Professional Documents
Culture Documents
7 Basic
7 Management
7 More..
Ishikawa(1968)
Problem Solving
Mizuno (1979)
General, intermediate,
and detailed planning
Various (1980s)
A few more to
consider
Affinity Diagram
Relationship Diagrams
Tree Diagram
Matrix Diagram
PDPC
Arrow Diagram
Mind Mapping
Force Field Analysis
Questionnaires
Criteria Rating
Weighted Voting
Concentration
Diagrams
Gantt Charts
Check sheet
Process Flow chart
Pareto Analysis
Brainstorming
Cause and effect
diagram
Scatter diagrams
Histogram
Check Sheet
Process Flowchart ( Mapping )
Pareto Analysis
Brainstorming
Cause and Effect
Scatter Diagrams
Histograms
Check Sheets
Data recording form (list of items, defects, problems)
that tell how often an event has occurred
Total
10
Tue
IIII II
Wed
IIII
Thurs
IIII IIII II
12
Fri
16
Process Flowchart
First step for improving a process is to understand it
- so use flowchart
Understand by making our process visible
Flowcharting breaks a repeatable work process
down into its constituent elements
Uses visual display of elements and relationship
Process Flowchart
Serves as a picture of how
and what work is done
Process model
Symbols
Steps
Interfaces
Critical points
Controls
Exercise
Process flow
1. Clean
material
2. Cut material
3. Welding part
AB to CD
continue.
Process Flowchart
Choose suitable starting and ending points of a process Limits defined by an input and some output from that
process
Examples
Pareto Analysis
Pareto analysis - process of identifying vital few
problems and important many - 80-20 Rule
Based on principle that 20 % of causes for some
performance problem account for 80% of the impact in
terms of quantity, costs
A process for ranking opportunities to determine which
ones should be pursued first
Used at various stages of quality improvement program
- identify problem, compare before and after, etc.
10
11
Brainstorming
12
13
WORK
METHOD
PEOPLE
Lack training
Careless Mistake
MATERIALS
Pressure set in
correct
TOOLS /
MACHINE
POSSIBLE CAUSES
EFFECT
14
Scatter Diagram
A scatter plot is a plot of one variable versus another.
Independent variable - usually shown in horizontal
(bottom) axis
Dependent variable - shown in vertical axis
Used to evaluate cause and effect relationship.
Assumption that independent variable causes a change
in dependent variable
Helps answer Does length of training has anything to
do with amount of scrap an operator makes?
Is there relationship between sand and concrete
strength?
15
Largest Y-value
(or larger)
Point representing
X-Y pair
Y-axis
Yi
Smallest Y-value
(or smaller)
Smallest X-value
(or smaller)
Xi
X-axis
Largest X-value
(or larger)
16
Days
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
75
76
77
78
79
80
80
81
82
82
83
84
85
85
86
87
88
89
90
90
Weight
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.6
5.0
4.8
4.9
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.5
5.4
5.5
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.8
6.0
6.1
Variable
Smallest
Largest
Days
75
90
Weight
4.4
6.1
Days
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
75
76
77
78
79
80
80
81
82
82
83
84
85
85
86
87
88
89
90
90
Weight
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.6
5.0
4.8
4.9
5.1
5.2
5.2
5.5
5.4
5.5
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.8
6.0
6.1
17
WEIGHT
6.0
5.5
Weight (gram)
5.0
4.5
4.0
70
75
80
85
90
95
DAYS
18
Histogram
Using Histogram
19
Problem Solving/Continual
Improvement Approach
1. Process problem identified, select area for improvement,
and reason for doing it
2. Observe current situation: evaluate effectiveness and
efficiency of existing process, collect and analyze data to
discover major problems, a specific problem identified and
objective for improvement set
3. Analysis: root causes of problem identified and verified
20
Data
x min
x1
x2
x3
x4
77.84
78.04
78.08
77.90
78.18
78.16
78.12
78.10
78.10
78.28
78.14
78.04
78.16
78.12
77.98
78.12
78.30
78.20
78.08
78.18
78.08
78.00
77.88
78.04
78.26
78.20
78.14
78.16
77.96
78.00
77.92
78.06
78.24
78.14
78.04
78.12
10
78.10
78.48
78.10
78.46
11
78.32
77.96
78.20
77.98
12
78.08
77.98
77.98
78.18
13
78.44
78.12
78.20
78.06
14
78.00
78.36
78.12
78.02
15
78.16
78.06
78.18
78.14
16
78.12
78.22
78.10
78.02
17
78.14
78.00
77.86
78.08
18
77.94
77.96
78.04
78.10
19
78.06
78.16
78.08
78.14
20
78.26
78.28
78.22
78.56
21
78.06
78.18
78.02
78.06
22
78.02
78.16
78.10
78.12
23
78.42
78.38
78.04
78.12
24
78.24
78.08
78.14
78.18
25
78.10
78.14
78.12
78.08
x max
21
FREQUENCY TABLE
No
Class
Mid-value
Frequency, f
Total
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total
100 = 10
Number of
Classes (K)
57
6 10
7 12
10 20
22
= R/K
= (Xmax Xmin) / K
3.5
3.5
3.6
3.7
23
4.0
5.0
Class
Mid-value
Frequency
f (1)
x
(2)
fx
(3)=(1) x (2)
fx2
(4) = (2) x (3)
77.835 ~ 77.907
77.871
-3
-12
36
77.907 ~ 77.979
77.943
-2
-18
36
77.979 ~ 78.051
78.015
20
-1
-20
20
78.051 ~ 78.123
78.087
34
78.123 ~ 78.195
78.159
18
18
18
78.195 ~ 78.2671
78.231
14
28
78.267 ~ 78.339
78.303
27
78.339 ~ 78.411
78.375
12
48
78.411 ~ 78.483
78.447
25
10
78.483 ~ 78.560
78.552
36
14
274
Total
100
24
X-BAR FORMULA
X-BAR = X0 + fx x h
n
Where :
x0 = Mid-value of Class with x = 0
h = Class interval
(0.072)
fx = total fx
( 14)
n = number of data
(78.087)
(100)
78.097
S=hx
Where :
h = Class interval
(0.072)
fx = total fx
14
274
n = number of data
100
0.119
25
C P = SU S L
6S
Where :
SU = Upper Standard Limit
SL = Lower Standard Limit
S = Standard Deviation
CPK = ( 1 K ) X CP
Where :
K = Biasness Degree
= ( SU + SL ) / 2 X(BAR)
(SU SL) / 2
0.343
26
Given:
Upper Limit , SU = 78.50
Lower Limit, SL = 77.90
Calculate :
Cp and Cpk value
0.84
0.552
Case study
65.7
65.3
64.8
63.9
64.7
64.9
64.9
65.6
63.9
64.8
65.2
66.1
65.1
65.7
64.7
65.4
65.1
64.7
65.1
65.4
64.5
65.6
64.6
65.0
65.0
64.9
64.6
65.3
65.4
63.0
64.0
65.6
64.1
64.6
66.0
65.2
65.0
65.6
64.0
65.9
64.8
65.0
Machine One
63.8 65.4
64.4 65.1
64.4 64.5
64.2 65.1
65.3 65.3
65.4 65.5
64.9 64.9
64.6 64.1
64.9 65.8
65.3 65.1
64.8 64.1
65.9 64.9
64.9 64.7
65.3 64.5
65.2
65.5
65.2
65.5
64.9
65.4
65.0
66.4
64.5
64.3
65.3
64.9
65.6
64.4
65.3
64.3
66.2
65.8
65.2
64.9
64.9
65.3
63.5
66.3
64.1
65.3
66.2
64.2
65.7
64.7
64.7
64.8
65.2
64.3
64.9
64.8
64.7
65.7
65.5
65.1
65.4
65.0
65.2
65.3
64.7
64.9
64.8
64.9
64.9
64.4
64.9
65.3
65.3
64.9
64.7
64.8
65.0
64.3
64.4
64.5
64.4
64.9
65.2
65.4
65.2
65.2
64.9
65.3
64.0
65.0
65.0
64.9
63.9
64.6
65.2
65.2
64.8
65.5
65.1
64.7
Machine Two
65.1 64.8
64.8 65.5
65.6 64.8
65.2 65.0
65.2 64.8
65.0 65.1
65.1 65.4
65.0 65.4
65.7 65.3
65.0 65.4
64.9 65.3
65.2 64.7
64.6 64.9
64.7 64.5
65.2
64.8
64.3
65.0
64.5
64.1
64.8
64.4
64.9
65.2
65.5
65.2
64.7
65.5
64.5
64.9
64.8
64.7
64.2
64.2
65.1
65.3
64.7
65.1
65.5
65.6
64.8
64.9
64.6
64.3
64.5
64.9
65.1
65.3
65.0
64.8
65.1
65.0
27
Case study
a. Prepare histograms of all the data and
the data of each machine
b. Calculate the mean values (x-bar) and
the standard deviations (s) for all the
data, and the data of each machine.
c. Given, Upper limit = 66.2 mm and
Lower limit = 63.6 mm, calculate Cp
and Cpk for all data and each machine.
d. Discuss the result.
SEMPADAN
KELAS
NILAI
PENENGAH
KEKERAPA
Nf(1)
x
(2)
fx
(3)=(1) x (2)
fx2
(4) = (2) x
(3)
62.95 ~ 63.25
63.1
-6
-6
36
63.25 ~ 63.55
63.4
-5
-5
25
63.55 ~ 63.85
63.7
-4
-4
16
63.85 ~ 64.15
64.0
-3
-24
72
64.15 ~ 64.45
64.3
-2
-16
32
64.45 ~ 64.75
64.6
15
-1
-15
15
64.75 ~ 65.05
64.9
24
65.05 ~ 65.35
65.2
22
22
22
65.35 ~ 65.65
65.5
14
28
56
10
65.65 ~ 65.95
65.8
24
72
11
65.95 ~ 66.25
66.1
16
64
12
66.25 ~ 66.55
66.4
10
50
30
460
Total
108
28
SEMPADAN
KELAS
NILAI
PENENGAH
KEKERAPA
Nf(1)
x
(2)
fx
(3)=(1) x (2)
fx2
(4) = (2) x
(3)
62.95 ~ 63.25
63.1
-6
63.25 ~ 63.55
63.4
-5
63.55 ~ 63.85
63.7
-4
63.85 ~ 64.15
64.0
-3
-9
27
64.15 ~ 64.45
64.3
-2
-18
36
64.45 ~ 64.75
64.6
16
-1
-16
16
64.75 ~ 65.05
64.9
37
65.05 ~ 65.35
65.2
29
29
29
65.35 ~ 65.65
65.5
13
26
52
10
65.65 ~ 65.95
65.8
11
65.95 ~ 66.25
66.1
12
66.25 ~ 66.55
66.4
15
169
Total
108
x = 64.983
s = 0.616
25
Cp = 0.703
Cpk =0.658
Frequenc y
20
15
10
0
62.95 - 63.25
63.25 - 63.55
63.55 - 63.85
63.85 - 64.15
64.15 - 64.45
64.45 - 64.75
64.75 - 65.05
65.05 - 65.35
65.35 - 65.65
65.65 - 65.95
65.95 - 66.25
66.25 - 66.55
29
x = 64.942
s = 0.375
35
Cp = 1.156
Cpk =1.119
30
Frequenc y
25
20
15
10
0
62.95 - 63.25
63.25 - 63.55
63.55 - 63.85
63.85 - 64.15
64.15 - 64.45
64.45 - 64.75
64.75 - 65.05
65.05 - 65.35
65.35 - 65.65
65.65 - 65.95
65.95 - 66.25
66.25 - 66.55
MACHINE ONE
MACHINE TWO
X = 64.983
S = 0.616
X = 64.942
S = 0.375
Type of Distribution
Normal Type
Normal Type
Capability
Cp = 0.703
Cpk = 0.658
Cp = 1.156
Cpk = 1.119
30
CASE STUDY
To fire the statapult and record the
distance for each of the launches. The
measured distance will be from the back
base of the launcher to the point where
the ball hits the floor. Record the data in
the checksheet that you formatted
Rules:1. Every shot will be launched
from the pull-back angle of 135 with the
peg position in the second hole from the
top. Each person will perform an
equitable number of launches.
Launching means pulling back and
releasing.
Histogram
30
25
20
15
10
0
28.7
28.9
29.1
29.3
29.5
29.7
29.9
30.1
30.3
30.5
30.7
30.9
31.1
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
28.7
28.9
29.1
29.3
29.5
29.7
29.9
30.1
30.3
30.5
30.7
30.9
31
CONTROL CHARTS :
TOOLS FOR PROCESS
CONTROL
32
2.
R CONTROL CHART
X CONTROL CHART
33
NO
ARE
THE DATA
VARIABLE?
IS THE INTEREST
IN NONCONFORMING
UNITS I.E. PERCENT
BAD PARTS
NO
IS THE INTEREST
IN NONCONFORMITIES
I.E. DISCREPANCIES /
PARTS?
YES
YES
YES
IS THE
SAMPLE SIZE
CONSTANT?
NO
USE p
CHART
NO
USE u
CHART
A
YES
YES
USE np OR
p CHART
USE c OR u
CHART
IS IT HOMOGENEOUS IN
NATURE OR NOT CONDUCIVE
TO SUBGROUP SAMPLING
e.g. CHEMICAL BATH, PAINT
BATCH,ETC.?
NO
CAN
SUBGROUP AVERAGES
BE CONVENIENTLY
COMPUTED?
NO
USE MEDIAN
CHART
YES
IS THE
SUBGROUP SIZE
9 OR MORE?
NO
USE X-bar R
CHART
YES
YES
IS THE BILITY
TO CONVINIENTLY
COMPUTE s FOR EACH
SUBGROUP?
NO
USE X-bar R
CHART
YES
USE X-bar S
CHART
34
CONTROL CHARTS
XBAR R CHARTS
CONDITION : A controlled state has been
achieved
Creating a X(bar) / R Control Chart
1. Sample method and plan
- Collect 20-25 sub-groups of sample. Each
sub-group is between 2-10
CONTROL CHARTS
XBAR R CHARTS
2.
3.
35
CONTROL CHARTS
XBAR R CHARTS
4.
5.
max
min
CONTROL CHARTS
XBAR R CHARTS
6.
36
CONTROL CHARTS
XBAR R CHARTS
7.
CONTROL CHARTS
XBAR R CHARTS
8.
37
CONTROL CHARTS
XBAR R CHARTS
9.
Sub-Group
Size
Data
x1
x2
x3
x4
77.84
78.04
78.08
77.90
78.18
78.16
78.12
78.10
78.10
78.28
78.14
78.04
78.16
78.12
77.98
78.12
78.30
78.20
78.08
78.18
78.08
78.00
77.88
78.04
78.26
78.20
78.14
78.16
77.96
78.00
77.92
78.06
78.24
78.14
78.04
78.12
10
78.10
78.48
78.10
78.46
11
78.32
77.96
78.20
77.98
12
78.08
77.98
77.98
78.18
13
78.44
78.12
78.20
78.06
14
78.00
78.36
78.12
78.02
15
78.16
78.06
78.18
78.14
16
78.12
78.22
78.10
78.02
17
78.14
78.00
77.86
78.08
18
77.94
77.96
78.04
78.10
19
78.06
78.16
78.08
78.14
20
78.26
78.28
78.22
78.56
21
78.06
78.18
78.02
78.06
22
78.02
78.16
78.10
78.12
23
78.42
78.38
78.04
78.12
24
78.24
78.08
78.14
78.18
25
78.10
78.14
78.12
78.08
Ave.
Range
x(bar)
Total
38
Xbar/R Chart
1
78.35
Sample Mean
UCL=78.28
78.25
78.15
Mean=78.12
78.05
5
77.95
Subgroup
LCL=77.96
10
15
20
Sample Range
0.5
25
UCL=0.4928
0.4
0.3
R=0.216
0.2
0.1
0.0
LCL=0
CONTROL CHARTS
n
2
A2
1.880
D3
0
D4
3.267
1.023
2.574
0.729
2.282
0.577
2.114
0.483
2.004
0.419
0.076
1.924
0.373
0.136
1.864
0.337
0.184
1.816
10
0.308
0.223
1.777
39
CONTROL CHARTS
X/MR CHARTS
CONTROL CHARTS
X/MR CHARTS
1.
2.
40
CONTROL CHARTS
X/MR CHARTS
3. Calculate centre line and draw
X bar = (X1 + X2 + X3 + Xk ) /
(Total number of sample)
MR bar = (MR1 + MR2 + MRk) /
(Total number of sample)
4. Calculate control limits and draw
X Chart
UCL = X(bar) + E2MR(bar)
LCL = X(bar) E2MR(bar)
CONTROL CHARTS
X/MR CHARTS
5.
41
Subgroup
Data, x
Number
Shifting Range
Subgroup
(MR)
Number
Data, x
Shifting Range
(MR)
418
16
429
433
17
490
420
18
479
448
19
451
412
20
430
481
21
424
444
22
419
457
23
442
418
24
433
10
445
25
427
11
426
26
428
12
461
13
445
14
439
15
437
CONTROL CHARTS
Subgroup Size, n
E2
2. 659
1.772
1.457
1.290
1.184
1.109
1.054
1.010
10
0.975
42
CONTROL CHARTS
CONTROL CHARTS
1.
2.
43
CONTROL CHARTS
CONTROL CHARTS
5.
44
CONTROL CHARTS
CONTROL CHARTS
45
CONTROL CHARTS
average non-conforming of
all sub-groups
number in each sub-groups
CONTROL CHARTS
46
CONTROL CHARTS
No. of Defect
pn
11
9
7
12
8
9
6
15
6
11
21
13
24
8
3
14
8
9
8
3
6
5
26
3
8
9
7
20
6
8
Total
47
CONTROL CHARTS
CONTROL CHARTS
48
CONTROL CHARTS
1.
CONTROL CHARTS
3.
49
CONTROL CHARTS
While C chart is count of nonconformities
chart, U Chart is a count of nonconformities
per unit chart.
U = Total Number of Defects / Total number of
samples
U-bar = U1 + U2 + Un / Total number of
samples
CONTROL CHARTS
50
CONTROL CHARTS
A
B
CL
C
C
LCL
B
A
51
A
B
CL
C
C
LCL
B
A
A
B
CL
C
C
LCL
B
A
52
A
B
CL
C
C
LCL
B
A
A
B
CL
C
C
LCL
B
A
53
A
B
CL
C
C
LCL
B
A
C
C
LCL
B
A
54
Test 8 Eight Points In A Row On Both Sides Centre Line With None
In Zone C
UCL
A
B
CL
C
C
LCL
B
A
Test 8 Eight Points In A Row On Both Sides Of Central Line With None In
Zone C
-When the points tend to fall near the high and low edges of the control
limits with an absence of normal fluctuation near the middle, obviously
some abnormality is occurring.
-This test shows when the observation have been taken from two (or more)
sources with different means.
Xbar/R Chart
78.35
Sample Mean
UCL=78.28
78.25
78.15
Mean=78.12
78.05
5
77.95
Subgroup
Sample Range
0.5
LCL=77.96
10
15
20
25
UCL=0.4928
0.4
0.3
0.2
R=0.216
0.1
0.0
LCL=0
55
N P C h a rt fo r C 1
30
1
1
Sample Count
20
U C L = 1 9 .3 9
N P = 1 0 .1
10
L C L = 0 .8 0 9 7
0
0
10
20
30
S a m p le N u m b e r
56
NP Chart: C1
SPC SUMMARY
PARETO CHART
o PURPOSE : TO CATERGORIZE TYPES OF DEFECTS
o KEY FEATURES : CAN BE USED ON TABLES OR
INDIVIDUAL DATA
CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM
o PURPOSE : USED TO ENUMERATE POTENTIAL
CAUSES OF DEFECTS
o KEY FEATURES : CAN BE USED ON ORGANIZE
THOUGHT ABOUT POTENTIAL CAUSES FOR
DEFECTS
57
SPC SUMMARY
Xbar R CHART
o PURPOSE : USED TO LOOK AT THE STABILITY OF A
PROCESS, WHEN RATIONAL SUBGROUPS CAN BE
SELECTED
o KEY FEATURES : USED FOR VARIABLE DATA,
ALLOW THE SEPARATION OF WITHIN AND BETWEEN
GROUP VARIATION, CAN BE USED TO BENCHMARK
PROCESS IMPROVEMENTS USING HISTORICAL DATA
SPC SUMMARY
pn CCONTROL CHART
o PURPOSE : USED TO LOOK AT THE DEFECTIVE
ITEMS
o KEY FEATURES : USED FOR ATTRIBUTE DATA FOR
A FIXED SUBGROUP SIZE
58
Xbar/R Chart
1
78.35
Sample Mean
UCL=78.28
78.25
78.15
Mean=78.12
78.05
5
77.95
Subgroup
LCL=77.96
10
15
20
25
Sample Range
0.5
UCL=0.4928
0.4
0.3
R=0.216
0.2
0.1
0.0
LCL=0
Xbar/R Chart
78.35
Sample Mean
UCL=78.28
78.25
78.15
Mean=78.12
78.05
5
77.95
Subgroup
Sample Range
0.5
LCL=77.96
10
15
20
25
UCL=0.4928
0.4
0.3
0.2
R=0.216
0.1
0.0
LCL=0
59
N P C h a rt fo r C 1
30
1
1
Sample Count
20
U C L = 1 9 .3 9
N P = 1 0 .1
10
L C L = 0 .8 0 9 7
0
0
10
20
30
S a m p le N u m b e r
SL
Cp > 1.67
SU
X-bar
Cp = (SU-SL) / 6s
60
SU
Enough process
capability
TREATMENT
Cp = (SU-SL) / 6s
SU
X-bar
Cp = (SU-SL) / 6s
61
SU
TREATMENT
X-bar
Cp = (SU-SL) / 6s
0.67>Cp
SU
SL
Process capability is
lacking
TREATMENT
X-bar
Cp = (SU-SL) / 6s
62