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CHAPTER 01
INTRODUCTION ON TRAINING ORGANIZATION
About Tudawe Brothers Limited
I was selected for my industrial training Tudawe brothers Ltd at 505/2 ElvitigalaMawatha,
Colombo 5, which is one of the leading contractors in civil engineering as well as electrical and
mechanical in Sri Lanka. Among those fields past activities of construction fieid says Tudawe
Bros Ltd is specialist in construction because they have built multi story building more than ten
stories with very finishing in resent past.
Today Tudawe Bros Ltd administrated by a chaiman with a board of directors but it was
established in 1942 as a building construction field. Every activities of construction, electrical
and mechanical are done according to ISO stranded today. Tudawe Bros has obtained ISO 9002
certificated in 1998 for construction works first time in Sri Lanka.
History of company
Tudawe Bros Ltd was founded at 1942 as a company, which is undertaken building works in
concentrating mainly on construction houses during its initial step. When it growing up their
attention goes to under taken large construction works of multistoried building as well and
subsequently focused mainly on multistoried building. During a last few years Tudawe Bros Ltd
has focused their attention towards road construction and other civil engineering activities such
as road construction, bridge construction, elevated water tower construction, water supply and
drainage etc. and also Tudawe have forced their attention towards electrical engineering and
mechanical engineering fields during last twenty years as well.
When expansion the company, invested for plant and machines to work with modern technology
and to satisfactory with the needs of industry as a result they have their own batching plant and
bar bending yard today and lot of modern equipment which can be used to work conveniently
and low time consuming. Also its production range followed by the ready mixed concrete since
1993. Today, Tudawe Bros Ltd that is leading construction company in Sri Lanka though
established in 1942.
Vision Statement
To become a self supporting professional constructor offering quality products & services to
develop Sri Lanka , through vertical integration with diversified business units serving our needs
and that of the industry
Mission Statement
Our Mission is the timely delivery of quality construction at competitive cost , through
motivated staff, superior technology & efficient system

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Company Structure

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Main line of business

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Business
Building construction

BIT

Commencement
Since 1942

Structural steel

Since 1945

Electrical engineering

Since 1980

Elevated water tower

Since 1987

Project
Client
Date of completion
Water supply and drainage
Since 1987
Rehabilitation of road in Colombo Road development authority
31/10/97
cite andSewage
suburbs
Since 1987
M&E service
Navinna-Mirihana
road
Dehiwala-Maharagama road

Fire fighting& protection

Since 198704/10/98
and Road development authority
Since 1989

Construction of bridge (Ethumale- Road development authority

31/07/01
Air condition
Since 1989
Yakkatuwa Road)
Earth work

Since 1989

Reconstruction
of
bridge Road development authority
14/11/01
(Kalawellawa-Bellapitiya)
Raw water / effluent water treatment system
Since 1991
Road construction
199331/03/02
Rehabilitation
of road in Matara Southern
provincial Since
road
district
development authority
Aluminum works

Southern
provincial
Bridge construction
improvement project

Since 1995

road Southern
provincial
road 02/05/03
Since 1999
development authority

Completed projects
The completed project of this company can be categorized into two parts as apartments and
other construction works with in last ten years as follows.

Winning Awards
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Within last few years Tudawe Brothers Ltd has win a few awards for the construction work in
building side.

Construction excellence for premier pacific apartment complex in 2001 (above Rs. 150
millions)
Merit award above for queens court apartment in 1996 (above Rs. 150 millions)
Construction excellence for residential building in 1994 (above Rs. 50 millions)
Construction excellence for residential building in 1991 (above Rs. 20 millions)

Organization Structure
When studying the organization structure, several department and division of the company can
be identified as;

Planning, development and quality assurances

General administration
Construction project co-ordination
Plant and equipment
Design
Pursing and finance
Stores
IT
Personal

Suggestion to improve performences of tudawe brothers ltd

I would like to suggest provide modern technical knowledge to all of the all staff members
especially for technical officers and engineers, because when developing the technical
knowledge most of the people lack to face it. Therefore, they should be trained properly for it
that will be help to improve the quality of final product, save time and prevent the accident.
Staff officers should be motivated any time as possible such as discussing about project work
with them, carrying about their works and participating for common activities.
Computer knowledge will be provided for all of staff members that may better strategy due to
complexity of future construction project. After that, day-to-day activities will be manipulated
easily, accurately and in lesser time.

ISO System
In 1946 a group of people got together at Jeniewa in Switzterland to build up an organization to
evaluate the standard of various goods & services. The name given by them for that organization
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is, International Organization for Standard. In earlier time is spreads over only few field like
communication, manufacturing, etc. after that it was popular over the world. Therefore in 1987
again a committee 176 people got together to reestablish the organization. They called it was
ISO SYSTEM. After this it spread over many countries.
If any institute or firm wants to get ISO facility they should request if from that organization.
After evaluate institute or firm, if the things are to their satisfaction, they are awarding the
facility. Also they are coming periodically to inspect that institute or firm. So the institute of firm
should perfectly maintain the system.
TudaweBrithers Ltd (TBL) has ISO 9001:2000 facility organization had introduced a work
procedure for the company. It is very appreciable and if we followed that procedure, we can
successfully complete our job. The TBL head office & their project connecting together from
ISO procedure. They had introduced various documents & check lists for various purposes.
There is division called ISO in TBL head office & usually they are visiting site to site to
inspect the documentation and work carrying out. In our site we worked as ISO procedure &
gained a good quality output.

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DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

PROJECT NAME

: Refurbishment of Hotel Serendib

PROJECT LOCATION

: Bentota

CLIENT

: Ceylon Petroleum Corporation

CONSULTANT

: Central Engineering consultant Bureau

415, bauddhaloka Mw,
Colombo 01.

CONTRACTOR

: Tudawe Engineering Services (Pvt) Limited

505/2, Elvitigala Mw,
Colombo 05.

PROJECT MANAGER

: Mr.

PROECT CO-ORDINATOR

: Mr. Indunil Lalaji

SITE MANAGER

: Mr. Indunil Lalaji

SITE ENGINEER

: Eng. Indunil Lalaji

TYPE OF WORK

: Rufurbishment

TYPE OF BUILDING

: Hotel

CONTRCT METHOD

: Measure and pay

CONTRACT SUM

: 1.2 billion

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CHAPTER 02
BASIC DOMESTRIC INSTALLATIONS

LIGHTING
The range of modern lighting fittings and lamps is so large, that only the basic types were
considered below. Before we continue, however, it is perhaps wise to list the various units and
quantities associated with this subject.
Luminous intensity :- symbol - I , unit - candela (cd)
This is a measure of the power of a light source and is sometimes referred to as brightness.
Luminous flux : - symbol F, unit - lumen (lm)
This is a measure of the flow or amount of light emitted from a source.
Illuminance :- symbol E, unit - lux (lx) or lm/m2
This is a measure of the amount of light falling on a surface. It is also referred to as illumination.
Luminous efficacy :- symbol K, unit - lumen per watt (lm/W)
This is the ratio of luminous flux to electrical power input. It could be thought of as the efficiency of
the light source.
Maintenance factor (MF) :- no unit
In order to allow for the collection of dirt on a lamp and also ageing, both of which cause loss of light, a
maintenance factor is used.

As an example, consider a new 80 W fluorescent lamp with a lumen output of5700 lm.
After about 3 or 4 months this output would have fallen and settled at around 5200 lm.
Hence the light output has decreased by,
5200/5700 = 0.9
This value, 0.9, is the maintenance factor and should not fall below 0.8. This is ensured
by regular cleaning of the lamps.
Coefficient of utilization (CU) :- no unit
The amount of useful light reaching a working plane will depend on the lamp output, the reflectors and/or
diffusers used, position of lamp, colour of walls and ceilings, etc. The lighting designer will combine all
of these considerations and determine a figure to use in his or her lighting calculations.

Tungsten-filament lamp
Figure.2.1 shows the basic components of a tungsten-filament lamp.The tungsten filament is either
single or double coiled (coiled coil). Figure.2.2 illustrates these types.

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Figure 2.1 Tongston Filament Lamp

Figure 2.2 (a) Single coil,
(b) coiled coil Filament arrangements

The efficacy of gas-filled lamps is increased by using a coiled-coil filament, as this type has in
effect a thicker filament which reduces the heat loss due to convection currents in the gas.
Filament lamps are of two main types, vacuum and gas filled.
Vacuum type
The filament operates in a vacuum in the glass bulb. It has a poor efficacy as it can operate only
up to around 2000C.
Gas-filled type
In this case the bulb is filled with an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon. This enables the
operating temperature to reach 2500C. The efficacy increases and the bulb is usually so bright
that it is given an opaque coating internally. This type of lamp is usually called a pearl lamp.
The following code refers to lamp caps,
BC
SBC
SCC
ES
SES
MES
GES

Bayonet
Small bayonet
Small centre contact
Edison screw
Small Edison screw
Miniature Edison screw
Goliath Edition screw

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The efficacy of a tungsten lamp will depend on several factors, including the age of the lamp and
its size, but tends to be around 12 lm/W for a 100 W lamp. The colour of its light tends to be
mostly red and yellow and in its basic form this type of lamp is used only in situations that do
not require a high level of illumination. Other lamps of the filament type include tubular strip
lights, oven lamps, infrared heating lamps, spot- and floodlights, and tungstenhalogen lamps.
Discharge lighting
This type of lighting relies on the ionization of a gas to produce light. As high voltages are
present in such lighting circuits, special precautions, outlined in the IEE Regulations, must be
taken. Typical discharge lamps include decorative neon signs, fluorescent lighting, and mercury
and sodium-vapour lamps used for street lighting.
Neon tube
In the same way that the trade name Hoover is colloquially used to indicate any make of
vacuum cleaner, so neon tends to be used to describe any sort of gas-filled tube. There are in
fact several different gases used to give different colours, including helium, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide.
Sodium-vapour lamp
There are two types of sodium-vapour lamp available, working at high and low pressure,
respectively.
The low-pressure type consists of a U-shaped double-thickness glass tube, the inner wall of
which is of low-silica glass which can withstand attack by hot sodium. Inside the tube is a
quantity of solid sodium and a small amount of neon gas (this helps to start the discharge
process). An outer glass envelope stops too much heat loss from the inner tube. Figure 2.3
shows the components of a low-pressure sodium-vapour lamp, while Figure 2.4 shows the
control circuit for a sodium-vapour lamp

Figure 2.3 Sodium Vapour Lamp

Figure 2.4 Control Circuit for the Sodium Vapour Lamp

The output from the auto-transformer is in the region of 480 V

and the power factor (PF) correction capacitor is important, as
the PF of the lamp and transformer can be as low as 0.3 lagging.
The recommended burning position of the lamp is horizontal,
20, this ensures that hot sodium does not collect at one end of
the tube in sufficient quantities to attack and damage it.
The light output is almost pure yellow, which distorts surrounding colours, and as such is useful
only for street lighting. The modern SOX type (superseding the SOH type) has a high efficacy, a
90 W lamp giving in the region of 140 lm/W. (The SOH type gives around 70 lm/W).
The high-pressure type of sodium-vapour lamp differs from other discharge lamps in which the
discharge tube is made of compressed aluminium oxide, which is capable of withstanding the
intense chemical activity of the sodium vapour at high temperature and pressure. The efficacy is
in the region of 100 lm/W, and the lamp may be mounted in any position. The colour is a golden
white and as there is little surrounding colour distortion, it is suitable for many applications
including shopping centres, car parks, sports grounds and dockyards.

GLS Lamps
GLS lamps produce light as a result of the heating effect of an electrical current. Most of the
electricity goes to producing heat and a little to producing light. A fi ne tungsten wire is first
coiled and coiled again to form the incandescent fi lament of the GLS lamp. The coiled coil
arrangement reduces fi lament cooling and increases the light output by allowing the fi lament to
operate at a higher temperature. The light output covers the visible spectrum, giving a warm
white to yellow light with a colour rendering quality classified as fairly good. The efficacy of the
GLS lamp is 14 lumens per watt over its intended lifespan of 1000 hours.
The filament lamp in its simplest form is a purely functional light source which is unchallenged
on the domestic market despite the manufacture of more efficient lamps. One factor which may
have contributed to its popularity is that lamp designers have been able to modify the glass
envelope of the lamp to give a very pleasing decorative appearance, as shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5 Various Designs of GLS Lamp

High-pressure mercury-vapour lamp

This type consists of a quartz tube containing mercury at high pressure and a little argon gas to
assist starting. There are three electrodes, two main and one auxiliary, the latter is used for
starting the discharge Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6 High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp

Figure 2.7 shows the control circuit for a high-pressure mercury-vapour lamp. The initial
discharge takes place in the argon gas between the auxiliary electrode and the main electrode
close to it. This causes the main electrode to heat up and the main discharge between the two
main electrodes takes place.

Figure 2.7 Control Circuit of Mercury Vapour Lamp

Several types of mercury-vapour lamp are available, including the following two popular types,
MB type Standard mercury-vapour lamp; ES or GES cap; any mounting position, efficacy
around 40 lm/W. Largely superseded by the MBF type.

MBF type Standard, but with fluorescent phosphor coating on the inside of the hard glass
bulb; ES or GES cap, efficacy around 50 lm/W. Used for industrial and street lighting,
commercial and display lighting, any mounting position.
The colour given by high-pressure mercury-vapour lamps tends to be blue-green.

Low-pressure mercury-vapour lamp

A low-pressure mercury-vapour lamp, more popularly known as a fluorescent lamp , consists of
a glass tube, the interior of which is coated in fluorescent phosphor. The tube is filled with
mercury vapour at low pressure and a little argon to assist starting. At each end of the tube is
situated an oxide-coated filament. Discharge takes place when a high voltage is applied across
the ends of the tube. Figure 2.8 shows the circuit diagram for a single fluorescent tube. The lamp
construction is shown in Figure 2.9

Figure 2.8 Circuit Diagram for Single Fluorescent Tube

Figure 2.9 - Fluorescent Lamp Construction

Energy-efficient lamps
CFLs are miniature or compact fluorescent lamps designed to replace ordinary GLS lamps. They
are available in a variety of shapes and sizes so that they can be fitted into existing light fittings.
Figure 2.10 shows three typical shapes. The stick type gives most of their light output radially
while the flat double D type give most of their light output above and below.

Figure 2.10 Energy Efficient Lamps

Energy-efficient lamps use electricity much more efficiently than an equivalent GLS lamp. For
example, a 20 watt energy efficient lamp will give the same light output as a 100 watt GLS
lamp. An 11 watt energy efficient lamp is equivalent to a 60 watt GLS lamp. Energy-efficient
lamps also have a lifespan of about eight times longer than a GLS lamp and so, they do use
energy very efficiently.
However, energy-efficient lamps are expensive to purchase and they do take a few minutes to
attain full brilliance after switching on. They cannot always be controlled by a dimmer switch
and are unsuitable for incorporating in an automatic presence detector because they are usually
not switched on long enough to be worthwhile, but energy efficient lamps are excellent for
outside security lighting which is left on for several hours each night.

The electrical contractor, in discussion with a customer, must balance the advantages and
disadvantages of energy-efficient lamps compared to other sources of illumination for each
individual installation.

Practical operation
When the supply is switched on, the circuit is completed via: the choke, first lamp element,
starter switch, second lamp element and the neutral. The elements, which are coated in oxide,
become warm and the oxide coating emits some electrons and the gas ionizes at the ends of the
tube (this helps the main ionization process). The starter contacts (usually of the bimetallic type)
separate, owing to the current passing through them, and the choke is open-circuited.
As we have seen, breaking an inductive circuit causes high voltages to appear across the
breaking contacts, and energy is released in the form of an arc. In this case, however, there is an
easier way for the energy to dissipate, via the gas, and the high voltage appears across the ends
of the tube.
When the gas is fully ionized, the choke limits the current to a predetermined value, and the light
emitted, which is mostly ultraviolet, is made visible by the fluorescent powder coating.
The radio interference suppression capacitor is usually located in the starter. The PF correction
capacitor is part of the control circuitry common to all fluorescent lighting installations.
Starters
Three methods are commonly available for starting the discharge in a fluorescent tube, the
thermal start, the glow start and the quick start.
A thermal starter consists of two contacts (one of which is a bimetal) and a heater. Figure 2.11
shows how such a starter is connected.
When the supply to the lamp is switched on, the heater is energized. Also, the lamp filaments are
energized via the starter contact. The heater causes the contacts to part and the choke open
circuits across the tube, so that discharge takes place.

Figure 2.11
Thermal Starter

The glow starter is the most popular of all the means of starting the discharge. It comprises a
pair of open contacts (bimetallic) enclosed in a sealed glass bulb filled with helium gas. This
assembly is housed in a metal or plastic canister. . Figure 2.12 shows how this type of starter is
connected.
When the supply is switched on, the helium gas ionizes and heats up, causing the contacts to
close, and this energizes the tube filaments. As the contacts have closed, the discharge in the
helium ceases, the contacts cool and part, open-circuiting the choke across the tube and
discharge takes place.

Figure
Glow

2.12
Starter

In the case of the quick start or instant starter, starting is achieved by the use of an autotransformer and an earthed metal strip in close proximity to the tube ( Figure 2.13 )..

Figure 2.13 Quick Starter

When the supply is switched on, mains voltage appears across the ends of the tube, and the small
part of the winding at each end of the transformer energizes the filaments that heat up. The
difference in potential between the electrodes and the earthed strip causes ionization that spreads
along the tube.

Fluorescent tube light output

There is a wide range of fluorescent tubes for different applications as Table 2.1 indicates. The
white tube has the highest efficacy, which for a 2400 mm, 125 W tube is around 70 lm/W.

Table 2.1 Tube Colour and Its Applications

Stroboscopic effect
While a fluorescent lamp is in operation the light may flicker. Under some circumstances this
may make it appear that rotating machinery has slowed down or even stopped. This is called the
stroboscopic effect. This is an undesirable state of affairs which is usually remedied by one of
the two following methods,

Balancing the lighting load (three phase)

If a large lighting load is installed in a three-phase installation where there is some rotating
machinery, the stroboscopic effect may be overcome by connecting alternate groups of lamps to
a different phase. This also has the advantage of balancing the lighting load ( Figure 2.14 ).

Figure
2.14 Lighting Load

The leadlag circuit

In this method a capacitor is wired in series with every alternate lamp in a group. The value of
the capacitor is such that the lamp unit is fitted to have an overall leading PF. This means that
any pair of lamps have a lagging and a leading PF. This has the effect of cancelling out the
resultant flicker, in the same way as two equal but opposing forces cancel each other out (Figure
2.15 ).

Figure 2.15 Lead Lag Circuit

Most of the domestic installations in Sri Lanka are of single phase (2 wire) type and supplied at
230 V line to neutral. Basic arrangement of the connections from the supply authoritys
distribution pole is shown Figure 2.16. This shows the installation diagram from the service
cable of the supply authority, which is usually supplied overhead from the distribution pole. This
comes to the service fuse box (or cut out as commonly known) and then to the energy meter. Up
to the energy meter belongs to the supply authority. The consumers installation proper starts
from the Main switch, which in Sri Lanka is likely not to exceed 30A for a single phase supply.
This will be followed by usually one (or more) RCCBs (other than some older installations
which have an ELCBs, and some even older installations which have no earth leakage
protection). Each RCCB would be followed by a Consumer Unit (with different rated MCBs) or
in older installations a Distribution Board (with Fuses). The final circuits are taken from the
consumer unit (or distribution unit).

Figure 2.16 Basic Distribution from Authorities Supply

Lighting Circuits

IEE regulation has On Site Guide deals with the assumed current demand of points, and states
that for lighting outlets. We should assume a current equivalent to a minimum of 100W per lamp
holder. This means that for a domestic lighting circuit rated at 5 A, a maximum of 11 lighting
outlets could be connected to each circuit. In practice, it is usual to divide the fixed lighting
outlets into a convenient number of circuits of seven or eight outlets each. In this way the whole
installation is not plunged into darkness if one lighting circuit fuses (IEE Regulation 314.1).

Lighting circuits are usually wired in 1.0 or 1.5 mm cable using either a loop-in or joint-box
method of installation. The loop-in method is universally employed with conduit installations or
when access from above or below is prohibited after installation, as is the case with some
industrial installations or blocks of flats. In this method the only joints are at the switches or
lighting points, the live conductors being looped from switch to switch and the neutrals from one
lighting point to another.

The use of junction boxes with fixed brass terminals is the method often adopted in domestic
installations, since the joint boxes can be made accessible but are out of site in the loft area and
under floorboards.

The live conductors must be broken at the switch position in order to comply with the Polarity
Regulations (612.7). A ceiling rose may only be connected to installations operating at 250 V
maximum and must only accommodate one flexible cord unless it is specially designed to take
more than one IEE Regulation 559.6.1.2 and 3. Lamp holders suspended from flexible cords
must be capable of suspending the mass of the luminaire fixed to the lamp holder (559.6.1.5).

The type of circuit used will depend upon the installation conditions and the customers
requirements. One light controlled by one switch is called one-way switch control. A room with
two access doors might benefit from a two-way switch control so that the lights may be switched
on or off at either position. A long staircase with more than two switches controlling the same
lights would require intermediate switching. One-way, two-way or intermediate switches can be
obtained as plate switches for wall mounting or ceiling mounted cord switches. Cord switches
can provide a convenient method of control in bedrooms or bathrooms and for independently
controlling an office luminaire.

One-way switching
Figure2.17 is a wiring diagram showing how the light or lights are controlled.

Figure 2.17 One Way Lighting Wiring Diagram

When we are doing any wiring for the domestic purposes, we can follow below instructions,
1. The ends of black, blue or grey switch wires have brown sleeving to denote line
conductor. (This is not required for conduit wiring as the cable will be brown.)
2. The earth wire terminations have green and yellow sleeving. (This is not required for
conduit.)
3. The light-switch point has an earth terminal.
4. The ceiling rose has an earth terminal.
5. The flexible cord from the rose to the lamp holder is capable of withstanding the
maximum likely temperature.
6. If a batten holder is used instead of a ceiling rose, then the cable entries should be
sleeved with heat resistant sleeving.
7. The maximum mass suspended by flexible cord shall not exceed,
a) 2 kg for a 0.5 mm 2 cord;
b) 3 kg for a 0.75 mm 2 cord;
c) 5 kg for a 1.0 mm 2 cord.
8. The line terminal in a ceiling rose must be shrouded.
9. For the purpose of calculating the cable size supplying a lighting circuit, each lighting
point must be rated at a minimum of 100 W.
10. A ceiling rose, unless otherwise designed, must accommodate only one flexible cord.

Two-way switching
A two-way switch is used when it is necessary to operate a lamp from two positions, A typical
application is for stairway lighting. ( Figure 2.18 )

Figure 2.18 Two Way Lighting Switch

Two-way and intermediate switching

The applications of this type of switching are for stairs and landings and in long corridors.
(Figure 2.19 )

Figure 2.19 Two Way Intermediate Switch

Socket Outlet Circuits

Where portable equipment is to be used, it should be connected by a plug top to a conveniently
accessible socket outlet (Regulation 553.1.7). Pressing the plug top into a socket outlet connects

the appliance to the source of supply. Socket outlets therefore provide an easy and convenient
method of connecting portable electrical appliances to a source of supply.
Socket outlets can be obtained in 15, 13, 5 and 2 A ratings, but the 13 A flat pin type complying
with BS 1363 is the most popular for domestic installations in the United Kingdom. Each 13 A
plug top contains a cartridge fuse to give maximum potential protection to the flexible cord and
the appliances which it serves.
Socket outlets may be wired on a ring or radial circuit and in order that every appliance can be
fed from an adjacent and conveniently accessible socket outlet, the number of sockets is
unlimited provided that the floor area covered by the circuit does not exceed according to the
IEE Regulations.

Radial Circuits
In a radial circuit each socket outlet is fed from the previous one. Live is connected to live,
neutral to neutral and earth to earth at each socket outlet. The fuse and cable sizes are given in
the IEE Regulations but circuits may also be expressed with a block diagram, as shown in
Figure 2.20 . The number of permitted socket outlets is unlimited but each radial circuit must
not exceed the floor area stated and the known or estimated load.
Where two or more circuits are installed in the same premises, the socket outlets and
permanently connected equipment should be reasonably shared out among the circuits, so that
the total load is balanced.

Figure 2.20 Radial Circuit

When designing ring or radial circuits special consideration should be given to the loading in
kitchens which may require separate circuits. This is because the maximum demand of currentusing equipment in kitchens may exceed the rating of the circuit cable and protection devices.
Ring and radial circuits may be used for domestic or other premises where the maximum
demand of the current using equipment is estimated not to exceed the rating of the protective
devices for the chosen circuit.

Ring Circuits
Ring circuits are very similar to radial circuits in that each socket outlet is fed from the previous
one, but in ring circuits the last socket is wired back to the source of supply. Each ring final
circuit conductor must be looped into every socket outlet or joint box which forms the ring and
must be electrically continuous throughout its length. The number of permitted socket outlets is
unlimited but each ring circuit must not cover more than 100 m2 of floor area.
The circuit details are given in the IEE Regulations but may also be expressed by the block
diagram given in Figure 2.21 .
Additional protection by 30 mA residual current device (RCD) is now required in addition to
over current protection for all socket outlet circuits that are to be used by ordinary persons and
intended for general use.
This additional protection is provided in case basic protection or fault protection fails or if the
user of the installation is careless (IEE Regulations 411.3.3 and 415.1.1).

Figure 2.21 Ring Circuit

Table 2.2 : Conductors Diameters and its maximum Ampere rates used in circuit preparation
and distribution
Metric Value
1/1.13
1/1.38
7/0.50
7/0.67
7/0.85
7/1.04
7/1.35
7/1.70
7/2.14
19/1.35
19/1.53
19/1.78
19/2.14
37/1.78
37/2.03
37/2.25
37/2.52
61/2.25
61/2.52
61/2.85
61/3.20

Diameter
1
1.5
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
400
500

Ampere
12
14
14
17
29
37
51
66
87
87
106
125
160
195
220
260
295
360
410
457
520

CHAPTER 03

Imperial
1/044
3/029
3/036
7/029
7/036
7/044
7/052
7/064
19/044
19/052
19/064
19/073
19/083
37/072
37/083
37/093
37/103
61/093
61/103
91/103

INSTALLATION MATERIALS & TOOLS

3.1 INSULATION
Plastics
The uses of plastic materials (polymers) in electrical engineering are widespread, the most
common being for cable insulation. Other applications include plug tops, socket outlets and
motor and transformer winding insulation. Plastics technology is a vast and complicated subject
and hence only the most basic concepts will be discussed here.
Thermoplastic polymers
Thermoplastic polymers soften on heating and solidify to their original state on cooling.
Repeated heating and cooling causes no damage.
Thermosetting polymers
Thermosetting polymers become fluid when heated and change permanently to a solid state
when cooled. Further heating may cause the polymer to disintegrate.
Polyvinyl chloride
Rigid PVC
Rigid PVC as used in conduits, etc. is a thermoplastic polymer and has the following
properties,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

It has high tensile strength.

It can be bent by hand if warmed.
It has high electrical resistance.
It is weather resistant.
It does not crack under stress at normal temperatures.
It has a low flammability.
It is self-extinguishing when the source of heat is removed.
It must be used with special saddles and expansion couplers when used
in fluctuating temperatures, as its expansion is five times that of steel.

Flexible PVC (used in cable insulation)

Flexible PVC used in cable insulation and it has following properties;
is weather resistant,
has high electrical resistance,
should be kept clear of other plastics to avoid migration of plasticizer,
Phenol-formaldehyde
Phenol-formaldehydes are thermosetting polymers and are used with other compounds to
manufacture plug tops, socket outlets, etc., and thin insulation for all types of winding. Such
equipment can safely be used in temperatures up to 100C.
3.2 CONDUIT

A conduit is a tube or pipe in which conductors are run. In effect, the conduit replaces the PVC
sheathing of a cable, providing mechanical protection for the insulated conductors. There are
three types of conduits: metal, flexible (metal) and non-metallic (PVC).
Metal conduit
Most metal conduit used nowadays in low-voltage installations is either heavy gauge welded
or solid drawn . Heavy gauge is made from a single sheet of steel and welded along the seam,
while solid-drawn is produced in tubular form and is therefore seamless. This type of conduit is
used only for flameproof installations (owing to its expense).
Metal conduit may be threaded and bent, making it a versatile system. It is available covered
with black enamel paint or galvanized, the choice depending on the situation in which it is to be
used. It is supplied with all the fittings necessary to make it a complete installation system.
When one is preparing conduit, care must be taken to use the correct tools and preparation
methods. For example, a proper conduit bending machine and accessories are essential. The
machine will have several different sizes of bending wheel and come complete with a pipe vice.
The principle on which it is based is that of a simple second-order lever ( Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1 Bending metal Conduit

Some typical bends in conduit are illustrated in Figure 3.2. The set is frequently used in order to
terminate the conduit at an outlet box.

Figure 3.2 Conduit Bends

There are several ways of joining and terminating conduit as shown in Figure 3.3 . Figure 3.3 C
shows a running coupler . The conduits to be joined are threaded to a distance greater than the
length of the coupler. The coupler is then screwed right on to one thread, the other conduit is
butted to the first conduit and the coupler is screwed back over the second thread. This method
enables two conduits to be joined without actually turning the conduits themselves. The locknuts
are provided to prevent the coupler from moving.

Figure 3.3 Conduit Terminations and joints

Fixing conduit

Figure 3.4 shows the common methods used for securing or fixing conduit. Crampets are used
for securing conduit in place prior to covering with plaster. Spacer-bar types are often used to
space the conduit out from a wall in order to avoid the need for sets.

Figure 3.4 Conduit Supports

Distance saddles space the conduit far enough from the fixing surface to prevent dust from
collecting between the conduit and the surface. They were in the past often used in hospitals
when they were known as hospital saddles.
Other accessories for use with conduit include elbows (sharp 90 bends), bends (gentle 90
bends) and tees. All of these are available in the inspection and non inspection varieties. There
are also circular boxes with removable lids, to permit ease of wiring a conduit system. Some of
these accessories are shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 Conduit Accessories

Flexible conduit

Flexible conduit is of great use when a rigid conduit system is supplying machinery. The use of a
short connecting length of flexible conduit ensures that the vibration of the motor does not affect
the rigid conduit and enables the motor easily to be aligned, or removed for repair (Figure 3.6 )

Fig
ure 3.6 Flexible Conduit

Non-metallic (PVC) conduit

PVC conduit is especially suitable for installation systems in light-industrial premises or offices
where surface wiring is required. The fittings are identical to those used for metal conduit with
the exception that the system is connected not by screwing but by the use of an adhesive. PVC
conduit may be bent by hand using a bending spring. This spring, having the same diameter as
the inside of the conduit, is pushed inside the conduit. The conduit may now be bent by hand,
the spring ensuring that the conduit keeps its shape. In cold weather a little warmth may need to
be applied to achieve a successful bend.

3.3 TRUNKING
Trunking may be thought of simply as a larger and more accessible conduit system. It is
available in two ranges: ordinary wiring trunking and bus-bar trunking. The ordinary system is
further available in either metal or PVC.
PVC trunking
The main areas in which PVC trunking is used are domestic and office premises. It is perhaps
better described as channelling rather than trunking . All necessary fittings are available to
complete any shape of run with little difficulty. Joins in PVC trunking are usually made with
adhesive.
Metal trunking
Metal trunking is used extensively in engineering premises. It allows a large number of cables to
be drawn into one system with relative ease and because of its accessibility enables changes or

additions to circuits to be made with the minimum of effort. As with conduit, it is available
either painted or galvanized. A whole range of fittings are available, enabling the most difficult
runs to be constructed. It is available in many different sizes and designs. For example,
compartment trunking allows the segregation of certain circuits and support of cables in vertical
runs. Figure 3.7 shows several different types of trunking.

Figure

3.7
Condiut Trunkings

Cutting and drilling trunking

It is often necessary to cut or drill trunking. After cutting, all edges should be filed to remove
sharp metal. Burrs left after the drilling of a hole should also be filed away. When high-speed
twist drills are being used, a lubricant should be applied; this aids the drilling process and
prolongs the life of the drill. A lard oil such as tallow is recommended for use with steel (no
lubricant is needed when drilling PVC).
It is often necessary to cut large holes in order to connect conduit into the trunking system; this
may be achieved by the use of a circular hole saw or a pressure-type hole cutter. After cutting,
all hole edges must be filed smooth and conduit entries bushed. (Figure 3.8)

Figure

3.8 Hole
Cutting

Supports for trunking

Trunking may be secured direct to a surface or suspended by means of brackets. As trunking
material is thin, there is no room for countersunk holes. Roundhead screws are suggested, unless
of course the fixing surface requires bolts. There are occasions when the trunking has to be
suspended by means of brackets. Figure 3.9 shows typical bracket.

Figure 3.9 Screw Fixing And Trunking Bracket

Bus-bar trunking
There are two main types of bus-bar trunking, the overhead type of bus-bar used for distribution
in industrial premises and rising-main trunking. Overhead bus-bar trunking is ideal for
distribution in factories. It is run at high level, and the tap-off boxes enable machinery to be
moved easily. When connected in the form of a ring and incorporating section switches, this
system enables parts of the trunking to be isolated when necessary, without all machines losing
supply. ( Figure 3.10 )

Figure 3.10 Overhead Busbar Trunkings & Busbar

Trunkings
Trunking, and in particular steel trunking, can be fabricated into various shapes to allow for
bends and tees, etc. This process is, however, laborious and there are many different
manufactured shapes available which simply bolt onto straight sections to allow versatility in
installation. Figure 3.11 illustrates how such sections are joined together.

Figure 3.11 Trunking Joints

3.4 TRAYWORK
Tray work is another method of supporting several cables along a run. It is simply a perforated
metal tray on to which cables can be tied . Its use is restricted normally to situations such as
switch rooms, boiler houses and large cable ducts (i.e. places not normally occupied by
personnel).
The construction of a cable tray is such that it is easily cut, shaped and bolted, to suit all
situations. Support brackets are the same as for trunking. ( Figure 3.12 )

Figure 3.12

Cable Tray

3.5 FIXING AND TOOLS

An important aspect of installation work is the fixing of accessories to various surfaces. Figure
3.13 shows several different methods of fixing.
The main disadvantage of gravity and spring toggles is that it is not possible to remove the bolt
without losing the toggle.
Tools
The following is a list of tools used by the electrician, a complete basic tool kit will have all
these items. These tools are used for chasing walls, lifting floorboards,
a) Club hammer - This is for use with cold chisels and bolsters. Ensure that the handle
is in good condition. Do not use the hammer if the head is loose.
b) Bolster (large and small) - This tool is used for chasing walls and brickwork and
for making holes for metal boxes. Ensure no mushrooming .
c) Floorboard chisel - This is similar to a bolster but with a longer handle. The same
precautions should be taken as for bolsters.
d) Scutch hammer and combs - These tools are used for chasing brickwork.
e) Cold chisels (a selection of various sizes) - These are for use on brickwork and
concrete. The same precautions should be taken as for bolsters.
f) Tenon saw and pad saw - For cutting floorboards, etc. (special floorboard cutters
are available). They must be kept sharp and greased when not in use.
g) Brace and wood bits - These are used for drilling joists, etc. Wood bits should be
kept sharp and ratchets oiled.
h) Claw hammer - For de-nailing joists and floorboards. Precautions to be taken are
the same as those for a club hammer.
i) Rawl plug tool and bits - These are for making holes in brickwork and concrete in
order to insert Rawl plugs. Watch for mushrooming of the head.
j) Hand drill and electric drill - These are for use with metal drills and masonry
drills. An electric drill should preferably have two speeds and a hammer action.

Figure 3.13 Methods of Fixing

These tools are used for fitting accessories such as sockets and so on,
a) Large cabinet-makers screwdriver - This tool is for use in fixing screws.
b) Large and small electricians screwdriver - Used for most screws in accessories. The
handles of screwdrivers must be in perfect condition, and the tips must be kept at the
correct size. Only the correct size of tip should be used on screws. Do not use
screwdrivers as chisels.
c) Wire cutters and strippers - Used for preparing cable ends. They should be kept clean
and sharp.
d) Pliers and sidecutters, insulated, junior hacksaw and blades, Stanley knife and blades These are used for general work.
e) Set of tools for termination of m.i.m.s. cable - Cutting tools should be kept sharp and all
surplus compounds removed.
f) Tools for use on conduit and trunking - These include a bending machine with a pipe
vice, designed for use with most sizes of conduit. They should be kept clean and free
from metal particles. Another tool for use on conduit is a hacksaw frame taking hand
blades with 32 teeth per 2.5 cm; the blade must be used in the correct direction.
g) A selection of files - Files are used for removing sharp edges and burrs. Always use a
handle on a file.
h) Reaming tool - For removing burrs from the inside edge of the conduit.

i) Stock and dies - These tools are used for cutting threads. A recommended lubricant such
as tallow should be used. Dies must be kept clean; do not allow a build-up of tallow and
metal.
j) Adjustable pipe wrench and Stillson - Used for tightening and untightening conduit.
k) Bush spanner - This tool is for use on inaccessible bush nuts.
l) Draw tape - Used for pulling cables through conduit.
m) Measuring tape - Steel tapes must not be used near live equipment.
n) Set of twist drills - For use with a hand or electric drill. Cutting edges should be kept
sharp. A hot drill must never be quenched in water.
o) Selection of spanners - For general use.
p) Set-square - For use in marking out trunking.
q) Scriber - Used for marking metal. The points should be kept sharp.
r) Centre punch - For marking metal prior to drilling.
s) Hole saw - This type of saw is used for cutting holes in trunking. It should be used only
with a hand drill or a low-speed electric drill.
t) Putty knife and pointing trowel - For making good the plasterwork, etc. Bending
springs Used for PVC conduit.
u) Solder, soldering iron, blowlamp - These are used for all general electrical soldering.
Approved test lamp Used on live circuits. Moisture must be kept away. First-aid kit This
must be kept stocked at all times.

Heat treatment
Most good-quality tools are manufactured from carbon steel. When carbon steel is heated, its
physical properties change, and these changes may be used to advantage. On being heated,
carbon steel increases in temperature until it reaches a point called the lower critical limit ,
when the steel starts to change. It remains at this temperature for a short while before its
temperature increases again to the upper critical limit, where the change is complete. On slow
cooling the reverse process takes place and the steel returns to normal.
Hardening
If a sample of carbon steel is heated to its upper critical limit and then cooled rapidly by
plunging it into cold water, it will become very hard. It is usually too brittle for most purposes,
however, and has to be tempered.
Tempering
Tempering is carried out by heating the hardened steel to just below its lower critical limit and
quenching in water. The steel then loses its brittleness but remains very hard.

Annealing
In order to cold-work to shape and/or machine a sample of steel before it is hardened and
tempered, it must be as soft and ductile (able to be permanently deformed without damage) as
possible. This is achieved by heating the sample to its hardening temperature and then cooling it
very slowly over a long period of time.

Work hardening
Excessive hammering, rolling or bending, etc., of a metal causes it to harden and become brittle.
It may be returned to its original condition by annealing.

CHAPTER 04
FUSES
Introduction

A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive current flows
through it and thus breaks the circuit
The fuse element is generally made of materials having low melting point, high conductivity and
least deterioration due to oxidation, E. g. Silver, Copper etc, It is inserted in series with the
circuit to be protected. Under normal operating opening conditions, the fuse element is at a
temperature below its melting point. Therefore, it carries the normal current without
overheating. However, when a short circuit or overload occurs, the current through the fuse
increases beyond its rated value. This raises the temperature and fuse element melts (or blows
out), disconnecting the circuit protected by it. In this way, a fuse protects the machines and
equipment from damage due to excessive currents.
The time required to below out the fuse depends upon the magnitude of excessive current. The
greater the current, the smaller is the time taken by the fuse to blow out. In other words, a fuse
has inverse time current characteristics. Such a Characteristic permits its use for overcurrent
protection.
Advantages :
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)

It is the cheapest form of protection available.

It requires no maintenance.
Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker which
requires an elaborate equipment for automatic action.
It can break heavy short circuit currents without noise or smoke.
The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under short
circuit conditions.
The inverse time current characteristic of a fuse makes it suitable for overcurrent
protection.
The minimum time of operation can be made much shorter than with the circuit
breakers.

Disadvantages :
1.)
2.)
3.)

Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation.

On heavy short circuits, discrimination between fuses in series cannot be
obtained unless there is sufficient difference in the sizes of the fuses concerned.
The current time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be co related with that
of the protected apparatus.

Desirable Characteristics of Fuse Element

The function of a fuse is to carry the normal current without overheating but when the current
exceeds its normal value, it rapidly heats up to melting point and disconnects the circuit
protected by it. In order that it may perform this function satisfactorily, the fuse element should
have the following desirable characteristics,
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)

Low melting point E. g . tin, lead

High conductivity E. g . silver, copper
Free from deterioration due to oxidation E. g . silver
Low cost E. g . tin, copper

The above discussion reveals that no material prossesses all the characteristics. For instance,
lead has low melting point but it has high specific resistance and is liable to oxidation. Similarly,
copper has high conductivity and low cost but oxidises rapidly. Therefore, a compromise is
made in the selection of material for a fuse.

Fuse Element Materials

The most commonly used materials for fuse element are lead, tin, copper, zinc and silver. For
small currents upto 10A, tin or an alloy of lead and tin (lead 37%, tin 63%) is used for making
the fuse element. For larger currents, copper or silver is employed. It is a usual practice to tin the
copper to protect it from oxidation. Zinc ( in strip form only) is good if a fuse with considerable
time lag is required i. e. one which does not melt very quickly with a small overload.
The present trend is to use silver despite its high cost due to the following reasons,
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)

5.)

6.)

It is comparatively free from oxidation.

It does not deteriorate when used in dry air.
The coefficient of expansion of silver is so small that no critical fatigue occurs.
Therefore, the fuse element can carry the rated current continuously for a long time.
The conductivity of silver is very high. Therefore, for a given rating of fuse element,
the mass of silver metal required is smaller than that of other materials. This
minimizes the problem of clearing the mass of vapourised material set free on fusion
and thus permits fast operating speed.
Due to comparatively low specific heat, silver fusible elements can be raised from
normal temperature to vapourisation quicker than other fusible elements. Moreever,
the resistance of silver increases abruptly as the melting temperature is reached, thus
making the transition from melting to vapourisation almost instantaneous.
Consequently, operation becomes very much faster at higher currents.
Silver vapourises at a temperature much lower than the one at which its vapour will
readily ionize. Therefore, when an arc is formed through the vapourised portion of
the element, the arc path has high resistance. As a result, short circuit current is
quickly interrupted.

Important terms
The following terms are much used in the analysis of fuses,
1.) Current rating of fuse element - It is the current which the fuse element can normally
carry without overheating or melting. It depends upon the temperature rise of the
contacts of the fuse holder, fuse material and surroundings of the fuse.

2.) Fusing Current It is the minimum current at which the fuse element melts and thus
disconnects the circuit protected by it. Obviously, its value will be more than the current
rating of the fuse element.
For a round wire, the approximate relationship between fusing current I and
diameter d
of the wire is I = k d3/2 , Where k is a constant, called the fuse
constant.
Its value depends upon the metal of which the fuse element is made. Sir W.H.
Preece found the value of k for different material as given in the Table 3.1,
Table 4.1: K Value for different materials
S. No
1
2
3
4

Material
Copper
Alluminium
Tin
Lead

d in cm
2530
1873
405.5
340.6

Value of k
d in mm
80
59
12.8
10.8

The fusing current depends upon the various factors such as,
Material of fuse element
Length the smaller the length, the greater the current because a short
fuse can easily conduct away all the heat.
Diameter
Size and location of terminals
Previous history
Type of enclosure used
3.) Fusing factor it is the ratio of minimum fusing current to the current rating of the fuse
element.
Fusing factor = Minimum fusing current
Current rating of fuse
Its value is always more than one. The smaller the fusing factor, the greater is the
difficulty in avoiding deterioration due to overheating and oxidation at rated carrying
current. For a semi enclosed or rewirable fuse which employs copper wire as the fuse
element, the fusing factor is usually 2. Lower values of fusing factor can be employed for
enclosed type cartridge fuses using silver or bimetallic elements.
4.) Prospective Current Following Figure 3.14 shows how A. C. current is cut off by a
fuse. The fault current would normally have a very large first loo, but it actually
generates sufficient energy to melt the fuseable element well before the peak of this first
loop is reached. The r. m. s. value of the first loop of fault current is known as
prospective current, Therefore, prospective current can be defined as under,

Figure
3.14How A.

C.
current is cut off

Note on figure: It is the r.m.s value of the first loop of the fault current obtained if the
fuse is replaced by an ordinary conductor of negligible resistance.
5.) Cut -Off Current it is the maximum value of fault current actually reached before the
fuse melts.On the occurrence of a fault, the fault current has a very large first loop due to
a fair degree of asymmetry. The heat generated is sufficient to melt the fuse element well
before the peak of first loop is reached. The current corresponding to point a is the cut
off current. The cut off value depends upon,
a) Current rating of fuse
b) Value of prospective current
c) Asymmetry of short circuit current
It may be mentioned here that outstanding feature of fuse action is the breaking of circuit
before the fault current reaches its first peak. This gives the fuse a great advantage over a
circuit breaker since the most serve thermal and electro magnetic effects of short
circuit currents (which occur at the peak value of prospective current) are not
experienced with fuses. Therefore, the circuits protected by fuses can be designed to
withstand maximum current equal to the cut off value. This consideration together with
the relative cheapness of fuses allows much saving in cost.

6.) Pre -Arcing time It is the time between the commencement of fault and the instant
when cut off occurs.
When a fault occurs, the fault current rises rapidly and generates heat in the fuse element.
As the fault current reaches the cut off value, the fuse element melts and an arc in
initiated. The time from the start of the fault to the instant the arc is initiated is known
pre- arcing time. The pre- arcing time is generally small, a typical value being 0.001
second.
7.) Arcing time This is the time between the end of pre arcing time and the instant when
the arc is extinguished.
8.) Total operating time It is the sum of pre arcing and arcing times.
It may be noted that operating time of a fuse is generally quite low (say 0.002 sec.) as
compared to a circuit breaker (say 0.2 sec or so ). This is an added advantage of a fuse
over a circuit breaker. A fuse in series with a circuit breaker of low breaking capacity is
a useful and economical arrangement to provide adequate short circuit protection. It is
because the fuse will blow under fault conditions before the circuit breaker has the time
to operate.
9.) Breaking Capacity - It is the r. m. s. value of a. c. component of maximum prospective
current that a fuse can deal with at rated service voltage.

Types of Fuses
Fuse is the simplest current interrupting device for protection against excessive currents. Since
the invention of first fuse by Edison, several improvements have been made and now a days,
a variety of fuses are available. Some fuses also incorporate means for extinguishing the arc that
appears when the fuse element melts. In general, fuses may be classified into,
1.)
2.)

Low Voltage Fuses

High Voltage Fuses

It is a usual practice to provide isolating switches in series with fuses where it is necessary to
permit fuses to be replaced or rewired with safety. If such means of isolation are not available,
the fuses must be so shielded as to protect the user against accidental contact with the live metal
when the fuse carrier is being inserted or removed.
LOW VOLTAGE FUSES
Low voltage fuses can be subdivided into two classes viz., (i) semi enclosed rewireable fuse (ii)
high rupturing capacity (H. R. C.) fuse.

1. Semi Enclosed Rewireable Fuse

Rewireable fuse (also known as kit kat type) is used where low values of fault current are to be
interrupted. It consists of (i) a base and (ii) a fuse carrier. The base is of porcelain and carries the
fixed contacts to which the incoming and outgoing phase wires are connected. The fuse carrier is
also of porcelain and holds the fuse element (tinned copper wire) between its terminals. The fuse
carrier can be inserted in or taken out of the base when desired. ( Figure 4.1 )

Figure 4.1 Semi Enclosed Rewireable Fuse

When a fault occurs, the fuse element is blown out and the circuit is interrupted. The fuse carrier
is taken out and the blown out fuse element is replaced by the new one. The fuse carrier is then
re inserted in the base to restore the supply. This type of fuse has two advantages. Firstly, the
detachable fuse carrier permits the replacement of fuse element without any danger of coming in
contact with live parts. Secondly, the cost of replacement is negligible.
The circuits, for which this type of fuse is designed, have colour codes that are marked on the
fuse holder and are as follows,
o
o
o
o
o

45 A Green
30 A Red
20 A Yellow
15 A Blue
5 A White

Disadvantages
1.)
2.)
3.)

There is a possibility of renewal by the fuse wire of wrong size or by improper

material.
This type of fuse has a low breaking capacity and hence cannot be used in circuits
of high fault level.
The fuse element is subjected to deterioration due to oxidation through the
continuous heating up of the element. Therefore, after some time, the current rating

4.)
5.)

of the fuse is decreased, i. e., the fuse operates at a lower current than originally
rated.
The protective capacity of such a fuse is uncertain as it affected by the ambient
conditions.
Accurate calibration of the fuse wire is not possible because fusing current very
much depends upon the length of the fuse element.

Semi enclosed rewireable fuses are made upto 500A rated current, but their breaking capacity
is low, E. g. on 400V service, the breaking capacity is about 4000A. Therefore, the use of this
type of fuses is limited to domestic and lighting loads.

2. High Rupturing Capacity (H. R. C.) Cartridge Fuse

The primary objection of low and uncertain breaking capacity of semi enclosed rewireable
fuses is overcome in H. R. C. cartridge fuse. It consists of a heat resisting ceramic body having
metal end caps to which is welded silver current carrying element. The space within the body
surrounding the element is completely packed with a filling powder. The filling material may be
chalk, plaster of paris, quartz or marble dust and acts as an arc quenching and cooling medium. (
Figure 4.2 )

Figure 4.2 HRC Fuse

Under normal load conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting point.
Therefore, it carries the normal current without overheating. When a fault occurs, the current
increases and the fuse element melts before the fault current reaches its first peak. The heat
produced in the process vapourises the melted silver element. The chemical reaction between the
silver vapour and the filling powder results in the formation of a high resistance which helps in
quenching the arc.
Advantages
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)

They are capable of clearing high as well as low fault currents.

They do not deteriorate with age.
They have high speed of operation.
They provide reliable discrimination.
They require no maintenance.
They are cheaper than other circuit interrupting devices of equal breaking capacity.
They permit consistent performance.

Disadvantages
1.)
2.)

They have to be replaced after each operation.

Heat produced by the arc may affect the associated switches.

3. H. R. C. Fuse with tripping device

Sometime, H. R. C. cartridge fuse is provided with a tripping device. When the fuse blows out
under fault conditions, the tripping device causes the circuit breaker to operate. The body of the
fuse is of ceramic material with a metallic cap rigidly fixed at each end. These are connected by
a number of silver fuse elements. At one end is a plunger which under fault conditions hits the
tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker and causes it to operate. The plunger is electrically
connected through a fusible link, chemical charge and a tungsten wire to the other end of the
cap.
When a fault occurs, the silver fuse elements are the first to be blown out and then current is
transferred to the tungsten wire. The weak link in series with the tungsten wire gets fused and
causes the chemical charge to be detonated. This forces the plunger outward to operate the
circuit breaker. The travel of the plunger is so set that it is not ejected from the fuse body under
fault conditions.
Advantages
H. R. C. fuse with a tripping device has the following advantages over a H. R. C. fuse without
tripping device,
1.)

2.)
3.)

In case of a single phase fault on a three phase system, the plunger operates the
tripping mechanism of circuit breaker to open all the three phases and thus prevents
single phasing
The effects of full short circuit current need not be considered in the choice of circuit
breaker, This permits the use of a relatively inexpensive circuit breaker.
The fuse tripped circuit breaker is generally capable of dealing with fairly small
fault currents itself. This avoids the necessity for replacing the fuse expect after
highest currents for which it is intended.

Low voltage H.R. C. fuses may be built with a breaking capacity of 16,000A to 30,000A at
440V. They extensively used on low voltage distribution system against over load and short
circuit conditions.

HIGH VOLTAGE FUSES

The low voltage fuses discussed so far have low normal current rating and breaking capacity.
Therefore, they cannot be successfully used on modern high voltage circuits. Intensive research
by the manufacturers and supply engineers has led to the development of high voltage fuses.
Some of the high voltage fuses are,

1.) Cartridge Type this is smaller in general construction to the low voltage cartridge type
expect that special design features are incorporated. Some designs employ fuse elements
wound in the form of a helix so as to avoid corona effects at higher voltages. On some
designs, there are two fuse elements in parallel, one of low resistance (silver wire) and the
other of high resistance (tungsten wire). Under normal load conditions, the low resistance
element carries the normal current. When a fault occurs, the low resistance element is blown
out and the high resistance element reduces the short circuit current and finally breaks the
circuit. (Figure 4.3)

Figure 4.3 Cartridge Fuse

High voltage cartridge fuses are used upto 33kV with breaking capacity of about 8700A at
that voltage.Rating of the order of 200A at 6.6 kV and 11kV and 50A at 33kV are also
available.

2.) Liquid Type These fuses are filled with carbon tetrachloride and have the widest range of
application to high voltage systems. They may be used for circuits 100A rated current on
systems upto 132kV and may have breaking capacities of the order of 6100A.
While considering the essential parts of the liquid fuse, consists of a glass tube filled with
carbon tetrachloride solution and sealed at both ends with brass caps. The fuse wire is sealed
at one end of the tube and the other end of the wire is held by a strong phosphor bronze
spiral spring fixed at the other end of the glass tube. When the current exceeds the prescribed
limit, the fuse wire is blown out. As the fuse melts, the spring retracts part of it through a
baffle (or liquid director) and draws it well into the liquid. The small quantity of gas
generated at the point of fusion forces some part of liquid into the passage through baffle and
there it effectively extinguishes the arc.
3.) Metal Clad Fuses metal clad oil immersed fuses have been developed with the object of
providing a substitute for the oil circuit breaker. Such fuses can be used for very high voltage
circuits and operate most satisfactorily under short circuit conditions approaching their rated
capacity.

Difference between a FUSE And CIRCUIT BREAKER

It is worthwhile to indicate the salient differences between a fuse and a circuit breaker in the
tabular form in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Difference between a fuse and circuit breaker
S.
N
o
1

Particular

Fuse

Circuit Breaker

Function

It performs both detection and

interruption functions

Operation

Inherently completely Automatic

3
4
5

Breaking Capacity
Operating time
Replacement

Small
Very Small (0.002 sec. or so)
Requires replacement after every
operation

It performs interruption function only.

The detection of fault is made by relay
system.
Requires elaborate equipment (i. e.
Relays) for automatic action.
Very large
Comparatively large (0.1 to 0.2 sec.)
No replacement after operation.

CHAPTER 05
EARTHING SYSTEMS
Introduction
In the electrical supply system, the term earthing system refers to the electrical potential of the
conductors which is relative to that of the conductive surface of the Earth. The option of earthing
system is used for the electromagnetic compatibility and safety of the electricity supply.
Remember that the regulations for the earthing or grounding system differ significantly among
several other countries.

The PE or protective earth connection guarantees that all the exposed conductive surfaces as
well as the electrical potential like the Earths surface, in order to prevent from the danger of
electric current shock, if a human or animal touches the device wherein an insulation failure has
occurred.
Earthing system ensures that if there is any short circuit or insulation fault, a very powerful or
high voltage current flows that would trigger the over current protection device (circuit breaker,
fuse) which automatically disconnects the electric supply.

Components of an Earthing System

Contact with metalwork made live by a fault is clearly undesirable. One popular method of
providing some measure of protection against such contact is by protective earthing, protective
equipotential bonding and automatic disconnection of supply. This entails the bonding together
and connection to earth of the following,
1.) All metalwork associated with electrical apparatus and systems, termed exposed
conductive parts. Examples include conduit, trunking and the metal cases of
apparatus.
2.) All metalwork liable to introduce a potential including earth potential, termed
extraneous conductive parts. Examples are gas, oil and water pipes, structural
steelwork, radiators, sinks and baths.
Conductors
The conductors used in such connections are called protective conductors and they can be
further subdivided into the following,
1.) Circuit protective conductors (cpc), for connecting exposed conductive parts to the main
earthing terminal.
2.) Main protective bonding conductors, for bonding together main incoming services,
structural steelwork, etc.
3.) Supplementary protective bonding conductors, for bonding together sinks, baths, taps,
radiators, etc., and exposed conductive parts in bathrooms and swimming pools.
The effect of all this bonding is to create a zone in which all metalwork of different services and
systems will, even under fault conditions, be at a substantially equal potential. If, added to this,
there is a low-resistance earth return path, the protection should operate fast enough to prevent
danger.

Types of earthing systems

The resistance of an earth return path will depend upon the system. These systems have been
designated in the IEE Regulations using the letters T, N, C and S.
These letters stand for,

T - Terre (French for earth) and meaning a direct connection to earth

N - Neutral
C - Combined
S - Separate
Letter Classification
When these letters are grouped they form the classification of a type of system. The first letter in
such a classification denotes how the supply source is earthed. The second denotes how the
metalwork of an installation is earthed. The third and fourth indicate the functions of neutral and
protective conductors.
1. First Letter ( Types of supply earthing )
T : It mean one or more the source of power supply is earthed e.g : The neutral point
of transformer.
I : It mean No source of consumer power supply is earthed at all .The main purpose is
to avoid or limit the fault current.
2. Second Letter ( Earthing arrangement )
T : It mean all exposed metal conductor connected directly to the general mass of
earth
I : It mean all exposed metal conductors are connected to the earth conductor of the
user power supply source
3. Third and Fourth Letter ( Arrangement of the earthed supply conductor system )
S : Separation system of neutral and earth conductors
I : Neutral and earth is the combined together for single conductor

Hence, There are five ( 5 ) earthing system types,

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

TT system
IT system
TN-S system
TN-C-S system
TN-C system

TT, System
A TT system has a direct connection of the supply source to earth and a direct connection of the
installation metalwork to earth. An example is an overhead line supply with earth electrodes, and
the mass of earth as a return path ( Figure. 5.1)

Figure 5.1 TT System

TN S, System
A TNS system has the supply source directly connected to earth, the installation metalwork
connected to the earthed neutral of the supply source via the metal sheath of the supply cable,
and the neutral and protective conductors throughout the whole system performing separate
functions (Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2 TN S System

TN C- S, System
A TNCS system is as the TNS system but the supply cable sheath is also the neutral, that is,
it forms a combined earth/neutral conductor known as a PEN (Protective Earthed Neutral)
conductor (Figure 5.3). The installation earth and neutral are separate conductors. This system is
also known as PME (Protective Multiple Earthing.

Figure 5.3 TN C S System

Note: that only single-phase systems have been shown, for simplicity.
With this system (PME system), it is important to ensure that the neutral is kept at earth potential
by earthing it at many points along its length (hence multiple earthing). If this is not done, a

fault to neutral in one installation could cause a shock risk in all the other installations connected
to that system (Figure 5.4) .

Figure 5.4 PME System

There are, however, several hazards associated with the use of a PME system. These include,
1. Shock risk if neutral is broken. In this case, a fault on a PME system with a
broken neutral would result in the neutral becoming live to earth either side of the
break. This situation is more likely to occur with overhead supplies.
2. Fire risk. As heavy currents are encouraged to flow, there is a risk of fire starting
during the time it takes for the protective devices to operate.

The chance of a broken neutral is lessened in underground cable to some extent by the use of
concentric cable, as it is unlikely that the neutral conductor in such a cable could be broken
without breaking the live conductor.
In view of the hazards of such a system there are strict regulations for its use, and approval from
the Department of Trade and Industry must be obtained before it can be installed.

In order to avoid the risk of serious electric shock, it is important to provide a path for earth
leakage currents to operate the circuit protection, and to endeavor to maintain all metalwork at
the same potential. This is achieved by bonding together metalwork of electrical and nonelectrical systems to earth. The path for leakage currents would then be via the earth itself in TT
systems or by a metallic return path in TNS or TNCS systems.

CHAPTER 06
CONNECTING TO EARTH
In the light of previous comments, it is obviously necessary to have as low an earth path
resistance as possible, and the point of connection to earth is one place where such resistance
may be reduced. When two conducting surfaces are placed in contact with each other, there will
be a resistance to the flow of current depending on the surface areas in contact. It is clear, then,
that the greater surface contact area with earth that can be achieved, the better.
There are several methods of making a connection to earth, including the use of rods, plates and
tapes. By far the most popular method in everyday use is the rod earth electrode. The plate type
needs to be buried at a sufficient depth to be effective and, as such plates may be 1 or 2 m 2,
considerable excavation may be necessary.
The tape type is predominantly used in the earthing of large electricity substations, where the
tape is laid in trenches in a mesh formation over the whole site. Items of plant are then earthed to
this mesh.

Rod Electrodes
These are usually of solid copper or copper-clad carbon steel, the latter being used for the largerdiameter rods with extension facilities. These facilities comprise a thread at each end of the rod
to enable a coupler to be used for connecting the next rod, a steel cap to protect the thread from
damage when the rod is being driven in, a steel driving tip, and a clamp for the connection of an
earth tape or conductor ( Figure 6.1 ).
The choice of length and diameter of such a rod will, as previously mentioned, depend on the
soil conditions. For example, a long thick electrode is used for earth with little moisture
retention. Generally, a 12 m rod, 16 mm in diameter, will give a relatively low resistance.

Earth Electrode Resistance

If we were to place an electrode in the earth and then measure the resistance between the
electrode and points at increasingly larger distances from it, we would notice that the resistance
increased with distance until a point was reached (usually around 2.5 m) beyond which no
increase in resistance was seen ( Figure 6.2 ).
The value of this electrode resistance will depend on the length and cross-sectional area (C.S.A.)
of the electrode and the type of soil.

Figure 6.1 - Earth Rod

This resistance area is particularly important with regard to voltage at the surface of the ground
(Figure 6.3 ).

For a 2 m earth rod, with its top at ground level, 80% to 90% of the voltage appearing at the
electrode under fault conditions is dropped across the earth in the first 2.5 to 3 m. This is
particularly dangerous where livestock are present as the hind and fore legs of an animal can be,
respectively, inside and outside the resistance area, 25 V can be lethal. This problem can be
overcome by ensuring that the whole of the electrode is well below ground level and by
providing protection that will operate in a fraction of a second (earth leakage circuit breaker)
(Figure 6.4 ).

Figure 6.2 Resistance Area of Electrode

Figure 6.3 Electrode Resistance

Figure 6.4 earth Electrode Resistance

Megger Tester
Of course, values of resistance will depend on the type of soil and its moisture content. Any soil
that holds moisture such as clay or marshy ground has a relatively low resistivity, whereas
gravel or rock has a high resistivity. Typical values for soil resistivity in ohms are in Table 6.1.

Figure 6.7 shows the measuring the earth electrode resistance with the earth Megger Tester.

Table 6.1: Typical values for soil resistivity

Soil type

Soil resistivityohms)

Graden Soil

5 -50

Clay

10 100

Sand

250 -500

Rock

1000 - 10000

Figure 6.5 shows the measuring the earth electrode resistance with the earth Megger Tester.

Figure 6.7 Earth Megger Tester

CHAPTER 07
JOINTING AND TERMINATIONS
Where ever conductors are to be joined together, or to accessories, or to bus-bars, a safe and
effective termination or joint must be made.
Jointing
There are many different ways of joining two conductors together. Here we discuss some of the
more popular methods.
The screw connector
The screw connector ( Figure 7.1 ) is probably the simplest method of joining conductors.
Because of their simplicity these devices are often used incorrectly. Connectors of this type
should always be fixed to a base, allowing the conductor no movement. They should not be used
to connect two flexible cords together.

Figure 7.1 Screw Connector

Junction box
A junction box ( Figure 7.2 ) is an extension of the connector block type of joint. It is enclosed
with a lid, and screwed to a base (joint, wall, etc.) and is designed for fixed wiring systems.
Soldered joints
This type of joint may be achieved in several ways by,
1.

2.
3.
4.

Interlacing (like the fingers of the hands) the cable conductors (stranded) and
running solder over the joint. This is called a married joint (straight-through
joint);
A tee joint, as shown in Figure 7.3
A soldered straight-through joint using a split ferrule ( Figure 7.4 ),
A crimped joint ( Figure 7.5 ),

Figure 7.2 Junction Box

Figure 7.3 - Soldered Tee Joint

Figure 7.4 Joint using Split Ferrule

Figure 7.5 Crimped Joints

Terminations
When a cable conductor is finally connected to the apparatus it is supplying, a safe and effective
termination of that conductor must be made.
PVC Singles into Screw Terminals
The insulation should be removed only far enough to allow the conductor to enter the terminal.
Do not leave bare conductor showing outside the terminal ( Figure 7.6 ) . Take care not to score
the conductor surface when removing the insulation as this may cause the conductor to break if
moved.

Figure 7.6 Screw Terminal Connections

PVC Twin and Three - Core with Earth

In this case, although the final connection into screw terminals is the same as for singles, care
must be taken not to damage the conductor insulation when removing the outer sheath. Two
methods used are as follows,
1. Using a sharp knife, slice the cable lengthwise, open the cable up and cut of the sheath. (
Figure 7.7 )

Figure 7.7 Cable Sheath Removing

2. With a pair of side cutters, split the end of the cable and hook out the end of the earth
conductor. This may then be held with a pair of pliers and pulled backwards along the
cable, splitting open the sheath. Excess sheath may then be cut away. ( Figure 7.8 )

Figure 7.8 Cable Sheath Removing

Mineral-insulated metal-sheathed cable

As the magnesium oxide insulation is absorbent, the termination of M.I.M.S. cable has to be
watertight. The main method of terminating this type of cable is by using a screw-on seal. The
preparation of the cable is as follows,
1. The sheath is stripped using a stripping tool ( Figure 7.9 ).
2. Loose powder is removed by tapping cable.
3. The gland nut is slipped over the cable.
After this the remainder of the termination is shown in ( Figure 7.10 ).

Figure 7.9 Stripping Tool

Figure 7.10 Screw Seal Termination

Armoured cable (steel wire armour)

The method of terminating S.W.A. cable is best illustrated in Figure 7.11.

Figure 7.11 Armoured Cable

Lug terminations

There are two types of lugs: crimped lugs and soldered lugs. A crimped lug is fastened to the end
of the conductor using the same method as shown in Figure 7.12 . The soldered lug is filled with
molten solder and the conductor is pushed into it. Lug terminations are frequently used for
connecting a conductor to a bus-bar.

Figure 7.12 Bus Bar Lug Termination

Soldering
For soldering lugs and joints, a tinmans solder is used in conjunction with a flux. The flux keeps
the work clean and prevents it from being oxidized during soldering. For smaller jobs on fine
cable, a solder with a flux incorporated in it is used.
Termination into appliances
The methods used to terminate conductors have already been discussed. However, an important
aspect of termination of cable into appliances, especially the portable type, is the securing of the
cable at or near the point of entry ( Figure 7.13 ). A good example of this is the cable clamp in a
plug top.

Figure 7.13 Cable Cord Grip

It is important to note that in any termination and any run of conductor or cable, measures must
be taken to avoid any undue strain on that conductor or cable.

CHAPTER 08
PROTECTION
The meaning of the word protection as used in the electrical industry is no difficult to that in
everyday use. People protect themselves against personal or financial loss by means of insurance
and from in injury or discomfort by the use of the correct protective clothing. They further
protect their property by the insulation of security measures such as locks and alarm systems. In
the same way, electrical systems need,
1. To be protect against mechanical damage, the effects of the environment and electrical
over currents.
2. To be installed in such a fashion that persons and or livestock are protected from the
dangers that such an electrical installation may create.
Let us now look at these protective measures in more detail.
Cable Construction
A cable comprises one or more conductors, each covered with an insulating material. This
insulation provides protection from shock by direct contact and prevents the passage of leakage
currents between conductors clearly, insulation in very important and itself, should be protected
from damage. This may be archieved by covering the insulated conductors with a protective
sheathing during manufacture or by enclosing them in conduit or trunking at the insulation stage.
The type of sheathing chosen and the insulation method will depend on the environment in
which the cable is to be installed, for example, in an environment subject to mechanical damage,
metal conduit with PVC singles or mineral insulated cable would be used in preference to
PVC sheathed cable clipped direct, in an industrial environment. Figure 8.1 shows the effect
of physical impact on M.I. cable.

Figure 8.1 - Effected Mineral Cable

Protection Against Corrosion

Mechanical damage to cable sheaths and the metalwork of wiring systems can occur through
corrosion, and so care must be taken to choose corrosion resistance materials and to avoid
contact between dissimilar metals in damp situations.
Protection Against Thermal Effects
The IEE regulations basically require commonsense decisions regarding the placing of fixed
equipment, so that surrounding materials are not at risk from damage by heat. Added to these
requirements, is the need to protect persons and livestock from burns by guarding parts of
equipment liable to excessive temperature.

Degradation
All PVC polymers are degraded or reduced in quality by heat and light. Special stabilizer added
during manufacture help to retard this degradation at high temperatures. However, it is
recommended in the IEE regulations that PVC sheathed cables or thermo plastic fittings for
luminaires (light fittings) should not be installed, where the temperature is likely to rise above
60 oC, cables insulated with high temperature PVC (upto 80 oC) should be used for drops to
lamp holders and trunking should not be used in temperatures above 60 oC.

Embrittlement and Cracking

PVC exposed to low temperature becomes brittle and will crack easily if stressed. Although both
rigid and flexible PVC used in cables and conduit can reach as low as -5 oC without becoming
brittle, the regulations recommence that general purpose PVC insulated cables should not be
installed in areas, where the temperature is likely to be consistently below 0 oC. They further
recommend that PVC insulated cables should not be handled unless the ambient temperature is
above 0 oC and unless the cable temperature has been above 0 oC for at 24 hours.
Where rigid PVC conduit is to be installed in areas where the ambient temperature is below -5
oC but not lower than -25 oC.
When PVC insulated cables are installed in loft spaces insulated with polystyrene granule,
conduit between the two polymers can cause the plasticizer in the PVC to migrate to the
granules. This causes the PVC to harden and, Although there is no change in the electrical
properties, the insulation may crack if disturbed.

Protection Against Ingress of Solid Objects and Liquids

In order to protect live parts of equipment being contacted by foreign solid bodies or liquids and
also to prevent persons or livestock from coming into contact with live or moving parts, such
equipment is housed inside an enclosure.
The degree of protection offered by such an enclosure is indicated by an index of protection (IP)
code, as follows,

1. First Numerical Is for Mechanical Protection.

2. Second Numerical is for Liquid Protection.

First Numerical
0

No protection of persons against contact with live or moving parts inside the enclosure.
No protection of equipment against ingress of solid foreign bodies.

Protection against accidental or inadvertent contact with live or moving parts inside the
enclosure by a large surface of the human body. E. g. a hand, but not protection against
ingress of large solid foreign bodies.

2 -

Protection of persons against contact with live or moving parts inside the enclosure by
fingers. Protection against ingress of medium size solid, foreign bodies. (12.5 mm
spheres)

3 -

Protection of persons against contact with live or moving parts inside the enclosure by
tools. Wires or such objects of thickness greater than 2.5 mm. Protection against ingress
of small foreign bodies.

Protection of persons against contact with live or moving parts inside the enclosure by
tools. Wires or such objects of thickness greater than 1 mm. Protection against ingress of
small solid foreign bodies.

Complete protection against contact with live or moving parts inside the enclosure.
Protection against harmful deposits of dust. The ingress of dust is not totally prevented,
but dust cannot enter in an amount sufficient to interfere with satisfactory operation of
the equipment enclosed.

6 -

Complete protection against contact with live or moving parts inside the enclosures.
Protection against ingress of dust.

Second Numerical
0

No protection

Protection against drops of condensed water. Drops of condensed water falling on the
enclosure shall have no harmful effect.

Protection against drops of liquid. Drops of falling liquid shall have no harmful effect.
When the enclosure is tilted at any angle up to 15o from the vertical.

Protection against rain water falling in rain at an angle equal to or smaller than 60o with
respect to the vertical shall have no harmful effect.

Protection against splashing. Liquid splashed from any direction shall have no harmful
effect.

Protection against water jets. Water projected by a nozzle from any direction under
stated conditions shall have no harmful effect.

Protection against condition on ships, decks (deck with water tight equipment). Water
from heavy seas shall not enter the enclosures under prescribed condition.

Protection against immersion in water. It must not be possible for water to enter the
enclosure under stated conditions of pressure and time.

Protection against indefinite immersion in water under specified pressure. It must not be
possible for water to enter the enclosure.

Indicates No specified protection.

Basic Protection
Clearly, it is not satisfactory to have live parts accessible to touch by persons or livestock. The
IEE Regulations recommend five ways of minimizing this danger,
1. By covering the live part or parts with insulation, which can only be removed by
destruction, for example cable insulation.
2. By placing the live part or parts behind a barrier or inside an enclosure, providing
protection to at least IPXXB or IP2X. In most cases, during the life of an installation it
becomes necessary to open an enclosure or remove a barrier. Under these circumstances,
this action should only be possible by the use of a key or tool, for example by using a
screwdriver to open a junction box. Alternatively, access should only be gained after the
supply to the live parts has been disconnected, for example by isolation on the front of a
control panel where the cover cannot be removed until the isolator is in the off position.
An intermediate barrier of at least IP2X or IPXXB will give protection when an
enclosure is opened: a good example of this is the barrier inside distribution fuseboards,
which prevents accidental contact with incoming live feeds.
3. By placing obstacles to prevent unintentional approach to or contact with live parts. This
method must only be used where skilled persons are working.
4. By placing out of arms reach; for example, the high level of the bare conductors of
travelling cranes.
5. By using a residual current device (RCD) as additional protection. Whilst not per mitted
as the sole means of protection, this is considered to reduce the risk associated with
contact with live parts, provided that one of the other methods just mentioned is applied,
and that the RCD has a rated operating current, IN of not more than 30 mA and an
operating time not exceeding 40 ms at five times, IN, that is, 150 mA.

Fault protection
Reinforced insulation

Often referred to as double-insulated equipment, this is typical of modern appliances where

there is no provision for the connection of a circuit protective conductor (CPC). This does not
mean that there should be no exposed conductive parts and that the casing of equipment should
be of an insulating material; it simply indicates that live parts are so well insulated that faults
from live to conductive parts cannot occur.
Non-conducting location
This is basically an area in which the floor, walls and ceiling are all insulated. There must be no
protective conductors within such an area, and socket outlets should have no earthing
connections .
It must not be possible simultaneously to touch two exposed conductive parts, or to touch an
exposed conductive part and an extraneous conductive part. This requirement clearly prevents
shock current passing through a person in the event of an earth fault, and the insulated
construction prevents shock current passing to earth.
Earth-free local equipotential bonding
This is, in essence, a Faraday cage, where all metals are bonded together but not to earth.
Obviously great care must be taken while entering such a zone in order to avoid differences in
potential between inside and outside .
The areas mentioned in this method and the previous method are very uncommon. Where they
do exist, they should be under constant supervision to ensure that no additions or alterations can
reduce the protection intended.
Electrical separation
This method relies on a supply from a safety source such as an isolating transformer to BS EN
60742, which has no earth connection on the secondary side. In the event of a circuit that is
supplied from a source developing a live fault to an exposed conductive part, there would be no
path for shock current to flow (Figure 8.2 )
Once again, great care must be taken to maintain the integrity of this type of system as an
inadvertent connection to earth or interconnection with other circuits would render the
protection useless.
Exemptions
As with most sets of rules and regulations, there are certain areas that are exempt from the
requirements. These areas are listed quite clearly in IEE Regulations 410.3.9, and there is no
point in repeating them all here .
However, one example is the dispensing of the need to earth exposed conductive parts such as
small fixings, screws and rivets, provided that they cannot be touched or gripped by a major part
of the human body (not less than 50 mm X 50 mm), and that it is difficult to make and maintain
an earth connection.

Figure 8.2 Electrical Separation

Protection by automatic disconnection of supply
This measure is a combination of basic and fault protection.
Separated extra low voltage
This is simply extra low voltage (less than 50 V a.c.) derived from a safety source such as a class
II safety isolating transformer to BS EN 61558-2-6, or a motor generator, which has the same
degree of isolation as the transformer, or a battery or diesel generator, or an electronic device
such as a signal generator.
Live or exposed conductive parts of separated extra low voltage (SELV) circuits should not be
connected to earth or protective conductors of other circuits, and SELV circuit conductors
should ideally be kept separate from those of other circuits. If this is not possible, then the SELV
conductors should be insulated to the highest voltage present.
Obviously, plugs and sockets of SELV circuits should not be interchangeable with those of other
circuits.
SELV circuits supplying socket outlets are mainly used for hand lamps or soldering irons, for
example in schools and colleges. Perhaps a more common example of a SELV circuit is a
domestic bell installation, where the transformer is to BS EN 60742. Note that bell wire is
usually only suitable for 50 60 V, which means that it should not be run together with circuit
cables of higher voltages.
Reduced low voltage systems
The Health and Safety Executive accepts that a voltage of 63.5 V to earth, three phase, or 55 V
to earth, single phase, will give protection against severe electric shock. They therefore
recommend that portable tools used on construction sites, etc., be fed from a 110 V centretapped transformer to BS 4343. Figure 8.3 shows how 55 V is derived. Earth fault loop
impedance values for these systems may be taken from the Regulations.

Figure 8.3 Reduced Low Voltage System

Protection Against Over current

An over current is a current greater than the rated current of a circuit. It may occur in two ways,
1.
2.

As An overload current
As a fault current
i. An short circuit current
ii. An earth fault current

These conditions need to be protected against in order to avoid damage to circuit conductors and
equipment. In practice, fuses and circuit breakers will fulfill both of these needs.
Overload
Overload are overcurrents occurring in healthy circuits. They may be caused, for example, by
faulty appliances or by surges due to motors starting or by plugging in too many appliances, in a
socket outlet circuit.
Short circuits and Earth Faults
A Short circuit current is the current that will flow when a dead short occurs between live
conductors. (live to neutral for single phase, live to live for three phase) earth fault current flows
when there is a short between a live conductor and earth. Prospective short circuit current
(PSCC) and Prospective earth fault current (PEFC) are collectively known as prospective fault
current (PFC). The term is usually used to signify the value of fault current at fuse or circuit
breaker positions.

CHAPTER 09
TEST INSTRUMENTS

Electrical testing
The electrical contractor is charged with a responsibility to carry out a number of tests on an
electrical installation and electrical equipment.
The reasons for testing the installation are,
1.
2.
3.

To ensure that the installation complies with the Regulations.

To ensure that the installation meets the specification.
To ensure that the installation is safe to use.

Those who are to carry out the electrical tests must first consider the following safety factors,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

An assessment of safe working practice must be made before testing begins.

All safety precautions must be put in place before testing begins.
Everyone must be notified that the test process is about to takeplace, for example the
client and other workers who may be affected by the tests.
Permits-to-Work must be obtained where relevant.
All sources of information relevant to the tests have been obtained.
The relevant circuits and equipment have been identified.
Safe isolation procedures have been carried out care must be exercised here, in
occupied premises, not to switch off computer systems without first obtaining
permission.
Those who are to carry out the tests are competent to do so.

The electrical contractor is charged by the IEE Regulations for Electrical Installations to test all
new installations and major extensions during erection and upon completion before being put
into service. The contractor may also be called upon to test installations and equipment in order
to identify and remove faults. These requirements imply the use of appropriate test instruments,
and in order to take accurate readings consideration should be given to the following points,
1.
2.
3.

Is the instrument suitable for this test?

Have the correct scales been selected?
Is the test instrument correctly connected to the circuit?

Many commercial instruments are capable of making more than one test or have a range of
scales to choose from. A range selector switch is usually used to choose the appropriate scale. A
scale range should be chosen which suits the range of the current, voltage or resistance being
measured. For example, when taking a reading in the 8 or 9 V range the obvious scale choice
would be one giving 10 V full scale deflection. To make this reading on an instrument with 100
V full scale deflection would lead to errors, because the deflection is too small.
Ammeters must be connected in series with the load, and voltmeters in parallel across the load
as shown in Figure 9.1 . The power in a resistive load may be calculated from the readings of
voltage and current since P = VI . This will give accurate calculations on both a.c. and d.c.
supplies, but when measuring the power of an a.c. circuit which contains inductance or
capacitance a wattmeter must be used because the voltage and current will be out of phase.

Figure 9.1
Wattmeter, Ammeter, Voltmeter, correctly connecting to load.

Measurement of power in a three-phase circuit

1. One-Wattmeter Method
When three-phase loads are balanced, for example in motor circuits, one wattmeter may be
connected into any phase, as shown in Figure 9.2 . This wattmeter will indicate the power in
that phase and since the load is balanced the total power in the three-phase circuit will be given
by,
Total power = 3 X Wattmeter reading
2. Two-Wattmeter Method
This is the most commonly used method for measuring power in a threephase, three-wire system
since it can be used for both balanced and unbalanced loads connected in either star or delta. The
current coils are connected to any two of the lines, and the voltage coils are connected to the
other line, the one without a current coil connection, as shown in Figure 9.3 . Then,
Total power = W1 + W2
This equation is true for any three-phase load, balanced or unbalanced, star or delta connection,
provided there is no fourth wire in the system.

Figure
9.2
One
Wattmeter
measurement
power.

of

Figure 9.3 Two Wattmeter measurement power

3. Three-Wattmeter Method
If the installation is four-wire, and the load on each phase is unbalanced, then three-wattmeter
readings are necessary, connected as shown in Figure 9.4. Each wattmeter measures the power
in one phase and the total power will be given by,
Total power = W1 + W2 + W3

Figure 9.4
Three Wattmeter measurement power

9.1 TESTERS
Tong tester
The tong tester or clip-on ammeter works on the same principle as the transformer. The
laminated core of the transformer can be opened and passed over the busbar or single-core cable.
In this way a measurement of the current being carried can be made without disconnection of the
supply. The construction is shown in Figure 9.5.

Figure 9.5 Tong tester or Clip on Ammeter

Phase sequence testers

Phase sequence is the order in which each phase of a three-phase supply reaches its maximum
value. The normal phase sequence for a three-phase supply is brownblackgrey, which means
that first brown, then black and finally the grey phase reaches its maximum value.
Phase sequence has an important application in the connection of threephase transformers. The
secondary terminals of a three-phase transformer must not be connected in parallel until the
phase sequence is the same.
A phase sequence tester can be an indicator which is, in effect, a miniature induction motor, with
three clearly colour-coded connection leads. A rotating disc with a pointed arrow shows the
normal rotation for phase sequence brownblackgrey. If the sequence is reversed the disc
rotates in the opposite direction to the arrow. However, an on-site phase sequence tester can be
made by connecting four 230 V by 100 W lamps and a p.f. correction capacitor from a
fluorescent luminaire as shown in Figure. 9.6 .
The capacitor takes a leading current which results in a phase displacement in the other two
phases. The phasor addition of the voltage in the circuit results in one pair of lamps illuminating
brightly while the other pairs are illuminated dimly. Two lamps must be connected in series as
shown in Figure 9.6 because most of the line voltage will be across them during the test.

Figure 9.6 Phase sequence test by Light Bright , Light Dim method.

Test equipment used by electricians

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) has published Guidance Notes (GS 38) which advise
electricians and other electrically competent people on the selection of suitable test probes,
voltage indicating devices and measuring instruments. This is because they consider suitably
constructed test equipment to be as vital for personal safety as the training and practical skills of
the electrician. In the past, unsatisfactory test probes and voltage indicators have frequently been
the cause of accidents, and therefore all test probes must now incorporate the following features,

1. The probes must have finger barriers or be shaped so that the hand or fingers cannot make
contact with the live conductors under test.
2. The probe tip must not protrude more than 2 mm, and preferably only 1 mm, be springloaded and screened.
3. The lead must be adequately insulated and coloured so that one lead is readily
distinguished from the other.
4. The lead must be flexible and sufficiently robust.
5. The lead must be long enough to serve its purpose but not too long.
6. The lead must not have accessible exposed conductors even if it becomes detached from
the probe or from the instrument.
7. Where the leads are to be used in conjunction with a voltage detector they must be
protected by a fuse.

A suitable probe and lead is shown in Figure 9.7.

Figure 9.7 Test Probes And Leads.

GS 38 also tells us that where the test is being made simply to establish the presence or absence
of a voltage, the preferred method is to use a proprietary test lamp or voltage indicator which is
suitable for the working voltage, rather than a multimeter. Accident history has shown that
incorrectly set multimeters or makeshift devices for voltage detection have frequently caused
accidents.
Fig. 9.8 shows a suitable voltage indicator. Test lamps and voltage indicators are not fail-safe,
and therefore GS 38 recommends that they should be regularly proved, preferably before and
after use, as described in the flowchart for a safe isolation procedure shown in Figure 9.8.

Figure 9.8 Voltage

Indicator.

Test procedures
1. The circuits must be isolated using a safe isolation procedure , such as that described
below, before beginning to test.
2. All test equipment must be approved and connected to the test circuits by recommended
test probes as described by the HSE Guidance Notes GS 38. The test equipment used must
also be proved on a known supply or by means of a proving unit.
3. Isolation devices must be secured in the off position.
4. Warning notices must be posted.
5. All relevant safety and functional tests must be completed before restoring the supply.

Live testing
The Electricity at Work Act tells us that it is preferable that supplies be made dead before
work commences (Regulation 4(3)). However, it does acknowledge that some work, such as
fault-finding and testing, may require the electrical equipment to remain energized. Therefore, if
the fault finding and testing can only be successfully carried out live , then the person
carrying out the fault diagnosis must,

be trained so that he understands the equipment and the potential hazards of working live
and can, therefore, be deemed to be competent to carry out the activity;
only use approved test equipment;
set up barriers and warning notices so that the work activity does not create a situation
dangerous to others.

Isolation of supply
The Electricity at Work Regulations are very specific in describing the procedure to be used for
isolation of the electrical supply. Regulation 12(1) tells us that isolation means the disconnection
and separation of the electrical equipment from every source of electrical energy in such a way
that this disconnection and separation is secure.
Regulation 4(3) tells us that we must also prove the conductors dead before work commences
and that the test instrument used for this purpose must itself be proved immediately before and
immediately after testing the conductors.
To isolate an individual circuit or item of equipment successfully, competently and safely we
must follow a procedure such as that given by the flow diagram in Figure 9.9 . Start at the top
and work your way down the flowchart. When you get to the heavy-outlined amber boxes, pause
and ask yourself whether everything is satisfactory up to this point. If the answer is yes, move
on. If no, go back as indicated by the diagram.

Inspection and testing techniques

The testing of an installation implies the use of instruments to obtain readings. However, a test is
unlikely to identify a cracked socket outlet, a chipped or loose switch plate, a missing conduitbox lid or saddle, so it is also necessary to make a visual inspection of the installation.
All new installations must be inspected and tested during erection and upon completion before
being put into service. All existing installations should be periodically inspected and tested to
ensure that they are safe and meet the regulations of the IEE (Regulations 610634).
The method used to test an installation may inject a current into the system. This current must
not cause danger to any person or equipment in contact with the installation, even if the circuit
being tested is faulty. The test results must be compared with any relevant data, including the
IEE Regulation tables, and the test procedures must be followed carefully and in the correct
sequence, as indicated by Regulation 612.1. This ensures that the protective conductors are
correctly connected and secure before the circuit is energized.

Figure 9.9 Flow Chart for Secure Installations

Visual Inspection
The installation must be visually inspected before testing begins. The aim of the visual
inspection is to confirm that all equipment and accessories are undamaged and comply with the
relevant British and European Standards, and also that the installation has been securely and
correctly erected. Regulation 611.3 gives a checklist for the initial visual inspection of an
installation, including.

Connection of conductors;
Identification of conductors;
Routing of cables in safe zones;
Selection of conductors for current carrying capacity and volt drop;
Connection of single-pole devices for protection or switching in phase conductors
only;
Correct connection of socket outlets, lampholders, accessories and equipment;
Presence of fi re barriers, suitable seals and protection against thermal effects;
Methods of Basic protection against electric shock, including the insulation of
live parts and placement of live parts out of reach by Fitting appropriate barriers and
enclosures;
Methods of Fault Protection against electric shock including the presence of
earthing conductors for both protective bonding and supplementary bonding.
Prevention of detrimental influences (e.g. corrosion);
Presence of appropriate devices for isolation and switching;
Presence of undervoltage protection devices;
Choice and setting of protective devices;
Labelling of circuits, fuses, switches and terminals;
Selection of equipment and protective measures appropriate to external influences;
Adequate access to switchgear and equipment;
Presence of danger notices and other warning notices;
Presence of diagrams, instructions and similar information;
Appropriate erection method.

The checklist is a guide, it is not exhaustive or detailed, and should be used to identify relevant
items for inspection, which can then be expanded upon. For example, the first item on the
checklist, connection of conductors, might be further expanded to include the following,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Are connections secure?

Are connections correct? (conductor identification)
Is the cable adequately supported so that no strain is placed on the connections?
Does the outer sheath enter the accessory?
Is the insulation undamaged?
Does the insulation proceed up to but not into the connection?

This is repeated for each appropriate item on the checklist.

Those tests which are relevant to the installation must then be carried out in the sequence given
in Regulation 612.1 for reasons of safety and accuracy. These tests are as follows,
Before the supply is connected
1. Test for continuity of protective conductors, including protective equipotential and
supplementary bonding.
2. Test the continuity of all ring final circuit conductors.
3. Test for insulation resistance.
4. Test for polarity using the continuity method.
5. Test the earth electrode resistance.

With the supply connected

6. Recheck polarity using a voltmeter or approved test lamp.
7. Test the earth fault loop impedance.
8. Carry out additional protection testing (e.g. operation of residual current devices, RCDs).

If any test fails to comply with the Regulations, then all the preceding tests must be repeated
after the fault has been rectified. This is because the earlier test results may have been influenced
by the fault (Regulation 612.1).
There is an increased use of electronic devices in electrical installation work, for example, in
dimmer switches and ignitor circuits of discharge lamps. These devices should temporarily be
disconnected so that they are not damaged by the test voltage of, for example, the insulation
resistance test (Regulation 612.3).

Approved Test Instruments

The test instruments and test leads used by the electrician for testing an electrical installation
must meet all the requirements of the relevant regulations. The HSE has published Guidance
Notes GS 38 for test equipment used by electricians. The IEE Regulations (BS 7671) also
specify the test voltage or current required to carry out particular tests satisfactorily. All test
equipment must be chosen to comply with the relevant parts of BS EN 61557. All testing must,
therefore, be carried out using an approved test instrument if the test results are to be valid.
The test instrument must also carry a calibration certificate, otherwise the recorded results may
be void. Calibration certificates usually last for a year. Test instruments must, therefore, be tested
and recalibrated each year by an approved supplier.
This will maintain the accuracy of the instrument to an acceptable level, usually within 2% of
the true value.

Modern digital test instruments are reasonably robust, but to maintain them in good working
order they must be treated with care. An approved test instrument costs equally as much as a
good-quality camera; it should, therefore, receive the same care and consideration.
Let us now look at the requirements of four often used test meters.

Continuity tester
To measure accurately the resistance of the conductors in an electrical installation we must use
an instrument which is capable of producing an open circuit voltage of between 4 and 24 V a.c.
or d.c., and deliver a shortcircuit current of not less than 200 mA (Regulation 612.2.1). The
functions of continuity testing and insulation resistance testing are usually combined in one test
instrument.

Insulation resistance tester

The test instrument must be capable of detecting insulation leakage between live conductors and
between live conductors and earth. To do this and comply with Regulation 612.3 the test
instrument must be capable of producing a test voltage of 250, 500 or 1000 V and deliver an
output current of not less than 1 mA at its normal voltage.

Earth fault loop impedance tester

The test instrument must be capable of delivering fault currents as high as 25 A for up to 40 ms
using the supply voltage. During the test, the instrument does an Ohms law calculation and
displays the test result as a resistance reading.

RCD tester
Where circuits are protected by an RCD we must carry out a test to ensure that the device will
operate very quickly under fault conditions and within the time limits set by the IEE
Regulations. The instrument must, therefore, simulate a fault and measure the time taken for the
RCD to operate. The instrument is, therefore, calibrated to give a reading measured in
milliseconds to an in-service accuracy of 10%.
If you purchase good-quality approved test instruments and leads from specialist
manufacturers they will meet all the Regulations and Standards and therefore give valid test
results. However, to carry out all the tests required by the IEE Regulations will require a number
of test instruments.

Let us now consider the individual tests.

1. Testing for Continuity of Protective Conductors (612.2.1)

The object of the test is to ensure that the circuit protective conductor (CPC) is correctly
connected, is electrically sound and has a total resistance which is low enough to permit the
overcurrent protective device to operate within the disconnection time requirements of
Regulation 411.4.6, should an earth fault occur. Every protective conductor must be separately
tested from the consumers main protective earthing terminal to verify that it is electrically
sound and correctly connected, including the protective equipotential and supplementary
bonding conductors.
A d.c. test using an ohmmeter continuity tester is suitable where the protective conductors are of
copper or aluminium up to 35 mm2 . The test is made with the supply disconnected, measuring
from the consumers main protective earthing terminal to the far end of each CPC, as shown in
Figure 9.10 . The resistance of the long test lead is subtracted from these readings to give the
resistance value of the CPC.

Figure 9.10 Testing Continuity

Where steel conduit or trunking forms the protective conductor, the standard test described
above may be used, but additionally the enclosure must be visually checked along its length to
verify the integrity of all the joints. If the inspecting engineer has grounds to question the
soundness and quality of these joints then the phase earth loop impedance test described later in
this chapter should be carried out.
If, after carrying out this further test, the inspecting engineer still questions the quality and
soundness of the protective conductor formed by the metallic conduit or trunking then a further
test can be done using an a.c. voltage not greater than 50 V at the frequency of the installation
and a current approaching 1.5 times the design current of the circuit, but not greater than 25 A.

This test can be done using a low-voltage transformer and suitably connected ammeters and
voltmeters, but a number of commercial instruments are available such as the Clare tester, which
give a direct reading in ohms.
Because fault currents will flow around the earth fault loop path, the measured resistance values
must be low enough to allow the overcurrent protective device to operate quickly. For a
satisfactory test result, the resistance of the protective conductor should be consistent with those
values calculated for a line conductor of similar length and cross-sectional area.

2 .Testing for Continuity of Ring Final Circuit Conductors (612.2.2)

The object of the test is to ensure that all ring circuit cables are continuous around the ring, that
is, that there are no breaks and no interconnections in the ring, and that all connections are
electrically and mechanically sound. This test also verifies the polarity of each socket outlet.
The test is made with the supply disconnected, using an ohmmeter by disconnect and separate
the conductors of both legs of the ring at the main fuse.
There are three steps to this test.
STEP 1
Measure the resistance of the line conductors (L 1 and L 2 ), the neutral conductors (N 1 and N2)
and the protective conductors (E 1 and E 2 ) at the mains position as shown in Figure 9.11 .
End-to-end live and neutral conductor readings should be approximately the same (i.e. within
0.05 ) if the ring is continuous. The protective conductor reading will be 1.67 times as great as
these readings if 2.5/1.5 mm cable is used. Record the results on a table such as that shown in
Table 9.1 .
Table 9.1 Readings When Carrying out of Continuity Ring Final Circuit Conductors tests

Figure 9.11
Resistance
of
And Protective Conductors

Measuring the
Phase, Neutral

STEP 2
The live and neutral conductors should now be temporarily joined together as shown in Figure
9.12 . An ohmmeter reading should then be taken between live and neutral at every socket outlet
on the ring circuit. The readings obtained should be substantially the same, provided that there
are no breaks or multiple loops in the ring. Each reading should have a value of approximately
half the live and neutral ohmmeter readings measured in Step 1 of this test. Sockets connected as
a spur will have a slightly higher value of resistance because they are fed by only one cable,
while each socket on the ring is fed by two cables. Record the results on a table such as that
shown in Table 9.1 .

STEP 3
Where the CPC is wired as a ring, for example where twin and earth cables or plastic conduit is
used to wire the ring, temporarily join the live and CPCs together as shown in Figure 9.13 . An
ohmmeter reading should then be taken between live and earth at every socket outlet on the ring.
The readings obtained should be substantially the same provided that there are no breaks or
multiple loops in the ring. This value is equal to R1 + R2 for the circuit. Record the results on an
installation schedule such as that given in the IEE Regulations or a table such as that shown in

Table 9.1 . The Step 3 value of R1 + R2 should be equal to ( r1 + r2 )/4, where r1 and r2 are the
ohmmeter readings from Step 1 of this test (Table 9.1 ).

Figure 9.12 Connection of main Conductors and Test Conditions

Figure 9.13 - Connection of main Conductors and Test Conditions

3. Testing Insulation Resistance (612.3)

The object of the test is to verify that the quality of the insulation is satisfactory and has not
deteriorated or short-circuited. The test should be made at the consumers unit with the mains
switch off, all fuses in place and all switches closed. Neon lamps, capacitors and electronic
circuits should be disconnected, since they will respectively glow, charge up or be damaged by
the test.
There are two tests to be carried out using an insulation resistance tester which must have a test
voltage of 500 V d.c. for 230 V and 400 V installations. These are line and neutral conductors to
earth and between line conductors. The procedures are,

Line and neutral conductors to earth

1.
2.
3.
4.

Remove all lamps.

Close all switches and circuit breakers.
Disconnect appliances.
Test separately between the line conductor and earth, and between the neutral conductor and
earth, for every distribution circuit at the consumers unit as shown in Figure 9.14 . Record
the results on a schedule of test results such as that given in Appendix 6 of the IEE
Regulations.

Figure 9.14 Insulation resistance Test

Between line conductors

1. Remove all lamps.

2. Close all switches and circuit breakers.

3. Disconnect appliances.
4. Test between line and neutral conductors of every distribution circuit at the consumers
unit as shown in Figure 9.14b and record the result.

The insulation resistance readings for each test must be not less than 1.0 M for a satisfactory
result (IEE Regulation 612.3.2).
Where the circuit includes electronic equipment which might be damaged by the insulation
resistance test, a measurement between all live conductors (i.e. live and neutral conductors
connected together) and the earthing arrangements may be made. The insulation resistance of
these tests should be not less than 1.0 M (IEE Regulation 612.3.3).
Although an insulation resistance reading of 1.0 M complies with the Regulations, the IEE
Guidance Notes tell us that much higher values than this can be expected and that a reading of
less than 2 M might indicate a latent but not yet visible fault in the installation. In these cases
each circuit should be separately tested to obtain a reading greater than 2 M .

4. Testing Polarity (612.6)

The object of this test is to verify that all fuses, circuit breakers and switches are connected in
the line or live conductor only, and that all socket outlets are correctly wired and Edison screwtype lamp holders have the centre contact connected to the live conductor. It is important to
make a polarity test on the installation since a visual inspection will only indicate conductor
identification.
The test is done with the supply disconnected using an ohmmeter or continuity tester as follows,
1. Switch off the supply at the main switch.
2. Remove all lamps and appliances.
3. Fix a temporary link between the line and earth connections on the consumers side of
the main switch.
4. Test between the common terminal and earth at each switch position.
5. Test between the centre pin of any Edison screw lamp holders and any convenient earth
connection.
6. Test between the live pin (i.e. the pin to the right of earth) and earth at each socket outlet
as shown in Figure 9.15 .

Figure 9.15 Polarity Test.

For a satisfactory test result the ohmmeter or continuity meter should read very close to zero for
each test.
Remove the test link and record the results on a schedule of test results such as that given in
Appendix 6 of the IEE Regulations.

5. Testing Earth Electrode Resistance (612.7)

When an earth electrode has been sunk into the general mass of earth, it is necessary to verify
the resistance of the electrode. The general mass of earth can be considered as a large conductor
which is at zero potential. Connection to this mass through earth electrodes provides a reference
point from which all other voltage levels can be measured. This is a technique which has been
used for a long time in power distribution systems.
The resistance to earth of an electrode will depend upon its shape, size and the resistance of the
soil. Earth rods form the most efficient electrodes. A rod of about 1 m will have an earth
electrode resistance of between 10 and 200 . Even in bad earthing conditions a rod of about 2
m will normally have an earth electrode resistance which is less than 500 . In countries which
experience long dry periods of weather the earth electrode resistance may be thousands of ohms.
The IEE Regulation 542.2.1 recognizes the use of the following types of earth electrodes:

Earth rods or pipes

Earth tapes or wires
Earth plates
Earth electrodes embedded in foundations
Welded metallic reinforcement of concrete structures

Other suitable underground metalwork

Lead sheaths or other metallic coverings of cables.

The earth electrode is sunk into the ground, but the point of connection should remain accessible
(Regulation 542.4.2). The connection of the earthing conductor to the earth electrode must be
securely made with a copper conductor complying with Regulation 542.3.2 as shown in Figure
9.16.
The installation site must be chosen so that the resistance of the earth electrode does not increase
above the required value due to climatic conditions such as the soil drying out or freezing, or
from the effects of corrosion (542.2.2 and 3).

Figure
9.16 Termination of An Earth Electrode

Under fault conditions the voltage appearing at the earth electrode will radiate away from the
electrode like the ripples radiating away from a pebble thrown into a pond. The voltage will fall
to a safe level in the first 2 or 3 m away from the point of the earth electrode.
The basic method of measuring earth electrode resistance is to pass a current into the soil
through the electrode and to measure the voltage required to produce this current.
Regulation 612.9 demands that where earth electrodes are used they should be tested.
If the electrode under test forms part of the earth return for a TT installation in conjunction with
an RCD, Guidance Note 3 of the IEE Regulations describes the following method,
1. Disconnect the installation protective equipotential bonding from the earth electrode to
ensure that the test current passes only through the earth electrode.
2. Switch off the consumers unit to isolate the installation.
3. Using a line earth loop impedance tester, test between the incoming line conductor and
the earth electrode.
4. Reconnect the protective bonding conductors when the test is completed.

Record the result on a schedule of test results such as that given in Appendix 6 of the IEE
Regulations. The IEE Guidance Note 3 tells us that an acceptable value for the measurement of
the earth electrode resistance would be less than 200 .
Providing the first five tests were satisfactory, the supply may now be switched on and the final
tests completed with the supply connected.

6. Testing Polarity Supply Connected

Using an approved voltage indicator such as that shown at Figure 9.8 or test lamp and probes
which comply with the HSE Guidance Note GS 38, again carry out a polarity test to verify that
all fuses, circuit breakers and switches are connected in the live conductor.
Test from the common terminal of switches to earth, the live pin of each socket outlet to earth
and the centre pin of any Edison screw lamp holders to earth. In each case the voltmeter or test
lamp should indicate the supply voltage for a satisfactory result.

7. Testing Earth Fault Loop Impedance - (SUPPLY CONNECTED) (612.9)

The object of this test is to verify that the impedance of the whole earth fault current loop line to
earth is low enough to allow the over current protective device to operate within the
disconnection time requirements of Regulations 411.3.2.2 and 411.4.6 and 411.4.7, should a
fault occur.
The whole earth fault current loop examined by this test is comprised of all the installation
protective conductors, the main protective earthing terminal and protective earth conductors, the
earthed neutral point and the secondary winding of the supply transformer and the line
conductor from the transformer to the point of the fault in the installation.
The test will, in most cases, be done with a purpose-made line earth loop impedance tester
which circulates a current in excess of 10 A around the loop for a very short time, so reducing
the danger of a faulty circuit. The test is made with the supply switched on, and carried out from
the furthest point of every final circuit, including lighting, socket outlets and any fixed
appliances. Record the results on a schedule of test results.
Purpose-built testers give a readout in ohms and a satisfactory result is obtained when the loop
impedance does not exceed the appropriate values given in Tables 41.2 and 41.3 of the IEE
Regulations.

8. Additional Protection: Testing of RCD Supply Connected (612.13)

The object of the test is to verify the effectiveness of the RCD, that it is operating with the
correct sensitivity and proving the integrity of the electrical and mechanical elements. The test
must simulate an appropriate fault condition and be independent of any test facility incorporated
in the device.
When carrying out the test, all loads normally supplied through the device are disconnected.
The testing of a ring circuit protected by a general-purpose RCD to BS EN 61008 in a splitboard consumer unit is carried out as follows,
1. Using the standard lead supplied with the test instrument, disconnect all other loads and plug
in the test lead to the socket at the centre of the ring (i.e. the socket at the furthest point from
the source of supply).
2. Set the test instrument to the tripping current of the device and at a phase angle of 0.
3. Press the test button the RCD should trip and disconnect the supply within 200 mS.
4. Change the phase angle from 0 to 180 and press the test button once again. The RCD
should again trip within 200 ms. Record the highest value of these two results on a schedule
of test results such as that given in Appendix 6 of the IEE Regulations.
5. Now set the test instrument to 50% of the rated tripping current of the RCD and press the
test button. The RCD should not trip within 2 seconds. This test is testing the RCD for
inconvenience or nuisance tripping.
6. Finally, the effective operation of the test button incorporated within the RCD should be
tested to prove the integrity of the mechanical elements in the tripping device. This test
should be repeated every 3 months.

If the RCD fails any of the above tests it should be changed for a new one.
Where the RCD has a rated tripping current not exceeding 30 mA and has been installed to
reduce the risk associated with basic and or fault protection, as indicated in Regulation
411.1, a residual current of 150 mA should cause the circuit breaker to open within 40 ms.

Certification and reporting

Following the completion of all new electrical work or additional work to an existing
installation, the installation must be inspected and tested and an installation certificate issued
and signed by a competent person. The competent person must have a sound knowledge of
the type of work undertaken, be fully versed in the inspection and testing procedures contained
in the IEE Regulations (BS 7671) and employ adequate testing equipment.
A certificate and test results shall be issued to those ordering the work in the format given in the
IEE Regulations.
All installations must be periodically tested and inspected, and for this purpose a periodic
inspection report should be issued (IEE Regulation 631.2). The standard format is again shown
in Appendix 6 of the IEE Regulations.

In both cases the certificate must include the test values which verify that the installation
complies with the IEE Regulations at the time of testing.
Suggested frequency of periodic inspection intervals are given below,

Domestic installations 10 years

Commercial installations 5 years
Industrial installations 3 years
Agricultural installations 3 years
Caravan site installations 1 year
Caravans 3 years
Temporary installations on construction sites 3 months.

Safe working procedures when testing

Whether you are carrying out the test procedure (i) as a part of a new installation (ii) upon the
completion of an extension to an existing installation (iii) because you are trying to discover the
cause of a fault on an installation or (iv) because you are carrying out a periodic test and
inspection of a building, you must always be aware of your safety, the safety of others using the
building and the possible damage which your testing might cause to other systems in the
building.
For your own safety

Always use approved test instruments and probes.

Ensure that the test instrument carries a valid calibration certificate otherwise the results
may be invalid.
Secure all isolation devices in the off position.
Put up warning notices so that other workers will know what is happening.
Notify everyone in the building that testing is about to start and for approximately how
long it will continue.
Obtain a permit-to-work if this is relevant.
Obtain approval to have systems shut down which might be damaged by your testing
activities. For example, computer systems may crash when supplies are switched off.
Ventilation and fume extraction systems will stop working when you disconnect the
supplies.

For the safety of other people,

Fix warning notices around your work area.

Use cones and highly visible warning tape to screen off your work area.
Make an effort to let everyone in the building know that testing is about to begin. You
might be able to do this while you carry out the initial inspection of the installation.
Obtain verbal or written authorization to shut down information technology, emergency
operation or stand-by circuits.

To safeguard other systems,

Computer systems can be severely damaged by a loss of supply or the injection of a high
test voltage from, for example, an insulation resistance test. Computer systems would
normally be disconnected during the test period but this will generally require some
organization before the testing begins. Commercial organizations may be unable to
continue to work without their computer systems and, in these circumstances it may be
necessary to test outside the normal working day.
Any resistance measurements made on electronic equipment or electronic circuits must
be achieved with a battery operated ohmmeter in order to avoid damaging the electronic
circuits.
Farm animals are creatures of habit and may become very grumpy to find you testing
their milking parlour equipment at milking time.
Hospitals and factories may have emergency stand-by generators which re-energize
essential circuits in the event of a mains failure. Your isolation of the circuit for testing
may cause the emergency systems to operate. Discuss any special systems with the
person authorizing the work before testing begins.

Commissioning
When the fault has been identified and repaired, the circuit, system or equipment must be
inspected, tested and functional checks carried out as required by IEE Regulations Chapter 61.
The purpose of inspecting and testing the repaired circuit, system or equipment is to confirm the
electrical integrity of the system before it is re-energized.

The tests recommended by Part 6 of the IEE Regulations are,

1. Test the continuity of the protective conductors including the protective equipotential and
supplementary bonding conductors.
2. Test the continuity of all ring final circuit conductors.
3. Test the insulation resistance between live conductors and earth.
4. Test the polarity to verify that single pole control and protective devices are connected in
the line conductor only.
5. Test the earth electrode resistance where the installation incorporates an earth electrode
as a part of the earthing system.

The supply may now be connected and the following tests carried out.
6. Test the polarity using an approved test lamp or voltage indicator.
7. Test the earth fault loop impedance where the protective measures used require a
knowledge of earth fault loop impedance.

These tests where relevant must be carried out in the order given above to comply with IEE
Regulation 612.1. If any test indicates a failure, that test and any preceding test must be repeated
after the fault has been rectified. This is because the earlier tests may have been influenced by
the fault.
As the client/customer is to receive the originals of any certification, it is important that all
relevant details are completed correctly. This ensures that future inspectors are aware of the
installation details and test results that may indicate a slow progressive deterioration in some or
all of the installations.

Hand Over to the Client

Handing over the repaired circuit, system or equipment is an important part of the fault
diagnosis and repair process. You are effectively saying to the client here is your circuit,
system or equipment, it is now safe to use and it works as it should work .

The client will probably be interested in the following,

What has been done to identify and repair the fault?
The possible reasons why the fault occurred and recommendations which will prevent a
reoccurrence of the problem.
A demonstration of the operation of the circuit, system or equipment to show that the
fault has been fully rectified.
Finally, the handing over of certificates of test results and manufacturers instructions, if
new equipment has been installed.

9.2 CIRCUIT BREAKERS

During the operation of power system, it is often desirable and necessary to switch on or off the
various circuits (E.g. transmission lines, distributors, generating plants etc.) under both normal
and abnormal conditions. In earlier days, this function used to be performed by a switch and
fuse placed in series with the circuit. However, such a means of control presents two

disadvantages. Firstly, when a fuse blows out, it takes quite sometime to replace it and restore
supply to the customers. Secondly, a fuse cannot successfully interrupt heavy fault currents that
result from faults on modern high-voltage and large capacity circuits. Due to these
disadvantages, the use of switches and fuses is limited to low-voltage and small capacity
circuits where frequent operations are not expected. E.g. for switching and protection of
distribution transformers, lighting circuits, branch circuits of distribution lines etc.
With the advancement of power system, the lines and other equipment operate at very high
voltages and carry large currents. The arrangement of switches along with fuses cannot serve the
desired function of switchgear in such high capacity circuits. This necessitates to employ a more
dependable means of control such as is obtained by the use of circuit breakers. A circuit breaker
can make or break a circuit either manually or automatically under all conditions viz., no-load,
full-load and short-circuit conditions. This characteristic of the circuit breaker has made it a very
useful equipment for switching and protection of various parts of the power system.

Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can,
1.)
2.)
3.)

Make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under normal

conditions
Break a circuit automatically under fault conditions
Make a circuit either manually or by the remote control under fault conditions.

Thus a circuit breaker incorporates manual (or remote control) as well as automatic control for
switching functions. The latter control employs relays and operates only under fault conditions.

Operating Principle :A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called electrodes. Under
normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open automatically until
and unless the system becomes faulty. Of course, the contacts can be opened manually or by the
remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of
the circuit breaker get energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism,
thus opening the circuit.
When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an arc is stuck
between them. The current is thus able to continue until the discharge ceases. The production of
arc not only delays the current interruption process but it also generates enormous heat which
may cause damage to the system or to the circuit breaker it self. Therefore, the main problem in
a circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so that heat generated
by it may not reach a dangerous value.

Classification of Circuit Breakers

There are several ways of classifying the circuit breakers. However, the most general way of
classification is on the basis of medium used for arc extinction is usually oil,air, sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) or vacuum. Accordingly, circuit breakers may be classified into,
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)

Oil Circuit Breakers.

Air-Blast Circuit Breakers.
Sulphur hexafluoride circuit Breakers.
Vacuum Circuit Breakers.

Each type of circuit breaker has its own advantages and disadvantages. In the following sections
we shall discuss the construction and working of these circuit breakers with special emphasis on
the way the arc extinction is facilitated.

Oil Circuit Breakers : In such circuit breakers, some insulating oil (E.g. transformer oil) is used as an arc quenching
medium. The contacts are opened under oil and arc is stuck between them. The heat of the arc
evaporates the surrounding oil and dissociates it into a substantial volume of gaseous hydrogen
at high pressure. The hydrogen gas occupies a volume about one thousand times that of the oil
decomposed. The oil is, therefore, pushed away from the arc and expanding hydrogen gas
bubble surrounds the arc region and adjacent portions of the contacts. The arc extinction is
facilitated mainly by two processes.
Firstly, the hydrogen gas has high heat conductivity and cools the arc, thus aiding the diionisation of the medium between the two contacts, Secondly, the gas sets up turbulence in the
oil and forces it into the space between contacts, thus eliminating the arcing products from the
arc path. The result is that arc is extinguished and circuit current interrupted.

Important.. That arc itself is employed for its extinction. Therefore, it should not be regarded as
an unfortunate manifestation. It must also be realized that in the absence of the arc, the current
flowing in the circuit would be interrupted instantaneously, and due to the rapid collapse of
associated magnetic field, very high voltages would be induced which would severely stress the
insulation on the system. On the other hand, the arc permits the circuit interruption to take place
at some current zero and thus without inducing potentials of dangerous values.

Types of Oil Circuit Breakers :The oil circuit breakers find extensive use in the power system. These can be classified into the
following types.

1. Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers -

Which use a large quantity of oil. The oil has to serve two purposes. Firstly, It extinguishes the
arc during opening of contacts and Secondly, it insulates the current conducing parts from one
another and from the earthed tank. Such circuit breakers may be classified into,
1.) Plain Break Oil Circuit Breakers
2.) Arc Control Oil Circuit breakers
In the former type, no special means is available for controlling the arc and the contacts are
directly exposed to the whole of the oil in the tank. However, in the latter type, special arc
control devices are employed to get the beneficial action of the arc as efficiently as possible.

2. Low Oil Circuit Breakers Which use minimum amount of oil, In such circuit breakers, oil is used only for arc extinction,
the current conducing parts are insulated by air or porcelain or organic insulating material.

3. Plain Break Oil Circuit Breakers

A Plain break oil circuit breaker involves the simple process of separating the contacts under the
whole of the oil in the tank. There is no special system for arc control other than the increase in
length caused by the separation of contacts. The arc extinction occurs when a certain critical gap
between the contacts is reached.
The plain break oil circuit breaker is the earliest type from which all other circuit breakers have
developed. It has a very simple construction. It consists of fixed and moving contacts enclosed
in a strong weather-tight earthed tank containing oil upto a certain level and an air cushion above
the oil level. The air cushion provides sufficient room to allow for the reception of the arc gases
without the generation of unsafe pressure in the dome of the breaker. It also absorbs the
mechanical shock of the upward oil movement. It is called a double break because it provides
two breaks in series.
Under normal operating conditions, the fixed and moving contacts remain closed and the
breaker carries the normal circuit current. When a fault occurs, the moving contacts are pulled
down by the protective system and an arc is stuck which vapourises the oil mainly into hydrogen
gas. The arc extinction is facilitated by the following processes.
i.
ii.
iii.

The hydrogen gas bubble generated around the arc cools the arc column and aids
the de-ionisation of the medium between the contacts.
The gas sets up turbulence in the oil and helps in eliminating the arcing products
from the arc path.
As the arc lengthens due to the separating contacts, the dielectric strength of the
medium is increased.

The result of these actions is that at some critical gap length, the arc is extinguished and the
circuit is interrupted.
Disadvantages

1.)

2.)
3.)

There is no special control over the arc other than the increase in length by
separating the moving contacts, Therefore, for successful interruption, long arc
length is necessary.
These breakers have long and inconsistent arcing times.
These breakers do not permit high speed interruption.

Due to these disadvantages, plain break oil circuit breakers are used only for low-voltage
applications where high breaking capacities are not important. It is a usual practice to use such
breakers for low capacity installations for voltages not exceeding 11 kV.

4. Arc Control Oil Circuit Breakers

In case of plain- breaker discussed above, there is very little artificial control over the arc.
Therefore, comparatively long arc length is essential in order that turbulence In the oil caused by
the gas may assist in quenching it. However, it is necessary and desirable that final arc extinction
should occur while the contacts gap is still short. For this purpose, some arc control is
incorporated and the breakers are then called arc control circuit breakers. There are two types of
such breakers, namely,
1.)
2.)

Self blast Oil Circuit Breakers in which arc control is provided by internal means
i.e. the arc itself is employed for its own extinction efficiently.
Forced Blast oil Circuit Breakers in which arc control is provided by mechanical
means external to the circuit breaker.

5. Self Blast Oil Circuit Breakers

In this type of circuit breaker, the gases produced during arcing are confined to a small volume
by the use of an insulating rigid pressure chamber, a very high pressure developed to force the
oil and gas through or around the arc to extinguish it. The magnitude of pressure is generated by
the arc itself, therefore, such breakers are sometimes called self- generated pressure oil circuit
breakers.
The pressure chamber is relatively cheap to make and gives reduced final arc extinction gap
length and arcing time as against the plain break oil circuit breaker.

6. Forced Blast Oil Circuit Breakers

In the self- blast oil circuit breakers discussed above, the arc itself generates the necessary
pressure to force the oil across the arc path. The major limitation of such breakers is that arcing
times tend to be long and inconsistent when operating against currents considerably less than the
rated currents. It is because the gas generated is much reduced at low values of fault currents.
This difficulty is overcome in forced-blast oil circuit breakers in which the necessary pressure is
generated by external mechanical means independent of the fault currents to be broken.

In a forced blast oil circuit breaker, oil pressure is created by the piston cylinder
arrangement. The movement of the piston is mechanically coupled to the moving contact. When
a fault occurs, the contacts get separated by the protective system and an arc is stuck between
the contacts. The piston forces a jet of oil towards the contact gap to extinguish the arc. It may
be noted that necessary oil pressure produced does not in any way depend upon the fault current
to be broken.
Advantages
1.)

2.)

Since oil pressure developed is independent of the fault current to be interrupted, the
performance at low currents is more consistent than with self blast oil circuit
breakers.
The quantity of oil required is reduced considerably.

7. Low Oil Circuit Breakers

In the bulk circuit breakers discussed so far, the oil has to perform two functions. Firstly, it acts
as an arc quenching medium and Secondly, it insulates the live parts from earth. It has been
found that only a small percentage of oil is actually used for arc extinction while the major part
is utilized for insulation purposes. For this reason, the quantity of oil in bulk oil circuit breakers
reaches a very high figure as the system voltage increases. This not only increases the expenses,
tank size and weight of the breaker but it also increases the fire risk and maintenance problems.
The fact that only a small percentage of oil (about 10% of total0 in the bulk oil circuit breaker is
actually used for arc extinction leads to the question as to why the remainder of the oil, that is
not immediately surrounding the device , should not be omitted with consequent saving in bulk,
weight and fire risk. This led to the development of low oil circuit breaker. A low oil circuit
breaker employs solid materials for insulation purposes and uses a small quantity of oil which is
just sufficient for arc extinction. As regards quenching the arc, oil behaves identically in bulk as
well as low oil circuit breaker. By using suitable arc control devices, the arc extinction can be
further facilitated in a low oil circuit breaker.

Construction of Low Oil Circuit Breakers

There are two compartments separated from each other but both filled with oil. The upper
chamber is the circuit breaking chamber while the lower one is the supporting chamber. The two
chambers are separated by a partition and oil from one chamber is prevented from mixing with
the other chamber. This arrangement permits two advantages. Firstly, the circuit breaking
chamber requires a small volume of oil which is just enough for arc extinction. Secondly, the
amount of oil to be replaced is reduced as the oil in the supporting chamber does not get
contaminated by the arc.

1.

Supporting chamber It is a porcelain chamber mounted on a metal chamber. It is

filled with oil which is physically separated from the oil in the circuit breaking
compartment. The oil inside the supporting chamber and the annular space formed
between the porcelain insulation and bake lised paper is employed for insulation
purposes only.

2.

Circuit Breaking chamber It is a porcelain enclosure mounted on the top of the

supporting compartment. It is filled with oil and has following parts,
i.
Upper and lower fixed contacts
ii.
Moving contact
iii.
Turbulator
The moving contact is hollow and includes a cylinder which moves down over a
fixed
piston. The turbulator is an arc control device and has both axial and
radial vents. The axial venting ensures the interruption of low currents where as
radial venting helps in the interruption of heavy currents.

3.)

Top chamber It is a metal chamber and is mounted on the circuit breaking chamber.
It provides expansion space for the oil in the circuit breaking compartment. The top
chamber is also provided with a separator which prevents any loss of oil by
centrifugal action caused by circuit breaker operation during fault conditions.

Operation of Low Oil Circuit Breakers

Under normal operating condition, the moving contact remains engaged with the upper fixed
contact. When a fault occurs, the moving contact is pulled down by the tripping springs and an
arc is stuck. The arc energy vaporizes the oil and produces gases under high pressure. The action
constrains the oil to pass through a central hole in the moving contact and results in forcing
series of oil through the respective passages of the turbulator. The process of turbulation is
orderly moving across each section of the arc are successively quenched by the effect of separate
streams of oil moving across each section in turn and bearing away its gases.

Advantages
A low oil circuit breaker has the following advantages over a bulk oil circuit breaker.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Disadvantages

It requires lesser quantity of oil

It requires smaller space
There is reduced risk of fire
Maintenance problems are reduced

A low oil circuit breaker has the following disadvantages as compared to a bulk oil circuit
breaker.
1.
2.
3.

Due to smaller quantity of oil, the degree of carbonization is increased.

There is a difficulty of removing the gases from the contact space in time.
The dielectric strength of the oil deteriorates rapidly due to high degree of
carbonization.

Maintenance of Oil Circuit Breakers

The maintenance of oil circuit breaker is generally concerned with the checking of contacts and
dielectric strength of oil. After a circuit breaker has interrupted fault currents a few times or load
currents several times, its contacts may get burnt by arcing and the oil may lose some of its
dielectric strength due to carbonization. This results in the reduced rupturing capacity of the
breaker. Therefore, it is a good practice to inspect the circuit breaker at regular intervals of 3 or 6
months. During inspection of the breaker, the following points should be kept in view.
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.

Check the current carrying parts and arcing contacts. If the burning is severe, the
contacts should be replaced.
Check the dielectric strength of the oil. If the oil is hardly discoloured, it should be
changed or reconditioned. The oil in good condition should withstand 30 kV for
one minute in a standard oil testing cup with 4 mm gap between electrodes.
Check the insulation for possible damage. Clean the surface and remove carbon
deposits with a strong and dry fabric.
Check the oil level.
Check closing and tripping mechanism.

8. Air Blast Circuit Breakers

These breakers employ a high pressure air blast as an arc quenching medium. The contacts are
opened in a flow of air-blast established by the opening of blast valve. The air blast cools the
arc and sweeps away the arcing products to the atmosphere. This rapidly increases the dielectric
strength of the medium between contacts and prevents from re-establishing the arc.
Consequently, the arc is extinguished and flow of current is interrupted.
Advantages
An air-blast circuit breaker has the following advantages over an oil circuit breaker.
1.
2.

3.

The risk of fire is eliminated

The arcing products are completely removed by the blast whereas the oil
deteriorates with successive operations, the expense of regular oil replacement is
avoided.
The growth of dielectric strength is so rapid that final contact gap needed for arc
extinction is very small. This reduces the size of the device.

4.

The arcing time is very small due to the rapid build up of dielectric strength between
contacts. Therefore, the arc energy is only a fraction of that in oil circuit breakers,
thus resulting in less burning of contacts.
Due to lesser arc energy, air-blast circuit breakers are very suitable for conditions
where frequent operation is required.
The energy supplied for arc extinction is obtained from high pressure air and is
independent of the current to be interrupted.

5.
6.

Disadvantages
The use of air as the arc quenching medium offers the following disadvantages.
1.
2.
3.

The air has relatively inferior arc extinguishing properties.

The air-blast circuit breakers are very sensitive to the variations in the rate of rise of
restriking voltage.
Considerable maintenance is required for the compressor plant which supplies the
air-blast.

The air blast circuit breakers are finding wide applications in high voltage installations. Majority
of the circuit breakers for voltages beyond 110kV are of this type.

Types of Air Blast Circuit Breakers

Depending upon the direction of air blast in relation to the arc, air blast circuit breakers are
classified into as follows,
1.) Axial Blast type :- In which the air- blast is directed along the arc path.
2.) Cross Blast type :- In which the air-blast is directed at right angles to the arc path.
3.) Radial Blast type :- In which the air-blast is directed radially.

9. Sulphur Hexaflouride (SF6) Circuit Breakers

In such circuit breakers, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used as the arc quenching medium.
The Sf6 is an electro-negative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electrons. The
contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of SF6 gas and an arc is stuck
between them. The conducing free electrons in the arc are rapidly captured by the gas to form
relatively immobile negative ions. This loss of conducing electrons in the arc quickly builds up
enough insulation strength to extinguish the arc. The SF6 circuit breaker have been found to be
very effective for high power and high voltage service.
Advantages

Due to the superior arc quenching properties of SF6 gas, the Sf6 circuit breakers have many
advantages over oil or air circuit breakers. Some of them are listed below.
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)

Due to the superior arc quenching property of SF6, such circuit breakers have very
short arcing time.
Since the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is 2 to 3 times that of air, such breakers can
interrupt much larger currents.
The SF6 circuit breaker gives noiseless operation due to its closed gas circuit and no
exhaust to atmosphere unlike the air blast circuit breaker.
The closed gas enclosure keeps the interior dry so that there is no moisture problem.
There is no risk of fire in such breakers because SF6 gas is non- inflammable.
There are no carbon deposits so that tracking and insulation problems are
eliminated.
The SF6 Breakers are totally enclosed and sealed from atmosphere, they are
particularly suitable where explosion hazard exists. E. g. coal mines

Disadvantages
1.)
2.)

SF6 breakers are costly due to the high cost of SF6.

Since Sf6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation of the breaker, additional
equipment is required for this purpose.

10. Vacuum Circuit Breakers

In such breakers, vacuum (degree of vacuum being in the range from 10-7 to 10-5 torr) is used
as the arc quenching medium. Since vacuum offers the highest insulating strength, it has far
superior arc quenching properties than any other medium. For example, when contacts of a
breaker are opened in vacuum, the interruption occurs at first current zero with dielectric
strength between the contacts building up at a rate thousand of times higher than that obtained
with other circuit breakers

Principle
The production of arc in a vacuum circuit breaker and its extinction can be explained as follows,
When the contacts of the breaker are opened in vacuum (10-7 to 10-5 torr), an arc is produced
between the contacts by the ionization of metal vapours of contacts. However, the arc is quickly
extinguished because the metallic vapours, electrons and ions produced during arc rapidly
condense on the surfaces of the circuit breaker contacts, resulting in quick recovery of dielectric
strength. The reader may note the salient feature of vacuum as an arc quenching medium. As
soon as the arc is produced in vacuum. It is quickly extinguished due to the fast rate of recovery
of dielectric strength in vacuum.

Working

When the breaker operates, the moving contact separates from the fixed contact and an arc is
stuck between the contacts. The production of arc is due to the ionization of metal ions and
depends very much upon the material of contacts. The arc is quickly extinguished because the
metallic vapours, electrons and ions produced during arc are diffused in a short time and seized
by the surfaces of moving and fixed members and shields. Since vacuum has very fast rate of
recovery of dielectric strength, the arc extinction in a vacuum breaker occurs with a short
contact separation. (say 0.625 cm)

Advantages
Vacuum circuit breakers have following advantages.
1.)
2.)
3.)
4.)

5.)
6.)
7.)
8.)

They are compact, reliable and have longer life.

There are no fire hazards.
There is no generation of gas during and after operation.
They can interrupt any fault current. The outstanding feature of a vacuum circuit
breaker is that it can break any heavy fault current perfectly just before the contacts
reach the definite open position.
They require little maintenance and are quiet in operation.
They can successfully withstand lightning surges.
They have low arc energy.
They have low inertia and hence require smaller power for control mechanism.

CHAPTER 10
PANELS AND THEIR COMPONENTS
Power supply circuit protection accessories
Following protection devices use for power distribution panel & consumer units.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB)

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)
Residual current circuit breaker(RCCB) / (RCD)
Earth fault Relay (EFR)
Earth leakage relay (ELR)
Phase failure relay (PFR)

The Moulded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)

Thermal-magnetic molded case circuit breakers are the most common overcurrent protection
devices. Their primary functions are to provide a means to manually open a circuit and
automatically open a circuit under overload or short circuit conditions. Thermal-magnetic circuit
breakers use bimetals and electromagnetic assemblies to provide overcurrent protection. Their
characteristic inverse time tripping under overload conditions is ideally suited for many
applications varying from residential to heavy industrial loads. For higher level (short circuit)
overcurrents, instantaneous trip characteristics allow molded case circuit breakers to interrupt
with no intentional delay. (Figure 10.3)
The following mechanisms allow the circuit breaker to operate,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Thermal trip
Magnetic trip
Push-to-trip button
Shunt trip
Undervoltage trip

Tripping Mechanism
The tripping mechanism is an assembly within the circuit breaker frame that causes the circuit
breaker to open automatically under sustained overload, short circuit, or high level ground fault
conditions.The tripping mechanisms in 2- and 3-pole circuit breakers operate such that an
overcurrent on any given pole of the circuit breaker will cause all poles of the circuit breaker to
open simultaneously.

Thermal Trip
The molded case circuit breaker thermal trip element is a root means squared (RMS) sensing
device. The bimetal thermal element is constructed from metals of dissimilar rates of expansion
bonded together. The thermal portion responds to overloads by reacting to the heat generated
both by the current flowing through the circuit breaker and by the heat contribution from the
ambient conditions. The bending force of the bimetal causes the circuit breaker to trip. The
deflection of the bimetal is predictable as a function of current and time. This is the inverse time
tripping characteristics of the thermal element (i.e., the tripping time decreases as the magnitude
of the current increases). (Figure 10.1)

Figure 10.1 Thermal Trip Condition

Magnetic Trip
The magnetic (instantaneous) trip element uses an electromagnetic assembly, in series with the
load current, to trip the circuit breaker instantaneously (with no intentional delay) at or above a
predetermined current value. During a short circuit of significant magnitude, the high level
current passing through the conductor rapidly increases the magnetic field of the electromagnet
which attracts the armature. As the armature is drawn toward the electromagnet, it initiates an
unlatching action and opens the circuit breaker contacts. (Figure 10.2 )

Push-To-Trip Button
Push-To-Trip is a standard feature of molded case circuit breakers that allows the circuit breaker
to be manually tripped without exposure to live parts. The Push-To-Trip button is located on the
face of each molded case circuit breaker for ease of periodic operation.
International I/O (ON/OFF) markings appear on the face of each molded case circuit breaker
and molded case switch in addition to the standard ON/OFF markings to indicate handle
position. When tripped, the handle assumes a center position. To reset the breaker, the handle is
moved to the OFF position and then to the ON position. During normal on/off operation, the
handle opens and closes the circuit breaker contacts but does not exercise the tripping
mechanism, that the circuit breakers tripping mechanism be exercised at least annually. Use of
the Push-To-Trip system will also check,

Alarm circuits
Emergency circuits
Motor sequencing operations
Figure 10.2 Magnetic Trip

Shunt Trip
The shunt trip accessory is used to trip the circuit breaker from a remote location by using a trip
coil energized from a separate circuit. When energized by a push button or other pilot device, the
shunt trip causes the circuit breaker to trip. The trip coil has coil clearing contacts to break the
coil circuit when the circuit breaker opens.
Shunt trips are available for 2- and 3-pole thermal-magnetic circuit breakers, magnetic only
circuit breakers and molded case switches with standard control voltage ratings to 480 Vac or 24
Vdc. Additional ac control voltage ratings to 600 Vac are supplied with a 120 Vac rated coil and
a control voltage transformer for user mounting. Control voltages above 480 Vac are not UL
Listed. A 120 Vac shunt trip operates at 55% or more of rated voltage and all other shunt trips
operate at 75% or more of rated voltage.

Under voltage Trip

The under voltage trip accessory reduces the possibility of damage to the electrical equipment
when a reduction or loss of system voltage occurs. When the voltage drops below a level
requirements for more than 3 milliseconds, the under voltage trip mechanism (under voltage trip
release) trips the circuit breaker or molded case switch and prevents it from being reclosed until
this voltage level is restored.

Figure 10.3

Molded Case Circuit

Breaker

The Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Miniature Circuit Breakers, which are commonly used in domestic installations, In the MCB, the
automatic operation is by magnetic or thermal means. The reason for the two characteristics is to
have proper operation during both short circuit and overload conditions. (Figure 10.4)
The magnetic mechanism uses a solenoid with an iron piece. It is used for short circuit (fault)
protection, as high fault Currents have to be isolated almost instantly. When the circuit current is
above a certain level, the magnetic field strength increases to cause the iron piece to move in the
direction of solenoid.
These operate the tripping linkage and open the contacts. Even if the MCB is closed again, the
contacts will not hold while the fault is still present. The thermal mechanism uses a heat
sensitive bimetal element. When the element is heated to a pre-determined temperature, the
resultant deflection trips the circuit breaker. The time taken to heat the element to this
temperature depends on the magnitude of the current and provides the necessary time delay
characteristics (tripping by this means is not so rapid as with magnetic tripping). (Figure 10.5)
When a small sustained overload occurs, the thermal trip will come into operation after a few
seconds or even minutes. However, when a heavier over load occurs, the magnetic trip coil
operates quickly to disconnect the faulty circuit. This time delay characteristic is useful to avoid
unwanted interruptions during the starting of motors and similar instances where the initial
current may be high, but not an overload condition.

Figure 10.4 Miniature Circuit Breaker

Figure 10.5 Magnetic And Thermal Mechanisms

Advantages

Tripping characteristics and therefore circuit protection are set by installer.

The circuit protection is difficult to interfere with.
The circuit is provided with discrimination.

A faulty circuit may be easily and quickly restored.

The supply may be safely restored by an unskilled operator.

Disadvantages

They are relatively expensive compared to rewirable fuses but look at the advantages to
see why they are so popular.
They contain mechanical moving parts and therefore require regular testing to ensure
satisfactory operation under fault conditions.

Residual Current Devices (RCCB) / (RCD)

We have seen how very important the total earth loop impedance Z s is in the reduction of shock
risk. However, in TT systems where the mass of earth is part of the fault path, the maximum
values of Z s given in the IEE Regulations may be hard to satisfy. Added to this, climatic
conditions will alter the resistance of the earth in such a way that Z e may be satisfactory in wet
weather but not in very dry.
The regulations recommend therefore that the preferred method of earth fault protection for
installations in a TT systems be achieved by a residual current device (RCD), such that the
product of its residual operating current and the loop impedance will not exceed a figure of 50 V.
Residual current breakers (RCBs), residual current circuit breakers (RCCBs) and RCDs are one
and the same thing. Modern developments in circuit breaker (CB), RCD and consumer unit
design now make it easy to protect any individual circuit with a combined CB/RCD (RCBO) ,
making the use of split-load boards unnecessary.
In domestic premises the use of 30 mA RCDs is required for the protection of all socket outlets
rated at not more than 20 A, for all circuits in a bath or shower room and for cables embedded in
walls and partitions at a depth less than 50 mm. Socket outlets not intended for general use, for
example a those provided for non-portable equipment such as freezers, etc., are exempt from this
requirement, provided they are suitably labelled or identified.

Principle of operation of an RCD

Figure 10.6 illustrates the construction of an RCD. In a healthy circuit the same current passes
through the line coil, the load and back through the neutral coil. Hence the magnetic effects of
line and neutral currents cancel out.
In a faulty circuit, either line to earth or neutral to earth, these currents are no longer equal;
therefore the out-of-balance current produces some residual magnetism in the core. As this
magnetism is alternating, it links with the turns of the search coil, inducing an electromotive
force (e.m.f.) in it. This e.m.f. in turn drives a current through the trip coil, causing operation of
the tripping mechanism.

It should be noted that a line-to-neutral fault will appear as a load, and hence the RCD will not
operate for this fault.
The test switch creates an out-of-balance condition which tips the breaker. Its only purpose is to
indicate that the breaker is in working order. It does not check the condition of any part of the
earth system.

Figure 10.6 RCD Operation

Out-of-balance currents as low as 5 to 30 mA will be detected, and therefore a person touching
unearthed live metalwork would cause the breaker to operate before the lower lethal limit of 50
mA was reached ( Figure 10.7 ). It is still necessary, however, to ensure that the earth system of
an installation is connected to a suitable earth electrode.

Figure 10.7 RCD Operation With Human Body

Nuisance tripping

Certain appliances such as cookers, water heaters and freezers tend to have, by the nature of
their construction and use, some leakage currents to earth. These are quite normal, but could
cause the operation of an RCD protecting an entire installation.
This can be overcome by using split-load consumer units, where socket outlet circuits are
protected by a 30 mA RCD, leaving all other circuits controlled by a normal mains switch.
Better still, especially in TT systems, is the use of a 100 mA RCD for protecting circuits other
than socket outlets.
Requirements for RCD Protection
30 mA
o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

All socket outlets rated at not more than 20 A and for unsupervised general use.
Mobile equipment rated at not more than 32 A for use outdoors.
All circuits in a bath/shower room.
Preferred for all circuits in a TT system.
All cables installed less than 50 mm from the surface of a wall or partition (even in the
so-called safe zones) if the installation is unsupervised, and also at any depth if the
construction of the wall or partition includes metallic parts.
In zones 0, 1 and 2 of swimming pool locations.
All circuits in a location containing saunas, etc.
Socket outlet final circuits not exceeding 32 A in agricultural locations.
Circuits supplying Class II equipment in restrictive conductive locations.
Each socket outlet in caravan parks and marinas and final circuit for houseboats.
All socket outlet circuits rated not more than 32 A for show stands, etc.
All socket outlet circuits rated not more than 32 A for construction sites (where reduced
low voltage, etc. is not used).
All socket outlets supplying equipment outside mobile or transportable units.
All circuits in caravans.
All circuits in circuses, etc.
A circuit supplying Class II heating equipment for floor and ceiling heating systems.

100 mA
o Socket outlets of rating exceeding 32 A in agricultural locations.
300 mA
o At the origin of a temporary supply to circuses, etc.
o Where there is a risk of fire due to storage of combustible materials.
o All circuits (except socket outlets) in agricultural locations.

500 mA

o Any circuit supplying one or more socket outlets of rating exceeding 32 A, on a

construction site.

Earth Fault Relay (EFR)

Earth fault relay suitable for protection all electrical circuit. This relay is extremely accurate
easy to set, compact and easy to install with rear terminal connection. (Figure 10.8)
EFRs have a following special features,
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

Mechanical fault indicator to indicate the tripping of relay.

Manual reset push button for the relay
Built-in delay timer with adjustable range of 0 sec to 1.0 sec
Its reliability and stability arc excellent and performance is extremely high compared
with conventional induction relays
Highly resistant to electrical induction and external mechanical shock.
Its unique circuit design and electronic parts ensure stable operation over a wide
range of temperature, humidity, voltage and frequency fluctuation.
Specially made transparent plastic cover for sealing of the setting knob.

Figure 10.8 Earth Fault Relay

Earth leakage relay (ELR)

The earth leakage relay has the very best diagnostic (and auto diagnostic) never seen on the
previous generation of earth leakage relays. Particularly, it has three types of tests, two of which
are made automatically by the relay itself. (Figure 10.9)
1.
2.
3.

manual test (trough test button)

automatic test of the torrid/relay circuit (watch)
automatic test of the internal electronic functionally

Every two seconds the microprocessor checks all the electronic circuit between the input and
output terminals. The test doesnt generate any interference with the normal relay operation in
case of fault the output relay trips and the fault LED light-on steady.

Figure 10.9 Earth Leakage Relay

Phase Failure Relay (PFR)

PFRs have a three-phase voltage control for three phase networks without neutral. The voltage
to be controlled is applied to terminals L1, L2, L3, and N and feeds the unit too (green ON
LED). Max voltage and Min voltage potential meters establish a control window around the
line rated voltage which value is selected by the rotary switch Ue on the front. The unit trips
when only one of the line voltages (L1-L2, L2-L3, and L1-L3) exceeds the set limits. ( Figure
10.10)
Normal condition
If the voltage is within the control window, both output relays are energized, the Min and
Max LEDs are off.
Maximum voltage trip
When the voltage exceeds the Max voltage limit of the control window and the over voltage
remains for more that time Delay max the Max output relay de-energizes and the Max
output relay energizes and the Max LED switch off.
Minimum Voltage trip
When the voltage exceeds the Min voltage limit of the control window and the under voltage
remains for more than time Delay min, the Min output relay de-energizes and the Min
LED switches on. When the voltage returns to a value more than Min voltage +3% (hysterics).
The reset is automatic, the Min output relay energizes and the Min LED switches off.

Figure 10.10 Phase Failure

Relay

CHAPTER 11
UNDERGROUND CABLES

Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by underground

cables. The underground cables have several advantages such as less liable to damage through
storms or lightning, low maintenance cost, less chances of faults, smaller voltage drop and better
general appearance. However, their major drawback is that they have greater installation cost
and introduce insulation problems at high voltages compared with the equivalent overhead
system. For this reason, underground cables are employed where it is impracticable to use
overhead lines. Such locations may be thickly populated areas where municipal authorities
prohibit overhead lines for reasons of safety, or around plants and substations or where
maintenance conditions do not permit the use of overhead construction.
The chief use of underground cables for many years has been for distribution of electric power
in congested urban areas at comparatively low or moderate voltages. However, recent
improvements in the design and manufacture have led to the development of cables suitable for
use at high voltages. This has made it possible to employ underground cables for transmission of
electric power for short or moderate distances.

Underground Cables
An Underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered with suitable
insulation and surround by a protecting cover.
Although several types of cables are available, the type of cable to be used will depend upon the
working voltage and service requirements. In general, a cable must fulfil the following necessary
requirements,
i. The conductor used in cables should be tinned conductivity. Stranding is done so that
conductor may become flexible and carry more current.
ii. The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired load current
without overheating and causes voltage drop within permissible limits.
iii. The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of
safety and reliability at the voltage for which it is designed.
iv. The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may
withstand the rough use in laying it.
v. The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is complete
chemical and physical stability throughout.

Construction of cables
The general construction of a four conductor cable. The various parts are, ( Figure 11.1 )

Figure 11.1 Construction of four Core Armour Cable

i. Cores or Conductors A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending
upon the type of service for which it is intended. For instance, the 3 conductor cable is
used for 3 phase service. The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminium and are
usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
ii. Insulation each core or conductor is providing with a suitable thickness of insulation, the
thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The commonly
used materials for insulation are impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral
compound
iii. Metallic Sheath In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging
liquids ( acid or alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminium
is provided over the insulation.
iv. Bedding Over the metallic shealth is applied a layer of bedding which consists of a
fibrous material like jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic
shealth against corrosion and from mechanical injury due to armouring.
v. Armouring Over the bedding, armouring is provided which consists of one or two layers
of galvanized steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical
injury while laying it and during the course of handling. Armouring may not be done in the
case of some cables.
vi. Serving n order to protect armouring from atmosphere conditions, a layer of fibrous
material (like jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armouring. This is known as
serving. It may not be out of place to mention here that bedding, armouring and serving are
only applied to the cables for the protection of conductor insulation and to protect the
metallic shealth from mechanical injury.

Insulating Materials for Cables

The satisfactory operation of a cable depends to a great extent upon the characteristics of
insulation used. Therefore, the copper choice of insulating material for cables is of considerable
importance. In general, the insulating materials used in cables should have the following
properties,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.

High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
Non hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb moisture from air and soil. The moisture tends
to decrease the insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable. In case the
insulating material is hygroscopic, it must be enclosed in a waterproof covering like lead
sheath.
v. Non inflammable.
vi. Low cost so as to make the underground system a viable proposition.
vii. Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical action.

No one insulating material possesses all the above mentioned properties. Therefore, the type of
insulating material to be used depends upon the purpose for which the cable is required and the
quality of insulation to be aimed at.

The principal insulating material used in cables are rubber, vulcanized india rubber,
impregnated paper, varnished cambric and polyvinyl chloride.
1. Rubber Rubber may be obtained from milky sap tropical trees or it may be produced from
oil products. It has relative permittivity varying between 2 and 3, dielectric strength is about
30kV/mm and resistivity of insulation is 1017 cm. Although pure rubber has reasonably
high insulating properties, it suffers form some major drawbacks viz., readily absorb
moisture, maximum safe temperature is low ( about 38oC) soft and liable to damage due to
rough handling and ages when exposed to light. Therefore, pure rubber cannot be used as an
insulating material.
2. Vulcanised Rubber It is prepared by mixing pure rubber with mineral matter such as zinc
oxide, red lead etc., and 3 to 5 % of sulphur. The compound so formed is rolled into thin
sheets and cut into strips. The rubber compound is then applied to the conductor and is
heated to a temperature of about 150oC. The whole process is called vulcanization and the
product obtained is known as vulcanized rubber.
Vulcanised rubber has greater mechanical strength, durability and wear resistant property
that pure rubber. Its main drawback is that sulphur reacts very quickly with copper and for
this reason, cables using vulcanized insulation have tinned copper conductor. The vulcanized
insulation is generally used for low and moderate voltages cables.

3. Impregnated Paper It consists of chemically pulped paper made from wood chipping and
impregnated with some compound such as paraffinic or napthenic material. This type of
insulation has almost superseded the rubber insulation. It is because it has the advantages of
low cost, low capacitance, high dielectric strength and high insulation resistance. The only
disadvantages is that paper is hygroscopic and even if it is impregnated with suitable
compound, it absorbs moisture and thus lowers the insulation resistance of the cable. For this
reason, paper insulated cables are always provided with some protective covering and are
never left unsealed. If it is required to be left unused on the site during laying, its ends are
temporarily covered with wax or tar.
Since route has a few joints. For instance, they can be profitably used for distribution at low
voltages in congested areas where the joints are generally provided only at the terminal
apparatus. However, for smaller installations , where the lengths are small and joints are
required at a number of places, vulcanized rubber will be cheaper and durable than paper
insulated cables.
4. Varnished Cambric It is cotton cloth impregnated and coated with varnish. This type of
insulation is also known as empire tape. The cambric is lapped on to the conductor in the
form of a tape an its surfaces are coated with petroleum jelly compound to allow for the
sliding of one turn over another as the cable is bent. As the varnished cambric is
hygroscopic, therefore, such cables are always provided with metallic sheath. Its dielectric
strength is about 4 kV/mm and permittivity is 2.5 to 3.8
5. Polyvinyl Chloride This insulating material is a synthetic compound. T is obtained from
the polymerization of acetylene and is in the form of white powder. For obtaining this
material as a cable insulation, it is compounded with certain materials known as plasticizers
which are liquids with high boiling point. The plasticizer forms a gell and renders the
material plastic over the desired range of temperature.
Polyvinyl chloride has high insulation resistance, good dielectric strength and mechanical
toughness over a wide range of temperatures. It is inert to oxygen and almost inert to many
alkalies and acids. Therefore, this type of insulation is preferred over vulcanized rubber in
extreme environment conditions such as in cement factory or chemical factory. As the
mechanical properties ( i. e. elasticity etc) of PVC are not so good as those of rubber,
therefore, PVC insulated cables are generally used for low and medium domestric lights and
power installations.

Classification of Cables
Cables for underground service may be classified in two ways according to (i) the type of
insulating material used in their manufacture, (ii) the voltage for which they are manufactured.
However, the latter method of classification is generally preferred, according to which cables
can be divided into the following groups,

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Low tention (L. T.) cables upto 1000 V

High tention (H. T.) cables upto 11,000 V
Super tention (S. T.) cables from 22 kV to 33 kV
Extra high tention (E. H. T.) cables from 33 kV to 66 kV
Extra super voltage cables beyond 132 kV

A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of service for which it is
intended. It may be,
(i) single core, (ii) two core, (iii) three core, (iv) four core etc. For a three phase service,
either 3 single core cables or three core cable can be used depending upon the operating
voltage and load demand.
Figure 11.2 shows the constructional details of single core low tension cable. The cable has
ordinary construction because s the stresses developed in the cable for low voltages (upto
6600V) are generally small. It consists of one circular core of conductor tinned stranded copper
(or aluminium) insulated by layers of impregnated paper. The insulation is surrounded by a lead
sheath which prevents the entry of moisture into the inner parts. In order to protect the lead
sheath from corrosion, an overall serving of compound fibrous material (jute etc) is provided.
Single core cables are not usually armoured in order to avoid excessive sheath losses. The
principal advantages of single core cables are simple construction and availability of larger
copper section.

Figure 11.2 Construction Of Single Core Cable

Cables for three phase Service

In practice, underground cables are generally required to deliver three phase power. For the
purpose, either three core cable or three single core cables (separate single core for each
phase) may be used. For voltages upto 66kV, three core cable ( i. e. multi core construction)
is preffered due to economic reasons. However, for voltages beyond 66kV, three core cables

become too large and unwieldy and, therefore, single core cables are used. The following types
of cables are generally used for three phase service,
i. Belting Cables upto 11kV
ii. Screened Cables from 22kV to 66kV
iii. Pressure Cables beyond 66kV

i. Belted Cables
These cables are used for voltages upto 11kV, but in extraordinary cases, their use may be
extended upto 22kV. Figure 11.3 shows the constructional detail of a three core belted cable.
The cores are insulated from each other by layers of impregnated paper. Another layer of
impregnated paper tape, called paper belt is wound round the grouped insulated cores. The gap
between the insulated cores is filled with fibrous insulating material (jute etc.) so as to give
circular cross section to the cable. The cores are generally stranded and may be of non
circular shape to make better use of available space. The belt is covered with lead sheath to
protect the cable against ingress of moisture and mechanical injury. The lead sheath is covered
with an outer serving.

Figure 11.3 Construction of Belted Cable

The belted type construction is suitable only for low and medium voltages as the electrostatic
stresses developed in the cables for these voltages are more or less radial i. e., across the
insulation. However, for high voltages (beyond 22kV), the tangential stresses also become
important. These stresses act along the layers of paper insulation. As the insulation resistance of
paper is quite small along the layers,

therefore, tangential stresses set up leakage current causes local heating, resulting in the risk of
breakdown of insulation at any moment. In order to overcome this difficulty, screened cables are
used where leakage currents are conducted to earth through metallic screens.

ii. Screened cables

These cables are meant for use upto 33kV, but in particular cases their use may be extended
to operating voltages upto 66kV. Two principal types of screened cables are, (i) H type
cables and (ii) S. L. type cables.

(a) H Type Cables

This type of cable was first designed by H. Hochstadter and hence the name. Figure 11.4
shows the constructional detail of atypical three core, H type cable. Each core is
insulated by layers of impregnated paper. The insulation on each core is covered with a
metallic screen which usually consists of a perforated aluminium foil. The cores are laid in
such a way that metallic screens make contact with one another. An additional conducing
belt (copper woven fabric tape) is wrapped round the three cores. The cable has no
insulating belt but lead sheath, bedding, armouring and serving follow as usual. It is easy to
see that each core screen is in electrical contact with the conducing belt and the lead sheath.
As all the four screens (three core screens and one conducing belt) and the lead sheath are at
earth potential, therefore, the electrical stresses are purely radial and consequently dielectric
losses are reduced.

Two principal advantages are claimed for H type cables. Firstly, the perforations in the
metallic screens assist in the complete impregnation of the cable with the compound and
thus the possibility of air pockets or voids (vacuous spaces) in the dielectric is eliminated.
The voids if present tend to reduce the breakdown strength of the cable and may cause
considerable damage to the paper insulation. Secondly, the metallic screens increase the heat
dissipating power of the cable.

Figure 11.4 Construction of H Type Cable

(b) S. L. Type cables

Figure 11.5 shows the constructional details of a three core S. L. type cable (separate lead).
It is basically H type cable but the screen round each core insulation is covered by its own
lead sheath. There is no overall lead sheath but only armouring and serving are provided.
The S. L. type cables have two main advantages over H Type cables. Firstly, the separate
sheaths minimize the possibility of core to core breakdown. Secondly, being of cables
becomes easy due to the elimination of overall lead sheath. However, the disadvantages is
that the three lead sheaths of S. L. cable are much thinner than the single sheath of H cable
and, therefore, call for greater care in manufacture.
In this S. L. arrangement, each core is separately lead sheathed.

Figure 11.5 Construction of S. L.Type Cable

Limitations of Solid Type Cables.

All the cables of above construction are referred to as solid type cables because solid insulation
is used and no gas or oil circulates in the cable sheath. The voltage limit for solid type cables is
66kV due to the following reasons,

As a Solid cable carries the load, its conductor temperature increases and the cable
compound ( i. e., insulating compound over paper) expands. This action stretches the
lead sheath which may be damaged.

When the load o the cable decreases, the conductor cools and a partial vacuum is formed
within the cable sheath. If the pinholes are present in the lead sheath, moist air may be
drawn into the cable. The moisture reduces the dielectric strength of insulation and may
eventually cause the breakdown of the cable.

In practice, voids (voids are unintentional spaces in the insulation of cable filled with air
or gas, usually at low pressure.) are always present in the insulation of a cable. Modern
techniques of manufacturing have resulting in void free cables. However, under
operating conditions, the voids are formed as a result of the differential expansion and
contraction of the sheath and impregnated compound. The breakdown strength of voids
is considerably less than that of the insulation. If the void is small enough, the
electrostatic stress across it may cause its breakdown. The voids nearest to the conductor
are the first to breakdown, the chemical and thermal effects of ionization causing
permanent damage to the paper insulation.

iii. Pressure Cables

For voltages beyond 66kV, solid type cables are unreliable because there is a danger of
breakdown of insulation due to the presence of voids. When the operating voltages are
greater than 66kV, pressure cables are used. In such cables, voids are eliminated by
increasing the pressure of compound and for this reason they are called pressure cables. Two
types of pressure cables viz oil filled cables and gas pressure cables are commonly used.

a.)

Oil Filled Cables

In such types of cables, channels or ducts are provided I the cable for oil circulation. The oil
under pressure (it is the same oil used for impregnation) is kept constantly supplied to the
channel by means of external reservoirs placed at suitable distances (say 500m) along the route
of the cable. Oil under pressure compresses the layers of paper insulation and is forced into any
voids that may have formed between the layers. Due to the elimination of voids, oil filled
cables are of three types viz., single core conductor channel, single core sheath channel and
three core filler space channels.

Figure 11.6 shows the constructional details of a single core conductor channel, oil filled
cable. The oil channel is formed at the centre by stranding the conductor wire around a hollow

cylindrical steel spiral tape. The oil under pressure is supplied to the channel by means of
external reservoir. As the channel is made of spiral steel tape, it allows the oil to percolate
between copper strands to the wrapped insulation. The oil pressure compresses the layers of
paper insulation and prevents the possibility of void formation. The system is so designed that
when the oil gets expanded due to increase in cable temperature, the extra oil collects in the
reservoir. However, when the cable temperature falls during light load conditions, the oil from
the reservoir flows to the channel. The disadvantage of this type of cable is that the channel is at
the middle of the cable and is at full voltage w. r. t. earth, so that a very complicated system of
joints is necessary.

Figure 11.6
Oil Filled Cable

Single Core

Figure 11.7 shows the constructional details of a single core sheath channel oil filled cable.
In this type of cable, the conductor is solid similar to that of solid cable and is paper insulated.
However, oil ducts are provided in the metallic sheath as shown. In the three core oil filler
cable shown in Figure 11.8 the oil ducts are located in the filler spaces. These channels are
composed of perforated metal ribbon tubing and are at earth potential.

The oil filled cables have three principal advantages. Firstly, formation of voids and ionization
are avoided. Secondly, allowable temperature range and dielectric strength are increased.
Thirdly, if there is leakage, the defect in the lead sheath is at once indicated and the possibility of
earth faults is decreased. However, their major disadvantages are the high initial cost and
complicated system of laying.

Figure 11.7 Single Core Sheath Oil Filled Cable

Figure 11. 8(a) Three Core Oil Filled Cable

b.)

Gas Pressure Cables

The voltage required to set up ionization inside a void increases as the pressure is increased.
Therefore, if ordinary cable is subjected to a sufficiently high pressure, the ionization can be
altogether eliminated. At the same time, the increased pressure produces radial compression
which tends to close any voids. This is the underlying principal of gas pressure cables.

Figure 11. 8(b) Three Core Oil Filled Cable

PROBLEMS AND REPAIR

To diagnose and find faults in electrical installations and equipment is probably one of the most
difficult tasks undertaken by an electrician. The knowledge of fault finding and the diagnosis of
faults can never be completely learned because no two fault situations are exactly the same.
As the systems we install become more complex, then the faults developed on these systems
become more complicated to solve. To be successful the individual must have a thorough
knowledge of the installation or piece of equipment and have a broad range of the skills and
competences associated with the electro-technical industries.
The ideal person will tackle the problem using a reasoned and logical approach, recognize his
own limitations and seek help and guidance where necessary.
The tests recommended by the IEE Regulations can be used as a diagnostic tool but the safe
working practices described by the Electricity at Work Act and elsewhere must always be
observed during the fault-finding procedures.
If possible, fault finding should be planned ahead to avoid inconvenience to other workers and
to avoid disruption of the normal working routine. However, a faulty piece of equipment or a
fault in the installation is not normally a planned event and usually occurs at the most

inconvenient time. The diagnosis and rectification of a fault is therefore often carried out in very
stressful circumstances.

Symptoms of an electrical fault

The basic symptoms of an electrical fault may be described in one or a combination of the
following ways,
1. There is a complete loss of power.
2. There is partial or localized loss of power.
3. The installation or piece of equipment is failing because of the following,
i. An individual component is failing,
ii. The whole plant or piece of equipment is failing,
iii. The insulation resistance is low,
iv. The overload or protective devices operate frequently,
v. Electromagnetic relays will not latch, giving an indication of under voltage.

Causes of electrical faults

A fault is not a natural occurrence; it is an unplanned event which occurs unexpectedly. The fault
in an electrical installation or piece of equipment may be caused by,

Negligence that is, lack of proper care and attention.

Misuse that is, not using the equipment properly or correctly.
Abuse that is, deliberate ill-treatment of the equipment.

If the installation was properly designed in the first instance to perform the tasks required of it
by the user, then the negligence, misuse or abuse must be the fault of the user. However, if the
installation does not perform the tasks required of it by the user then the negligence is due to the
electrical contractor in not designing the installation to meet the needs of the user.
Negligence on the part of the user may be due to insufficient maintenance or lack of general care
and attention, such as not repairing broken equipment or removing covers or enclosures which
were designed to prevent the ingress of dust or moisture.
Misuse of an installation or pieces of equipment may occur because the installation is being
asked to do more than it was originally designed to do, because of expansion of a company, for
example. Circuits are sometimes overloaded because a company grows and a greater demand is
placed on the existing installation by the introduction of new or additional machinery and
equipment.

Where Do Electrical Faults Occur?

1. Faults occur in wiring systems, but not usually along the length of the cable, unless it
has been damaged by a recent event such as an object being driven through it or a JCB
digger pulling up n underground cable. Cable faults usually occur at each end, where the
human hand has been at work at the point of cable inter-connections. This might result in
broken conductors, trapped conductors or loose connections in joint boxes, accessories or
luminaires.
All cable connections must be made mechanically and electrically secure. They must
also remain accessible for future inspection, testing and maintenance (IEE Regulation
526.3). The only exceptions to this rule are when,
(a)
(b)
(c)

Underground cables are connected in a compound filled or encapsulated joint.

Floor warming or ceiling warming heating systems are connected to a cold tail.
A joint is made by welding, brazing, soldering or compression tool.

Since they are accessible, cable inter-connections are an obvious point of investigation
when searching out the cause of a fault.
2. Faults also occur at cable terminations. The IEE Regulations require that a cable
termination of any kind must securely anchor all conductors to reduce mechanical
stresses on the terminal connections. All conductors of flexible cords must be terminated
within the terminal connection otherwise the current carrying capacity of the conductor
is reduced, which may cause local heating. Flexible cords are delicate has the terminal
screw been over-tightened, thus breaking the connection as the conductors flex or
vibrate? Cables and flexible cords must be suitable for the temperature to be encountered
at the point of termination or must be provided with additional insulation sleeves to make
them suitable for the surrounding temperatures (IEE Regulation 522.2).
3. Faults also occur at accessories such as switches, sockets, control gear, motor
contactors or at the point of connection with electronic equipment. The source of a
possible fault is again at the point of human contact with the electrical system and again
the connections must be checked as described in the first two points above. Contacts that
make and break a circuit are another source of wear and possible failure, so switches and
motor contactors may fail after extensive use. Socket outlets that have been used
extensively and loaded to capacity in say kitchens, are another source of fault due to
overheating or loose connections. Electronic equipment can be damaged by the standard
tests described in the IEE Regulations and must, therefore, be disconnected before
testing begins.
4. Faults occur on instrumentation panels either as a result of a faulty instrument or as a
result of a faulty monitoring probe connected to the instrument. Many panel instruments
are standard sizes connected to CTs or VTs and this is another source of possible faults of
the types described in points 13.

5. Faults occur in protective devices for the reasons given in points 13 above but also
because they may have been badly selected for the job in hand and do not offer adequate
protection or discrimination.
6. Faults often occur in luminaires (light fittings) because the lamp has expired.
Discharge lighting (fluorescent fittings) also require a starter to be in good condition,
although many fluorescent luminaires these days use starter-less electronic control gear.
The points made in 13 about cable and flexible cord connections are also relevant to
luminaire faults.
7. Faults occur when terminating flexible cords as a result of the flexible cable being of
a smaller cross-section than the load demands, because it is not adequately anchored
to reduce mechanical stresses on the connection or because the flexible cord is not
suitable for the ambient temperature to be encountered at the point of connection. When
terminating flexible cords, the insulation should be carefully removed without cutting out
any flexible cord strands of wire because this effectively reduces the cross-section of the
conductor. The conductor strands should be twisted together and then doubled over, if
possible, and terminated in the appropriate connection. The connection screws should be
opened fully so that they will not snag the flexible cord as it is eased into the connection.
The insulation should go up to, but not into, the termination. The terminal screws should
then be tightened.
8. Faults occur in electrical components, equipment and accessories such as motors,
starters, switch gear, control gear, distribution panels, switches, sockets and luminaires
because these all have points at which electrical connections are made. It is unusual for
an electrical component to become faulty when it is relatively new because it will have
been manufactured and tested to comply with the appropriate British Standard. Through
overuse or misuse components and equipment do become faulty but most faults are
caused by poor installation techniques.

Modern electrical installations using new materials can now last longer than fifty years.
Therefore, they must be properly installed. Good design, good workmanship and the use of
proper materials are essential if the installation is to comply with the relevant Regulations (IEE
Regulations 133.1.1 and 134.1.1).

Fault Finding
Before an electrician can begin to diagnose the cause of a fault he must,

Have a thorough knowledge and understanding of the electrical installation or electrical

equipment;
Collect information about the fault and the events occurring at or about the time of the
fault from the people who were in the area at the time;

Begin to predict the probable cause of the fault using his own and other peoples skills
and expertise;
test some of the predictions using a logical approach to identify the cause of the fault.
Most importantly, electricians must use their detailed knowledge of electrical circuits and
equipment learned through training and experience and then apply this knowledge to
look for a solution to the fault.

SAFETY
The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
This legislation came into force in 1990 and replaced earlier regulations such as the Electricity
(Factories Act) Special Regulations 1944. The regulations are made under the Health and Safety
at Work Act 1974, and enforced by the HSE. The purpose of the regulations is to require
precautions to be taken against the risk of death or personal injury from electricity in work
activities .
Section 4 of the Electricity at Work Regulations (EWR) tells us that all systems must be
constructed so as to prevent danger , and be properly maintained. Every work activity shall
be carried out in a manner which does not give rise to danger. In the case of work of an
electrical nature, it is preferable that the conductors be made dead before work commences .
The EWR do not tell us specifically how to carry out our work activities and ensure compliance,
but if proceedings were brought against an individual for breaking the EWR, the only acceptable
defence would be to prove that all reasonable steps were taken and all diligence exercised to
avoid the offence (Regulation 29).
An electrical contractor could reasonably be expected to have exercised all diligence if the
installation was wired according to the IEE Wiring
Regulations and this is confirmed in the 17th Edition at Regulation 114 (see below). However,
electrical contractors must become more legally aware following the conviction of an
electrician for manslaughter at Maidstone Crown Court in 1989. The Court accepted that an
electrician had caused the death of another man as a result of his shoddy work in wiring up a
central heating system. He received a 9 month suspended prison sentence. This case has set an
important legal precedent, and in future any tradesman or professional who causes death through
negligence or poor workmanship risks prosecution and possible imprisonment.

Duty of Care
The Health and Safety at Work Act and the Electricity at Work Regulations (EWR) make
numerous references to employer and employees having a duty of care for the health and
safety of others in the work environment. In this context the EWR refer to a person as a duty

holder . This phrase recognizes the level of responsibility which electricians are expected to
take on a part of their job in order to control electrical safety in the work environment.

Everyone has a duty of care but not everyone is a duty holder. The regulations recognize the
amount of control that an individual might exercise over the whole electrical installation. The
person who exercises control over the whole systems, equipment and conductors and is the
Electrical Companys representative on site, is the duty holder . He might be a supervisor or
manager, but he will have a duty of care on behalf of his employer for the electrical, health,
safety and environmental issues on that site.
Duties referred to in the regulations may have the qualifying terms reasonably practicable or
absolute . If the requirement of the regulation is absolute, then that regulation must be met
regardless of cost or any other consideration. If the regulation is to be met so far as is
reasonably practicable then risks, cost, time trouble and difficulty can be considered.
Often there is a cost effective way to reduce a particular risk and prevent an accident occurring.
For example, placing a fi re-guard in front of the fi re at home when there are young children in
the family is a reasonably practicable way of reducing the risk of a child being burned.
If a regulation is not qualified with so far as is reasonably practicable then it must be assumed
that the regulation is absolute. In the context of the EWR, where the risk is very often death by
electrocution, the level of duty to prevent danger more often approaches that of an absolute duty
of care.

The IEE Wiring Regulations 17th Edition to BS 7671: 2008

Requirements For Electrical Installations
The Institution of Electrical Engineers Requirements for Electrical Installations (the IEE
Regulations) are non-statutory regulations. They relate principally to the design, selection,
erection, inspection and testing of electrical installations, whether permanent or temporary, in
and about buildings generally and to agricultural and horticultural premises, construction sites
and caravans and their sites. Paragraph 7 of the introduction to the EWR says: the IEE Wiring
Regulations is a code of practice which is widely recognized and accepted in the United
Kingdom and compliance with them is likely to achieve compliance with all relevant aspects of
the EWR . The IEE Regulations confirm this relationship at Regulation 114 which states that
compliance with the IEE Regulations may be used in a Court of Law to claim compliance with a
statutory requirement such as the EWR. The IEE Wiring Regulations only apply to installations
operating at a voltage up to 1000 V a.c. They do not apply to electrical installations in mines and
quarries, where special regulations apply because of the adverse conditions experienced there.
The current edition of the IEE Wiring Regulations, is the 17th edition. The main reason for
incorporating the IEE Wiring Regulations into British Standard BS 7671: 2008 was to create
harmonization with European standards.

To assist electricians in their understanding of the regulations a number of guidance notes have
been published. The guidance notes which I will frequently make reference to in this book are
those contained in the On Site Guide . Eight other guidance notes booklets are also currently
available. These are,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Selection and Erection,

Isolation and Switching,
Inspection and Testing,
Protection against Fire,
Protection against Electric Shock,
Protection against Overcurrent,
Special Locations,
Earthing and Bonding,

These guidance notes are intended to be read in conjunction with the regulations.
The IEE Wiring Regulations are the electricians bible and provide the authoritative framework
of information for anyone working in the electro technical industry.

Environmental Laws and Regulations

Environmental laws protect the environment in which we live by setting standards for the
control of pollution to land, air and water.
If a wrong is identified in the area in which we now think of as environmental it can be of two
kinds.
1. An offence in common law which means damage to property, nuisance or negligence
leading to a claim for damages.
2. A statutory offence against one of the laws dealing with the protection of the
environment. These offences are nearly always crimes and punished by fines or
imprisonment rather than by compensating any individual.
The legislation dealing with the environment has evolved for each part air, water, land noise,
radioactive substances where an organization s activities impact upon the environmental laws
they are increasingly adopting environmental management systems which comply with ISO
14001. Let us now look at some of the regulations and try to see the present picture at the
beginning of the new millennium.

Safe working procedures

The principles which were laid down in the many Acts of Parliament and the Regulations that
we have already looked at in this chapter, control our working environment. They make our
workplace safer, but despite all this legislation, workers continue to be injured and killed at work
or die as a result of a work-related injury. The number of deaths has consistently averaged about
200 each year for the past 8 years. These figures only relate to employees. If you include the
self-employed and members of the public killed in work-related accidents, the numbers almost
double.
In addition to the deaths, about 28,000 people have major accidents at work and about 130,000
people each year, receive minor work-related injuries which keep them off work for more than 3
days.
It is a mistake to believe that these things only happen in dangerous occupations such as deep
sea diving, mining and quarrying, fishing industry, tunnelling and fi re-fighting or that it only
happens in exceptional circumstances such as would never happen in your workplace. This is
not the case. Some basic thinking and acting beforehand, could have prevented most of these
accident statistics, from happening.

Causes of Accidents
Most accidents are caused by either human error or environmental conditions. Human errors
include behaving badly or foolishly, being careless and not paying attention to what you should
be doing at work, doing things that you are not competent to do or have not been trained to do.
You should not work when tired or fatigued and should never work when you have been
drinking alcohol or taking drugs.

Environmental conditions include unguarded or faulty machinery, damaged or faulty tools and
equipment, poorly illuminated or ventilated workplaces and untidy, dirty or overcrowded
workplaces. The most common causes of accidents These are,

slips, trips and falls,

manual handling, that is moving objects by hand,
using equipment, machinery or tools,
storage of goods and materials which then become unstable,
fire,
electricity,
mechanical handling,

Accident prevention measures

To control the risk of an accident we usually

Eliminate the cause,

Substitute a procedure or product with less risk,
Enclose the dangerous situation,
Put guards around the hazard,
Use safe systems of work,
Supervise, train and give information to staff,
If the hazard cannot be removed or minimized then provide PPE.

Let us now look at the application of one of the procedures that make the workplace a safer
place to work but first of all I want to explain what I mean when I use the words hazard and risk.

Safety Signs
The rules and regulations of the working environment are communicated to employees by
written instructions, signs and symbols. All signs in the working environment are intended to
inform. They should give warning of possible dangers and must be obeyed. At first there were
many different safety signs but British Standard BS 5499 Part 1 and the Health and Safety
(Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996 have introduced a standard system which gives health and
safety information with the minimum use of words. The purpose of the regulations is to establish
an internationally understood system of safety signs and colours which draw attention to
equipment and situations that do, or could, affect health and safety. Text-only safety signs
became illegal from 24 December 1998. From that date, all safety signs have had to contain a
pictogram or symbol such as those shown in Figure 11.9 . Signs fall into four categories:
prohibited activities; warnings; mandatory instructions and safe conditions.

Figure 11.9 Text only Safety Signs Do not Comply

Prohibition Signs

These are must not do signs. These are circular white signs with a red border and red cross bar,
and are given in Figure 11.10 . They indicate an activity which must not be done.

Figure 11.10 Prohibition Signs (These are must not DO)

Warning Signs
Warning signs give safety information. These are triangular yellow signs with a black border and
symbol, and are given in Figure 11.11 . They give warning of a hazard or danger.

Figure 11.11 Warning Signs (These give Safety Information)

Mandatory Signs

These are must do signs. These are circular blue signs with a white symbol, and are given in
Figure 11.12 . They give instructions which must be obeyed.

Figure 11.12 Mandatory Signs (These are must Do)

Advisory or Safe Condition Signs

These are square or rectangular green signs with a white symbol, and are given in Figure 11.13.
They give information about safety provision.

Figure 11.13 Advisory or Safe Signs

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Duties & responsibilities of Project Manager

i. He should responsibilities for around all section of the site administration, technical and
other parts.
ii. He should prepare programs & progress charts for the site organization.
iii. He should co- ordinates between head office and site and also between the client &
contractor
iv. He must select who are the best for each work and who can do hard works.
v. He should co-ordinating with different sub contractor agencies to maintain the speed of
construction project work.
vi. He should attend site meetings, preparation of proceeding for tomorrow, discuss the
difficulties, suggestions taken out the meeting.
vii. He should give instructions to the engineers, assistance engineers & officers as it
required by the site conditions.
viii.
Complete the project with in given time & cost also good quality must there.

Duties of Engineers
i. Keeping overall watch on working of all the supervisors & workers to obtain maximum
out put from them.
ii. To control wastage & details provided by the consultants & explain to supervisors.
iii. To prepare reinforcement schedules of the project.
iv. To work out the requirement of different material necessary for work involved.

Duties & responsibilities of Administrative Officer

i. Security services should be careful checked on daily basis & report promptly all
shortcomings to project manager.
ii. Maintenance & movements of machineries, vehicles & arrangement it requirement in
time.
iii. All transfers of employers from one work site should be organized an in order to prepare
the transfer documents. ( gate passes )
iv. All the copies of attendance sheet & any other document pertaining to site employees
from; be care fully packed and dispatched to teed office at the end every month.
v. The passes must be issued all sub contractors employees & re-new or alter each 6 months.
vi. Every personal accidents looks after the purpose of employees & he should take action to
over come problems as soon as possible.

STORE MANAGEMENTS

To get good store handling without wasting the materials or working hours of labors due to the
finishing of materials, the site manager should keep close associated with store keepers. Main
stores managed site stores,Storekeepers should maintain the following records,
i.
ii.
iii.
v.

Material Requisition
Goods Received Note
Goods Return Note
Gate pass

Material Requisition
This is used to issue the material to the workers from the site office. Officers have to
fill this form & sign it & worker give it to stores and store keeper was issued request quantity for
the worker.

Goods Received Note

When the requested materials are supplied to the site, the store keeper prepares the Goods
Received Note by checking quantity of the goods received thoroughly. The project manager
must give the final approval.

Goods Return Note

To transfer any equipment, material from one site to another site or head office stores to the site
Goods Return Note is issued. This is consisting of four copies.

Original - to receive place

Duplicate - to certify that goods received and return it to the site
Triplicate - to the security book copy

Gate pass
If something is taken out from the site the gate pass is issued. specially for the sub contractors.