Progress in Aerospace Sciences 72 (2015) 3036

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Progress in Aerospace Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paerosci

Optical diagnostics for high-speed ows

Richard B. Miles 1,n
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 25 June 2014
Accepted 11 September 2014
Available online 11 October 2014

Since 2000 there has been a revolution in diagnostics of high-speed air ows. The foundations for this
revolution were laid over the past few decades, but with the development of new short pulse and pulse
burst laser technologies, higher laser powers and higher pulse energies, new high-speed cameras, better
laser control and improved detection and laser delivery methodologies, many very effective new
capabilities have been developed. Newly developed methods for molecular tagging velocimetry provide
high delity visualization of transport properties and may be extended to simultaneous temperature
measurements. Rapid eld imaging with frequency tunable pulse burst lasers shows instantaneous ow
structure and complex boundary and mixing interactions. Extending these pulse burst concepts to swept
volumetric imaging is very promising for full volumetric data collection. Fast wavelength modulation
spectroscopy follows real-time ow variation, and three-dimensional particle imaging extends particle
imaging velocimetry to volumetric data acquisition.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Diagnostics
High speed ows
Flow imaging

1. Introduction and retrospective

The use of optical diagnostics for the study of high-speed ows
dates back to the 1800s when shadowgraphs and schlieren yielded
images of the bow shocks, Mach disks and other structures associated
with high-speed projectiles and supersonic ows [21] (see Fig. 1).
Notable progress in optical diagnostics through the twentieth century
that did not involve laser technologies primarily focused on further
development of schlieren and shadowgraph for high sensitivity and
high-resolution imaging of ow structure. These approaches provided
good resolution of large-scale structures but suffered from integration
over the full optical path length, so details of turbulent boundary
layers, curved and unsteady shocks and mixing structures were not
well resolved. The introduction of an electron beam [30] overcame
that problem since electron beams could be spatially collimated and
electronically swept, providing luminous cross sections of shock and
boundary layer structure. However, electron beams are limited to low
density ows due to electron scattering, and they are very difcult to
integrate into a test facility. Focusing schlieren [55] provided a method
for imaging ow structure over a reduced integrated path length in
higher density ows.
Since the invention of the laser in 1960, the continuing evolution of
optical ow diagnostics has been driven in large part by everincreasing laser and camera capabilities. The very rst laser invented,
the pulsed ruby laser, provided high energy and excellent coherence,

Tel.: 1 60 925 8 5131.

1
Robert Porter Patterson, Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,
Fellow AIAA.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2014.09.007
0376-0421/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

which enabled the development of interferometric methods to

measure ow eld properties, such as ow velocity using seed
particles [54] and the imaging of boundary layer structure using
density variations [16]. It was not until after the invention of the
frequency tunable laser in 1966 [50,48] that atomic and molecular
spectroscopy could be utilized for diagnostics. The tunable dye lasers
only operated efciently in the visible portion of the spectrum where
the air is highly transparent, so for these new applications, ow
seeding became important. Initially seeding with sodium provided
planar imaging of ow cross sections [33] and enhanced schlieren [4].
These advances were accomplished by tuning the laser either onto a
resonance or near a resonance and utilizing the laser-induced uorescence for imaging planar cross sections or the enhanced index of
refraction for higher sensitivity schlieren. Tuning the lasers provided
methods for imaging and measurement of velocity elds by taking
advantage of the Doppler shift associated with the motion of the gas
[58]. Due to the reactivity of sodium with air, these experiments were
carried out in either helium or nitrogen ows. Imaging and interferometry in these early experiments were done with conventional
hard lm.
Molecular iodine was subsequently used for laser-induced ow
imaging [29] since it has spectral features throughout the visible and
does not react with air. Later, tunable ultraviolet lasers became
available through frequency up conversion of nanosecond laserdriven pulsed dye lasers, and nitric oxide [41] and acetone [25]
became the preferred molecular species for seeding. CCD array and
intensied CCD cameras became available and provided high sensitivity, time gating and convenient data processing capabilities.
The possibility of using nonlinear optical methods for ow
diagnostics became credible with higher energy, frequency tunable

R.B. Miles / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 72 (2015) 3036

Fig. 1. Image of an underexpanded sonic jet taken with schlieren photography [26]

pulsed lasers and led to temperature and species measurements by

Coherent Anti-stokes Raman Scattering (CARS), temperature and
velocity measurements by Laser Induced Thermal Anemometry
(LITA) and Molecular Tagging Velocimetry (MTV). The CARS approach
[27,18] brings two or three pulsed laser beams together at a point
and, through a resonant nonlinear interaction, generates a new laser
beam whose intensity is determined by the properties of the gas at
that point. CARS has the capability of measuring species concentrations as well as temperature. For that reason it is also of great interest
for combustion studies. Originally CARS required that at least one of
the lasers be scanned in frequency to acquire the data, and that
meant that CARS could only be used for time averaged measurements. Broadband and later dual broadband CARS [14] solved that
problem by replacing the scanned laser with a broadband laser and
separating the multiple CARS signal frequencies that were simultaneously generated with a spectrometer. This allowed CARS to capture
full spectral data over a limited band in a single pulse.
LITA [9] was a similar local measurement approach. It used a
pair of focused lasers to produce a localized thermal grating into
the air through nonlinear mixing, and a probe laser to follow the
motion of the acoustic waves created by that grating as they
interfered with each other. This provided a local measure of the
temperature though the speed of sound and a measure of the
ow velocity through frequency offsets associated with the ow
motion.
MTV [20] introduced a line or array of lines into the ow and
tracked them in time as they moved, providing a measure of both
the velocity and the ow velocity structure. The rst MTV concept
implemented in unseeded air was Raman Excitation Laser
Induced Electronic Fluorescence (RELIEF) [34], which used three
laser beams two to drive the oxygen into the vibrational state
through stimulated Raman excitation, and one to interrogate the
displaced line or pattern by laser-induced uorescence. Its great
feature was that it did not require seeding of the air with other
molecular species and produced negligible perturbation. It worked
well because of the relatively long lifetime of the oxygen vibrational state (many microseconds even in humid air). It was limited
by the complexity of the laser systems. Its success led to the
development of other approaches including laser-induced Ozone
Tagging Velocimetry (OTV) [44], which was also used as a tag in
unseeded air. In this case, the ozone was created by a chemical
reaction following laser-induced dissociation of molecular oxygen.
The motion was tracked by subsequent laser-induced dissociation
of the ozone and imaging of the uorescence from the excited
molecular oxygen fragment. Other MTV approaches for air developed before the 2000 used seed molecules and included biacetyl
[17] and water vapor [5]

31

Single mode, frequency tunable lasers utilizing injection locking enabled the development of molecular, atomic and etalon
ltered technologies, permitting strong suppression of background
scattering [35], imaging of air temperature, velocity and density
(Filtered Rayleigh Scattering [36]) and velocity imaging by Doppler
shifted particle imaging through an iodine lter (Doppler Global
Velocimetry [31]) as well as velocity and temperature imaging of
Doppler shifted Rayleigh scattering through an etalon [49]. Single
mode tunable diode lasers derived from the communications
industry and augmented by wavelength modulation technology
have also opened the door to diagnostic methods for air based on
direct absorption spectroscopy using very weak near infrared lines
in molecular oxygen [43]. This concept has been successfully
implemented for density, velocity and temperature measurements
based on the measurement of extinction, line shifts and line
broadening.
Particles have been used for centuries to observe ows, but the
development of laser provided a method for quantitative measurement through instantaneous holographic imaging and other interferometric methods. Much early work focused on Laser Doppler
Anemometry (LDA) [13] with continuous lasers for one or two
component point measurements of ow velocity, in which two laser
beams intersected at the sample point and the scattering of the
particle as it moved through the interference pattern which was
created provided the measure of velocity. With four crossing beams,
two velocity components could be measured. The development of
high power nanosecond pulsed lasers enabled imaging of time
frozen particle elds and this led to particle imaging velocimetry
(PIV) [1], where the two-dimensional velocity eld was measured by
the displacement of the particles captured with double pulsed laser
systems. Digital PIV [56] was enabled by the development of highresolution CCD cameras and eliminated the need for hard lm.
Thus at the beginning of the twenty-rst century many
capabilities existed for optical diagnostics of high-speed ows.
Since that time further development and implementation of these
capabilities have occurred and laser technology has signicantly
advanced, enabling new approaches. In addition to achieving
higher pulse energy, better reliability and higher efciency lasers,
optical ber technologies, new cameras, frequency tunable pulse
burst lasers and sub-picosecond lasers have opened up new
possibilities for diagnostics. With these tools major advances have
been made in high-speed imaging, molecular ow tagging, wavelength modulation spectroscopy, Particle Imaging Velocimetry,
Coherent Antistokes Raman Scattering and Rayleigh scattering.

2. Imaging
Laser Rayleigh scattering is the strongest non-resonant light
scattering process available for air measurements, but the low
scattering cross section of air molecules has made its use for highspeed diagnostics challenging and only recently practical with
high energy pulsed lasers and high sensitivity, time gated cameras.
It is best applied in free jet facilities where background scattering
can be minimized. An important application of Rayleigh scattering
in an free jet of air was the evaluation of the Mariah II/Radiatively
Driven Hypersonic Wind Tunnel concept [39]. Those tests were
undertaken for the validation of computational models of an
electron beam heated hypersonic ground test facility and were
conducted at Sandia National Laboratory using their 1 MW Hawk
electron beam facility [28]. The conguration for the tests is
shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The 1 MW electron beam is steered and
focused into the nozzle from downstream using a carefully
contoured magnetic eld and the Rayleigh imaging is performed
with a frequency doubled Nd:YAG laser focused to a thin sheet
along the center line of the ow at the exit of the nozzle, providing

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R.B. Miles / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 72 (2015) 3036

Fig. 2. Setup for the Rayleigh experiments on the electron beam coupled MARIAH II/Radiatively Driven Hypersonic Wind Tunnel at Sandia National Laboratory.

Fig. 3. Time sequenced Rayleigh images of the density at the exit of the MARIAH
II/RDHWT nozzle before and during the electron beam energy addition.

an image of the instantaneous density cross section. As the

electron beam deposits energy into the core of the ow inside
the nozzle, the total enthalpy is more than doubled. The enthalpy
deposition leads to a reduced density in the core of the ow, and
the ensuing density prole together with spatially localized
temperature and velocity measurements provide a quantitative
measure of the energy deposited. Fig. 4 shows the Rayleigh images
of the evolution of that density prole starting before the electron
beam is turned on and continuing until equilibrium is reached
300 s later. The exit jet is an over expanded supersonic free jet at
the beginning of the energy addition. For accurate measurements
of the density, images such as these need to be carefully calibrated
and background noise must be subtracted [3].
Filtered Rayleigh Scattering enhances the capability of laser
Rayleigh scattering through the use of an atomic or molecular gas
with a strongly absorbing sharp spectral line to lter the scattering.
A cell with that gas is placed in front of the camera, and a narrow
line width laser tuned in the vicinity of the strong absorption line is
used to illuminate the ow. The lter suppresses background
scattering, but permits light that has been frequency shifted by
thermal, acoustic or convective motion to pass through. By scanning
the laser, this lter can provide for measurement of temperature
and pressure [38]. Single shot imaging of temperature elds can be
acquired if the pressure is known [37]. The ability of Filtered
Rayleigh Scattering to capture cross-sectional cuts of boundary
layer structure in supersonic and hypersonic ows has produced
detailed images of boundary layer behavior in the vicinity of shockinduced separation [6]. Image contrast is greatly enhanced by
seeding the ow with about 1% of CO2 gas [45], which condenses,
forming a nanoscale particle fog in the cold core of the ow. The

CO2 condensation highlights the outer portion of the boundary

layer where the temperature rises to the sublimation temperature.
This imaging capability is further enhanced by the pulse burst
laser [22]. Because it is based on a master oscillator power
amplier design (MOPA) the laser is naturally single frequency
(single mode) and frequency tunable over a limited range due to
the diode pumped Nd:YAG master oscillator. The master oscillator
operates as a continuous laser and only after pre-amplication is
the laser beam temporally chopped into a pulse burst and passed
through the power ampliers. This feature makes it especially
useful for applications such as Filtered Rayleigh Scattering that
require narrow line width and tunability over a limited range.
The very rapid response of the CO2 nanoparticle sublimation
and condensation provides a clear set of images of the time
evolving shock wave boundary layer structure as shown in Fig. 4,
where the pulse burst laser has been used to acquire sequential
images of the boundary layer driven uctuations of a separated
shock in the vicinity of a 151 ramp at 2 s intervals. By tuning the
laser wavelength relative to the iodine lter absorption edges, high
and low velocity features can be highlighted as shown in the
gure. Images were taken with a MHz rate camera with 30 frames
of on board storage designed by Princeton Scientic Instruments.
The initial design of the pulse burst laser had a limited time
window of 100 s or so over which the pulses could be generated
based on the gain time of the ashlamp pumped power ampliers.
Recent work has signicantly extended that range through
precision-controlled diode pumping of the power ampliers, and
increased the overall energy of the pulse burst. These advances
have enabled the dynamic imaging of lower frequency boundary
layer instabilities and ow phenomena and extended the utility of
the pulse burst laser to processes such as combustion ignition that
occur over longer time intervals [51]. Extension of the spectral
frequency range of the pulse burst laser has been achieved with
the addition of optical parametric oscillators/ampliers and frequency up conversion crystals, and now the capability for rapid
planar laser-induced uorescence imaging of nitric oxide [19,2]
and other molecular species has been demonstrated. By combining
the pulse burst laser with fast beam sweeping technologies, and
lenslet array cameras, it is now being extended to full threedimensional data acquisition [52].

3. Advances in molecular tagging

Molecular ow tagging has developed signicantly since 2000.
The Air Photolysis And Recombination Tracking (APART)

R.B. Miles / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 72 (2015) 3036

33

Fig. 4. Filtered Rayleigh Scattering, 500 KHz rate images of a shock wave boundary layer interaction upstream of a 15 degree wedge. The presence of CO2 condensate
nanoparticles in the low temperature core of the ow provides the contrast. Columns 2 and 3 are with the laser tuned to highlight high and low velocity features. (Flow is
from right to left.)

34

R.B. Miles / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 72 (2015) 3036

technique [10] uses a UV laser to dissociate oxygen and form nitric

oxide, which is later imaged by laser-induced uorescence. If nitric
oxide is seeded into the ow or already present from combustion
processes, then it can be used for molecular tagging in high-speed
environments by taking advantage of the lifetime of the laserinduced uorescence [11]. Due to quenching, the uorescence
lifetime is short, but at the low densities and high speeds
associated with hypersonics, the lifetime is long enough to allow
a time-gated camera to image the delayed uorescence and thus
the velocity proles. The Vibrationally Excited NO Monitoring
(VENOM) technique uses photodissociation of seeded NO2 to
produce vibrationally excited NO, which is subsequently imaged
by LIF after a delay [51]. The VENOM method also yields a measure
of the temperature from the NO rotational spectrum.
The availability of high pulse energy femtosecond lasers has
enabled Femtosecond Laser Electronic Excitation Tagging (FLEET)
[32]. In this case a 150 fsec, 2 mJ, Ti:sapphire laser is focused into
air and dissociates nitrogen molecules throughout the focal zone
by a high-order nonlinear interaction. The nitrogen atoms that are
formed by this dissociation recombine over an  100 s time
interval, forming nitrogen molecules in the electronically excited B
state. Those molecules uoresce in the red and near-infrared
portion of the spectrum, and that uorescence can be imaged
with a time gated, high sensitivity camera. This process is
diagrammed in Fig. 5. Since the nitrogen atoms are only formed
through the focal region of the excitation laser, they are initially
formed along a straight line and act to tag that region. The timedelayed image shows the location to which each segment along
that line has moved in the time interval between tagging and
interrogation. An important aspect of FLEET is the continued
luminosity of the tagged region for tens of microseconds. Thus
by using a fast sequentially gated camera, the evolution of the

Fig. 5. Energy level diagram for molecular nitrogen showing the recombination
path for nitrogen atoms leading to B to A rst positive emission. Dissociation is by a
highly nonlinear interaction driven by the 800 nm, 150 fsec laser.

tagged elements in the three-dimensional ow can be followed in

real time. Fig. 6 shows images of FLEET lines written at the nozzle
exit and imaged at one microsecond time delay intervals showing
the ow at sequential heights above the exit of an over-expanded
Mach 2.6 air jet. The shape of each line gives the instantaneous
velocity prole at that location and the displacement from the
original line gives a quantitative measure of the velocity. FLEET
may also have the capability to measure temperature along the
line by relying on the second positive ultraviolet and other spectral
features from molecular nitrogen that are emitted at the time of
tagging. This emission lasts only a few nanoseconds and apparently comes from molecules that are excited but not dissociated by
the femtosecond laser pulse [15]

4. Advances in single point measurements

The most important advances in the measurement of single
point properties have involved the further development of CARS
technologies. As noted earlier, CARS has the capability of capturing
temperature and species information at the point where the lasers
intersect. The CARS process can be separated into an initial step,
which drives the selected molecules in the sample volume into a
coherent oscillating state using a pair of lasers, and a probe that
scatters coherently from the driven molecules in the volume, is
frequency and phase shifted by this coherent process, and produces
the CARS beam. For high-speed air applications, CARS is useful for
measurements of temperature and nonequilibrium conditions at a
point [47]. For combustion and SCRAM jet applications, its ability to
sample species is of central importance. Much recent work has
focused on methods to suppress background, improve single shot
performance, and increase the sample acquisition rate. The most
difcult background signal is from a similar third-order nonlinear
process involving electronic resonances that occur simultaneously
with CARS. The coherence associated with that background process
is very short lived, so methods that use femtosecond lasers to take
advantage of the longer coherence lifetime associated with the
desired process have been developed. Very short-pulsed lasers have
the great advantage of producing very high intensities with low
energy pulses. The nonlinear process that leads to the CARS signal
requires high intensity pulses, so with femtosecond lasers operation
at high repetition rates becomes possible with practical laser
systems. A very successful approach to background suppression
and high-resolution signal generation uses femtosecond lasers to
drive the coherence and a time delayed picosecond laser probe
optimized in shape and delay to suppress the nonresonant background [42]. The femtosecond lasers couple to all the appropriate
molecular states of interest and the bandwidth of the picosecond
probe laser is broad enough to enable broadband CARS. This
approach now promises to allow kHz rate measurements of
temperature [40].

5. Advances in integrated path measurements

Fig. 6. FLEET lines written at the exit of a vertical Mach 2.6 overexpanded air jet.
Lines are imaged at sequential 1 microsecond time intervals following the tagging
of a straight line just above the exit.

Recent work has demonstrated the utility of the wavelength

modulation spectroscopy in oxygen for measurements in wind
tunnels [23,24], and this approach has the distinction of successful
development for ight testing as part of the Hypersonic International Flight Research Experimentation (HIFiRE) 1 experimental
package [8,7]. The wavelength modulation approach is seeing
wide applications for combustion systems where the measurement of water vapor and carbon monoxide are also of interest. This
approach uses diode lasers and is particularly attractive because of
the low power requirements and efcient packaging associated
with those laser systems.

R.B. Miles / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 72 (2015) 3036

6. Advances in particle imaging velocimetry

PIV has proven to be a very effective method for the measurement of velocities in a plane, and that success has motivated
recent work extending it to the measurement of threedimensional velocity vectors, volume elds and to its application
in hypersonic facilities. These efforts have been facilitated by the
development of high pixel density cameras, the increasing pulse
energy available for the illumination of larger volumes and the
development of the pulse burst laser. Stereoscopic PIV [46] uses a
pair of cameras to follow each particle's motion in three dimensions. This requires that the laser sheet be made relatively thick so
that the particles are not lost as they move in the out-of-plane
direction. The accuracy of the measurement is limited in the outof-plane direction viewing angle separation of the cameras.
Another approach to capture three-dimensional PIV and simultaneous volumetric data is based on a repeatedly swept laser. The
concept for this was demonstrated in water [12], but with new
pulse burst laser and high-speed camera technologies, it has been
extended to air ows [53]. In this case the laser is operated at
500,000 pulses per second and rapidly swept through the volume.
Images are captured using a DRS Hadland Ultra68 intensied highspeed camera which yields 68 frames with 220  220 pixel
resolution in 136 s. By cycling twice, the cameras capture two
time displaced volumetric data sets containing information on the
displacement of all the particles within the scanned volume.
Reduction of the data provides the full three-dimensional ow
eld velocity. Extension of PIV to hypersonic ows has also been a
priority and a difcult task due to the requirement for very small
particles in order to avoid problems with particle lag and scattering from walls, which obscures the PIV signal in just the region
where the data are the most important. Recent success has been
achieved ([57]) at Mach 7.4 through careful seeding and masking
of wall scattering, and proper selection of data analysis algorithms.

7. Summary
The eld of high-speed diagnostics of air has added many new
concepts and expanded previously existing approaches during the
last decade or so, leading to the potential for detailed measurements of highly complex ows. Many of these new approaches
have been enabled by new developments associated with laser
and camera technologies. For example, these include the frequency tunable pulse burst lasers, high pulse energy femtosecond
lasers, and multiple image storage fast camera systems. Other
advances reect continued development of methods that were
previously proven, but that are now becoming more versatile and
are being demonstrated as reliable instruments for ow eld
measurements. The rst incorporation of an optical diagnostic
into hypersonic ight occurred during this time, and doubtless
that is just a taste of what we can expect over the next decade. The
reduction of laser cost, size and weight makes transportable
systems more available, providing new opportunities to move
concepts that have been proven in small-scale laboratory settings
out into the eld. The scale of even very complex systems is being
reduced to a size that may be practical for ight within the next
ve years or so.

Acknowledgments
The Air Force Ofce of Scientic Research under Dr. John
Schmisseur has supported the recent work at Princeton. Over the
past several decades, the development of advanced laser diagnostics has been strongly supported by the Air Force Ofce of

35

Scientic Research. That support has led to the successful implementation of these diagnostics in laboratory facilities and has laid
the foundation for many of the new advances reported here.

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