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5.1 Introduction
The steam generating system, frequently called the boiler, is a system that
transfers the heat from the products of combustion to water and produces
hot water or steam. The combustion is accomplished in a furnace. Heat is
transferred in the furnace mainly by radiation to water-cooled walls, which
constitutes the evaporation section of the steam generation system. After
leaving the furnace, the gases pass through a superheater in which steam
receives heat from the gases and has its temperature raised above the
saturation temperature. Since the temperature of the gases leaving the
superheater section is still high, modern steam generators often employ
additional heat transfer surfaces to utilize the thermal energy of the gases.
These include the surfaces of reheaters, economizers, and air-preheaters.
the drum the steam is separated from the saturated water. Then, the
saturated steam usually goes to the superheater in which the steam
temperature is increased. All high-pressure and large boilers are of the watertube type. The small tubes in the water-tube boiler can withstand high
pressure better than the large drums of a fire-tube boiler.
Boilers are operated by firing various fuels. These fuels include bituminous
coal, lignite, natural gas, and oil. Different fuels result in different boiler
designs and operations. In the United States coal is the most prevalent fuel
used in central electric power stations.
Use of steam for electric power generation in this country did not start until
the year 1881. In that year the Brush Electric Light Company in Philadelphia
started to generate steam from four 73hp boilers. In 1903, Commonwealth
Edison Company became the first utility to run steam turbines exclusively for
electric power generation. In the Commonwealth Edison Plant, 96 boiler,
each rated at 508 hp, were installed and used to supply the turbines with the
steam at 170 psia and 434F. in the ;last several decades progress has been
made in steam generator development. Like turbine development, the
progress is mainly in the areas of steam conditions and unit size. At the
present most units generate steam at 2400 psia, 1000F. to attain high
system efficiency, the steam generator usually consists of the evaporation
section, superheaters, reheaters, economizers, and air preheaters. In power
plant system design one steam generator is frequently used to match one
turbine unit. Because of this, steam generator unit size increases as turbine
unit size increases. For a 800 MW plant, a single steam generator produces
almost 6 million pounds of steam per hour.
drum as it receives the heat from the furnace. Since the evaporative tubes
(frequently called risers) contain a mixture of steam and water, the average
density in the riser is always lower than that in the downcomer. This density
difference gives rise to a driving force that will overcome all friction in the
water stean circuit. Figure 5-1 shows a schematic diagram of water tube
boiler operating on the natural circulation principle. Natural circulation is a
simple and efficient technique and is frequently employed in boiler designs.
As the boiler pressure becomes higher and higher, the difference in density
of the fluid between the downcomers and the risers will become less and
less. At a certain boiler pressure, the driving force, which is proportional to
the density difference, is not sufficiently large to balance the frictional
resistance. One alternative is to employ pumps to force the water through
the evaporative tubes. The boiler using circulation pumps is called the forced
circulation boiler. Figure 5-1 shows a schematic diagram of forced circulation
water tube boiler. It is seen that the circulation pumps take the water from
the drum and supply it to the headers at the bottom of the boiler. From the
headers water moves upward as it receives heat from the products of
combustion. Becaused sufficient driving force is available, smaller diameter
tubes can be used in the forced circulation boiler. Furthermore, it is possible
to apply an orifice to each tube so that more uniform flow and tube
temperature can be achieved. These advantages frequently offset the cost of
circulation pumps and their pumping power. Similar to the forced
circulation boiler is the once through boiler shown in Fig. 5-1. It is seen that
there is no boiler drum. Water flows throught the evaporation section without
any recirculation. This arrangement is frequently employed when the steam
pressure in the boiler is supercritical.
In the three boiler arrangements just introduced, each has its own
economizer, evaporator section and superheater. Not shown in the diagrams
is the reheater and air preheater, which are usually employed in modern
boiler design. The economizer is a heat exchanger used to increase
feedwater temperature. The evaporation section, which usually surrounds
the boiler furnace, is to produce saturated steam and supply it to the
superheater. In the superheater the steam is further heated and has its
temperature raised to the level above the saturation temperature. Then, the
superheated steam flows to the turbine-generator throttle for power
The products of combustion are generated in the boiler furnace. The hot
gases first transfer heat to the evaporation section by radiation and
convection. Then, these gases exit the furnace and enter the superheater
and the reheater zone. In these zones the gases further transfer heat away.
The basic heat transfer mechanisms are still convection and radiation. Next
along the gas path is the economizer. In the economizer heat is transferred
to the feed water from the gases. Because of the low temperature in the
products of combustion, convective heat transfer is the prevalent mode. In
the air preheater, the gas temperature is further reduced. The lower the gas
temperature, the higher the boiler efficiency will be. However, the gas
temperature should not be lower than the dew point of water vapor in the
gases. Any water condensation will give rise to a formation of liquid acid,
which results in a corrosion of the air heater surfaces.
Figure 5-2 illustrates the design of a typical water-tube boiler with natural
circulation. For this type of boiler the capacity varies from 300.000 l/hr to
7.000.000 lb/hr. the steam conditions are usually subcritical with throttle
pressure 1.800 to 2.520 psia and the temperature around 1000F. The boiler
can use coal lignite, oil and natural gas as the fuel. In case of burning coal or
lignite, the boiler firing equipment is either a pulverizer-burner system or a
cyclone furnace. Usually the boiler is completely automatic, including
combustion, steam temperature, and feedwater flow.
generating capacity can exceed 10.000.000 lb/hr. when the subcritical steam
is generated, the conditions are usually 2400 or 2520 psia for throttle
pressure and 1000F for throttle temperature. For supercritical steam, the
throttle pressure is 3500 psia or higher. Like the natural-circulation boiler,
this type of boiler can burn coal, lignite, oil, and natural gas. In a oncethrough boiler the feedwater pump speed and turbine throttle are used to
control the steam flow and steam pressure. Steam temperature is controlled
by the fuel firing rate and the gas tempering. The temperature of steam
leaving the reheater is also important. It is frequently controlled by gasrecirculation and or attemperation. A further discussion of temperature
control is presented later in this chapter.
Most central station boilers are equipped with air pollution control system.
These often include an efficient precipitator and sometimes an SO2 removal
system. In addition, sufficient stack height is frequently used to ensure an
acceptable level of pollution concentration in the plants surroundings.
5.1 Pengantar
Sistem pembangkit uap, sering disebut boiler, adalah sistem yang
memindahkan panas dari produk pembakaran terhadap air dan
menghasilkan air panas atau uap. Pembakaran ini dilakukan dalam tungku.
Panas dipindahkan dalam tungku terutama oleh radiasi dinding air - dingin,
yang merupakan bagian penguapan sistem pembangkitan uap. Setelah
meninggalkan tungku, gas melewati superheater di mana uap menerima
panas dari gas dan suhu telah dinaikkan di atas suhu saturasi. Karena suhu
gas meninggalkan bagian superheater masih tinggi, generator uap modern
sering menggunakan tambahan permukaan perpindahan panas untuk
memanfaatkan energi panas dari gas. Ini termasuk permukaan alat pemanas
kembali, economizer, dan udara - preheaters.
Penggunaan uap untuk pembangkit tenaga listrik di negara ini tidak mulai
sampai tahun 1881. Pada tahun itu Brush Electric Light Company di
Philadelphia mulai menghasilkan uap dari empat boiler 73hp. Pada tahun
1903, Commonwealth Edison menjadi Perusahaan utilitas pertama yang
menjalankan turbin uap khusus untuk pembangkit tenaga listrik. Di
Commonwealth Edison Plant, 96 boiler, masing-masing peringkat 508 hp,
dipasang dan digunakan untuk memasok turbin dengan uap pada 170 psia
dan 434F. Dalam beberapa dekade terakhir kemajuan telah dibuat dalam
pengembangan pembangkit uap. Seperti pembangunan turbin, kemajuan
terutama di bidang kondisi uap dan ukuran unit. Saat ini sebagian besar unit
menghasilkan uap pada 2400 psia, 1000F. Untuk mencapai efisiensi sistem
yang tinggi, generator uap biasanya terdiri dari bagian penguapan,
superheaters, reheaters, economizers, dan preheaters udara. Dalam sistem
pembangkit listrik desain satu generator uap sering digunakan untuk
mencocokkan satu unit turbin. Karena itu, generator uap ukuran unit
meningkat sebagai ukuran unit turbin meningkat. Untuk MW 800 plant,
generator uap tunggal menghasilkan hampir 6 juta pon uap per jam.
Sebagai tekanan boiler menjadi lebih tinggi dan lebih tinggi, perbedaan
densitas fluida antara downcomers dan anak tangga akan menjadi kurang
dan kurang. Pada tekanan boiler tertentu, kekuatan pendorong, yang
sebanding dengan perbedaan kepadatan, tidak cukup besar untuk
menyeimbangkan perlawanan gesekan. Salah satu alternatifnya adalah
menggunakan pompa untuk memaksa air melalui tabung menguapkan.
Boiler menggunakan pompa sirkulasi disebut sirkulasi boiler paksa. Gambar
5-1 menunjukkan diagram skematik dipaksa sirkulasi air - tabung boiler. Hal
ini terlihat bahwa pompa sirkulasi mengambil air dari drum dan pasokan ke
header di bagian bawah boiler. Dari header air bergerak ke atas karena
menerima panas dari produk pembakaran. Karena disebabkan kekuatan
pendorong yang cukup tersedia, tabung diameter yang lebih kecil dapat
digunakan dalam paksa - boiler sirkulasi. Selanjutnya, adalah mungkin untuk
menerapkan sebuah lubang untuk masing-masing tabung sehingga aliran
dan tabung suhu lebih seragam dapat dicapai. Keuntungan ini sering
meringankan biaya pompa sirkulasi dan kekuatan memompa mereka. Serupa
dengan paksa - boiler sirkulasi sekali - melalui boiler ditunjukkan pada
Gambar. 5-1. Hal ini terlihat bahwa tidak ada boiler drum yang. Air mengalir
Produk pembakaran yang dihasilkan dalam tungku boiler. Gas panas pertama
mentransfer panas ke bagian penguapan oleh radiasi dan konveksi.
Kemudian, gas-gas ini keluar tungku dan masukkan superheater dan zona
alat pemanas. Dalam zona ini gas lebih mentransfer panas pergi. Mekanisme
perpindahan panas dasar masih konveksi dan radiasi. Selanjutnya di
sepanjang jalur gas economizer. Dalam panas economizer ditransfer ke air
umpan dari gas. Karena suhu rendah dalam produk pembakaran,
perpindahan panas konvektif adalah modus umum. Dalam pemanas awal
udara, suhu gas jauh berkurang. Semakin rendah suhu gas, akan menjadi
semakin tinggi efisiensi boiler. Namun, suhu gas tidak boleh lebih rendah dari
titik embun uap air dalam gas. Setiap kondensasi air akan menimbulkan
pembentukan asam cair, yang menghasilkan korosi dari permukaan
pemanas udara.
Desain khas sekali melalui boiler diilustrasikan pada Gambar 5-3. Jenis boiler
biasanya diterapkan pada ukuran unit turbin generasi besar. Kapasitas
pembangkit dapat melebihi 10.000.000 lb / hr. ketika uap subkritis
dihasilkan, kondisi biasanya 2400 atau 2520 psia untuk tekanan throttle dan
1000F untuk suhu throttle. Untuk uap superkritis, tekanan throttle 3500 psia
atau lebih tinggi. Seperti boiler alam-sirkulasi, jenis boiler dapat membakar
batubara, lignit, minyak, dan gas alam. Dalam boiler sekali melalui
kecepatan pompa air umpan dan throttle turbin digunakan untuk mengontrol
aliran steam dan tekanan steam. Suhu uap dikendalikan oleh laju
pembakaran bahan bakar dan tempering gas. Suhu uap meninggalkan alat
pemanas juga penting. Hal ini sering dikendalikan oleh gas-resirkulasi dan
atau temperation. Sebuah diskusi lebih lanjut tentang kontrol suhu disajikan
kemudian dalam bab ini.