the Malcolm-Pirnie was to develop a solution
to raise the site grade and provide foundation support while maintaining acceptable levels of settlement
beneath the building and across the site all in the shortest amount of time possible to facilitate the opening of
the retail development.
With as much as 3 meters (10 feet) of new engineered fill required to achieve final grades, driven piles
and structural floor slabs, preloading and wick drains,
602
Characteristic
4.65.2
34
1.48
0.07
3.03.6
39
1.33
0.08
0.011
0.015
1.0
0.00084
1.5
0.0010
Overconsolidation ratio.
EPS blocks and light weight fill were initially considered as options for support of building pads and
roadways. The deep foundation and structural slab,
along with light-weight fill and EPS block options
were determined to be very costly, while the preloading and wick drain solution would require an extensive
construction delay period. To meet the demanding
project schedule, Geopier Rammed Aggregate Piers
were also identified for stabilization of the soft soils at
the site and were ultimately selected as a cost-effective
solution to provide a significant reduction in construction schedule and acceptable levels of settlement
control
5
603
604
Figure 5. Rammed Aggregate Pier reinforcement areas and settlement platform locations.
6.1
Floor load
Engineered Fill
Engineered Fill
Soft, compressible
soils
RAP spacing
"competent"
soils
605
RAP
element
12
/14
/20
05
11
/24
/20
05
20
05
11
/4/
10
/15
/20
05
9/2
5/2
00
5
20
05
9/5
/
8/1
6/2
00
5
7/7
/
20
05
7/2
7/2
00
5
Date
25
0
Settlement (mm)
-25
-50
-75
-100
-125
-150
-175
-200
9001
9002
9003
9004
9005
9006
9007
9008
9009
9010
9011
9012
9013
9014
9015
9016
-225
Tr de2
cr
(1)
Based on the compressibility of the soft soil, analyses performed to estimate the immediate and primary
consolidation settlement magnitude and duration of
the unreinforced compressible clay suggested the pressure of up to 10 feet of new fill could result in as much
as 0.6 m (24 in) of settlement. More importantly, this
settlement was expected to occur over a period of at
least 2 years.
606
200
Hclay < 3m
180
Measured settlement(mm)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Figure 8. Settlement under varying fill heights for different clay thicknesses (Hclay).
Additional analyses estimated the fill-induced settlement for the RAP-reinforced conditions to generally
range from less than 25 mm (1 in) up to 150 mm (6 in).
Considering the effects of stress concentration to the
piers, the estimated settlement duration was on the
order of 2 months using increased values for the coefficient of consolidation to account for radial drainage
effects as recommended by Han and Yes approach.
A total of 16 settlement platforms were established
by Gioffre Companies, Inc., general contractor for the
site, prior to the placement of the new engineered fill.
Figure 5 (above) shows the locations of the settlement
platforms around the site. Elevations of the tops of
the platforms were surveyed during a period of time
ranging from July, 2005 through November, 2005. The
settlement monitoring results are plotted with time in
Figure 7.
8
607
120
9003
9004
9005
9006
9007
9008
9009
9010
9011
9012
9013
9014
9015
9016
100
t90 (days)
80
60
40
20
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
0.015 cm2 /second. It is important to note that the average of the results is at least an order of magnitude
greater than the values measured for the coefficient
of consolidation in the vertical direction in laboratory tests, indicating that the radial drainage provides
608
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents the results of settlement monitoring data at a soft clay site reinforced with Geopier
Rammed Aggregate Piers. After completing RAP
installation and monitoring settlement, the following
is concluded:
RAPs provide a cost-effective solution for reinforcing soft or compressible soils to support engineered
fill, spread footing foundations, and soil-supported
floor slabs as an alternative to more traditional subgrade improvement methods (surcharging, overexcavation and replacement, etc.).
Measured settlement magnitudes of the RAPreinforced site are considerably lower compared
to the estimated settlements resulting from the
placement fill on unreinforced soils.
Measured settlement durations suggest that the presence of the RAPs provides reduced drainage path
lengths and increased consolidation rates, affording significantly reduced drainage times to achieve
primary consolidation of compressible deposits.
Settlement monitoring data combined with estimates of stress concentration values suggest general
agreement with Han and Yes suggested model for
increased values for radial coefficient of consolidation for increasing levels of stress concentration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge Gioffre Companies, Inc. for installing and protecting the settlement
platforms and Smith Engineering Consultants, Inc.
for conducting the settlement survey. The authors are
indebted to Dr. Kord Wissmann, PE and Dr. Jorge
Parra, PE for their thorough review of the paper.
REFERENCES
Barron, R.A. (1948). Consolidation of fine-grained soils by
drain wells. Trans. ASCE, Vol. 113, pp. 718742.
Minks, A.G., Wissmann, K.J., Caskey, J.M., and Pando, M.A.
(2001). Distribution of stresses and settlements below
floor slabs supported by RammedAggregate Piers. Proc.,
54th Canadian Geotechnical Conference, CGC, Calgary,
Alberta.
Han J. and Ye, S.L. (2001). Simplified Method for Consolidated Rate of Stone Column Reinforced Foundations.
ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering. Vol. 127, No. 7
Hoevelkamp, K.K. (2002). Rammed aggregate pier soil reinforcement: group load tests and settlement monitoring of
large box culvert. Masters Thesis. Iowa State University.
Lawton, E.C. and Merry, S.M. (2000). Performance of
Geopier Supported Foundations During Simulated Seismic Tests on Northbound Interstate 15 Bridge Over South
Temple, Salt Lake City. Final Report No. UUCVEEN
00-03. University of Utah. December.
Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B., and Mesri, G. (1996). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. Third Edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, NY
White, D.J. and Thompson, M.J. (2006) Construction and
Performance Monitoring of a Mechanically Stabilized
Earth Wall Supported by Rammed Aggregate Piers. Draft
Report. Iowa State University. January.
609
M. Fukue
Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University, Orido, Shimizu-ku, Shizuoka, Japan
ABSTRACT: To reduce the noise and the vibration during installation of sand compaction piles (SCP), a rotary
force was used to penetrate a casing pipe with a leaning egg-shaped head. Drill bits were installed on the head
to excavate a hole into the soil. Rotary force was applied to the head by a hydraulically-operated rotary drive
and a hydraulic winch. Its advantage is that the rotation of the head can solidify the wall of the excavated hole.
In this study, the feasibility of the technique was examined in terms of a) reduction of noise and vibration,
b) improvement of soft soil and loose sand, c) waste glass as sand drains and SCP. The developed technique
satisfies the Japanese guideline on noise level of 85 dB at a distance of only 4 m, whereas the conventional SCP
method requires a distance of 30 m for the guideline level. The vibration of the ground produced by the rotary
penetration was considerably lower than the guideline level of 75 dB. The N value of the soft soil between SCPs
increased by up to about two times the original value. The excess pore water pressure in soils under loading was
measured in two types of vertical drains using ordinary sands and glass sands made of waste glass, respectively.
The dissipation of the excess pore water pressure was similar for the both cases.
INTRODUCTION
611
BACKGROUND
3) The examination of recycled materials as pile materials to promote them as a replacement for sand
materials which are lacking in supply.
730
roller
MODEL EXPERIMENTS
bit
Excavated soil
(mm)
210cm
Ascent and
descent device
pedestal
Casing pipe
Glass beads
Cylindrical
specimen
11cm
2cm 2cm
Purple beads
Black beads
Yellow beads
a) Clayspecimen forpenetration
experiment
commercially available clay was used in this experiment. The size of the specimen was 11 cm in diameter
and 20 cm in height. To make the penetration performance visible, three lines of small glass beads with a
diameter of about 1.0 to 1.5 mm were embedded vertically in the clay specimen, as shown in Figure 3a).
Three colours of glass beads, black, purple and yellow
ones, were used.
The penetration speed used was 40 cm/min and the
rotational speed was 11 rpm. These values were based
612
cave
Clay specimen
Wall
520
20cm
materials
110cm
Within these items, one of the most challenging subjects may be to reduce the level of vibration and noise.
The last two items are also very important, and they
can be examined at the same time as item 1).
One of the ways to reduce the level of vibration and
noise may be by using static penetration. Considering
the high energy required for the penetration of a casing
pipe, rotating of the casing pipe with a vertical load can
be more suitable.
To reduce the liquefaction potential of sand, it is
required to compact the sand itself due to the displacement of the sand by the piles. For this purpose, it is
considered that the conventional vibrating method may
be more feasible than a static penetration. Therefore, it
is required to add a function for the static penetration
system to compact the in situ soil.
For item 2), if the sensitivity of the soil is high,
any disturbance of that soil will cause a decrease in
its strength. Though the purpose of a sand compaction
pile is essentially to increase the bearing capacity of
the ground, it must be ensured that the bearing capacity
of the soil around the piles will not decrease with time,
but will increase.
To achieve those mentioned above, a KS-EGG technique was developed. The system consists of an engine
to drive the force required, a hydraulic pump to drive
the vertical force to a casing pipe, and a leaning head
to be attached to the tip of a casing pipe.
There are many recycled materials being used for
the compaction pile method. For item 3), recycled glass
was examined, to reduce the liquefaction potential of
fine sand.
Casing
pipe
324
on the similarity rule. After penetration, the specimen was vertically cut as shown in Figure 3b). Since
the clay was laterally expanded due to the penetration of pipe, the lines of the black beads also expanded
towards the left side as a curve, as shown in Figure 3b).
The purple beads prepared initially at the central
line were spiralled on the internal wall formed by
the penetration of the pipe. The yellow beads were
displaced to the right.
110
North eastern
Kansai
Kanto
100
Co
90
nve
ntio
80 Standard 75dB
70
na
lSC
60
50
Background noise
40
KS-EGG
30
FIELD PERFORMANCE
100
1000
northeastern
Kansai
Kanto
100
Co
nve
90
Standard 85dB
ntio
nal
SC
80
70
Background level
50
KS-
EG
60
10
100
Distancefrom origin (m)
1000
70
60
Background noise (Matsuzaka,Tsu)
50
10
110
Noise
40
1
10
100
Distancefrom origin (m)
1000
613
20
1.9m
N value
1.9m
0.9m 1.35m
15
20
25
30
Level (m)
Fine
sand
Installation of Piles
a) A casing pipe is placed on the ground, and a sufficient amount of sand to plug the tip of pipe is
poured into the casing pipe.
b) The casing pipe is penetrated into the soil by rotating with an oil rotary drive and with a vertical
pressure by a winch. When the head reaches the
desired depth, sand materials are packed into the
casing pipe.
c) The casing pipe is reversely rotated during lifting of
the casing pipe and sand materials are discharged
from the tip of the casing pipe.
d) The casing pipe is penetrated again to compact the
sand pile materials and elongate the diameter.
e) After checking that sand material is not residual in
the pipe, it is pulled out.
f) As for step d), the casing pipe is penetrated again.
g) After steps c) to f) are repeated, a pile that is strong
enough and of sufficient length can be installed.
h) The casing pipe is pulled out from the ground.
One of the examples for pile arrangement installed
by the procedure is shown in Figure 7. The distance
between piles is 1.9 m, as indicated in the figure. In
this study, standard penetration tests were performed
to evaluate the improvement of various soils.
Improvement of soft organic soils
-6
-8
Organic
clay
Clayey
fine sand
-10
Sand/
gravel
-12
the gravel compaction piles formed with the conventional and KS-EGG methods increased from about 2
to greater than 15, as shown in Figure 8. Thus, the
piles increased the bearing capacity of the ground and
it was assured that the KS-EGG method was a feasible
technique to install gravel piles.
5.5 Reduction of liquefaction potential
It is well known that loose and fine sands have a large
potential of liquefaction during earthquake. To reduce
the potential, the sand compaction pile method has
often been used, because the original sand layer will
be compacted by the installation of sand compaction
piles, and because the sand compaction piles with high
permeability will dissipate the pore water pressure in
the original sand layer, induced by the shaking of the
ground (Akiyoshi et al. 1993).
The N value for sand compaction pile and the
increased N value for the original soils are shown in
Figure. 9. As the liquefaction potential can be calculated using the N value of soil, the evaluation for
improvement can also be made with the N value (Idriss
and Boulanger, 2006).
The reduction of liquefaction potential was examined in terms of the N value to determine if the
KS-EGG method is appropriate. The compaction piles
have a diameter of 700 mm and a length of 19.5 m. The
results are shown in Figures 9 and 10.
614
-4
peat
5.4
10
specimen pile
5.3
KS-EGG
Conventional
Original soil
organic
clay
Horizontal displacement
-2
1.9m
1.9m
0.7m
10
N value
20
30
N value
40
Silityfine sand
-5
30
40
-5
Level (m)
Level (m)
20
KS-EGG
conventional
original
Sandy silt
10
-10
-10
-15
-15
KS-EGG
conventional
original
-20
N values of the sand pile.
-20
615
Percentfiner (%)
100
Glass
limitations for use
In practice
80
60
Settlement plate
R-1 S1S4
40
P-1
20
P-2
0
0.01
0.1
10
100
N value
0
50
Sand drain
Pore water
pressure
R-1 GL 0 m
fill
Silt to
silty and
Sand drain
S-1 GL-6 m
S-2 GL-21 m
P-1 to 3GL-24 m
Silt
S-3 GL-34 m
Sandy silt
S-4 GL-49 m
Fine sand
Silt
Sandy silt
Standard levelGL-63.5 m
Clayey sand
Drain 500
Line A (sand)
sand
38.9 m
glass
Ground plan
Line B (glass)
616
Embankment (m)
embankment was completed. After reaching the maximum constant load, the pore water pressure tended to
dissipate, thus the pore water pressure decreased. The
patterns of the change in the pore water pressure are
similar for the sand and glass sand drains, as shown
in Figure 15c). It seems that P-2 for the glass sands is
relatively low. However, it may be include some error,
because it should not be lower than P-1.
Thus, the results obtained for both the sand and glass
sands are very similar. Therefore, the glass sand can
be used as materials instead of natural sand. It is concluded that if the grain size distribution of glass sand
is adjusted, they can be used to promote the consolidation of soft clay and to decrease the liquefaction
potential of loose sands.
time (day)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
8
6
4
2
0
a) Thickness of embankment
0
settlement(cm)
S-3
10
20
S-2
30
40
50
S-1
Sand
materials
R-1
60
0
settlement(cm)
S-3
CONCLUDING REMARKS
10
20
S-2
30
40
50
S-1
Waste glass
R-1
60
0.26
b) settlement
0.26
Sand materials
0.25
P-2
0.24
P-3
0.23
0.22
P-1
0.21
0.20
Waste glass
0.25
0.24
0.23
P-3
P-2
P-1
0.22
0.21
0.20
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
hand, P-2 and P-3 are affected by the excess pore pressure induced by the loading, because the clayey soils
will accumulate the excess pore pressure. Apparently,
P-2 and P-3 shows the maximum values just before the
617
REFERENCES
Akiyoshi, T., Fuchida, K., Matsumoto, H., Hyodo, T and
Fang, H.L., 1993, Liquefaction analyses of sandy ground
improved by sand compaction piles, Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering, Vol.12, Issue 5, 299307.
Idriss, I.M. and Boulanger, R.W., 2006, Semi-empirical
procedures for evaluating liquefaction potential during
earthquakes, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering
26, 115130.
Lee, F.H., Juneja, A. and Tan, T.S., 2004, Stress and pore
pressure changes due to sand compaction pile installation
in soft clay, Gotechnique 54, No.1, 116.
Matsuda, H. and Kitayama, N., 1999, Effects of sand compaction pile driving on geotechnical properties of clay
layer, Research report, Faculty of Engineering,Yamaguchi
University, Vol.50, No.1, 2329.
Takemurra, J., Tean, L.B., Suemasa, N., Hirooka, A. and
Kimura, T., 1991, Stability of soft clay improved with
618
C. Mulligan
Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
T. Inoue
Tokai University, Shizuoka, Japan
ABSTRACT: At present, dumping of contaminated dredged materials into ocean is prohibited. Therefore,
treatment of the dredged materials has become very important in many countries. This study examines a waste
disposal technique using biodegradable bags for contaminated dredged materials. Two types of permeable bags,
woven hemp and a nonwoven made of corn starch, are used. Examination was made on dewatering during pouring
of materials into bags, leaching of chemicals due to dewatering, strength of bags, promotion of consolidation,
biodegradability, etc. The results show that the nonwovens have a lack of strength, leachate concentrations are
satisfactory for the prevention of contamination of environment, and consolidation can be promoted due to the
water path along the surface of the bags.
INTRODUCTION
Dredging of sediments is often used to maintain navigational roots for ships and to clean up contaminated
bottom in estuaries, bays and coastal areas. Up to the
present, dredged materials have been used as materials
for construction (Yozzo et al. 2004), such as reclamation, or have been dumped off shore. The management
guideline for dredged materials is also established in
specific areas (Casado-Martnez et al. 2006). However, the utilization and dumping of the materials
are becoming difficult, because of the contamination
of dredged materials. The dumping of contaminated
dredged materials into the sea has been prohibited
by the London Protocol (1996 Protocol). Therefore,
treatment of the dredged materials has become very
important in many countries.
Contamination of sediments and dredged materials
has been reported by many papers (Santschi 2001, Ho
et al. 2002, Fukue et al. 2006a). Hazardous substances
are possibly adsorbed on organic matter and smaller
particles in the sediments (Fukue et al. 2006b). The
organic matter can be degraded by microorganisms,
or taken up by benthos, and then incorporated in to
the food-chain. The degradation will release hazardous
619
Woven bags with sands are being used as antierosion and construction materials. The bags can be
used for soft dredged materials, which can allow dewatering without the diffusion of particles underwater.
The dewatering may be promoted by using permeable
bags, because the woven bags act as the water path
during the consolidation of the materials. Since the
bags are not necessary after the consolidation is completed, biodegradable bags, such as hemp, can be used.
Therefore, in this study, a theoretical examination of
the consolidation of dredged materials with and without bags, and the applicability of two types of bags,
biodegradable bags made of hemp and corn starch are
performed.
2
2.1
EXPERIMENTATION
Materials and experimental procedures
The materials used were sludge obtained from a waterway. The sludge was mixed with seawater and the water
contents were adjusted to 48.3% for the first trial and
98.7% for the second trial. The ignition loss was 7.2%
and the specific gravity was 2.66.
The bags used were made of woven hemp and nonwoven corn stanch, as shown in Figure 1. The thickness
of the nonwoven was represented by the weight of the
texture, as similar to paper. In this study, two types of
the nonwovens, 70 g/m2 and 100 g/m2 , were used. The
dimensions of all the bags were 4.5 m in length and
0.5 m in width. The bags were installed on an inclined
semi-circular stand, as shown in Figure 2.
2.2
Experimental procedures
620
Table 1.
375mm
mound
Type of
Bag
Wt
(%)
Hemp
Corn
(70 g/m2 )
Hemp
Hemp
Corn
(100 g/m2 )
Hemp
Corn
(70+100 g/m2 )
Hemp
Corn
(70+100 g/m2 )
Hemp+Corn
(70 g/m2 )
Hemp
48.3
48.3
4
4
4:06
3:00
0.286
0.296
breakable
48.3
48.3
48.3
4
4
4
2:40
2:26
2:16
0.250
0.320
0.327
breakable
98.7 10
98.7 10
1:56
2:04
0.294
breakable
98.7 10
98.7 10
1:45
2:05
0.300
0.338
98.7 10
1:56
0.404
98.7 10
1:54
0.397
810mm
910mm
Container
1,187mm
3,025mm
bag
3,825mm
Seawater
for load
bag
3.2 Leachate
The quality of leachate from the sludge must be
evaluated as they may contain hazardous substances
(Moo-Young et al. 2001). Therefore, the leachate from
the bags was examined as follows.
91 days, the bags were dug out and the water content
of the materials was measured. The degradability of
the bags was also observed.
3
3.1
621
Heavy metals
As a typical example, heavy metals, copper, lead and
zinc, in the sludge and suspended solids, SS, were
measured using ICP(AES). The results are shown in
Table 3.
Table 3 shows that the heavy metal concentrations
of the sludge were greater than that of the noncontaminated marine sediments. The background values of marine sediments are approximately 20 mg/kg
for Cu, 20 mg/kg for Pb and 130 mg/kg for Zn (Fukue
et al. 2006a). The leachates from the sludge contained
suspended solids. Therefore, the leachates contained
some heavy metals, as shown in Table 3.
3.3
(1)
Tv = Cv t/(H )2
(3)
(5)
Leachate Characteristics.
Source of leachate
(concentration units)
SS
T-N
T-P
Time
Sludge (mg/kg)
Leachate from
Hemp (mg/L)
Leachate from nonwoven
(70 g/m2 ) (mg/L)
Leachate from nonwoven
(100 g/m2 ) (mg/L)
Leachate from double bag,
hemp and nonwoven
(100 g/m2 ) (mg/L)
Hemp
(mg/30 g)
Hemp (pre-washed)
(mg/30 g)
584
130
1.35
640
1.6
10 min
10 min
821
4.2
1.25
10 min
696
8.2
1.05
10 min
3.8
1.9
10 min
5.47
39.4
6.00
26.8
ND
0.12
0.78
1.10
1.18
1.40
0.04
0.14
Load
1 day
7 days
1 day
7 days
1
2
3
4
5
6
Cu
47.3
5.09
4.57
5.01
4.08
Pb
41.3
1.98
1.97
1.92
1.97
340
21.70
19.79
22.07
18.93
Zn
with bags
n piles
drainage distance: H/2n
2
Tvb= CV t/ (H/2n)
Without bag
drainage distance: H
2
Tv= CV t/ (H)
622
(2)
Consolidation
Table 2.
St = U (Tv )Su
3.4 Biodegradability
Figure 9 shows the dug out bags after the consolidation experiment. The bags crumbled a little and
were easily torn by hand. The biodegradability of the
Initial
w.c.(%)
Final
w.c.(%)
Hemp
Hemp
Corn(70 + 100 g/m2 )
Corn(70 g/m2 )
3
7
6
5
48.3
98.7
98.7
98.7
26.9
33.7
33.8
31.2
load (kN/m2)
Type of Bag
20
27 days10 kN/m2
10
39 days13.5 kN/m2
77 days flattened
00
0.0
settlement (cm)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
day
Figure 8. Settlement of a sand embankment due to the consolidation of sludge in eight bags.
623
90
100
5 years
6 years
8 years
10 years
12 years
CONCLUDING REMARKS
A disposal technique for contaminated dredged sediments was discussed in this paper. Since sediments
are usually so soft they cannot be easily treated. Bags
can be used to enable easier treatment of the dredged
materials and to avoid the dispersion of contaminated
particles.
The use of permeable bags can promote the dewatering during pouring of the sediments into the bags and
the consolidation of the materials under loading. An
examination and experimentation showed that the consolidation speed can be promoted significantly using
permeable bags.
It is noted that the consolidation of materials at
a disposal site is required to lower the dispersion of
contaminants due to the biodegradation of organic
matter contained in dredged sediments. It can be
achieved to complete the primary compression before
the biodegradation of organic matter.
REFERENCES
Casado-Martnez, M.C., Buceta, J.L., Belzunce, M.J. and
DelValls, T.A.,2005, Using sediment quality guidline for
dredged material management in Commercial ports from
Spain, Environment International, Vol.32, 3, 388396.
Fredette, T.J. and French, G.T., 2004, Understanding of
physical and environmental consequences of dredged
material disposal: history in New England and current
perspectives, Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 49, 12,
93102.
624
ABSTRACT: In recent times, economy and environmental safety have become very important factors in the
construction of soil structures. Floating-type deep mixing soil stabilization has the advantage of reducing the cost
of construction of soil structures on deep soft soil layers. Therefore, it is important to elucidate the mechanism of
the consolidation settlement of improved ground with floating columns. First, in order to investigate the effects
of the improvement ratio, improvement depth, and arrangement of columns, one-dimensional consolidation
tests were carried out on a model ground with floating columns. The results of the tests were then compared
with those obtained using a settlement model based on the homogenization method with a consideration of the
stress distribution ratio. Finally, loading model tests were conducted under a plane strain condition to simulate
the consolidation deformation of the improved ground. Under these test conditions, it was confirmed that the
settlement of the improved portion can be estimated by using the proposed model.
INTRODUCTION
Improvement
depth
Soft layer
Diameter of
columns
Pitch
Bearing layer
625
Improvement ratio
Rigidity of columns
Arrangement of columns
Fill
Column
Model
columns
Loading plate
Bellofram cylinder
Soft clay
150 mm
Loading device
Height of specimen
200mm
Length of Column
HP
double drainage
Earth pressure gauge
Pore pressure transducer
Case 0
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5
Case 6
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5
Case 6
Drainage
port
2
2.1
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION
TEST
Improvement
ratio
fs (%)
Depth of
model columns
H1 (mm)
Improvement
patterns of
model columns
0
12.6
25.1
37.7
12.6
25.1
37.7
12.6
25.1
37.7
12.6
25.1
37.7
0
110
110
110
110
110
110
150
150
150
150
150
150
Group column
Group column
Group column
Wall
Wall
Wall
Group column
Group column
Group column
Wall
Wall
Wall
Model columns
Group
columns
type
fs=12.6%
fs=37.7%
Wall
type
626
fs=25.1%
Table 2.
unimproved
Properties
Soil particle density S (Mg/m3 )
Initial void ratio e0
Plastic limit wI (%)
Liquid limit wp (%)
Plastic index Ip
Compression index CC
Swelling index CS
Case0 (unimproved)
Case1(fs=12.6% H=110 mm )
Case2(fs=25.1% H=110 mm )
Case3(fs=37.7% H=110 mm )
Case7(fs=12.6% H=150 mm )
Case8(fs=25.1% H=150 mm )
Case9(fs=37.7% H=150 mm )
0
Group column
type
Consolidation settlement S (mm)
2.71
1.64
50.6
31.0
19.6
0.213
0.053
H=110 mm (Wall)
H=150 mm (Group column)
H=150 mm (Wall)
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Figure 6. Relationship between the normalized consolidation settlement and the improvement ratio (P = 80 kPa).
10
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Time T (second)
0
Wall type
Consolidation settlement S (mm)
0.9
10
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Time T (second)
627
20
Coefficient of volume compressibility mv (m2/MN)
P=40(kPa)
16
Case1(fs=12.6% H1=110mm )
Case2(fs=25.1% H1=110mm )
Case1(fs=37.7% H1=110mm )
Case7(fs=12.6% H1=150mm )
Case8(fs=25.1% H1=150mm )
Case9(fs=37.7% H1=150mm )
12
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0.6
H=110 mm (Wall)
P=80(kPa)
H=150 mm (Wall)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
Time T (second)
16
15
20
25
30
35
40
14
Stress concentration ratio b
10
Case1(fs=12.6% H1=110 mm )
Case2(fs=25.1% H1=110 mm )
Case3(fs=37.7% H1=110 mm )
Case7(fs=12.6% H1=150 mm )
Case8(fs=25.1% H1=150 mm )
Case9(fs=37.7% H1=150 mm )
0.5
12
10
8
6
4
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Time T (second)
(1)
d = fs ds + (1 fs )d
(2)
628
(3)
(U)
S (U)
homogenized
mv
H1
mvs: improved column
*
mv : soft clay
(L)
d = mv d
(5)
fs bmvs + (1 fs )mv
(b 1)fs + 1
(6)
In order to estimate the coefficient of the volume compressibility of the improved portion of the
floating-type improved ground, it is important to evaluate the stress distribution ratio. This value varies
with the difference in the improvement ratio and
improvement depth. In the next section, the fundamental consideration for predicting the stress distribution
ratio is described.
3.2
Figure 11. Concept for the evaluation of the stress distribution ratio of the improved portion.
T
Afs
(7)
(L) = (U) +
T
A(1 fs )
(8)
( = Cu)
(9)
T = 2rH1
(10)
b = s(L) /(L)
(11)
629
H2
S (L)
m*v
(4)
mvS
H1
(L)
H
m *v
S(L)
40
fs=12.6%
fs=25.1%
fs=37.7%
35
30
(15)
(16)
H2
Estimated b
*
+
s)
2R(D + 1) D (1f
+ R TA
f
s
s(L)
=
b =
fS
(L)
2(D + R) + (1 + R (1f
)D TA
S)
25
20
15
10
5
0
10
15 20 25
Experimental b
30
35
40
Figure 13. Comparison between the experimental and estimated value of the stress distribution ratio under the loading
plate (P = 80 kPa).
630
ave =
(14)
S = mv H1 + mv H2
(12)
b = (b + b )/2
S(U)
mv
= fs S(U ) + (1 fs )(U )
(U)
8
H=110 fs=12.6%
H=110 fs=25.1%
H=110 fs=37.7%
H=150 fs=12.6%
H=150 fs=25.1%
H=150 fs=37.7%
Estimated S(mm)
7
6
5
Rigid Plate
L/2
Stress(P P)
0
Improved columns
3
H
1
0
2
3
4
5
6
Experimental S(mm)
Soft clay
r0
Radius of column
Soil parameter
Cc
Cr
0.213
0.053
M
1.32
v
0.25
K0
0.57
Vsat (kN/m3 )
18
631
Material parameter.
Model columns
Approximate curve
P0=20, P=20 (H1/H=0.75)
P0=20, P=40 (H1/H=0.75)
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
(19)
300 mm
632
Drainage
port
Loading plate
950 mm
H1/L
0.25
= , ( Cu)
H
P0
1
L
*double drainage
Earth pressure gauge
Pore pressure transducer
Loading device
300 mm
/P0
0.2
H1=300 mm
0.25
Improved area
300 mm
0.3
Table 5.
600
560
600
0
300
300
unimproved
group column
group column
Case1(P=5 to 30 kPa)
Unimproved
portion
Settlement
S2 (mm)
(P = 5 to 30 kPa)
Case0
36.18
Case1
7.14
Case2
8.95
4.49
4.25
2.65
4.7
(P = 30 to 40 kPa)
Case1
5.15
Case2
4.41
Case1(P=30 to 40 kPa)
2.34
0.66
2.81
3.75
Case2(P=5 to 30 kPa)
Case2(P=30 to 40 kPa)
4
Table 6. Coefficient of volume compressibility of improved
column and soft clay.
6
8
10
P = 5 to
20(kPa)
P = 20 to
30(kPa)
P = 30 to
40(kPa)
0.02
0.83
0.02
1.537
0.02
1.11
Improved
portion
Settlement
S1 (mm)
Total settlement
S(mm)
0
2
20
30
40
50
600
0
10
20
30
40 50 60
Width (cm)
70
80
90
Figure 19. Deformation of the model ground under consolidation pressure of 30 kPa (Case2).
633
mv =
mv =
(20)
(21)
Here, Cr and Cc denote the swelling index and compression index obtained in the one-dimensional consolidation tests, respectively. Pi and Pf denote the
initial and final consolidation stresses, respectively.
ei is the void ratio when the stress condition is equal
to Pi . P (=Pf Pi ) represents the stress increment.
The coefficient of the volume compressibility of the
improved portion in the plane strain condition mv is
derived using Eq. [6] and the b value obtained in 3.4.
The settlement of the improved portion S1 is expressed
using Eqs. [21] and [22], finally.
S1 = mv1 H1 P1 + mv2 H1 P2
(5 < P < 30)
(22)
S1 = mv3 H1 P3
(23)
CONCLUSION
8
6
4
2
0
10 15 20 25 30
Improvement ratio fs (%)
35
40
Figure 20. Comparison between experimental and estimated values of the settlement of the improved portion.
634
10
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
This research was supported by Grant-in-Aid for
Scientific Research (A) (No. 16206049) from the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology, Japan.
The author is grateful to Mr. M. Nakashima, a technical officer at Kyushu University, and Mr. H. Matsui, a
masters student at Kyushu University, for their support
in the experiments.
REFERENCES
Miyano, K., Tsuneoka, N., Furumoto, K. and Ohno, M.
(2002): Model test of floating type deep mixing soil stabilization method on kaolin clay, Proc. of 37th annual
meeting, JSSMFE (in Japanese).
Yamauchi, K., Ohno, M., Furumoto, K., Kuwano, R. and Tsuneoka, N. (2003): Model test of low improvement ratio
floating type deep mixing method, Proc. of 38th annual
meeting, JSSMFE (in Japanese).
Kitazume, M. and Terashi, M. (2002): Tokyo Workshop 2002
on Deep Mixing, pp. 242260.
Omine, K. and Ochiai, H. (1999): Homogenization method
for numerical analysis of improved ground with cementtreated soil columns, Proceedings of the international
conference on dry mix methods for deep soil stabilization,
161168/Stockholm/Sweden/13-15/October 1999.
Ishikura, R., Ochiai, H., Yasufuku, N., Omine, K. and
Kobayashi, T. (2005): Consolidation and Deformation Properties of Improved Ground with Floating
Type Cement-Treated Columns, Proceedings of Recent
635
ABSTRACT: Soft soils are well known for their low strength and high compressibility. Usually, due to sedimentary process on different environments, both physical and engineering properties (namely void ratio, water
content, grain size distribution, compressibility, permeability and strength) show a significant variation. Further, they exhibit high compressibility (including an important secondary consolidation), reduced strength, low
permeability and compactness, and consequently low quality for construction. Thus, the soil-cement mixing is
adopted to serves as an excellent foundations, and resist stability during construction process. It has recently
been used to improve the strength and deformation characteristics of these soft clays. For the abovementioned
reasons, a comprehensive laboratory testing programme was carried out in order to study the effect of inclusion
of cement on physical and engineering behaviour of a soft clay. A series of tests was carried out by varying proportion of Portland cement and soft clay. In this paper, the physical characteristics, index properties, unconfined
compressive strength, CBR of soil-cement treated soft clay, the field conditions, the laboratory testing results in
Thailand are given and discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Table 1.
Since the aggregate being used in producing the engineered low strength concrete in-situ is the native
soils, pre-construction soil borings, testing of the mix
design with the in-situ soils is a must. One to two cubic
feet of the soils is sufficient to run the required laboratory, pre-production tests on the soil cement mix.
Various water cement ratios are considered, usually
between 1:1 and 1.5:1 (by weight). The amount of
cement, again by weight, is typically 515% of the
weight of the soil to be treated.
Various methods of soil mixing, mechanical,
hydraulic, with and without air, and combinations of
both types have been used widely in Japan for about 20
years and more recently have gained wide acceptance
in the United States. The soil mixing, ground modification technique, has been used for many diverse
applications including building and bridge foundations, retaining structures, liquefaction mitigation,
temporary support of excavation and water control.
Names such as Jet Grouting, Soil Mixing, Cement
Deep Mixing (CDM), Soil Mixed Wall (SMW), Deep
Soil Mixing, (DSM), Dry Jet Mixing (DJM), and Lime
Columns are known to many. Each of these methods
has the same basic root, finding the most efficient and
economical method to mix cement (or in some cases
fly ash or lime) with soil [1, 2, 3, 4].
At the present time, the total volume of soil mixing work performed in the south of Thailand is about
144,600 cubic meters. Much of their soil mixing
Soil Properties
Unit Values
Specific Gravity, Gs
Liquid Limit, LL (%)
Plastic Index, PI
Soil Classification, USCS
Soil Classification, AASHTO
Unit Weight, ton/m3
2.648
93.00
46.67
CH
A-7-5(20)
1.679
SOIL INVESTIGATION
SAMPLE PREPARATION
637
UCS, (ksc)
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 Day
7 Days
28 Days
10 11
638
40
12
0% Cement
5% Cement
10% Cement
1 Day
7 Days
28 Days
35
10
CBR, (%)
UCS, (ksc)
30
8
6
4
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
10
11
Percent ofCement,(%)
time, (days)
65
0% Cement
60
5% Cement
10% Cement
CBR, (%)
70
55
50
45
30
0% Cement
25
5% Cement
20
10% Cement
15
10
40
35
0
0
30
0
10
15
20
25
10
15
20
25
30
time, (days)
30
time, (days)
Figure 7. CBR vs. curing time for treated soil cured for 1,
7 and 28 days.
Figure 4. Water content vs. curing time for treated soil cured
for 1, 7 and 28 days.
Table 2.
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0% Cement
5% Cement
0% Cement
10
15
20
25
10%
Time,
days
UCS
(ksc)
UCS
(ksc)
UCS
(ksc)
1
7
28
0.536
2.417
3.723
4.821
351
595
799
6.880
8.395
9.626
1184
1466
1696
30
time, (days)
Figure 5. Failure strain vs. curing time for treated soil cured
for 1, 7 and 28 days.
639
5%
% Cement
0%
5%
10%
Time,
days
w
(%)
w
(%)
w
(%)
1
7
28
66.87
51.42
40.98
38.21
23
39
43
40.54
38.24
34.21
39
43
49
Table 4.
% Cement
0%
5%
10%
Time,
days
f
(%)
f
(%)
f
(%)
1
7
28
11.89
10.49
8.39
6.29
12
29
47
5.59
4.48
3.22
53
62
73
Table 5.
5%
10%
Time,
days
CBR
(%)
CBR
(%)
CBR
(%)
1
7
28
0.73
7.47
11.64
16.15
923
1495
2112
23.16
27.52
36.00
3073
3670
4832
water content to about 38.2% and 34.21% correspondingly, in 28 days from 66.87% of the untreated soil.
Figures 5 and table 4 also reveal that higher cement
content treated soil exhibits more ductile behaviour.
More brittle type of failure with low values of failure
strain was observed for lower cement content treated
soil in both curing periods. In general, the failure
strains are less than 1.0%, which indicates that, as compared with soils, the soil-cement mixing is a relatively
brittle material.
Figure 6 and 7 show the effect of cement contents on
cbr values at three conditions of cement content: 0%,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the support provided by Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University,
Thailand for conducting this research.
640
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
1. Jaritngam, S. [2002]. The soil improvement for
road embankment on soft clay by using jet grouting method, International Conference on Road &
Airfield Pavement Technology, China, pp.144153.
2. Jaritngam, S. [1996]. Method of reducing soil
movements for deep excavations in soft clay,
M.Eng. Thesis, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore.
3. Broms, B. [1983]. Stabilization of soft clay with
lime columns, International Seminar on Construction Problems in Soft Soils, Singapore, pp.120133.
641
ABSTRACT: In this project, an in-situ soil treatment technique using electrokinetics was tested using laboratory experimental models in order to identify the potential of this approach to modify and improve the
engineering properties of soft, low permeable clayey soils, with and without the introduction of a stabilising
agent. Experiments were conducted in the laboratory using soils collected from soft alluvial soil deposit and
basaltic soil deposit in central Victoria, Australia. A layer of soil was placed in glass tanks (900 mm 350 mm
plan area) and compacted to a known density and water content typical of field conditions. Using electrodes
inserted into the soil, a direct current was passed across the soil under a voltage gradient of 0.5 V/cm for period
of 14 days. In separate experiments, distilled water and a saturated lime solution were introduced to the soil via
the anode electrode throughout the experimental duration with the aim of identifying the effectiveness of introduction of stabilising agents to soil using electrokinetics. After electrokinetic processing, soil specimens across
the soil were tested for various engineering properties such as compressive strength, consistency limits, linear
shrinkage, free swell index and compression index. From the results it was observed that the plasticity index of
the soil decreased appreciably indicating increases in soil compressive strength and workability. Both the linear
shrinkage and free swell index decreased by 70% without stabilising agents and by 90% with lime introduction,
indicating the reduction in the potential for volumetric changes in the soils. With electrokinetic treatment alone,
the unconfined compressive strength of the soils increased at least by 30% while in some locations the strength
increase was in excess of 100% while the lime-enhanced electrokinetic treatment led to an almost 200% strength
increase. The decrease in the compression index was between 10% and 15%. These results suggest the potential
of developing this technique to improve the engineering properties of soft clayey soils more effectively and
efficiently with or without the introduction of a stabilising agent.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Soft soils are well known for their low shear strength
and high compressibility. The high shrink swell
potential and low permeability characteristics are
also among the undesirable engineering properties of
soft clayey soils for construction purposes (Abdullah
and Al-Abadi 2005; Anagnostopoulos and Stavridakis
2003; Lo et al. 2000). These poor soil conditions often
make traditional forms of construction expensive, thus
requiring improvement of these engineering properties
before building on it.
Soil replacement, soil densification (by preloading,
compaction, vibrating etc) and soil stabilisation with
additives such as lime, cement and fly ash are amongst
the common soil improvement methods used in many
construction projects. Generally, the aim of these soil
improvement methods is to improve the strength characteristics and to reduce the compressibility of in-situ
In electrokinetic soil treatment, a direct electric current (d.c.) is applied via electrodes to pass through the
soil. The passing of an electric current causes charged
643
species present in the soil solution (pore fluid, electricity, ions and fine particles) to migrate towards an
oppositely charged electrode.
The transportation of charged species across the
soil involves several mechanisms such as electroosmosis (migration of water through the capillary network
of soil particles under the influence of an electric
field), electromigration (transport of charged chemical species under an electrical gradient) and electrophoresis (movement of charged particles under an
electric field). The combined effects of these complex
electrochemical processes alter the physicochemical
properties of the soil. Using the same fundamental
phenomena of moving charged species across the soil
under an electrical gradient, this technique can also
be used to introduce desirable chemical compounds to
the soil by introducing them at the appropriate electrode. The combined effect of these processes alters
the chemical composition of the medium and thereby
changes the physico-chemical properties of the soil.
The electrokinetic processes in soils occur primarily due to presence of fine particles within the soil; i.e.
clay particles that posses specific mineralogical properties and hence electrically and chemically active.The
presence of diffused double layer (DDL) of clay minerals gives rise to several electrokinetic phenomena
in soil, which may result from either the movement
of different phases with respect to each other including transport of charge, or the movement of different
phases relative to each other due to the application of
electric field (Alshawabkeh 2001).
There are several different chemical, electrical and
electrochemical processes that become active within
the soil-liquid medium, when a soil is subjected to
electrochemical processing. These processes change
the system chemistry and collectively affect the soil
micro-structure and consequently modify many soil
properties.
When a direct current is applied to a soil-liquid
medium, water in the immediate vicinity of the electrodes is electrolysed and oxidation occurs at the
anode, generating an acid front while reduction takes
place at the cathode producing a base front. These
electrolysis reactions are,
2H2 O 2e => O2 + 4H+ at anode
2H2 O + 2e => H2 + 2OH at cathode
644
Table 1.
Soil Property
S1
S2
Clay content %
Unified Soil Classification
LL (Liquid Limit)
PL (Plastic Limit)
PI (Plasticity Index)
Linear Shrinkage %
Free Swell Index %
In-situ water content %
In-situ density (kg/m3 )
Compressive strength(kN/m2 )
Compression Index (Cc )
32
CH
56
23
33
12.3
65
35
1500
68
0.32
51
CH
72
34
38
32
128
47
1650
97
0.48
2.3
Experimental setup
Experimental methods
645
RESULTS
Soil
Type
Atterberg Limits
Soil Type
Soil Type
LL
PL
PI
S1
Untreated
EKDW
EKLS
Untreated
EKDW
EKLS
56
52
50
78
70
70
23
26
28
38
39
45
33
26
22
40
31
25
S1
S2
S2
Status
LS
%
decrease
FSI
%
decrease
Untreated
EKDW
EKLS
Untreated
EKDW
EKLS
12.3
3.5
1.2
32
9
2.4
71.5
90
71.8
92.5
65
16
4
128
31
8
75
94
75
94
300
200
150
100
50
0
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.1
S2 (untreated)
S2 (EKDW)
S2 (EKLS)
646
250
50
45
Water Content %
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.1
S2 (untreated)
S2 (EKDW)
S2 (EKLS)
the influence of an electric field. With the electroosmotic flow, the moisture condition across the soil
changes. As differential in soil zeta potential develops (associated with the changes in soil pH and also
the changes in the chemical concentrations in the
pore solution) a change in the electroosmotic potential occurs across the tank. With time, certain areas
in the tank start to dry out relative to other areas
(Figure 3). The location of wet and dry regions
primarily depends on the soil properties such as
permeability characteristics, clay type and content,
DDL characteristics etc. This phenomena is discussed in some detail by Jayasekera et al. (2004)
and Ugaz et al. (1994). For these soils (S1 and S2),
the driest area occurs around a normalised distance
0.3 from anode. As can be seen from Figure 2,
there is a significant increase in the UC strength
corresponding to the driest region across the soil.
Electromigration, which is the transport of charged
chemical species under an electrical gradient. The
transport of Ca2+ and other charged ions and their
interaction with clay minerals can also affect the
soil strength due to the variations in the DDL ionic
concentration and subsequent modifications in the
soil structure. In response to the introduction of
Ca2+ with lime enhancement, an increase in the
soil compressive strength is evident for both soils
S1 and S2, between the normalised distances of 0.2
to 0.8 from anode.
With the introduction of lime, several short-term
and long term chemical reactions take place that
alter the soils physico-chemical properties (Sherwood 1993). The exothermic formation of CaOH2
results in significant improvements in soil workability purely due to dewatering. The release of Ca
647
CONCLUSIONS
648
Asko Aalto
Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland
ABSTRACT: Deep mixed columns are commonly used to improve the bearing capacity and reduce settlements
of structures on soft soils. The paper demonstrates 3D numerical modelling of an embankment constructed
on soft Finnish clay improved with deep mixed columns. The stress strain behaviour of the soft clay deposit
is simulated with an advanced constitutive model, namely the S-CLAY1S which accounts for interparticle
bonding, destructuration and plastic anisotropy. In addition the problem is analysed with two other constitutive
models to demonstrate the importance and effect of modelling plastic anisotropy and destructuration in soft soil
deposits. The effect of the different constitutive models, column spacing and column stiffness on the settlements
is discussed. In addition, the increase of the vertical stress in the column and the soil below the embankment and
next to the embankment is demonstrated through a full 3 dimensional numerical simulation.
INTRODUCTION
progress destructuration. These features can be represented with the recently proposed S-CLAY1S model
(Karstunen et al. 2006)
The work presented in this paper is carried out as
part of a European Marie Curie Research Training
Network AMGISS (Advanced Modelling of Ground
Improvement on Soft Soils) funded by the EC
(For more information see http:/www.ce.strath.ac.uk/
amgiss/).
c/c
c/c
649
12.5m
5m
2.5
EMBANKMENT
1m
DRY CRUST
Ground waterlevel -1m
VANTTILA CLAY
Column diameter
0.6m
30m
NUMERICAL MODELS
650
a)
CSL
b)
M
1
p
1
pmi
pm
1
CSL
Figure 5. S-CLAY1S yield surface in (a) three-dimensional and (b) triaxial stress space.
3.3
Numerical simulations
CONSTITUTIVE MODELLING
651
(1)
Embankment
Columns
Table 1.
Layer
Depth [m]
e0
POP [kPa]
1
2
01
112
1.7
3.2
30
10
0.63
0.46
90
20
[kN/m3 ]
kx = ky
[m/day]
1
2
13.8
13.8
0.029
0.032
0.2
0.2
0.25
0.88
1.6
1.2
6.9E-5
6.9E-5
1
2
1.07
0.76
15
40
0.07
0.27
11
11
0.2
0.2
Eref
oed
[kPa]
Eref
ur
[kPa]
ur
[ ]
c
[kPa]
[kN/m3 ]
12000
12000
27000
0.35
0.8
36
27
15
652
Layer
were used. The values correspond to soft to mediumstiff columns after Korkiala-Tanttu (1997). The design
guidelines (e.g. EuroSoilStab 2002) suggest that the
permeability of deep mixed column is greater than for
the natural soil. In the simulations the permeability of
the deep mixed material is assumed to be the same as
in the surrounding soil, because it is unlikely that the
introduction of additional fines, in the form of cement,
is notably contributing to an improved permeability.
NUMERICAL PREDICTIONS
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
0.8
1.2
1.4
1.6
c/c 1.0m
c/c 1.2m
c/c 1.4m
-0.2
~17 years
-0.4
~28 years
-0.6
~38 years
-0.8
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
Time [Days]
653
1.0
Settlement [m]
-0.8
5.1.1
5.1.2
MCC
S-CLAY1
S-CLAY1S
-0.1
Displacements [m]
0.0
Displacements [m]
0.0
E50=8000kPa
E50=12000kPa
E50=16000kPa
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Both models predicted surface settlements of a similar magnitude for all three c/c-spacing. The same trend
can be observed for the settlements in 1 m which is
the top of the soft clay deposit. In 5 m the true unit
cell predicts slightly greater settlements compared to
the full 3D model. Even in that depth the difference
is marginal in the area of 1 to 2 cm and negligible
for design purposes. That can be explained by the one
dimensional loading which is apparent along the centre line of an embankment. If one is only interested
in the maximum settlements at the centre line of an
embankment some could argue a unit cell is a simple
useful design tool to investigate the settlements along
the centre line.
Eref
oed
[kPa]
8000
12000
16000
Eref
ur
[kPa]
8000
12000
16000
[kPa]
18000
27000
36000
Surface UC
-1m UC
-5m UC
Surface 3D
-1m 3D
-5m 3D
0.0
Displacements [m]
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
The full 3D model with 1.0 m c/c-spacing and the SCLAY1S model has been used for a detailed study of
the columns below the embankment.
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
654
a)
0
-20
-40
-1m initial
-60
-80
-1m column
-100
-120
-1m embankment
-140
-1m consolidation
-160
-180
0
b)
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
28
30
0
-20
-40
-60
-3m initial
-80
-3m column
-100
-120
-3m embankment
-140
-3m consolidation
-160
-180
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
c)
-20
-40
-5m initial
-60
-80
-5m column
-100
-120
-5m embankment
-140
-5m consolidation
-160
-180
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
655
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work was carried out as part of a Marie Curie
Research Training Network on Advanced Modelling
of Ground Improvement on Soft Soils supported by
the European Community (Contract No MRTN-CT2004-512120). The first author is sponsored by a
Faculty of Engineering Scholarship at the University
of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK.
REFERENCES
Aalto A. 2003. Full scale tests in the field using dry mixing
method. In Vermeer et al. (eds.): Proc. Int. Workshop on
Geotechnics of Soft Soils Theory and Practice. Noordwijkerhout, the Netherlands, 1719 September. Essen: VGE.
505510.
Brinkgreve R.B.J. 2002. Plaxis finite element code for soil
and rock analysis, 2D Version 8.
Burland J.B. 1990. On the compressibility and shear strength
of natural clays. Gotechnique, 40, 329378.
EuroSoilStab, 2002. Development of design and construction methods to stabilise soft organic soils, Design guide
soft soil stabilisation, CT97-0351 2002, (Project No. BE96-3177, European Commission, Industrial & Materials
Technologies Programme (Brite-EuRam III), Brussels).
Gens A., Nova R. 1993. Conceptual bases for a constitutive model for bonded soils and weak rocks. Proceedings
of International Symposium on Hard Soils Soft Rocks,
Athens, 485494.
Karstunen, M. & Koskinen, M. 2004. Undrained shearing of
soft natural clays. In: Numerical Model in Geomechanics, Proc. Of NUMOG IX, Ottawa, Canada, 2527 August
2004. A.A. Balkema, Leiden. Pp. 173179
Karstunen M., Krenn H., Wheeler S.J., Koskinen M.,
Zentar R. 2005b. Effect of anisotropy and destructuration on the behaviour of Murro test embankment. Int. J.
Geomech., 5(2), 8797.
Karstunen M., Wiltafsky C., Krenn H., Scharinger F.,
Schweiger H.F. (2006). Modelling the behaviour of an
embankment on soft clay with different constitutive models. Accepted for publication in Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth.
Geomech.
Korkila-Tanttu, L. 1997. Design guide for deep mixed
columns (Syvstabiloinnin mitoitusohje), Finnish National
Road Administration, FinnRA report 18/1997, Helsinki
(in Finnish).
Koskinen, M. & Karstunen, M. 2004. The effect of structure on the compressibility of Finnish clays. In: Proc. 14th
Nordic Geotechnical Meeting, Ystad, Sweden. Swedish
Geotechnical Society, Report 3:2004, pp. A-11-A-22
Krenn H., Karstunen M., Aalto A. 2005. 2D and 3D numerical
analysis of deep-stabilized columns. Proc. International
conference on deep mixing05, Stockholm, 547554.
Leroueil S., Tavernas F., Brucy F., La Rochelle P., Roy M.
1979. Behaviour of destructured natural clays. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 105(6): 759778.
Mayne P.W., Kulhawy F.H. (1982). K0 -OCR relationship in
soil.ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,Vol. 108,
GT, pp 851872
Messerklinger, S 2002. Personal communication (based on
Clay Mineralogical Investigations. Internal report J391,
Institute for Geotechnical Engineering, Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology, Zurich (in German)).
Wheeler S.J., Ntnen A., Karstunen M., Lojander M. 2003.
An anisotropic elasto-plastic model for soft clays. Can.
Geotech. J., 40(2), 403418.
656
Sung-Hyun Jee
Hyundai Engineering and Construction Co. Ltd., Seoul, Korea
ABSTRACT: For the surface stabilization process in a dredged marine clay deposit area, PTM (Progressive
Trenching Method) has been applied. The PTM treated dredged soil has characteristics of having surface crust
zone due to surface drainage condition. The crust surface allows the construction equipments to be applicable in
early stage of stabilization process. However, to ensure the trafficability of the construction equipments, a reliable
estimation of strength parameters for the soil deposit is indispensable and a method for reasonably estimating
the bearing capacity of the multi-layered soil deposits should be applied.
In this study, various field and laboratory tests were conducted to estimate the design parameters in the dredged
soil deposit which is located at southern coastal area in Korea. The DEM (Discrete Element Method) has been
developed for estimating the bearing capacity of multi-layered soil deposits. Besides, the behaviour of a test
embankment on the dredged soil deposits was measured and then it was compared with the results obtained by
the finite element analysis.
To validate the developed DEM, the DEM analysis results were compared with the plate load test results as
well as those obtained by various methods proposed by other researchers. The proposed method provided with
valid solutions. The results of finite element analyses explain the observation data obtained from field monitoring
at the test embankment on dredged deposits.
INTRODUCTION
657
in the construction process. Because the repeated loading on the clay can affect the shear strength and
stability of the deposit (Thiers and Seed 1968; Lefebvre et al. 1989), the effect of repeated loading on the
bearing capacity should be investigated to properly
assess the trafficability during the construction.
In an attempt to estimate the reliable trafficability
of dredged marine clay deposit, five categories of the
works were conducted in this study. The first work
was the site characterization of the test site to gain a
soil profile of the basic geotechnical indices and to
assess the shear strength characteristics and stressstrain behaviour with depth. Including the tests for
basic properties, various filed and laboratory tests such
as field vane test, portable cone penetration test, and
SITE CHARACTERIZATION
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Water Content(%)
3.5
10
20
30
40
-10
-40
-20
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Average
-30
Depth (cm)
Depth (cm)
Depth (cm)
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Average
-30
20
30
40
-8
-12
-20
Plasticity Index
PlasticLimit
Liquid Limit
-30
Depth ( m)
Depth (cm)
Depth (cm)
-40
-16
-20
-24
-28
-40
-32
658
100
110
Matric Suction(kpa)
0
-10
-30
90
-30
50
-10
-20
80
-20
70
-50
Void Ratio e
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1
60
-40
-40
-50
50
-10
-10
-20
40
10
15
20
25
30
35
resistance qc , water content w, void ratio e, and atterberg limits PL, LL, PI are plotted against the depth. It is
clearly observed that dramatic change of soil parameters near the surface up to a certain depth (about 30 cm)
and no remarkable change of parameters are shown
after the depth.
From the surface to depth about 50 cm, the shear
strength varies from 3.8 t/m2 to 0.3 t/m2 , water content
50100% and the void ratio e 1.3 to 2.1.
Atterberg limits are as follows; liquid limit LL of
4955%, plastic limit of 1522%, and the plastic limit
of 2832%. The soil profile of the test site is quite
similar compared to the observations in literatures on
desiccated clay deposit (Lutenegger 1995; Konrad and
Ayad 1997); e.g., evolution of crack, increased shear
strength, reduction of void ratio, and low water content
at the surface.
From the results of visual inspection and tests, it
can be inferred that this deposit consists of two layers; desiccated crust and dredged soft clay layers. The
thickness of the crust can be presumed as 30 cm.
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
v= 0.5 t/m2
0.5
v= 1.5 t/m2
0.0
v= 3.0 t/m2
0
(a)
10
15
20
25
30
Shear Strain(%)
2.5
To investigate the actual bearing behavior and the failure mechanism of the deposit and to ensure the effect of
reinforcement for bearing capacity, several plate load
tests were conducted at two test points having different
conditions which are described in Table. 1.
2.0
Table 1.
1.5
0.5
v= 1.5 t/m2
v= 3.0 t/m2
0.0
0
(b)
Case
Diameter
of plate
D (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
30, 40, 75
75
75
75
75
75
100
100
1.0
v= 0.5 t/m2
10
15
20
25
30
Shear Strain(%)
659
Condition of reinforcement
No reinforcement
Geo-mat
Crushed rock filling 0.5 m + Geo-mat
Crushed rock filling 0.7 m + Geo-mat
Granite Soil filling 0.5 m + Geo-mat
Granite Soil filling 1.0 m + Geo-mat
Granite Soil filling 1.5 m + Geo-mat
Crushed rock filling 1 m
+ Soil filling 0.5 m + Geo-mat
(a)
Load (t/m2)
Load (t/m2)
0
Settlement (mm)
Settlement (mm)
12
0
10
20
30
D=30cm,site 1
D=40cm,site 1
D=75cm,site 1
D=30cm,site 2
D=40cm,site 2
D=75cm,site 2
40
50
20
40
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5
Case 6
Case 7
Case 8
Case 1, D=75cm
60
80
100
(b)
Yield Stress (t/m2)
Site 1
Site 2
Average
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Case
Yield bearing
capacity qy (t/m2 )
Ratio to qy with
No reinforcement (%)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2.65
6.00
7.30
4.0
7.0
8.15
9.17
180
408
497
272
476
554
624
3.1
660
(a)
24
Load (t/m2)
5
Settlement (mm)
0
10
20
30
40
Cyclic(D=30cm, load = 0.7Y)
Static (D=30cm)
50
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
60
(b)
10
15
20
25
Number of Cycle
Load (t/m2)
0
Settlement (mm)
settlement converges to certain value, cyclic loading was unloaded and static loading was imposed to
observe the post-cyclic bearing behavior.After the test,
field vane test was conducted to measure the variation
of shear strength during the cyclic test. Figure 6 represents load-settlement curves obtained from cyclic plate
loading test and the permanent settlement developed
during cyclic loading is plotted in Figure 7. With the
scale of cyclic loading, different behaviour has been
obtained in the tests.
In the case that the loading scale is less than yield
stress (Fig. 6a and 6b), settlement induced by repeated
loading increased no more and permanent settlement
converged to a constant value (Figure 7) which is
smaller than the settlement at yield in static test. The
post-cyclic load-settlement behaviour was very similar
to that of static test. These results can be interpreted
as the repeated loading less than yield stress do not
severely affect the bearing behaviour. However, when
the cyclic loading scale was larger than yield stress
(Figure 6.c), settlement increased rapidly as the number of cycle increased and the permanent settlement
increased as well (Figure 7). That is, failure occurred
after few repeats of loadings.
10
20
30
Cylic(D=30cm, load = 0.88Y)
Static (D=30cm)
40
50
60
(c)
Load (t/m2)
0
Settlement (mm)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
661
parallel theoretical
method
Punching shear
Failure (crust)
General shear failure
(lower clay)
Meyerhof &
Hanna (1980)
Merifield (1999)
Chen (1975)
(a)
(a)
250
qu(kN/m)
200
150
100
50
(b)
0
1.25
1.75
2.00
2.25
cu1/cu2
(b)
300
Okamura
Okamura -D.E.M
Houlsby
250
qu(kN/m)
Houlsby-D.E.M
200
150
100
50
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
H(m)
Figure 9. Results of analysis for examples (a) Results of
analysis for example case 1 (b) Results of analysis for
example case 2.
662
1.50
(a)
15
Plate loading test
DEM
qf(kN/m2)
12
10
7.5
5
2.5
0
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
D (m)
(b)
14
12
qf (kN/m)
8
Plate loading test
DEM
6
4
0.2
0.4
0.6
D (m)
0.8
1.0
Error (%)
30
29
3.33
663
10
120m
100
10m
90
10 m
80
areaB
Distance (m)
areaA
Crushed
Rock
Rock
100 m
70
60
Reinforced
Reinforced
region
region
50
40
30
EPS
EPS
20
area A
areaA
area B
areaB
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Distance (m)
25m
50m
0.5m
0.5m
0.5m
100m
25m
Geomat
Geomat
Sufvt (t/m2)
6.2
Numerical modeling of the test embankment was carried out and the settlement behavior was predicted by
the finite element analysis.
Because of the spatial variation of properties in the
dredged soil deposit, it was hard to determine a representative shear strength or constitutive relationship.
To overcome such difficulties, field vane tests was
selected as strength parameter estimation tool for this
site as shown in Figure 14. Surface area of the deposit
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
-50
-60
664
0.5
-10
Depth (cm)
the behavior of reinforced deposit, such as the settlement which can seriously affect the trafficability
during construction.
The test embankment was constructed over the
geo-mat with 70 cm height of crushed rock or 60 cm
thickness of EPS block. A multi-stage banking was
conducted: filling with the crush rock or EPS block
within the range of 0 70 m, and additional filling
with granite soil to the height of 150 cm within the
range of 0 110 m as shown in Figure 12.
Figure 13 shows averaged field vane shear strength
contour of the embankment site within 60 cm depth.
The averaged shear strength value of most of the site
was higher than 1 t/m2 which had been considered as
characteristic shear strength of the site after the PTM
had been applied. However, the average shear strength
of the area pointed out in Figure 13 (40 110 m in
reinforced region) was less than 1 t/m2 , and this area
was regarded as problematic area in the construction
process.
0.0
Load (t/m2)
4
6
10
Elevation (m)
Settlement(mm)
20
40
60
Initial
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
Crushed rock
0
80
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Distance (m)
10
0
5.0
Elevation (m)
Settlement behavior of test embankment was monitored by measuring elevation of dredged deposit
with profile gage and measuring the elevation of fill
by surface surveying. Figure 16 shows the result of
monitoring for reinforced region at two stages in construction: reinforcement filling and additional filling
with soil. In Figure 16, symbols in hollow circles represent the elevation of filling and symbols in solid circles
represent the elevation of dredged deposit.
As shown in the figure, similar trend of settlement
was monitored for both cases. At the region which
had lower averaged shear strength, large settlement
occurred in common. Because of the less self weight
of EPS block relative to crushed rock, the settlement
at the end of EPS filling is smaller than that at the end
of crushed rock filling. Heaving was found at 60m
distance for EPS reinforcement filling, but no heaving
was found with crushed rock reinforcement filling.
Figures 17 and 18 compare the monitored settlement with numerically predicted settlement. As shown
in the figure, numerical prediction shows reasonable agreement with the monitored behaviour. Large
settlement is predicted at the problematic area (Figure 13), and the results indicate that the numerical
analysis well simulated the settlement behaviour of
test embankment.
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
EPS
0
20
40
0.0
-0.3
-0.6
-0.9
-1.2
-1.5
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Distance (m)
Settlement at the end of reinforcement filling (monitored)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (monitored)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (numerical)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (numerical)
CONCLUSIONS
665
Initial
4.0
1.5
Settlement (m)
6.3
End of reinforcement
filling
End of additional
soil filling
4.5
0.4
Settlement (m)
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
REFERENCES
-1.0
-1.2
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Distance (m)
Settlement at the end of reinforcement filling (monitored)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (monitored)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (numerical)
Settlement at the end of additional soil filling (numerical)
666
ABSTRACT: As the two main types of the Deep Mixing method, Dry Jet Mixing (DJM) and Deep Wet Mixing
(DWM) have the similarity in many aspects, but there is still some difference that is needed to be revealed to
prevent the blindness of the application. This paper concentrates on studying the difference and adoption rules
of these two methods. By single and group pile field tests, the influence on the surrounding soil strength induced
by DJM and DWM installation is compared. An indicator designated as water content ratio is presented in the
paper by statistical analysis on the lab and field tests data as a guideline for the application of DJM and DWM.
1
INTRODUCTION
DJM and DWM are two main types of the Deep Mixing methods, the one jets the cement powder into the
soil by air pressure to form a column by mixing with
in-situ soils, and the others injection is cement slurry.
The soft ground improvement principium of these two
methods are similar, the strength of the columns both
relates to the soil characteristic, water content, cement
content, the construction process and so on. But there is
also some difference between them, as the application
condition, installation disturbance, strength increasing etc, which still recognizes insufficiently and made
the application of them blindly, empirically. Larsson.S
(2005a) reported that DJM needs a little more cement
compared with DWM, and is more adaptive for high
water content soil, but is inconvenient to execute in
the rheological soil; and DWM is applicable for the
soil with a relatively high strength and low water content. The device of DJM is convenience and it does not
induce slurry pumping during construction, but DWM
have a problem of slurry pumping. Several researchers
indicated that water content can be used as an indicator
to guide the applicability of these two methods (Song,
2000; Dong, 1996): When the water content is higher
than 40%, DJM is proposed, else DWM.
This paper compares the installation disturbance
and strength of DJM with DWM by lab experiment
and field test, and proposes a guideline to the adoption
of two methods.
2
INSTALLATION DISTURBANCE ON
SURROUNDING SOIL
667
Table 1.
Age/cause
Layer
Soil characteristics
Geologic properties
Depth (m)
New
Cultivable
soil (1)
Clay (2-1)
0.30.6
New sedimentary
soil
Muck mucky
loam (2-2)
Loam/clay
(4-1)
1.11.3
8.68.9
3.95.3
diameter 0.5 m, cement-soil ratio 20% for DJM, watercement ratio 0.5 for DWM, they all have a jet pressure
about 0.4 MPa, stop the powder/slurry at 0.3 m.
After installation, CPT test and vane shear test are
taken considering different curing time and distance
from the column, to repeal the influence of the soil
strength by installation.
2.1
CPT test was conducted for surrounding soil at different curing time, the single pile test is with distance 0.2 m, 0.5 m, 1.0 m from the pile respectively,
and group pile test is at 0.2 m and in the middle
of the group, the relation between cone penetration
resistance and depth is shown in Fig. 2.
At a depth of 2 m in the crust, the cone penetration resistance of surrounding soil after DJM/DWM
installation decreases evidently as compared with
undisturbed soil, which also occurs in many other layers (Fig. 2). The relationship between depth and cone
penetration resistance ratio which is defined as the
ratio of the value after installation are shown in Fig. 3
and Fig. 4.
The installation of column disturbs the surrounding
Lian-Yungang strongly-structured natural sedimentary soils, consequently decreasing the shear strength.
With the increase in depth, the cone penetration resistance increases for both DJM and DWM. It is explained
as that when the lateral pressure of surrounding soil
becomes larger, the resistance to installation disturbance increases. At the same depth, the cone penetration resistance increases along with the increase of the
distance from the pile. With equal distance to the column, the cone penetration resistance increases with the
rising of curing age, thats because the soil strength is
recovered with time. Certainly, the mechanical librating energy is undulate in installation, thats why cone
penetration resistance is undulate in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4.
Comparing with the cone penetration resistance of
DJM and DWM, as shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, these
668
the cement slurry or powder is filtered into the surrounding soil and makes chemistry reaction which
reinforces the nature soil.
669
4 APPLICABILITY OF DJM/DWM
The cases above show DJM and DWM present the
similar reinforcement effects, and DJM behaves a little more preponderance in this region. Obviously, to
choose which, DJM or DWM, for the soil treatment is
670
aw=10%(7days)
aw=15%(7days)
aw=20%(7days)
aw=25%(7days)
aw=30%(7days)
unconfined compression
str ength / MPa
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
30
40
unconfined compression
strength / MPa
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
w0/wl
80
90
671
70
7days
14days
28days
60days
0.8
60
w(%)
4.0
0.7
50
strength / MPa
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
DWM (28days,65kg/m)
DJM (28days,65kg/m)
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.0
1.2
1.3
w0/wL
0.8
strength / MPa
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5 0.6
1.1
1.5
REFERENCES
w0/wL
strength / MPa
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
w0/wL
is within 0.91.0, DJM and DWM have comparative effect, and when w0/wL is larger than 1.0, DJM
behaves better. The rule is consistent with the lab test
result.
672
CONCLUSIONS
ABSTRACT: The fundamental issues concerning the remediation of contaminated soils with heavy metals
using electrokinetic and magnetic properties of soils are discussed in this study. Firstly, the influences of magnetic
force or the Lorentz force on the behavior of heavy metal ions was investigated. It was clarified that this
influence on the movement of lead ions in soil is relatively small. Secondly, the ferrite method used for the
disposal of effluents containing heavy metals was applied to the contaminated soil. It is known that ferrite,
which is a compound oxide with iron and heavy metals, has ferromagnetism and its solubility is very low. From
the test results, it was confirmed that the insoluble property of the ferritization-treated soil or the compound
hydroxide for Pb-contaminated soil is much higher over a wide range of pH levels. It was also observed that the
insoluble property of lead increases gradually with the iron content. Furthermore, the magnetic property of the
ferritization-treated soil was investigated. Since the ferritization-treated soil exhibits ferromagnetism, magnetic
separation using a superconducting magnet was attempted. Although ferrite and clay particles could not be
separated adequately, it is suggested that the ferrite method may be one of the techniques for the remediation of
contaminated soil with heavy metals.
INTRODUCTION
There are several remediation techniques for treating contaminated soils with heavy metals. Electrokinetic remediation is recognized as one of the hopeful
technologies for the removal of contaminants from
cohesive soils with low permeability. In recent years,
a number of laboratory and field scale tests have
been performed for investigating the applicability of
electrokinetic remediation in removing various contaminants from soils (e.g., Acar et al. 1993, Acar et al.
1995 and Virkutyte et al. 2002). However, it is difficult
to remove all the contaminants from the soils. This is
because heavy metals are precipitated at the cathode
side due to alkalinization during the electrolysis of
water, thereby restricting the movement of ions due to
the disproportionate electric potential difference.
On the other hand, experimental studies on the magnetic separation of feebly magnetic materials have
been recently conducted under a high-field condition using a superconducting magnet (Yokoyama et al.
2003). There are few studies on the remediation of
contaminated soils using electrokinetic and magnetic
techniques.
Furthermore, the ferrite method has been widely
used for the disposal of effluents including heavy metals in Japan (Okamoto 1976 and Takada 1977). Ferrite
is a compound oxide with iron and heavy metals and
673
34
Concentration of Pb (mg /l)
With magnet
Without magnet
33
32
31
30
29
28
1
3
Section
674
A (Cathode)
B (Anode)
4
A
A
A
B
B
Concentrationof Pb (mg/l)
Cathode
5
A
B
B
Pbcontaminated
soil
1.5
The Lorentz
force
0.5
Anode
0
1
Kaolin clay
675
Section
2.2.2
D.C. power
supply
+
3
H+
Pb 2+
3.1
OH
Pb 2+
Electroosmosis is expected to be a remediation technology for treating contaminated soils with heavy
metals, particularly for cohesive soils for which the
application of flushing is difficult. However, the cathode side becomes alkaline due to the electrolysis of
water such that the heavy metal ions move to a location near the cathode and are deposited as hydroxides;
this makes it difficult to remove the heavy metal ions.
Figure 6 shows transfer of ions in the electrokinetic
method. The problem of the deposition of hydroxide
Pb(OH)2 is easy to resolve in both alkaline and
acidic conditions.
The ferrite method has been used for the disposal
of effluents containing heavy metals. In this study, this
method is applied to Pb-contaminated soil. Ferrite is a
compound oxide with iron and metal. It is known that
the solubility of ferrite is very low and it has ferromagnetism. The process of ferrite formation is shown in
Fig. 7. Generally, white deposits of hexagonal tabular
crystallite
Fe(OH)2 are formed by adding an alkali to an aqueous solution of Fe2+ . If there exists a heavy metal
ion, M, during the process of deposition, a compound
hydroxide with Fe and M is deposited. In other words,
the compound hydroxide is deposited by the following
process:
Pb 2+
OH
H+
Pb (OH) 2
Acidity
Alkaline
FeSO4
Fe2+
Pb2+
Contaminated soil
with heavy metal
NaOH
OH
PbFe2(OH)6
Hydroxide with
iron and lead
(2)
676
Air
bubble
1200
Fe3+
pH
meter
Temperature
indicator
800
O2
H2O
Eh (mV)
400
Fe(OH)3
Fe2+
Heating at
60~70 ?C
H2O
H2
-400
Fe3(OH)8
Fe(OH)2
-800
10
12
14
pH
677
found that not only the ferrite, PbFe2 O4 , but also several compound oxides with iron and lead are generated.
On the other hand, it is indicated that the main components of Kaolin clay are silica, SiO, and pyrophyllite
Al2 Si4 O10 (OH)2 . The peak value of ferritizationtreated soil are similar to those of the Kaolin clay. This
is because the ferritization-treated soil contains many
components of the Kaolin clay. However, there are a
few small peak values corresponding the compound
oxide with iron and lead.
The SEM micrographs obtained from the scanning electron microscope are shown in Fig. 12. A flat
clay mineral observed in the particles of the Kaolin
clay. Many particles with an aggregate structure are
observed in the ferrite formation. On the other hand,
it is difficult to distinguish between the Kaolin clay
and ferrite particles in the ferritization-treated soil;
This is attributed to the fact that the Pb content of the
contaminated soil is 1 g/kg and the ratio is very small.
The grain size distributions of the samples are
shown in Fig. 13. The Kaolin clay and compound
hydroxide exhibit almost the same grain size distribution curve. The grain size of the ferritization-treated
soil increases slightly as compared to that of the Kaolin
clay or compound hydroxide. Thus, it may be said that
the ferrite formation is deposited by the combination
of several ions.
3.2.3 Insoluble property of lead
The elution test under the condition of 2Fe2+ /Pb2+ = 20
was performed on the contaminated soil without treatment, the compound hydroxide with iron and lead, and
the ferritization-treated soil. The test results are shown
in Fig. 14. The Pb concentration of the contaminated
soil increases under alkaline and acidic conditions,
because lead is an amphoteric element. In other words,
lead exists as Pb2+ ion under acidic conditions, and it
is deposited as lead hydroxide Pb(OH)2 under weak
alkaline conditions, following which it dissolves as
678
100
100
80
Concentration of Pb (mg/l)
Kaokin clay
Compound hydroxide
Ferritization-treated soil
60
40
pH=5.8~6.3
Contaminated soil
(Without treatment)
10
Ferritizationtreated soil
1
Waste water standard
0.1
Environmental standard
0.01
20
0.001
0
0
0.1
10
100
10
15
20
25
2Fe2+/Pb2+(in mol)
Concentration of Pb (mg/l)
Total content
10
Contaminated soil
(Without treatment)
Compound hydroxide
with iron and lead
0.1
Waste water
standard
0.01
Permanent
magnet
Ferritization-treated soil
Ferritizationtreated soil
(N.D. <0.01)
Environmental
standard
0.001
0
10
12
14
pH
contaminated soil. Particularly, the value of Pb concentration at the alkali condition was not detected for the
measurement limit of 0.01 mg/l. It is considered that
the ferrite method is very effective for the remediation
of insoluble heavy metals in comparison with previous methods such as cement stabilization or the use of
chemical agents.
In order to investigate the influence of the iron content on the insoluble property, the elution test was
performed under different conditions of 2Fe2+ /Pb2+ in
the pH range of 5.86.3. Figure 15 shows the relationship between the concentration of Pb and 2Fe2+ /Pb2+
in mol ratio. As shown in this figure, the insoluble
property of lead appears gradually with an increase
in 2Fe2+ /Pb2+ . The ferrite method was originally used
for the disposal of effluents containing various types of
heavy metals. Although this method is not considered
to be suitable for lead ions, the insoluble property of
679
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Exploratory Research (No.17656155) from the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology, Japan. The authors would like to thank Dr.
N. Hirota and Dr. H. Okada of Tsukuba Magnet Laboratory, NIMS, for their support in the experiment of
magnetic separation using a superconducting magnet.
The authors also thank Mr. Y. Tajiri of Kyushu University for his cooperation in carrying out the laboratory
tests.
REFERENCES
Acar, Y.B., Alshawabkeh, A.N. and Gale, R.J. 1993. Fundamentals of extracting species from soils by electrokinetics,
Waste Management, Vol.13, pp. 141151.
Acar, Y.B., Gale, R.J., Alshawabkeh, A.N., Marks, R.E., Puppala, S., Bricka, M. and Parker, R. 1995. Electrokinetic
remediation: Basics and technology status, Journal of
Hazardous Materials, Vol.40, pp. 117137.
Ohara, T., Mori, S., Oda, Y., Wada, Y. and Tsukamoto, O.
1996. Feasibility of magnetic chromatography for ultrafine particle separation, IEEJ Transactions on Power and
Energy, 979.
Okamoto, S. 1976. Utility of magnetic scavengers for waste
water treatment, Ceramics, Vol.11, No.3, pp. 234241 (in
Japanese).
Takada, T. 1977. Removal of heavy metal ions from waste
water by ferritization, Journal of Environmental Pollution
Control, Vo.13, No.1, pp. 3741 (in Japanese).
Virkutyte, J., Sillanp, M. and Latostenmaa, P. 2002. Electrokinetic soil remediation critical overview,The Science
of The Total Environment, Vol. 289, pp. 97121.
Yokoyama, K., Oka, T., Okada, H., Fujine, Y., Chiba, A. and
Noto, K. 2003. Solid-liquid magnetic separation using
bulk superconducting magnets, IEEE Transactions on
Applied Superconductivity, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 15921595.
680
ABSTRACT: Cement-bentonite grouts are used in a wide range of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering applications including the stabilization of soft soils. Yet, it has been well acknowledged that the behavior
of cement-bentonite grouts can be greatly affected by the exposure to aggressive chemicals. The use of zeolite
has been suggested by recent research for enhancing the durability of cement-based grouts especially for sulfate
attack. Hence, an experimental study has been carried out to verify the improvements in the behavior of such
grouts with the use of zeolite in various aggressive environments. This paper will only focus on the mechanical
properties of soft clays stabilized with cement-bentonite and cement-zeolite grouts and addresses the diversity
in their behavior with respect to the use of zeolite. This was carried out using mechanical mixing and compared
with auger mixing with the use of a laboratory-scale auger mixing system. Properties investigated were the
unconfined compressive strength, permeability, secant modulus and microstructure analyses (using scanning
electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction). Tests were conducted at 28, 60 and 90 days. The results show that
the replacement of half of the cement content with zeolite affected neither the permeability nor the strength of
the stabilized soil samples, contrary to expectations because of the zeolites open framework structure. Furthermore, the addition of zeolite increased the stiffness of the soil in comparison to the addition of bentonite. The
microstructural analyses confirmed the contribution of zeolite to the formation of hydration products.
INTRODUCTION
681
SiO2
Al2 O3
Fe2 O3
Na2 O
CaO
MgO
K2 O
SO3
H2 O
LOI
Figure 1. A schematic diagram of the structure of
clinoptilolite (Dyer, 1988).
White powder
Specification
Brightness(ISO)
300 mesh residue
+10 microns
2 microns
Moisture content
pH
Yellowness
Specific gravity
Surface area
Oil absorption
Water soluble
salt content
Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit
Plasticity Index
SiO2
Al2 O3
Typical
properties
Chemical
analysis-XRF
78.5 1.5
0.05% maximum
35% maximum
25% maximum
1.5% maximum
5.0 0.5
7
2.6
8 m2 /g
33 g/100 g
0.15%
51%
30%
21%
50%
35%
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Silt
Zeolite
CaB
20
5
3.7
0.7
63.3
3.0
63.6
21.4
3.8
2.7
0.6
2.0
0.3
5.5
99.3
0.34
0.08
<0.05
<0.02
<0.05
0.04
65.8
10.9
1.6
0.8
2.9
1.1
3.4
13.2
57.0
23.0
2.2
4.8
1.2
2.3
1.2
8.0
Grout No
Grout type
Solids
1
2
3
4
5
Cement
CaB-Cement (1)
CaB-Cement (2)
NaB-Cement
Zeolite-cement
100%
90% cement
50% cement
90% cement
50% cement
10% CaB
50% CaB
10% NaB
50% Zeolite
The cement used was Portland Cement (PC) produced by Rugby cement, UK. Both natural sodium
bentonite (NaB) and calcium bentonite (CaB) were
used and the zeolite used was Clinoptilolite. The chemical composition of the binders and soils used is given
in Table 2.
Five different grouts were used. The details of their
percentage constituents are summarized in Table 3.
Grout 1 consisted of cement alone. Grouts 2 and 3
are cement-calcium bentonite grouts in two different
ratios containing 90% and 50% cement respectively.
Grout 4 is a cement-sodium bentonite grout with the
same ratio as grout 2 and finally grout 5 is a cementzeolite mix with the same ratio as grout 3. For all
those grouts, the water:solid grout ratio was 1:1. Those
grouts were selected based on previous related study
on the grouts alone (Osman, 2003). The Marshal Funnel results for these grouts showed similar viscosity of
around 33 seconds except for grout 3, which was more
viscous.
The grouts were mixed with the clay soils in a high
power food mixer to produce ten different clay-grout
mixes as detailed in Table 4. Most of the mixes were
prepared for the 50% water content clay. Two different soil:grout ratios of 1.5:1 and 3:1 were used. The
mixtures were then placed in plastic moulds, 100 mm
in diameter and 100 mm high for permeability samples, 50 mm in diameter and 100 mm high for strength
samples. The samples were placed in 20 C and 95%
relative humidity in curing tanks. Once the samples
682
NaB
PC
Mix
Clay type
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Kaolin
Soil:grout
ratio
Grout type
Wc
50%
Cement
1.5:1
3:1
1.5:1
3:1
1.5:1
1.5:1
1.5:1
3:1
3:1
1.5:1
Cement-CaB (1)
Kaolin
100%
Kaolin silt
50%
Cement-CaB (2)
Cement-NaB
Zeolite-cement
Cement-CaB (1)
Zeolite-cement
Cement
Upper Stop
Switch
Upper
Rack
Guard
Motor
ROTATION
SPEED
CONTROLLER
Retort
Stand
Grout
Injector
Central
Stop
Grout
PENETRATION
SPEED
CONTROLLER
Lower Stop
Switch Determines
Pile Length
Grout
Release
Hole
Mixing Drum
Auger
Scales to monitor
grout useage
Pinion
Motor
Pump
Lower
Rack
Guard
Manual
Penetration
Speed
Controller
Soil
683
3500
2500
3000
2000
2500
UCS (kPa)
UCS (kPa)
3000
1500
1000
Mix 1
Mix 2
Mix 3
Mix 4
Mix 5
Mix 6
Mix 7
Mix 8
Mix 9
Mix 10
2000
1500
1000
500
500
0
1
5
6
Mix number
10
3.1
40
60
Time (days)
80
100
20
Figure 5 shows the UCS values for the ten mechanically mixed samples at 28 days. The figure shows
the values to vary considerably reflecting the binder
characteristics and the initial water content of the clay.
684
3
Secant modulus (*10^5kPa)
k (m/s)
1.00E-08
1.00E-09
1.00E-10
1
5
6
Mix number
1.00E-11
0
20
40
60
80
0.5
5
6
Mix number
10
3
Mix 1
Mix 2
Mix 3
Mix 4
Mix 5
Mix 6
Mix 7
Mix 8
Mix 9
Mix 10
2.5
100
2
1.5
1
0.5
Time (days)
0
0
k (m/s)
1.00E-10
Mix 1
Mix 2
Mix 3
Mix 4
Mix 5
Mix 6
Mix 7
Mix 8
Mix 9
Mix 10
1.00E-09
2
1.5
10
2.5
20
40
60
Time (days)
80
100
Figure 10. E50 values for the ten mixes with time.
Permeability
3.4
685
Secant modulus
Figure 11. The relationship between the UCS and the secant
modulus.
3.5
(1)
Microstructural analysis
3.5.1
686
Figure 13. Typical SEM micrographs of Mix 1 at three different curing times.
Figure 14. Typical XRD patterns for all the 10 mixes at 28 day.
687
1800
Density (kg/m3)
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Augered-mixed
Mechanically-mixed
3.6
688
3000
1.00E-08
1.00E-09
2000
k(m/s)
UCS (kPa)
2500
1500
1.00E-10
1000
500
1.00E-11
Augered-mixed
0
Augered-mixed
Mechanically-mixed
Figure
18. UCS
of
the
mechanically-mixed mix samples.
auger-mixed
Mechanically-mixed
and
3
E50=300UCS
E50=120 UCS
2.5
E50(*10^5)kPa
3000
UCS (kPa)
2500
2000
2
1.5
E50=40UCS
1
1500
0.5
Augered-mixed
Mechanically-mixed
1000
0
0
500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
UCS (kPa)
0
T
M
Sample position
CONCLUSIONS
689
(2)
decrease its permeability. Consequently the replacement of half of the cement content with zeolite
will not cause a permeability increase as would be
expected.
In general, the increase in strength caused by stabilization will be associated with an increase in the
modulus of elasticity of the soil i.e. a decrease in
the ductility. However, the addition of bentonite will
reduce the modulus of elasticity to a lower value
which can be very crucial in some projects. Alternatively, the addition of zeolite increases the stiffness
of the soil due its rigid framework.
Augered-mixed columns were found to be effectively mixed and to correlate well with mechanicallymixed samples for the clay with 100% water content.
Values of the density, UCS and coefficient of permeability were found to be comparable to the ones
that were mechanically-mixed.
It was found that the grout was not uniformly distributed within the column with the top of the
column being the weakest section hence containing
the least amount of cement and received the least
effective degree of mixing leading to reduced density and UCS. The opposite was observed for the
bottom section of the columns.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the National
Deep Mixing Program of the US Federal Highway Administration for their financial support to the
project. They would also like to thank BP Egypt for
their financial support to the first author.
REFERENCES
Cordon, W. (1962), Resistance of soil cement exposed to
sulphates. Highway Research Board Bulletin, Vol. 309,
No. 1962. (cited in Roy et al, 2003).
DGSSS, EuroSoilStab, (2001), Design Guide Soft Soil
Stabilization. Development of design and construction
methods to stabilize soft organic soils. CT97-0351. ProjectNo.:BE 96-3177.
Dyer, A. (1988). An introduction to zeolite molecular
sieves. John Wiley, Chichester
Garvin, S. L. and Hayles, C. S. (1999), The chemical
compatibility of cementbentonite cut-off wall material.
Construction and Building Materials, Volume 13, Issue 6,
pp 329341.
Janotka, I., Stevula, L., (1998), Effect of bentonite and
zeolite on durability of cement suspension under sulfate
attack. ACI Materials Journal, Volume 96, No. 6, pp.
710715.
Jefferis, S. A. (1992), Contaminant-grout interaction. Proceedings of the Conference on Grouting, Soil Improvement, and Geosynthetics, ASCE, GSP No. 30, pp. 1393
1402.
Osman, A. (2003), Permeability of Cement-Bentonite
Mixtures in aggressive environments MPhil thesis,
Cambridge University.
Perraki, T., Kakali, G., and Kontoleon, F. (2003), The
effect of natural zeolites on the early hydration of Portland cement. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials,
Volume 61, Issues 13, pp 205212.
Porbaha, A. (2000). State of the Art in Deep Mixing Technology. Part III: Geomaterial Characterization. Ground
Improvement, 4(3), 91110.
Sherwood, P. (1957). The Stabilization with Cement of
Weathered and Sulphate-Bearing Clays. Geotechnique,
December 1957, 179191.
690
ABSTRACT: Disposal of large quantities of fly ash, which is an industrial waste, poses a major environmental
problem. To enhance utilization, fly ash is considered for stabilizing of expansive soft soils. Improving the
strength of soil is of major importance. The development of strength depends on the pozzolanic nature of fly ash.
While fly ashes with high pozzolanic reactivity are widely used, the use of fly ashes with less pozzolanic reactivity
is greatly inhibited. As the strength development in natural expansive soil considered in this investigation is very
less with different percentages of Raichur fly ash, an attempt is made to increase the same by addition of lime.
Based on several tests conducted, the optimum lime contents for fly ash and soils are 5% and 8% respectively.
The strength of soil with different fly ash contents of 10 to 40% with lime contents of 5% and 8% has been
determined after curing the compacted samples for different periods. While the strength improvement for any
soil fly ash mixture is substantial with 5% of lime, it is further improved with 8% of lime. Strength of soil fly
ash mixtures with any lime content increases with curing period.
INTRODUCTION
691
MATERIALS
Table 1.
Table 2.
Properties
Soil
Specific gravity
Fly ash
2.51
Atterbergs Limits
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Plasticity index (%)
Shrinkage limit (%)
Compaction characteristics
Maximum dry density, kN/m3
Optimum moisture, content, %
Grain size distribution
Gravel (%)
Sand (%)
Silt and clay (%)
Unconfined compressive
strength, kPa
2.03
89
23
66
12
35
18.5
11.8
35.5
11.7
25.0
06
42
52
112
00
58
42
32
Constituent
Percentage
SiO2
Al2 O3
TiO2
Fe2 O3
MgO
CaO
K2 O
Na2 O
L.O.I
61.10
28.00
1.30
4.20
0.80
1.7
0.18
0.18
1.40
3.2 pH
pH measurements were carried out using a standard
pH meter after calibration.
3.3 Compaction
Compaction tests were conducted on soil fly ash mixtures using mini compaction mould as per procedure
of Sridharan and Sivapullaiah (2005).
PERCENTAGE FINER
120
SOIL-S
FLY ASH
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
PARTICLE SIZE, mm
10
Figure 1. Grain size distribution curves for soil and fly ash.
Lime
Fly ash
3
3.1
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
METHODS
5.1 Determination of optimum lime content of
fly ash
Liquid limit
692
Weight ratio of
BC soils: RFA
Lime %
Curing period
Soil alone
10:1
10:2
10:3
10:4
0, 5, 8
0, 5, 8
0, 5, 8
0, 5, 8
0, 5, 8
Immediate,
1, 7, 14 &
28 days
Table 3.
38.5
38
37.5
37
36.5
36
35.5
35
34.5
34
33.5
0
3
2.5
2
12
1.5
1
0.5
10
0
0
7
pH
S soil
H soil
containing sufficient lime content together with reactive silica develop good strength on addition of water,
but fly ashes containing only reactive silica, with insufficient lime content, develop improved strength only
on addition of hydrated lime (Sivapullaiah et al., 1998).
Such a type of fly ash is used in the present investigation. Therefore, it is necessary to add optimal
lime content, since the formation of the maximum
amount of calcium silicate hydrate I occurs at optimum
lime content resulting in development of maximum
strength.
5.1.1 Optimization by modified free swell index
Figure 2 shows the variation of modified free swell
index with percentage of lime for Raichur fly ash. The
modified free swell index of fly ash alone is 1.2. As the
percentage of lime increases, the modified free swell
index increases up to 5% and then decreases. On addition of lime beyond 5%, the free swell volume starts to
decrease as a result of the increasing formation of CS-H (II) compounds (Sivapullaiah et al., 1995). Thus
the optimum lime content of Raichur fly ash is 5%.
5.1.2 Optimization by liquid limit
Variation of liquid limit values of fly ash with varying percentages of lime is presented in Figure 3. The
liquid limit of fly ash alone is 33%. This increases to
37.85% on addition of 5% lime and then decreases.
The predominant effect of the formation of C-S-H (I)
occurs at 5% lime, therefore 5% can be taken as the
optimum lime content of Raichur fly ash.
4
0
6
Lime (%)
10
12
693
1800
0 day
1 day
7 days
14 days
28 days
1600
1400
2200
UCS (kPa)
1200
1 DAY
1000
7 DAYS
800
14 DAYS
2000
1800
56 DAYS
600
1600
UCS (kPa)
400
200
0
0
6
8
LIME( %)
10
12
14
1400
1200
1000
UCS (kPa)
600
340
330
320
310
300
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
400
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
5% lime+ Flyash
Figure 7. Effect of fly ash and 5% lime content on the
strength of soft soil.
0 day
1 day
7 days
14 days
28 days
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Flyash (%)
5.3
800
694
0 day
1 day
7 days
14 days
28 days
3500
3000
UCS (kPa)
2500
2000
REFERENCES
1500
1000
500
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
8% lime+ Flyash
CONCLUSIONS
ASTM D 2166-91. Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil. Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, 1995, Vol. 04.08, American Society for testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
BS 13771975. Test 2(A), Determination of liquid limit,
preferred method using the cone penetrometer. British
Standard Institution.
Consoli, N.C., Prietto, P.D.M., Carraro, J.N.H., and Heineck, K.S., (2001) Behavior Of Compacted Soil Fly
Ash-Carbide Lime Mixtures Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 9, pp.
774782.
Helmuth, R. (1987). Fly ash in Cement and concrete,
Portland Cement Association, Research and Development
Laboratories, Stokie, IL.
Inerrant, B., Nutalaya, P., and Kuganenthria, N., Stabilization of a Dispersive soil by Blending with Fly Ash,
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, Vol. 24, 1991,
pp. 275290.
Li, K. S. and Dutton, C., Geotechnical Properties of Pulverized Fuel ash as a Reclamation Fill. 9th ARC. Theme 5.
1991. Pp. 405408.
Narendra, B. S., Sivapullaiah, P. V. and Ramesh, H. N. (2003).
Optimum lime content of fly ash with salt, Ground
Improvement, Vol. 7, pp. 187191.
Nelson, J.D and Miller, J.D. (1992). Expansive Soils: problems and practices in foundation and pavement Engineering John Willey Publications.
Sivapullaiah, P. V., Prashanth, J. P., Sridharan, A. and
Narayana, B. V. (1998). Reactive silica and strength of
fly ashes, Geotechnical and geological engineering, Vol.
16, pp. 239250.
Sivapullaiah, P. V., Prashanth, J.P. and Sridharan, A. (1995),
Optimization of lime content for fly ash, Journal of
Testing and Evaluation, ASTM, Vol. 23, pp. 222227.
Sridharan, A. and Sivapullaiah, P. V. 2005. Mini Compaction
Test Apparatus for Fine Grained Soils. Geotechnical
Testing Journal, Vol. 28, No.3. pp. 240246.
Sridharan, A., Prashanth, J. P. and Sivapullaiah, P. V. 1997.
Effect of fly ash on unconfined strength of black cotton
soil. Ground Improvement, 1, 169175.
Yudhbir and Honjo, Y. (1991), Applications of geotechnical
Engineering to Environmental Control, Theme Lecture
5, Proc. Ninth Asian Regional Conference, Bangkok,
Thailand, Vol. 2, pp. 431469.
Zhou, C., Yin, J. H. and Ming, J. P. (2002),: Bearing capacity
and settlement of weak fly ash ground improved using lime
fly ash or stone columns, Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
39, 585596.
695
Dave Chan
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Alberta, Canada
K.C. Lam
Department of Building and Construction, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
ABSTRACT: Laboratory compact grouting was performed using a modified triaxial test on Hong Kong CDG
(completely decomposed granite) soils to investigate the effect of effective confining pressure and grout injection
rate on the compact grouting effect. In this study, compaction grouting was simulated by expanding a latex
balloon inside a triaxial sample using de-aired water. When the balloon is expanded, it first needs to overcome
the effect of the confining pressure of the soil; further expansion will compact and densify the surrounding
soil. The compact grouting effect can be control by measuring the total void ratio change during injection and
the following consolidation. The injection rate was controlled by a GDS using a volume control technique. The
results of the experiments showed that the effective confining pressure on soil specimen plays an important role
in the effect of compaction grouting, and the injection rate has an effect on the rate of excess pore pressure
dissipation but minor effect on soil density.
INTRODUCTION
697
Data Log
System
Transducer 2
8
Personal
compute
Transducer 3
6
5
Transducer 4
1
4
2
3
Air
Compressor
GDS Controller
Transducer 1
Figure 2. Modified triaxial cell base and expanded needle.
Units
HK CDG
Specific gravity
Optimum moisture
Dry density
Maximum void ratio
Minimum void ratio
Fine content
Permeability
Cohesion
Friction angle
g/cm3
%
g/cm3
%
cm/second
kPa
( )
2.63
12
1.3
1.054
0.477
6
5.92e-4
10
32
of the confining pressure of the soil. Further expansion will compact and densify the surrounding soil.
Due to the compact grouting, the excess pore water
pressure will increase and dissipate with the time in
soil, that is so called consolidation, and the drained
water can be measured by transducer 4. During the
injection, the injection pressure (p) and the injection
rate (q) were measured. Injections were made using
a pressure/volume controller, which can control the
injection rate and volume
relationship between the void ratio change, the injection pressure, the injection rate and the confining
pressure in the field. Therefore, we investigated the
injected shapes using laboratory tests.
Fig. 1 shows the triaxial apparatus for injection
tests. The diameter and the height of specimens were
100 mm and 200 mm, respectively. the soil described
in Table 1 was compacted in the apparatus to get the
desired density. The confining pressure 3 was applied
to the specimen through the rubber membrane, and
the confining pressure and pore water pressure can be
measured by transducer 1 and 2, respectively. Then
water was injected into the specimen from the bottom of the specimen in order to provide saturation.
The injection steel injection tube stood in the center of
the specimen, and the water can enter into the balloon
in the end of injection tube. The injection pressure
can be measured by transducer 3. When the balloon is
expanded by water, it first needs to overcome the effect
698
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.01
0.1
10
is used to impose vertical loads on the specimen during the specimen preparation stage and to maintain the
required vertical surcharge during the grout injection
stage. The height of these modified consolidometer
is 280 mm, designed to house a specimen of approximately 100 mm high. The 100-mm diameter modified
consolidometer can be used for single-point injection
experiments using the central injection needle.
(2)Injection needles
A latex balloon has to be installed at the tip of the injection needle to simulate the ideal model of compaction
grouting, i.e., no occurrence of bleeding or solid penetration during the grouting process. For the latex
balloon, it was made by dipping the copper injection
needle into the latex solution. The latex solution should
be cured in air for one hour and the air bubbles on the
top layer of the solution should be removed. A 2 mm
steel rod was inserted into the needle to prevent the
latex solution from clogging the needle before dipping
the needle into the solution. After the first dipping, the
needle was dried at room temperature until the latex
solution was 80% dried. Then the needle was dipped
into the solution again. The progress was repeated until
a membrane of approximately 1.5 mm thickness was
produced. The needle was then wounded around by a
strong wire with high strength and it was further dipped
into the solution until a latex membrane reached a
thickness of 3 mm. (Fig. 3). In order to guarantee no
air trapped in the needle, the needles will be put into
a vacuum chamber to de-aerate the needles
(3)Pressure/Volume Controller
The GDS Standard Pressure/Volume Controller is used
as the injection pressure control device in the experiment. It is a microprocessor controlling the hydraulic
actuator for precise regulation and measurement of liquid pressure and injection volume. De-aired water was
699
1100
1000
Injection Pressure(kPa)
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
-100
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time (Mins)
Figure 5. Injection pressure versus time for different effective confining pressure.
4.1
200
160
140
120
100
80
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time (Mins)
As we know, compact grouting can densify the surrounding soil. The effect can be expressed by the
total void ratio change of specimen (e). Since the
maximum void ratio (emax ) and the minimum void
ratio (emin ) can be measured beforehand, the parameter can be defined the compact grouting densified
efficiency as follow:
=
e
emax emin
Figure 7 showed the densified result of compact grouting for different effective horizontal pressure. It can
be seen that for the three tests, the first injection
always leads to bigger void ratio change, and gradually reduces for the following injections. Additionally,
with the increase of effective horizontal stress, the void
700
180
Injection rate=5ml/min
Injection rate=30ml/min
155
0.22
150
0.20
0.24
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
-0.02
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
20
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
-0.02
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
100
120
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
Injection rate=5ml/min
Injection rate=30ml/min
0.00
-0.02
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
701
80
Time (Mins)
Time (Mins)
4.2
60
40
Time (Mins)
Time (Mins)
CONCLUSIONS
A new laboratory experimental apparatus has been
successfully designed, fabricated, and assembled to
study the fundamental behavior of compaction grouting subjected to triaxial conditions. The injection
pressure, pore water pressure and confining pressure
can be controlled. The compact grouting efficiency
(e/(emax emin )) due to compact grouting and
confining pressure was defined and can be measured
carefully. It is concluded from experimental tests, the
injection pressure, and excess pore water pressure
and compact grouting efficiency increase with the
effective confining pressure increasing. Moreover, the
dissipation of excess pore water pressure and injection
pressure can influence each other due to the consolidation of soil. Additionally, it is examined from
experimental tests that the effect of injection rate was
relatively minor when a perfect low mobility grout is
used for compact grouting.
Au, S.K.A., Soga, K., Jafari, M.R., Bolton, M.D. and Komiya,
K. (2002): Factors affecting long-term efficiency of compensation grouting in clays, accepted for publication
in the Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers
Graf, E.D. (1992). Compaction grout. In Grouting, soil
improvement and geosynthetics,ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication. No.30, Vol. 1, pp. 275287. Reston, VA:
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Mair, R.J. and Hight, D.W. (1994): Hydrofracturing pressure of cohesive soil, Journal of the Soil and Foundations, Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Vol.27(1), pp.1422.
Soga, K., Au, S.K.A., Jafari, M.R. and Bolton, M.D. (2002):
Laboratory investigation of multiple injection into clay,
submitted to Geotechnique
Warner, J. (1992). Compaction grout; rheology vs. effectiveness. In Grouting, soil improvement and geosynthetics,
ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication No. 30, Vol. 1,
pp. 229239. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil
Engineers.
REFERENCES
Au, S.K. (2001): Fundamental Study of Compensation
Grouting in Clay, PhD THESIS, University of Cambridge
702
ABSTRACT: This paper introduces the lime-stabilized technique for improvement of the expansive soils. The
free expansive ratio and other physical properties of natural soil and lime-stabilized expansive soil have been
investigated based on the experiment results. The in-situ CBR tests have been performed on the compacted
pavement. The effects of drying-wetting cycles have been studied for plain compacted soil and lime-stabilized
soil. It shows that the plain compacted soil has significant volume change and lime-stabilized soil is insensitive
with the change of moisture content. The microstructures of the compacted natural soil and the lime-stabilized
soil have been observed with scan electric microscope method.
plasticity
0
20
40
60
depth/m
7
Figure 1. Plasticity index vs depth.
703
20
40
60
80
100
10
20
30
depth/m
depth/m
4
5
6
Figure 4. Percent of volume shrinkage vs depth.
expansive pressure/kPa
20
40
60
80
depth/m
r =
5
Figure 3. Expensive pressure vs depth.
in liquid state and a wood bar could penetrate a maximum depth of 1.5 meter into the embankment along
cracks. Fig. 5 shows the photos from the standpoint
of the Highway from Suqian to Shuyang (in the north
area of Jiangsu too). The embankment filling of this
highway is compacted expansive soil. In the winter of
2005 to 2006, the pavement occurs a lot of up heaving
(1)
In which,
h the height of the sample after it expanded at the
times i,
hi the height of the sample before it expanded at
times i in which its moisture content reduces to
initial compaction moisture content.
Fig. 6 shows the height variation of compacted
expansive soil and lime stabilized soil when the moisture contents vary in optimism moisture contents and
saturated contents. It shows that the heights of the samples increase with the augment of moisture content
and its height decrease with the water content depressing. The lime stabilized soil has a much lower height
704
h hi
hi
18
2.5
16
height expansive ratio (%)
natural soil
2.4
2.3
lime content 2%
2.2
lime content 4%
lime content 5%
2.1
14
natural soil
12
10
8
lime content 2%
6
lime content 4%
lime content 5%
2
2.0
1
3
2
4
times of wet-drying cycle
2
3
4
times of wet-drying cycle
Figure 6. The height variation of compacted expansive soil and lime-stabilized soil during wet-drying cycles.
lime content 2%
lime content 4%
lime content 5%
Figure 7. The photos of compacted plain and lime stabilized expansive soil after 6 wet-drying cycles.
705
Figure 8. The SEM photos of plain expansive soil and lime stabilized soil.
Table 1.
Site No.1
Site No.2
Site No.3
39 days after
compaction
37 days after
compaction
7 days after
compaction
lime
contents
(%)
CBR
(%)
4.0
4.2
4.0
3.9
3.5
3.1
3.6
3.7
3.3
3.0
3.8
Average
3.6
lime
contents
(%)
CBR
(%)
80.0
102.9
40.3
64.3
60.6
62.6
50.7
67.8
60.3
38.1
31.1
2.8
2.9
3.3
3.1
3.1
3.5
3.7
3.1
4.6
3.7
3.5
2.4
3.0
59.9
3.3
Site No.4
14 days after
compaction
lime
contents
(%)
CBR
(%)
33.3
38.6
43.1
48.1
51.4
60.6
91.0
50.7
55.7
37.9
23.9
40.7
25.0
4.6
4.4
4.9
4.1
4.3
5.2
5.7
4.4
5.0
4.9
4.7
4.8
6.5
6.3
46.2
5.0
lime
contents
(%)
CBR
(%)
lime
contents
(%)
CBR
(%)
26.57
30.14
32.14
27.43
42.57
15.43
28.43
27.14
20.29
29.57
26.00
29.86
42.14
42.14
5.9
5.2
4.7
4.7
4.3
4.7
5.7
4.3
5.9
6.2
6.1
4.6
64.29
70.00
84.29
82.57
69.14
56.86
95.43
98.86
94.29
68.57
56.43
64.29
5.3
5.8
6.1
4.8
4.7
6.5
4.3
6.5
4.5
5.5
6.7
71.4
86.9
80.0
67.1
67.1
80.3
66.3
73.4
53.6
63.0
82.0
30.0
5.2
75.4
5.5
71.9
706
15 days after
compaction
The CBR value is one of key parameters for the quality control of the pavement. The compacted plain
expansive soil has a CBR value as low as 1.5. The
CBR value becomes very high when the expansive
soil is stabilized with lime. All of the filling of the
embankment of Ning-Huai Expressway is built with
lime stabilized expansive soil. During the construction
of Ning-Huai Expressway, the lime contents and CBR
values are tested in the field experiment sites. Table 1
shows the CBR and the lime content tested in four field
experiment site. The results show that the compacted
lime stabilized soil has a very high CBR value.
CONCLUSIONS
4-1 The natural soil for the case study has high liquid
limits, high plasticity, and low to medium expansion.
4-2 The plain soil has a lot of thin sheet minerals
but the shape of the particles becomes plate and bar.
4-3 The embankment of highway could not be paved
with compacted plain soil because the compacted plain
Kong L. W., Tan L. R. Study on shear strength and swellingshrinkage characteristic of compacted expansive soil [A].
Unsaturated Soils for Asia, Singapore, 2000, 515519
J. M. Reid, A. H. Brookes, Investigation of lime stabilized
contaminated material[J]. engineering Geology, 1999,
53(2), 217231
Arabi M. and Wild S., Micro structure development in cured
soil-lime composite [J]. Journal of Materials Science,
1986, 21(2), 477503
A. I. Al-Mhaidib, M. A. Al-Shamrani. Swelling characteristics of lime-treated expansive soils [J]. Geotechnical
Engineering. 1996, 27(2), 3753
K. J. Osinubi. Influence of compacting efforts and compaction delays on lime-treated soil [J]. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 1998, 124(2), 149155
Jacques Locat, Helene Tremblay, Serge Leroueil. Mechanical
and hydraulic behavior of a soft inorganic clay treated with
lime [J]. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 1996, 33(4),
654669
Canming Li, Baotian Wang, Haixia Zhang. The characteristics of compacted lime stabilized expansive soil. Journal
of Hohai University(Natural Science), 2005, 33, 3840
707
ABSTRACT: Field tests have been performed to study the interaction of cap, pile and soil with gap between
cap and pile head. The test results shown that all load is carried by soil until cap was in contact with pile head
due to the settlement of cap.Based on that, combined preloading compaction and composite ground method, a
new kind of method termed by the author, is presented in this paper. Then numerical analysis was conducted
and analysis results shown the gap in this method can make the subgrade soil carry the load first, during this
process the subgrade soil beneath the embankment is undergoing preloading, the weight of embankment can be
regarded as preload. Then piles join the soil to carry subsequent load after the top-plate settle to be in contact
with pile top. The consolidation and the increase of bearing capacity of subgrade consequently can reduce post
construction settlement.
INTRODUCTION
raft
1.1
In the past ten years, China has seen great development of highway construction. Recently several lines
of high-speed passenger railway are under construction and there will be more than 10,000 kilometers
long line to be constructed in 15 years. Some of them
have to be constructed on soft ground and the treatment of soft ground accounts for a considerable part
of the total cost.
There have been more ten kinds of ground treatment
methods adopted in the construction of highway and
high speed railway in China including preloading compaction, dynamic compaction, deep mixing method
(including DDM AND DJM), jet grouting method,
vacuum preloading, composite ground to name but a
few. For composite ground, rigid piles are often used
as ground reinforcement element besides DM column,
sand column or gravel column. It is often call rigid
pile composite ground when rigid pile is introduced
as ground reinforcement element to form composite
ground.
1.2
cushion
pile
Figure 1. Cushion between raft and pile top.
709
FIELD TESTS
loading plate
raft
load transducer
gap
pressure cell
pile
sand cushion
clay
-1.5m
load transducer
pressure cell
silty clay
-4.0m
-4.5m
silt
loading plate
pressure cell
load transducer
710
gap
800
400
Pp
300
Ps
P Pp Ps (kN)
Pp Ps(kN)
500
200
600
P
Pp
400
Ps
200
100
100
200
300
400
500
600
P(kN)
0
500
Ps
400
s(mm)
Pp
300
12
16
20
24
28
PpPs(kN)
s(mm)
200
100
P(kN)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
40
80
120
160
P(kPa)
Case C
NaturaV ground
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Pp Ps (kN)
400
Pp
Ps
300
200
100
P (kN)
0
0
200
400
600
800
711
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Method of analysis
Figure 10 shows the example raft on rigid pile composite ground. Embankment is to be constructed on the
raft. The raft is 0.4 m thick and 7.8 m wide. Piles are
of 10 m long with 2.6 m center to center pile spacing.
A unit section with three piles is taken for analysis.
A simplified soil stratigraphy is also shown in Figure 10. The ground condition is taken as that at the
Yangcun section of high-speed railway connecting Beijing and Tianjin. The bearing stratum of pile base, a
layer of silty clay, is assumed to extend down to the
infinite depth. Its overlaid by a layer of soft clay of 8 m
thick. For the 3D FEM analysis, the soil mass is 40 m
deep, 60 m wide and 2.6 m thick. The soil was modeled by 8 node quadrilateral elements. Three piles were
included in the soil mass considering the geometry.
Soil samples were taken from the construction site
of the high speed passenger railway near Yangcun,
a small town near Tianjin City. Undrained triaxial
Characteristics
Clay
Silty clay
18.1
0.32
0.0284
0.13
0.9
8 109
1.0
19.3
0.28
0.01
0.05
1.0
5 1010
0.7
712
Load(kPa)
With gap
Without
gap
1
2
3
11
22
1 /2
1
2
1 /2
20
40
60
80
100
1003
0.8
20
0.03
571
10
58
391
29
13
933
16
58
854
37
22
1451
22.8
63
1296
45
28
1897
30.1
63
1714
53
32
2320
38.0
61
1908
49
38
2489
48.5
51
12
10
12
12
composite ground
42
piled raft
51
56
composite ground
piled raft
(b) 30 kPa
(a) 20 kPa
12
30
70
112
18
composite ground
(c) 40 kPa
composite ground
(d) 60 kPa
piled raft
piled raft
108
119
composite ground
(e) 100 kPa
145
composite ground
piled raft
(f) after 5 years
piled raft
713
157
Table 3.
Load (kPa)
20
30
40
60
100
1001
With gap
Without gap
5.2
42.6
7.4
51
18.4
70.5
30.1
101.1
108.5
145.2
2.1
2.3
after 5 years.
Table 4.
settlement
(cm)
20
40
60
80
100
1001
With gap
Without gap
3.74
1.73
5.81
3.45
7.41
5.1
8.95
6.74
10.44
8.37
2.21
2.66
after 5 years.
carried much less load than that of the piles of conventional piled raft, much less excessive pore water
pressure was generated in the soil beneath pile base.
Thirdly, although the soil beneath the raft carried more
load than that of conventional piled raft, but the excessive pore water pressure would dissipate quickly due
to much shorter drainage path and higher coefficient
of permeability compared to the longer drainage path
and lower coefficient of permeability of the clay on
which the piles base is resting. All these three aspects
lead to less post construction consolidation settlement.
If the soil among piles is of low permeability, PVD can
be used to accelerate the dissipation of excessive pore
water pressure generated.
CONCLUSIONS
Field tests shown that soil beneath raft can take considerable percentage of total load if there is a gap
between pile head and raft (or anything serves as a
cap above pile head) .
The different connections of pile and raft has significant effect on the distribution of excessive pore
water pressure. Much higher excessive pore water
pressure will be generated if conventional piled raft
is adopted.
The composite ground has the advantage over conventional piled raft in terms of post construction
settlement when ground conditions are favorable.
Some piles can be saved to obtain the same post
construction settlement.
REFERENCES
Gong, X.N. 2000. Development of composite foundation and
its application to highrise building, China civil engineering journal, Vol 32, pp. 110.
Zheng, G. 2002. The determination of the bearing capacity of rigid pile composite ground, Ground Improvement,
Vol. 13, pp. 4455.
Chi, Y.J. and Song,E.X. 2002. Experimental research of
load-bearing and deformation characteristics of rigid pile
composite ground, Journal of China University of Mining
& Technology, Vol. 3, pp. 238241.
Cao, X.D., Wong, I.H., Chang, M.F. 2004. Behavior of model
rafts resting on pile-reinforced sand. America. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. l2,
pp.129138.
Zheng, G., Gao, X.F., Re, Y.H., Wu, Y.H. 2004. A study
on the interaction of cap (foundation), pile and soil.
Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. Vol. 26,
pp. 307312.
714
ABSTRACT: This article presents the results of analyses on the effective factors of wall and ground movements,
using the measured data collected >40 propped wall cases from various deep excavation in worldwide sites with
soft clay conditions. In this paper we analyses data with Minitab a statistic analyzing software that can analyze data
and give good information like correlation coefficient and cluster analysis of factors and Regression analysis. The
calculated presents that there are not signification correlations between excavation depth, the system stiffness,
and factor of safety against base heave of excavations, Support spacing and ground and wall movements contrary
to other researches but there is signification correlation between maximum vertical settlement and maximum
lateral movement. Results show 2 hmax = 150 v max (mm).
INTRODUCTION
Oslo
Because of rapid growth in urban development, numerous deep excavation projects for high-rise buildings
and subway lines are being executed and more projects
are scheduled in the future. During excavation, an in
situ wall system is constructed to provide stability and
to minimize movements of the adjacent ground. Knowing of effective parameters on ground movements and
correlations between them could help us to design
system better than previous.
San Fransisco
Chicago
vmax/H(%)
v max = hmax
2
PREVIOUS STUDIES
hmax/H(%)
Figure 1. Relationship between maximum ground settlement and maximum wall deflection.
717
3.5
hmax/H (%)
Range of
Values(Mana and
Clough,1981)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
DATABASE
The database, comprising some 45 individual case histories, is summarized in Table 1. Main reference is
Long (2001) that summarized some data. This research
is including of soft clay in propped support system.
Some cases have FOS > 3(based on Bjerrum and
Eide(1956)s method of calculations), but we use
FOS = 3 for these cases in the analysis.
STATISTIC
718
Table 1.
719
Case
history
Location
Soil at
dredge
level
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
UOB Singapore
HFOK A Singapore
CTC Singapore
MOE I2 Singapore
MOE I9 Singapore
Singapore Bugis
Singapore CBD
Taiwan Tax
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Taiwan Formosa
Soft clay
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
20
Bangkok A
Bangkok C
Bangkok E
Oslo Vaterland 1
Oslo Vaterland 2
Oslo Studenterlu
Oslo Jerbanterlu
Oslo Bank of
Norway
Chicago
Inland Steel
Chicago
Sewage Tr. Tokyo
21
22
Osaka A
Japan 2
18
19
Soil strength
su (kPa)
EI(KN/m2 )
Support
configuration
Support
spacing
(m)
hmax
(mm)
vmax
(mm)
Reference
Wallace et al. (1992)
Davies and Walsh (1983)
Lee et al. (1985)
Tan et al. (1985)
Tan et al. (1985)
Hulme et al. (1989)
Broms et al. (1986)
Ou et al. (1993)
FOS
H(m)
Wall type
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
13
7.3
12
6.8
6.4
18.3
15
7.65
Diaphragm
Sheet piles
Sheet piles
Sheet piles
Sheet piles
Diaphragm
Sheet piles
Sheet
4320000
75700
57440
45436
45436
4320000
70000
40000
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
2.6
1.83
2
1.7
1.6
2.29
2.5
1.91
56
60
188
330
100
160
145
69
130
?
150
?
?
?
100
41
18.45
Diaphragm
1280000
Multiprop
2.64
60
42
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
30(vane)
15(vane)
20(vane)
18(vane)
18(vane)
40(vane)
1015(vane)
2550(?)
N = 1 to 2
2570(?)
N = 1 to 2
?
?
?
25 (vane)
20 (vane)
40 (vane)
20(vane)
20(vane)
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
9.8
18.5
7.2
11
11
16
10
16
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
1378420
1378420
50000
73800
73800
2500000
2500000
2500000
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
3.1
4.6
1.8
2
2
5.3
5
3.2
50
30
220
220
140
42
20
16
?
?
?
270
260
65
?
62
Soft clay
Soft clay
?
?
3
3
13.4
11
Sheet
Sheet
1055000
50000
Multiprop
Multiprop
4.46
2
150
55
?
?
Soft clay
26
8000000
Multiprop
4.3
70
Soft clay
Soft clay
?
?
3
3
20.6
17.1
Sheet pipe
pile
Diaphragm
Sheet pipe
pile
2500000
34000000
Multiprop
Multiprop
3
4.3
78
26
?
?
Ou et al. (1993)
Continued
Table 1. Continued
720
Case
history
Location
23
24
25
Shanghi-Heng Long
26
Shanghi
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
Oslo Enerhaughen
Oslo Telecom
Oslo Gronland 2
Oslo Vaterland 3
Oslo Gunnerus
Vasteras, Sweden
Chicago Subway
Chicago A
Chicago C
Washington
Davidson 1,
San Francisco
Islais 2,
San Francisco
Embarcadero III
Levi Strauss
San Francisco
SNBB San Francisco
H Fok B Singapore
Tokyo Airport
Mexico City
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Soil at
dredge
level
EI(KN/m2 )
Support
configuration
Support
spacing
(m)
hmax
(mm)
vmax
(mm)
Reference
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
2500000
2500000
Multiprop
Multiprop
2.62
3.93
135
81
?
?
18.2
Diaphragm
2500000
Multiprop
3.64
99
17.85
Diaphragm
2500000
Multiprop
3.57
129
20(vane)
20(vane)
25(vane)
34(vane)
35(vane)
30(fall cone)
?
Soft
Soft
30(UU)
10(various)
1.34
0.9
1.3
1.26
1.21
1.5
0.96
1.67
1.18
0.81
0.83
8
8.5
11.5
12
10.5
6.3
19
9.4
8.8
9.1
9.1
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
Soldier piles
Sheet
45000
35850
73800
73800
82350
17000
50000
55250
55250
50160
72500
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
2.5
2.25
3.75
2
2
2.1
3
3.05
1.98
2.2
3
40
80
100
125
320
100
60
64
56
254
254
106
93
178
114
600
175
?
?
?
?
?
NGI (1962c)
NGI (1962d)
NGI (1962e)
NGI (1962h)
Aas (1984, 1985)
Broms and Stille (1976)
Flaate (1966)
Gill and Lucas (1990)
Gill and Lucas (1990)
Swanson and Larson (1990)
Clough and Reed (1984)
Soft clay
13(various)
1.22
9.1
Sheet
55250
Multiprop
38
Soft clay
Soft clay
30(various)
Soft
0.99
1.3
13.7
14
Sheet
Sheet
80000
80000
Multiprop
Multiprop
3.4
2.74
150
190
?
?
O Rourke (1992)
Tait and Taylor (1975)
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft
15(vane)
Soft
25(UC)
1.3
0.87
1.64
0.95
14
7.3
11
9
Diaphragm
Sheet
Sheet
Sheet
4528466
75700
172000
50640
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
Multiprop
2.74
1.83
2.75
1.8
22
235
300
155
?
250
?
?
Soil strength
su (kPa)
FOS
H(m)
Wall type
Soft clay
Soft/firm
clay
Soft/firm
clay
Soft/firm
clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
Soft clay
25(various)
N = 1 to 2
3
3
15.7
19.65
N = 1 to 2
N = 1 to 2
Table 2.
Parameter
Support
space
v max
Wall type
Correlation
of hmax
P-Value
0.299
0.423
0.86
0.49
0.049
0.004
0.002
Figure 5. Cluster
cluster = 4).
variable
dendrogm
(number
(1)
721
of
NOTATION
hmax
hmax
H
E
I
FOS
S
:
:
:
:
:
:
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
Addenbrooke, T.I., Potts, D.M., Dabee. B.(2000). Displacement flexibility number for multipropped retaining wall
design ASCE, Vol 126 No.8, pp 718726.
Clough, G.W. and ORourke T.D. (1990) Constructioninduced movements of in-situ walls In Proceedings,
Design and Performance of Earth Retaining Structures,
ASCE Special Conference, Ithaca, NewYork, pp.439470.
Long, M. (2001) Database for retaining wall and ground
movements due to deep excavations. ASCE. Vol 127
No (3), pp 203224
Liu, G.B., Charles, W.W.Ng, ang. Z.W.(2005) Observed performance of a deep multistrutted excavation in shanghai
soft clays. ASCE, Vol. 131 No.8, pp 10041013
Mana, A.I., and Clough, G.W.(1981). Prediction of movements for braced cuts in clay. J. geotech. Engrg. Div.,
ASCE, 107(6), 759777
Ou, C.Y. and Hseih, P.G., and Chiou, D.C.(1993). Characteristics of ground surface settlement during excavation.
Can. Geotech. J., Ottawa, 30, 758767.
Peck, R.B.(1969) Deep Excavation and Tunneling in Soft
ground Proceedings of 7th International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, State-ofthe-Art-Volume, Mexico City
Tomlinson, (1991), Foundation design and construction,
M.Y, New York
722
ABSTRACT: Analytical closed form solutions of consolidation assisted by a vertical drain with smear and well
resistance are presented. The solution proceeds in a fully coupled fashion and has the advantage of allowing for
non-uniform initial pore pressure increase that current analytical solutions cannot perform. The closed-form solutions in the present paper may be evaluated in an electronic spreadsheet running on a standard personal computer.
INTRODUCTION
u=0
Analytic solutions such as the ones developed by Barron and Hansbo (Barron, 1948; Hansbo, 1981) remain
popular and widely in use despite the presence of
an increasing number of complex numerical models.
These are often the solutions of choice due to their simplicity and ease of use, especially where incomplete
knowledge of the soil does not justify the use of the
more sophisticated methods. As early as 1948, Barron
presented solutions for two limiting cases of consolidation by vertical drains free strain and equal strain
consolidation. Although Barons solutions have often
been quoted as being closed-form and reasonably easy
to compute, it still requires the use of a numerical integration procedure, such as Simpsons rule, to evaluate
the important result of the degree of consolidation. The
solutions of Hansbo (1981) on the other hand are easy
to implement and may in fact be computed by means
of a hand held scientific calculator.
The present paper presents solutions that can be
computed on an electronic spreadsheet running on
a standard personal computer. These solutions are
obtained by solving the radial and vertical consolidation in a vertical drain setup in a fully coupled fashion
whereas Hansbo (1981) and Barron (1948) did not.
Being able to compute these closed-form solutions on
a spreadsheet would allow the solutions to be readily
accessible to engineers.
2
z
vertical
drain
Undisturbed
soil
u/z =
rs
re
rw
u/r = 0
723
smeared
zone
vertical
drain
The consolidation of an undisturbed soil layer resulting from the imposition of a surcharge loading on the
surface is described by the continuity equation, which
is given by
kh
w
re
2 u(r, z, t) 1 u(r, z, t)
+
r 2
r
r
z (z, t)
=
t
+
kv 2 u(r, z, t)
w
z 2
(1)
Un (r, t) sin n z
(2a)
z (z, t) zn (t)
sin n z
=
t
t
n=0
(2b)
n=0
2 Un (r, t) 1 Un (r, t)
+
r 2
r
r
zn (t)
=
t
kv 2
Un (r, t)
w n
(3)
Now suppose,
Un (r, t) = An (r)Bn (t)
724
(4)
(11)
t
(2n + 1) t
t
2 An (r) 1 An (r)
kv 2
+
An (r)
r 2
r r
w n
1 zn (t)
=
= n
Bn (t) t
(5)
(6)
(8)
in which mv is the coefficient of volume compressibility, q(r,t) is the applied surcharge then a Fourier sine
expansion of equation (8) gives,
zn (t) sin n z
n=0
= mv
4q(r, t)
Un (r, t) sin n z
(2n + 1)
n=0
(9)
so that,
#
"
zn (t)
q (t) U n (t)
4
= mv
t
(2n + 1) t
t
(7)
Given that the strains are equal on any horizontal section an area integral of equation (11) taken from r = rs
to r = re shows,
zn (t) re
2rdr
t
rs
#
re "
q (r, t) Un (r, t)
4
= mv
2rdr
(2n + 1) t
t
rs
(12)
where,
re
1
Un (r, t)2rdr
(re2 rs2 ) rs
re
1
q(t) =
q(r, t)2rdr
(re2 rs2 ) rs
U n (t) =
(10)
U n (t)
n n
=
t
(re2 rs2 )
(14b)
re
[c1n I0 (n r)
rs
+c2n K0 (n r) + 1]2rdr
Bn
= n n
t
Bn
t
(15)
where,
{2c1n [n re I1 (n re ) n rs I1 (n rs )]
2c2n [n re K1 (n re ) n rs K1 (n rs )]}
=
2n (re2 rs2 ) + 1
(16)
725
(14a)
(1 + )(1 2 )
(1 )E
(13)
n n Bn (t)
zn (t)
U n (r, t)
= mv
=
t
t
ch 2n t
(17)
where ch = mkv hw is the horizontal coefficient of consolidation. Combining equations (7) and (17) gives,
Bn
= n Bn
t
where n =
Bn =
ch 2n
n
(18a)
. A solution of equation (18a) is,
an n t
an 8Th /n
e
=
e
n n
n n
(18b)
ch t
where n = 22r2 n , the dimensionless time Th = 4r
2
n e
e
and an is an as yet undetermined constant of integration. The general solution of the excess pore pressure
therefore gives,
u(r, z, t) =
an e8Th /n [c1n I0 (n r)
where c5n , c6n are once again the constants of integration. It may be noted here that in order to ensure
continuity of pore pressure (and flow) at all times,
the same time function Bn (t) must prevail in each of
the three regions. At the interface of the remouldedundisturbed soil, continuity of pore pressure and flow
ensures that the following must hold:
Un (rs , t) = Un (rs , t)
'
'
Un ''
Un ''
kh
=
k
s
r 'r=rs
r 'r=rs
(23a)
(23b)
n=0
+c2n K0 (n r) + 1] sin n z
(24a)
(19)
kh
[c1n I1 (n rs ) c2n K1 (n rs )]
ks
c5n = n rs
3.1
(20)
(24b)
(26)
n=0
u =
n=0
2 An
1 An
=0
+
2
r
r r
then equation
(21)
(22)
Uwn = n n
(26)
2 ks c5n
Bn (t)
rw2 kw n2
(27)
726
c5n
2 ks
n n
Bn (t) = 0
r w kw
rw
so that,
n2 Uwn +
Suppose that the placement of a single uniform loading q0 at t = 0, leads to an initial excess pore water
pressure u0 , then a Fourier series expansion gives,
2 ks c5n
Bn (t)
rw2 kw n2
(28)
(29)
where,
n = I0 (n rs ) I1 (n rs )n
(30a)
n = K0 (n rs ) + K1 (n rs )n
"
#
rs
kh
2 kh 1
ln
n = n rs
+ 2
ks
rw
rw kw n2
(30b)
Now, at the radius of influence r = re of the undisturbed soil radial flow ceases, therefore
'
u ''
=0
r 'r=re
and it follows from equation (19) that,
(31)
K1 (n re )
n
(32a)
c2n =
I1 (n re )
n
(32b)
n = n K1 (n re ) n I1 (n re )
an =
n=0
4u0
(2n + 1)
(35)
n
n=0
4u0
(2n + 1)
e8Th /n [c1n I0 (n r)
n
+c2n K0 (n r) + 1] sin n z
(36)
4u0
e8Th /n sin n z
(37a)
=
(2n
+
1)
n=0
while the average excess pore pressure at a particular
radius is obtained by averaging over the depth to give,
1
h
u(r, z, Th )dz =
n=0
8u0
(2n + 1)2 2
8Th /n
(37b)
[c1n I0 (n r)
1
h
0
h
u (z, Th )dz
n=0
h
1
4u0
e8Th /n
sin n zdz
h n=0 (2n + 1)
0
rs
n sin n z
u (Th ) =
n=0
(33)
727
u(r, z, Th ) =
re
an
(34)
Hence, the final solution of the excess pore water pressure in the undisturbed soil for a single loading step
gives,
(32c)
u (z, t = 0) =
4u0
sin n z
(2n + 1)
u (r, Th ) =
where,
3.2
n=0
(30c)
I1 (n re )c1n K1 (n re )c2n = 0
so that,
u0 =
n=0
8u0
e8Th /n
(2n + 1)2 2
(37c)
(38a)
u0 u (r, Th )
U (r, Th ) =
u0
(38b)
U (z, Th ) =
U (Th ) =
u0 u (Th )
u0
U (Th ) = 1
n=0
8
e8Th /n
(2n + 1)2 2
(38c)
(40)
Hansbo (1981)
Present Paper
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
0.052
0.101
0.234
0.414
0.657
0.931
0.995
0.053
0.102
0.237
0.417
0.660
0.933
0.995
0.061
0.110
0.241
0.418
0.658
0.931
0.995
Th
Hansbo
(1981)
Present
Paper
Hansbo
(1981)
Present
Paper
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0
0.053
0.127
0.239
0.421
0.745
0.935
0.032
0.093
0.211
0.443
0.831
0.978
0.163
0.305
0.471
0.675
0.909
0.987
0.161
0.292
0.442
0.636
0.892
0.986
728
Barron (1948)
Table 2. Comparison of average and overall average consolidation for radial and vertical drainage. Effects of well smear
and well resistance included.
Th
REFERENCES
CONCLUSION
This paper has presented the development of closedform analytic solutions of equal strain consolidation
assisted by a vertical drain with smear and well resistance. As comparisons made with the corresponding
solutions of Hansbo and Barron have shown that the
differences of these solutions are generally quite small.
Solutions in this paper, however, have been rigorously derived for coupled radial and vertical drainage.
729
Wei Wang
Department of Civil Engineering, Shaoxing College of Art and Science, Shaoxing, China
ABSTRACT: Stress-strain model of soil plays an important role in soil constitutive law and engineering numerical simulation. In the paper, half-value strength index is employed as a new concept to study the mathematic
behaviour of the soil stress-strain model, and deficiency of traditional hyperbolic model is pointed out. An
improved model with 3 parameters for soil deviator stress-strain is established based on potential energy dissipating theory. Mathematic behaviour of the new model overcomes the deficiency of hyperbolic model. Finally,
good agreement has been found between the proposed model and laboratory test.
INTRODUCTION
Stress-strain behaviour of soft soil has been an important subject of study recently, and it plays an essential
role in soil constitutive law and engineering numerical simulation. Many researchers have studied it for
many years and several empirical models based on
experimental dada have been proposed to describe
the behaviour (Duacan et al. 1970, LI et al. 2002,
WANG et al. 2006). The work of Duacan and Chang
(1970) is important for understanding the stress-strain
behaviour.They proposed a hyperbolic model for it and
this model is used both to theory analysis and to engineering numerical simulation extensively (Habibagahi
et al. 1998, Al-Shayea at al. 2003, Mitaim 2005). However, this model has some limitations (WANG 2006).
To describe the stress-strain behaviour rationally, a
more general model is needed to express the stressstrain relationship of soft soil. The purpose of this
paper is to construct a reasonable model for soft clay
creep based on energy dissipating theory.
q=
(1)
q() = 1/B
Ei = 1/A
(2)
Many experimental data show that hyperbolic stressstrain model can not fit the data accurately. Sometimes, the fitting error is considerable. This error is
originated from the shortcomings of hyperbolic stressstrain model itself. Now, we use a new concept, named
halfvalue strength index of the stress-strain model,
to analyze it.
731
A + B
(1-3)
1
B
Et
1
2B
Ei = 1/A
soil
Under a constant normal stress, the deviator stressstrain behaviour of soil depends strongly on its shearing parameters such as friction angle and cohesion
force. In fact, the process of deviator stress and strain
increasing can be considered as the very process of
friction energy and cohesion energy dissipating. Three
basic postulates are given to deduce the new model:
1
0
Figure 1. Hyperbolic
relationship.
= A/B
stress-strain
model
for
(3)
dq
|=0 = 1/A
Ei =
d
(4)
q()
=
1/B
= A/B
Equation set 4 includes three equations but only
involves two undetermined parameters, so it is a
contradictive set. It is evident that, while initial tangent modulus and limiting deviator stress fixed, the
halfvalue strength index can not change in hyperbolic model, relatively. However, a lot of experimental
results indicate that the halfvalue strength index may
change with different clays and loading conditions
while initial tangent modulus and limiting deviator
732
abek(ab) ab
aek(ab) b
(8)
q = (1-3)
a
(a,b,k)
(a,b,k)
a
2
5.1
Ei =abk=abk
1
0
(9)
dq
|=0 = abk
Ei =
q() = a
(13)
ln
(2b
a)
ln
b
=
k(b a)
6
5.2 Halfvalue strength index and mathematic
property set
Based on the definition of the halfvalue strength
index and the limiting deviator stress expression of
the new model, following equation is written:
abek (ab) ab
a
=
aek (ab) b
2
(11)
ln (2b a) ln b
k(b a)
(12)
733
for the initial tangent modulus, limiting deviator stress, and they three consist the mathematic
property set of stress-strain model.
(2) The conventional hyperbolic model of soil stressstrain relationship has the deficiency that while
initial tangent modulus and limiting deviator
stress fixed, the halfvalue strength index can not
change, relatively.
(3) A new 3-parameter stress-strain model for soft
clay is established based on energy dissipating
theory and its differential control equation. The
derived model has good mathematical behaviours
and overcomes the deficiency of conventional
hyperbolic creep model.
(4) The simulating results of the new 3-parameter
stress-strain model have the good agreement with
laboratory tests.
600
(13)/kPa
500
400
300
200
100
0
9
(%)
12
15
3=400kPa
3=300kPa
3=200kPa
3=100kPa
18
REFERENCES
Figure 3 shows that the simulation results are accurate. However, such simulation accuracy can not be
obtained by hyperbolic creep model.
It should be noted that the accuracy of the proposed
theory is prove only by several CU experiments, and
more experiments should be performed to determine
if the new theory can be applied to more extensive
condition such as UU, CD tesets.
7
CONCLUSIONS
734
Shi-Lian Liu
Guangdong Highway Design Institute, Guangdong, China
ABSTRACT: Piezocone penetration test (CPTU) is a new technique of in-site testing of soils, and it is being
used widely in the engineering investigation and soil testing. Because the relations between CPTU parameters
and depth have high nonlinear, conventional methods to identify soil strata, which only depend on experience
or classifying diagram from CPTU through manual operation now, are very taking time and great effort. In
this paper the relation between CPTU parameters and soil types and strata is analyzed, and the structure of BP
Neural network is designed, and the application program is programmed with MATLAB language. This paper
affords the suitable training parameters and their value ranges obtained from the influence analysis of the training
result, and trains and tests the learning stylebooks and the checking stylebooks with the application program.
The results, identifying soil strata by CPTU, have confirmed that BP neural network can be used to carry out the
automatically identifying soil strata.
INTRODUCTION
735
uw e
Line C : Bq 0.02
Sand
......
......
Silt
qT
Bq =
Silty clay
umax
umax uw
qT e
1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8 Bq
Soil strata
Line type
u-h curve
Data range
Line type
Data range
Bq range
The curve
characteristics
description
0.150.8 MPa
0300 kPa
00.85
It is smooth, and
there is no
mutation
Clay and
silty clay
Plastic
0.852.5 MPa
150650 kPa
0.10.6
Hard
plastic
More than
2.0 MPa
150300 kPa
0.10.3
It is smooth, and
there is little
undulation. If
these are iron
and manganese
nodules in the soil
strata, the curve
has mutation.
Silty sand
3.06.0 MPa
Less than
200 kPa
0.020.1
Sandy soil
More than
2.0 Mpa, it is
small for lice
soil
10050 kPa
Less than
0.02
There is large
undulate and the
wave crest and
the wave hollow
are a little saw
tooth like.
There is large
undulate and the
wave crest and
the wave hollow
are saw tooth like.
736
2.4
x ij =
(1)
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n, j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , p
Where: xij is the cell of row i and column j after processing; xij is the cell of row i and column j of original
matrix X; max (xj ) is the maximum one in column j
of original matrix X; min (xj ) is the minimum one in
column j of original matrix X.
737
Input layer includes four neural cells: depth, pressure, resistance and parameter ratio.
Output mode includes five neural cells, which are
denoted by 0 or 1 and form different codes to indicate different soils. In this paper, 10000 stands for
muck and mucky soil, 01000 stands for soft clay,
00100 stands for clay, 00010 stands for silty, and
00001 stands sandy soil.
0 1
Depth
0 1
Pore water pressure
0 1
Cone tip resistance
0 1
Pore water pressure ratio
0 1
Figure 2. BP neural network structure.
738
ENGINEERING CASE
Identify
log
Drill-log
2500
5000
qt/kPa
7500
4
6
Depth/m
13.2 .....................
16
18
0
200
u/kPa
400
600
Clay
739
14
Silty clay
qt
12
4.3
10
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by National Natural
Sciences foundation of China grant 40172090.
REFERENCES
Meng Gaotou, Liu Shilian, Ma Shuzhi, etc. 2000. Application
research of piezocone penetration test (cptu) in pearl river
delta. Geological science and technology information,
Vol. 19(1), pp. 8185
Jacobs,P.A., and Coutts,J.S. 1992. A comparison of electric
piezocone tips at the Both kennar test site. Geotechnique,
Vol. 42(2), pp. 369375
Liu Shilian. 2000. The application study of in-situ tests of
soils by artificial neural network, eg. Identifying soil strata
by CPTU. Thesis for the master degree of China university
of geosciences.
Zhang Tao, Zhang Wei-li, Cao Kai. 2002. Compartmentalize
soil system based on MATLAB-NNT. Journal of Laiyang
agricultural college, Vol. 19(4), pp. 307309
740
J.M. Pestana
University of California at Berkeley, USA
M.P. Romo
Institute of Engineering at UNAM, Mexico City
R.B. Seed
University of California at Berkeley, USA
ABSTRACT: Muti-directional strong shaking associated to major earthquakes may significantly increase the
amount of non-linear behavior in the free field due to generation of pore pressure that can reduce the soil stiffness
and increase the permanent deformations. An existing simplified effective stress based model formulated to
describe the cyclic behavior of lightly over consolidated clays in simple shear (Pestana and Biscontin, 2000) was
modified to account for hysteretic behavior. The formulation assumes an idealized state of stresses representing
those existing in a DSS (Direct Simple Shear) test, therefore, only a normal stress n and two orthogonal shears
x and y are considered. Two parameters w1 and w2 describe the perfect hysteretic behavior of the soil. These
parameters are obtained throughout a study which consists on fitting with the model representative experimental
modulus degradation and damping curves obtained at a given confining pressure. This paper introduces this
simplified plastic hysteretic model which is able to predict hysteretic behavior, plastic deformation, and the
evolution of pore pressure during cyclic loading. The constitutive model was implemented in a three-dimensional
8-noded brick finite element. A demonstration of the predictive potential of the proposed constitutive law through
the analyses of some hypothetic scenarios is included, as well as comparisons between uncoupled (i.e. a plane
analysis in each component of motion) and coupled analyses (i.e. a bi-dimensional analysis considering both
components of motion simultaneously). Overall, coupled analyses using only the hysteretic component better
predicted the measured response than the uncoupled analyses for the cases studied. The results of the analyses
seem to be highly dependent on the amount of Raleigh damping used, especially for high frequencies. The
consideration of plastic deformations during the simulations seems to provide a better representation of the
cyclic soil response during transient and steady state conditions.
INTRODUCTION
Site response analysis addresses the problem of finding the reaction of a given geological profile to
earthquake loading. The seismic excitation is given
by an input motion (usually an acceleration time
history) that is applied to the geological profile at
prescribed positions. The motions at other locations
of the profile are computed solving the wave propagation problem. Site response analysis constitutes
the cornerstone in the evaluation of the performance
of structures during earthquakes (e.g., Seed, 1975).
Traditionally, methods to conduct site response analysis have been sub-classified into those that solve the
741
shear strain reached during the earthquake. This fraction usually varies between 0.40 and 0.75 for moderate
to high levels of shaking respectively. Constant soil
properties render poor modelling for cases in which the
level of shear strain may change significantly during
the dynamic event, as can occur during strong ground
motions involving large levels of shaking (e.g., Seed
et al. 1993). Soil nonlinearities during shear deformation are better captured by nonlinear hysteretic material response models. Hysteretic behavior has been
modeled with mechanical models, empirical models
and total (or effective) stress elastoplastic models.
Elastoplastic formulations are frequently implemented
within a finite element framework.
This paper introduces a simplified plastic hysteretic
model (Mayoral, 2002) that is based on an existing
effective stress constitutive law developed to describe
the cyclic behavior of lightly over consolidated clays in
simple shear (Pestana and Biscontin, 2000), but modified to account for hysteretic behavior. The model
was implemented in an 8-noded solid finite element to
study the effects of two directional dynamic loading on
the response of soil deposits, and validated throughout
comparisons with other implementations and experimental results. Then, the predictions capabilities of the
model are explored. Comparisons between uncoupled
and coupled analyses of several cases are included.
The first case studied was the two directional site
response analysis of Treasure Island subjected to different earthquake scenarios. The second case is the
analysis of a deposit of generic stiff soil that was previously studied by Rodriguez-Marek, (2000), using a
total stress-based bounding surface plasticity model
for clay. This model was developed by Borja et al.
(1999) for the multidirectional analysis of clays.
2
1
1
+
[t / ]e
[t / ]p
1
(1)
p
y
x
Z
Y
X
Figure 1. Idealized state of stresses assumed in the simple
plastic model.
e
=
Gmax
(1 + w1 t )(1 + w2 t2 )
p
1b
n
(2)
p
= Gp
sign(t . )t )
(3)
742
Expression [3] also defines the plastic component during cyclic loading for states on the plastic state surface.
The stress ratio is obtained from the state surface with
the expression:
t2 = tan2 [ tan2 + 0.8tc2 1.8t ct ]
m
(n /p ) m
for < (n /p ) < 1
1 m
(4)
Where: is a material parameter defining the ratio
of the effective normal stress to the maximum normal
stress, p , at failure, and m is a material parameter
defining the slenderness of the state surface.
For a given value of , an increase in the slenderness parameter results in an increase in the undrained
shear stress while the excess pore pressure at peak
shear stress decreases. For a given m, and increase
in causes not only an increase in the shear stress at
large strains but also an increase in the undrained shear
strength as well.The corresponding stress ratio is given
by, tc = c /p = tan (), where is the inclination of
the slope.
The plastic component for states inside the plastic
state surface is described by equation 5:
2 (1 m )
t p
= 1 sign(t . ) t
tan 2
( tan / 1 m
(t rev )
1 max rev
(5)
tan / 1 m
The pore pressure development is controlled by a load
state surface, which also defines the effective stress
rate dependent path during cyclic loading. The orientation of the transitional state surface is uniquely
controlled by the shear stress ratio at the last reversal, rev , while the shape is dependent on the ratio of
the normal stress at the last reversal to the maximum
normal stress corresponding to the initially normally
consolidated state and a strain rate dependent material
parameter, :
B
tan2
tan2
2
t2 =
n
t
trev
rev
m
m
1
1
nrev
for
t < tan
B = (p /nrev
)2
(6)
(7)
1//m
2
2
m
( tan t
m
n = p
(8)
+ (1 ) tan2 + 0.82
rev
1.8t trev
Surface Inactive:
1/B
( tan2 t2 (1 m )
2
2
m
n
nrev
t < tan
1/B
m tan2
n = nrev
2 +(2 2.0
m)
tan
)(1
t
trev
rev
t tan
(9)
for
The simplified plastic hysteretic model presented earlier uses nine parameters w1 , w2 , Gmax , Gp , , , m, ,
and . These parameters can be obtained from standard
monotonic and cyclic DSS test, and typical modulus
reduction and damping curves.
The parameters Gmax and Gp control the stressstrain relationship for normally consolidated specimens. The small strain shear modulus Gmax can be
743
for
250
0.48
0.029
30
10
33
0.3
0.4
0.25
0.1
0.1
FEAP
SURFACE
0.05
0.05
-0.05
-0.05
-0.1
0.9
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1 -0.1
-0.05
0.05
-0.1
0.1
0.1
FEAP
SURFACE
0.05
0.05
-0.05
-0.05
-0.1
0.9
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1 -0.1
-0.05
0.05
-0.1
0.1
744
0.1
The first simulation consisted on a cyclic load controlled test performed in a soil specimen with the soil
properties compiled in Table 1. The variation of the
normalized shear stress applied to the sample in each
direction was the same, as it is shown in Figure 2. The
corresponding simulations obtained with FEAP and
SURFACE are depicted in Figure 2 also.The results are
presented in terms of shear stress-shear strain curves.
As can be seen the results are in excellent agreement.
3.2
Value
Soil Parameter
inferred from values of shear wave velocity in the laboratory (e.g., bender elements) or in the field (e.g.,
seismic CPT test). Parameter Gp determines the stressstrain curve during the first loading and it is obtained
with parametric studies from the stress-strain curve
of a DSS test of a normally consolidated sample.
Parameter also defines the evolution of the excess
pore pressure at large strains and, for a given value
of , it controls the shear strength at large strains
(i.e., 20%). This parameter can be found directly
from the inferred normalized effective stress path in a
standard DSS test at a conventional strain rate. Parameter describes the maximum obliquity, tan ( i.e.,
the slope of the failure envelope in the shear vs. normal stress space). Parameter m controls primarily the
undrained strength and can be obtained from a short
parametric study to fit the effective stress path in a
standard DSS test. The last two parameters and ,
control the observed cyclic behavior and are obtained
by performing a cyclic DSS test at the strain rate of
interest. Parameter controls the effective stress path
during cyclic loading and can be determined by the
rate of pore pressure generation as a function of the
number of cycles. Parameter controls the shear stiffness and thus the accumulation of plastic strain with
increasing number of cycles.
180
2.1
0.027
30
10
33
0.3
0.4
0.25
Soil Parameter
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Normal Effective Stress, n\ p
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0.4
25
25
Model
Test 15B6
20
Number of Cycles, N
20
15
15
10
10
0
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Excess Pore Pressure, u/p
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
Shear Strain, (%)
MODEL PREDICTIONS
Two cases were studied to explore the predictive capabilities of the implementation and to study the effect
of coupling during bi-directional small to large magnitude events. The first case was the site response analysis of Treasure Island for two earthquake scenarios.
The first scenario considers the input motion recorded
at Treasure Island during the 1993 Gilroy event
(ML = 5.3). The peak ground acceleration ranged from
0.0143 g at the surface to 0.0032 g at 104 m in the
bedrock. The second scenario uses the strong motion
recorded in Port Island during the Kobe earthquake
(Mw = 7.1), scaled to a peak ground acceleration
Subsoil conditions
The geological profile and soil properties of Treasure
Island have been well characterized and are available
in the literature (e.g., Gibbs et al. 1992, Idriss, 1993,
de Alba et al. 1993). The site has been instrumented
with vertical arrays, which measurements for several earthquakes constitute a database for calibration
and validation of constitutive models for site response
analysis (e.g., Lok, 1999, Elgamal, 1996a and 1996b,
Rodriguez-Marek, 2000). Figure 5 shows the soil profile and shear wave velocity distribution with depth
used for the analyses. As can be seen, the geological
profile at the Treasure Island Site consists of about
13 m of sandy fill which is underlain by about 16 m of
Young Bay Mud. Underlying the Young Bay Mud are
alternating layers of dense sands and Old Bay Mud to
a depth of about 91 m. Weathered shale extends from
this depth to about 98 m, where the more competent
sandstone is encountered.
The modulus degradation and damping curves used
for analysis were obtained from best estimates based
on relationships proposed by Vucetic and Dobry
(1991), Sun et al. (1988) and EPRI (1993) for clays
and sands. For the simulation, it was assumed that the
earthquake source was located away from the site and
that the steady state component of the site response
was the most significant. Therefore, only the hysteretic
part of the model was utilized. The model parameters
w1 , and w2 , used during the simulation are presented
in Table 2.
Analyses results
Comparisons in terms of response spectra obtained
at different depths are presented in Figures 6 and
7 for both Gilroy and Kobe scaled ground motions
respectively.
For small level of shaking (first scenario), no significant differences are observed for the coupled and
uncoupled analysis. However, for strong level of shaking the predominant period computed with the coupled
analyses is larger than the predominant period computed with the uncoupled analysis. This is congruent
with the more pronounced degradation of the soil stiffness expected during coupled analysis for this level of
shaking. The amplitude is also affected by the strong
shaking. In general, the amplitude of the peak response
745
Surface
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
Elev: -16 m
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
Elev: -31 m
0.5
0.5
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.06
0.06
0.05
0.05
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
2
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.1
Elev: -44 m
0.04
Elev: 104 m
0.03
0
0.01
0.04
Surface
1.5
0.06
0.06
0.05
1.5
Period, T(sec)
(a)
10
0.01
0.1
10
Period, T(sec)
(b)
1.5
0.5
0.5
0
0.1
Period, T(sec)
(a)
10 0.01
0.1
10
Period, T(sec)
(b)
746
1.5
0
0.01
Elev: -104 m
0.08
Vs (m/s)
0
200
400
600
800
0.08
Surface
(Normal)
0.06
1000
Displacement, m
0
20
40
60
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02
-0.02
-0.02
-0.04
-0.04
-0.06
-0.06
-0.08
-0.08
Depth(m)
10
80
Normal
15
15
Surface
(Parallel)
Parallel
100
10
Soil
Column
of
Generic
Stiff Soil
120
140
45 m
5
160
-0.08
-0.06
-0.04
-0.02
0.02
0.04
0.06
0
0.08
Displacement, m
180
-1
Surface
Accelerations, g
200
Selected Profile
Median and +_ one standard deviation from 343 profiles
w1 (%)
w2 (%)
Poison Ratio,
Shear wave velocity, Vs
(Mg/m3)
4.0
0.2
0.49
250
1.90
-0.5
BPM
EHM
1
1
-1
1
Normal Component
Accelerations, g
Value
0.5
0.5
-0.5
Parallel Component
0.5
0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-1
0
Time (s)
10
15 0
Time (s)
10
15
-1
747
Value
h/Gmax
M
R/Gmax
Ho
(Mg/m3)
0.032
1.4
0.005
0.000001
1%
0.49
1.91.95
CONCLUSIONS
Overall, amplitudes and predominant periods computed during the coupled analyses seem to be affected
by the more pronounced degradation of the soil
stiffness, especially for strong shaking. Predominant
periods tend to increase, migrating to higher values
and, in general, the amplitudes of the peak response
observed in the coupled analysis tend to decrease
with respect those observed in the uncoupled analysis.
Some amount of high frequency noise can be observed
on the acceleration response spectra computed. This
seems to indicate that the model is not able to generate enough hysteretic damping for this small level
of shaking. Thus, the results of the analyses seem to
be highly dependent of the amount of Raleigh damping used for high frequencies. The plastic hysteretic
model seems to provide a better representation of the
cyclic soil response during transient and steady state
conditions. Therefore, it can be used to perform site
response analyses for near and far field motions.
REFERENCES
deAlba, P., Bemoit, J.,Youd,T.L., Shakal,A.F., Pass, D.G., and
Carter, J.L. 1993. Deep Instrumentation Array at Treasure
Island Naval Station. USGS Professional Paper.
Biscontin, 2002. Modelling the dynamic behaviour of lightly
overconsolidated soil deposits on submerged slopes. Ph.D.
Dissertation, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Borja, R.I., and Amies, A.P., 1994. Multiaxial Cyclic Plasticity Model for Clays. Journal of Geotech, Engrg., ASCE,
120 (6), June, 10511070.
Borja, R.I., Chao, H. Y., Montans, F.J., and Lin, ChaoHua 1999. Nonlinear Ground Response at Lotung LSST
Site. Journal of Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 125(3), March,
187197.
Borja, R.I., Chao, H. Y., Kossi M. Sama and Gwynn M.
Masada 2000. Modeling Non-linear Ground Response of
Non-liquefiable Soils. Earthquake Engng Struct. Dyn.,
29:6383.
Elgamal, A.W. et al. 1996a. Identification and Modeling of
Earthquake Ground Response- I. Site amplification. Soil
Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, May, 409522.
748
Jian-Hua Yin
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
ABSTRACT: Consolidation and creep problems are important themes for soft soil engineering. Based on the
uncoupling assumption that between the primary consolidation and the secondary consolidation is segregated
artificially, piecewise analytic functions are used to express the primary consolidation stage and the secondary
consolidation stage respectively. However, for most soft soil, the consolidation process and the creep process
are coupled and the character of settlement time curve is obtained by the consolidation test at the same time.
The paper presents a simple and continuous function to express the whole process of consolidation including
immediate settlement stage, the primary consolidation stage and the secondary consolidation stage. And the
features of the continuous function are analyzed. Then the results of the long-term (durations to 18 months)
consolidation test on clays from the Chek Lap Kok formation prove the rightness of the method. In the end, the
parameter meanings of the continuous function are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
settlement Sim , the primary consolidation settlement Sco , and the secondary compression or creep
settlementScr . That is
Sf = Sim + Sco + Scr
(1)
(2)
dSt
>0
d(lgt)
(3)
dSt
dt
=0
(4)
2
749
dSt
d(lgt)
dSt
dt
BASIC UNDERSTANDING OF
OEDOMETER TEST
= 0 and
(9)
ln10abSf (t/Teop )b
dSt
dSt
= ln10
=
(10)
d(lgt)
d(lnt)
[(t/Teop )b + (a + c)]2
(5)
ESTABLISHMENT OF MATHS
EXPRESSION FOR OEDOMETER TEST
d 2 St
dt2
abSf (t/Teop )b
[(t/Teop )b + (a + c)]t2
[(a + c)(b 1)
(b + 1)(t/T eop )b ]
(11)
S t = Sf
(t/Teop )b + c
(t/Teop )b + a + c
(6)
c
S t = S0 = Sf
a+c
1+c
St = STeop = Sf
1+a+c
St = S = S f
(7)
750
d 2 St
d(lgt)
= (ln10)2
t < Teop (a + c) b
1
t = Teop (a + c) b
1
t > Teop (a + c) b
d 2 St
d(lnt)
[(t/Teop )b + (a + c)]2
t b
[(a + c) (
) ] (12)
Teop
d 2 St
>0
d(lnt)2
2
d St
=0
d(lnt)2
2
d St
<0
d(lnt)2
(13)
1.E+01
lgt/minute
1.E+03 1.E+05
lgt/minute
1.E+07
1.E01
0
Test curve
500
settelement/0.001mm
settlement/0.001mm
1.E01
0
Predict test
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1.E+01
1000
1500
1.E+03
Predict curve
2000
3000
4000
lgt/minute
1.E+05
1.E+07
1.00E01
0
Test curve
Predict curve
2000
2500
3000
3500
1.00E+01
400
1.00E+05
1.00E+07
Test curve
Predict curve
800
1200
lgt/minute
1.E01
0
settlement/0.001mm
1.E+01
1.E+03
1.E+05
1.E+07
500
1000
1500
Test curve
Predict curve
2000
2500
3000
EVALUATION OF EXPRESSIONS
PARAMETERS
Parameters of the presented maths expression including a, b, c, Teop , and Sf are discussed and analyzed for
751
1.00E+03
1600
1.E+07
settlement/0.001mm
settlement/0.001mm
1.E+01
1.E+05
Test curve
1000
lgt/minute
1.E01
0
500
1.E+03
20
40
a=0.3
a=0.5
a=0.7
a=1.5
a=1.0
lgt/minute
settlement/cm
settlement/cm
lgt/minute
1.E03 1.E01 1.E+01 1.E+03 1.E+05 1.E+07
0
60
80
100
100
Figure 7. Influence of parameter b.
Figure 6. Influence of parameter a.
Table 1.
Immediate settlement
Consolidation settlement
Secondary compression
0.3
0.5
0.7
1.5
62.5
20.8
16.7
50
25
25
41.7
26.5
31.8
33.3
26.7
40
25
25
50
settlement/cm
Parameter a
lgt/minute
1.E03 1.E01 1.E+01 1.E+03 1.E+05 1.E+07
0
c=0.2
c=0.4
20
c=0.5
c=0.6
c=0.8
40
60
80
100
5.2
Parameter c
The influence of the parameter a is analyzed by defining the parameter a as a = 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, and 1.5.The
curves of lgt in time versus the settlement are plotted
in Fig. 6 and the corresponding values of the immediate settlement, the consolidation settlement, and the
secondary compression calculated by equation [8] are
listed in Table 1. As shown in Figure 6 and Table 1, the
larger the parameter a, the smaller the immediate settlement, the larger the secondary compression, and the
consolidation settlement is growing at the beginning
and is falling at the end.
5.3
The influence of the parameter b is analyzed by defining the parameter b as b = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.5, 1.0, and
5.0. The curves of lgt in time versus the settlement
are plotted in Fig. 7. As shown in Figure 7, the larger
the parameter b, the flatter the slope of the curve of
lgt in time versus the settlement in the stage of the primary consolidation. It is pointed out that the parameter
b does not influence the proportion of the immediate settlement, the consolidation settlement and the
secondary compression.
Immediate settlement
Consolidation settlement
Secondary compression
0.5
0.7
1.5
28.6
42.0
29.4
44.4
29.2
26.3
50.0
25.0
25.0
54.5
21.6
23.8
61.5
16.7
21.7
752
0.3
settlement/cm
lgt/minute
1.E03 1.E01 1.E+01 1.E+03 1.E+05 1.E+07
50
Teop=1
Teop=10
60
Teop=100
Teop=1000
70
80
90
100
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Figure 9. Influence of parameter Teop .
CONCLUSION
Financial supports from the Hong Kong Polytechnic University and from Foundation (205058,
04KJB560048), are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
D. O. K. Lo & J PermchittLong-term consolidation tests on
clays from the Chek Lap Kok formation, Geo Report No.
72, Geotechnical Engineering Office Civil Engineering
Department, HongKong
Muni Budhu (2000). Soil mechanics and foundations, New
York, NY, Wiley.
753
Malcolm Bolton
Cambridge University, UK
ABSTRACT: This paper illustrates a new design approach conceived within the framework of plasticity theory,
but allowing for strain hardening. Three examples demonstrating the applicability of modified plasticity theory
to predict and control deformations around stiff-propped systems of braced excavations in soft clay soils are
presented.
1
INTRODUCTION
755
where w is incremental wall displacement at any distance y from the lowest wall support; wm is maximum
incremental displacement; and is the full wavelength
of the deformation pattern.
Figure 2 shows a new plastic deformation mechanism for an incremental lateral displacement of a
wall retaining soft clay. In these plane-strain mechanisms, the wall is assumed to be fixed incrementally
in position and direction at the lowest level of props,
which implies that the wall has sufficient strength to
avoid the formation of a plastic hinge. The propping
system is assumed to be stiff. The wall and soil are
deforming compatibly and the soil deformation profile
follows the cosine function of Equation 1. The average
shear strain mobilized in the soil within the assumed
displacement field can be linked to the maximum
incremental displacement:
3
dvol
wm
3
mob = vol
2
(2)
dvol
vol
where is the engineering shear strain defined as
the difference between the major 1 and minor 3
principal strain increments = |1 3 |, and vol
is the volume of the plastic deformation mechanism
shown in Figure 2.
At each stage of the excavation, the strength cmob
mobilised due to the excavation of soil beneath the lowest support can be found using the Principle of Virtual
Work by balancing the virtual loss of potential energy
to the virtual plastic work in distributed shearing.
t vdVol =
cmob dVol
(3)
volume
volume
756
dividing the mobilised shear strain by 2 and the displacement at the top of the wall is calculated by
multiplying the angle of wall rotation by the wall
length. This cantilever movement then defines the initial ground displacement profile prior to propping, and
the subsequent bulging displacements are added as
explained above.
This cantilever movement then defines the initial
ground displacement profile prior to propping, and
the subsequent bulging displacements are added as
illustrated in Figure 5.
CASE HISTORIES
The usefulness of the MSD method in practical application will be demonstrated for three case histories of
excavations in the soft deposits of Boston Blue Clay:
the 7-level underground Post Office Square Garage,
Figure 6. Post Office Square Garage site location and adjacent buildings (after Whitman et al. 1991).
757
cu /vo
1
2
4
8
0.21
0.34
0.60
0.96
Figure 7. Post Office Square Garage structure and Initial soil conditions (after Whittle et al. 1993).
758
Figure 9 presents measurements of lateral deflections of four inclinometers on the perimeter of the site
compared with the MSD predictions. The inclinometers along Pearl Street show large displacements at the
top of the wall. This is due to the fact that, prior to
the roof construction, the excavation is unsupported
with a maximum depth of 6 m and the diaphragm wall
deforms in a cantilever mode. Measurements from
the inclinometers along Milk Street show significantly
less movement at the top of the wall. This is due to a
difference in construction sequence. In these locations,
the slab roof was constructed prior to the excavation.
Two MSD calculations were carried out assuming 0 m
Figure 8. Stress-strain response for Ko consolidated undrained direct simple shear tests on Boston Blue Clay (Ladd and
Edgers, 1972).
759
The localisation of settlement adjacent to the excavation is predicted successfully by the MSD method.
The figure shows also that the maximum settlement
predicted by the MSD method conforms well to the
field measurements. However, the settlement trough
predicted by the MSD method extends only to 25 m
behind the wall.
Clough and ORourke (1990) suggested a more
conservative trapezoidal settlement profile, based on
observations from several case histories, for excavations in soft to medium clay. Their suggested profile
assumed that the settlement has a maximum value at
locations up to a distance away from the wall equal to
0.75 times the maximum excavation height; then the
settlement decreases to zero at a distance equal to twice
the maximum depth of the excavation. The method of
Clough and ORourke (1990) is used to modify the
MSD settlement profile as shown in Figure 10. The
maximum settlement is assumed to be equal to the
maximum lateral wall movement which is shown to
be a conservative design expedient. Figure 10 shows a
general agreement of the extent of the region of larger
settlements between unmodified and modified MSD
settlement profiles. Although the FE analysis carried
out by Whittle et al. (1993) predicts the extension of the
settlement trough away from the wall, it does not produce a conservative prediction for locations adjacent
to the wall.
3.2 The stata center, MIT campus, Cambridge
Surcharge, 600psf
20
22ft
Fill
Organics
Sand
4ft Concrete Slab
-60
-40
Diaphragm
Wall
(2.5ft thick)
-50
-80
-100
Bedrock
-120
Diameter
Wall
(ft)
Thickness (ins)
3.0
0.41
3.0
0.80
Raker
Glaciomarine
-50
1
2
Spacing
(ft)
25
25
50
Preload
(kips)
325
530
100
-100
150
760
200
Elevation (ft)
Elevation (ft)
-20
Centerline (@ +187.5ft)
(a)
Figure 12a. In-situ stress conditions (after Olsen 2001).
(b)
Figure 12b. Measured lateral displacements (after Olsen
2001).
761
Figure 14. Plan and cross section at 75 state street (Becker and Haley 1990).
762
763
CONCLUSIONS
764
ABSTRACT: Paper presents experimental model of sand drains & sandwick reinforced soft soil mass to
expedite the in-situ settlement under preloading by radial drainage taking advantage of having more horizontal
permeability than vertical. These tests were conducted in Oedometer described by Rowe and Barden (1966) and
further modified by installing three radial points at different distances from the centre of the Oedometer for pore
pressure measurement during radial flow. The variation of ratio of zone of influence to the diameter of drain has
been varied to access the optimization of drain diameter for better performance with respect to increase of quick
strength by accelerating settlement. The effects of sand drains & sandwick of different n values like 11.04 and
16.93 on consolidation characteristics of Kaolinitic clay were undertaken to investigate the settlement and pore
pressure dissipation characteristics. The degree of consolidation was compared for both drains by keeping time
factor as constant parameter by relating it with Barrons theoretical solution. The Barrons equal strain solution
shows a fair agreement between measured and predicted values.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of the present work is to study consolidation due to radial drainage of Kaolinite clay using
sand drains and sandwicks and study the effect of
n value (ratio of drain dia to sample dia) on consolidation parameters. The hydraulically pressurized
Oedometer described by Rowe and Barden (1966)
and further modified for pore pressure measurement during radial flow is employed in the present
investigation.
765
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
3.2
766
3.5
Ur%
The sandwick consists of prepacked geotextile cylindrical bag (polypropylene) having diameter according
different n values selected. The polypropylene geotextile bag prepared before the test with height equal
to that of sample. The sand and bag are saturated in
water for thorough de-aired saturated sand is filled
in the bag under the syphoic action to get required
density. The wick thus prepared is then inserted in the
predrilled hole, formed by thin mandrel at centre of the
soil sample in the oedometer with help of guide platen
having a two guide screws by the side for correct vertical installation. During installation care is taken for
the full saturation of the sandwick.Water sprinkling is
done to ensure water continuity with porous stone. In
the present investigation n = 11.04 and n = 16.93 are
used for detail study.
Sand Drains
(time in min)
40 kPa
0.6
280
2000
10
50
100
Sandwicks
(time in min)
160 kPa
0.4
240
1400
40 kPa
36
324
1440
160 kPa
20
210
1340
Ur%
40 kPa
110
1000
2700
10
50
100
Sandwicks
(time in min)
160 kPa
10
470
2720
40 kPa
49
600
2400
160 kPa
40
415
2600
40kPa
0.012
160kPa
Cr(cm2/s)
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0
40
60
Ur%
80
100
(1)
767
20
Tvr
0.006
0.0
40kPa
0.005
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
160kPa
0.004
10
40kPa
20
160kPa
30
40
0.003
Ur%
Cr(cm2/s)
0.2
0.002
50
60
70
0.001
80
90
0
0
20
40
60
Ur%
80
100
100
Figure 6. Comparison of degree of consolidation and experimental time factor for n = 11.04, sand drains.
Tvr
0
0.009
40kPa
0.008
160kPa
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
0
10
0.007
20
40kPa
0.006
30
160kPa
40
0.005
Ur%
Cr(cm2/s)
0.01
0.004
0.003
50
60
70
0.002
80
0.001
90
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
100
Ur%
Figure 7. Comparison of degree of consolidation and experimental time factor for n = 16.93, sand drains.
Tvr
0.004
40kPa
0.0035
0.0025
0.002
Ur%
Cr(cm2/s)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
160kPa
0.003
0.2
0.0015
10
20kPa
20
40kPa
30
80kPa
40
160kPa
50
0.001
60
0.0005
70
320kPa
80
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
90
Ur%
100
Figure 8. Comparison of degree of consolidation and experimental time factor for n = 11.04, sandwicks.
768
Tvr
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Tvr
0.8
1.2
0.6
0.9
1.2
10
10
20
20
SR
PR
30
30
40
40
50
Ur%
Ur%
0.3
60
50
60
70
70
80
80
90
90
100
100
Tvr
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
Tvr
1.2
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
0
10
20
10
SR
20
PR
30
30
40
50
Ur%
Ur%
40
60
50
60
70
70
80
80
90
90
100
100
769
both drains. The Ur achieved by pore pressure readings is nearly 1215% higher to that of settlement
readings.
From fig. 13 it is observed that when the drain diameter decreases (n = 16.93) at low pressures lower
degree of consolidation is achieved compare to that
by higher pressures.
From fig. 16 & 17 shows that the distribution of
excess hydrostatic pressures at three different radial
points for n = 11.04 and n = 16.93. The mid-plane
radial point (R2) was considered to be ideal for comparison of isochrones and degree of consolidation.
Tvr
Tvr
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0.00
0
0
10
0.60
.9
1.21
.5
10
20
20
SR=160kpa
40kpa
30
PR=160kpa
80kpa
40
30
20kpa
40
50
Ur%
Ur%
.3
160kpa
60
50
320kpa
60
70
70
80
80
90
90
100
100
Tvr
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9
120
1.2
100
10
80
20
30
(Ur/Uo) %
0
SR=40kpa
PR=40kpa
Ur%
40
R1
R2
R3
60
40
50
20
60
0
0.001
70
0.01
80
0.1
Tvr
90
100
120
R1
100
From fig. 18, 19, 20 & 22 it is observed that experimental isochrones of 40 kPa and 160 kPa for both
n values fits exactly with the theoretical values.
Fast dissipation pore pressure is seen at early stages
of consolidation but more at faster rate in case of
sandwicks with n = 11.04.
From fig. 21 & 22 it is observed that higher rate
of permeability (Kr) is observed for both drains
at n = 11.04 compare to n = 16.93, while specifically sandwicks shows 1.41.6 times higher rate of
permeability compare to sand drains.
Above analysis indicate that n = 11.04 is the ideal
drain which shows high rate of consolidation. Also
it is observed that pore pressure readings seems
to be more reliable for deciding degree of consolidation as in case of settlement readings phase
of secondary consolidation cannot be ignored as
(Ur/Uo) %
R3
80
60
40
20
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
Tvr
Figure 17. Theoretical plot of excess pore water pressure
versus time factor for n = 16.93.
770
R2
100
Tvr=0.022(T)
100
Tvr(T)=0.027
Tvr=0.022(E)
Tvr=0.044(T)
90
Tvr(E)=0.027
90
Tvr=0.044(E)
Tvr(T)=0.058
Tvr=0.074(T)
80
Tvr(E)=0.058
Tvr=0.074(E)
80
Tvr=0.106(T)
Tvr(T)=0.093
70
Tvr=0.106(E)
Tvr(E)=0.093
Tvr=0.144(T)
Ur/Uo%
60
70
Tvr(T)=0.133
Tvr=0.144(E)
Tvr(E)=0.133
Tvr=0.191(T)
50
Tvr=0.191(E)
Tvr(T)=0.181
60
40
Ur/Uo(%)
Tvr=0.251(T)
Tvr=0.251(E)
Tvr=0.336(T)
Tvr=0.336(E)
30
Tvr(E)=0.181
Tvr(T)=0.239
50
Tvr(E)=0.239
Tvr=0.481(T)
Tvr(T)=0.314
40
Tvr=0.481(E)
20
Tvr(E)=0.314
Tvr=0.541(T)
Tvr(T)=0.42
Tvr=0.541(E)
10
30
Tvr=0.626(T)
Tvr(E)=0.42
Tvr=0.626(E)
Tvr(T)=0.601
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Tvr(E)=0.601
20
Tvr(T)=0.676
Tvr(E)=0.676
10
Tvr(T)=0.782
100
Tvr=0.022(E)
Tvr=0.046(E)
0.25
0.5
0.75
r/re
Tvr=0.074(T)
80
Tvr(E)=0.782
Tvr=0.046(T)
90
Tvr=0.074(E)
Tvr=0.106(T)
70
Tvr=0.106(E)
Tvr=0.144(T)
60
Ur/Uo%
Tvr=0.144(E)
Tvr=0.191(T)
50
Tvr=0.191(E)
Tvr=0.251(T)
40
Tvr=0.251(E)
Tvr=0.336(T)
30
Tvr=0.336(E)
Tvr=0.481(T)
20
Tvr=0.481(E)
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Tvr=0.541(T)
10
Tvr=0.541(E)
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
r/re
771
Kr in cm/sec
4.50E-07
2.00E-07
4.00E-07
1.80E-07
3.50E-07
1.60E-07
1.40E-07
Kr (cm/sec)
3.00E-07
2.50E-07
"n=11.04
"
2.00E-07
1.50E-07
1.20E-07
n=11.04"
1.00E-07
n=16.93
8.00E-08
6.00E-08
1.00E-07
4.00E-08
2.00E-08
5.00E-08
0.1
10
100
1000
0.00E+00
1
log'p' in kPa
10
100
log'p' in kpa
1000
100
Tvr(T)=0.027
Tvr(E)=0.027
90
Tvr(T)=0.058
Tvr(E)=0.058
80
Tvr(E)=0.093
Tvr(E)=0.093
70
Tvr(T)=0.133
Tvr(E)=0.133
Tvr(T)=0.181
Ur/Uo(%)
60
Tvr(E)=0.181
Tvr(T)=0.239
50
Tvr(E)=0.239
Tvr(T)=0.314
40
Tvr(E)=0.314
Tvr(T)=0.601
30
Tvr(E)=0.601
Tvr(T)=0.676
20
Tvr(E)=0.676
Tvr(T)=0.782
Tvr(E)=0.782
10
Tvr(T)=0.420
Tvr(E)=0.420
0
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
r/re
772
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
Authors are highly greatfull to the Dean, Faculty of
Technology & Engineering, The M.S. University of
773
ABSTRACT: Cracks in unsaturated expansive soils impose significant influence on engineering properties of
soils. The purpose of this paper is to research the tensile crack propagation depth of unsaturated expansive soils.
A theoretical equation of the depth of crack propagation based on linear elasticity is solved, which considers the
contributions of effective cohesion and effective internal friction angle simultaneously. Then two conditions are
analysed. One is used to define critical matrix suction at the ground surface which can be taken as one of the
criterions to estimate the cracking of the ground surface of expansive soils. Another is employed for determining
the crack propagation depth when the depth of the groundwater level has little influence. Finally, the relationships
with the related factors are compared, such as effective cohesion, effective internal friction angle, Poissons ratio,
matrix suction at the ground surface and the depth of the groundwater level.
INTRODUCTION
The expansive soils can be found in many sites, causing serious problems on light buildings, pavements and
slope stability because of the seasonal cycles of wetting and drying (Fredlund et al. 1993;Yang et al. 2004;
Lu et al. 2002; Xu et al. 1998). The expansive soils will
crack when they dry for climatic reason. As expansive
soils in unsaturated states lose water, matrix suction
increase and the tensile cracks begin to propagate.
The presence of the tensile cracks affects an expansive
soils compressibility, strength, permeability, time rate
of consolidation and so on significantly. Cracking in
soils has been studied by many researchers (for example, Chowdhury 1978; Morris et al. 1992; Lloret et al.
1998; Yao et al. 2004).
This paper develops the linear elastic solution of the
tensile crack propagation depth in unsaturated expansive soils, which considers the contributions of effective cohesion and effective internal friction angle at
the same time. Then the expressions for critical matrix
suction at the ground surface, and the crack propagation depth with little influence of the depth of the
groundwater level are derived from it. The compared
results about the related factors are also presented.
2 THEORETICAL EQUATIONS
where c = effective cohesion, ( ua ) = net normal stress state variable, ua = pore-air pressure,
= effective internal friction angle, (ua uw ) = matrix
suction, b = angle indicating the rate of increase in
shear strength relative to the matrix suction. Then total
cohesion of an unsaturated soil is expressed as
c = c + (ua uw ) tan b
(2)
775
(1)
(x ua )
(ua uw )
(y + z 2ua ) +
(4)
E
E
H
E
(z ua )
(ua uw )(5)
1
H (1 )
S0 EF
S0
+E
W
(6)
where
1 2 (q )T tan b cot
1
T c cot
F =
E=
friction angle, for the reason that the slope coefficient of zc vs. c curves is greater than that of zc
vs. curves. When effective cohesion c is zero, the
maximum values can be obtained.
Values of zc for different values of S0 are given in
Figure 2. It shows that for given effective cohesion and
effective internal friction angle, the crack propagation
depth increases as matrix suction at the ground surface increases. In the case that c = 0, crack will not
propagate until the matrix suction at the ground surface exceeds a particular value of matrix suction, the
critical matrix suction at the ground surface S0 , which
can be taken as one of the criteria to estimate cracking
of the ground surface of unsaturated expansive soils.
Setting zc = 0, from Eq. 6
S0 =
776
(1 )T c cot
1 2 (1 )T tan b cot
(7)
CONCLUSIONS
777
S0
F
E
suction at the ground surface increases, the crack propagation depth increases. However, matrix suction at
the ground surface must reach critical matrix suction
before cracking. With increasing Poissons ratio, effective cohesion and effective internal friction angle, the
critical matrix suction at the ground surface shows
an increasing tendency, but affected more by effective cohesion. The crack propagation depth increases
with increasing depth of the groundwater level. When
the groundwater level has little influence, the crack
propagation depth increases linearly with increasing
matrix suction at the ground surface, but decreases
with effective internal friction angle and Poissons
ratio.
REFERENCES
Chowdhury, R.N. 1978. Slope Analysis. Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company, New York.
Fredlund, D.G. and Rahardjo, H. 1993. Soil mechanics for
unsaturated soils. Wiley Interscience, New York.
778
Cheng Zhou
Dept. of Geotechnical Engineering, Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute, Nanjing, China
ABSTRACT: In this study, a 3-D elastic visco-plastic (EVP) model is incorporated into a finite element package
ABAQUS by means of one User MATerial (UMAT) subroutine. The stress update algorithm and consistent
algorithm modulus for the present algorithm are both formulated and derived. Numerical studies on two cases
involving Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs) improved Hong Kong marine clay are made to demonstrate the
nature of the model and the validation and performance of this UMAT subroutine.
INTRODUCTION
(q p )2
2
(pK p )p = 0
M2
M2
(1)
779
By terms of associated flow rule, the viscoplastic strain rate and viscoplastic volume strain rate can
respectively be expressed as:
"
#
F
(2a)
{vp } = S
" #
F
{vp
}
=
S
(2b)
v
p
The viscoplastic volume strain in this model can also
be described as:
vp
v =
r vK
1 + vK vp
Vt0
vKl
rvK = rvK0
2
(
exp
vp = t(vp
n + Hn + Jn vK )
(3a)
= [I + tCne Hn ]1 Cne ( vp
n t tJn vK )
(9)
pK
+ ln
V
pK0
(3b)
3
(4)
Herein,
r
rvK vK 2
vK
A=
exp vK r
1+
vp
Vt0
vKl
1 + vKvp vK
vKl
'
'
'
'
2(q p )
2
'
'
+
(p
2p
)
B = '2p pK
K
'
2
2
M
M
= Cne ( vp )
(5)
(10)
n+1 ]
{vp } = t[(1 )vp
n +
CASE STUDIES
k = 2.709e2.2235
(6)
Herein,
n+1 = vp
n + Hn + Jn vK
vp
with
vp
vp
and Jn =
vK
780
(8)
rvK vK
V
, vp
1 + (rvK vK ) vKl
A
B
Hn =
(7)
Therefore, we have
Material
Parameter
Clay
Smear zone
/V
/V
v
M
e0
kv0 = kh0
(105 m/day)
pK0 (kPa)
/V
t0 (day)
rvK0
vp
vKl
0.0161
0.0811
0.3
1.186
29.7
1.70
8.80
0.0161
0.0811
0.3
1.186
29.7
1.70
6.61
17.0
0.0022
1.0
0.0
0.355
17.0
0.0022
1.0
0.0
0.355
(11)
Loading (kPa)
100
upper alluvium
-15
lower marine clay
-20
-25
lower alluvium
-30
Figure 2. Soil profile and four monitored points for Case 2.
60
Soil Layer
40
Upper
marine
Parameter clay
20
Upper
Alluvium
Lower
marine
clay
Lower
Alluvium
0.011
0.065
0.0035
1.0
0
0.459
0.3
1.200
30
0.85
1.6 103
0.015
0.109
0.0074
1.0
0
0.870
0.3
1.113
28
1.15
2.2 105
0.008
0.057
0.0023
1.0
0
0.355
0.3
1.200
30
0.55
8.6 104
Time (day)
0
Settlement (mm)
-10
80
1
2
3
4
-5
Elevation (mPD)
Measured
Predicted
12
16
20
24
28
32
781
/V
/V
/V
t0 (day)
rvK0
vp
vKl
v
M
e0
kv0
(m/day)
kh0
(m/day)
Ck
OCR
0.011
0.143
0.0076
1.0
0
0.615
0.3
1.113
28
1.60
1.9 104
0.425
6.0
0.8
2.5
0.275
2.5
3.2
250
2.8
Settlement (m)
300
200
150
100
50
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
2.4
2
1.6
Point: measured
Line: computed
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
0
200
400
200
400
Stress (kPa)
0
50
100
150
200
250
This paper presents the implementation of a 3-D elastic viscoplastic model into a finite element code.
Numerical simulations on two cases using the present
model and the subroutine demonstrate that the elastic viscoplastic model is able to capture the major
deformation characteristics of soft clay. At the same
time, the model can be easily implemented in the finite
element analysis by terms of the given stress update
algorithm and consistent tangential moduli. Moreover,
the performance of the algorithm derived in this study
is also validated to be right and efficient.
-5
Vertical stress
Horizontal stress
Elevation (mPD)
-10
-15
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
-20
-25
-30
REFERENCES
(12)
782
CONCLUSIONS
Fang, Z. and Yin, J.H. 2005. Physical Modeling of Consolidation of Hong Kong Marine Clay with Prefabricated Vertical Drains.Accepted by Canadian Geotechnical
Journal.
Hanso, S. 1979. Consolidation of clay by band-shaped
prefabricated drains, Ground Engineering, 12(5),
pp.625
Imai, G., Tanaka, Y. and Saegusa, H. 2003. One-dimensional
consolidation modelling based on the isotach law for normally consolidated clays, Soils and Foundations, 43 (4),
173188
Korhonen, K. H. and Lojander, M. 1987. Yielding of Perno
clay, Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Constitutive Laws for Engineering Materials,Tucson,Arizona,
Vol.2, 12491255.
Liingaard, M., Augustesen, A., and Lade, P.V. 2004. Characteristics of models for time-dependent behavior of soils.
International Journal of Geomechanics, 4(3), 157177.
Long, R. P. & Alvaro Covo. 1994. Equivalent diameter of
vertical drains with an oblong cross section. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 120(9), 16251629.
Matsuda, H., Sato, H., Mihara, M., Murakami,T. and Sutoh,Y.
2001. Effect of creep deformation on the primary consolidation of clay,
36
,
233234. (In Japanese)
McGinty, K., Karstunen, M. and Wheeler, S. J. 2001. Modeling the stress-strain behaviour of Bothkennar clay, Soft
Soil Engineering, Edited by Lee et al., Swets & Zeitlinger,
Hong Kong, pp.263268
Nash, D.F.T., and Ryde, S.J. 2001.Modeling consolidation
accelerated by vertical drains in soils subject to creep.
Geotechnique, 51(3), 257273
Niemunis, A. and Krieg, S. 1996. Viscous behaviour of
soil under oedometric conditions. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 33, 159168
783