PART 1 INTRODUCTION to CHEMICAL TESTS and ANALYSING SUBSTANCES

Of what use is chemical analysis and chemical testing?

Well, rather a lot, as it happens! The production of many products we use in our
society involved some kind of chemical analysis at some stage or other. It might
analysing mineral ores for their metal content or testing the final purity of some
drug/medicine from the pharmaceutical industry.

Environmental agencies monitor levels of oxygen and pollutants in rives and lakes. Hospitals
carry out complex blood analysis for iron, proteins, cholesterol etc. and this is very important
diagnostic information for clinicians and doctors seeking to get you well again prevent diseases
developing. Blood can be analysed for specific proteins to indicate particular medical conditions
e.g. cancer, and ions such as sodium, chloride and iron compounds. At water treatment plants test
are done to determine the levels of metal ions, insecticides and lots of other substances to check
that their levels are not high enough to be harmful to humans.
Apart from a multitude of forensic tests for DNA, powder burns from guns, explosives etc. the
police use breathalyser kits to test for alcohol levels in your breath and may request a blood
sample for analysis too.
There are two types of chemical analysis
Qualitative tests and quantitative analysis. Whatever the nature of the investigation, all tests of
analyses should be carried out by using 'tried and tested' standard procedures. They should be the
most accurate, reliable and safest methods that can be devised. It means, whatever laboratory you
work in, anywhere in the world, you should get the same results as long as the sample is
collected, stored and analysed by the same standard procedures.

(a) QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Qualitative chemical analysis indicates whether a particular substance is present or not. It does
not tell how much of the substance is there or its concentration. However, if a substance is
potentially harmful, even toxic, its a good idea to know whether the substance is there at all. The
larger the sample you have, the better. With more to work with you are more likely to able to
detect minute traces of substances with qualitative tests AND have spare material to repeat tests
several times if the results seem uncertain at first.
At school/college level, the simple tests you learn enable to identify the cation (+ve ion e.g.
metal ions) and anion (-ve ion, e.g. chloride, sulfate) in a salt, and the salt usually does contain
only two ions, but some salts do have three ions e.g. iron(II) ammonium sulfate which might take
a bit of sorting out. Most tests at this level are done on soluble substances so that you can
dissolve the substance in water and carry out tests on the aqueous solution. Aqueous means a

solution in water. You may come across a non-aqueous solution using a non-aqueous solvent like
alcohol or hexane.
AND don't forget, negative test results are just as important as positive results, you may need to
eliminate possibilities as well as confirm the presence of a particular ion or gas etc.
UNFORTUNATELY, not all tests are unique for a particular ion, but this shouldn't be a problem
in school chemistry!
Associated qualitative analysis links
See index at top of page Typical qualitative tests are described in Parts 2 to 5.
Summary of some cation and anion tests for GCSE/IGCSE/O Level students

(b) QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Quantitative analysis gives you (hopefully) a precise measure of how much of a substance is
present or its concentration in a sample being analysed e.g. ore analysis tells you whether it is
worth exploiting for a metal, the purity of drug ensure no harmful impurities in it, blood sample
analysis for alcohol allows the police to decide to prosecute for 'being over the limit'. With a
large sample you have spare material to repeat the quantitative analysis several times to get the
most statistically valid result.
In schools and colleges you can do quite accurate titrations to illustrate quantitative analysis.
Associated quantitative links
% purity of a product (GCSE/IGCSE/O level, introduction for Advanced Level)
Volumetric titration analysis methods and calculations (GCSE/IGCSE/O level, introduction for
Advanced Level)
Various non-redox titration methods and questions (Advanced Level, acid-alkali, EDTA, silver nitrate
etc.)
Various redox titration methods and questions (Advanced Level, potassium manganate(VII),
thiosulfate/iodine etc.)

PLEASE NOTE:
Most of the tests describe use simple apparatus like test tubes, teat pipette, wire for flame test
(nichrome, platinum best but costly) and standard chemical reagents accessible in most school or
college laboratories.
Where possible balanced symbol equations are given for the reactions occurring in doing the test.

Sometimes a precipitate (ppt) initially forms with a limited amount of a reagent, it may then
dissolve in excess of reagent to give a clear solution. Both observations will be crucial for a
positive id.
There are no tests specific to identify a compound e.g.
(i) there is no test for calcium chloride, but there are tests for the calcium ion and the chloride
ion, i.e. using specific ion tests.
(ii) Similarly, in organic tests, all you can do is identify a functional group i.e. a particular bit of
the molecular structure of a member of a homologous series, rather a particular unique molecule.
Not all the reactions are good definitive tests, but they may well be important reactions of cations
or anions you need to know about.
The first tests in the 'inorganic' section are typical of GCSE Science level, but finally these
overlap and extend into those needed for GCE Advanced AS or A2 level. In the organic section,
only the alkene test is in GCSE double award science, but some others might be found in a full
single or coordinated triple award GCSE syllabus.
If any GCSE/IGCSE/GCE/AS/A2/IB/US grade 812 K12 test seems missing, just let me
know by email
These days more emphasis is given to modern spectroscopic methods of analysis such as NMR,
Infrared, Mass spectrometry, Atomic Emission etc. Quite correctly, though updating A level
chemistry is intellectually challenging at times, it isn't always as much fun!
The methods described give no recipe details or risk assessment, just basically what is needed,
what you see and what you can or cannot deduce. Consult teacher, 'practical' text books and
Hazcards before attempting any analysis.
Most tests involve 'standard' chemical reactions and few tests are totally specific so observations
should be viewed in context, i.e. is this a realistic deduction in that particular situation?
Please remember each syllabus has its own 'list' of required tests so do not 'over learn' check
out what is needed!
There is a web page covering the methods some safety aspects of "Preparing and collecting
gases".
Use the alphabetical list to find the test you need.

METHODS OF MAKING SALTS & tests for ions

Doc Brown's Chemistry GCSE/IGCSE ScienceChemistry Revision Notes
The pH scale of acidity and alkalinity, acids, alkalis, salts and neutralisation
6. Methods of making salts and chemical tests for salts

Original page now split into four sections, NEW links below
How do we make salts? What preparations are available to us?

Four basic methods for preparing salts are described on this page, with annotated diagrams.
BEFORE preparing a salt there are two important facts to know ...
(i) Is the salt is soluble or insoluble?
(ii) If using a base, is it soluble (alkali)? or insoluble?
... because these facts decide which method you use!

Method (a) Making a salt by neutralising a soluble acid with a soluble

base (alkali)
Method (b) Making a salt by from an acid with a metal or insoluble base
oxide, hydroxide or carbonate
Method (c) Preparing an insoluble salt by mixing solutions of two
soluble compounds
Method (d) Making a salt by directly combining its constituent elements

A summary of chemical tests to identify ions in a salt, hence the identity

of a salt
Apart from knowing how to make salts, you need to know how to identify salts and other compounds
from their constituent ions.
There is no single test for a salt, you must do at least two tests to confirm the identity of the two
constituent ions.
Most of the methods described below are simple precipitation tests.

Tests for METAL IONS cations (positive ions)

Simple method for a flame test to identify metal ions: The metal salt or other compound is mixed
with concentrated hydrochloric acid and a sample of the mixture is heated strongly in a bunsen
flame on the end of a cleaned nichrome wire (or platinum if you can afford it!). Before doing the test the
nichrome/platinum wire should be cleaned in conc. hydrochloric acid and heated in the hottest part of the
flame to make sure there is no contaminating flame colours. It doesn't matter whether the salt compound
is soluble or insoluble.

the lithium ion Li+ gives a red/crimson (carminered) colour in the flame
the sodium ion Na+ gives a yellow/orange colour in the flame
the potassium ion K+ gives a lilac/purple colour in the flame
the calcium ion Ca2+ gives a brick red colour in the flame
the copper ion Cu2+ gives a bluegreen colour in the flame
6a. METHOD (a) Neutralising a soluble acid with a soluble base (alkali) to give a soluble salt
Salt solubility affects the method you choose to make a salt and so 8. contains tables of informationdata on salt solubility which will help you decide on the method to prepare a salt, but a brief
summary is given below below.

A solubility guide for salts - information required to decide on the method used to prepare a salt

salts

solubility?

common salts of sodium, potassium and

ammonium ions

usually soluble in water

common sulfates (sulphates)

usually quite soluble except for calcium sulfate

(slightly soluble), lead sulfate and barium sulfate are
both insoluble

common chlorides (similar rule for bromides

and iodides)

usually soluble except for insoluble lead(II) chloride

and silver chloride

common nitrates

all soluble
6a. A Method of Making a Water Soluble Salt

6a. METHOD (a) Neutralising a soluble acid with a soluble base (alkali) to give a soluble salt
One important point is to recognise that all the reactants are soluble here, which is why you need
a titration procedure to work out how much of the acid is to be added to a given volume of alkali.
e.g. the hydroxide of an alkali metal like sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide or ammonia
solution (wrongly called )ammoium hydroxide. Steps (1) to (3) below is called a titration.
Typical common soluble bases (alkalis) used for preparing soluble salts:

NaOH sodium hydroxide, KOH potassium hydroxide and some soluble carbonates
Typical examples shown by the word and symbol equations below include ...
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + water
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ==> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid ==> sodium sulphate + water

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

potassium hydroxide + sulphuric acid ==> potassium sulphate + water

2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

sodium hydroxide + nitric acid ==> sodium nitrate + water

NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) ==> NaNO3(aq) + 2H2O(l)

ammonia + nitric acid ==> ammonium nitrate

NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) ==> NH4NO3(aq)

potassium hydroxide + hydrobromic acid ==> potassium bromide + water

KOH(aq) + HBr(aq) ==> KBr(aq) + H2O(l)

sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid ==> sodium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

More examples of neutralization equations are given in section 4.

METHOD (a) procedure for making a soluble salt

by neutralising a soluble base (alkali) with an
acid.
You need to know the exact amount of acid to
just neutralise completely the alkali (soluble
base).
(1) A known volume of acid is pipetted into a conical
flask and universal indicator added. The acid is
titrated with the alkali from the burette.
(2) The acid is added until the indicator turns green,
pH 7 neutral. This means all the acid has been
neutralised to form the salt. I've illustrated the
method using universal indicator BUT it isn't that
accurate an indicator for titrations. You should use
a more precise indicator like phenolphthalein or
methyl orange. I didn't repeat all the titration details here again, I've just kept to the basic ideas and
description, but there lots of detailed examples on the page ( more examples - diagrams, descriptions
of titration procedures)
(3) The volume of alkali needed for neutralisation is then noted, this is called the endpoint volume. (1)-(3)
are repeated with both known volumes mixed together BUT without the contaminating indicator, such as
phenolphthalein or methyl orange.
(4) The solution is transferred to an evaporating dish and heated to partially evaporate the water causing
crystallisation or can be left to very slowly evaporate - which tends to give bigger and better crystals.
(5) The residual liquid can be decanted away and the crystals can be carefully collected and dried by
'dabbing' with a filter paper OR the crystals can be collected by filtration and dried (as above).
See also the preparation of ammonium salts using this method.
AND also more examples - diagrams, descriptions of titration procedures
Note (i) You can put the acid in the burette and the alkali in the flask.
(ii) Parts (1) to (3) are known specifically as an acid-base (alkali) titration, and the general method is
known as a volumetric titration by which it possible to find out exactly what volume ratios are needed for
neutralisation. So knowing one concentration, you can calculate the other.
(iii) Concentration calculations are on calculations pages sections 11. and 12.
(iv) Apparatus used: (1) pipette and conical flask; (2)-(3) burette and conical flask; (4) evaporating
(crystallising) dish, bunsen burner, tripod and gauze; (5) filter paper.
(v) Other indicators e.g. phenolphthalein can be used instead (pink alkaline, colourless acid).
(vi) The burette and pipette are both used for the accurate measurement of volume.

(vii)

The pH changes in this preparation are described in section 7

6b. A 2nd Method of Making a Water Soluble Salt

6b. METHOD (b) Reacting an acid with a metal or with an insoluble base to give a soluble salt
e.g. an insoluble base such as a metal oxide, metal hydroxide or a metal carbonate, often of a
Group 2 metal like calcium, magnesium or a Transition Metal like nickel, copper or zinc. Copper metal
won't dissolve in acids, but its oxide and carbonate will. Using the same procedure you can also start with
a metal that has a low reactivity towards water e.g. magnesium, zinc or iron.
One important point is to recognise that all the reactants are soluble here, which is why you need
a titration procedure to work out how much of the acid is to be added to a given volume of alkali.
Typical common insoluble bases used for preparing soluble salts:
MgO magnesium oxide, MgCO3 magnesium carbonate, CaO Calcium oxide, CaCO3 calcium carbonate,
Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide, NiO nickel(II) oxide, ZnO zinc oxide, Zn(OH)2, zinc hydroxide, ZnCO3 zinc
carbonate, CuO copper(II) oxide, CuCO3 copper(II) carbonate, PbCO3lead(II) carbonate (with nitric acid to
make lead(II) nitrate), FeCO3 iron(II) carbonate (to make iron(II) salts), MnCO 3 manganese(II) carbonate
Typical examples shown by the word and symbol equations below include ...
copper(II) oxide + sulphuric acid ==> copper(II) sulphate + water
CuO + H2SO4 ==> CuSO4 + H2O
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
magnesium hydroxide + sulfuric acid ==> magnesium sulfate + water
Mg(OH)2 + H2SO4 ==> MgSO4 + 2H2O

Mg(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

magnesium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ==> magnesium chloride + water

Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Zinc carbonate + nitric acid ==> zinc nitrate + water + carbon dioxide
ZnCO3 + 2HNO3 ==> Zn(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2
ZnCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) ==> Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

zinc oxide + hydrochloric acid ==> zinc chloride + water

ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Similar for many other Group 2 and Transition metal oxides e.g. Mg, Ca, Ba and Co, Ni, Cu instead of
Zn

zinc + sulfuric acid ==> zinc sulfate + hydrogen

Zn + H2SO4 ==> ZnSO4 + H2
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid ==> calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> CaCl2(aq)+ H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Similar for many other Group 2 and Transition metal carbonates e.g. Mg, Sr, Ba and Ni, Co, Zn instead of
Ca

Carbonates are frequently used in this method of salt making, e.g. using copper carbonate
to make copper salts

The equations are give with, and without sate symbols.

copper(II) carbonate + hydrochloric acid ==> Copper(II) chloride + water + carbon dioxide

CuCO3 + 2HCl ==> CuCl2 + H2O + CO2

and with sulphuric acid a blue solution of copper(II) sulphate is formed.

copper(II) carbonate + sulphuric acid ==> Copper(II) sulphate + water + carbon dioxide

CuCO3 + H2SO4 ==> CuSO4 + H2O + CO2

CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ==> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

copper(II) carbonate + nitric acid ==> Copper(II) nitrate + water + carbon dioxide

CuCO3 + 2HNO3 ==> Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

CuCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) ==> CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Similar equations for other carbonates to give soluble salts which can be crystallised from
solution e.g.

calcium carbonate CaCO3, to make two salts - calcium chloride/nitrate (calcium sulfate is
not very soluble)

iron(II) carbonate FeCO3, to make three salts - iron(II) chloride/sulfate/nitrate

magnesium carbonate MgCO3, to make three salts - magnesium chloride/sulfate/nitrate

manganese(II) carbonate MnCO3, to make three salts - manganese(II)

chloride/sulfate/nitrate

zinc carbonate ZnCO3, to make three salts - zinc chloride/sulfate/nitrate

lead(II) carbonate PbCO3, only nitric acid to make lead(II) nitrate, lead(II) chloride and
lead(II) sulfate are insoluble and must be prepared by method (c)

More examples of neutralization equations are given in section 4.

METHOD (b) Procedure for making a soluble salt from an insoluble base, carbonate or metal

(1) The required volume of acid is measured out into the

beaker with a measuring cylinder. The excess of insoluble
metal, oxide, hydroxide or carbonate is weighed out and the
solid added in small portions to the acid in the beaker with
stirring. Doing the weighing will minimise trial and error
especially if the reaction is slow, as long as you know how to
do the theoretical calculation!
(2) The mixture may be heated to speed up the reaction.
When no more of the solid dissolves it means ALL the acid is neutralised and there should be a little
excess solid. You should see a residue of the solid (oxide, hydroxide, carbonate) left at the bottom of the
beaker.
(3) The hot solution (with care!) is filtered to remove the excess solid metal/oxide/carbonate, into an
evaporating dish.
(4) You may need to carefully heat the solution to evaporate some of the water. Then hot solution is left to
cool and crystallise. After crystallisation, you collect and dry the crystals with a filter paper.
Note (i) Apparatus used: (1) balance, measuring cylinder, beaker and glass stirring rod. (2) beaker/rod,
bunsen burner, tripod and gauze; (3)-(4) filter funnel and filter paper, evaporating (crystallising) dish.
(ii) A measuring cylinder is adequate for measuring the acid volume, you do not need the accuracy of a
pipette or burette required in method (a).

(iii) How to calculate amounts required and % yield is dealt with in

14

Chemical Calculations Part

Salt solubility affects the method you choose to make a salt and so
section 8. contains tables
of information-data on salt solubility which will help you decide on the method to prepare a salt.

Multiple choice revision quizzes and other worksheets

GCSE/IGCSE foundation-easier multiple choice quiz on pH, Indicators, Acids, Bases,

Neutralisation and Salts

GCSE/IGCSE higher-harder multiple choice quiz on pH, Indicators, Acids, Bases,

Neutralisation and Salts

GCSE/IGCSE Structured question worksheet on Acid Reaction word

equations and symbol equation questions

Word equation answers and symbol equation answers)

GCSE/IGCSE word-fill worksheet on Acids, Bases, Neutralisation and Salts

GCSE/IGCSE matching pair quiz on Acids, Bases, Salts and pH

See also

Advanced Level Chemistry Students Acid-Base Revision Notes - use index

Revision KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE/O level Chemistry Information Study Notes for revising for AQA
GCSE Science, Edexcel Science Chemistry IGCSE Chemistry & OCR 21st Century Science Chemistry,
OCR Gateway Science Chemistry, WJEC gcse science chemistry CCEA/CEA gcse science chemistry
(revise science chemistry courses equal to US grade 8, grade 9 grade 10. Revision notes on acids,
bases, alkalis, salts, solution pH word equations balanced symbol equations science chemistry courses
revision guides
How to make copper(II) sulfate (copper sulphate), how to make zinc sulfate (zinc sulphate)

ALL Website content copyright Dr Phil Brown 2000-2014

All rights reserved on revision notes, images, puzzles, quizzes, worksheets, x-words etc. *
Copying of website material is not permitted * chemhelp@tiscali.co.uk
Describing how to make a salt by four different methods, how to do it, what laboratory equipment
is needed and how to crystallise or collect the salt in the end
6c. Method (c) Preparing an Insoluble Salt
Procedure for making an insoluble salt my mixing solutions of soluble compounds to form a precipitate.
The two soluble compounds must each provide one of the constituent ions of the desired insoluble salt
which precipitates out when the solutions are mixed.
NOTE definition: A precipitation reaction is generally defined as 'the formation of an insoluble
solid on mixing two solutions of soluble substances or bubbling a gas into a solution'.
Note that several precipitation reactions are used as simple tests for e.g. for sulfate, chloride,
bromide, iodide
Salt solubility affects the method you choose to make a salt and so 8. contains tables of informationdata on salt solubility which will help you decide on the method to prepare a salt, but a brief
summary is given below

A solubility guide for salts - information required to decide on the method used to prepare a salt

salts

solubility?

common salts of sodium, potassium and

ammonium ions

usually soluble in water

common sulfates (sulphates)

usually quite soluble except for calcium

sulfate (slightly soluble), lead sulfate and barium
sulfate are both insoluble

common chlorides (similar rule for bromides

and iodides)

usually soluble except for insoluble lead(II) chloride

and silver chloride

common nitrates

all soluble

common carbonates

most metal carbonates are insoluble apart from

sodium & potassium carbonate. Ammonium
carbonate is also soluble.

How can we make an insoluble salt? How do we prepare an insoluble salt from two soluble
compounds?

This section describes the preparation of insoluble salts like silver chloride AgCl, lead(II)
chloride (lead chloride) PbCl2, lead(II) iodide (lead iodide) PbI2, calcium carbonate CaCO3,
barium sulfate (barium sulphate) BaSO4, lead(II) sulfate (lead sulphate, lead sulfate)PbSO4, and
'slightly soluble' calcium sulfate (calcium sulphate) CaSO4, which can all be made by
a precipitation reaction.

All of the above insoluble salts are white (as in diagram), except lead(II) iodide which is
yellow.

Many of the salt precipitate are WHITE, but lead iodide is pale yellow.

METHOD (c)

An insoluble salt can be made by mixing two solutions of soluble salts in a process is
called precipitation.

The method is quite simple illustrated above, assuming in this case the insoluble salt is
colourlesswhite.

One solution contains the 1st required ion, and the other solution contains the 2nd
required ion.

So you must prepare two solutions of soluble compounds, each of which provides
one of the two ions required to combine and precipitate out as the insoluble salt.

Each soluble compound is weighed out into its own beaker and dissolved in a
suitable volume of water until the solutions are both quite clear.

One solution is then poured into the other, order doesn't really matter.

The two solutions of SOLUBLE compounds must be thoroughly mixed together to ensure
all the reactants are used up, so the maximum amount of INSOLUBLE salt precipitate is
formed.

You see the two clear solutions on mixing forming a cloudy mixture as the
insoluble compound is formed, known as theprecipitate.

The mixture is then carefully poured into a funnel holding a filter paper.

The precipitated salt can then be filtered off with the filter funnel and paper.

While still in the filter paper and funnel, the collected solid precipitate is washed with
distilled/deionised water to remove any remaining soluble salt impurities and just the
damp, but otherwise pure, insoluble salt is left.

The precipitate is then carefully removed from the filter paper into a clean dish or basin to
be dried e.g. left out in a dry room or warmed in a preheated oven.

Examples ...

(i) Silver chloride is made by mixing solutions of solutions of silver nitrate and
sodium chloride.

silver nitrate + sodium chloride ==> silver chloride + sodium nitrate

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) ==> AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

in terms of ions it could be written as

Ag+NO3(aq) + Na+Cl(aq) ==> AgCl(s) + Na+NO3(aq)

or: Ag+(aq) + NO3(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) ==> AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3(aq)

but the spectator ions are nitrate NO3 and sodium Na+ which do not change at
all,

The 'active ions' and resulting precipitate are highlighted in yellow.

so the proper ionic equation is simply: Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq) ==> AgCl(s)

Note (i) the use of state symbols (aq) and (s) AND

(ii) that ionic equations omit ions that do not change there chemical or
physical state.

In this case the nitrate, NO3(aq) and sodium Na+(aq) ions do not change
physically or chemically and are called spectator ions,

BUT the aqueous silver ion, Ag +(aq), combines with the aqueous
chloride ion, Cl(aq), to form the insoluble salt silver chloride, AgCl (s),
thereby changing their states both chemically and physically.

More Ionic equations explained with all spectator ions indicated

If you use barium chloride the word and symbol equations are ...

barium chloride + silver nitrate ==> silver chloride + barium nitrate

BaCl2(aq) + 2AgNO3(aq) ==> 2AgCl(s) + Ba(NO3)2(aq)

which can be written as

Ba2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + 2Ag+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) ==> 2AgCl(s) + Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)

the spectator ions are Ba2+ and NO3

so the ionic equation is: Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq) ==> AgCl(s)

(ii) Lead(II) iodide, a yellow precipitate (insoluble in water!) can be made by mixing
lead(II) nitrate solution with e.g. potassium iodide solution.

lead(II) nitrate + potassium iodide ==> lead(II) iodide + potassium nitrate

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) ==> PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

which can be written as

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I(aq) ==> PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)

the ionic equation is: Pb2+(aq) + 2I(aq) ==> PbI2(s)

because the spectator ions are nitrate NO3 and potassium K+.

In a similar way you can make lead(II) chloride by e.g. using dilute
hydrochloric acid

lead(II) nitrate + hydrochloric acid ==> lead(II) chloride + nitric acid

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ==> PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) ==> PbCl2(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)

the proper ionic equation is: Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) ==> PbCl2(s)

because the spectator ions are nitrate NO3 and hydrogen H+.

You can make lead(II) bromide by e.g. using sodium bromide solution

lead(II) nitrate + sodium bromide ==> lead(II) bromide + sodium

nitrate

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq) ==> PbBr2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Br(aq) ==> PbBr2(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)

the proper ionic equation is: Pb2+(aq) + 2Br(aq) ==> PbBr2(s)

because the spectator ions are nitrate NO3 and sodium Na+.

and you can make lead(II) chloride by e.g. using sodium chloride solution

lead(II) nitrate + sodium chloride ==> lead(II) chloride + sodium

nitrate

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) ==> PbBr2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) ==> PbCl2(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)

the proper ionic equation is: Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) ==> PbCl2(s)

because the spectator ions are nitrate NO3 and sodium Na+.

You can also use lead nitrate and dilute hydrochloric acid to precipitate
lead chloride

lead(II) nitrate + hydrochloric acid ==> lead(II) chloride + nitric acid

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ==> PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) ==> PbCl2(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)

so the ionic equation is: Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) ==> PbCl2(s)

because the spectator ions are nitrate NO3 and hydrogen H+.

(iii) Calcium carbonate, a white precipitate, forms on e.g. mixing calcium chloride
solution and sodium carbonate solutions ...

calcium chloride + sodium carbonate ==> calcium carbonate + sodium

chloride

CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) ==> CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + CO32(aq) ==> CaCO3(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)

the ionic equation is: Ca2+(aq) + CO32(aq) ==> CaCO3(s)

because the spectator ions are chloride Cl and sodium Na+.

(iv) Barium sulphate (barium sulphate), a white precipitate, forms on mixing e.g.
barium chloride solution and dilute sulphuric acid ...

barium chloride + sulphuric acid ==> barium sulphate + hydrochloric acid

BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> BaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq)

Ba2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42(aq) ==> BaSO4(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)

the ionic equation is: Ba2+(aq) + SO42(aq) ==> BaSO4(s)

because the spectator ions are chloride Cl and hydrogen H+.

Or you can use sulphate salts like sodium sulphate, so the word and
symbol equations are ..

barium chloride + sodium sulfate ==> barium sulfate + sodium

chloride

BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) ==> BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

The ionic equation is the same: Ba2+(aq) + SO42(aq) ==> BaSO4(s)

because the spectator ions are sodium Na+ and chloride Cl

You can do exactly the same preparation using potassium sulfate and
barium nitrate or barium chloride, basically any solutions of a soluble
barium salt and a soluble sulfate salt can be used to prepare barium
sulfate.

e.g. barium nitrate + potassium sulfate ==> barium sulfate +

potassium nitrate

or
barium chloride + potassium sulfate ==> barium sulfate +
potassium chloride

See at the end of the page the uses of barium sulfate.

(v) Lead(II) sulphate (lead sulphate), a white precipitate, forms in a similar way e.g.

lead(II) nitrate + sodium sulphate ==> lead(II) sulphate + sodium nitrate

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2SO4(aq) ==> PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + SO42(aq) ==> PbSO4(s)

because the spectator ions are sodium Na+ and nitrate NO3

Lead(II) sulphate can also be precipitated using dilute sulfuric acid.

lead(II) nitrate + sodium sulphate ==> lead(II) sulphate + nitric acid

Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3 (aq)

ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + SO42(aq) ==> PbSO4(s)

because the spectator ions are hydrogen H+ and nitrate NO3 ions

(vi) Calcium sulphate (calcium sulphate), a white precipitate, forms on mixing e.g.
calcium chloride solution and dilute sulphuric acid ...

calcium chloride + sulphuric acid ==> barium sulphate + hydrochloric acid

CaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ==> CaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq)

Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42(aq) ==> CaSO4(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)

the ionic equation is: Ca2+(aq) + SO42(aq) ==> CaSO4(s)

because the spectator ions are chloride Cl and hydrogen H+.

Or you can use sulphate salts like sodium sulphate, so the word
and symbol equations are ..

calcium chloride + sodium sulfate ==> barium sulfate + sodium

chloride

CaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) ==> CaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

The ionic equation is the same: Ba2+(aq) + SO42(aq) ==> BaSO4(s)

because the spectator ions are sodium Na+ and chloride Cl

You can do exactly the same preparation using potassium sulfate and
calcium nitrate or calcium chloride, basically any solutions of a soluble
calcium salt and a soluble sulfate salt can be used to prepare calcium
sulfate.

The yield is a little lower than the theoretical because calcium

sulfate is slightly soluble in water.

See at the end of the page the uses of barium sulfate.

NOTE reminder definition: A precipitation reaction is generally defined as 'the

formation of an insoluble solid on mixing two solutions or bubbling a gas into a
solution'.

General rules which describe the solubility of common types of compounds in water:

All common sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble e.g. NaCl, K 2SO4,
NH4NO3

All nitrate salts are soluble e.g. NaNO3, Mg(NO3)2, Al(NO3)3, NH4NO3

Some ethanoate salts are soluble e.g. CH 3COONa

Common chloride salts are soluble except those of silver and lead e.g.

soluble: KCl, CaCl2, AlCl3 or insoluble AgCl, PbCl2

Common sulfates are soluble except those of lead, barium and calcium: soluble e.g.

soluble: Na2SO4, MgSO4, Al2(SO4)3

insoluble: PbSO4, BaSO4, CaSO4 is slightly soluble.

Common oxides, hydroxides and carbonates are usually insoluble (e.g. Group 2 and
Transition Metals) except those of the Group 1 Alkali Metals sodium, potassium etc. and
ammonium:

soluble basesalkalis oxides, hydroxides or carbonates: K 2O, KOH, NaOH,

NH3(aq), Na2CO3, (NH4)2CO3

insoluble bases basic oxides, hydroxides or insoluble carbonates: MgO, CuO,

ZnO, Mg(OH)2, Fe(OH)2, Cu(OH)2, CuCO3, ZnCO3, CaCO3

Some uses of insoluble salts (their preparation has been described above)

Calcium sulfate CaSO4 (calcium sulphate) is used in plaster of Paris and plaster for
domestic wall covering.

Barium sulfate BaSO4 (barium sulphate)

Barium sulfates quite a dense material is used in with X-rays for particular
medical examinations.

Barium sulfate, like all barium salts is toxic, BUT, because it is insoluble, non of it
is absorbed by the body into the bloodstream and eventually it will pass right
through the gut system and be expelled in the normal faeces.

X-rays are used to investigate bone structure e.g. fractured or broken bones and
the technique works because bone material is too dense to let weak X-rays
through, so on shooting an X-ray photograph you get the bone structure as a sort
of shadow effect where the X-rays have been absorbed by the bone.

Therefore, normally you can't use X-rays to examine soft tissue areas like the
gut.

However, if the patient takes a 'barium meal', a thick harmless fluid containing a
suspension of the insoluble barium sulfate, this can pass through the stomach
and into the gut.

Therefore it is then possible to X-ray the intestinal gut system because the
barium sulfate absorbs the X-rays just like bone.

So, because barium sulfate is opaque to X-rays, the X-ray photograph via the
barium meal will highlight the structure of the tissue lining of the gut and show up
any structural abnormalities and blockages.

6d. Method (d) Making a salt by direct combination of elements

Sometimes it isn't appropriate to prepare a soluble salt by reacting an acid with an insoluble base or
alkali, so it may be possible to prepare the salt by directly combining the metal and the non-metal
elements. Two such examples are the preparation of anhydrous aluminium chlorideand
anhydrous iron(III) chloride (anhydrous here means without any water of crystallisation).

Preparation of aluminium chloride AlCl3

Preparation of iron(III) chloride FeCl3

How can we make aluminium chloride? How do we prepare iron(III) chloride?

METHOD (d) both preparations illustrated above.

These compounds can be made by direct combination of the elements to form anhydrous
salts e.g. if dry chlorine gas Cl2 is passed over heated iron or aluminium, the chloride is
produced. These experiment preparations (shown above) should be done very carefully by the
teacher in a fume cupboard.

The aluminium can burn intensely with a violet flame, white fumes of aluminium
chloride sublime from the hot reacted aluminium and the white solid forms on the
cold surface of the flask.

aluminium + chlorine ==> aluminium chloride

2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) ==> 2AlCl3(s)

The aluminium chloride is often discoloured yellow from the trace chlorides of
copper or iron that may be formed from traces of these metals that might be
present in the original aluminum).

The iron (e.g. as steel wool) glows red and brown fumes of iron(III) chloride stream
off, the brown solid collects on the cold flask surface.

iron + chlorine ==> iron(III) chloride

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) ==> 2FeCl3(s)

Note (i): Both these chlorides react exothermically and hydrolyse with water to give the
metal hydroxide and fumes of hydrogen chloride, and so dry conditions are needed.

Note (ii): Both these chlorides cannot be made in an anhydrous form from aqueous
solution neutralisation. This is because on evaporation the compounds contain 'water of
crystallisation'. On heating the hydrated salt hydrolyses and decomposes into water, the
oxide or hydroxide and fumes of hydrogen chloride, and maybe some impure anhydrous
chloride, basically it a mess in terms of trying to make pure AlCl 3 and FeCl3 in this way.

Multiple choice revision quizzes and other worksheets

GCSE/IGCSE foundation-easier multiple choice quiz on pH, Indicators, Acids, Bases,

Neutralisation and Salts

GCSE/IGCSE higher-harder multiple choice quiz on pH, Indicators, Acids, Bases,

Neutralisation and Salts

GCSE/IGCSE Structured question worksheet on Acid Reaction word

equations and symbol equation questions

Word equation answers and symbol equation answers)

GCSE/IGCSE word-fill worksheet on Acids, Bases, Neutralisation and Salts

GCSE/IGCSE matching pair quiz on Acids, Bases, Salts and pH

See also

Advanced Level Chemistry Students Acid-Base Revision Notes - use index

Revision KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE/O level Chemistry Information Study Notes for revising for AQA
GCSE Science, Edexcel Science Chemistry IGCSE Chemistry & OCR 21st Century Science Chemistry,
OCR Gateway Science Chemistry, WJEC gcse science chemistry CCEA/CEA gcse science chemistry
(revise science chemistry courses equal to US grade 8, grade 9 grade 10. Revision notes on acids,
bases, alkalis, salts, solution pH word equations balanced symbol equations science chemistry courses
revision guides

ALL Website content copyright Dr Phil Brown 2000-2014

All rights reserved on revision notes, images, puzzles, quizzes, worksheets, x-words etc. *
Copying of website material is not permitted * chemhelp@tiscali.co.uk
Describing how to make a salt by four different methods, how to do it, what laboratory equipment
is needed and how to crystallise or collect the salt in the end

6d. Method (d) Making a salt by direct combination of elements

Sometimes it isn't appropriate to prepare a soluble salt by reacting an acid with an insoluble base or
alkali, so it may be possible to prepare the salt by directly combining the metal and the non-metal
elements. Two such examples are the preparation of anhydrous aluminium chlorideand
anhydrous iron(III) chloride (anhydrous here means without any water of crystallisation).

Preparation of aluminium chloride AlCl3

Preparation of iron(III) chloride FeCl3

How can we make aluminium chloride? How do we prepare iron(III) chloride?

METHOD (d) both preparations illustrated above.

These compounds can be made by direct combination of the elements to form anhydrous
salts e.g. if dry chlorine gas Cl2 is passed over heated iron or aluminium, the chloride is
produced. These experiment preparations (shown above) should be done very carefully by the
teacher in a fume cupboard.

The aluminium can burn intensely with a violet flame, white fumes of aluminium
chloride sublime from the hot reacted aluminium and the white solid forms on the
cold surface of the flask.

aluminium + chlorine ==> aluminium chloride

2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) ==> 2AlCl3(s)

The aluminium chloride is often discoloured yellow from the trace chlorides of
copper or iron that may be formed from traces of these metals that might be
present in the original aluminum).

The iron (e.g. as steel wool) glows red and brown fumes of iron(III) chloride stream
off, the brown solid collects on the cold flask surface.

iron + chlorine ==> iron(III) chloride

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) ==> 2FeCl3(s)

Note (i): Both these chlorides react exothermically and hydrolyse with water to give the
metal hydroxide and fumes of hydrogen chloride, and so dry conditions are needed.

Note (ii): Both these chlorides cannot be made in an anhydrous form from aqueous
solution neutralisation. This is because on evaporation the compounds contain 'water of
crystallisation'. On heating the hydrated salt hydrolyses and decomposes into water, the
oxide or hydroxide and fumes of hydrogen chloride, and maybe some impure anhydrous
chloride, basically it a mess in terms of trying to make pure AlCl 3 and FeCl3 in this way.

Multiple choice revision quizzes and other worksheets

GCSE/IGCSE foundation-easier multiple choice quiz on pH, Indicators, Acids, Bases,

Neutralisation and Salts

GCSE/IGCSE higher-harder multiple choice quiz on pH, Indicators, Acids, Bases,

Neutralisation and Salts

GCSE/IGCSE Structured question worksheet on Acid Reaction word

equations and symbol equation questions

Word equation answers and symbol equation answers)

GCSE/IGCSE word-fill worksheet on Acids, Bases, Neutralisation and Salts

GCSE/IGCSE matching pair quiz on Acids, Bases, Salts and pH

See also

Advanced Level Chemistry Students Acid-Base Revision Notes - use index

Revision KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE/O level Chemistry Information Study Notes for revising for AQA
GCSE Science, Edexcel Science Chemistry IGCSE Chemistry & OCR 21st Century Science Chemistry,
OCR Gateway Science Chemistry, WJEC gcse science chemistry CCEA/CEA gcse science chemistry
(revise science chemistry courses equal to US grade 8, grade 9 grade 10. Revision notes on acids,
bases, alkalis, salts, solution pH word equations balanced symbol equations science chemistry courses
revision guides

ALL Website content copyright Dr Phil Brown 2000-2014

All rights reserved on revision notes, images, puzzles, quizzes, worksheets, x-words etc. *
Copying of website material is not permitted * chemhelp@tiscali.co.uk
Describing how to make a salt by four different methods, how to do it, what laboratory equipment
is needed and how to crystallise or collect the salt in the end