An interview for a job

There was evidently much difficulty in finding work, for when Philip arrived many
men were waiting already. He recognized some whom he had seen in his own searching, and
there was one whom he had noticed lying about the park in the afternoon. To Philip now that
suggested that he was as homeless as himself and passed the night out of doors. The men
where of all sorts, old and young, tall and short; but every one had tried to make himself
smart* for the interview with the manager: they had carefully brushed hair and scrupulously
clean hands. The manager was reading a letter. He was a florid* man, with sandy* hair and a
large sandy moustache; from the middle of his watch-chain hung a bunch of football medals.
He sat in his shirt-sleeves at a large desk with a telephone by his side. He gave Philip a glance
but did not speak to him; he dictated a letter to the typist, a girl who sat at a small table in one
corner; then he asked Philip his name, age, and what experience he had had.
‘I think Mr. Athelny has spoken to you about me, ’said Philip.
‘Oh, you are the young feller* who did that poster?’
‘Yes, sir.’
‘No good to us, you know, not a bit of good.’
He looked Philip up and down. He seemed to notice that Philip was in some way
different from the men who had preceded him.
‘You seem a respectable young feller. I suppose you found art didn’t pay, ’ he said.
Philip could not tell whether he meant* to engage him or not. He threw remarks at him
in a hostile way.
‘Where’s your home? ’
‘My father and mother died when I was a child.’
‘I like to give young fellers a chance. Many’s the one I’ve given their chance to, and
they’re managers of departments now. And they’re grateful to me, I’ll say that for them. They
know what I done* for them. Start at the bottom of the ladder, that’s the only way to learn the
business, and then if you stick to it there’s no knowing* what it can lead to. If you suit, one of
these days you may find yourself in a position* like what mine is. Bear that in mind, young
feller.’
‘I’m very anxious* to do my best, sir, ’ said Philip.
He knew that he must put in the ‘sir ’ whenever he could, but it sounded odd to him,
and he was afraid of overdoing it. The manager liked talking. It gave him a happy
consciousness of his own importance, and he did not give Philip his decision till he had used a
great many words.
‘Well, I daresay* you’ll do, ’ he said at last, in a pompous way. ‘Anyhow I don’t mind
giving you a trial*.’
‘Thank you very much, sir.’

W. Somerset MAUGHAM: Of Human Bondage (abridget).

Reprinted by permission of the Estate of the Late Somerset Maugham.
Principala regentă Completiva directă
Prezent, prezent perfect sau viitor Orice timp cerut de logica enunţului, cu
excepţia viitorului după viitor în principală
The teacher explains that all the students have passed the exam.
has explained are free to take a break.
will give the test tomorrow..
delivered their reports.
had already graduated.
The teacher will explain that all the students have passed the exam.
are free to take a break.
give the test tomorrow.
delivered their reports.
had already graduated.
Past Tense Past Perfect (pentru a exprima un raport
de anterioritate)
The young man mentioned that he had already studied the report.
Past Tense (pentru a exprima un raport
de simultaneitate)
that he was on duty/ they admired the view.
Future - in - the – Past (pentru a exprima un
raport de posterioritate)
that she would come there soon.

Excepţii: 1. După verbe precum: to ask, to demand, to order, to insist, to

recommend, to require, to urge ... utilizate în principală se foloseşte subjonctivul analitic
în engleza britanică şi subjonctivul sintetic în engleza americană:
She insists that you should give all your exams. (subjonctiv analitic prezent)
She insists that you give all your exams. (subjonctiv sintetic prezent, exprimat prin
infinitiv scurt)
2. Adevărurile generale se păstrează la prezent, chiar dacă timpul verbului
din regentă este Past Tense:
The teacher explained us that water boils at 100oC degrees and it freezes below
0oC.
 Subordonata condiţională (IF Clause)

Există trei tipuri principale de condiţionale care se referă la viitor, prezent şi respectiv,
trecut, utilizarea timpurilor în aceste tipuri corespunzând gradului de realizare al acţiunii
(condiţie reală, probabilă pentru tipul I care se referă la viitor, condiţie improbabilă,
ipotetică, deci ireală pentru tipul II care se referă la prezent şi condiţie imposibilă sau
regret pentru neîndeplinirea condiţiei pentru tipul III care se referă la trecut.)
Condiţionala de tip I utilizează în regentă timpuri ale indicativului, prezent sau viitor,
sau modul imperativ, ceea ce plasează acţiunea în plan real.
I take this medicine if I have a headache. (Iau acest medicament dacă mă doare capul).
She will pass the exam if she works hard. (Ea va lua examenul dacă va munci din greu).
Lend him the money if you consider him a reliable person. (Împrumută-i banii dacă îl
consideri o persoană de încredere).
Condiţionala de tip II utilizează în regentă condiţionalul prezent, ceea ce face ca
acţiunea să devină ireală.
They wouldn’t be angry with him if they knew the truth.
If I were you, I would tell him the truth.
• verbul to be se conjugă la subjonctiv sintetic prezent (Past Tense) cu forma were la
toate persoanele, într-o exprimare literară; conjugarea obişnuită cu was la persoana I
şi a III-a singular, conform modului indicativ, se poate utilize pentru a exprima o mai
mare certitudine a acţiunii sau este folosită de persoane care nu se exprimă literar.
If she was right, they could be in prison now.
Condiţionala de tip III utilizează în regentă condiţionalul trecut, ceea ce face ca
acţiunea să devină imposibilă sau, se exprimă regretul pentru neîndeplinirea acesteia.
If the manager had known about this, he wouldn’t have hired you. (Dacă directorul ar fi
ştiut asta, nu te-ar mai fi angajat.)
În tipul II şi III de condiţională, după if, se foloseşte modul subjonctiv, forma sintetică,
respectiv Past Tense – tipul II - pentru a reda ideea de prezent (în română, condiţional
optativ sau conjunctiv prezent) şi Past Perfect – tipul III - pentru a reda ideea de trecut (în
română, condiţional optativ sau conjunctiv trecut). Traducerea prin conjuctiv prezent sau
trecut în limba română corespunde unei condiţionale de tip popular (introdusă prin să), care
se poate realiza la nivelul limbii engleze printr-o construcţie echivalentă din punct de vedere
al oralităţii, după cum urmează:
Condiţională de tipul III forma literară:
If they had known the way to the village, they would have reached their destination. (Dacă
ar fi cunoscut drumul către sat, ei ar fi ajuns la destinaţie.)
Condiţională de tipul III forma populară:
Had they known the way to the village, they would have reached their destination. (Să fi
cunoscut drumul către sat, ar fi ajuns la destinaţie.)
Pentru a realiza o astfel de transformare de la o condiţională de tip literar la una de tip
popular, este necesar ca:
1. subordonata condiţională să fie plasată înaintea regentei;
2. să se omită if ;
3. să se realizeze forma interogativă a verbului la Past Perfect din subordonata condiţională
pentru ca, prin poziţia accentuată a subiectului şi o intonaţie adecvată, să se substituie
funcţia lui if ;
4. să se despartă subordonata condiţională prin virgulă de regenta ei.
De obicei, această transformare se aplică cu uşurinţă unei condiţionale de tipul III
(Past Perfect este un timp compus care permite realizarea unei forme interogative prin
inversiune) şi unei condiţionale de tipul II care în care apare conjugat verbul to be sau to
have la Past Tense şi care realizează la rândul lor forma interogativă prin inversiune:
If they were at the station in time, they could catch the train.
Were they at the station in time, they could catch the train.
If I had more information about this, I could write an article on this topic.
Had I more information about this, I could write an article on this topic.
Cu alte verbe, realizarea formei de interogativ presupune utilizarea auxiliarului to do
conjugat la Past Tense urmat de subiect şi de către forma de infinitiv scurt a verbului de
conjugat, ceea ce nu este prea la îndemână tuturor vorbitorilor, denotând în acelaşi timp un
grad ridicat de cunoaştere a limbii şi permiţând realizarea unei formulări elevate, uşor
emfatice prin intermediul construcţiei cu to do:
The kids would be disappointed if it rained in the afternoon, too.
If it rained in the afternoon, too, the kids would be disappointed. (antepunerea
condiţionalei)
Did it rain in the afternoon, too, the kids would be disappointed. (realizarea formei de
interogativ a verbului la Past Tense din subordonata condiţională).
Tipul de condiţională Principală
Tipul I Prezent, Viitor sau Imperativ
(se referă la viitor) She buys the dress
She will buy the dress
Buy that dress
Let’s buy that dress
Tipul II Condiţional prezent
(se referă la prezent) She would buy the dress
Tipul III Condiţional trecut
(se referă la trecut) She would have bought the dress if she had had enough money.
Condiţională (if clause)
Prezent
if she has enough money.
if you have enough money.
if we have enough money.
Past Tense
if she had enough money..
Past Perfect

În cazul tipului I, în afara prezentului se mai poate utiliza în subordonata condiţională şi

Prezentul Perfect, pentru a marca un raport de anterioritate între acţiunea din subordonata
condiţională faţă de acţiunea exprimată de verbul din propoziţia principală regentă:
If you have taken your salary, you may go on a holiday.
She will come if she has already booked a room here.
Este posibil ca, într-o subordonată condiţională de tipul I, II sau III, să se folosească şi
subjonctivul analitic, în cazul în care este nevoie de sublinierea unei nuanţe a exprimării
(necesitate, obligaţie, posibilitate), nuanţă care se va reda prin sensul verbelor modale care
intră în componenţa subjonctivului analitic prezent şi trecut.
În subordonata condiţională de tipul I poate să apară un will cu valoare modală,
exprimând voinţa, în timp ce forma will din regentă este auxiliar de viitor:
If you will explain this to me, I will finish my homework by myself. (Dacă vrei să-mi
explici asta, îmi voi termina singur tema.)
If she could come here , it would be so nice! (Dacă ea ar putea veni aici, ar fi aşa
de bine!)
If they would join our club, I would be so happy! (Dacă ei ar vrea să se alăture
clubului nostru, aş fi aşa de fericit!)
If she should meet him here, she would understand the truth. (Dacă se întâmplă ca
ea să-l întâlnească aici, ar înţelege adevărul.)
Should he bring me the letter, I will give it to you. (Dacă e ca el să-mi aducă
scisoarea, ţi-o voi da.)
 Subordonata condiţională poate fi introdusă şi de alte conjuncţii sau locuţiuni
conjuncţionale decât if, cum ar fi: unless = if not, but for, in case, on condition that, so long
as, provided / providing that, suppose / supposing that.
I would go for a walk if it weren’ t for this rain. But for this rain, I would go for a walk.
(But for substituie verbul to be la Past Tense sau Past Perfect, forma negativă, din
condiţionalele de tip II sau III).
She will not understand the film if she does not read the book. She will not understand
the film unless she reads the book.

Condiţionale combinate

Se pot realiza şi tipuri de condiţionale combinate, care presupun folosirea într-o frază a
unor timpuri întâlnite în două tipuri distincte de condiţionale, respectiv:
1. Tipul I (prezent, viitor sau imperativ) în principala regentă cu tipul II (Past Tense sau
subjonctiv analitic prezent / condiţional prezent) în subordonata condiţională:
If he bought that car, I am / I’ ll be happy.
If you should meet her, tell her about the accident. (Dacă e s-o întâlneşti, spune-i
despre accident.)
2. O altă combinaţie poate fi tipul III (condiţional trecut sau subjonctiv analitic trecut) în
principala regentă cu tipul II (Past Tense) în subordonata condiţională:
She would have worked as a guide if she spoke English better. (Ar fi lucrat ca ghid
dacă ar vorbi engleza mai bine.)
3. Altă posibilă combinaţie este tipul II (condiţional prezent sau subjonctiv analitic
prezent) în principala regentă cu tipul III (Past Perfect) în subordonata condiţională:
If they hadn’t missed the train, they would be here now. (Dacă n-ar fi pierdut trenul,
ar fi aici acum.)
Deşi mai rare, şi aceste tipuri de condiţionale combinate sunt posibile şi presupun
combinarea a două axe temporale, de obicei trecut cu prezent (2 sau 3), dar şi prezent cu
viitor (1).
Prezent simplu: Afirmativ: sb+ verb de conjugat (infinitiv scurt)+ s/es (pers. a III-a sg.)
Interogativ: do (prezent) + sb+verb de conj.(infinitiv scurt)
Negativ: sb + do (prezent) + not + verb de conj.(infinitiv scurt)
She works / Does she work? /She does not work

Prezent continuu: Afirmativ: sb + to be (prezent) + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt)+ing}

Interogativ: to be (prezent) +sb+ {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
Negativ: sb + to be (prezent)+not + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt)+ ing}
She is working / Is she working? / She is not working

Prezent perfect simplu: Afirmativ: sb+Have (prezent) + verb de conj.( III / -ed)
Interogativ: Have (prezent) + sb + verb de conj.( III / -ed)
Negativ: sb+Have (prezent) + not + verb de conj.( III / -ed)
She has worked / Has she worked? / She has not worked

Prezent perfect continuu:

Afirmativ: sb+Have (prezent) + be (III) + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
Interogativ: Have (prezent) + sb + be (III) + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
Negativ: sb+Have (prezent)+ not + be (III) + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
She has been working / Has she been working? / She has not been working

Past tense simplu: Afirmativ: sb+ verb de conjugat (infinitiv scurt)+ ed

Interogativ: do (past tense) + sb+verb de conj.(infinitiv scurt)
Negativ: sb + do (past tense) + not + verb de conj.(infinitiv scurt)
She worked / Did she work? / She did not work

Past tense continuu:

Afirmativ: sb + to be (past tense) + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
Interogativ: to be (past tense) +sb+ {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
Negativ: sb + to be (past tense)+not + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt)+ ing}
She was working / Was she working? / She was not working

Past perfect simplu: Afirmativ: sb+Have (past tense) + verb de conj.( III / -ed)
Interogativ: Have (past tense) + sb + verb de conj.( III / -ed)
 Negativ: sb+Have (past tense) + not + verb de conj.( III / -ed)
She had worked / Had she worked? / She had not worked

Past perfect continuu:

Afirmativ: sb+Have (past tense) + be (III) + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
Interogativ: Have (past tense) + sb + be (III) + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
Negativ: sb+Have (past tense)+ not + be (III) + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
She had been working / Had she been working? / She had not been working

Viitor simplu: Afirmativ: Sb + shall/will + verb de conjugat (infinitiv scurt)

Interogativ: shall/will + sb + verb de conjugat (infinitiv scurt)
Negativ: Sb + shall/will + not + verb de conjugat (infinitiv scurt)
She will work / Will she work? / She will not work

Viitor continuu:
Afirmativ: Sb + shall/will + be (infinitiv scurt) + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
Interogativ: shall/will + sb + be (infinitiv scurt) + {verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
Negativ: Sb + shall/will + not + be (infinitiv scurt) +{verb de conj.(inf. scurt) + ing}
She will be working / Will she be working? / She will not be working

Viitor apropiat:
Afirmativ: sb+Be(prez)+going to /about to / to + verb de conjugat( inf. scurt)
Be(prez) +sb+going to / about to / to + verb de conjugat( inf. scurt)
sb+Be(prez)+not+going to / about to / to + verb de conjugat( inf. scurt)
She is going to come / She is about to come / She is to come
Is she going to come? Is she about to come? Is she to come?
She is not going to come. She is not about to come. She is not to come.
 Diateza pasivă
(Passive Voice)
Se formează cu timpul corespunzător al verbului auxiliar to be şi participiul trecut al
verbului de conjugat (forma a III - a din tabel pentru verbele neregulate sau -ed pentru
verbele regulate).
Poate fi utilizată la toate timpurile modului indicativ - aspectul simplu - în timp ce
aspectul continuu se utilizează doar la indicativ prezent şi Past Tense..
Aspectul continuu nu se utilizează la celelalte timpuri, deşi sunt corecte - deoarece
conţin prea multe auxiliare.
Diateza Pasivă - reprezintă mijlocul gramatical prin care:
1) complementului direct al verbului i se conferă o importanţă mai mare decât
subiectului din diateza activă, complement direct care devine subiect în diateza pasivă.
A. Parents always give good advice.
P. Good advice is always given by parents.
2) Complementul indirect - poate deveni subiect în transformarea pasivă - şi chiar
se recomandă transformarea acestuia în subiect în cazul în care complementul indirect este
exprimat printr-un substantiv care substituie o persoană (o fiinţă) sau un pronume
corespunzător.
A. They promised her a reward.
P. She was promised a reward.
P. Transformarea pasivă: A reward was promised to her, deşi corectă, este mai puţin
recomandată, cu excepţia cazului în care accentul se pune pe complementul direct din
diateza activă - fiind necesară transformarea lui în subiect, complementul indirect fiind în
acest caz precedat de prepoziţia to.
3) Complementul indirect prepoziţional (din diateza activă) poate fi transformat în subiect
(la diateza pasivă) cu specificarea că prepoziţia care îl introduce se deplasează din grupul
complementului indirect (activă) în imediata vecinătate a verbului la diateza pasivă, pentru a
realiza trecerea de caz de la Acuzativ la Nominativ, necesară transformării sale în subiect.
A. Everybody laughed at him.
P. He was laughed at. (by everybody)
A. They are speaking about this event.
P. This event is being spoken about.
4) Complementul de loc din diateza activă poate fi la rândul său utilizat în transformarea
pasivă cu funcţia sintactică de subiect.
A. Somebody has slept in my bed.
P. My bed has been slept in.
A. The burglar broke into this house.
P. This house was broken into. (by the burglar)
Exemple de verbe care pastreaza prepozitia imediat dupa verb: to account for, to accuse of,
to address to, to agree with, to appeal to to approve of, to ask for, to blame for, to blow up,
to break into, to bring about, to bring up, to call for, to charge with, to consent to, to deal
with, to dream of, to insist on, to let in, to live on, to listen to, to look at/after/for, to put aside,
to refer to, to send for, to speak about/of/to, to think about/of, to wait for…
Complementul de agent (din diateza pasivă) se poate omite când este exprimat
printr-un pronume personal (they) sau nehotărât (one, somebody…) ori prin substantivul
people, folosite generic, adică fără să aducă lămuriri suplimentare asupra autorului acţiunii
din diateza activă.
A. Somebody left the door open.
P. The door was left open.
A. People will show the visitors the new buildings.
P. The visitors will be shown the new buildings.
În mod similar, complementul agent (din diateza pasivă) se omite când este singurul
autor posibil al acţiunii realizate, de exemplu:
A. The teacher has given me a bad mark.
P. A bad mark has been given to me.
P. I have been given a bad mark.
A. Bakers make bread at night.
P. Bread is made at night.

Exemple de propoziţii cu verbul la alte moduri decât indicativul, respectiv:

A. I would give you a present. (conditional prezent)
P. You would be given a present.
A. They could have requested the stranger to leave the meeting. ( condiţional trecut)
P. The stranger could have been requested to leave the meeting.
A. She can solve the problem. (modal)
P. The problem can be solved by her.
A. You must work for success. (modal)
P. Success must be worked for.
Există fraze în care se pot întâlni două sau chiar trei construcţii pasive, ele fiind rezultatul
transformării independente, pe rând, a fiecărei forme verbale la diateza activă în
construcţiile corespunzătoare diatezei pasive.
A. We haven't moved anything since they sent you away to cure you.
P. Nothing has been moved since you were sent away to be cured.
A. They can't put you in prison if they haven't tried you.
P. You can't be put in prison if you haven't been tried.

REGULI GENERALE

Diateza activa Diateza pasiva

1. Subiect (nominativ) trece la complement de agent (acuzativ)
(logic si gramatical) (subiect logic)

2. Verbul de conjugat trece la be + verb de conjugat

(orice timp de la indicativ, (orice timp) (III / -ed)
conditional sau verb modal)

3. Complementul direct (Acuzativ) trece la subiect (Nominativ)

(complementul de loc sau indirect, (subiect gramatical)
simplu sau prepozitional)
 DO COMPUTERS THINK?

We could say that computers are “an extension of man’s thinking”, so-called “giant
brains” that will make man “obsolete”; or we could say, more humbly, that computers are
“merely tools or instruments which carry out the instructions given them by men,” that they
can calculate faster than any man, but can do essentially nothing qualitatively different than
any mathematically trained person can do, much slower. We could consider the argument as
to whether computers can think or not, and whether they have other human attributes such as
capacity for learning, feeling, reproducing them selves and so on. Indeed computers display
much of the characteristic behavior associated with human thinking. They perform logical
operations, such as comparing and choosing between alternatives, matching up equals,
selecting the next instruction to be carried out, etc. Computers also perform mathematical
operations, such as counting, adding, subtracting, dividing, computing powers and roots,
logarithms, trigonometric functions, integrals, derivatives, and what not. Finally, computers
exhibit such specifically “human” attributes as remembering, making logical decisions, and
adjusting themselves to changed circumstances, and some of the latest machines even appear
to profit from past experience and seem to be capable of “learning”. A case in point is the
“expert systems”. An expert system is given a store of facts relevant to the problem it must
solve and then makes decisions based on these facts. It undertakes tasks previously handled
by the highly trained and skilled: tasks like medical diagnosis, geological analysis, crime
detection, legal analysis, cash flow analysis, financial modeling, etc. But before equating this
complex behavior with human thinking, let us recall that computers, thus far, lack all critical
judgment and capacity for “creative” thinking. They blindly follow the program of
instructions and their built-in rules of logic. Computers never question the truth or
significance of the initial data (problem) or the validity of the instructions and built-in rules of
operations; they simply compute the implications of the given data and instructions according
to fixed rules. These data, rules, and instructions are always conceived of by human beings.
Even the most fundamental axioms and rules of logic and mathematics are not “self-evident”,
but rather are adopted by human consensus or convention. The most significant developments
in science and mathematics have usually been the result of questioning these very axioms and
rules, previously thought to be self-evident. No computer can do this, nor can it use past
accumulated knowledge to arrive creatively at new possibilities and inventions. Perhaps, then,
as long as computers cannot duplicate these highest forms of human thinking, they will
remain the robots we have always thought them to be.

(based on: Electronic Computers, by Henry Jacobowitz, 1975)

Energy - "Exchange Currency" between Environment and Agricultural Product

In its evolution, agriculture registered increases in the agricultural production,

sometimes with large energetic consumptions. The agricultural yield receives free non-
conventional energy under various forms (solar radiation, eolian energy, organic matter from
plants and animals; mineral and organic matter from the soil), thus creating increased
possibilities for reducing the consumption of conventional energy.
The farmer is interested in the efficiency and the energetic consumption, correlating
with the eco-technique of culture and even with the eco-system type.
The amount of energy incorporated within vegetal products is conditioned by the plant
which is grown, the ecological area and the applied technology, which may modify the ratio
between the primary used energy and the energetic value of the resulted products.
By the analyzis of the energetic efficiency there can be demonstrated, on one hand,
that this branch of the material production does not use a large amount of energy, the way it
seems at a first glance, if we consider, for example, the relatively high consumption of fuels
for tractors or the large amounts of seeds necessary for cereals, the chemical fertilizers or
irrigations.
Agriculture produces energy on a large scale, a very special type of energy, that of the
food which keeps people alive.
The second argument is that, under the conditions of hyperinflation and of the unjust
relationship between the production costs and the prices offered for the agricultural yields,
the value analyzis does not clearly and really provide the economic efficiency of the
products.
The third argument is represented by the fact that there is a huge discrepancy
between the prices of agricultural products and the cost of the industrial products necessary
for the agricultural production process, created by the sustained increase of the industrial
products cost, from at least 2 to 4, 5 times more than the price of the agricultural products.
Therefore, by analyzing the energetic efficiency wherein there are used constant
coeficients, the results can be consideered more conclusive.
The energetic analyzis can be carried out for each product apart or, summed for the
whole exploitation. Between the economic and the energetic analyzis for the wheat culture,
for exemple, there can appear a lack of concord when the price obtained per kg. of wheat is
below the cost, in case of small productions, usually below 3,000 kg/ha. In this case the
culture is not efficient from the economic point of view, yet it can be efficient from the
energetic point of view. The lack of concord is determined by the fact that nature is
generous and, by the photosynthesis process, with the help of solar energy, it enables the
production of wheat to acquire a larger amount of energy, given the consumed energy, thus
being 4 or 5 times larger. Therefore, for a larger energy unit used, there can be obtained up
to 4, 5 energy units while the profit in money represents up to 30% of the value for the
wheat production obtained or, to a rate of return of up to 50% (profit x 100: total expenses).
Under the present calculation technique conditions and the reduced number of crops,
within exploitations of a larger surface, any kind of calculation can be rapidly performed.
The calculation of energy is carried out based on the operating sheet ( not on account
of the work estimates), for each crop, either as a plan before starting the production
process, or during or at the end thereof, after the real registering of each work and used
material.
In order to simplify and clarify the calculation procedure, an operating sheet is divided
into three parts, given the type of the energy groups.
Within the economy of crops prevail the energetic consumptions for soil type of works.
The other works present reduced energetic consumptions, yet they are also important and
cannot be reduced.
When about a mechanised, complete technology, an achieved wheat crop of
5,000 kg/ha, and, a production of straws and chaff of 2,950 kg/ha, most of the energy is
consumed as diesel oil which, per total crop, represents over 99 %. At 7 base works there is
a consumption of 90% of the direct active energy. (figure 1).
Soil works: 7.43 / fertilized:63.93 / sowing:19.3 / maintenance works, controlling
diseases: 3.8 / harvesting: 5.54.
Fig.1 The structure of consumed energy for wheat crops on groups of works
(%).
Within Table 1 it is represented the balance and the energetic efficiency.
Thus, at a production of wheat of 5,000 kg/ha, with a complete technology, yet without
irrigations, there can be obtained a net energy of 28.931 kWh/ha, of which 16,060 kWh for
the main crop (grains), which we intend to obtain and, 12.871 kWh for the secondary crop
(straws).
In many places the secondary production is not used ( it remains on the field and gets
rotten or is burnt). As it can be ascertained, a crop of about 3.000 kg of straws per ha
equals 13,000 kWh or 1,109 l diesel oil.
 Table 1
Balance sheet and energetic efficieny for wheat crops

Specification KWh/ha %
Consumed energy / ha - TOTAL, of which: 6, 608 100
- for main production 6 ,440 97.45
- for secondary production 168 2.55
Obtained energy / ha - TOTAL, of which: 35, 539 100
- for main production 22, 500 63.30
- for secondary production 13, 039 36.70
Net energy (obtained energy - consumed energy) / ha -TOTAL, 28, 931 100
of which:
- for main production 16, 060 55.50
- for secondary production 12, 871 44.50
Energetic effectiveness (obtained energy / consumed energy)
- per total crop 5.37
- at main production 3.49

The secondary production (the straws) used as food for animals is not effective, yet if it
is used as energy source, it becomes effective.
As about the energetic effectiveness, it best expresses the importance or the value of
agricultural crops, as important energy sources.
Therefore, per total crop, for wheat, at a unit of energy consumed, there are obtained
5.37 energetic units; if we take the main production separately, for a unit of consumed
energy there can be obtained 3.49 energy units. Therefore, from this point of view as well,
agriculture represents the permanent source of food maintaining people alive, being an
effective economic activity.
Conclusions: by using photosynthesis, the wheat grains crop acquires a larger amount
of energy given the consumed energy. Therefore, at a unit of consumed energy (by
summing the alloted factors), there can be obtained 4 or 5 energy units, while the profit in
money represents up to 30% of the obtained production value for wheat and corn crops or
to a rate of return of up to 50%.
 Said values result from analyzing the production factors inter-conditioning within
cultivating technologies.
After prolonged experiences carried out, the increase of the wheat production, as well
as other plants with close related characteristics, on an average, is due to the fertilizers
40%, irrigations 20%, diseases, weed and pest control 30% and mechanical works (when
are well executed and at the optimum moment) 10%.
The results obtained within individual and associative exploits in Romania
emphasize situations which plead, from the economical point of view, for cultivating
grains on large surfaces, such modern and complete technologies being provided,
and technologies leading to obtaining large crops at low costs, and therefore,
effective.

Senior Lecturer Mariana BRAN,

Agro-Nourishment and Environmental Economy Faculty,
the Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest
 SUBSTANTIVUL
CONFUZIE DE NUMĂR

EXERCISE 1
Give the number “is” or “are” in the following:

1. The news I have received…good. 2. where…the money? 3. His trousers

…worn out. 4. Mathematics…my poorest subject. 5. Riches…sought after by all. 6.
Our furniture…getting old. 7. This pair of scissors…not sharp. 8. Fish…not cheap
today. 9. The number of newspapers…increasing. 10. The sheep…grazing in the
field.

EXERCISE 2
Correct the following sentences, giving reasons for your corrections:

1. His advice were very wise. 2. You was the first to do it. 3. The class was
mot able to agree. 4. I have many works to do this morning. 5. The thunders and
lightmings frightened the little girl. 6. I have more than dozens of books et home. 7.
The poors say that riches does not make a man happy. 8. He sent a man to bring his
luggages. 9. You should go and have your hairs cut: they are too long. 10. I am
waiting for more informations about this matter.

EXERCISE 3
Write sentences showing whether the following mows can be used in the
singular or in the plural:
1. News. 2. Money. 3. Advice. 4. Riches. 5. Dozen. 6. Knowledge. 7.
Spectacles. 8. Gymnastics. 9. Furniture. 10. Damage. 11. Hair. 12. Work.

EXERCISE 4
Choose between the singular or plural form of the verb:

1. The hast match of the semifinals (is, are), now going on.
2. The old conflict between central authority and states rights (has, have),
never been completely solved in any country.
 3. Rivulets of dew (covers, cover) the canvas top of my sleeping bag.
4. Runners in the hast race (competes, compete) for a gold cup.
5. The live-day conference, attended by heading scientists and public officials
(is, are) sponsored by several professional societies.
6. One typewriter for two or more students (seems, seem) inadequate.
7. Weather conditions in the valley (surprises, surprise) some visitors.
8. A plane with sixty-five passengers aboard (is, are) scheduled to take off in
three hours.
9. An infant’s need for long naps and frequent feedings (does, do) make a big
difference in the average household.
10. Large amounts of milk (comes, come) into the city every day.

EXERCISE 5

Form the plural number of the nouns in brackets:

1. There are hundreds of (book) on the (shelf). 2. All his (toy) are in his room.
3. Those (man) are (tourist). 4. (Children) like (story). 5. They left their (match) on the
table. 6. (Louse) are (insect). 7. Have you ever seen the White (cliff) of Dover?
8. (Leaf) fall in autumn. 9. There are lots of (goose) on that farm. 10. Did you buy any
(potato) yesterday? 1. Wipe your (foot) here. 12. Those (women) are (housewife). 13.
There are some (mouse) in the barn.

EXERCISE 6

Use a piece of, a bit of, an item of, a pair of, a word of, an amount of, a sheet
of, a bar of in… head, the following sentences to quantify the nouns:
1. I need a…….of paper. 2. She bough………….chocolate yesterday. 3. I want
a…………..white bread and two…………brown bread. 4. Give me a…………chalk,
will you? 5. What a……….work is man! This is an important……………..evidence. 7. I
need………….trousers. 8. This is an interesting………….news. 9.
This…………information may be useful some time. 10, He had one………..of buck. It
didn’t rain. 11. This is a beautiful………………furniture. 12. They bought
twenty………….cattle.

EXERCISE 7
Translate into English:

1. Ştirile pe care le-am primit sunt interesante. 2. Mi-am făcut bagajele aseară.
3. Vom publica toate informaţiile care sunt necesare candidaţilor. 4. Cunoştinţele lui
de istorie sunt remarcabile. 5. Am cumpărat fructe şi câteva prăjituri. 6. Ţi-ai făcut
temele? 7. Unde este cleştele? 8. Multe mulţumiri. 9. S-au încercat toate mijloacele.
10. Cartierul general al armatei era lângă Londra. 11. Fizica est obiectul lui preferat.
12. Am prins trei păstrăvi mari. 13. Tocmai s-a publicat o carte despre peştii de apă
dulce din România. 14 (Ea) are păr şaten. 15. Ea are câteva fire de păr alb. 16. Dă-
mi două pâini, te rog. 17. A făcut progres mare în învăţarea limbii engleze. 18. Acesta
este procesul-verbal al şedinţei.

SUBSTANTIVE ADESEA CONFUNDATE

EXERCISE 8
Use “house” or “home” in these sentences:

1. I live in a…….2. My………is in Cyprus. 3. Many……..are being built this

year. 4. East or west,……..is best. 5. The………was sold for £ 25,ooo. 6. Let us go
inside the…..7. He was kept under……arrest by the police. 8………..work is very
important for a first-year learner of English. 9. Police were looking for the…..breaker
who stole $ 2o,ooo goods. 10. Mrs.Hill is not at………to anyone except relatives. 11.
He was born in England, but he now looks upon Paris as his…….12. Hew…….s are
going up every where. 13. When I retire, I shall make my……..in the country.

EXERCISE 9
Use “street” or “road” in these sentences:

1. When you go to fill the car tank. You can take a…..map of Great Britain. 2.
The children were playing in the……..3. Is excessive drinking the……..to ruin? 4.
Dogs should be kept off the……way. 5. There’s no royal……….to learning. 6. The
man in the…..does not know what happens behind the political scene. 7. This is the
main……..in the town. 8. The……..of old towns are usually narrow. 9. They are
making a new….between the two towns. 10. What is the name of the……..you live
in?

EXERCISE 10
Use “habit” or “custom” in these sentences:

1. Have you a……..of washing your teeth? 2……….requires us to stand up

when rohen the national anthem is played. 3. It is the…….of many people to pray for
rain. 4. He has a……..of biting his nails. 5. Don’t let yourself get into the bad……of
taking drugs. 6. Smoking is not a good…….7. The ………of ants are very interesting.
8. The………of slowing hospitality to strangers is very ancient. 9. Social…..s vary in
different countries. 10. It has become the………for English families to go to the
seaside. 11. Is was Tom’s…….to get up early and go for a walk before breakfast. 12.
Do not be a shave to…….

EXERCISE 11
Fill in the blanks with one of the nouns in the brackets:

1. The ancient……of Greece is an interesting study (story, history). 2.

His…….swelled and he cannot get his shoe an (foot, leg). 3. The……spoilt the game
(wind, air). 4. Mr.Brown is my lawyer and I have been his……for many years
(customer, client). 5. We have a long……..to learn by heart (poem, poetry). 6. He can
play the violin and other…..(organs, instruments). 7. The…..of Switzerland is very
beautiful (scene, scenery). 8. There was not much……anywhere (shade, shadow). 9.
The ship was sunk in the……of the Atlantic (middle, center). 10. The bays of the
tip class will do a…..at the end of the year (theatre, play).

EXERCISE 12
Read the following sentences having pluralia tantum in-s and translate them
into Romanian:
 1. The standard of living in the Middle Argeş was very law. 2. She tried to
make amends for her former behawour. 3. All Dacians rose in arms when the
Romans invaded Dacia. 4. The letter burnt to ashes. 5. He’s got good brains, he’all
massage. 6.Clothes do not make the man. 7. Have a look at the table of contents. 8.
They couldn’t finish the project for lack of funds, 9. Goods are usually transported in
goods train. 10. Where are you going to spend your holidays? 11. He has good
looks. 12. You are forgetting your mauners, young man! 13. He is a man of means,
he can afford it. 14. You’ll find the information you need in the minutes of the
meeting. 15. We are at pains to please her. 16. The policeman is taking down the
particulars of the witnesses. 17. There is a suspect on the premises. 18. Give her my
best regards. 19. I’ve put all my savings in the savings bank. 20. She is always in
good spirits. 21. I can’t drink spirits. 22. She is sitting on the stairs. 23. He earns high
wages.

ADJECTIVUL

COMPARATIV SAU SUPERLATIV

EXERCISE 13

Rewrite the following using the adjectives between brackets in the correct
degree :

1. He is the (strong) boy in the whole school. 2. Of the two sisters Mary is the
(beautiful). 3. Ann is the (young) of my four sisters. 4. John is the (old) of all my
friends. 5. This is the (good) story I have ever read. 6. Which do you like (good), tea
or coffee? 7. Iron is the (useful) of all metals. 8. The Nile is the (large) river in Africa.
9. Which of the two boys is (tall)? 10. George is (bad) than his brother. 11. Summer
is (good) season of the year. 12. In summer the days are (long) and the nights are
(short) than in spring. 13. The 22-nd of June is (long) day of the year. 14. In July the
days become (warn) and (warm). 15. (Many) play football in summer. 16. I think
autumn is as (beautiful) as summer.
 EXERCISE 14
Choose the right form of the adjectives in brackets:

1. From these two dresses the cheaper is (the best, the better) 2. Since she
has retired (less and less, fewer and fewer), friends have visited her. 3. Mike and Bod
are students. The former studies medicine (the second, the latter) studies
architecture. 4. Her (older, elder) sister did not come to the party. 5. The doctor asked
(the nearest, the next person to come in).

EXERCISE 15
Correct the following, giving reasons for your corrections:
1. Alexandria is smaller from Cairo. 2. New York is the larger city in the United
States. 3. He is the better student from all. 4. John is more stronger than his brother.
5. I am two years elder than my sister. 6. Which is the heaviest, you or I? 7.
Which of these three girls is the elder? 8. This boy’s manners are more good than
his brother’s. 9. Which of the boys is the taller from the class? 10. Mount Everest is
the higher mountain of the world.
ADJECTIVE ADESEA CONFUNDATE

EXERCISE 16
Use “many” or “much” in these sentences:
1. He hasn’t…….money. 2. Have they……books? 3. There isn’t…….. food in
the house. 4. Does he take……interest in it? 5. I haven’t…….time. 6. Are
there…….pupils absent today? 7. How……does this book cost? 8…….rain has fallen
on the mountains. 9. He doesn’t know…….English. 10………drops of water go to
make up the stream.

EXERCISE 17
Use “few” or “a few”, “little” or “a little” in these sentences:

1. As he has…….books, he is not able to study. 2. Will you have………..wine?

3. He is very ill; there is……..hope for him. 4. There are……….apples in the basket,
help yourself to some. 5…….people study Latin nowadays. 6. He cannot afford it as
he has………money left. 7. As he did not speak clearly……..people understood
what he said. 8……….people will admit their faults. 9. We must save…. Money for
your journey home. 10. I have…..friends in London who will help me.

EXERCISE 18
Use “ill” or “sick” in these sentences:
1. She was suddenly taken…..2. The weat was bad, and made
everybody……3. He went to the hospital to visit the……4. The……man died
yesterday. 5. When we are……, we send for the doctor. 6. Those who are in bad
health are said to be…..7. The……and the wounded are taken to hospital. 8. He
is……with a bad cold. 9. When I travel by boat I always become…..10. He felt….and
left in the middle of the game.
EXERCISE 19
Use “some” or “any” in these sentences:
1. I have…..new books at home. 2. There are not………flowers in the garden.
3. Hove you….brothers in school? 4. Did you buy……stamps from him? 5. Have
I…letters this morning? 6. This magazine has……..beautiful pictures. 7. I
want…..new potatoes; have you…..? You have a lot of apples; please give
me………9. I asked 4 him for….soap, but he hadn’t……….10. IF went some flour,
but the groser hasn’t……11. Don’t make……noise. He wants to get……sleep. 12.Did
you see…..boats on the river? 13. I gave him…….paper, but I haven’t…..pens. 14.
We haven’t…..arranges, but we can have…….apples instead. 15. Have you
got…….cigarettes? (I think you have). 16. Would you like……more of this cake?

EXERCISE 20
Use “his” or “her” in these sentences:
1. The father called…..daughter to come. 2. She gave the money to a
neighbour of……uncle. 3. He sent a letter to……niece. 4. A woman last……son. 5.
The grandfather promised a nice gift to the eldest son of…….daughter. 6. Mary sent
a letter to…..brother.

EXERCISE 21
Use “interesting” or “interested” in these sentences:
 1. I am…….in English. 2. Was the film……..last night? 3. The book is…..from
beginning to end. 4. She is a most…..laday. 5. Are you interested in sports? 6.
Stamps are…..only to those who are……in them.

EXERCISE 22
Fill in the blanks with one of the adjectives in the brackets:
1.He sat down and said nothing……(farther, further). 2. Is that the…..edition
of The Times (last, latest)? 3. wash your hands if they are not….(clean, clear). 4. A
prize was given to…..one of the best pupils (earh, every). 5. He knows….words than
his brother (less, fewer). 6. Several people were….where the train ran off the lines
(wounded, injured). 7. John is…..than his cousin (higher, taller). (. Tom is five years
old; he is too…..to go to school (small, young). 9. George is my…brother (older,
elder). 10. My brother George is…..than I am (older, elder).

THE ARTICLES
EXERCISE 23
Fill in the blanks with “a” or “an” where necessary:
1. Swineming is…..great fun. 2. The aeroplane makes……noise. 3. What sort
of…..man is he? 4. My uncle made…..fortune in America. 5. He has more
than……thousand pounds. 6. The train left half…….hour ago. 6. She has
mode…great progress in English. 7. She is…..clever girl. 8. He tried without success
to find……work. 9. Sunshine is necessary for….good health. 10. Do you
like….music?

EXERCISE 24
Fill in the blanks with “the” where necessary:
1. My little brother will go to….school next year. 2. My father left…..school
many years ago. 3. I go to….cinema twice a week. 4….cotton of Egypt is exported to
many countries. 5…..Nile flows into….Mediterranean. 6. At what time is….lunch? 7.
He can speak….French. 8. She speaks….German better than….English. 9. …..flies
are harmful inserts. 10. The boy was sent to….prison to take a letter. 11……football
is a mare popular game than….hockey. 12……red,….blue, and….green are beautiful
colours. 13…..honesty is the best policy. 14……British are not in the habit of paying
compliments. 15. God made…..country, and….man made…..town.
 EXERCISE 25
Fill in the blanks with “a”, “an” or “the” where necessary:
1. Peter Nill, wha is…Professor of History at…University of Chicago,
signed…..article. 2. They generally have….breakfast at 8 o’clock. 3. It is not visible
at….night. 4…….beauty is skin deep. 5……milk she bought was sour. 6……Romania
lies in….east of…..Europe. 7. He translated the book from….English
into……Romanian. 8. Is…….German language difficult to learn? 9……..Washington
DC is…..capital of……United States of America. 10. Open….book on….page ten and
read…..questions. 11…..Foxes are not…..domestic animals. 12. She goes to school
in….morning. 13. Is your father…..worker? 14……dog is……domestic animal.
15……Mississippi is….largest river in….North America. 16. Do you know….Lido
Hotel is? 17. It takes me….hour to get to Ploieşti. 18. How many times…weak do you
have Phyücs? 19. What….yo. y she is for her family. 20. Byron,….English poet,
was…important representative of…..Romanticism.

PRONOUNS

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

EXERCISE 26

Put relative pronouns in each of the following:

1. That is the boy….came yesterday. 2. The man to…..I spoke is my brother.
3. The girl….mother is ill has left school. 4. This is the pen….I bought. 5. I cannot
repeat all… I heard. 6. He is a boy….I know you can trust. 7. She is the girl….we
thought had been ill. 8. He is the tallest man…I ever saw. 9. She is the same…..she
has always been. 10. I like to help those….I lave and….I know to love me. 11. The
girl….is sitting at the desk is our typist. 12. The book….she is reading has been
published recently. 13. That is the man….helped the child cross the street. 14. Is this
the woman…sold you the English dictionary? 15. I don’t remember the joke…he told
me. 16. That is the student…always gets excellent marks. 17. He is the football
player…scared three goals. 18. Is this the house….was built by your brother?
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
EXERCISE 27

Put interrogative pronouns in each of the following:

1……do you find easier to learn, English or French? 2. About…were you
talking?(The cinema). 3…..is this book? (My uncle’s). 4….of the two players do you
like better? 5…..do you think I wanted? (Your brother). 6….of the three boys spoke?
7….did you say….wan the prize? 8….is he, do you suppose? (A lawyer). 9….of your
brothers works in the bank? 10….is the number of your house? 11….told the story to
the children. 12….wrote the letter to Mrs.White? 13…..sent the present to the boy?
14….showed the town to the tourists? 15….explained the lesson to the new
student?

REPETITION OF SUBJECT OR OBJECT

EXERCISE 28

Rewrite the following sentences, crossing out every unnecessary pronoun:

1. The prizes they were given to the boys. 2. The girl she said nothing. 3. The
teacher gave us an exercise to do it. 4. He went home and he brought his book. 5.
The books which it is on the table is mine 6. Students who are good at their lessons
they get good marks. 7. He gave us a football to play with it. 8. The people having
seen the game they went away. 9. The headmaster. I have seen him just now. 10.
The scorpion it has a sting in its tail.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
EXERCISE 29
Correct the following sentences, giving reasons for your explanations:
1. One should mind his own business. 2. The most of the people are fond of
the cinema. 3. This is the boy which is always late. 4. I speak English better than
him. 5.She told her mother all what had been said. 6. This cake is for you and
myself. 7. I want to give me your book, please. 8. Is a very good girl. 9. It is them. 10.
I and John are friends. 11. Charlie and me went to the movies yesterday. 12. It was
to Lillian and me that this letter was sent. 13. That may have been him on the stairs.
14. Do you know what time him and her plan to arrive? 15. I’ve known Polly and she
for as long as I can remember. 16. Because of he, they won the final game. 17.
Neither you nor me can predict the future. 18. Let Bruce and he do the job in their
awn way. 19. Just between you and I, was that a four decision? 20. Was it them you
told me about yesterday? 21. The Glendale team has a better record than us. 22.
You will have to study as hard as her if you are to win the scholarship. 23. Don’t give
Roy more time for the experiment than me. 24. Sometimes we give more credit to the
man who asks for it than to he who deserves it. 25. Who will help Louis and she with
the work?

VERBS
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
EXERCISE 30
Put the verbs in brackets into the tenses required:
1. I thought that he (can) run much faster. 2. The boy said that he (begin) his
work tomorrow. 3. He says he (understand) French very well. 4. The teacher said,
“London (be) the largest city in the world”. 5. The teacher said that London (be) the
capital of England. 6. I was sure that he (shall) succeed. 7. I asked him if he (want)
anything. 8. They say that he (shall) pass the examination. 9. She told me that she
(feel) very tired. 10. The boy worked hard se that he (may) not fail in the examination.
11. Look! It (rain). Take your umbrella. 12. Why (he, drive) so fast today? 13. It (start)
to rain while she (walk) in the park yesterday? 14. The weather (be) bad this week.
15. Last right the wind (blow) some trees down. 16. I (just, speak) to her. I (speak) to
her a few minutes ago. 17. They (be) in Predeal for more than a week when we
(arrive) last Saturday. 18. What (yon, do) there. I (look) at some photographs. How
long (you, look) at then? I (look) at them since I (come) back home. What time (you
come) back home? I (come) back home at 6 o’clock.

EXERCISE 31
Complete the following, using verb in the required tense:
1. George told me that he…..
2. I asked him whether he…..
3. James said that he………..
4. Our teacher taught us that…
5. He gave me a promise that…
6. The boys said that……
7. I knew that he……….
8. I asked him to wait until…..
9. I thought that he……..
10. He did not come when…..

THE USE OF A WRONG TENSE

EXERCISE 32

Supply the correct tense, simple Present or Present Continuous, in the

following:
1. I (go) to school every day. 2. He (go) to the school now. 3. Look! They
(come) towards us. 4. Now I (hear) him clearly. 5. Every morning I (take) a walk by
the riverside. 6. The sun (rise) in the east and (set) in the west. 7. The teacher
(watch) me when I (write). 8. We (to) the cinema this evening. 9. I (read) English now.
10. People (use) umbrellas when it (rain). 11. Buses usually (rum) along this street,
but today they (not run) because it is under repair. 12. John (pass) the post-office on
his way to work every day. 13. We nearly always (spend) our holidays at the seaside,
but this year we are going to France. 14. Joan still (do) her homework. Her sister,
who always (work) quicker, (play) already in the garden. 15. Water always (freeze) at
o degrees Centigrade. 16. I (have) my hair cut whenever it gets too long. 17. You
(wash) your hands before every meal? 18. Why you (wear) a coat this morning? I
never (wear) one till October. 19. His parents don’t know what to do with that child.
He (lie) habitually. 20. You (watch) t.u. often? The electrician (install) ours at this
moment.

EXERCISE 33
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense, Continuous or Simple Present:

1. You (see) the house on the corner? That is where I was born.
2. You (listen) to what I’m saying? You (understand) me?
3. I (notice) Mary (wear) a new hat today.
4. She (not understand) what you (mean).
5. I (need) a new suit. They (offer) special prices at the tailor’s this week.
6. You (smell) gas? I (think) the new store is leaking.
7. Look at Mary! She (drink) up her medicine, but I can see that she (hate) it.
8. John (seem) rather tired today.
9. It still (rain), but it (look) as if it will seen stop.
10. You (wind) helping me a moment? I (try) to mend this table.
11. Ask him what he (want).
12. You (remember) the name of that girl who (walk) on the side of the street?
13. I (suppose) I must go now. My wife (wait) for me at home.
14. “Will you have some whisky?” “I (prefer) beer, please”.
15. You (see) this box? It (contain) matches.
16. These twins, who (resembles) one another so strongly (study), art at
present.
17. After what has happened, you really (mean) to say that you still (believe)
him?
18. You (suppose) the children still (sleep)?
19. The train still (stand in the station. You (think) we can just catch it?
20. I (notice) you (possess) a copy of Waugh’s latest book. Will you lend it
me?

EXERCISE 34
 Supply the correct tense, Past Tense Simple or Part Continuous, in the
following:
1. When I (come) in, it (rain). 2. Many years ago people (travel) on horseback.
3. I (meet) him as I (go) home. 4. He (go) to another school last year. 5. My father
(play) football in his youth. 6. We (eat) our dinner when he (come) to visit us. 7. In the
past he (smoke) a great deal. 8. They (shout) when the teacher 9enter0 the room. 9.
Last year he (study) very hard. 10. While he (play) football he (lose) his ring.

EXERCISE 35
Supply the correct Tense, Continuous or Simple Past in place of the verbs in
brackets:
1. I (wash) my hands when the telephone (ring). 2. She (sit) at the table when
the children (come) home. 3. He (watch) television when his friend (arrive). 4. What
you (do) when I knocked at the door? 5. Mary was sewing while John (wend) the
radio. 6. Thy (study) the same exercise all last week as they were studying this
morning. 7. She broke down when she (hear) the news. 8. The children ran away
when they (see) the policeman. 9. The bus crashed and some of the passengers
(get) hurt. 10. The gardener (dig) in the garden when he found a valuable old coin.
11. She (look) for her pen when she discovered she (have) it in her handbag all the
time. 12. I (try) to ring you up all yesterday but your telephone wasn’t working. 13.
The bus crashed while the driver (look) the other way. 14. Why did you talk to that
man while I (wait) all the time? 15. She already (lie) in hospital when her husband
heard of the accident. 16. I was thinking about the problem all night, but I never (find)
the answer. 17. The aeroplane already (fly) very low when I caught sight of it. 18. Did
you see Mr.Johnson in the theatre last night? He (sit) in the third raw? 19. Her aunt
died while she (spend) her holidays in Italy. 20. They all (have) breakfast when I got
up.
EXERCISE 36
Supply the correct Tense, Past or Present Perfect, in the following:
1. He (come) back last week. 2. I just (finish) my work. 3. I (live) in London last
year. 4. The bell (ring) fine minutes ago. 5. I (see) then Pyramids in Egypt. 6. This
book first (print) in 1966. 7. He (be) ill of fever since last Saturday. 8. The ship (arrive)
yesterday. 9. I (stay) at my uncle’s last night. 10. I (deposit) the money in the
bank.
 EXERCISE 37
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct Tense, Simple Past or Past Perfect.
1. When he (leave) already, he (realize) he (forget) his wallet. 2. She (burst)
into tears the moment she (shut) the door. 3. His finger (begin) to bleed as soon as
he (cut) himself. 4. He (lose) his new knife shortly after he (buy) it. 5. He (begin) to
read as soon as he (find) the place in his book. 6. The fire (burn) for three hours
when the firemen arrived. 7. It already (rain) for half an hour when we (step) out into
the street. 8. The patient (die) already by the time the doctor (arrive). 9. When John
(enter) the room the thief already (escape). 10. When we (get) home, night already
(fall). 11. Until he (explain), the students (not understand). 12. Until the aeroplane
(take off), we (can) not hear ourselves speak. 13. Until the gardener (water) the
plants, they (not grow). 14. His neighbours (will) not speak to him until he (apologize).
15. They (be) not able to make the pudding until the maid (bring) the eggs.

EXERCISE 38
Complete the following, using the correct tense:
1. We shall go for a picnic, if….
2. I shall visit the Pyramids when…
3. Some people talk as if…
4. Since he came here…
5. I should enyoy myself, if…
6. You would have passed if…
7. If I were the Prime-Minister I…
8. The other team would have won the match if…
9. Unless he were to do something silly now, I thank he…
10.I shan’t mind so long as you…

EXERCISE 39
Rewrite the following with the verbs between brackets in the correct tense:
1. After he (finish) his work he (go) home. 2. I (study) English for two years.
3. I (finish) my work this morning. 4. I (write) my exercise before Tom (call) for me.
5. He said he (shall) go to the cinema. 6. I (not see) him since Wednesday. 7. I
(speak) to him five minutes ago. 8. I (study) grammar last year. 9. She always
(whisper) during the lesson. 10. The messenger (come) back. 11. I shall stay until
you (promise) to do as I ask. 12. The children (sleep) all this afternoon. 13. When I
(hear) from you again I shall let you know. 14. They (build) that bridge for aver a year
and it still isn’t finished. 15. They refuse to give me any more money until I (do) some
more work.
16. The thief just (get) out of the window when the police arrived. 17. If only we (do)
as we were told! This would never have happened. 18. She ran as if she (have)
wings on her feet. 19. I wish the train (not arrive) so late; then I could have got home
before breakfast. 20. You may not borrow another book until you (return) the one you
have.

EXERCISE 40
Correct the following sentences, giving reasons for your corrections:
1. He said that he is working hard. 2. Now long did you waited for me
yesterday? 3. He speaks English very well, but I am not sure whether he can speaks
French too. 4. He is on the team for two years. 5. I have seen him yesterday at
church. 6. “What do you do now?” I do my exercise. 7. I use to get up early. 8. He
acts as if he is a rich man. 9. I shall speak to him as soon as he will come. 10. I told
him to come with us, but he says that he is not feeling well.

THIRD PERSON SINGULAR

EXERCISE 41
Put the following into the third person singular, Present Tense:
1. I do my work carefully. 2. The fishermen catch fish. 3. You have a new
bicycle. 4. The teacher taught us English. 5. She walked to the station to catch the
train. 6. They combed and brushed their hair. 7. He fell down and hurt his leg. 8. I say
good morning to parents and I begin my breakfast. 9. I sit and talk to my friends. 10. I
go to school on my bicycle. 11. We usually have breakfast at seven o’clock
nowadays. 12. In the past men frequently fought duels. Nowadays they seldom do.
13. These builders generally build very rapidly. They work very fast. 14. They have
been working in the same factory for twenty years. 15. They refuse to give me any
more money until I do some more work.
 EXERCISE 42
Fill in the blanks with the right word, “don’t” or “doesn’t”, in the following:
1. I…think so. 2. John…know how to swim. 3. It…matter what they say.
4. He…play football. 5. Some pupils…take good care of their books. 6…you know
where I live? 7. Why…you say that? 8. Teachers…like lazy pupils. 9. He…speak
English very well. 10….be afraid of the dog! 11. His parents…know what to do with
that child. 12. Students frequently…make mistakes of tense usage when they do this
exercise. 13. She…wear the some dress at every party. 14. My aunt…like girls who
make up. 15. I…know what to do.

QUESTIONS AND NEGATIONS

EXERCISE 43
Rewrite the following sentences (a) as questions, (b) as negative sentences:
1. He went home. 2. You told me to wait. 3. I made a mistake. 4. He broke the
window. 5. She did the exercise. 6. He speaks English. 7. He bought a new hat. 8.
She found her book. 9. Mary came late. 10. He knew the answer. 11. The water in
the pond froze last night. 12. They got home very late last night. 13. Last month the
cost of living rose to a new high point. 14. I had a letter from my wife last week. 15.
Last week the government introduced new legislation. 16. Yesterday afternoon the
police caught a thief in the High Street. 17. He rang me up just a minute ago. 18. At
the end of last year they finally succeeded in producing the drug synthetically. 19.
That house was built many years ago. 20. Her aunt died while she was having lunch.

EXERCISE 44
Answer the following questions (a) in the affirmative, (b) in the negative, using
complete sentences:
1. Did you buy a new bicycle? 2. Does John swim across the river? 3. Did you
find the book that you last? 4. Does he ring the bell? 5. Did he go to London last
year? 6. Did he teach you anything? 7. Did you know the answer to the problem? 8.
Does he speak many languages? 9. Did you thing it would rain? 10. Did they catch
the train?

EXERCISE 45
 Correct whatever is wrong with the following questions:
1. You were at the cinema last night? 2. At what time did he came yesterday?
3. You will go home next week? 4. He has returned from leave? 5. Does he speaks
French? 6. You have some good news for me? 7. He can drive a car? 8. You heard
about the accident? 9. Why he came here every day? 10. When the post will come?

QUESTION PHRASES

EXERCISE 46
Complete the following, adding question phrases:
1. She sings well,…?
2. He can’t swim,…?
3. You play the piano,…?
4. He struck the boy,…?
5. It is cool today,…?
6. It isn’t warm today,…?
7. That man is our teacher,…?
8. You haven’t finished yet,…?
9. Peter reads in the library,…?
10. Mary sent the letter yesterday, …?
11. You will explain that tomorrow…?
12. You can do this translation,…?
13. They didn’t have a good time at the party,…?
14. John doesn’t know the truth,…?
15. You should behave like this,…?
16. You have a new dress,…?
17. Everybody in this class plays football well,…?
18. He never used to wear a hat,…?
19. We’d better wait for her,…?
20. You’d rather not say anything,..?

EXERCISE 47
 Complete the following, adding question phrases:
1. I am late again though I didn’t want to,…?
2. They are waiting in the other room,…?
3. He did his work carefully…?
4. The secretary will type the report tomorrow,…?
5. He is ten years old,…?
6. The students in this class don’t work very hard,…?
7. The last lesson wasn’t very difficult,…?
8. Two pupils are absent today,…?
9. The journalist spoke about peace and disarmament,…?
10. He is working on his thesis now,…?
11. The teacher will talk to our parents tomorrow,…?
12. Father’s car broke down yesterday,…?
13. The pupils met their teacher in front of the school,…?
14. The local police have helped the firemen to put out the fire,…?
15. Fortunately all the crew were saved,…?

INDIRECT QUESTION
EXERCISE 48
Change the following into indirect questions:
1. I said to him, “what is your idea?” How much did you pay for your bicycle? “I
asked him. 3. We asked, “where are you going?” 4. I said to the man, “what’s the
price of this book?” 5. He said to the guest, “Do you want tea or coffee?” 6. He said to
me, “Did you ring the bell?” 7. The tourist said to us, “where is the road to the
station?” 8. The teacher said to me, “why are you weeping?” 9. My girl-friend said to
me, “why are you late?” 10. He said, “How long does it take you to reach home?” 11.
“When did you buy this camera?” 12. “Is it a Romanian make?” 13. “Now much did it
cost?” 14. “Do you know how to use it?” 15. “Have you a book with instructions?” 16.
“When are you going to take your first photo?” 17. “Do you keep the camera in a case
for protection?” 18. “Will you take pictures of your friends?” 19. “Can they develop
your films at the photographer?” 20. “When will you have your film back?” 21. “Do
you think the pictures will came out clearly?” 22. “Will you give me a photo, too?” 23.
“Has Paul left any message for me?” 24. “Shall I get you taxi?” 25. “Could you make
up this prescription for me?”

DOUBLE NEGATIVE
EXERCISE 49

Rewrite the following sentences correctly in two ways:

1. I could not find him nowhere. 2. There isn’t no one here who knows his name. 3. I
didn’t see nobody there. 4. He did not tell me nothing. 5. He is not neither wise nor
good. 6. You will not find the box nowhere. 7. We did not give him nothing. 8. I don’t
know nothing. 9. He did not speak to no are in the room. 10. Nobody never saw him
without his stick.

CONTRACTIONS
EXERCISE 50
Write the words for which each of the following contractions stands:
1. Don’t. 2. Doesn’t. 3. Aren’t. 4. Isn’t. 5. Wasn’t. 6. Can’t. 7. Weren’t.
8. Couldn’t. 9. Haven’t. 10. We’ll. 11. You’ve. 12. Won’t. 13. Shan’t. 14. Mustn’t. 15.
Didn’t.

EXERCISE 51
Write contractions for the following:
1. Would not. 2. I am. 3. I have. 4. I will. 5. Had not. 6. He is. 7. It is. 8. Will not.
9. Shall not. 10. Must not. 11. Ought not. 12. Need not. 13. Can not. 14. Should not.
15. He does not.

VERBS OFTEN CONFUSED

EXERCISE 52
Supply “shall” or “will” in the following:
1. Tomorrow…he Sunday. 2. All right, I…come. 3. You…not leave this room
until you finish your work. 4. You…find your books on the table. 5…I bring, my books
with me? 6. He…go to school this year. 7. No, I…never do that. 8. I…write a few
letters tomorrow. 9. I…do it whether they like it or not. 10. “We…be as quiet as mice”,
promised the children. 11. I don’t know how I…manage without a maid next week.
12. The police…be much stricter with bad drivers in future. 13. I think he…ask for a
rise in salary very soon. 14. Do you suppose it…rain before dark? 15. How soon…be
ready? 16. The show…begin in about ten minutes. 17. She…not give another
concert this year. 18. The climbing party…try to reach the top tomorrow. 19. He says
he…pay me back the week after next. 20. He says he…call up before six o’clock. 21.
Do you think the government…reduce taxation next year? 22. Do you think he…get
back dusk? 23. When he has gone I…tell you a secret. 24. As soon as we have had
dinner, we… play bridge. 25. Now that we have sold our old car, we…buy a new one.

EXERCISE 53

Supply some form of “say” or “tell” in the following:

1. He always…the truth. 2. John…, “I shall go tomorrow”. 3. She…nothing.
4. Thay…that he is ill. 5. He…that he would go the next day. 6. I… him that I should
go with him. 7. He…to me, “I am not feeling well”. 8. What is he…ing? 9. Don’t…lies.
10. He…me that he would go home. 11. Can you…me your name, please? 12. He
was…his prayers when we came in. 13. Will you lend me same money,…, about E5?
14. I should be glad if you would…me your opinion of these plans. 15. I dare…what
you…me is true, although it seems improbable.

EXERCISE 54

Put the right verb, “say” or “tell”, into these sentences:

1. Let’s meat in the square, shall we…at six o’clock? 2. She’s only five and
can’t…the time yet. 3. Twenty-five students, that is to…, three-quarters of the class,
passed the exam. 4. There is nothing to be…for his proposal. 5. I…! Just look here a
moment. 6. The children begged her to…them a story before they went to bed. 7.
She had a feeling that they were not…her the truth. 8. Now can you…which is the
right one to use. 9. I can never…those two brothers apart. 10. Come a little closer
and I’ll…you a secret. 11. I wasn’t allowed to do that when I was young, I can…you.
12. Amy country, let’s…Turkey, would follow a similar policy in the circumstances.
13. Don’t me you haven’t brought in after all? 14. That he is intelligent goes with…15.
You never can…! It may be true. 16. Can you…the difference between these two
colours? I can’t.

EXERCISE 55
Supply some form of “make” or “do” in the following:
1. The best cloth is…in England. 2. He… his best to help me. 3. Have
you…your homework? 4. I have only...my duty. 5. If you take this medicine, it
will…you good. 6….whatever you like. 7. What were you…ing when I came in? 8. Do
you…your exercise carefully? 9. Don’t…a noise. 10. I have a difficult problem to…

EXERCISE 56
Supply some form of “lie” or “lay” in the following:
1. I shall go and…down. 2. The book was…ing on the floor. 3. He…down to
rest. 4….down, Fox. 5. The hen has…an egg. 6. Now long have you…in bed? 7.
He…to the teacher. 8. He ordered his men to…down. 9. I…the book on the table. 10.
Yesterday she…in bed until midday. 11. Now long have those books been…ing on
the floor? 12. She told her dog to…down. 13. Mary…her head on John’s shoulder.
14. This pottery has…buried in the earth for a thousand years. 15. He found his
papers…ing on the floor when he came in. 16. They let him…where he had fallen.
17. These bricks have been…very badly. 18. The prisoners were ordered to…down
their arms. 19. The mayor…the foundation stone of the new school. 20. They told
the doctor that she had been…ing motionless for three hours.

EXERCISE 57
Supply some form of “sit”, “seat”, or “set” in the following:
1. Please…down. 2. Please…yourself. 3. Please be…4. The sun…in the west.
5. The boat will…twelve people. 6. The old man was…ing by the fire. 7…the vase on
the table. 8. The dog was…ing on the chair. 9. The teacher…the boys as they came
in. 10. I one…in that famous chair.

EXERCISE 58
Supply some form or “rise” or “raise” in the following:
 1. He tried to…the lid of the chest. 2. He…from his seat. 3 The patient tried
to…himself up on his elbow. 4. The racket…into the sky. 5. They have…the level of
the water in the reservoir. 6. His hopes…as the day drew near. 7. I don’t wish
to…false hopes. 8. If you know the answer, …your hand. 9. Prices have…sharply in
the last few months.

EXERCISE 59

Supply some form of “wear”, “put on”, or “dress” in the following:

1. She always…a green hat. 2. I…my hat and went out. 3. The mother…the
child. 4. She…a beautiful dress at the dance. 5. It takes him much time to…his
clothes. 6. He…a red tie Yesterday. 7. She never…brown shoes. 8. Mary…herself
and wend to the party. 9. I shall…my new dress at the wedding. 10. When he came
in he was…ing his hat.

EXERCISE 60
Supply some form of “let”, “let go”, “leave”, or “give up” in the following:
1….your books here. 2. Does your father…you go swimming? 3. Please… my
room. 4. I have…music. 5. Where have you…your pen? 6. Mother will not…me go.
7. His old friends…him. 8. Please…my hand. 9. Someone always…the doer open.
10….me go, too.

EXERCISE 61
Supply some form of “fly”, “flow”, or “flee” in the following:
1. The plane…over the city. 2. The birds have…north for the summer. 3.
He…from danger. 4. The water…all day. 5. The flies…through the window. 6. The
Nile…into the Mediterranean. 7. He…from London to New York. 8. The prisoner
has…from his guard. 9. Birds… 10. The wild horses…from the men.

EXERCISE 62
Supply “hung” or “hanged” in the following:
1. He was found guilty and…2. Mother…clothes up to dry. 3. The picture…
on the wall. 4. The rapist was…5. After the painter had finished the room,
Mrs.Brown…the new silk curtains. 6. He…his hat up. 7. The two nigger slaves were
caught and…

EXERCISE 63
Supply some form of “borrow” or “lend” in the following:
1. May I…your pen? 2. Please…me your book. 3. From whom did you…the
money? 4. He will…you his knife. 5. You should avoid…ing things from others.

EXERCISE 64
Supply some form of “see” or “look” in the following:
1. He…a letter for him on the breakfast-table. 2. He…at the signature on the
letter. 3. If you…around this town, you’ll…what we’ve done. 4. You will … the
mistakes if you…carefully. 5. Can you…me from where you are sitting* 6. If you
can’t…move nearer the front of the class. 7. If you…carefully, you will…your
mistakes. 8. I’ve…under all the chairs but I can’t…your handbag anywhere.
9….carefully or you won’t…where you’re going. 10. We cannot…in the dark. 11.
Don’t…out of the window. 12. Do you…that man? 13. It is not proper to…through an
open window. 14. The blind cannot…

EXERCISE 65
Supply some form of “hear” on “listen” in the following:
1. Speak up! We can’t… 2. Of course you can’t…if you don’t… 3. You’ve…to
him patiently-those of you who could…him. 4. I…what you said; now will you… to
the answer? 5. She…hard but she couldn’t…a sound. 6. You won’t…me if you
don’t… 7. At the moment they…to loud pop music so they won’t… you if you ring the
bell. 8. “I…you are getting married soon”. “You mustn’t…to all the tales you…”. 9.
“…! I’m sure I…a key turn in the lock”. 10. I…carefully but I…nothing. 11. He
cannot…very well. 12. I was…ing to the music. 13. The deaf cannot…14. Let us…to
the story.

EXERCISE 66
Supply some form of “make” or “do” in the following:
 1. She…a cake for tea. 2. Susan has…a lot of extra work this week. 3. They…
the housework. 4. I don’t want to…a big meal. 5. They are going to…some shopping.
6. They…the beds. 7. Have you…this exercise? 8. That’s what they…. 9.
Shopping…me tired. 10 The policeman…the people move away. 11. What are you
going to…this evening?

EXERCISE 67
Supply some form of “steal” or “rob” in the following:
1. They…the house and fled. 2. Someone has…his money. 3. “I have been…”,
cried the lady. 4. When the bank was…, the robbers escaped. 5. The cat will…the
dog’s meat. 6. They…my wife of a vaheable ring last night. 7. Some thieves…Mrs
Jones’s handbag in full daylight. 8. The burglar stole £250 from the grocer’s. 9.
They…the bank of £5,000,000 last night. 10. She had her last penny.

EXERCISE 68
Supply some form of “refuse” or “deny” in the following:
1. He…to do the work. 2. John…that he had seen him. 3. Do you…that you
broke the window? 4. I…to take the money. 5. I asked him to come with us, but he…

EXERCISE 69
Supply “can” or “may” in the following:
1….you play the piano? 2. I am sure that you…do better. 3…I leave the book
with you? 4…I speak to you for a moment? 5. You…go now, if you like. 6. I hope
that with his help I…mend my car. 7. When you finish this exercise you…go home.
8. It’s rather cloudy today; it…rain or even snow. 9. I hope that I…count on you
whenever I need you. 10. This…be or…not be true. I’m sure he…translate very well
from English into Romanian. 12. The police…catch the burglar. 13. You’d better
hurry; you…miss the train if you don’t leave at once. 14. Why don’t you listen to your
father’s advice? You…have a car accident on this slippery road. 15. She…came
today because the road was slippery.

EXERCISE 70
Supply any form of “learn” or “teach” in the following:
 1. She…her friend the new game. 2. Will you…me how to swim? 3. He…his
lessons quickly. 4. My teacher…me English. 5. The pupils…their lessons. 6.
Alice…us about the history of Great Britain but we didn’t…because we didn’t like
here. 7….ing is very important for a student but sometimes it depends very much
on….ing.

EXERCISE 71
Supply some form of “win” or “beat” in the following:
1. We were sure to… 2. I can…him at chess. 3. The shield was…by our
school. 4. My brother has never been…at tennis. 5. The Normans…the battle of
Hastings against the English. 6. We have…your team several times. 7. We have
always…

EXERCISE 72
Supply some form of “like”, “want” or “wish” in the following:
1. I…to go to Athens next year. 2. Children…to play. 3. Do you…to come with
me for a drive? 4. He always…to get up early. 5. Do you…to play tennis this
afternoon? 6. I…I had a new bicycle. 7. Mother some new curtains in the sitting-
room. 8. Paul…oranges, but he doesn’t…onions. 9. Do you…me to type this letter
now? 10. I sometimes…I lived in the country. 11. She doesn’t…sugar in the tea. 12.
I…had more time for the essay. 13. Do you…our new house? 14. Would you…to
have a look at this book? 15. They… they arrived sooner.
EXERCISE 73
Put the verbs “want”, “like” or “wish” into these sentences:
1. Adrian doesn’t…running to school. 2. I…to see him as soon as possible.
3. He…he had more stamps. 4. I…you wouldn’t talk so loudly. 5. Do
you…swimming? 6. Where would you…to go for your holidays. 7. Do you…you were
as tall as Tom? 8. I…a lot of sugar in my tea. 9. I… the summer would soon come.
10. I…I had a brother or a sister.

EXERCISE 74
Supply some form of “read” or “study” in the following:
 1. My father…The Times. 2. The boy is…ing his lessons. 3. When I
finish…ing geography, I shall…the letter. 4. She…a lot, but she doesn’t…her
lessons. 5. When the boys have…their lessons, they are allowed to…magazines.

EXERCISE 75
Supply “fall” or “fell” in the following:
1. Did the child…from the chair? 2. The aeroplane…into the sea. 3.
He…down and broke his leg. 4. In winter the leaves…from the trees. 5. You will…if
you are not careful. 6. When he climbed down the hill, he…and broke his right arm.
7. He didn’t…when he climbed up that tall tree though everybody thought he
would…

EXERCISE 76
Choose the correct word from those in the brackets in the following sentences:
1. Who (discovered, invented) the telephone? 2. The judge was (persuaded,
convinced) that the man was guilty. 3. When will the meeting (take place, take part)?
4. He (took, received) a prize for his diligence. 5. It is not wise to (interfere with,
interfere in) family quarrels. 6. He (is, is found) at the school in the morning. 7. At
what time do you (sleep, go to bed)? 8. She did not (accept, agree) to go. 9. A
butcher (deals in, deals with) meat. 10. How does that man (win, earn) his living?
11. If you take 3 from 7, four (remain stay). 12. Please (remember, remind) me to
give the money back. 13. The judge (revenged, avenged) the wrong done to the
child. 14. I (pleased, asked) him to past a letter for me. 15. Some people (like, love)
freedom so much that they are ready to die for it.

UNENGLISH EXPRESSIONS
EXERCISE 77

Correct the following sentence, giving the true idiom:

1. Few people will admit that they have wrong. 2. Every day I put my watch
with the church bell. 3. Will there be a game today after noon? 4. He brought a good
example. 5. Slowly, slowly, don’t make a noise. 6. The teacher did not put us a new
lesson. 7. Came down from the bicycle. 8. When do you make your bath? 9. I have
much work; I need an hour to do it. 10. Many Englishmen drink a pipe. 11. I close the
lights before I sleep. 12. How are you going with your music lessons? 13. I cut my
hair twice a month. 14. Every morning I go for a walk with my bicycle. 15. The boy
could not give the examination because he was ill. 16. Did you follow the game
yesterday? 17. What film will be played on Sunday? 18. What have you and you are
sad? 19. I make exercise every morning. 20. The teacher put me a good mark
because I knew the poem from out.

MISUSE OF THE INFINITIVE

EXERCISE 78
Put a suitable gerund in the place of each of these dashes:
1. Do this without… any mistakes. 2. We do not enyoy… 3. He succeeded
in…the door. 4. I cannot prevent you… 5. It’s no use…about everything. 6. He
stopped…in class. 7. I was busy…ready for dinner. 8. It’s worth…well. 9. I think
of…to London next year. 10. It’s no use…over spilt milk.

EXERCISE 79
Complete the following sentences with a gerund after the preposition:
1. They will certainly be angry at our… 2. Would you be surprised at his….?
3. They were delighted at… 4. I do not believe in… 5. Have you congratulated him
on…? 6. That will depend on your… 7. You must insist on his… 8. You ought to be
ashamed of… 9. She was shy of….10. Are you as fond as we are of…? 11. I’m
tired of… 12. She never goes to a party without… 13. Try and eat without… 14. You
must apologize for… 15. Is that the man who was responsible for…? 16. You’ll never
learn anything by… 17. He made his fortune by… 18. We are going to start the class
by… 19. You can easily open it by… 20. I never have an opportunity of…

EXERCISE 80
Make sentences of your own, using a gerund after each of the following:
1. Avoid. 2. Instead of. 3. Stop. 4. Finish. 5. Tired. 6. Prevent. 7.
Interested. 8. Worth. 9. Insist. 10. Can’t help. 11. Fond. 12. Think. 13. Cannot bear.
14. Begin. 15. Remember.
 EXERCISE 81
Expand this material into complete sentences:
1. take this opportunity of saying. 2. concentrate seriously on making. 3.
insure
against losing. 4. escape from having to. 5. accustom the children to being. 6.
accused of taking. 7. not approve of Mary’s spending. 8. live quietly without going.
9. pride herself on dressing. 10. discourage them from trying. 11. refrain from asking.
12. beware of using. 13. make a coke without using. 14. become rich by working. 15.
unfortunately reduced to eating.

THE INFINITIVES WITHOUT “TO”

EXERCISE 82
Make sentences of your own using infinitives after each of the following verbs:
1. Can. 2. Could. 3. May. 4. Might. 5. Must. 6. Let. 7. Make. 8. See. 9.
Hear. 10. Feel. 11. Help. 12. Notice. 13. Watch. 14. Observe.

EXERCISE 83
Complete these sentences:
1. Have you ever seen her…? 2. Please watch me… 3. She felt an insect… 4.
I heard the burglar… 5. Who did you notice…? 6. She heard the baby…7. The
witness denied having seen the prisoner… 8. The crowd watched the players…9.
Have you ever observed a bird…? 10. Whatever happens, don’t let him…11. You
won’t let Mary…, will you? 12. I refuse to make the children… 13. Can’t you make
him…? 14. Do you mind letting the dogs…? 15. You will never succeed in making the
students…16. If you don’t let me…I shall… 17. John doesn’t like making his wife…
18. Please let us…for once. 19. Did you manage to make them…? 20. I distinctly saw
the boy…

MISPLACED WORDS
WRONG POSITION OF ADVERBS
 EXERCISE 84
Rewrite the following sentences, placing the adverbs or adverbial phrases in
the right position:
1. I can speak very well English. 2. I like very much music. 3. A beginner
cannot speak correctly English. 4. The teacher explained very well the problem.
5.The hunter shot with his gun a lion. 6. He put into his pecket the money. 7. He likes
very much wine. 8. He learns by heart the poem. 9. I received from my uncle a nice
present. 10. He shut quickly the book.

EXERCISE 85
Rewrite the following sentences, placing “only” in the right position:
1. We have only last one game. 2. He only was married yesterday. 3. I an
only left. 4. These people only seem to live for pleasure. 5. We only had one orange
between us. 6. She only wrote on one side of the paper. 7. The office is only open in
the morning. 8. John was only punished; the others were not. 9. I only have one
shilling left. 10. I only spoke to him once after that.
EXERCISE 86
Correct the following sentences, giving reasons for your corrections:
1. I always am on time. 2. It rains seldom in the desert. 3. We went yesterday
there. 4. I am not enough tall. 5. He begged the teacher to not push him. 6. I could
have not arrived sooner. 7. He will have not finished his work by tomorrow. 8. I prefer
usually coffe to tea. 9. They are leaving for London this evening at seven o’clock. 10.
John yesterday did not come to school. 11. We are working on our theses still. 12.
Yet they have not finished doing their homework. 13. I have told you a thousand
times not to do it already. 14. I shall believe never what they say. 15. He would have
always been an invalid, had he lived. 16. I have seen rarely a better one. 17. She
stays in bed frequently all morning. 18. Have ever you seen an octopus? I never
have. 19. I try generally to do as much work in the evening as possible. 20. He
comes sometimes to see me on Saturdays.

ADVERBS OFTEN CONFUSED

EXERCISE 87
 Give the correct adverb, “very” or “too”, in these sentences:
1. It is…cold today. 2. He is…old to work. 3. I can’t drink the milk; it’s…sweet.
4. Sugar is…sweet. 5. This hat is…small for me. 6. Eiffel Tower is…high. 7. The
aeroplane flies…fast. 8. My little brother is…young to go to school. 9. I felt…tired to
study. 10. He is…rich; he is a millionaire.

EXERCISE 88
Give the correct adverb, “very” or “much”, in these sentences:
1. I am…very sorry that you cannot come. 2. I was…pleased to weet him. 3.
She was…afraid of failing the English exam. 4. It was a…amusing game. 5. I feel…
tired. 6. He plays…better than his brother. 7. His composition is…worse than yours.
8. It is a…interesting book. 9. I was…interested to hear what he said. 10. We
are…astonished at the news.

EXERCISE 89
Give the correct adverb, “very much” or “too much”, in these sentences:
1. I like oranges… 2. Thank you… 3. I can’t study here; there is…noise. 4. Ten
shillings is…for that book. 5. He drank…and became sick. 6. I was…astonished to
hear of his coming. 7. She speaks…; she is a chatter box. 8. I am…obliged to you. 9.
She was…interested in the subject. 10. The helped us…

EXERCISE 90
Give the correct adverb, “hard” or “hardly”, in these sentences:
1. The man was hit very… 2. I…know how to thank you for your kindness. 3.
He has…recovered from his illness. 4. If you work…, perhaps you can succeed. 5.
Think…before you come to a decision. 6. He tried…but failed.

EXERCISE 91
Make six – to ten sentences of yours, using “ago”.

PREPOSITIONS
USING A WRONG PREPOSITION
 EXERCISE 92
Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions:
1. I am not pleased…him. 2. Cats are afraid…dogs. 3. Look…this new book.
4. We are proud…our country. 5. He feels ashamed…his low marks. 6. We
arrived…the station late. 7. She is very different…her sister. 8. Are you
satisfied…your bicycle. 9. I am not accustomed…life in a hotel. 10. Many people
complain…their low wages. 11. The judge suspected the witness…lying. 12. My
brother is interested…stamps. 13. The policeman took the lady…the arm. 14. A wise
man is careful…his money. 15. We should not spend our money…useless things. 16.
Divide the apple…three parts. 17. Examination papers are usually written…ink. 18.
He is angry…you. 19. I prefer honesty…deceit. 20. Travelling…ship or…train is for
more comfortable than traveling…horseback or…bicycle. 21. I am not
indifferent…your happiness. 22. They exchange cloth…rubber. 23. I shall be
dependent…my parents until I can earn my living. 24. This diary is not similar…the
one I bought last year. 29. I would not advise you to have confidence…him.

EXERCISE 93
Rewrite the following sentences, using the correct prepositions:
1. He was accused for lying. 2. I am surprised from the news. 3. I am
interested for fishing. 4. I believe to God. 5. Water is composed from oxygen and
hydrogen. 6 Are you sure for his honesty? 7. The cat was guilty for stealing meat. 8.
He was finally cured from the habit of drinking. 9. He is very good in English. 10.
When is he leaving to England? 11. Many birds live with seeds. 12. I cannot get rid
from this cold. 13. This cloth is superior from that. 14. Some people are yealous from
their friends. 15. We must get rid from these insects. 16. He grew tired from walking
and sat down to rest. 17. Can you translate this letter to English? 18. That depends
entirely from you. 19. She as dressed with a yellow dress. 20. Pupils who are weak at
lessons are often good in games. 21. He did his best to comply to the regulations. 22.
If you persist on doing that, I shall be angry against you. 23. This is much inferior
from the one I bought last week. 24. His composition was full with mistakes. 25.
Everything in the room was covered by dust.

EXERCISE 94
Write sentences, using the following words with suitable prepositions:
 aim boast insist marry deprive die
different fail recent succeed good interested
afraid used look satisfied pleased ashamed
depend prefer angry warn related insist

EXERCISE 95
Make sentences of your own, showing, clearly the difference between the
following:
1. Arrive at; arrive in. 2. Angry with; angry at. 3. Pleased with; pleased at. 4.
Look at; look for. 5. Write with; write in. 6. Divide in; divide into. 7. Die of; die from.
8. Disappointed in; disappointed of. 9. Sit at; sit on. 10. Tired of; tired with.

PREPOSITIONS OFTEN CONFUSED

EXERCISE 96
Use “to” or “at” in these sentences:
1. He goes…market every morning. 2. He stood…the window. 3. The boy
is…school. 4. I met him…the station. 5. I am going…a party to night. 6. I enyoyed
my self…the party. 7. The tourist stayed…the Palace Hotel. 8. After his illness, he
returned…his work. 9. I saw him…the cinema. 10. Please wait for me…the gate. 11.
I shall come…your house at four o’clock. 12. They ran…the accident, pushing him
against the wall as they passed. 13. Throw a stone…the fierce dog. 14. Throw a
ball…the children. 15. The train…Glasgow leaves in two minutes. 16. He aimed the
rifle straight…his enemy. 17. Just throw that book over…me, I want to look
something up. 18. Don’t laugh…me, I’m doing my best. 19. Just have a look…this, if
you please! 20. The “Mauritania” sails…New York this evening.

EXERCISE 97
Use “in” or “at” in these sentences:
1. There are high buildings…New York. 2. I live…a small village. 3. I spent my
childhood…Greece. 4. My friend was born…Ceylon. 5. He studied…Oxford. 6. She
lives…Luxor…Egypt. 7. It is more expensive living…London than…Brighton. 8. He
lives…Paris. 9. Diamands are found…Kimberley…South Africa. 10. He is staying…a
hotel…the middle of the city. 11. Youll find our house…the end of the next street. 12.
It is strictly for bidden to park…the middle of the street. 13. Why is it she prefers to
sit…at the back of the class? 14. They kept their radio…the corner of the room. 15.
There’s a ruined castle…the top of the hill and another…the valley. 16. She lives…a
little house near Manchester. He children prefer to live…the town itself. 17. The train
arrives…Waterloo at 6.30. 18. He was born…Yorkshire and still lives…Linton, the
village of his birth. 19. The runners were all lined up…the starting point. 20. She met
him…the front door.

EXERCISE 98
Use “in” or “into” in these sentences:
1. The fish swim…the river. 2. The man jumped…the river. 3. They were
standing…the room. 4. We are…the classroom now. 5. There is a bird…the cage. 6.
We walked…the next room. 7. The children are playing…the field. 8. He poured the
water…the Jug. 9. He dived…the water. 10. The river flows…the sea.

EXERCISE 99
Use “at”, “in”, or “on” in these sentences:
1. He was born…1964. 2…winter the weather is cold. 3….Chrismas Day I
received many gifts. 4. We reached Cairo…nine o’clock. 5. The train arrived…night.
6. There is a holiday…the. 11.th of December. 7. People return from their
work…noon. 8…July the weather is warm. 9….the afternoon I go for a walk. 10. The
train will arrive…Tuesday…eleven o’clock…in the morning. 11. The family are all
gathering again…Christmas. 12. I can’t tell you…the moment but if you will wait I’ll let
you know…a few minutes. 13. I’m sorry I can’t come as I have an
appointment…Thursday…2.30. 14. Everybody buys a new hat…Easter. 15. She
always goes to visit her old aunt…Saturdays.
EXERCISE 100
Use “beside” in “besides” in these sentences:
1. There is a road…the river. 2. He sat…me. 3. There was no one
there…John and me. 4. Come and sit…me. 5. Have you any other books…these? 6.
The mother sat…the sick child. 7….my mother tongs I can speak English and
French. 8. The cat lay…the fire. 9. Mrs. Smith is walking…Mr.Smith. 10. There are
many others…me.

EXERCISE 101
 Use “between” or “among” in these sentences:

1. The work was shared…all. 2. He divided the money…his three children. 3.

He hid…the trees. 4. The officer walked…the two lines of soldiers. 5…all those boys,
he had not a single friend. 6 There was a fight…the two friends. 7. The ball
passed…the goal-posts. 8. We are…friends. 9. His subject was “Life…the Eskimos”.
10. The cake was divided…the two boys.

EXERCISE 102
Use “between” or “among” in these sentences:
1. Life…the Arabs has been described by Doughty. 2. I was sitting…my two
sisters when the bell rang. 3. She divided the cake…her five children. 4. I can’t see
any difference…these two books. 5. We spent our last holidays…the mountains,
north of Lake Como. 6. She gave him a pound of apples but there wasn’t a good
one…them. 7. She hid…the bushes at the bottom of the garden. 8. I’ve invited
John…others. 9. War has just broken out…the two nerghbouring countries. 10. They
con never agree…themselves. I should punish both of then. 11. That family is always
quarrelling…themselves. 12. Confidentially and…ourselves, I can’t stand her. 13. The
railway line runs…the river and and the road.

EXERCISE 103
Choose the correct preposition from these in the brackets in the following
sentences:
1. He has been ill (from, since) last Friday. 2. You have sold you bicycle (at,
for) a good price. 3. I sold my bicycle (at, for) six pounds. 4. I expect to return (after,
in) a week. 5. I can wait (to, till) next Tuesday. 6. We draw lines (by, with) a ruler. 7.
He has been absent (since, for) a month. 8. They spoke (for, about) the weather. 9.
He worked (with, by) the light of a candle. 10. You can send the parcel (with, by)
post.

EXERCISE 104
Choose from among the following prepositions, that one that suits in the
following sentences: at, for, in, by, since, on, from.
 1. He has been waiting there…five o’clock. 2. It has been the same old story
ever…he was a little boy. 3. We have had no rain now…there months. 4. He still
comes to see me…time to time. 5. I wonder if you could get it done…tomorrow. 6.
She called the police immediately, but…the time they arrived the thief was miles
away. 7. The house should be finished…next month. 8. Wait a bit! He should be
here…a few minutes. 9. This contract expires…December 31.st.10…six years’time
he will be twenty-one. 11. It always gets cool here…the evening. 12. I expect him to
call me…any moment. 13. We are going to try to set off…daybreak. 14. He’ll be in
town…Monday till Saturday. 15. They come to visit us…time to time. 16.He has been
in hospital…three months. 17. He was in hospital…January until June.

EXERCISE 105
Write sentences of your own to show clearly the difference between the
following pairs of prepositions:
1. Beside; besides. 2. Between; among. 3. To; till. 4. In; into. 5. To; at. 6.
For; at (price). 7. With; by. 8. For; since. 9. For; about. 10. In; within.

OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS

EXERCISE 106
Supply the prepositions omitted in the following:
1. Somebody is knocking the door. 2. I am searching my last book. 3. He said
me, “I shall not come”. 4. He explained him the difficult Words. 5. She never listens
her mother. 6. I replied his letter at once. 7. Do you wish anything? 8. I am too busy, I
cannot wait you. 9. I asked his book. 10. She pointed the ship in the distance.

EXERCISE 107
Supply the missing prepositions:
1. You would be well advised to act…his instructions. 2. She accused her
servent…stealing. 3. Now do you account…this terrible state of affairs? 4. Set me
first acquaint you…the facts. 5. Teetotallers are people who abstain…alcohol. 6. I
have never believed…all their travellers’tales. 7. They quickly took revenge…those
who injured them. 8. The story of this book is based…the truth. 9. Who can I borrow
a pencil…? 10. He carries a gun to defend himself…unexpected attacks. 11. I’m
afraid I’m strongly prejudiced…him. 12. You can even insure…loss of income. 13. I
cannot get rid…this cough. 14. Poor old Mrs. Smith, she has suffered…rheumatism
for forty year. 15. You may reckon…my cooperation. 16. I like to indulge…a hot bath.
17. They failed…their attempt to reach the top. 18. She has been eliminated…the
tournment. 19. The prisoner had never been corrected…theft before. 20. We ought to
begin…the easiest exercise.

EXERCISE 108
Make sentences of you own, using suitable prepositions after the following:
1. Ask. 2. Explain. 3. Knock. 4. Listen. 5. Remind. 6. Say. 7. Search. 8.
Speak. 9. Wait. 10. Wish. 11. Go. 12. Talk. 13. See.

UNECESSARY PREPOSTIONS
EXERCISE 109
Use each of the following in a separate sentence:
1. Answer. 2. Attack. 3. Approoch. 4. Enter. 5. Obey. 6. Reach. 7.
Resemble. 8. Tell. 9. Behind. 10. Inside. 11. Outsid. 12. Around.

EXERCISE 110
Fill in the blanks with prepositions where necessary:
1. What are you thinking…? 2. Is there any difference…grass and hay? 3. Is
there a nice garden…their house? 4. Where did you get those apples…? 5. They had
an ice-cream in town…the match. 6. The boy jumped…the water. 7. They live…the
theatre. 8. She likes to read…the fire. 9. Mary comes to school…her friend. 10. He
likes to go…the cinema.

EXERCISE 111
Fill the blanks with prepositions where necessary:
1. Set us play outside…the house. 2. She is searching…her pencil. 3. I
wait…him half an hour. 4. We entered…the house by the bock door. 5. I taught my
dog to obey…me. 6. He entered…a long discussion. 7. Twinks resemble…each
other. 8. The poor always wish…riches. 9. I told…him the truth. 10. I promised to
write…my father.

EXERCISE 112
Add a preposition at the end of these sentences:
1. What is she looking…? 2. What is she laughing…? 3. Who were you
talking…? 4. Who are you writing…? 5. Where did you get…? 6. What station did you
start…? 7. Who are you waiting…? 8. What pen did you write…? 9. Who are you
staying…? 10. What did you cut it…?

CONJUNCTIONS

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
EXERCISE 113
Correct the following sentences, giving reasons for your corrections:
1. The book is neither green or red. 2. He cannot speak English and French. 3.
It casts two, three pounds. 4. He not only spoke loudly, but also clearly. 5. He ate and
the three orange. 6. I counted one hundred seven people. 7. She went to learn and
French. 8. He said that, “You will be sorry for it”. 9. I do not know if I shall be able to
go. 10. From now and on I will work hard.

CONFUSION OF PARTS OF SPEECH

EXERCISE 114
Fill each blank with the correct word: “as” or “like”:
1. Act…a gentleman. 2. He does…he pleases. 3. He behaved…a baby. 4.
She looks…her mother. 5. Do…he does. 6. Play the game…he does. 7. She
dances…a fairy. 8. You walk…he does. 9. He acted just…the rest. 10. He
speaks…an Englishman.

EXERCISE 115
Fill each blank with the correct word: “no” or “not”:
 1. I have…time for play. 2. She has…a good memory. 3. He had…reason to
be angry. 4. There is…enough furniture in this room. 5. Your plan is…different from
mine. 6. I had…patience with him. 7. There were…fewer than a thousand people. 8.
There is…furniture in this room. 9. He has…enough money. 10. I want…more, thank
you.

EXERCISE 116
Fill in the blanks with the correct word: “died” or “dead”:
1. Her grandfather is… 2. He…of fever. 3. The…cannot feel. 4. Her aunt is…;
she…many years ago. 5. The man…for his country. 6. The…horse is lying in the
field. 7. They…a cruel death. 8. The flowers have… 9. The soldier…from his
wounds. 10. The past is…

EXERCISE 117
Fill in each blank with the correct word “its” or “it’s”:
1. The bird has broken…wing. 2. I fear…going to rain. 3…almost mine
o’clock. 4. I think…yours. 5. The tree will soon lose… leaves. 6…time to go home. 7.
Every river has…source. 8….a long time until Christmas. 9. An animal will often die
for…young. 10….too late to go now.

EXERCISE 118
Fill each blank with the correct word “good” or “well”:
1. Mary did her work…2. She speak...English. 3. I did…in the examination. 4.
She looks…today. 5. It is…to be with friends. 6. He did…work. 7. He did not see… 8.
Has he done…in his lessons? 9. I am quite… 10. She speaks very…

EXERCISE 119
Fill each blank with the correct word “past” or “passed”:
1. The…month was rainy. 2. He…his entrance examination. 3. The
ball…between the goal-posts. 4. The bullet whistled…my ear. 5. Several months
have…since the year began. 6. Forget the…7. The aeroplane flew…8. It is
half…eight. 9. She…the salt to the guest. 10. The door was open when I walked…

EXERCISE 120
 Rewrite these sentences, choosing the right word between the brackets:
1. This thing (is, does) not worth more than a pound. 2. (After, then) he shut
the door and went to bed. 3. He (is, does) not able to speak English correctly. 4.
Don’t be (fool, foolish). 5. He is a (fool, foolish). 6. Flowers smell (sweet, sweetly). 7.
He is so proud that he does not greet (and, even) his friends. 8. The mother
(weighed, weighted) her baby. 9. I want to learn (and) other languages (too). 10. Is it
(truth, true)?
 Present Perfect Copiii tocmai s-au întors de la şcoală. Ei au luat deja masa de prânz,
dar nu şi-au făcut încă temele. Pe cine ai mai întâlnit la birou în ultima vreme? Ai citit articolul
din ziar despre greva de la CFR? Nu, nu l-am citit. Nu am mai mâncat o asemenea prăjitură
până acum. Ai văzut vreodată cum îşi fac rândunelele cuibul? Săptămâna asta am tradus mai
multe texte în limba engleză, de aceea nu am avut timp să ne vedem. Astăzi am muncit din
greu şi nu m-am odihnit nici măcar o oră după amiaza. V-aţi întâlnit recent, desigur, dar de-
abia astăzi aţi hotărât unde să vă petreceţi concediul. Cineva a stricat televizorul; nu se mai
vede nimic. A plouat; trotuarul este ud iar pomii şi florile din grădină s-au trezit la viaţă din nou.
Citesc de două ore şi nu pricep nimic. Fratele tău ascultă muzică de când a venit de la şcoală.
De când îl aştepţi pe unchiul tău? De douăzeci de minute, dar căteodată aştept şi câte o oră
până vine. De câtă vreme eşti în oraşul nostru? Sunt din februarie, dar am fost foarte ocupat
cu nişte probleme de familie. De aceea nu te-am căutat.
Past Perfect ( sau Past Tense? )Văzusem deja filmul până vineri. Petre nu-şi făcuse
lecţiile până la ora 11. Ei nu se hotărâseră încă ce să-şi cumpere când mi-am terminat eu
cumpărăturile. După ce au închis fereastra şi au verificat gazul şi robinetele din baie şi din
bucătărie, au încuiat casa şi au plecat în concediu. Numai după ce soţul ei a plecat la serviciu
şi-a adus aminte că a uitat să-i spună ceva important. A trecut mai mult de un an de când s-a
gândit prima oară la acest lucru. Aproximativ 10 oameni sosiseră deja când a intrat ea în sală.
De-abia a ajuns la uşă că şi-a adus aaminte despre carte. Nici nu a închis bine uşa că cineva
a sunat din nou. Cănd poliţia agăsit fetiţa, ea se plimba singură pe străzi de mai bine de o oră.
Când l-am întâlnit pe Fred, el îşi aştepta soţia de mai bine de o oră. Lucrau în laboratorul acela
de mai bine de două luni când au făcut descoperirea. Erau soţ şi soţie de doi ani când s-a
născut primul lor copil. Se holbau la noi ca şi cum n-ar fi auzit ce i-am întrebat.
Future in the Past Mi-a spus că se vor întâlni la Operă. Ne-a asigurat că ne va ajuta.
Ieri mi-a spus că va veni să ia prânzul cu noi, dar nu a apărut. Nu ţi-a spus cine va însoţi
echipa în turneu? Mama m-a întrebat dacă voi ajunge pe la florărie. Examinatorul a menţionat
că nu va corecta toate lucrările noastre prea curând. Nu am înţeles atunci că va veni şi
prietenul tău la petrecere. De ce nu le-ai explicat când vei putea să le dai înapoi împrumutul?
 CT / CD De-abia am ajuns în parc că a şi început să plouă. Cînd am intrat în clasă, cei
doi băieţi se uitau unul la celălalt şi râdeau. De îndată ce te va vedea, te va recunoaşte. Va şti
că eşti tu când va remarca gulerul alb de dantelă al rochiei tale. Când am auzit-o cântând, mi-
am dat seama că se simte mult mai bine. Numai după ce a primit mesajul tău a plecat de la
birou. Copilul nu s-a oprit din plâns când ne-a văzut venind. Imediat ce va deschide uşa, te va
observa. Nici nu am intrat bine în cameră că a şi cerut un pahar cu apă; cînd i-am adus apa, a
cerut şi o pastilă. Numai după ce a luat pastila a fost în stare să se liniştească şi să ne spună
că s-a speriat când cineva a încercat să intre în casă, nu cu mult timp înainte ca noi să ne
întoarcem de la muncă. Ştiu că se vor întâmpla multe cât timp voi fi plecat, dar te rog ai grijă
de copii şi nu lăsa câinele noaptea afară. Am aflat săptămâna trecută de la o vecină că tinerii
de la apartamentul 3 şi-au cumpărat mobilă. Am ştiut că nu mai fusese implicat în asemenea
afaceri înainte. Profesorul a menţionat că toate lucrările vor fi trecute în catalog, indiferent de
notă. Un bun prieten mi-a spus odată că femeile sunt vorbăreţe şi băgăcioase, dar nu l-am
crezut şi asta n-a fost bine. Voi şti cine va avea dreptate când voi verifica răspunsurile voastre.
Mama m-a întrebat cu cine am fost la petrecere, dacă m-am simţit bine, cine a mai venit şi
dacă o să mă mai întâlnesc cu băiatul pe care tocmai l-am cunoscut acolo. Nimeni nu mi-a
spus că lucrurile se vor îndrepta când voi renunţa la aceste proaste obiceiuri. L-am informat pe
şeful meu că voi pleca în vacanţă de îndată ce voi primi salariul. Vei veni la teatru când vei
primi invitaţiile de la mine? După ce vei afla adevărul, vei mai fi prietenul meu? Niciodată nu-l
mai văzusem în acel birou şi abia atunci am înţeles că el era directorul. Mary m-a anunţat că e
bolnavă şi că nu va putea să ne viziteze zilele acestea. El mi-a spus că e bătrân, dar nu a
auzit niciodată o voce atât de frumoasă ca a ei.
 "If" clauses: Dacă poliţistul nu îmi va arăta drumul către gară, nu voi ajunge acolo la
timp. Bunica mi-ar tricota un pulover nou dacă ar avea mai multă lână. Ce se va întâmpla
dacă nu ne va auzi nimeni? Dacă aş fi ştiut că ea este aici, aş fi venit mai devreme. Nu vei
învăţa engleza bine dacă nu vei merge în Anglia. Nu am putea trăi dacă nu ar fi plantele si
animalele. Nu aş fi dat examen dacă aş fi ştiut că este aşa de greu. Nu ştiu ce am fi făcut
dacă nu ar fi fost acel politist să ne ajute. Laptele va avea gust mai bun dacă vei adăuga în el
puţină miere. Dacă n-ar fi părinţii să ne educe, am fi cu siguranţă mai puţin civilizaţi . William
ar fi venit cu noi în excursie dacă n-ar fi fost aşa de ocupat. Ne-ar auzi vorbind dacă ar fi în
casă. Sunt sigur că băieţii ar intra în livadă dacă nu ar fi câinele acesta. Dacă aş fi în locul
tău, nu aş conta pe ajutorul lui. Ce ar fi spus părinţii tăi dacă te-ar fi întâlnit în oraş la braţul
unui tânăr? George ar fi cumpărat revista dacă ar fi găsit-o. Dacă el ar fi muncit mai mult, ar fi
putut să repare gardul până acum. Dacă n-ar fi zgomotul acesta, ne-am putea odihni. Du-te
mai des la bunici dacă stau singuri la ţară. Oamenii vor avea încredere în tine dacă te vei ţine
de cuvânt. Dacă nu mă găseşte acasă va reveni pe la nouă. Să fi şiut cine sună la uşă, nu
deschideam. Să fi avut timp, mă duceam de ieri la coafor. Dacă-l vedeam, îi spuneam să nu
se ducă la pationar. Dacă îţi luai un pulover, nu-ţi mai era frig acuma. Dacă-ţi alegeai un alt
model pentru rochie sau dacă cumpărai una de gata care să-ţi vină mai bine, poate că i-ai fi
plăcut mai mult. Dacă ştiam că nu mai vine cu trenul acela, nu-l mai aşteptam ieri degeaba
trei ore la gară. Dacă nu mi-ar fi fost teamă că va ploua, aş fi plecat mai târziu. Te-ai duce la
Paris dacă te-ar trimite el? Dacă m-aş duce acolo, ţi-aş aduce un cadou. Dacă aş avea mai
multe cărţi pe această temă, aş putea să nu mai merg la bibliotecă astăzi. Nu te-aş invita
dacă nu aş fi sigur că vei accepta invitaţia mea. Ar fi încântat dacă te-ar putea servi. Dacă
citeai cartea, sigur îţi aminteai de acest personaj. Dacă-mi aminteai la timp, mă duceam chiar
ieri acolo. Dacă nu ar fi fost atât de multe cuvinte necunoscute pe fiecare pagină, mi-ar fi
plăcut foarte mult să citesc romanul în original. Dacă ai fi vrut, ai fi putut să te duci până
acasă şi să aduci contractul. Ce am fi făcut dacă n-ai fi fost tu acolo? Dacă nu i s-ar fi părut
greu să muncească, nu ar fi renunţat la slujba pe care o avea la firmă. I-aş fi dat o lecţie să
mă ţină minte dacă aş fi fost acolo. Dacă vrei să ieşi la joacă, fă-ţi mai întâi temele. Dacă vei
merge la munte, fă o plimbare cu iubitul tău la lumina lunii. Dacă sună telefonul, să nu
răspunzi. Dacă ţi-ai terminat cumpărăturile hai să mergem la o cafea. Dacă ai intrat la
facultate, învaţă ca să nu ai surprize în sesiune. Dacă şi-ar fi repetat rolul, acum nu ar uita
fiecare replică. Să şi venit şi el cu noi la mare, nu ne-ar fi acum aşa de greu să montăm
cortul. Dacă vrei o schimbare, tunde-te. Dacă ar veni mai repede primăvara, am putea merge
la munte sau la pădure în weekend. Dacă ai fi văzut meciul, ai şti scorul final. Dacă nu s-ar fi
întîmplat cu adevărat, acum nu s-ar povesti

Wish, It's time, Would rather, as if / though, if only + Subjonctiv:

Aş vrea să fie vreme frumoasă de Paşte. Mama ar dori să mergem undeva la munte
şi să ne odihnim în acest weekend. Ana ar fi dorit să nu fi fost atât de ocupată
săptămâna trecută. Numai de-aş fi putut găsi cele mai bune cuvinte să-i spun cât de
rău îmi părea! Numai de nu s-ar opri motorul chiar în mijlocul pantei! A trecut o
săptămână de când ai primit veştile de la Angela; e timpul să-i răspunzi la scrisoare.
E ora nouă, aşa că e timpul ca cei mici să meargă la culcare. Este trecut de miezul
nopţii., aşa că era de mult timpul ca ei să fi ajuns la hotel. Numai dacă nu i-ar fi prins
noaptea pe drum, cu maşina aia care nu face decât necazuri! Este timpul să-ţi
cumperi alt palton; acesta este uzat. Ploua ca şi când ar fi fost potopul. Omul acesta
râde ca şi cum n-ar fi el de vină pentru tot ce s-a întâmplat. Mai degrabă m-aş duce
să văd un film decît să pierd timpul aşteptându-te. Mama ar prefera ca tu să nu mai
spui atâtea minciuni când este vorba despre prietenul tău. Directorul ar fi preferat ca
toţi funcţionarii să fi venit la lucru şi duminica. Aş prefera să nu te mai prefaci. E
timpul să te maturizezi, ai aproape 18 ani. Prietenul tău arăta ca şi când ar fi văzut o
fantomă. Mânca atâtea dulciuri ca şi cum n-ar fi fost bolnav de diabet. Citeşti pe
întuneric ca şi când nu ai avea lumină pe birou. Numai de nu ar fi greşit la testare! Aş
fi dorit să nu te lauzi cu acest lucru. Aş dori să fiu la mare acum.
Prezentul simplu (Simple Present Tense)
exprimă:
- o acţiune cu caracter general (prezent simplu generic)
- o acţiune cu caracter obişnuit, repetat (prezent simplu habitual)
- o acţiune cu caracter momentan, interesul vorbitorului concentrându-se asupra
acţiunii în sine pe care o exprimă verbul, şi nu asupra faptului că acţiunea are
loc în momentul vorbirii.(prezent simplu instantaneu)

Mod de conjugare: verb de conj. (inf.scurt )+ s/es (la pers. a III-a sg.) la afirmativ
Do (prez.) + sb. + Vb. de conj. (inf.scurt) la interogativ;
Sb + do (prez) + not + vb. de conj (inf. scurt) la negativ.
She works late at night. Does she work late at night? She does not work late at night.

P.S. Generic: apare în legi, definiţii, adevăruri generale:

Ex: The Moon spins round the Earth. Dogs bark. Children like sweets. Women are
talkative.

P.S. Habitual: verbul apare însoţit de adverbe de frecvenţă (always, often, usually,
frequently, seldom, rarely etc.) sau de locuţiuni adverbiale de frecvenţă (from time
to time, once in a fortnight, once in a blue moon, twice a month, every weekend,
every now and then, every meeting etc.)
Ex. They always play chess in the spare time. Usually, bakers make bread at night. I
go for a walk every evening.

P.S. Instantaneu: apare în demonstraţii practice: reţete, mod de utilizare, reparare,

administrare, preparare…:
Ex. We take a pot, put some water into it, add some coffee and sugar while the pot is
still on the fire and the coffee is ready.
- apare în exclamaţii de uimire, după verbe de mişcare:
Ex. Here comes the police. Winter arrives.
- apare în comentarii (sportive, diverse întâmplări care au loc chiar în momentul
vorbirii)
Ex. “A. Ilie passes the ball to Hagi and the latter scores.” “Look! The car runs into
the hedge!”

Conjugare proprie: Verbul To Be;

I am//You are//he/she/it is// we are//You are // They are//.
Am I ?//Are you?…
I am not//You are not…
To Have (dublă conjugare, cu sau fără To Do ca auxiliar)
I have//you have//she has…
Have I?//Do I have?…
I have not// I do not have…
Mod de ortografiere a formei de persoana a III - a sg.:
- adaugă “s” majoritatea verbelor: he works / plays / runs / stops / laughs…
- adaugă “es” verbele care se termină în : - ch/-tch/-sh/-ss/-zz/-x/-o: she teaches /
watches / washes / misses / buzzes / does / goes;
verbele care se termină în : -voc + y, = voc + y + s: plays / says…;
cons + y,= cons.+ i + es: cry: cries; fly: flies…

Valorile temporale ale prezentului simplu:

Prezentul simplu se poate utiliza cu valoare de prezent (vezi ex. anterioare), viitor (în
exprimarea datei sau a unor acţiuni planificate, sigure) sau trecut (în evocarea unor
personalităţi, evocări istorice etc.)
We go to the seaside next summer. Tomorrow is my birthday. Stephen the Great
wins the battle at Vaslui..

Se traduce prin prezent în română.

Prezentul continuu (Continuous Present Tense)

Exprimă o acţine care se desfăşoară în momentul vorbirii (now) sau într-o perioadă
mai mare de timp, care include momentul vorbirii (this week / weekend/ month /
year…)

Mod de conjugare: to be (prez) + (vb de conj. (inf.scurt) + ing)

I am writing a letter to my friends now. What are you doing at this moment?

Verbe durative: exprimă acţiuni care pot să dureze în timp: work / play / sleep /
draw…; acestea acceptă conjugare la formă continuă, indiferent de timpul la care sunt
utilizate; majoritatea verbelor sunt durative.

Verbe non-durative: exprimă acţiuni care durează foarte puţin în timp; acestea nu
acceptă conjugare la formă continuă, decât atunci când sunt utilizate cu sens
schimbat faţă de cel propriu: secundar, figurat, sau exprimă o exagerare, o
participare deosebită a subiectului la realizarea acţiunii pe care o exprimă verbul:
Ex. to die, start, begin, clap, knock, slip, fetch, catch…
The patient dies at 6 p.m. (înregistrarea unei acţiuni cu sens propriu)
Look! That little bird is dying! (emoţie puternică)
I’m dying after my pet. (sens figurat)
Tom knocks at the door now. (acţiune desfăşurată în mod normal, scurt)
Open the door! Somebody is knocking. (iritare pentru a exprima o acţiune
prelungită mai mult decât normal)
Alte categorii de verbe care nu acceptă în mod obişnuit formă continuă:
Verbe de percepţie: to see, to hear, to feel, to smell, to taste
I see a little dog in that garden. (sens propriu)
That woman is odd. She is seeing things. (sens figurat, exagerare)
I am seeing my friends every weekend. (sens secundar)
I see what you mean. (sens secundar, sinonim cu verbul de cunoaştere to understand)
The milk tastes great. (sens propriu, adevăr general)
I am tasting the soup to see if it is sour or not. (când percepţia se realizează în mod
voit, verbul se poate utiliza la formă continuă)
Roses smell nice. (sens propriu, adevăr general)
She is smelling the roses because she likes doing it. (percepţie voită)

Verbe de cunoaştere: to think, realize, understand, imagine, believe, consider,

suggest, know…
I think she is not quite right in the head. (sens propriu, efectuarea unei acţiuni
intelectuale)
Silence! She is thinking! (exagerare, iritare)
I am thinking at my best friend. (proces durativ de rememorare, participare afectivă
intensă)

Verbe de stare: a) stare existenţială: to be, live, exist…

b) stare emoţională: to love, hate, miss, like, dislike…
a) She is a teacher, but these days she is being a guide for some German tourists.
(starea normală se exprimă prin formă simplă, în timp ce starea excepţională,
desi mai scurtă temporal, se exprimă prin formă continuă).
b) I love modern music, but I dislike the house and rap music. Excepţie: She is
loving him more and more. I am still loving him.
Starea existenţială obişnuită, caracteristică a subiectului se exprimă prin forma
simplă a prezentului, în timp ce starea necaracteristică a subiectului se exprimă prin
formă continuă; like şi dislike nu apar niciodată la formă continuă.

Verbe de posesie: To have, to have got, to own, to possess.

- se utilizează la formă simplă când apar cu sens propriu (exprimă posesia): I
have / possess a house of my own.
- Have , când intră în expresii ca: have a headache / a bath / a shower / a meeting /
a party / breakfast…, poate fi utilizat la formă continuă, dacă este necesar:
I have breakfast at 7 every morning. I cannot answer the phone; I am having
breakfast.

Mod de ortografiere a formei în –ing:

Verbele care se termină în:
- (verbe mono- sau bisilabice) terminate în: 1 cons. precedată de 1 voc.
accentuată, dublează cons finală şi adaugă –ing: run: running; cut:cutting;
control: controlling…
- -e, elimină e final şi adaugă –ing: have: having; starve: starving…; exc. See:
seeing; dye: dyeing
- ie, transformă ie în y şi adaugă –ing: die: dying; lie: lying…
- voc / cons –y , voc / cons – y - ing: say:saying; cry: crying…

Valori temporale ale prezentului continuu:

Prezent (acţiune în desfăşurare): They are standing at the blackboard now.
Viitor: They are going to the theatre tomorrow.

Se traduce prin prezent în română.

Prezentul perfect simplu (Simple Present Perfect)

Este un timp de tranziţie între trecut şi prezent, o definiţie completă ar trebui să
enumere toate situaţiile de folosire a acestui timp, după cum urmează:

Prezentul perfect simplu exprimă:

a) o acţiune nelocalizată temporal

b) o acţiune încheiată cu puţin timp înaintea momentului vorbirii
c) o acţiune desfăşurată într-un interval de timp deschis
d) o acţiune care reprezintă un obicei sau o stare încă actuală a subiectului
e) o acţiune desfăşurată înaintea momentului vorbirii, care are efecte concrete,
vizibile în prezent.

Mod de conjugare: to have (prezent) + verb de conj. + (III / - ed)

Ex. She has worked a lot lately.
a) Have you read the book? I haven't. Have you met? Yes, we met a week ago.
b) The burglars have just entered the house. Have you already called for the police? I
have not managed to get through to their office yet.
c) You have worked a lot at the office lately / in the last time / this week.
d) I have always eaten an apple before going to sleep. You have never told a lie.
e) The cat has broken a vase; there is China everywhere.
Cazurile a-e se traduc prin perfect compus în română.

Prezentul perfect continuu (Continuous Present Perfect)

Exprimă o acţiune începută în trecut, care continuă în prezent, eventual în viitor. Se

foloseşte cu verbele care acceptă formă continuă;
Mod de conjugare:
Have (prezent) + be (III) + (verb de conj. (inf. scurt ) + ing)
Ex. How long have you been waiting for the bus? I have been waiting for twenty
minutes / since 5:30.
Excepţie: How long have you been in the laboratory? I have been here for 3 hours.
(verbele de stare, posesie, cunoaştere, percepţie se folosesc la formă simplă)
Se traduce în română prin prezent.

Trecutul simplu (Past Tense Simple)

Exprimă o acţiune desfăşurată într-o perioadă de timp trecută, încheiată.

Adverbe sau locuţiuni adverbiale specifice: yesterday, last week, last Monday, a
week ago, a month ago, in 1946, in January etc

Mod de conjugare: verb de conj (inf. scurt) + ed la toate pers, afirm. pentru verbele
regulate;
Interog.: do (past tense) + sb. + Verb de conj. (inf. scurt); neg. :do (past tense) +
not + verb de conj (inf. scurt)
La verbele neregulate, forma de trecut simplu este echivalentă cu coloana a doua
din tabel, pentru afimativ.

Situaţii de folosire:
Trecutul simplu se utilizează pentru a exprima:

- o acţiune trecută, încheiată la un moment dat în trecut, moment precizat în enunţ:

Ex. Last year he wrote a lot of articles on this theme. Did he come at the party a
week ago? He did not leave Bucharest in 1935.
Se traduce prin perfect compus în limba română.

- o acţiune reprezentând un obicei trecut al subiectului, fiind în acest caz utilizat în

variantă liberă (la alegere) cu: expresia “used to” ; sau “would + verb de conj (inf.
scurt)”:
Ex. As a child, he ate many junk food. (în acest caz, forma de Past Tense a verbului
de conjugat este sinonimă, ca sens, cu verbele modale used to sau would: He used to
eat junk food as a child. He would eat junk food as a child.)
Se traduce prin imperfect în limba română.

- o succesiune de acţiuni trecute, de obicei în naraţiuni, relatări, articole, biografii

etc.
Ex. “The old man entered the garden gate, walked to the front door, rang the bell
and waited for somebody to answer him. In the meantime, he sat down on the porch,
as he was exhausted, and put his dusty bag near him. As nobody answered him for
some time, he got up onto his feet and walked away, visibly sad and worried about
his fate in this world.”
Se traduce în română prin perfect simplu la pers a III a singular şi plural şi prin
perfect compus la celelalte persoane.

Trecutul continuu (Past Tense Continuous)

Exprimă o acţiune aflată în desfăşurare în trecut, fără a se preciza perioada în care

această acţiune are loc.

Mod de conjugare: to be (Past Tense) + (verb de conj (inf. scurt) + -ing) afirmativ;
to be (Past Tense) + sb + (verb de conj (inf. scurt) + -ing) interogativ;
to be (Past Tense) + not + (verb de conj (inf. scurt) +-ing) negativ;

Ex. The little boy was crying when his mother entered the room. While the girls
were preparing something to eat, the boys were cleaning the place for installing the
tent. They finished their job at the same time. Were they waiting for you?

Se traduce prin imperfect în limba română.

Nu se poate folosi cu verbe care nu acceptă formă continuuă. (non-durative,

percepţie, cunoaştere … cu sens propriu)

Trecutul perfect simplu (Past Perfect Simple)

Exprimă o acţiune trecută, încheiată înaintea altei acţiuni trecute sau a unui
moment trecut.
Mod de conjugare: have (past tense) + verb de conj (a III-a/ed) afirmativ; have (past
tense) + sb + verb de conj (a III-a/ed) interogativ; have + (past tense) + not + verb de
conj (a III-a/ed) negativ.

Ex. He went out only after he had finished his work at the office. (past perfect este
aici obligatoriu datorită prezenţei adv. only)
As soon as the lawyer ( had) realized that the woman was lying, he gave up her case.
(în acest caz, deşi ar fi necesară marcarea anteriorităţii prin past perfect, se poate
utiliza şi past tense simple, anterioritatea fiind cuprinsă ca sens în expresia “ as soon
as”/”after”.
Se traduce în limba română prin mai mult ca perfect sau chiar perfect compus.

Trecutul perfect continuu (Past Perfect Continuous)

Exprimă o acţiune începută în trecut, înaintea altei acţiuni trecute, acţiune aflată în
desfăşurare pe o perioadă definită de timp în momentul intersecţiei cu acţiunea
trecută.
Verbul este însoţit de expresii introduse prin: for…/ since…în afirmaţii/negaţii sau
how long, în întrebări.

Mod de conjugare: have (past tense) + be (III) + (verb de conj(inf. scurt) + –ing)
afirmativ; have (past tense) + sb + be (III) + (verb de conj(inf. scurt) + –ing)
interogativ; have (past tense) + not + be (III) + (verb de conj(inf. scurt) +–ing)
negativ.

Ex. Sarah had been writing on the computer for two hours when she realized that she
had missed some important paragraphs. How long had you been waiting when the
bus came?

Se traduce în limba română prin imperfect.

Viitorul simplu (Simple Future Tense)

Exprimă o acţiune ulterioară momentului vorbirii
Verbul poate fi însoţit de adverbe de timp care exprimă perioade de timp ulterioare:
tomorrow, next week, next weekend, next year…

Mod de conjugare: shall/will + verb de conj (inf. scurt) afirmativ; shall/will + sb +

verb de conj (inf. scurt) interogativ; shall/will + not + verb de conj (inf. scurt)
negativ.
Shall se foloseşte la persoana I singular şi plural; will se foloseşte la celelalte pers.,
singular şi plural.

Ex. She will come to visit us soon / next summer. He won’t say a word about it.
Se traduce prin viitor I în limba română.

Viitorul continuu (Continuous Future Tense)

Exprimă o acţiune ulterioară momentului vorbirii, aflată în desfăşurare în viitor.

Mod de conjugare: shall/will + be (inf. scurt) + (verb de conj ( inf. scurt) +–ing)
afirmativ; shall/will + sb + be (inf. scurt) + (verb de conj ( inf. scurt) +–ing)
interogativ; shall/will + be (inf. scurt) + (verb de conj ( inf. scurt)+ –ing) negativ.
Ex. She will be cleaning the house at this time tomorrow. What will you be doing at 3
o clock in the afternoon?
Se traduce prin viitor I în limba română.

Viitorul apropiat (The Near Future)

Exprimă o acţiune imediat următoare momentului vorbirii (prin formele de viitor

apropiat exprimate prin "to be about to" / "to be to", sau o intenţie (în cazul
viitorului apropiat exprimat prin "going to").
Mod de conjugare: to be (prezent) + about to / to / going to
Ex. She is going to write a letter to her sister. It' s about to rain. The train is to arrive
at the North Station.
Intenţia se exprimă cu predilecţie prin viitorul cu"going to" şi are un subiect
personal, traducându-se în română prin "a intenţiona să", " a avea de gând să",
"urmează să"; celelalte forme ("to be about to" şi "to be to") pot avea ca subiect şi
abstracţiuni sau obiecte, traducându-se prin: "a fi pe cale să", "a urma să", "cât pe
ce să".
"To be going to" poate să exprime şi predicţia ( The students are going to graduate
from the faculty in May.) sau acţiuni planificate ( My friend is going to buy a new car
next year.)
"To be to" poate să exprime şi un plan oficial sau un aranjament (The Prime Minister
is to arrive at the meeting at 6 o' clock.), voinţa unei persoane, care este diferită de
cea a vorbitorului (The latest news are to be given by our reporter.), datoria (What
exercises are we to do?) sau posibilitatea, probabilitatea ( Prices are to increase
sooner.)

Viitorul perfect simplu (The Future Perfect Simple)

Exprimă o acţiune care va fi terminată înaintea unui anumit moment sau a unei alte
acţiuni viitoare. De obicei apare însoţit de construcţii introduse prin by: by Monday,
by that time, by the end of…
Mod de conjugare: Shall / will + have (inf. sc.) + verb de conj.(part. trecut)
Ex. Mother will have finished the housework by the moment father comes back
home / by eleven o' clock.
Poate exprima şi posibilitatea sau presupunerea: If he has taken a taxi, he will have
arrived at the airport in time.
Se traduce prin viitor I sau II în limba română.

Viitorul perfect continuu (The Future Perfect Continuous)

Exprimă durata unei acţiuni până la un anumit moment din viitor.
Mod de conjugare: Shall / will + have (inf. sc.) +be (part. trecut) + verb de conj. (inf.
scurt + ing).
Ex. At 10 o' clock, my children will have been sleeping for two hours.
Se traduce prin viitor I în limba română.

Viitorul în trecut simplu (The Future-in-the Past Simple)

Exprimă o acţiune sau o stare ulterioară văzută dintr-o perspectivă trecută, adică
după un verb la Past Tense în propoziţia regentă. De obicei apare în relatări, în
vorbirea indirectă, deci în subordonate completive directe care prezintă verbul
dicendi la Past Tense.
Mod de conjugare: Should / would + verb de conjugat (inf. scurt)
They told me that she would visit us soon.
Se traduce prin viitor I în română.
Acest timp nu poate exista în afara contextului trecut creat de verbul care introduce
relatarea.

Viitorul în trecut continuu (The Future-in-the-Past Continuous)

Exprimă o acţiune în desfăşurare văzută din perspectiva unui punct de vedere
trecut, adică cerut de un verb la Past Tense în regentă:
Mod de conjugare: Should / would + be (inf. scurt) + verb de conjugat (inf. sc. + ing).
Mother told us that, in less than half an hour, our baby-brother would be sleeping
soundly.
Se traduce în română prin viitor I.
Nu poate exista decât în completive directe cu verbul dicendi la Past Tense.

Viitorul apropiat în trecut (The Near Future in the Past)

Exprimă o acţiune imediat următoare unui moment trecut. Poate exista şi în
propoziţii principale independente în care raportarea la momentul trecut este
implicită.
Mod de conjugare: to be (Past Tense) + going to / about to / to.
Ex. They were going to meet the delegation at the railway station.
She said that the Principal was about to leave the country for some time.
Se traduce prin expresiile semnalate la viitorul apropiat, al căror timp se va corela
cu axa trecutului, mai precis prin imperfect în limba română.
 MEN AND MACHINES AS SYSTEMS

The view of the business organization as a system is important to the application of

data-processing techniques to business activities. It relies on the wide acceptance of the
collective nature of technology. Great industrial and business organizations represent intricate
complexes of machines, communication, and men, collectively organized.
The business enterprise can be expressed in term of mathematical, mechanical, or
electrical analogs. These analogs, involving principles of feedback, statistical behavior, and
causative functions, often create the impression that high-and middle-level management
decisions and practices can be made automatic. However, in order to apply such techniques,
management work and communication should be expressed in precise functional terms.
With the acceptance of the mechanical and organic systems nature of business, there
naturally follows the creation of strategic planning functions.
Finally, if the enterprise is a system, it is not a system which exists in the vacuum. It
moves in relation-ship with other corporations and public institutions. This has led to the
actual exchange of information prepared by computers, such as social security and tax
information, exchange of technical information between manufacturer and seller, issuance of
statistical reports, etc. Indeed, a great deal of information of strategic and tactical value to the
enterprise exists, in the public domain available for purposes of planning.
The prediction of the future through strategic planning and competition with other
business operations work in relative harmony with the large labor organizations and
rationalized government operations to create the appearance of stability. One of the most
dramatic illustrations of this is the widespread acceptance that we can now depressions,
recessions, and inflation on the basis of “guidelines” and other fiscal and monetary policies.
To accept this view is to accept the notion of the society as a great engine which, if its
equations and transfer function are know, can be designed to operate smoothly in the future
on the basis of its recent past. It follows as a corollary that the specific business organizations
can be viewed as subsystems related to the larger laws of flow and change; laws, which
operate throughout the society and which are congruent to the principal criterion of welfare –
balanced growth and stability.

(adapted from: Studii şi cercetări de calcul economic şi cibernetică economică, 1983-1984)

 Traduceţi folosind verbe modale:
Aş încerca să rezolv singură acest exerciţiu, dar cred că nu mă voi putea descurca. Poţi
să pleci în străinătate dacă ai concediu şi dacă ai primit invitaţie. S-ar putea să iasă soarele, şi
atunci am putea merge la pescuit astăzi. S-ar cuveni să-l asculţi pe fratele tău. Nu se poate ca
ea să te fi înşelat. Trebuie să-ţi dai pantofii la reparat; nu poţi să-i foloseşti dacă tocul este
dezlipit. Ar fi trebuit să nu speli rufele astăzi; e sărbătoare. S-ar putea să vină şi alţi invitaţi la
petrecere. Trebuie să cumperi legume proaspete dacă vrei să mănânci salată la prânz. Nu vei
putea să patinezi dacă nu iei lecţii. Ştiam să merg pe bicicletă când eram copil. Ei n-ar fi trebuit
să plece atât de devreme la gară.Am provocat-o să alerge împreună cu mine vreo 3 km, dar
nu a putut rezista toată distanţa. Cum îndrăzneşti să te uiţi în ochii mei când ştii că m-ai minţit?
Nu era nevoie să fi cumpărat flori. Pot să îmi aprind o ţigară? Poţi, dar lasă-mă să deschid
fereastra ca să iasă fumul. Aş face clătite dacă aş avea lapte. Va trebui să expediezi pachetul
mâine. Se poate ca părinţii mei să ne viziteze săptămâna viitoare. Nu se poate ca cel mai bun
prieten al tău să te fi trădat. Deşi nu aud nimic, cred că e cineva la uşă; simt că cineva mă
pândeşte. Ce ai face dacă ai găsi o sumă mare de bani? Ai preda-o la poliţie sau ai păstra-
o?Trebuie să fi plecat cu mult înaintea noastră, din moment ce a ajuns deja la bibliotecă. Ar fi
trebuit să-ţi repari maşina; nu avem cu ce merge mâine la ţară. Pot să-ţi dau un sfat? Vei
putea să-mi dai sfaturi numai după ce îmi vei demonstra că ai înţeles ceva din propriile
greşeli.Aş putea să mă aşez lângă tine? Ai putea, dar n-ar trebui. Soţul meu este foarte gelos
şi s-ar putea să te ia la bătăie. Obişnuiam să merg mai des la munte când eram studentă.
Cum îndrăzneşte ea să spună astfel de lucruri, când ea însăşi se poartă urât şi nu ţine cont de
sentimentele celorlalţi? Se poate ca ea să fi pierdut banii şi acum ne minte, ca să nu o
păţească. Să trăieşti întru mulţi ani! Va trebui să fii mai atent când traversezi strada; nu voi
putea să te însoţesc mereu. Nu ar trebui să mănânci atât de mult; te-ai îngrăşat.Puteam să-l
vizitez când am ajuns la Braşov, dar nu am vrut să creadă că aş putea avea vreun interes şi
de aceea am preferat să nu o fac. Vrei să mă ajuţi să mut dulapul? Oamenii nu trebuie să
arunce hârtii în parc. Chiar trebuie să pleci? Aş putea să mai stau vreo zece minute. Nu se
poate ca el să fi cumpărat atât de multe case; nu este atât de bogat. Nu era nevoie să-I fi spus
asta; l-ai fi cruţat de o veste proastă şi oricum el n-ar fi putut face nimic. Vezi terenul acela? L-
am cumpărat să-mi construiesc o casă, dar mai întâi trebuie să-l curăţ şi abia apoi pot să
încep construcţia.
 INTEGRATIVE RESEARCH
ON POWER – LEADERSHIP CORRELATION
– PERFORMANCE IN ORGANIZATIONS
WITH IMPLICATIONS IN INCREASING COMPETITIVENESS THEREOF
 8/A3
The long-term development of the Romanian society, in the context of business
globalization, implies that the business environment develop on account of the performance
and competitiveness criteria. Therefore, obtaining the competitive advantage on the market
represents a key objective for the top management of the companies in Romania.
This project is meant to help the Romanain companies by carrying out a survey
offering a scientifically grounded model regarding the way the managers' use of power
techniques, stressing on the leadership styles, generates the compliance of the emploees in
order to obtain organizational performance. The organizational performance will be
approached from a multi-dimensional perspective, stressing on obtaining competitive
advantage and, on creating added value.
Metodologically, the project will comprise an exploratory research of qualitative type
and a primary research of causative type regarding the co-ordinates of the investigated
phenomenon: power– leadership – organizational performance. There will be carried out an
inquiry by undertaking a statistic survey on account of a set of questionnaires addressed to
the strategic and tactic leadership in organizations. There will also be taken into
consideration aspects concerning the organization culture and that of the Romanian society.
There will be identified the mechanisms connecting the managers' performance with the
power behaviour manifested within the organization. The resulting data will be processed by
at least two statistic methods and validation will be carried out by comparative analyzis, as
well.
The results of the research will be finalized in a guide of recommendations and good–
practice addressing to managers in order to adopt those power behaviours that generate
performance within organizations, premises for obtaining competitive advantage.
The project brings new knowledge on extremely complex social and economical
challenges that tax our society and opens new perspectives for applying innovative
management in Romanian companies, as well.

9.1.1.
The correlation between power and leadership must be carried out in the sense of
obtaining performance in organization, taking into consideration the characteristics of the
organizational culture for obtaining competitive advantage. Under the conditions of
increasing global competitivity, obtaining a competitive advantage became a key-term at
international and national level.
The Scientific Research in Romania
The Scientific Research in Romania started to focus on the competitiveness of
organizations by analyzing the economical factors to provide competitive advantage. In this
regard we mention the analyzis of the competitiveness degree on different regions of the
country, in the sense of the net income, labour productivity, rate of unemployment
("National Economy Competitiveness and Efficient Integration in European Union",
M.Vincze, 2003, EU Fifth Framework Research Programme).
In Romania, the scientific research in the sense of analyzing the social aspects with
impact on the organization performance, is just at its beginning. The results of the research
demonstrate that Romania has similar values to other countries in the Balkans; the great
distance from authority, low individualism, feminity, avoiding uncertainty and, short-term
orientation. These characteristics of our country exert major influences on the way the
managers, the emploees and, the organization in its whole, perceive the concept of
performance. For instance, in evaluating the individual performances, the accent lays on
harmony and good relations at work, which determine that the manager possess diplomacy
and personal credibility such as to implement a system of performance management.
The implications of the Romanian cultural dimensions on the power behaviors
developed by the manager are extremely important. Thus, the study establishes that the
Romanian employees present the complex of authority due to the difference between the
demonstrated behavior, of perceiving inequities and detachement from authority and the
hidden expectations of working in a consultative and participative environment. By using a
too authoritative style, the manager risks to remain alone, the emploees progresively
detaching from such a behavior.
Another national research trend in the field of evaluating performance was ellaborated
within the project EDUCAT – Developing of the Entrepreneurial Spirit and Education in
University, 2002-2005, Grant CNSIS, which identify managerial performance predictors,
building a profile of the enterprising manager. The project demonstrates that improving the
managerial performance in Romania is possible only by introducing, within the educational
system, of the enterprising education wherein the managerial-enterprising education side be
strongly anchored in reality such that to allow the developmwent of the initiative spirit,
assuming responsibility and vision on the company future.
 The managerial models used in the Romanian organizations are not sufficiently
adapted to the new tendencies identified within the modern management, due to
reconfiguration at global level the individual and organizational behaviors and, implicitely, to
the economic and social repositioning of Romania.
Romania's integration within the European structures implies that organizations
develop the intellectual capital in view of gaining competitive advantages. This can be
achieved only by a profound knowledge of the phenomena developing within the
organizations in our country. Thus, the research project aims to surpass the unidimensional
analyzis of the power phenomenon and approach the problems in an integrative manner,
from a multidimensional perspective. The research team aims to bring new knowledge in
the field of studying competitiveness, by modeling the complex correlations existing among
the power phenomenon, leadership and individual / organizational performance.
This situation determines us to develop a series of research activities such that a
scientifically grounded basis in this field exist in Romania, too.
The research concerning the management of the organization were focused on: the role
and the place of manager within the organization; the use of the concepts of ethics and
social responsibility in the business field; the implicastions of organizational culture within
individual performances; the use of new organizing forms ( for instance, laticeal organizing)
etc., with good results in conditions of the organization flexibility as about the requests of a
competitive market. The theoretical results of the research were materialized in clarifying
of conceptual nature elements, in a manner suited to modern management implementation
within the Romanina economic environment and, they were emphasized by e series of
works such as: "Modern Tendencies within the Management of Production Processes" - the
Engineering Universe review, "A Necessary Step towards the Market Economy: The
practical results are to be found within the research contracts signed with different
organizations of which we can mention: "Informatic system for Leadership", ” the
Management of the Environment Protection System", "The Risk Management within the
National Energetic System with applications at FE Constanta" etc, within the current
management activity of the Industrial Management Department and of the Management
Post-University Academic Studies School.
The research regarding the Human resources management were intended towards the
human resources performance, the career management, aspect regarding recruitment and
selecting human resources, motivation, etc.
The research in the domain of leadership are even more recent, the concept being
developed at national and international level in the last years and, they were concerned with
aspects of the leader profile vs. the manager within the organization, the specific methods of
working with employees, the team activity, etc.
 Protecting the Cultivated Fields
by Directing "Water"

Senior Lecturer Mariana BRAN,

Agro-Nourishment and Environmental Economy Faculty,
the Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest

Irrigation is necessary both in arid areas, and where the repartition of rainfalls does not
correspond to the needs of the cultivated plants.
Besides the economic importance, consisting in increasing the profitability of crops and the
degree of intensifying agriculture, irrigation has a phytotechnical importance as well, as it gives the
opportunity of controlling one of the vegetation and soil fertility factors, it allows the use in
agriculture of the arid areas where the limiting factor of production is represented by water,
enriches the temperature conditions for plants, offers the possibility of extending the breeds and
hybrids of great productivity, able to use agrofunds with large amounts of fertilizers, etc.
The irrigation methods are determined by environmental factors, the cultivated plants and the
financial and economical situation of the farm
On the field with a slope higher than 12 - 15 %, irrigation by surface leaking can contribute at
degrading soils by soil erosion.
Erosion is also favoured by the unproper leveling of the field, over-wetting the soil by applying
large norms of watering, the lack of experience person responsible with watering, especially when
estimating the non-erosioning flows and the lack of control when applying the waterings.
The data provided by the Romanian research prove that erosion reduces fertility of soils by
decreasing the content of humus, nitrogen and phosphorus and, the hydro-physical properties
worsen.
In order to prevent soil erosion produced by clod irrigation there must be executed, first of all,
the leveling of all fields, and the slope of the clods be established given the soil resistence at
erosion, the texture and the speed of water filtering into the soil, as well as the length of the clods.
Pay attention to the flow and the time of watering!
Watering by aspersion is applied on a field with an irregular micro-relief as well, without
leveling, with relatively high slopes, a low soil profile, the phreatic water at a low depth or liable to
saltings. The watering norms are reduced and the distribution of water is dosed. Together with
watering, there can be applied the fertilizers, phyto-sanitary treatments, etc., the costs for applying
said method are high.
 The effect of waterings on the soil properties. The influence of irrigations on the chemical
properties of soils manifest by modifying the chemical composition thereof, by the contribution in
soluble salts because, irrespective of their source, the irrigation waters comprise about 1,000 times
more salts than the meteoric waters; if, by irrigation, it is caused the raise of the mineralized
phreatic waters, the contribution in soluble salts is especially high, culminating with transforming
the non-salty soils into saltings and, whether the phreatic water are not mineralized, reduced
compounds of iron and manganese are formed, there take place gleisation of even swamping
processes, accompanied by chemical changes characteristic to said phenomena.
The excess water inserted by irrigation determines an increase in the soil hyumidity, therefore
it activate altering and, consequently, the formation of clay, sometimes forming dangerous
substances such as soda, hydrogen sulphurate, etc.; in other cases, irrigation, by intensifying the
soil percolation, it causes the useless leaching of the plant nutritive salts (especially on the soils
with percolative and periodic percolative hydric regime).
The sudden contact of the irrigation water with the structural units of dry soil surprises the air
inside thereof, comprisses it and, consequently, a real explosion of units takes place; at the same
time, a rapid gonflation takes place, which also contributes at dissolving the units.
During the irrigations by aspersion, the damage of the structure is due especially to the
kinetic effect of the water drops.
The damage in the structure leads to a decrease in the porosity (mainly the airing porosity),
the increase in cohesion, adherence, settlement and compacting, the increase of the resistance
when ploughing.
The irrational irrigation leads also to creating an excess of surface water and, therefore, to
the evolution of said soils in the sense of pseudo-gleisation. This can happen when irrigating
without draining some fields in humid areas with soils presenting a fine texture or a stressed
textural differentiation.
 RACE RELATIONS IN BRITAIN

Detached observers mostly agree that there is very real - and mounting - tension
between Britain’s white and colored inhabitants, particularly in working-class areas of major
cities where the various ethnic communities are pressed very closely together. And this
seemed to be borne out by events that occurred in early June after an 18 – year - old Asian
was stabbed * to death in a brawl * outside a pub in the London suburb of Southall, witch
harbors a large Asian community. Though the police insisted that the fight had no radical
overtones *, gangs of Asian youth from Southall next day went on the rampage*. Chanting*
“ We want blood, “ they battled with police, attacked cars driven by whites and beat up
several of their occupants.
Quite clearly, these attacks were in part an expression of the resentment that many
Asians feel over the treatment that they have received in Britain. “We are subject to racial
discrimination, crude and naked *,“ said Ajit Singh Rai, president of the Indian Workers’
Association, a voluntary welfare * and social group in Southall. “ We would never get a job
for daytime; always at night. There was no consideration for qualifications. The dirties jobs
we had to fill.”
In rebuttal *, many whites argue that, more and more, they feel like outsiders in their
own country. In Southall, half of whose 70.000 residents are Indian, shops and restaurants
catering * to Asian tasted have sprung up, cinemas show Indian screen hits like
“Darshaan,”and in the local pubs the predominant language is Punjabi, not English. Similarly,
in Dewsbury, a small West Yorkshire town of 60.000, white residents complain about the
fervently Pakistanis who have settled among them an whose segregated life-style is so greatly
different from their own. “We get children to school who have never mixed with white
children, who have never held a knife or fork and who habitually speak nothing but Urdu at
home,” complains a local schoolteacher.
Prejudice*: In significant – Though self contradictory – ways, economic
considerations also help to foster * the radical tension. White shopkeepers are resentful of
their increasingly numerous Sikh and Hindu competitors – who, they charge *, stay open
longer, give credit more easily and monopolize Indian customers. Among working-class
whites, by contrast, the popular prejudice is that black and Asian immigrants only come to
Britain to live off the welfare state *.
The realty would appear to be that the British economy today would be hard pressed to
operate without the immigrants. Half the doctors in Britain’s National Health * hospital and
many of the nurses are Asian; the nationalized railways system is heavily staffed by colored
workers, especially in the lower grades; and London’s public transportation system would
grind to a halt * if the colored drivers and conductors * should quit.
None of this, however, seems to ease the growing social strains*. Not long ago, one
Robert Relf, a member of an extreme rightwing organization called the National Front Party,
won national prominence by putting up a sign announcing that his house was for sale – but to
“an English family only. “ To reinforce the message, Relf wrote obscene letters to some of
his Asian neighbors – letters which ended: “Come back Hitler! All is forgotten.”

Newsweek, August 9, 1976 (abridget).

 1. Translate into Romanian:
As John was coming to the end of his course at the Academy of Economics, he
began to wonder what he would do after it was all over. During the weekends of the
summer term he would sit in his flat going through job columns of some newspapers
looking at all possible openings in industry and commerce. First, he might start
modestly as a trainee in management, then he might become an accountant.
2. Translate into English:
Ieri am aflat despre o nouă slujbă în domeniul managementului. Economia de piaţă
oferă multe oportunităţi investitorilor.
3. Turn into Passive Voice:
That kind woman took care of the sick boy. The boy has offered the girl some red
flowers. The postman is bringing me two letters. They considered that I was right.

1. Translate into Romanian:

As John was coming to the end of his course at the Academy of Economics, he
began to wonder what he would do after it was all over. During the weekends of the
summer term he would sit in his flat going through job columns of some newspapers
looking at all possible openings in industry and commerce. First, he might start
modestly as a trainee in management, then he might become an accountant.
2. Translate into English:
Ieri am aflat despre o nouă slujbă în domeniul managementului. Economia de piaţă
oferă multe oportunităţi investitorilor.
3. Turn into Passive Voice:
That kind woman took care of the sick boy. The boy has offered the girl some red
flowers. The postman is bringing me two letters. They considered that I was right.
Health represents a fundamental component in a social and economic macro-system. The state
of health and the life forecast of a nation population acknowledge a certain degree of
development mainly an economical one. The sanitary and medical services due to their
volume and quality, produce and promote economical and social effects in both areas:
sanitary environment and socio-economic scale system. No matter how great the efforts for a
state of good health would be, they are justified by social and economic effects with a
significant size. Therefore it is necessary and useful that a group of relevant indexes for
Romania be established, operating at the macro-system scale and compatible with the indexes
that are operational in the sanitary environment. In fact, by using such a modularization, the
feed-back between the two sectors of public health can be also revealed. In this regard, the
public health indexes, implicitly the economic and financial ones may be grouped in two
frames: indexes that operate at the macro-system scale and indexes that operate at the level of
the medical services base unit. The size of the economic effectiveness in the field of public
health must be treated in the whole complex character of the efforts for ensuring and
maintaining within the entire space of the society, targeting the entire population on age
groups, by making use of preventing, educational treating, recovery and recreational methods.
In view of logical and economical construction of approaching the economic and social
effectiveness, it is necessary to relatively delineate the two components, of the potential
beneficiaries of medical services, the active and non-active population, respectively. Social
and community general measures for preventing illness are converted in expense savings for
both potential patients and for the system in the society, in comparison with the cost of
treatment. The expense for preventing and promoting healthy behaviors are indisputably
smaller than those for treating. For the active population it is about the size of the volume and
quality of work resulted from a state of good health, of not becoming ill, volume and
productivity that are finally to be found in the achieved gross national product. In a way, this
is central axis of orientation for the process of allotting capital and conceptualizing the
relation cost-effectiveness, cost-advantages. In the entire world there was created a series of
institutions approaching health at national and international level (WHO) for a correct as a
whole considering thereof. At the level of the World Bank there is created a department that
deals with financing the sanitary sectors of different countries and which are in permanent
relationship with specialized institutions for studying effectiveness and efficiency in the field
of health in various countries from all continents. There are also higher education institutions
(in Canada, USA, Great Britain etc.) of post-graduate (IEC–France etc) that develop
educational and research modules in the field of sanitary system economy, as well as a vast
specialty literature.
The approach in the sense of social and economical effectiveness requires considering the
values of health and education, as essential vectors of developing the society and civilization.
The sphere of organizational- functional issues, with punctual objectives of effectiveness for
the system as a whole comes out for the economic and social impact. This implies a complex,
multi disciplinary understanding of the determining factors of effectiveness, which are not
limited to the financing system.
It is essential that policies and strategies in the field of public health identify the real priorities
for population, establish the instruments and specific programs and periodically evaluate the
impact of interventions, as well as the perception of population with respect thereof. At the
same time, the aimed actions and measures will lead to ensuring an increased economic
effectiveness at the level of suppliers of services and at the healthcare level.
 MODUL SUBJONCTIV ( THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD)
Exprimă o acţiune posibilă, dacă se referă la viitor, sau ireală, imposibilă, dacă
se referă la trecut.
Există două feluri de subjonctiv: sintetic şi analitic. Subjonctivul sintetic nu are
forme proprii, ci împrumută forme de la infinitiv, indicativ (past tense şi past perfect);
infinitivul scurt reprezintă forma de prezent pentru subjonctivul sintetic, past tense
reprezintă forma de trecut I, iar past perfect reprezintă forma de trecut II.
Subjonctivul sintetic trecut I se traduce în română prin condiţional optativ sau
conjunctiv prezent, în timp ce subjonctivul sintetic trecut II se traduce în română prin
condiţional optativ sau conjunctiv perfect. Subjonctivul analitic se desparte în
constituenţi analizabili care includ: shall, should, would, could, may sau might, cu
valorile de sens ale verbelor modale, însoţite de infinitivul prezent scurt sau
infinitivul perfect scurt al verbului de conjugat, rezultând un subjonctiv analitic
prezent şi, respectiv un subjonctiv analitic trecut. Aceste forme se traduc prin
condiţional optativ sau conjunctiv prezent, respectiv condiţional optativ sau conjunctiv
perfect în limba română. Shall apare în special în propoziţii principale interogative:
Shall I bring you a coffee?
Există restricţii de folosire în aceleaşi contexte a subjonctivului sintetic şi
analitic.
Mod de utilizare a celor două forme de subjonctiv:
Subjonctivul sintetic prezent exprimat prin infinitiv scurt apare în:
- urări, exclamaţii: So be it! Let it be! God save the Queen! God bless you!
- înjurături: Curse this rain! Damn you!
- expresii ca: It's time / It's high time, când acţiunea e încă posibilă, într-o
construcţie cu for-to infinitiv: It's time for you to go home.
- expresii ca: If need be…, Suffice it to say that…
- după expresii ca: I'd rather / sooner // had better, când subiectele în regentă şi
subordonată sunt comune: I'd rather stay at home than go there.
- după expresia if only: If only she help me finish my work! ( It's still possible). If
only they had helped me! (past regret, it's too late)
- în condiţionala de tip I: If this be true, we must go home.
- în subordonate de tip that clauses, când principala exprimă o dorinţă, o cerinţă, o
obligaţie, o necesitate:
1. subiective: It is necessary she stay in bed two weeks longer.
2. atributive: There is no reason that she arrive so late for the classes.
3. completive directe după verbe ca: suggest, order, demand, urge, recommend: She
insisted / suggested we pay a visit to her.
4. concesive: Though she be ill, she will not miss the show.

Subjonctivul sintetic trecut I / II apare în:

- completive directe, după wish: I wish I were / had been at the seaside.
- concesive: Though / even if she were ill, she wouldn't miss the show.
- condiţionale: If this were true, we would go there. If this had been true, we would
have gone there…
- circumstanţiale de mod comparative: You behave as if you were Jack of all trades.
You look as if you had seen a ghost.
- Subiective introduse de expresia it’s (high) time: It’s high time you went to the
dentist’s to fill your decays. (Past Tense pentru o acţiune care se desfăşoară încă
în timp util, dar la limită); It’s time you had gone to the dentist’s. (Past Perfect
pentru a exprima o acţiune nerealizată, care ar fi trebuit să fie efectuată deja –
timpul limită a trecut)
- În cazul expresiei would rather / sooner, had better care permite utilizarea
formelor de Past Tense (pentru o acţiune încă posibilă, deoarece se referă la
prezent) sau Past Perfect (pentru a exprima regretul faţă de neîndeplinirea
acţiunii, deoarece se referă la trecut), când subiectul expresiei este diferit de cel
al subordonatei pe care o introduce: I’d rather you came to the meeting today.
 I’d rather you had come to the meeting yesterday. I’d better you didn’t give up
school.
Nu apare în circumstanţiale de scop implicând un sens negativ, după: for fear / lest / in
case, circumstanţiale de timp, completive prepoziţionale (indirecte, cauzale), principale
independente sau care introduc condiţionale.

Subjonctivul analitic apare în:

- subiective: It is necessary that she should stay in bed longer.
- atributive: There is no reason that she should come back late.
- completive directe după verbe ca: suggest, order, demand, urge, recommend: She
insisted we should pay a visit to her…, sau după wish: I wish you could help me.
They wish we should visit them.
- concesive: Whatever you would do, I would help you. Whatever you might say, I
wouldn't change my mind.
- condiţionale: If she should come, what would you tell her? Should he come, ...?
- circumstanţiale de scop implicând un sens negativ, după: for fear / lest / in case: She
left for fear she could be seen.
- circumstanţiale de timp (rar): He was advised to keep a diet till he would feel
better.
- completive prepoziţionale (indirecte, cauzale): She was anxious that they should /
could see her dancing.
- principale independente sau care introduc condiţionale: Shall I help you? Next year
we might have a house of our own. I should go if I had time. Had I had money, I
would have bought the dictionary.

MODUL IMPERATIV
 Este modul care exprimă o comandă, un ordin, o invitaţie, etc. În engleză,
modul imperativ are forme pentru toate persoanele, singular şi plural.

Forma afirmativă:
Persoana I sing. Let + me + infinitiv scurt: Let me go!
Persoana a II-a sing. Infinitiv scurt: Go!
Persoana a III-a sing. Let + substantiv/pronume în acuzativ+ infinitiv scurt:
Let Jane / her go! Let Jack / him go! Let the cat / it go!
Persoana I pl. Let + us (Let’s) + infinitiv scurt: Let us / Let’s go!
Persoana a II-a pl. Infinitiv scurt: Go!
Persoana a III-a pl. Let + substantiv/pronume în acuzativ+ infinitiv scurt:
Let the children / them go!

Forma negativă:

Persoana I sing. a) Do not/ Don’t let + me + infinitiv scurt: Do not/Don’t let

me go!
b) Let + me +not + infinitiv scurt: Let me not go!
Persoana a II-a sing. Do not / don’t + infinitiv scurt: Do not / don’t go!
Persoana a III-a sing. a) Do not/ Don’t let + substantiv/pronume în acuzativ +
infinitiv scurt: Don’t let Jane / her go! Don’t let Jack / him
go! Don’t let the cat / it go!
b) Let + substantiv/pronume în acuzativ+not + infinitiv
scurt: Let Jane / her not go! Let Jack / him not go! Let the
cat / it not go!
Persoana I pl. a) Do not/ Don’t let + us + infinitiv scurt: Do not/Don’t let
us go!
b) Let + us (Let’s) + not + infinitiv scurt: Let us / Let’s not
go!
 Persoana a II-a pl. Do not / don’t + infinitiv scurt: Do not / don’t go!
Persoana a III-a pl. a) Do not/ Don’t let + substantiv/pronume în acuzativ +
infinitiv scurt: Don’t let the children / them go!
b) Let + substantiv/pronume în acuzativ+ not + infinitiv
scurt: Let the children / them not go!
Utilizări speciale:
Pentru emfază, exagerare, se poate folosi Do la pers. a II-a afirmativ: Do sit
down! Do come here!
O construcţie care foloseşte modul imperativ poate avea subiect atunci când
vrem să specificăm cine trebuie să efectueze comanda: You two come to the
blackboard! Come here, Jane! Someone give us a helping hand!
Just apare frecvent în construcţii imperative care se sfârşesc cu un tag (nu-i
aşa?) pentru a arăta că ceva este neobişnuit sau remarcabil: Just look at me, will
you? Let’s just watch the team playing, shall we?, dar şi fără tag: Just tell me the
truth!
Denum Prezentul simplu Prezentul Prezentul perfect Prezentul perfect Trecutul Trecutul Trecutul Trecutul
ire continuu simplu continuu simplu continuu perfect simplu perfect
continuu
Definiţ Exprimă o acţiune Exprimă o acţiune Exprimă o acţiune Exprimă o acţiune Exprimă o Exprimă o Exprimă o Exprimă o
ie cu caracter care se desfăşoară nelocalizată începută în trecut, acţiune acţiune aflată acţiune trecută, acţiune
general, o acţiune în momentul temporal, o acţiune care continuă în desfăşurată într- în încheiată începută
cu caracter vorbirii sau într-o încheiată cu puţin prezent, eventual o perioadă de desfăşurare înaintea altei în trecut,
obişnuit, repetat, o perioadă mai mare timp înaintea în viitor. timp trecută, în trecut, fără acţiuni trecute înaintea
acţiune cu caracter de timp, care momentului vorbirii, încheiată. a se preciza sau a unui alteri
momentan, include momentul o acţiune desfăşurată perioada în moment trecut. acţiuni
interesul vorbirii. într-un interval de care această trecute,
vorbitorului timp deschis, o acţiune are acţiune
concentrîndu-se acţiune care loc. aflată în
asupra acţiunii în reprezintă un obicei desfăşurar
sine pe care o sau o stare încă e pe o
exprimă verbul, şi actuală a subiectului, perioadă
nu asupra faptului o acţiune desfăşurată definită de
că acţiunea are loc înaintea momentului timp în
în momentul vorbirii, care are momentul
vorbirii. efecte concrete, intersecţie
vizibile în prezent i cu
acţiunea
trecută.
Conju
gare
Afirma Verb de To be To have Have (prez.)+be Vb.de To be Have Have
tiv conj.(inf.scurt)+s/e (prez.)+[vb.de (prez.)+vb.de (III)+[vb.de conj.(inf.scurt)+ (trecut)+[vb. (trecut)+vb.de (trecut)+b
s (la pers.a III-a conj.(inf.scurt)+in conj.+(III/-ed) conj.(inf.scurt)+in ed de conj.(aIII-a/ed) e
sg.) g] g] conj.(inf.scur (III)+[vb.
t)+ing] de
conj.(inf.s
curt)+ing]
Intero Do To be (prez) To have Have Do To be Have Have
gativ (prez.)+sb.+vb.de +sb+vb. de (prez.)+sb+vb.de (prez.)+sb+be (trecut)+sb.+vb. (trecut)+sb+[ (trecut)+sb.+vb. (trecut)+s
conj.(inf.scurt) conj(inf.scurt)+ing conj.+(III/-ed) (III)+[vb.de de vb.de de conj.(a III- b.+be
conj.(inf.scurt)+in conj.(inf.scurt) conj.(inf.scur a/ed) (III)+[vb.
g] t)+ing] de
conj.(inf.s
curt)+ing]
Negati Sb.+do To be To have Have Do To be Have Have
v (prez.)+not+vb.de (prez.)+not+[vb.de (prez.)+not+vb.de (prez.)+not+be (trecut)+not+vb (trecut)+not+ (trecut)+not+vb (trecut)+n
conj.(inf.scurt) conj.(inf.scurt)+in conj.+(III/-ed) (III)+[vb.de .de [vb.de .de conj.(a III- ot+be
g] conj.(inf.scurt)+in conj.(inf.scurt) conj.(inf.scur a/ed) (III)+[vb.
g] t)+ing] de
conj.(inf.s
curt)+ing]
Adver Every day, always, Now, at this Just, already, yet, How long, since Yesterday, last Yesyerday, Just, already, How long,
be never, often, moment, this always, often, never, when; year/week; a at that time, yet, after; since
specifi usually, week, this month, this week/ month… for..., since... month/a then. hardly, no when,
ce Frequently, this weekend… Lately, recently century ago, in sooner, barely, for...,
seldom, 2002, in scarcely. since...
Once a January.
day/month…
Exemp Children like I am writing a She has worked a lot How long have He visited The little boy He went out Sarah had
lu sweets. letter to my friends lately. you been waiting London last was crying only after he been
We make coffe now. for the bus? year. when his had finished writing
everyday. As a child, he mother his work at the on the
She always drinks ran every day. entered the office. computer
tea in the morning. room Hardly had he for two
finished his tea hours
when his when she
mother called realized
him in the that she
garden. had
missed
some
important
paragraph
s.
Tradu Prezent Prezent Perfect compus Prezent Perf.compus, Imperfect Perf. compus, Imperfect
cere în imperfect. mai mult ca
român perfect
ă
 Subordonata temporală
Principala regentă Subordonata circumstanţială de timp
Prezent, viitor sau imperativ Prezent (pentru a exprima un raport de
simultaneitate)
The manager tells us more about the project when he has the results of the test.
will tell he finds a new building site.
Tell us when you learn more about it.
Prezent perfect (pentru a exprima un raport de
anterioritate)
They come home as soon as/only after they have bought everything
will come on the list.
Go home as soon as you have bought everything on the
list.
Past Tense Past Tense (pentru a exprima un raport de
simultaneitate)
He returned to the office when the manager called him.
the lunch break was over.
Past Perfect (pentru a exprima un raport de
anterioritate)
She went on a vacation as soon as / after she (had)*received the consent
of her boss.
only after she had finished her work at the office.
• Într-o subordonată temporală introdusă de as soon as sau after, după un verb la Past
Tense în regentă, se poate păstra şi Past Tense, raportul de anterioritate faţă de acţiunea
din regentă se menţine la nivelul conjuncţiei sau locuţiunii conjunctivale subordonatoare
precum after sau as soon as. Acest lucru se petrece frecvent în exprimarea orală, unde
regulile de concordanţă sunt mai puţin stricte. La fel se întâmplă şi în cazul în care ne
situăm pe axa prezentului, unde faţă de un verb la Prezent în regentă, se poate păstra şi
Prezentul, raportul de anterioritate faţă de acţiunea din regentă menţinându-se la nivelul
conjuncţiei sau locuţiunii conjunctivale subordonatoare precum after sau as soon as,
îndeosebi în limba vorbită. He comes as soon as he finds the key to the door.
• When poate introduce şi un raport de anterioritate, când este utilizat cu sensul de
after / as soon as: He gets paid when he has finished his job here. (pe axa prezentului
apare Present Perfect)
He got paid when he had finished his work there. (pe axa trecutului apare Past
Perfect)
 COLD

Cold weather has a great effect on how our minds and our bodies work. Maybe that is
why there are so many expressions that use the word cold. For centuries, the body's blood
has been linked closely with the emotions. People who show no human emotions or feelings,
for instance, are said to be "cold blooded". "Cold blooded" people act in cruel ways. They
may do brutal things to others, and not by accident.
For example, a newspaper says that the police are searching for a "cold-blooded" killer.
The killer murdered someone, not in self-defense, or because he was reacting to anger or
fear. He seemed to kill for no reason, and with no emotion, as if taking someone's life meant
nothing.
Cold can affect other parts of the body. The feet, for example. Heavy socks can warm
your feet, if they are really cold. But there is an expression, "to get cold feet", that has nothing
to do with cold or with your feet.
The expression "to get cold feet" means being afraid to do something you had decided
to do. Let's say you agree to be the president of an organization. But then you learn that all
the other officers have resigned. All the work of the organization will be your responsibility.
You are likely to get "cold feet" about being president when you understand the situation.
Cold can also affect your shoulder. You give someone a "cold shoulder" when you
refuse to speak to them. You treat them in a distant, cold way. The phrase probably comes
from the physical act of turning your back toward someone instead of speaking to him face to
face. You may give a cold shoulder to a friend who has not kept a promise he made to you.
Or to someone who has lied about you to others.
A "cold fish" is not a fish. It is a person. But it is a person who is unfriendly, unemotional
and shows no love or warmth. A cold fish does not offer much of himself to anyone.
Someone who is a cold fish could be "cold-hearted". A cold hearted person is someone
who has no sympathy. Several popular songs in recent years were about cold hearted men
or women who, without feeling, broke the hearts of their lovers.
"Out in the cold" is another phrase which is often heard. It means not getting something
that everybody else got. A person might say that everybody but him got a pay raise, that he
was left out in the cold. It is not a pleasant place to be, and we all experienced at least once
this kind of a situation.
 By the Book

The expression "by the book" means following rules or orders exactly as they are
written. Someone who does something "by the book" uses no creativity or imagination to
bend the rules. Instead, he or she demands that laws or rules be followed exactly.
A sergeant in the army for example may order a soldier to arrange flags for a special
ceremony. The sergeant says, "do it by the book". He expects the soldier to arrange the flags
as the rules say they must be arranged. The soldier must do it by the book.
A judge is another person who may use the expression "by the book". After the judge or
the jury decides that someone is guilty of a crime, the judge must sentence the criminal. The
criminal may beg for mercy. The criminal's lawyer may ask for special consideration. But the
judge may refuse. He may follow the law exactly and sentence the criminal to a long time in
prison. If he does this, the judge is "going by the book".
People use the expression "by the book" in a general way to describe anyone who is
exact in following orders. However, "going by the book" also can mean getting and following
ideas from a book.
One of the best examples of this is the cookbook. Every year, Americans buy millions
of cookbooks, read them, and follow the written directions for cooking with them. They go by
the book.
Another popular kind of book is the "how-to" book. This explains how to do something:
fix a car, build a room for a house, or plant vegetables in a home garden. Of course, not
every person who reads these books will follow the directions just as they are written. A man
may have his own ideas about the best way to fix a broken door. And a woman who cooks for
her family every day may change the directions that she finds in a cookbook. These people
do not "go by the book". They use their own ideas and imagination.

Preparing for School

Suddenly the summer is over. Jenny comes into my room early one morning to drag the
sheets off my bed and all the clothes she can find in the room. Everything has to be washed
before I go to school. Then she gets me to clean out my room, all the old comics and plates
and cups which I have been collecting under my bed all summer, all dust and the pots of
paint I've been using on my boat.
 Jenny finds a small table in the garage and I help her carry it into my room. It's going to
be my desk for doing my homework on. Then she takes me into the village for a treat, and
she won't tell me what it is. When we get there it turns out to be a haircut. I'm about to walk
away when she puts her hand on my shoulder. "Don’t be silly," she says. "You can't go to
school looking like that, you won't last a day."
So I sit still for the barber and let him cut away my whole summer pride, while Jenny
sits behind me, laughing at me. He also bought me a school uniform, a red blazer and a cap,
two pairs of black leather shoes and five grey shirts. That evening she empties my drawers of
my rock collection to make room for the new clothes, and she gets me to put on the whole
uniform.

A Funny Story

"What's going on?" I wondered as I came round the corner and saw a huge crowd
gathered in the middle of the usually quiet street. Two fire engines were parked outside my
block of flats.
At first I noticed that their ladders were raised as far as the third floor, just below my
flat. While I was rushing towards the building, I became aware of the large group of by-
standers and some fire fighters standing around the entrance.
As soon as I came close to my building, some people recognized me. After they
greeted me, I asked what was happening. They told me that the flat below me had caught
fire, but they had managed to put it out. As I was going into the building, a man carrying a
large television set stopped me. "Hi, Paul, " he said. "Could you give me a hand loading this
into my van over there?"
While I was helping the man who greeted me to carry the TV-set to his van, I
wondered who he was, but then I realised that he must have recognized me from the TV.
"Thanks, Paul," he said. "I'd really love to get your autograph but I'm in a real hurry. See
you," the man said and drove off. Smiling, I entered the building and headed for my flat.
When I reached it I saw the door was open and my television was missing. I had just
hepled a burglar to steal my own television set!

The House of My Childhood

 It has been twenty years since I last visited the house where I spent my childhood. I
don’t know why I wanted to see the place again, as I'm not by nature a nostalgic person.
I had only happy memories of the house, with its large back garden where I used to
climb the apple trees as a child. So, one bright clear Sunday, I decided to revisit it. I filled the
car with petrol and set off on the 100-mile trip.
I don't know what I expected. The house looked very much the same as I remembered
it, but smaller. No one lived in it anymore and the garden was overgrown. The apple trees I
used to climb were still there, but seemed small and bent like old men. And suddenly I
experienced a strange feeling of loss, for all that I had once and now is gone, for the
moments of both joy and sorrow that I lived there in my childhood.
I remembered the colours of the surrounding places very well, even the smell of
freshly cut grass, of the animals the neighbours used to have. I found the tree where I had a
little house built on the top branches; the house was no longer there anymore and the tree
had been split into two during a summer storm.
Memories are still vivid but the place was less beautiful than what I knew it had been
when I was a child.

What a Holiday!

So, it's the end of the holiday once again and here we are back at school. I must admit, I
normally enjoy the school holidays, but I really wish I didn’t have to spend them with my
parents. They don’t have very modern ideas. In fact, they are really behind of times, because
every year we go to a boring hotel at the seaside and spend a boring holiday lying in the
sun like snakes.
An adventure holiday! What a great idea! Yet, the disappointments began as soon as
we got in the car. My father told me that we would not be camping in the woods, but at a
normal campsite. Somehow, that didn’t seem the same. Then we came to the campsite and I
was even more disappointed. Everything was so modern… and clean. And there were so
many tents that it was impossible to have a campfire.
After we had unpacked the tent and put it up, I was amazed to find that it was more like
a hotel than a tent. Then my dad installed a fridge, a television, a transistor radio and… real
beds. I asked my mother if I could sleep on the floor, but she said no. I began to realise that
my idea of adventure was very different from my parents' idea of adventure.
 That afternoon, my father and I packed our fishing rods and walked 8 kilometres to the
nearest lake. When we arrived, however, we discovered that it was so dirty that no fish could
possibly survive in it. My father was unhappy and we had to go shopping for food. That night
it was impossible to sleep because the people in the next tent had the transistor radio on very
loud until the small hours. What a holiday!

Baden Baden
The famous Black forest and the picturesque town of Baden Baden are in south-
western Germany. I went there recently in search of a peaceful, relaxing holiday and I
certainly wasn’t disappointed.
The town is surrounded by marvelous scenery, clear lakes and tall mountains. The
weather during my last visit was so cool and cloudy that it created a wonderfully mysterious
atmosphere.
There are plenty of places to visit, including the town's delightful 15th century palace and
the Roman baths. I also explored the shady Black Forest where all I could hear was the
gentle sound of flowing streams and the leafy trees singing with the wind.
The food was excellent. I tried several tasty local dishes. I also bought some cockoo
clocks as souvenirs, to remind me of the holiday I took in Baden Baden.
The Baden Baden fair was such an attractive place that I could spend a whole day
there. It was a lively place and I went there every day. The museum was so amazing that it
was fun for the whole family since each of us found a lot of interesting things to see.
I had the holiday of a lifetime in Baden Baden. With its friendly people, and fantastic
natural surroundings, I would certainly recommend it to anyone.

June has her own ideas for wanting Kelly, her daughter, to become a skating star. "I
started skating when I was ten, " June said. "I saved all the money I could for lessons by
doing errands for neighbours. But Mum and Dad were poor and when Mum saved money to
buy me boots, Dad said it was too much. I never skated again and I don’t want to let this
happen to Kelly, too. "
Kelly's parents had to take her out of school to be able to practise skating more. They
had to pay a private tutor to give lessons to their daughter and finish her studies. Kelly, now
17, was placed first in the last year's junior championship and has won nearly 30
competitions so far. "I know I'm lucky, " she admits. "Mum and Dad have given up their own
lives just for me and I'm determined not to let them down".
 Commercial fishing has been carried out since the Middle Ages. Before that it was
impossible to keep fish for long periods, but the development of storage methods such as
drying and salting made it possible for fishermen to go on longer fishing trips. They were,
however, unable to keep fish for a long time. All changed as a result of the new technological
advances in refrigeration in the 20th century.
The new technological advances in refrigeration in the 20th century changed the
situation. The coastal waters of Africa and the Mediterranean were full of Northern European
fishing boats. The scientific discoveries made during the Second World War were used for
discovering large groups of fish and improved the activity in this field. It is no longer a
problem to catch fish when you can freeze them and keep for quite a long time.

What is the point of sport? Should we force children to do sport at school? Should the
government spend more on sport? Is a famous football player broken leg a matter of
importance? The answer to the initial question is not easy to find. First we have to decide
why we do sport. Fitness is the one benefit on which most people agree. Healthy people are
happier and more capable of looking after themselves.
Children who take plenty of exercise are more likely to become healthy adults. In team
sports people are taught to work together. Sport helps to make society safer by teaching
people to obey rules. It also prepares them for success at work, where it is necessary to co-
operate. Children, therefore, should be taught to co-operate rather than compete. They
should not have to compare themselves to others at school or on the sports field.

Teenagers do not spend as much money as their parents suspect. Worry about debt is
increasing among teenagers and, therefore, most of them make an effort to save for the
future. Greater access to cash among teenagers does not mean that they are irresponsible
as a result. Instead of wasting their pocket money on sweets or magazines, they save more
than half of their cash.

In the past, any mother would have been proud if their children had been round and a
little fat. Those days are gone. Researchers have come to the conclusion that too much fat
and sugar in children's diets are a major factor in the development of heart diseases and
other illnesses when they are older. However, children need to eat a wide range of foods and
their general health could be in danger if some of the substances in food are cut down.
 Eating too much fats and sweets can be very dangerous. Psychologists say that the
solution is not to change eating habits too fast, but to do it carefully. Parents should present
food a little differently, spread butter thinly and avoid putting sugar on the table.
A healthy life starts from early childhood. So, children should also be encouraged to
take part in sports: in this way, they will be using the calories they have eaten.

Leaving behind friends and family, many young people leave their hometown to search
for work in the big city. But the dream of a new life often turns to be a nightmare, jobs are
difficult to find and friends are scarce when your luck runs out. Thousands of teenagers end
up living in cheap hostels or empty, almost ruined buildings, without permission or paying
rent.
Sometimes teenagers looking for jobs in big cities are lucky. Those who are lucky
enough to find work will probably labour long hours for low wages. The work is often
physically tiring and may even be dangerous. In addition to the problems of employment and
accomodation, many young people experience loneliness in the anonymity of the city.

There are many problems which threaten our natural environment. Acid rain, global
warming, air and water pollution are among the most serious ones. There are several ways
to help improve the situation. First, we should encourage recycling because it is the
production of new materials that causes the most damage. We must learn to reuse things like
plastic bags, bottles and glass jars. And more than that.

There are many things to be done in order to avoid polluting the environment. Driving
an environmentally friendly car is helpful. Furthermore, joining an organisation which plants
trees would be a proof that you are really concerned about our world. Supporting groups like
Greenpeace would also help to ensure that our planet will be clean and safe for future
generations.

The Internet has changed communication, as we know. From education to

advertisment, this new technological advance has affected practically every aspect of our
lives. Magazines, newspapers, and even books are "on-line" and can be read on the
computer. You can find information on any topic - the possibilities are endless. The Internet
can also instantly connect you to other computers, allowing to "chat" with people all over the
world.
 In the past few years a lot of small shops have been forced to close down because of
the changes in public shopping habits and the increasing popularity of supermarkets. We
cannot deny that supermarkets do have certain advantages. Firstly, they offer a wide variety
of goods at low prices. Then they create jobs for a great number of people, thus helping to
reduce unemployment.
Supermarkets are ideal for those shoppers who do not have time to visit more than
one shop in order to do their weekly shopping. And yet, small local shops offer certain
benefits that supermarkets will never be able to do. Small shops are ideal for emergency
shopping, generally stay open later than supermarkets and offer friendly service. In
conclusion, it is really time we really started to make an effort to save our small shops before
it's too late.

Sending one's children to a boarding school used to be the most acceptable way of
educating them, but over the past few years people's opinions have begun to change.
Contrary to what most people believe, however, sending one's children away to school can
be extremely beneficial for them in later life. To begin with, children who go to a boarding
school learn at a young age to become independent and to live without their parents.
Children who go to a boarding school are better prepared to live on their own when the
time comes for them to go to university or start work after leaving school. In addition, a
boarding school teaches young people how to get along better with others, since they live
with their classmates 24 hours a day. Some people argue that boarding school are bad as
children need to spend time with their parents on a daily basis. Younger children may feel
that their parents have abandoned them by sending them away.
 The House of Tomorrow
Just imagine a house which cleaned itself, where robots prepared the meals, where
dusting, ironing, vacuuming were things of the past. Imagine a house heated and powered
by the energy equivalent to just one gas cooker ring, a house in which you can actually go
skiing… Science fiction? Science fact!
The house of the future will be built indoors, for a start. Small groups of houses will
nestle under gigantic glass domes. Tropical birds may fly across the roof-tops in the
constant computer-controlled warmth. The house itself will be any style or size you fancy.
Being indoors, it will need a tiny amount of energy to heat. Much power will come from solar
panels in the dome - the round roof.
Forget front door keys. Your door will be opened as soon as it hears a voice it
recognizes. Your home computer will oversee security. This discreet electronic servant will
control everything, from temperature, humidity and lighting to household and cleaning. He'll
pay bills and order food, making sure it's delivered to your door. He'll book your holidays,
order library books, even help you with the crossword!
Having a party? Make the living room larger by moving the walls. After your guests
leave, make it smaller again. Push a button and the walls will move backwards or forwards.
You'll be able to see what your guests are wearing before they arrive by calling them up on
a video-phone in the hall. Isn't it amazing? All the gossip will vanish and you will be able to
look as gorgeous as your friends.
The washing? Simply place it in the integrated laundry machine until it comes out
ready to wear, thanks to the new, easy-care fabrics. What? No electric sockets? Instead,
each room will have a power wall where you will be able to attach electric appliances. Gone
too will be the good old-fashioned duster - the air will be filtered and then scented with your
favourite perfumes.
There will be plenty of room for fun! The leisure room door will be the entrance to a
world full of endless adventure. When you get bored, simulators will provide you any
experience, from canoeing to parachutting and skiing. The garden of your house will be
huge. Roofs will be made of glass and this will allow flower borders and lawns to grow well
in the wasted space we usually use for rubbish. Love them or hate them, such homes of the
future are on their way.
A Skinflint
 When she died she lived in a six-bedroom home for fourteen years, and dressed in
second-hand clothes. She only went out twice a day - early in the morning, to look for useful
things on the beach to take home and then for a session on the fruit machines later on.
Among the rubbish found in her house after her death were her diaries. She had written
down every penny she spent and anything she won on the fruit machine.
Grocer, George Bumstead, 70, says: "Every Monday she used to come into my shop
and buy her weekly order of six eggs, seven bananas, and seven pounds of potatoes. The
order never changed and all she had to cook was an old gas cooker with two rings - the
oven never worked." The irony of the story is that this eccentric old lady who used to love
watching American soap operas, could have lived in the extravagant style of her favourite
soap opera, Dallas, if she had wanted to.

About Hotels

According to Julian Payne, the most powerful people in any top hotel are the porters.
They can do almost anything. They can get Concorde tickets when Concorde is fully
booked. They can get tables at the best restaurants or tickets to the opera. Don't ask me
how they do it . Most of them have been there for years. They retain their jobs for a long
time and they know more about the history of the hotel and the guests than anyone else.
They are invaluable.
You get all sorts of requests, and the mark of a good hotel is to provide whatever is
asked for without sounding surprised. If a client asks for rubber gloves, you don't ask him
why. You say: "No problem. Pink or yellow?" Yet, once, a Japanese businessman asked
me to marry him and his fiancee. He thought I was like the captain of a ship. I performed the
wedding, but it was never taken as a real one.
Top hotels are used more and more to impress. They are used for doing business and
romancing. If you've got something to sell, take your clients to the best hotel where the
surroundings are so conductive to saying "yes". A friend of mine working at the Savoy tells
the story about a man who gave him 5$ to say "Good morning, Mr. Smith" when he walked
through the door with two other men. This he did, and he could hear Mr. Smith saying "I do
wish they would leave me alone at this place."

London – Past and Present

 I fell in love with England because it was so nice- all those little houses, looking terrible
old-fashioned but nice, like dolls' houses. I loved the countryside and the pubs, and I loved
London. I've slightly changed my mind after seventeen years. Things have changed. The
fair play is going, and so are the gentlemanly attitudes and good manners - people slam
doors in your face and courtesy is vanishing.
I regret that there are so few meeting places in London nowadays. You are forced to
live indoors. In Paris I go out much more, to restaurants and nightclubs. To meet friends
here it usually has to be in a pub, and it can be difficult to get there alone as a woman. The
cafes are not terribly nice. As a woman, I feel more threatened in London. I spend a bomb
on taxies because I will not take public transport after 10 p. m. I used to use it, but now I'm
afraid.
The concept of family seems to be more or less existent in England. My family is very
closely knit and that's typically French. In Middlesex I had a neighbour who is 82 now. His
family lived only two miles away, but I took him to France for Christmas once because he
was always alone. I could never understand such behaviour, especially with your own folks .
Yet, I've always loved London. I love people here. I've been invited to everything -
shooting parties, polo, Wimbledon, Royal Ascot. It's a super atmosphere here. I can't
believe, though, how much people eat and drink. One thing I've learned is never to call
British Gas. All they do is turn off your gas - and then send you a bill for doing it. I couldn't
believe that. I think British Telecom is also impossible. In New York you get a phone in three
days - here I was told three months.
Why is it that British people are so bad at service? Why is it that I always have to
interrupt shop assistant's conversations in order to get served? They are much more
interested in gossiping than selling! In restaurants waiters hate being told there is anything
the matter with the food. In supermarkets and banks cashiers close when you approach with
not so much as an "I'm sorry". Does anybody else have these problems? Is it a problem
unique to Britain?

A Strange Story

When I was a little girl, my brother and I used to go every New Year to stay with
grandma and grandpa in their mysterious old cottage by the sea. Like many other houses in
the village, it was rumoured that it was haunted. One particular evening, a couple of days
before the New Year's Eve, the houses were bitterly cold and rather gloomy, because it had
been snowing heavily all day.
All of us were sitting by the fire in the living room when suddenly there was a
tremendous crash from upstairs. All our thoughtys turned to the ghost that grandma had
been telling us about and we looked at each other in horror. When we galloped up the
stairs, however, we discovered that the branch of a tree had smashed one of the bedroom
windows.

The Marathon

I was 11 years when my gym teacher told me that I was the best runner in my class.
So I entered the first running race with the best runners in my town. I got second prize.
Since then, I've received first prize every year, as I've been running for three miles every
day. Next spring, I'm going to participate in the National Marathon, a 26-mile race, maybe
just to prove myself that I have a special gift.
The marathon is a tough competition, and I have to intensify my training. I'm realistic
and I'm not sure I'll win. But I consider that every participant in the race benefits from it,
whether he/she wins or not, just because it is a very ambitious competition. That is why the
last runner in a marathon also gets a medal. So, I'm determined to go on training and
participate in the annual marathon until I win it.
 The strikers

The strike which turned Zenith* into two belligerent camps, white and red, began late
in September with a walk-out* of telephone girl and linemen*, in protest against a reduction
of wages. The newly formed union of dairy-products workers went out, partly in sympathy
and partly in demand for a forty-four hour week. They were followed by the lorry-drivers’
union. Industry was tied up, and the whole city was nervous with talk of a tramway strike, a
printers’ strike, a general strike. Furious citizens, trying to get telephone calls through strike-
breaking girls, danced helplessly. Every lorry that made its way from the factories to the
goods-stations was guarded by a policeman, trying to look stoical beside the strike-breaker
driver. A line of fifty lorries from the Zenith Steel and Machinery Company was attacked by
strikers-rushing out from the pavement, pulling drivers from the seats and smashing
carburetors, while telephone girl cheered from the pavement, and small boys heaved* bricks.
The National Guard was ordered out. Colonel Nixon, who in private life was Mr.
Caleb Nixon, secretary of the Pullmore Tractor Company, put on a long khaki coat and
stalked* through crowd, a 44 automatic in hand. Even Babbitt’s friend, Clarence Drum, the
shoe merchant* - a round and merry man who told stories at the Athletic Club – was to be
seen as a waddling* but ferocious captain, with his belt tight about his comfortable little belly,
as he piped* to chattering* groups on corners. “Move on there now! I can’t have any of this
loitering!”
There was no one in Zenith who talked of anything but the strike, and no one who did
not take sides. You were either a courageous friend of labor, or you were a fearless supporter
of the Rights of Property; and in either case you were belligerent, and ready to disown* any
friend who did not hate the enemy.
A condensed-milk plant* was set afire – each side charged it to the other – and the city
was hysterical.
And Babbitt chose this time to be publicly liberal.
He belonged to the sound*, sane, right-thinking wing, and at first he agreed that the
Crooked* Agitators ought to be shot. He was sorry when his friend, Seneca Doane, defended
arrested strikers, and he thought of going to Doane and explaining about these agitators, but
when he read a broadside* alleging that even on their former wages the telephone girls had
been hungry, he was troubled.

Abridged from BABBITT by Sinclair Lewis,

copyright, 1922, by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
© 1950 by Sinclair Lewis-Reprinted
by permission of the publishers.
 Verbele modale
Verbele modale sunt acele verbe auxiliare care introduc concepte precum capacitate,
posibilitate, probabilitate, necesitate, obligaţie de a realiza sau nu o anumită acţiune.
Se cunosc mai multe verbe modale, şi anume: can, could, may, might, must, need,
ought to, used to, shall, should, will, would, fiecare exprimând o nuanţă modală din cele
enumerate mai sus.
Verbele modale au câteva trăsături comune:
1. sunt verbe defective, adică nu au forme proprii la toate timpurile, nu au formă
de infinitiv lung sau formă în –ing; de aceea unele din ele au înlocuitori care se
pot utiliza la orice timp cerut de logica enunţului;
2. sunt verbe uniflexionare, adică prezintă aceeaşi formă la toate persoanele,
neadăugând terminaţia –s la persoana a III-a singular la prezent, ca verbele
noţionale;
3. negativul se realizează prin adăugarea negaţiei not după verbul modal şi
înaintea verbului noţional pe care modalul îl însoţeşte ( numai verbul can
prezintă la negativ forma cannot, scrisă legat): She cannot be so rude.
4. interogativul verbelor modale se realizează prin inversiune, adică plasarea
verbului modal înaintea subiectului: Can you type? Must they do that?
5. verbele modale sunt urmate de verbe noţionale la infinitiv scurt (cu excepţia
modalelor ought to şi used to): We can help you with this problem. She may
offer you a new job. Exc. She ought to be more careful. They used to play
tennis together.

Formele should, would, could şi might care provin de la shall, will, can şi may nu
sunt doar formele de trecut ale modalelor corespunzătoare, deoarece se pot referi şi la
prezent sau viitor, caz în care se traduc prin condiţional optativ prezent în română:
The nurse could come tomorrow / now.
They might be busy now, so you should see them later.

Înlocuitori pentru verbele modale:

Can = to be able to, to be capable to
May = to be permitted to, to be allowed to
 Must = to have to
Înlocuitorii modalelor se utilizează când nu există forme proprii ale modalelor pentru
timpul necesar în propoziţia respectivă, de exemplu un prezent perfect, past perfect, chiar
viitor. He has always been able to cope with such things. The pupils will be able to speak
English fluently if they attend this course.
Înlocuitorii sunt mai puternici ca sens decât modalele corespunzătoare deoarece sunt
mai puţin utilizaţi decât acestea. De exemplu: I can swim = Ştiu să înot. (capacitate fizică
obişnuită)
I am able to swim in this river. = Sunt capabil să înot în acest râu. (aptitudine
deosebită)

SHALL / WILL
a) Ca verb modal, shall exprimă:
1. determinare, hotărâre: We shall do whatever we think fit.
2. promisiune: If you help me with the garden, you shall have a two-day break.
3. refuz: As you haven’t eaten your meal, you shall not have cake!
4. ameninţare: She shall pay for the damaged car!
5. profeţii: That spirit shall not perish!
6. în documente legale, stil oficial: Payment shall be made in due time.
b) Ca verb modal will exprimă:
1. voinţă, disponibilitate, hotărâre: I will pay you for the effort as much as you ask.
2. promisiune: I won’t do such a thing again!
3. posibilitate, presupunere: The man dessed in deep black will be her father.
4. estimare a capacităţii: Our faculty will hold more than two thousand students this
year.
5. ceva inevitabil sau care se repetă foarte des: Girls will be girls. Sometimes she will
walk in the park near their tree without hearing anything around her.

CAN / COULD
a) Can poate fi utilizat pentru a exprima:
1. capacitate fizică sau intelectuală prezentă sau viitoare: My friend can speak four
foreign languages and can type like a professional typist.
2. continuitate, cu verbe de percepţie: I can hear you now and I can also see you.
3. permisiune, în engleza informală, în locul verbului modal may: Can I sit down here?
 4. pentru a exprima posibilitatea, atunci când împrejurările permit: If my aunt comes to
Braşov, we can go to Bran Castle.
5. imposibilitate sau lipsă de credinţă: Can she make such a mistake? They cannot
be at home now; it’s still early.
6. o cerere, într-un mod mai puţin formal: Can you come later? The secretary is busy
right now.

b) Could poate fi utilizat pentru a exprima:

1. capacitate fizică sau intelectuală trecută: My friend could speak four foreign
languages fluently and could type like a professional typist when she was younger.
2. un condiţional prezent: The group could get to the station in time if they took a bus.
3. o cerere politicoasă: Could you help me with the luggage, please?
4. realităţi trecute, imposibile astăzi: Such dresses could be seen around the 1900’s.
5. posibilitate trecută depinzând de anumite împrejurări: We could bathe and get
tanned at the seaside, as the weather was fine.
6. permisiune trecută: As we had our papers in order, we could pass through the
customs very rapidly.
MAY / MIGHT
a) May poate fi utilizat pentru a exprima:
1. permisiune formală: May I use the phone?
2. posibilitate: You may know him. It may rain soon.
3. interdicţie, în special în stilul oficial: Students may not use dictionaries at the exam.
4. îndoială, nesiguranţă: Who may that girl be?
5. dorinţă, speranţă: May you live long! May all your dreams come true!
b) Might se poate utiliza pentru a exprima:
1. permisiune trecută: I realized that he might leave the office whenever he wanted.
2. posibilitate prezentă, viitoare sau trecută: He might be at the club now / tomorrow.
The tourist thought that he might find the way to the hut by himself.
3. un condiţional prezent: You might take into account my offer.
4. o cerere insistentă: You might help me with this application, if you want.
5. iritare, indignare, reproş: You might look at me when I’m talking to you!
6. nesiguranţă: I wonder who that old man might be.

MUST
 Must este utilizat pentru a exprima:
1. obligaţie, comandă, necesitate – caz în care se poate substitui cu to have to:
You must do / have to do your job if you want to get promoted. (obligaţie)
Must exprimă o obligaţie impusă de vorbitor, în timp ce to have to exprimă o obligaţie
impusă de o autoritate externă.
You must show / have to show me your driving licence at once. (comandă)
They must write / have to write their names in capitals. (necesitate)
2. deducţie, concluzie logică, probabilitate: If she left the office at 4 , she must be on
her way home now.
3. interdicţie: People must not walk on the grass.

NEED
Există două verbe need: unul noţional, care are sensul de avea nevoie, a necesita (to
require, to be in need of) şi care se conjugă normal ca orice verb noţional, cu to do ca
auxiliar la prezent şi trecut pentru formele interogative şi negative:
Does she need any help with the boxes? He doesn’t need your approval.
La afirmativ, verbul noţional need poate fi urmat de un complement direct exprimat
prin substantiv sau pronume gerunziu sau infinitiv lung: My colleague needs a break. The
house needs cleaning. You don’t need to rush, we have plenty of time.

Need modal cu sensul de to have to are aceeaşi formă pentru toate persoanele, fiind
în special utilizat la interogativ şi negativ:
Need she cook today? Yes, she must. My sister needn’t clean the room all by
herself. She never/ hardly/ scarcely need mention how much she has done for him.
Deşi ambele forme Do I need to şi Need I exprimă obligaţie, necesitate, există o
diferenţă între ele:
Do I need to take this pill every day? (acţiune habituală)
Need I take this pill now? (acţiune ocazională)
Există diferenţă de sens şi între construcţiile didn’t need to = acţiune care nu a fost
necesară şi nu a fost realizată: You didn’t need to go to work that weekend. (so you didn’t)
faţă de needn’t have to = acţiune care nu a fost necesară, dar care s-a realizat,
totuşi: She needn’t have said that about me.(yet, she did)
 SHOULD
Should este utilizat pentru a exprima:
1. obligaţie, sfat, recomandare din punctul de vedere al vorbitorului: The students
should apply for the scholarship in the next two weeks.
2. surpriză, în întrebările retorice: Whom should he meet at the museum but his
former teacher?
3. presupunere: If I’m right, she should be 25 now.
4. în condiţionale, pentru a accentua improbabilitatea condiţiei: If you should meet her
at the station, tell her I’ll be waiting for her! sau pentru a-l omite pe if: Should he come
home sooner (If he came home sooner), you could meet him before leaving town.

OUGHT TO
Ought to (s-ar cuveni, ar trebui să) este folosit pentru a exprima:
1. datorie, obligaţie morală: People ought to be more careful with their savings.
2. datorie neîndeplinită: He ought to have checked the breaks of his car before going
on that trip. (yet, he didn’t)
3. pentru a indica ceva care este probabil sau de aşteptat să se întâmple: By the
weather forecast, in August it ought to be fine.
WOULD
Would este utilizat pentru a exprima:
1. o cerere politicoasă: Would you bring me those letter, please? Împreună cu like
sau care, cererea este şi mai politicoasă: Would you like to help me with these heavy
books?
2. preferinţă, urmate de rather/ sooner: I would rather watch a movie than go to the
theatre tonight.
3. un obicei sau o acţiune repetată în trecut: She would visit her uncle whenever she
came into town.
4. probabilitate: That woman would be his neighbour.
5. voinţă: I told him that he had to go there whether he would or would not.
USED TO
Used to este un verb modal utilizat doar pentru a exprima:
1. obiceiuri trecute sau acţiuni care nu mai sunt valabile în prezent: We used to take
breakfast at this restaurant when we were in college.
 2. un obicei trecut, care nu a dispărut neapărat: My niece used to go to the concerts
every Saturday.
DARE
Verbul Dare apare în propoziţii afirmative ca un verb noţional obişnuit: He dares to say
that you are a liar. Does she dare to go there? She doesn’t dare to show herself here.
În propoziţii interogative sau negative, verbul dare poate fi conjugat şi ca un verb
modal: Dare he visit you here? Dared you face her? He dare not come.
How dare(d) you exprimă indignare, reproş: How dare(d) you do such a thing?