Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ACADEMIC PRESS
Mining Geostatistics
A. G. JOURNEL
and
CH. J. HUIJBREGTS
Centre de Geostatisrique
Fontainebleau, France
ACADEMIC PRESS
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers
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Copyright 1978 by
ACADEMIC PRESS LIMITED
Reprinted with corrections 1981
Third Printing 1984
Fourth Printing with corrections 1989
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Foreword
by G. MA THERON
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VI
FOREWORD
treatise banal and of little interest. I feel that they would be mistaken. At this
point, a comparison with geophysics could be instructive (besides, the very
term "geostatistics" was formed after the model of "geophysics" or of
"geochemistry' ').
If a theoretical physicist were to read a treatise on geophysics, he would
risk getting the disappointing impression that it is but a collection of
particular cases of the theories of potential and of wave propagation: a bit of
gravitation and magnetism, quite a lot of electromagnetism, acoustics, etc.,
nothing very original, really. And yet, without special training, that very
physicist, be he a Nobel prize winner, would admit to be unable to interpret
the results of a seismic prospection campaign.
In the same way, a specialist in mathematical statistics, having paged
through the present book, would not find much more than variances,
covariances, optimal linear estimators, etc., and would find no justification
in this for creating a separate field. However, let us submit to this specialist
the following problem, which is quite a standard one for the mining engineer
(in geostatistical terminology, it is the problem of the estimation of recoverable reserves).
"We have, at a certain depth, an interesting copper deposit. The geologists who have studied the deposit have arrived at certain conclusions about
its genesis and structure, which you will find in this report. The available
numerical data consist of a square grid of drill -holes 200 m apart. The core
sections were analysed metre by metre, and, thus, we have a total of some
5000 chemical analyses. We are considering open-pit selective mining. This
means that, during the mining of our approximately 200 Mm 3 deposit, which
has been mentally divided into 50 000 blocks 20 m x 20 m x 10m, we have
the choice of sending each newly excavated block either to waste , or to the
processing plant. Taking account of an economic pre-feasibility study, we
have decided that the blocks with a mean ore grade greater than x = 0.4%
Cu should be sent to the plant, and that the rest should be set aside with the
waste . This cut-oft grade x is subject to revision, since the market price of
copper as well as the mining and processing costs can vary. x should be
considered as a parameter, and the evaluations should be made under
various hypotheses, i.e., with x =0.3%,0.4%,0.5% , for example.
"Moreover, we must consider the fact that our block by block decision is
based, not on the unknown true block grade but on an estimator, this
estimator being based on information which will be much richer than that
now available (core drillings on a 200 ill X 200 m grid): at the time of
selection, we shall have the results of the chemical analyses of blast holes on
a 5 m x 5 m grid. Based upon this Anal information, we shall build an
estimator z 1 for each of our blocks, and we shall send this block to the plant
only if its estimated grade z i is greater or eq ual to the cut-off grade .r.
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FOREWORD
VII
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viii
FOREWORD
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Contents
Foreword by G. Matheron
Contents
xi
INTRODUCTION
7
7
7
10
18
26
26
27
48
61
77
95
148
148
148
161
236
236
236
247
253
262
IX
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195
CONTENTS
271
293
303
303
304
343
410
444
444
444
466
491
491
491
494
517
555
555
556
557
573
Bibliography
581
591
595
596
Index D. Notations
597
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Introduction
This book is an attempt to synthetize the practical experience gained in
mining geostatistics by the researchers from the Centre de Morphologic
Mathernatique in Fontainebleau, France t and by mining engineers and
geologists around the world who were kind enough to let us know of their
experience. This book is designed for students and engineers who wish to
apply geostatistics to practical problems, and, for this reason, it has been
built around typical problems that arise in mining applications. Several
FORTRAN programs are given, and the techniques developed are illustrated by a large number of case studies. A modest knowledge of integral
calculus, linear algebra, statistics, notions of stochastic processes, variance,
covariance and distribution functions is required, as well as a geological
and mining background. With this background, the elements of mining
geostatistics can be understood and the approximations necessary for an
experimental approach can be accepted.
Definition and basic interpretation of geostatistics
Etymologically, the term "geostatistics" designates the statistical study of
natural phenomena. G. Matheron (1962) was the first to use this term
extensively, and his definition will be retained: "Geostatistics is the application of the formalism of random functions to the reconnaissance and
estimation of natural phenomena".
A natural phenomena can often be characterized by the distribution
in space of one or more variables, called "regionalized variables". The
distribution of grades in the three-dimensional space, for example,
t Namely and particularly 1. Serra, A. Marechal, J. Deraisme, D. Guibal. Special thanks to P.
A. Dowd who contributed extensively to the English version from the original French draft.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
characterizes at least some of the aspects of a mineralization. The distribution of altitude in a horizontal space characterizes a topographical
surface.
Let z (x) be the value of the variable z at the point x. The problem is to
represent the variability of the function z(x) in space (when x varies). This
representation will then be used to solve such problems as the estimation of
the value z(xo) at a point Xo at which no data arc available, or to estimate
the proportion of values z (x ) within a given field that are greater than a
given limit (e.g., cut-off grade).
The geostatistical solution consists of interpreting each value z (Xi) (z in
lower case) as a particular realization of a random variable Z(Xi) (Z in
upper case) at the point Xi. The set of these auto-correlated random
variables {Z (x), when x varies throughout the deposit or domain D}
constitutes a random function. The problem of characterizing the spatial
variability of z (x) then reduces to that of characterizing the correlations
between the various random variables Z (Xi), Z (Xi) which constitute the
random function {Z (x), xED}. This fundamental interpretation is justified
a posteriori if it results in coherent and acceptable solutions to the various
problems encountered in practice.
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INTRODUCTION
words, the mining engineer must be involved. Outside the mining field,
geostatistics applied to forestry requires the ability to interpret spatial
correlation between the densities of growth of different species of trees;
geostatistics applied to bathymetry must take into account all the problems
related to the localization of the hydrographic survey ship at sea. Thus, a
book on geostatistics cannot be dissociated from its practical context, in
this case mining.
This instrumental nature of geostatistics both opposes and completes the
explanatory aspects of the standard, deterministic, geological approach .
For example, even if a metallogenic study is sometimes successful in
explaining the overall genesis of a given deposit , such a deterministic
approach wil1 be clearly insufficient on a smaller scale, such as that of metal
concentrations. In such a case, it is said that the grades are "randomly"
distributed within the defined genetic outline.
But nothing is more precise than this "random" distribution. It will differ
from a gold placer deposit to a porphyry-copper deposit, and the random
distribution of the grades within the deposit will condition its survey and its
selective mining, which represent considerable investments. On the smaller
scale of mining, the probabilistic approach can relay the deterministic and
genetic approaches by which the deposit was delineated on a larger scale.
Our lumberman is not a botanist; similarly, the mining geostatistician
accepts the reality imposed by nature, and is content to study the
consequences of this reality on the mining project he must prepare. A
probabilistic approach can, of course, be guided by genetic considerations,
and the best mining geostatistician is the one who is able to combine his
geological knowledge and his technical mining skill with a good use of the
probabilistic language.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
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INTRODUCTION
+OO
-co
I(x) dx =
-co
dx,
f+>
-:x;l
dx,
r.
-co
[(x"'
Xli'
x.,) dx w
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Geological surveys
A preliminary survey of a province or favourable metallogenic environment, by such various means as geological mapping, geochemistry or
geophysics, will usually result in the location of a certain number of
prospects. If one of these prospects locates a mineralized zone, the next
step is to determine its value and extent by a more detailed survey involving, for example, drilling, trenches or even, sometimes, drives. The
locations of these samples are generally not regular, but are based on
geological considerations such as the need to verify the existence of the
mineralization and to provide a qualitative description of it (e.g.,
mineralogy, tectonics, metallogenic type). The results of such sampling
may be-a proper basis on which to plan further reconnaissance, but they are
not entirely suited for quantitative estimations of tonnage and yardage.
The first estimations will tend to be more qualitative than quantitative , as
will be the- geologist's image of the deposit.
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resources, depend on the particular deposit and the type of are considered.
And, finally, he knows that for a given ore the variability of assays of core
samples, cuttings or channel samples can be markedly different.
In this chapter, it will be shown how geostatistics takes these various
concepts into account by means of the variogram and structural analysis.
Sampling on a small grid
Once the deposit has been deemed economically mineable, the next step is
to define the technological and economical framework for its exploitation.
The total in situ resources of a deposit are seldom entirely mineable,
both for technological reasons (depth, accessibility) and for economic
reasons (mining cost, cut-off grade). To define recoverable reserves within
a given technological and economic context, or, conversely, to define the
type of mining which will result in maximum profit from the deposit it is
necessary to have a detailed knowledge of the characteristics of this
deposit. These characteristics include the spatial distribution of rich- and
poor-grade zones, the variability of thicknesses and overburden, the
various grade correlations (economic metals and impurities).
To determine these characteristics, it is usual to sample on a small grid,
at least over the first production zone. The results of this sampling
campaign are then used to construct block estimations within this zone.
These local estimations set the usual problem of determining estimators
and evaluating the resulting estimation error. There will also be problems
associated with the use of these local estimations: the evaluation of
recoverable reserves depends on whether the proposed mining method is
block-caving with selection units of the order of 100 m x 100 ill X 100 m , or
open-pit mining with selection units of the order of 10 m x 10 ill xl 0 m.
From experience, the mining engineer knows that, after mining, the
actual product will differ from the estimations of the geologist. In general,
he knows that tonnage is underestimated and, more importantly, quality is
overestimated. In practice, this usually results in a more or less empirical
"smudge factor" being applied to the estimation of recoverable reserves,
which may reduce the estimated quantity of recovered metal from 5 to
20%. This is not a very satisfactory procedure, because it does not explain
the reasons for these systematic biases between the geologist's estimations
and actual production; in addition, it is far too imprecise when evaluating a
marginally profitable new deposit.
Given the size of present day mining projects and the cost of their
investments, the risks of such empirical methods are no longer acceptable,
and it is imperative to set and rigorously solve such problems as those given
below.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(i) The definition of the most precise local estimator and its confidence
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r.
11
Consider two numerical values z (x) and z (x + h), at two points x and x + h
separated by the vector h. The variability between these two quantities is
characterized by the variogram function 2 y(x, h), which is defined as the
expectation of the random variable [Z(x)-Z(x+h)J 2 , i.e.,
2)'(x, h)
= E{[Z(x)-Z(x +h)J2}.
(1.1 )
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
two experimental measures [z (X;), Z(Xi + h)] at any two points separated by
the vector h ; i.e.,
(1.2)
where N(h) is the number of experimental pairs [z (Xi), Z(X; + h)] of data
separated by the vector h.
Note that the intrinsic hypothesis is simply the hypothesis of secondorder stationarity of the differences [2 (x) - 2 (x + h)]. In physical terms,
this means that, within the zone D, the structure of the variability between
two grades z (x ) and z (x + h) is constant and, thus, independent of x; this
would be true, for instance, if the mineralization within D were homogeneous.
The intrinsic hypothesis is not as strong as the hypothesis of stationarity
of the random function 2 (x) itself. In practice, the intrinsic hypothesis can
be reduced, for example, by limiting it to a given locality; in such a case, the
function y(x, h) can be expressed as two terms: )I(x, h) = I(x) . )lo(h),
where yo(h) is an intrinsic variability constant over the zone D and [(x)
characterizes an intensity of variability which depends on the locality x, d.
the concept of proportional effect, treated in section IILB.6.
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13
Continuity
In the definition of the variograrn 2y(h), h represents a vector of modulus Ih I
and direction a. Consider a particular direction a. Beginning at the origin,
y(O) = 0, the variogram increases in general with the modulus Ih I. This is
simply an expression of the fact that, on average, the difference between
two grades taken at two different points increases as the distance Ih I
between them increases. The manner in which this variogram increases for
small values of Ih I characterizes the degree of spatial continuity of the
variable studied. Figure 11.10 shows profiles of four piezometer readings,
giving the height of a water table, measured at four different points
(denoted by 3, 4,33 and 18), as a function of time. The four corresponding
semi-variograms have markedly different shapes, from which a geostatistician would be able to deduce the degree of continuity of the four
piezometer profiles.
Anisotropies and zone of influence
In a given direction a, the variogram may become stable beyond some
distance Ih I= a called the range, cf. Fig. 1.1. Beyond this distance a, the
mear. square deviation between two quantities z(x) and z(x +h) no longer
depends on the distance Ih I between them and the two quantities are no
longer correlated. The range a gives a precise meaning to the intuitive
concept of the zone of influence of a sample z (x). However, there is no
reason for the range to be the same in all directions a of the space. In Fig.
1.1, for instance, the vertical range characterizing the mean vertical
dimension of the mineralized lenses differs from the horizontal ranges. For
a given distance Ihl, the horizontal variograrn presents a weaker variability
than the vertical variograrn: this expresses the horizontal sedimentary
character of the phenomenon considered.
- - - Horizontal
C7
Ihl
FIG. 1.1.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
14
The mean grades Z; and Zv can be defined on any supports, e.g., V may
represent a mining block centred on the point y, and v the set of N drill
cores centred on points {z, i = 1 to N}. The mean grades are then defined
by
1 N
I(
Zv = V )
Z(x)dx and z; = - I Z(x;).
N ;=1
y v(y)
The notation H V, v), for example, represents the mean value of the
elementary semi-variogram function y(h) when the end-point x of the
vector h = (x - x') describes the support V and the other end-point x'
independently describes the support v, i.e.,
1
HV, v)=NV
,IN
,~l
y(x;-x)dx.
v(y)
The general formula (1.3), shows that the estimation variance, i.e., the
quality of the estimation, depends on all four of the following.
(i) The relative distances between the block V to be estimated and the
information v used to estimate it. This is embodied in the term
y(V, v).
(ii) The size and geometry of the block V to be estimated. This is
embodied in the term y(V, V).
(iii) The quantity and spatial arrangement of the information v, which is
embodied in the term
v).
(iv) The degree of continuity of the phenomenon under study, which is
conveyed by its characteristic serni-variogram y(h).
-rev,
Thus, the theoretical formula (1.3) expresses the various concepts that
we intuitively know should determine the quality of an estimation.
Confidence interval
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15
There are two dispersion phenomena well known to the mining engineer.
The first is that the dispersion around their mean value of a set of data
collected within a domain V increases with the dimension of V. This is a
logical consequence of the existence of spatial correlations: the smaller V,
the closer the data and, thus, the closer their values. The second is that the
dispersion within a fixed domain V decreases as the support v on which
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16
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
each datum is defined increases: the mean grades of mining blocks are less
dispersed than the mean grades of core samples.
These two phenomena are expressed in the geostatistical concept of
dispersion variance. Let V be a domain consisting of N units with the same
support v. If the N grades of these units are known, their variance can be
calculated. The dispersion variance of the grades of units v within V,
2
written D (v/ V), is simply the probable value of this experimental variance and is calculated by means of the elementary variogram 2y(h)
through the formula
D 2(v/V)= i'(V, V)-y(v, v).
(IA)
The concepts of variogram and various variances, which so far have been
defined for the regionalization of one variable, can be generalized to spatial
coregionalizations of several variables. In a lead-zinc deposit, for example,
the regionalizations of the grades in lead, ZI (x), and in zinc Zz(x), are
characterized by their respective variograms 2YI(h) and 2Y2(h). However,
these two variabilities are not independent of each other and we can define
a cross-variograrn for lead and zinc:
"( 1
"(IZ],
"(12
"(2
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17
100
50
Rain - go uge
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18
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
variant I
50
Variant 2
Voria nt 3
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19
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20
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Once the deposit has been deemed globally mineable, the next phase is
local, block by block estimation. This local estimation gives an idea of the
spatial distribution of the in situ resources. which is necessary for the
evaluation of the recoverable reserves. This local estimation is usually
carried out on the basis of samples obtained from a smaller sampling grid.
e.g., through in-fill drilling. The estimation variance of a given panel, d.
formula (1.3), can be calculated as a function of the grid size and, thus.
indicates the optimal sampling density to be used for the local estimation.
Once this second, denser sampling campaign is completed, the next
problem is to determine the best possible estimate of each block. This
amounts to determining the appropriate weight to be assigned to each
datum value, whether inside or outside the panel. The determination of
these weights must take into account the nature (core samples, channel
samples) and spatial location of each datum with respect to the block and
the other data. It must also take into account the degree of spatial
continuity of the variable concerned. expressed in the various features of
the variograrn, 2y(lhl. a).
For example, suppose that the mean grade Zv of the block V is to be
estimated from a given configuration of N data Z; as shown on Fig. IA.
The geostatistical procedure of "kriging" considers as estimator Z t of this
mean grade, a linear combination of the N data values:
N
zt= L
j~
AjZj
(1.6)
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o.
21
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22
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
FIG 1.5. Recoveries estimated from cut-off grades applied to histograms. (a)
Influence of the support; (b) influence of the standard of information.
and that the same cut-off grade Zo applied to both histograms will result in
very different recoveries. These different dispersions are characterized by
2(V/D)
the two dispersion variances D\v/D) and D
with D\vID
D 2( VI D). By assuming some hypotheses related to the conservation of the
type of distribution law, it is possible to deduce these two histograms from
the experimental histogram defined on the support C of core sample
lengths. For any given selection unit size, the estimated histogram can then
be used to determine the recoveries corresponding to different cut-off
grades zoo These recoveries are then used to build the so-called "gradetonnage" curves.
2. Recovery depends on the standard of available information
The preceding histograms concerned the real grades of units v and V. In
practice, however, it seldom happens that the true grades are available at
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23
the time of selection. Selection is made on the basis of the estimated grades
of these units, which will inevitably result in a recovery different from the
optimum recovery based on the true grades.
Figure 1.5(b) shows the histogram of the true grades of the units V
superimposed on the histogram of their estimated values. As actual selection will be made on the basis of these estimated values, the proportion of
recoverable units V must be read from the histogram of the estimated
grades (dotted area on Fig. 1.5(b)) and not from the histogram of the true
grades (hatched area on Fig. 1.5(a)).
If the estimated grades are obtained by kriging, then the dispersion
variance D 2 ( V* I D) of the histogram of the estimated grades can be calculated from a relation known as the "smoothing effect" due to kriging:
(I. 7)
Once the general framework of the mining method has been defined and
the corresponding recoverable reserves have been estimated, the next
problem is a more precise determination of the parameters of the mining
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24
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2S
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II
Section II.C introduces a second variance, the dispersion variance D 2 (v/ V),
which characterizes the dispersion of the grades of mining units v within a stope V,
for example. This dispersion variance is written as a combination of mean values of
the semi-variogram 'Y(h), cf. formula (11.36):
D 2 (v/ V) =)i( V, V) - )I(v, u),
26
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27
Two sets of information defined on two different supports v and v' and characterized by the two regularized semi-variograms Y~ and Yv' can then be compared.
As all the previous geostatistical operations make continuous use of mean values
y of the point serni-variogram y(h), section II.E is devoted to the practical
calculation procedures of those mean values y. Either a direct numerical calculation
or the use of appropriate auxiliary functions and charts is possible.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
--------+-1
....---- 20 m --..........,~
Ni
0-8
0-8
Ni
0-8
10
s:
ii.
Q)
20
30
Poor
zone
x
FIG.
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Ni
29
random variable;
(ii) a general (or average) structured aspect which requires a certain
functional representation,
A proper formulation must take this double aspect of randomness and
structure into account in such a way as to provide a simple representation
of the spatial variability and lead to a consistent and operational approach
to the solution of problems. One such formulation is the probabilistic
interpretation as provided by random functions.
1- Notation
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30
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Statistical inference
The probabilistic interpretation of a ReV z (x) as a particular realization of
a certain RF Z (x) has an operative sense only when it is possible to infer all
or part of the probability law which defines this RF in its entirety.
Obviously, it is not rigorously possible to infer the probability law of a
RF Z (x) from a single realization z (x) which is, in addition, limited to a
finite number of sample points Xi- It is impossible, for instance, to determine the law of the RV "the result of casting the die" from the single
numerical result 5 resulting from a single cast of the die, and, in particular,
it is not possible to determine whether or not the die is biased. Many casts
of the die are necessary to answer such a question. Similarly, many realizations z 1(x), Z2(X), ... , zdx) of the RF Z (x) are required in order to infer
the probability law of Z (x). Since, in practice we shall be limited to a single
realization {z (Xj)} of the RF at the positions Xj, we appear to have come to a
dead end and, in order to solve it, certain assumptions are necessary. These
assumptions involve various degrees of spatial homogeneity and are introduced under the general heading of the hypothesis of stationarity.
In practice, even if only over a certain region, the phenomenon under
study can very often be considered as homogeneous, the ReV repeating
itself in space. This homogeneity or repetition provides the equivalent of
many realizations of the same RF Z (x) and permits a certain amount of
statistical inference. Two experimental values z (xo) and z (xo + h) at two
different points Xo and Xo + h can, thus, be considered as two different
realizations of the same RV Z (xo). This type of approach is not peculiar to
geostatistics, it is used to infer the distribution law of the RV Z (x) from a
histogram of data values {z(Xj)}, or more simply, to infer the mathematical
expectation E {Z (x)} from the arithmetic mean of the data.
X~ (ZI,
Z2, . , Zk)=
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Prob {Z(Xl)<
ZI, . . . ,
Z(Xk)<
zd.
31
The set of all these distribution functions, for all positive integers k and for
every possible choice of support points in R", constitutes the "spatial law"
of the RF Z(x).
In mining applications, the entire spatial law is never required, mainly
because the first two moments of the law are sufficient to provide an
acceptable approximate solution to most of the problems encountered.
Moreover, the amount of data generally available is insufficient to infer the
entire spatial law. In geostatistics (more precisely, linear geostatistics), only
the first two moments of the RF are used; in other words, no distinction is
made between two RF's Z1(X) and Z2(X) which have the same first- and
second-order moments and both functions are considered as comprising
the same model.
= m(x).
Second-order moments
The three second-order moments considered in geostatistics are as follows.
(i) The variance, or more precisely the "a priori" variance of Z(x).
When this variance exists, it is defined as the second-order moment
about the expectation m(x) of the RV Z(x), i.e.,
Var {Z (x)} = E{[Z(x) - m (x )]2}.
As with the expectation m (x), the variance is generally a function of
x.
(ii) The covariance. It can be shown that if the two RV's Z(XI) and
Z (X2) have variances at the points XI and X2, then they also have a
covariance which is a function of the two locations x I and Xl and is
written as
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
0) the mathematical expectation E{Z (x)} exists and does not depend
on the support point x; th us,
E{Z(x)} = m,
(11.1 )
Ir/ x;
(ii) for each pair of RV's {Z (x ), Z (x + h)} the covariance exists and
depends on the separation distance h,
C(h)=E{Z(x +h) Z(x)}- m;"
(II. 2)
't/x,
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"Ix
(11.3)
Vx.
(IL4)
33
(11.5 )
(i) the mathematical expectation exists and does not depend on the
support point x,
E{Z(x)}=m,
Vx;
Vx.
(11.6)
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(for distances Ih I less than the limit b). This limitation of the hypothesis of
second-order stationarity (or the intrinsic hypothesis if only the variograrn
is assumed) to only those distances Ih I~ b corresponds to an hypothesis of
quasi-stationarity (or to a quasi-intrinsic hypothesis).
In practical terms, we can define sliding neighbourhoods inside of which
the expectation and the covariance can be considered as stationary and the
data are sufficient to make statistical inference possible.
The hypothesis of quasi-stationarity is really a compromise between the
scale of homogeneity of the phenomenon and the amount of available data.
In fact, it is always possible to produce stationarity by considerably reducing the dimension b of the zones of quasi-stationarity, but then most of
these zones would not have any data in them, and, thus, it would be
impossible to infer the quasi-stationary moments in these zones.
From a data grid of 1 to 3 m, a 200-m-Iong hillside would appear as a
quasi-stationary model, but would require a non-stationary model
(because of the increasing altitude) for a grid of 20 to 30 m, cf. Fig. 11.3. If
the data grid is of the order of 200 m, then a certain stationarity again
becomes evident: at the scale of the peneplanar basin the entire hillside
appears as a local variability of the stationary RF "altitude". This example
shows, incidentally, that it is not possible to devise a theoretical test for the
a priori verification of the hypothesis of stationarity using a single realization of the RF. It is always possible to find a particular realization of a
stationary RF which would display a systematic and continuous change in
value (apparent non-stationarity) over a limited distance, so that a
theoretical test could never refute the hypothesis of stationarity.
I b=IO m I
~~
x
x
I'
I <,
<,
<,
z(xo}
<,
..
x
200
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
35
L"
(II.7)
AiZ(Xi)
i=l
L L AiAiC(Xi -Xj)~O.
i
(11.8)
The covariance function must be such that it ensures that the previous
variance will always be positive or zero. By definition then, the function
C(h) is said to be "positive definite".
Thus, not any function g(h) can be considered as the covariance of a
stationary RF: it is imperative that it be positive definite.
Taking account of relation (11.4), expression (11.8) can be written in
terms of the serni-variogram:
Var {Y} = C(O)I AiL Aj
LI
(11.9)
iii
In the case where the variance C(O) does not exist, only the intrinsic
hypothesis is assumed, and the variance of Y is defined on the condition
that
X j)
(11.10)
The variogram function must be such that Var {Y} is positive or zero, with
the condition that It Aj = O. By definition, -l'(h) is said to be a "conditional
positive definite" function.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
36
(II.ll)
Schwarz's inequality.
Absence of correlation
Very often, in practice, the correlation between two variables Z (x) and
Z (x + h) disappears when the distance h becomes too large:
C(h)~O,
when Ihl~co,
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37
1'(0) = 0,
(II, 12)
r(m)=c{O)
C(O) - - - - - - - - - - -
--~--_----:._----
r (II)
C(II)
C{co)::O
In such cases, the a priori variance exists as does the covariance. Such
variograms, which are characterized by a sill value and a range, are called
"transition" models, and correspond to a RF which is not only intrinsic but
also second-order stationary, d. Fig. II.4.
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38
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
will be isotropic. In the three-dimensional space, x represents the coordinates (xu, xv, x w ) and h represents a vector of modulus Ih I and direction
a. Thus, in condensed form, y(h) represents the set of semi-variograms
y(lh I, a) for each direction o'. By studying y(h) in various directions a, it
would be possible to determine any possible anisotropies, such as the
variability of the range a (a) with the direction a.
In the example of Fig. II.S, the semi-variogram for the vertical direction
reveals a short range a I corresponding to the mean vertical width of the.
mineralized lenses, while the semi-variogram for the horizontal direction
has a larger range a2 corresponding to the mean horizontal dimensions of
the same lenses. The directional graph of ranges a (0:) thus represents the
average morphology of the mineralized lenses.
Horizontal
range
.- - Vertical
COre
1!vertlcal
rcnqe
.I
- - - Horizontal
01
02
lnl
The continuity and regularity in space of the RF Z (x) and, thus, of the
Re V z (x) that it represents, are related to the behaviour of the variogram
near the origin. In order of decreasing regularity, four main types of
behaviour can be distinguished, see Fig. II.6 and section II.A.S, Case
Study 3.
(a) Parabolic: y(h) ~ A Ih 2 when h -? O. y(h) is twice differentiable at
the origin and the RF is itself differentiable in the mean square
sense. This type of behaviour is characteristic of a highly regular
spatial variability.
(b) Linear behaviour: y(h)~Alhl when h-?O. y(h) is no longer
differentiable at the origin" but remains continuous at h = 0, and,
thus, for all Ih I. The RF Z (x) is mean-square continuous! but no
longer differentiable.
1
t In fact, the right and left derivative, /,'(0+) and )"(O~) exist but have different signs.
+A
'INNI.minebook.blogfa.com
=0,
when h ..... 0.
39
FIG. II.6. Behaviour near the origin of the variograrn. (a) Parabolic behaviour;
(b) linear behaviour; (c) nugget effect; (d) pure nugget effect.
(c) Discontinuity at the origin: y(h) does not tend towards zero when h
tends towards zero, although by definition 1'(0) = O. The RF is no
longer even mean-square continuous; the variability between two
values z(x) and z(x +h) taken at two very close points may be quite
high and increases as the size of the discontinuity at the origin of
y(h) increases. This local variability can be compared to the random
phenomenon of white noise known to physicists. As the distance h
increases, the variability often becomes more continuous and this is
reflected in the continuity of y(h) for h > O.
The discontinuity of the variogram at the origin is called a "nugget
effect" and is due both to measurement errors and to micro-variabilities of the mineralization; since the structure of these microvariabilities is not accessible at the scale at which the data are
available, they appear in the form of a white noise. A whole section
(lILA) will be devoted to the study of this nugget effect.
(d) Pure nugget effect. This is the limit case when y(h) appears solely as a
discontinuity at the origin:
y(O)= 0
and
8.
Behaviour at infinity
Using the property that - y is a conditional positive definite function, it
can be shown that the variogram necessarily increases more slowly at
infinity than does Ihf:
when
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Ih I-l> 00.
(II.14 )
40
E{Z(x)}
= m(x),
where m (x ) depends on x.
11.A.4.
Coregionalization
Vx;
= Cek(h),
Vx;
(I1.l5)
Vx.
(11.16)
Properties of cross-moments
1. When k' = k, the formulae (11.15) and (11.16) yield the definitions of the
covariance and variograrn, Ci; (h) and 2 'Ykk (h).
t The term "drift" is preferred in geostatistical applications as it avoids the subjective
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
41
JrCkk(O). Ck'k'(O)] =
PH'
(11.19)
f(x,
Ad = I
AkZdx),
(11.20)
k = I
Ak,
{
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
42
If the coregionalization {Zl (x), ... , ZK (x)} verifies the intrinsic hypothesis, then the RF F(x, Ak ) is also intrinsic and has the following
stationary serni-variogram:
I I
AkAk''Ykk'(h),
k k'
.Ihl.
The variogram of the Wiener-Levy process is, thus, defined and it can be
shown that it increases linearly with the distance Ih I.
The dispersion of gold grades in the Witwatersrand provinces of South
Africa provides a more practical mining example. South African authors
(in particular D. G. Krige, 1951, 1976) have shown that the experimental
variance (T2( V) of gold grades within a field of size V increases continuously with the dimensions of the field.
The essence of Krige's original results is shown in Fig. II.7. The variance
of the logarithms of the gold grades increases without interruption as a
function of the logarithm of the area of the field V over which the variance
is calculated. A complete range of field sizes was considered, beginning
with the cross-sectional area of analysed core samples (0,0075 fe) and
followed in turn by the horizontal cross-sectional area of a mining panel
8
(63 000 ft\ the mean horizontal surface of a mine (about 34 x 10 fe)
and, finally, the total surface area of the gold bearing region of the Rand
(about 34 x 10 9 fe).
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43
fe
where v = 00075
is the area of cross-section of the analysed core
samples, and V is the horizontal surface area of the field. The a priori
variance of the logarithms of the gold grades should be the limit of (T2( V)
as the field size V tends towards infinity. Experimentally, such a limit does
not exist and, as a consequence, a second-order stationary model of RF
cannot be used. It then becomes necessary to use a model that is only
intrinsic, having a variogram but no covariance.
06
0-5
0-4
4>
u
<:
<:::
...
c
03
0
OJ
>
02
to
toO
0
'"
.2:
,2
<lJ
0-1
QJ
::
".
o,
"0
C
0
'l-
'"
0:
-I
Log area
2.
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44
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
\thElO, 100]ft
with
a = 50 ft.
Co = 0-4,
r'--~------~------------'
,/
,/
/'
/'
'"
50
100
150
200
II (f t )
W'INI.minebook.blogfa.com
45
Surface
Rain
1
Water table
..
500 m
D~
of discharge
FIG.
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46
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
3
4
~
..c
.;:
l'
3:
'0
s:
n..,
Piezo no. 33
10
II
12
13
Piezo no. 18
14
July
-;:'005
l
,-!
October
November
December
I
./
f-
.'
.'
.~t
1-.
10
15
10
.'
15
10
l-
.'
." .'
...... I
15
.1
I
Time (days)
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
i
I
18
-
.,fI
.,........
33
September
Olf-
....
....
....
August
10
15
47
4. Coregionalizations at Exotica
The experimental direct and cross-semi-variograms for Fe, soluble Cu and
total Cu, shown on Fig. I1.II, were calculated from the grades defined on
13-m vertical bench heights in the Exotica copper deposit (Chile) and
represent the horizontal coregionalization of Fe, Cu S, Cu T grades.
IfCu T-Cu T
Cu S - Cu T
CuS~CuS
"}' 05-
.~.~.
Fe-Fe
01-
o f----------;---
h (m)
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48
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Vi
)(i
Block
Borehole
,ll'(
xl
r ( xl
I...
mE
95 01.0
pro b 0 hI'
I Ity
.1
Suppose now that the entire deposit is divided into blocks of equal size
V, and that each block is intersected by a vertical bore-hole passing
through its centre. If the deposit is an homogeneous mineralization, i.e., if
the RF Z (x) can be considered as stationary, then the error R (x ) is also
stationary and any two errors r(xi) and r(xj) can be considered as two
different realizations of the same stationary RF R(x)=Zv(x)-Z(x).
If the histogram of experimental errors is available in a control zone,
then it will be possible, because of the stationary assumption, to infer the
complete distribution function of R (x). Even if such a histogram is not
available, it will still be possible to calculate the stationary expectation
mE = E{R (x)} and variance (T~ = Var {R (x)} of the distribution function of
the error.
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49
The particular error r(x;) = zv(x;) - z (x;) involved when estimating the
block V (x;) remains unknown, but the mean and variance of the errors (or
the complete distribution function if it is known) will provide a measure of
the quality of the estimation.
The distribution of the estimation error
If the RF R (x) is stationary, then this function does not depend on the
location x. Given the function F(u), it is possible to calculate the prob-
ability that the error will fall within any interval [a, bJ;
Prob {a
~R(x)<b}=F(b)-F(a),
'Ix.
'Ix;
'Ix.
The expectation mE characterizes the mean error, while the variance O"~ is
a dispersion index of the error, cf. Fig. 11.12. Thus, a good estimation
procedure must be such that it ensures
0) a mean error close to zero; this property of the estimator is known as
unbiasedness;
(ii) a dispersion of errors very concentrated around this mean zero
value, this second criterion being expressed by a small value of the
.,
2
estimatron vanance O"E.
At the estimation stage, the type of the distribution function of the errors
is unknown in most cases. But, since the two most important characteristics
of this function - its expectation and variance - can be calculated, we shall
refer to a standard two-parameter (mE and t:T~) function which will provide
an order of magnitude of the required confidence interval.
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50
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Among all the two-parameter distribution functions, the one most often
used to characterize an error is the normal distribution. The main
justification for using this distribution is that it is the one most often
observed in practice, particularly in mining practice, d. section II.B.3, Case
Studies 1 and 2.
In mining applications, the error distribution functions are generally
symmetric with a slightly more pronounced mode and larger tails than 8normal distribution with the same expectation and variance, cf. Fig. 11.13.
Thus, in relation to the standard normal distribution, there are more small
errors (in the region of mE = 0) and more large errors (in the tails of the
distribution). However, the classic confidence interval [mE 2crEl contains
approximately 95% of the observed errors. The 95% normal confidence
interval is then a good criterion for judging the quality of a geostatistical
estimation, but it should always, as far as possible, be verified experimentally through test or control zones, cf. section II-B-3.
,-hI
i...
i*=-
L zt
ni=\
YNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
51
*J
z* Z i
[ Z *i 2 (O'E)
(11.21)
This formula will not ensure that the lower bound is always positive,
since it becomes negative when the relative standard deviation is greater
than 50%,
z* > 0'5, but it is sufficient for practical applications. The
case where erE! f* > O 5 corresponds to poor estimations and, in such cases,
it would be better not to use confidence limits at all.
Formula (H.2l) corresponds to a non-stationary standard deviation of
estimation, since it depends on each estimator z 1. It can be shown (d. G.
Matheron, 1974, and section II1.B.6, Remark 3 and
that this formula
corresponds to a conditioning of the RF Z (r ) to the estimator i*, the
distri bution of Z (r ) being lognormal.
O'el
51
O"i = E{[Zv -
Z*]2}
For any function [, the calculation of the first-order moment E{Zv - Z*}
and the various second-order moments of the expression of o-} requires
that the n-variables distribution {Z(Xl), . . , ,Z(xn ) } be known. However,
since it is generally not possible to infer this distribution from a unique
realization of the RF Z (x), we are limited-to the class of linear estimators
(at least in linear geostatistics). It will then always be possible to calculate
the mean and variance of the error from the variogram or the covariance.
Research into non-linear geostatistics is being carried out and has shown
that restrictions imposed by linear estimators can be removed, d. disjunctivekriging and transfer functions, G. Matheron, (1975a, b, c) and
section VIII.B. Such non-linear geostatistics requires a much more
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52
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Z*
L"
(11.22)
AiZ(Xi)'
i=l
Estimation variance
Let Z (x) be a second-order stationary RF with expectation m, covariance
C(h) and semi-variograrn y(h), ct. definition formulae (11.1) to (11.4).
Consider first the simple case of the estimation of the arithmetic mean ZK
of the K unknown values {z (xd, k = 1 to K}:
ZK =
1 K
K k~l
Z(Xk)'
* =1;'
- L.
ZK
Z(Xi .
ni=l
E{Zk} =
L E{Z(Xi)} = m
i
E{ZK} =
-2
E {L L Z(Xk)Z(Xe}}.
Kkk'
L and the
VNIW.minebook.blogfa.com
expectation operator E:
1
-2
L L [C(Xk - xd+ m ].
Kkk'
53
Similarly,
:I<
the constant term m 2 is then eliminated from the expression of (T~, leaving
O"i:: =
=
1 1 2
K2 L L C(Xk - Xd+2 L LC(Xi - X j ) - - I I C(Xk -Xi)'
n
k k"
Kn
(II.23)
C(xk-x,l
iE(n}
= CK), (K+C((n),
(11.24)
(n-2CK), (n.
~Zy(x)=.2.- f
V
z(y) dy
and
Vex)
Zk~z,,(x')=~f
v
z(y)dy.
,,(x')
These mean values zv(x) and z,,(x ') are interpreted as particular realizations of two RV's Zy(x) and Z,,(x'):
Zv(X)=
VI
Z(y)dy
y(x)
and
Zv(X')=~f
v
Z(y)dy.
,,(x')
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54
MINING GEOSTATlSTICS
For the estimation variance, the formulae (II.23) and (II.24) for the
discrete case give, for the continuous case of estimating the mean grade of
V by that of v,
uk = E{[Zv(x)- z..,(X')]2\
j
dyf
=v\f
V(x)
-~ r
Vv
JV(X)
C(y-yl)dy'+~f
v
dyf
C(y-y')dy'
vex')
dyf
JV(x)
dx')
(II.25)
u(x')
If the domains V (x) and v (x") are three-dimensional, each of the integral
signs of formula (II.25) represents a triple integral and the variance o'~ is a
sum of sextuple integrals. To simplify notations, we shall denote by
C (V, v) the mean value of the covariance C (h) when one extremity of the
distance vector h describes the domain V(x) and the other extremity
independently describes the domain vex'). It is then written
o'~=C(V, V)+C(v, v)-2C(V, v).
(II.26)
When the covariance C(h) exists, the serni-variogram y(h) also exists
and these two structural functions are related by formula (II A ):
C(h)= C(O)-y(h).
Formulae (II.23) to (I1.26) can then be rewritten in terms of semivariograms. Since the constant term C(O) disappears, it is enough to
replace C or C by -1' or -if and the estimation variance becomes
IO"~
(II.27)
where y( V, v), for instance, represents the mean value of y(h) when one
extremity of the vector h describes the domain V(x) and the other extremity independently describes the domain v (z '),
It can be shown that this formula (11.27) remains valid even when the
covariance C(h) does not exist, provided of course that the semi-variogram
is defined (the RF Z (x) is then only intrinsic).
Remark 1 The estimation variance of V by v is sometimes referred to as
the variance of extending the grade of v to V or simply the extension
variance of v to V and is then denoted by O'~(v, V).
Remark 2 The two formulae (II.26) and (rI.2?) are completely general
whatever the domains v and V. In particular, the domains need not
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
55
Remark 3 The variogram 2y(h) can itself be interpreted as the elementary estimation variance of a variable Z (x) by another variable Z (x + h) at
a distance h from Z (x):
E{[Z(x + h)- Z (x )]2} = 2y(h),
Remark 4 Formulae (11.26) and (11.27) express four essential and intuitive facts which condition all estimations. The quality of the estimation of
V by v is a function of the following.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
56
---------
0.
~\lhI __
--
VI
1111
S, r al if ica 1ion
----
------
\OV2
------
Zv=-lr
Z(y)dy
V JV(x)
zt = ;=1
L A;Z(x;).
and
E{zt} =
I
i
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A,E{Z(x,)} = m
zt} = 0, i.e.,
L Ai = E{Zv} =
i
m.
57
L
j=
Ai = 1.
z t. f}
(II.28)
where Y(Xi, V) denotes the mean value of y(h) when one extremity of the
distance vector h is fixed at point Xi and the other extremity independently
describes volume V.
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58
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
blast-hole samples are taken from it, an average of six being taken from
each block. Experimental observation has shown that the arithmetic mean
of these six holes, Z v, can be taken as the true grade of block V.
--~-~----------------~~~~-~
c
B
Block V to be eslimated
FIG.
% Cu
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59
The experimental variance of the 397 errors was 0273 (% CU)2 while
the predicted theoretical estimation variance calculated from formula
(11.28) was 0261 (% CU)2. Therefore, the estimation variance was predicted with the very acceptable relative precision of 4%: (0' 273 -
0261)/0-273
004.
A normal distribution with zero mean and a variance equal to that of the
experimentally observed errors (u~ = 0,273) is also shown on Fig. 11.17. It
fits reasonably well the experimental distribution of errors with the following remarks.
Xj
Z(Xi)
,,/
x
Xo
Xi
0
'0
Foot
wall
"
(J
FJ
4 Qm
FIG.
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Xj
bore-holes; x,
Xo
node of
60
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
each node of a regular square grid of 40-m side was estimated. The
estimator used was the BLUE Z*(xo) provided by kriging.
Isobath contours of the hanging wall were plotted, using the estimated
40-m grid pattern. Similarly, the foot-wall depth and the mineralized
thickness (hanging-wall height minus foot-wall depth) were plotted.
The kriging estimator z*(xo) used was a linear combination of the nine
bore-hole data closest to X():
9
z*(xo)=
Ajz(xj).
j = 1
Since the configuration of the available data was not strictly regular, the
estimation variance depends on the position of each point x(} to be estimated.
In order to verify the procedure, each one of the known values z(x;) was
estimated by kriging, i.e., by the optimal linear combination of the nine
closest data values {Xj, j = 1 to 9, and j oj:;
Using the theoretical estimation variance (T~ (x,) and the known experimental error z (x;) - z*(x;), the
deviation ratio e (x.) = [z (Xi)- z*(x; )1/ O'E(X;) was calculated for each data
point Xj. For the theoretical estimation variance (T~ (Xi) to be an effective
estimator of the true estimation variance, the variance of the n values of
e(x;) should be approximately equal to 1.
Figure 11.19 shows the histogram of 167 e(x;) values along with a normal
distribution with the same variance and a zero mean. The arithmetic mean
of the 167 experimental errors [z (Xi) - z *(x;)] is 015 m and, given that the
mean hanging-wall height is 840 ill and the mean bed thickness is 20 m, the
non-bias can be accepted as having been verified.
The variance of the deviation ratio is O'863, which is reasonably close to
1, and, thus, the theoretical estimation variance a~ (x ) provided by formula
(11.15) is an effective predictor of the experimental variance of the errors.
As in the preceding Chuquicarnata case, the normal distribution underestimates both the proportion of small errors (between O' 5 m) and the
proportion of large errors (greater than 2 m). Again, the usual normal
interval of 20'E correctly estimates the 95% experimental confidence
interval: 92% of the deviation ratios fall within this interval (2aE =
n.
186m).
Remark The verification of the estimation method by constructing the
histogram of the experimental deviation ratios, e (x ) = [z (x ) - z*(x)1/ aE(x)
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
61
0,1
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
005
\
\
-3
-2
-I
V=
2:
i=1
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Vi
=Nv.
62
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Let Z(y) be the ReV grade at pointy. The mean grade of each uni t v (Xi)
centred on point Xi is
f z(y)dy
IN
=- I
N
V(x)
;~1
zv(x;).
1
(x)=N
(II.29)
[Zv(X)-ZveXi)] .
i=1
<I>
u
,...-
.,
0::
~S2(X}
'"
Vi
1--,...-
In
The problem is then to estimate, if not the entire histogram, at least its
two main characteristics, mean zv(x) and variance S2(X).
Probabilistic interpretation
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63
realizations of RV's Zv(x;) and Zv(x); the preceding mean square deviation, s2(x), also appears as a particular realization of a RV S2(X) defined at
point x, i.e., corresponding to the stope V centred on point x:
1 2
S (X)=-L[Zv(x)-Zv(Xi)] .
N;
(11.30)
Variance of dispersion
(11.31)
Remark It must be stressed that the RV S\x) and its particular realization S2(X) depend on the particular position x of stope Vex), while, under
the hypothesis of stationarity, D 2 (v/ V) no longer depends on the position
x but only on the geometries of v and V and the covariance C(h), as will
be demonstrated.
For each one of K stopes, identical in shape and size, {V(xd, k = 1 to
K}, there is an experimental mean square deviation S2(Xk) calculated from
(II.29). As K ~ co, the arithmetic mean of these K experimental deviations
tends towards the stationary expectation of S2(X), i.e., the variance of
dispersion D\v/ V).
If we are only interested in one particular stope V(x), then D\v/ V) will
be an estimator of the experimental mean square deviation S2(X), just as
the expectation of a RV is an estimator of a particular realization of this
RV.
Example Suppose that a stope V(xd is divided into four equal units
{vex,), i = 1 to 4} and that grades Zv(Xi) are assigned to each unit according
to the result of casting an unbiased six-sided die.
The distribution resulting from casting the die is uniform with a mean
equal to (1 + 2 + 3 +4 + 5 + 6)/6 = 35 and a variance (J"2 = 2917.
Consider three stopes {V(Xk), k = 1 to 3} having the same mean grade
Zv = 35 and consisting of the following three series of four units:
k = 1,
k =2,
k
= 3,
= 6, 3, 2, 3,
z, = 6, 5,1,2,
Zv
= 35,
zv
= 35,
= 225;
S2 = 4.25',
z.;
zv = 35,
s = 275.
Z",
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6, 2, 2, 4,
64
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
which is equivalent to
2
1
4
22
1
S 2 (x)=V
[Zv(X)-Z1J(Y)] 2 dy.
V(x)
v V.
FIG.
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(II.32)
65
It can be shown that the order of the integral sign and the expectation
D2 (v/ V ) = 2V
1
= V
E{[Zv(x)-Z,,(y)]2}dy
Vex)
f O"E'
(II.33)
(V(x), v(y)) dy,
u V.
Vex)
The variance of dispersion D 2 (vl V) thus appears as the mean value over
V of the estimation variance of grade Zv(x) by grade Z,,(y) of a unit v
located inside V.
(In practical applications, care must always be taken to distinguish
2
between the dispersion variance, denoted by D , and the estimation variance, denoted by aI.)
Remark For v = 0, the unit v becomes a point and is said to have a point
support. In this case, the restriction v V is verified and formula (11.33)
gives the variance of dispersion of a point variable within V, which will be
denoted by
1
D 2 (O/V)=V
E{[Zv(x)-Z(y)] 2}dy
(I1.34 )
v(x)
with
Zv(x)=
VI
Z(y)dy.
v{x)
with
If n is not too small in relation to N and if the n known values z,,(xd are
distributed approximately uniformly over the field V, then s~ can be
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66
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
2
CTdV(x),
v(ydy,
v V.
Vex)
As the covariance C(h) is stationary, the first two terms of this last
expression do not depend on the positions x and y of the volumes V and v
but only on their respective geometries; thus, we can write
C(V(X), V(x= C(V, V),
't/x,
and
C(v(y), v(y= C(v, v),
"rIy,
and, as a consequence, these two terms remain invariant when being taken
on average over the field V(x):
l
V
V(x)
~
V
C(V(x), v(ydy
if v V.
V(x)
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(11.35)
67
(11.36)
It can be shown that this last expression remains valid even if the covariance C(h) does not exist, provided that the serni-variogram y(h) is defined
(the RF Z (x) is then only in trinsic).
Remark 1 Krige's relation. The additivity property of dispersion variances can be established as a consequence of the linearity of expressions
(II.35) and (II.36). This relation was found experimentally by D. G. Krige
using data from the gold deposits of Witwatersrand and is thus called
"Krige's relation":
D \ vi G) = D \ v/ V) + D \ VI G),
if v eVe G.
(11.37)
The dispersion of the unit v within the deposit G is equal to the sum of
the dispersion of v in the stope V and the dispersion of these stopes V
within the deposit G.
Note that D2(vIG)~D2(V/G)if v < V.
The dispersion variance decreases as the support increases; it is well
known that there is much more variability among the grades of core
samples (v of several kilograms) than there is among the mean grades of
blocks (V of several thousand tons).
when V . . .H )).
.If
V
E{[Z(y)-m]2}dy.
Var {Z(y)}
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
68
(ct. relation (11.3)), and, thus, the preceding limit exists and is written
2(O/oo)=
lim D
2(0/V)=Var{Z(y)}=
CeO).
(11.38)
v--,>c<)
When the RF Z (y) has a stationary and finite a priori variance, this
variance is the limit of the dispersion variance of the point variable Z(y) in
a very large field.
Under the hypothesis that this a priori variance exists and, thus, the
covariance C(h) exists, expressions (11.35) and (11.36) give
D
2(0/00)=
(11.39)
and
ii(oo, (0) = '}'(oo) = C(O) = Var {Z (y )}.
However, there are RF's which have an unlimited capacity of dispersion,
at least over an entire deposit or a metallogenic province. In such cases,
neither the a priori variance nor the covariance are defined and the dis2(0/
persion variance D
V) increases indefinitely with V, d. Fig. II. 7.
II.C.3. Case studies
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69
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70
MINING GEOSTATlSTICS
~
~
0-1
\
\
I
I
I
J
J
I
'I
001
02
--
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
71
\
~
a;
O~
>,
oc;
<1>
:>
...
<:T
\
\
-,
'\
001
-,
S2 =
()269
Clio
CU)2.
NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
(a)
I I
II
II
)
~
~
II
I
0 I
>.
...
<::
::l
<:r
Ol.l
0-01
65
70
(b)
03
2
%
sic,
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
~
s;
o-,
'"0'"
~
0-1
:::J
70
50
%.
Fe
s~
= 84.9% 2.
~
~
>-
..
0-1
1,I
....
:::J
0-
u,
I
I
I
I
~
I
30
I
50
"/0
70
Fe
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S2::;:
50-1%2.
74
The field of dispersion B is a section (3000 m x 900 m) of the Haartebeestfontein gold mine in South Africa. Each unit v (75 m x 75 m) contains
between zero and four samples (two on average) and the arithmetic mean
of the samples, Z"" in each unit v is said to represent the cluster of samples
inside the unit v.
10000
;/
/"X
2000
'I
.,
....-:::;~~
./lC
~JP
log (Z,+o)
\
x?",
1.~~;7x
1000
~~>-
::>
C
>
I
200
x~x -.
-r:>
>:
x/
109
r,
..,.,.L.x~ xL
/
/x
100
/
10
20
Curnulc tive
FIG.
90
30
f req uancy (,,; x
99 995
VNIW.minebook.blogfa.com
75
(i) When the dimensions of support v are small compared with those of
the field of dispersion V (e.g., v representing a core sample and Va
mining unit or a stope), then (a) the histogram of the grades of
elements of weak concentration (Au, Ag, precious metals, U, Cu,
Ni, impurities in weak concentration such as Si0 2 , Ah03, Fe, ... )
are asymmetric with a tail towards the higher grades (direct
lognormal type); (b) the histogram of the grades of macro-elements
of strong concentration (Fe in deposit, Mn in deposit, phosphate
P 20s, ... ) are asymmetric with a tail towards the lower grades
(inverse lognormal type).
(ii) As the support v increases in size (e.g., v representing a mining unit)
a blending effect is produced, which tends to slowly tone down the
previous asymmetries. Lognormality is not preserved when the
support v becomes too large.
(iii) A cleary multimodal histogram reveals, in general, t the existence of
heterogeneous mineralizations (the presence of several types of ore
or the influence of poorly mineralized areas on the fringes of the
deposit). The interpretation of such a histogram must be made with
due regard to statistics (e.g., fluctuation due to an insufficient
number of samples), geometry (e.g., position of the field of dispersion in the deposit) and geology (e.g., mineralogy, faults, directions of enrichment of the are).
(iv) The preceding remarks concern the grades of elements. For
geometric-type regionalized variables, such as mineralized or overburden thickness, or mining type ReV such as percentages of ore
recovery or granulometric ratios, the histograms are of a more
symmetrical type, as shown on Fig. 1I.29(a) and (b).
Figure 1I.29(a) shows the histogram of the mineralized Ni-Iaterites
thickness of the Prony are body (New Caledonia). The histogram was
constructed from 176 values measured on the 176 vertical bore-holes of a
regular square grid of lOO-m side.
Figure I1.29(b) shows the histogram of the percentage of are (mesh
>6 mm) recovered on mining units at Moanda (Gabon) manganese
deposit. This histogram was constructed from the results of mining 1400
unit blocks corresponding to an area of about 42 ha.
t But the presence of several modes on a histogram does not imply that each of these modes
necessarily corresponds to one type of mineral that can be distinguished at the mining stage.
For example, a banded hematite quartzite ore surveyed by drill cores (of a metre or so in
length) would show a multimodal histogram of the type shown on Fig. II.27 and still be
considered as an homogeneous are at the scale of mining (on blocks of 10 or 20 m in
dimension).
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76
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
f---
l-
( 0)
(b)
f-
i:? 4
20 -
f-
<:
."
g.
f---
f-
."
10 f-
f-
mfm
10
124
~ rhh,n
20
30
40
4f-
2 f-n
rrf
51-5
Thickness (rn)
57-2
64-7
Mn (%)
~/
20
Va
'"
&
u
<:
<l>
10
'"
LI..
Negative
drillholes
I 2
5
Thickness {rn)
FIG.
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77
11.0. REGULARIZATION
z,,(x)=!
v
z(y)dy.
,,(x)
Z.,(x)=!
v
Z(y)dy.
v(xl
E{Z.,ex)}=!
v "
E{Z(y)} dy
=! f
v
u~)
m. dy
=m,
Vx;
(HAD)
The problem is then to derive this regularized variogram 21'v (h) from the
point variogram 2y(h). To do so, an easy way is to consider the expression
(HAD) of the regularized variogram as the variance of the estimation of the
mean grade Z" (x) by the mean grade Z; (x + h) separated by the vector h,
cf. section ILB.2, Remark 3. This estimation variance is then given by the
general formula (11.27):
21'v(h)= 2y(v(x), vex + h ) - y(v(x), v(x ) - y(v(x + h), vex + h).
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78
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Since the point serni-variogram "1(h) is stationary, the last two terms of
the previous expression are equal and, thus,
(H.4l)
Remark 1 For distances h which are very large in comparison with the
dimension of support u, the mean value y(u, Uh) is approximately equal to
the value y(h) of the point semi-variograrn and we obtain the very useful
practical approximation
y,,(h) ~ y(h)- Yev, v)
for h v.
(11.42)
p,,", ,,"
C(O)
---- -----
--~-------I---=
~g\Jlon~_~.~__S.~_I_~_
/// -:
L -/
,--
FIG.
.....- .....-
/v(h)
...-
...-/
!y(v,v)
...-
,/
---
----------
(11.43 )
(II.44 )
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79
(lIAS)
cf. Fig. II .31.
x+h
~----+--.
--t-.
Zv(x)=!
v
Z(y)dy,
v(x)
where the sign Iv(x) dy represents, in fact, a triple integral over the volume
v. When the diameter of the core is smallt compared to length I, the
regularization effect of the cross-sectional area s of the core sample can be
t This approximation will not be valid for samples taken from sampling pits, for example,
because the diameter of the pits will be of the order of the distance between the samples (0' 5
to 1 m).
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80
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
neglected. The mean value over the length I of the core sample can then be
written in terms of a single integral in the direction of the length of the core
as
Zv(X)=Z/(X)=_,l
Z(y)dy.
(11.46)
I(x)
Regularized semi-uariogram
When the cross-sectional area s of the core sample is negligible, two core
samples can be considered as two aligned segments I and I" of the same
length I and separated by a distance h, ct. Fig. II.32.
According to formula (H.4l), the regularized semi-variogram can then
be written
(11.47)
with r = Ih I.
If u denotes the coordinate along the length of the bore-hole, the first term
y(l, lh) of the expression (11.47) for the regularized semi-variogram is
written
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r+1
I
-----... u
81
r+1
t,
u'
u
r~1
FIG.
0)
Ihl~/:
2
1 y (l, lh)=
du
f+I(U'-U)dU+ fdU[i
(u-u')du'
f+1 (ul-U)du}
,2
0, y(l, I) = 1/3,
Oi) Ihl~/:
'Yl(h) = !;;2(3/-r),
r
-1/3,
III
(H.4S)
Vr ~ I,
d. Fig. 11.34.
For distances Ih I~ I, the behaviour at the orrgin of the regularized
semi-variogram is parabolic. The cores of length I overlap each other and
the regularizing effect is strong enough to change the behaviour of the model
at the origin from linear to parabolic.
For distances Ihl;?= I, which, in practice, are the only distances observable,
the linear behaviour of the point model is preserved and the regularized
model differs from the point model by a constant value
'Yl(h) = y(h) - y(l, I) = r -l/3,
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r = Ih I?: l.
,,"",U4i
CtJ J 0.-.. ~ ~
82
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(Note that for the linear point model the approximation of formula (II.42)
becomes a strict equality.)
If the regularized curve for Ih I ~ I is projected towards h = 0, the
ordinate axis is intercepted at -1/3 and this negative value is called a
"pseudo-negative nugget effect" due to regularization.
2l f - - - - - - - r - - - - - -
'Y
L.
.:
. i //
.....
3~
log,
with, =
Ih I.
Note that for h = 0, log Ih 1 = -00 :;t- 0, so that this logarithmic model cannot
be used for point samples, only models Yo (h), regularized on non-point
supports, are defined.
For distances observed in practice, Ih I~ I, the serni-variogram
regularized by cores is written as
(r+/)2
yJCh) =
2z2
log (, + I) +
(,_l)2
2z2
log (r -I)
(11.49)
,2
- -}2 log r - log I,
'Vr ";3/.
In practice, this exact formula is rather difficult to use and the approximation of formula (11.42) is preferred:
ydh)=y(h)-y(l, l)=log
r 3
/+2'
with
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Vr ";3/,
(II.50)
83
orr=51.
3. The spherical model
3 r 1,2
"2 a -2 a 3 ,
yCh)=
\ir =
1 = sill value,
\ir;:. a = range.
This model reaches a sill value, y(co) = 1, for a distance equal to the range
a, cf. Fig. IlLS.
The expressions for the semi-variograrn YICh) regularized by cores are
long and awkward. They can be found along with those for the exponential
model in Ch. Huijbregts (1971 b).
In practice we can make use of the following charts, given in section
ILEA:
(i) chart no. 21, which gives the values of the first experimentally
accessible points of Yi(h) and also of the sill value ydoo) as functions
of all;
(ii) charts no. 22(a) and 22(b), which give the values of YI(h) for
different values of all as a function of Ih Ill.
Furthermore, for the practical distances Ih I~ I, the regularized semivariogram can be derived from the point model by the approximate
formula (I1.42):
Yi(h)
0=
for IhI;:'l,
the mean value f(l, I) for l ~ a (the length is not greater than the range),
being given by the expression
3
l
1
y(l, 1)= 2a - 20a3'
\il~a.
(I1.51)
Given the conditions, Ih I~ I and a ';3 31, which cover almost all practical
cases, this approximation is excellent.
\ir = Ihl.
d. Fig. III.5.
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0=
sill 1,
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
84
[2
YI(h) =
z2
Z2'
2)(1 -e -,/0.)
(11.52)
Vr';3l.
for lh I;:;.Z,
a [ 2 e -110. +~-2.
21
y(l, l)= 1-7
(11.53)
Regularized range For a transition point model, i.e., for a point model
with a sill and a (practical or actual) range a, two point variables Z (x) and
Z(x + h) are uncorrelated when the distance h separating them is greater
than the range (lh I> a.)
As a consequence, the two variables regularized by cores of length I,
Z, (x) and Z, (x + h) are uncorrelated when the distance between each point
of l(x) and each point of lex + h) is greater than the range a, cf. Fig. II.35;
for which it is necessary and sufficient that lh I> a + 1.
The regularized range is, thus, (a + 1) and this is the distance at which the
regularized model )'f(h) reaches (actually or practically) its sill y/(oo). Note
that the previous practical approximation, 'Y1(h) = y(h) - y(l, l) amounts to
assigning to the regularized model the same range as that of the point
x+1I
0+1
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85
model. In fact, for the two transition models in current use (the spherical
and the exponential), when IhI> a and a ~ 31, ydh) can be approximated
with excellent precision by its sill value y/{co).
11.0.3. Grading over a constant thickness
---f--- f
BenCh
__J
OeD
(x+h)
Horizontal plane
111 Z(X
Zo(X u , xv)=i
u,
xv, xw)dx w
(II.54 )
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86
(11.55)
where x = (xu, xv) and h = (h", h v) denote the coordinates in the plane
orthogonal to the direction of the grading thickness, d. Fig. 11.36.
In calculating the mean value y(l, Ih), three directions in space are
involved and the calculation is simple only when the point model
vtb: h.; h w ) is isotropic, i.e., if 'Y(h)= 'Y(r) with
r=(hl=J(h;+h~+h:)
2 ('
yo(h)= ,2. J (l- Y)y(J(r2. + y2)) dy
o
-,2 Jf'
2
(l- y)y(y) dy
(II.56)
t The regularization effect of the cross-sectional area s of the core can be neglected in relation
to the thickness f of the formation when integrating over the support (v = s x f) of the
intersection of the bore-hole with the formation.
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87
This regularization by grading will be illustrated for the four point models
in current use. These point models will be supposed to be isotropic in the
three-dimensional space.
I
Mk::----------~
r
M'
This part is not essential and the reader may go directly to the next
section, II.DA.
1. The linear model
y(h)=r
withr=1hl.
1+ J(r +, /2) 2 r
J 2 2
[
YG(h)=3 (r +[ )+,log
r
+3" [2(r- (r +l -3
1J
(I1.57)
V r = Ihi;;:: l.
(I1.58)
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88
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
y(h)=logr
withr=lhl.
(Recall that this logarithmic model should only be used when regularized
over non-point supports.)
The exact isotropic expression of the semi-variograrn graded over I is
found by expanding formula (I1.56):
28
log cos 8
.
'YG(h)=--+
2
-log Sin 8
tan ()
tan ()
(II.59)
I,
r r2
r 3,2 1 r4
l'G(h)=7f/+[ilog,-zP-12 [4+"';
1 [2 1 14
2+ log [+12 r2 ~ 60 ,4 + ....
3
YG(h) =
(II.60)
3,4. The spherical and exponential models The analytical expressions for
these graded semi-variograms are long and awkward to handle and for this
reason the following charts are used:
(i) chart no. 1, which gives the graded serni-variogram of the point
spherical model (with sill 1 and range a) as a function of Ih a and
for different values of 1/ a;
(ii) chart no. 11, which gives the graded serni-variogram of the point
exponential model (with sill 1 and parameter a and, thus, practical
range a'=3a) as a function of Ihl/a and for different values of ll a.
1/
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89
The graded sill is defined as follows. If the sill of the point model is 1,
then, according to formula (HA2), the sill of the model graded over [ is
1'0(00) = 1- y(l, f),
the mean values .y(l, I) being given by formulae (11.51) and (II.53).
The model graded over l and the model regularized by cores of length [
thus have the same sill.
The graded range may also be defined. When the distance Ihl becomes
greater than the (actual or practical) range, every point of [ is independent
of every point of L; and, as a consequence, the range of the graded model is
equal to the range of the point model, whatever the grading thickness [
may be.
Recall that the range of the model regularized by cores of length I is,
strictly, equal to (a + I), where a is the range of the point model.
In practice, for both the spherical and the exponential models we have
the following.
(i) For distances
(IIA2):
(11.62)
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= y(h) -
y(l, f),
vlhl ~ I. 1
(11.63)
90
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
0) A point model
curve
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91
(ii) The regularized theoretical expression 'Y... (h) (or its approximation
given by formula (11.63 of this point model y(h) is then calculated
and compared with the experimental curve y~ (h). The various
parameters (ranges, sills, ratios of anisotropies, etc.) of the point
model are then adjusted in such a way as to bring 'Yv (h) in line with
y~ (h).
(iii) Once the point model y(h) is determined, the theoretical expression
'Y.,{h) for the regularization over a possible second support VI can be
deduced and checked with the corresponding experimental curve
'Y~' (h).
The calculation of the regularized theoretical expressions 'Yo (h)
and 'Yv{h) is simple only when the point model consists of the
established models which are in current use, and for which formulae
and graphs are available, e.g., if the point semi-variogram y(h) is a
spherical model.
11.0.5. Case studies
1. Variograms of grades at Tazadit
with 1 =;: 3 m, a = 40 m and C, =;: 133. Thus, the sill of the point spherical
model is C= 138 (% Fel.
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92
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
In Fig. 11.38, the theoretical point spherical model y(h) with range
a = 40 m and sill C = 138 is shown as a dashed line. The theoretical
regularized model YI deduced from the previous point model by the practical approximation (II.63),
ydh) = y(h) - 1'(1, I),
Yh
a> 3/ = 12 m,
I,
200
'Y41
deduced by the
f-
150 f-
12
24
36
h
FIG.
48
60
72
(m)
2a
20a
= 117'5,
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93
111-9% 2.
52
120.
'Y/(h)= C[ log
~+~J
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for h
~ I,
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
94
2[.
But the experimental curve 'Y~ (h) is clearly above the theoretical
straight line 'YG(h) derived from the hypothesis of isotropy, and we can,
thus, conclude that the phenomenon is anisotropic: the horizontal variability is greater than the vertical variability.
(Note that this study dealt only with small distances, h being less than
10 m in Fig. II.39.)
1 1-~
Vertical
2/
(l
Ho riz ont o l
10
05
7 8 9 10
20
2h (m)
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95
Vi) =
f f,,'
vv"
dx
(II.65)
y(v, Vi) denotes the mean value of the function y(h) when one extremity of
the vector h describes the domain v and the other extremity independently
describes the domain Vi.
It is recalled that if the domain v is three-dimensional, then the notation
Iv dx in fact represents the triple integral Ht d.r, dx, dx w , (xu, xv, x w ) being
the three coordinates of the point x.
Thus, in the three-dimensional space, the mean value f(v, Vi) between
the two volumes v and ' involves a sextuple integral. The advantage of
avoiding a direct analytical computation of these sextuple integrals is
obvious.
Two solutions are possible. The first one is to calculate the mean values j
numerically using a computer. The second one is to break the analytical
resolution of the multiple integrals into successive stages, some of them
being calculated in advance once for all, These stages or intermediate
integrations correspond to the definition of auxiliary functions which can
be presented either as charts or in their exact analytical form.
Remark 1 The numerical integration formula (II.66) is the simplest discrete approximation method applying the same weight (1/ n) to each of the
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
96
r:
(Xi
-j(;)
x;
,
v
Vi.
now available,
(ii) the small number n of discrete points required (see remark 3
hereafter),
(iii) the simplicity and generality of the method of centred regular discrete approximation with uniform weighting,
the numerical expression of formula (11.66) will be used, provided that care
is taken to avoid any "zero effect" which may be produced when the two
domains v and Vi are not disjoint.
Remark 2 The zero effect. Whatever the adopted structural model, yeO) =
o by definition.
As a consequence, the two centred regular grids should be chosen so that
none of the discrete approximation points (Xj, i = 1 to n) and (x;, j = 1 to
n') coincide. Each time two points coincide (x, = xi) in the numerical
estimation of y, a greater importance is attached to the zero value yeO) = o.
This zero effect will cause the mean value of the semi-variogram to be
systematically underestimated and, correlatively, the mean value C of the
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
97
Note that the zero effect can only be produced when the two domains v
and Vi are not disjoint, i.e., if there is a non-empty intersection of the two
domains within which points may coincide. It is particularly dangerous
when one of the two domains contains the other, e.g., when a mean value of
the type y(v, v) is to be estimated.
For such mean values Y(v, v), the zero effect can be avoided either by
slightly shifting each point of the second grid (xi, j = 1 to n ') independently
with respect to the corresponding point of the first grid (Xi, i = 1 to n), or by
using a more sophisticated weighting method for the calculation of the
multiple integral y(v, v) such as the Cauchy-Gauss method proposed in
remark 5.
}
(II.67)
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98
greater than the largest range of the model y(h), then y(v, Vi) = sill value,
Again, if the dimensions of the two domains v and Vi, separated by a
distance h, are very small with respect to the range of the transition model
y(h), then y(v, v')= y(h), Now, if only the dimensions of v' are small with
respect to this range, then v' can be approximated by its centre of gravity
(n ' = 1) and v can be approximated by n discrete points in the usual
manner. Still again, if the domain v is a parallelepiped very much flattened
in the vertical direction, and if the model y(h) is isotropic, then v can be
approximated by its median horizontal plane - which is then approximated
by discrete points over two dimensions (n ~ 6 x 6 points); on the other
hand, if there is a strong vertical variability represented by an anisotropic
model y(h), it is advisable to approximate the vertical dimension of the
parallelepiped v also.
f y(x-x')dx'=21 1+
V
l)
with
k(x)= {0
if x E v
if
I not
and
00
k(x)dx
-00
00
y(x-x')k(x')dx'
-00
1+
~
1
1+
00
k(x)dx=1.
-00
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(00
too
y(u)K (u) du
(11.68)
with
1:
99
00
K(u)=k
*k=
k(u +x')k(x')dx'.
f. dx f
v
Vh
+00
-co
(11.69)
The Cauchy algorithm for reducing the order of the integral is of interest
only if the function K(u) is known a priori. Now, for rectangular domains v
with sides parallel to the system of axes, the corresponding function K (u),
also called the "geometric co variagram of v", can be readily determined.
(a) In one dimension, v is a segment of length l and its geometric
covariograrn is a function of one variable u:
K (u ) = { I -I u I ~f Iu I'!% t,
o
If not.
Consider now the symmetric function of y(h):
f(h
fa
(l-u)f(h+lu)du.
(H.70)
-----
I
h
...
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
100
and
IU21~/2'
~2=+1
t1
i
y(S, Sh)=4
L2
'I
--------------~--+-------~-----------,5
,
I
I
~I
I~"~-~--~---~-
if Iud ~ Ii,
if not.
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101
Consider now the symmetric function of the three-dimensional semivariogram y th, hz, h 3 ) :
1 ~1=+1
r(h, + u" h: +uz, h 3 + U3) = - L
I I
8~1=-1~2~3
y(v'Vh)=8
fa
11
,
(1-ud(1- U z)(1 - u 3)
(11.72)
V
I, (
/1 2
hi
h3
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
102
y(l,l h ) =
(II.73)
Aif(h+lxi)'
i~l
YeS, Sh) =
L L
i= 1 j= 1
AiA i f( h l
+ 11 X h h: + 12 xi)'
(II.74)
y(v,
Vh)
I L I
i=1 ;=1
AiAiAd"(h 1 + 11 X i, h 2 + f 2 xj, h 3 + 13 x k ) .
(11.75)
k~l
The four abscissae Xi, Xi, Xk of the discrete approximation and the corresponding weights Ai, Ai' Ak have been calculated by A. Marechal (1976,
internal report) and are given in Table 11.1.
TABLE
points)
Xi
Ai
00571
02710
02768
04069
05836
02597
086025
006235
,=1
Ai = 0999 94 = 1
103
For a spherical or exponential model y(h) and for practical values of the
range, the relative precision is always better than 1 %.
FUNCTION GBAR(---)
v and Vi can be any domain, provided that they are of rectangular form.
The dimensions of the two domains do not have to be the same, e.g., v can
be a three-dimensional parallelepiped (a mining block) while Vi is a segment (core samples along a bore-hole), cf. Fig. 11.44.
Each of the two domains is approximated by a centred regular grid of n
points, n taking the values given in (11.67).
When the two domains v and Vi have a non-empty intersection, and
particularly when one contains the other, the index INTER = 1 allows
w
101MI:3
( v)
-.h._-----CCAA 1
01
IDIM 2: I
CA2
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
104
avoiding the zero effect: each point of the discrete approximation of one
domain is shifted randomly from its corresponding node on the regular
centred grid.
The three-dimensional point semi-variogram y(h) is read as a subroutine FUNCTION GAM(HX, HY, HZ). The three coordinates
(HX, HY, HZ) of the vector h are relative to the reference system of axes.
(In section IILB.5, an example of FUNCTION GAM corresponding to a
very general structural model y(h) is given.)
Relative to the reference system of axes, each domain v or v' is defined
by one apex and one, two or three side vectors according to whether the
domain is one-, two- or three-dimensional. Thus, in the example of Fig.
11.44,
(i) the rectangular parallelepiped v is defined by the coordinates of one
of its apex 01 and the coordinates of the three side vectors CAl,
CBl and cci,
(ii) the segment v'is defined by the coordinates of one of its extremities
02 and the coordinates of the vector CA2.
FU-c T J C~j
lCC2,(C2,
:..
ICI~2.INTE:RJ
* ~
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
~ARA"'ETERS
'vECTCI<S OEFfl\HC CC"AIt\ 1
VECTORS HAVE CC~/oIC~ ORIGIN LCCATED
ON CNE OF#THE APEXES OF T~E CC~AII\
COll31
(CORDINATeS CF THIS REFEREI\CE A~EX
IDJ~1
NuM8ER OF CI~ENSIO~S CF DOMAI~ 1
=1 SEGMENT
VEC1(~ (AI
=2 RECTANGLE
VECT(RS CAl,CEl
=3 PARALLELEPIPED VECTC~S CAl,CEl,CCl
UNUSEC VECTORS SHOUlC BE PUT Te C.
CA2U!tCE2(3),CC2(3},C02{31,HIM2
CEFHITIC/\ CF
CC"'AIr.. 2
CA1(3),CBIU),CClI3l
C SUBRCLTII\ES (ALLEe
C
C
C
C
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I"'TEP~l
C'
C
105
c .................................
c
CI ME,... S ION CA 1 (3 i ,C B1 (3 J ,C ( 1 (31 ,C A;: (3) ,C e 2 ( 3 )
1CC2(3) ,COU3) ,C02(3)
DIM~~SIO~ Ll{~),l2(3),l3(~}
CIME~SIO~
DATA
Xl(3),X2(64,3J,Alt3)
ll/1~,6,4/,l2/1,6,4/,l3/1,l,41
GB:O _
J\!-:llCICIMl}
p..,Z:l2 lID IMl)
N3=l3IICIMU
"'1-:ll(IDIM21
,.. 2 :L 2 ( I elM 2 )
M3:-L 3 (IO 1M2 J
I JK:O
IF(INTER.EC.lJGO TO 20C
c
c
fRICOING CF SECGNe
CO ICC
cc
C(~AI'"
12=1,~1
ICC J.2=1,~2
CO IOC K2=1,1oI;
IJK=IJK+l
CO llC 1(=1,3
X2 ( I J K, leI: C02 ( I C I ... ( I 2 - 0 ~ ) *c A.2 ( J ell ~ 1 ...
11 J 2- 0 5 j C8 2 ( I C) I foI' 2+ (K 2 - C ~ ) *c C2 ( rc : / 3
11C CO"'TI~UE
lac CCNTI1\UE
GC Te 30e
200 CO 2Ie I2=I,~1
co 2Ie J2=l,frl2
co z i c K2:l,tJo3
IJK=IJr<+l
en
220
220
Il=lr3
Al(Ill=-RA~CCfrl(K)
1(=1,3
1[J:C02(ICJ+( I2+Al (1) J*CA2( rc )/"'1+
1 ( J 2+ At (2) 1 -c 82 ( 1 C) / ~ 2 +( K ~ ito U ::= ) ) *c(2 ( 1 C) 1M3
CO 230
X2( IJK,
CCMPUTE GEAR
c
300 CC 1 ll=l,Nl
CO 1 Jl=1,N2
DC 1 Kl:;I,N3
DC 10 1(=1,3
XIt r c r =CO l( 1 C )+ ( I 1-0 .5 ) *c A I I rc i It'd'"
'#NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
106
lCJI-O ..5)*CBU
lCJ/N2+(Kl-C.~J*CCl(ICJ/f\~
10 CCNTlf\UE
DC 2
lJ=l,IJt<.
1)
;2)
Hl=Xl(3)-X2( IJ,3)
GB=GB+GA~(hXtrYtHZ)
2 CONTIt>.UE
1 C(NT HUE
GHAR=GB/(Nl*N2*N3)/IJK
RETUFlf\
END
FUNCTION F(---)
This subroutine calculates the mean value y( v, v) over a rectangular
domain of any dimension (segment, rectangle or parallelepiped). The
subroutine considers the Cauchy-Gauss discrete approximation method
and the corresponding formulae (II.73) to (11.75).
w
FIG.
cc
The three-dimensionnal point semi-variogram y(h) is read as a subroutine FUNCTION GAM(HX, HY, HZ), the three coordinates
(HX, HY, HZ) of the vector h are relative to the reference system of
axes.
Relative to this reference system of axes, the domain v is defined by one
apex considered as being the origin 0 of the coordinates and by one, two or
three side vectors. Thus, on the example of Fig. 11.45, the rectangular
parallelepiped v is defined by the coordinates of its three side vectors CA,
CB and cc.
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C a
~ ~ _
COMPLTES THE AVERAGE ~AllE OF GA~~A
C
C
~TTHIN
SEG~ENT,RECTANGLE
~ ~
OF FARALLELEPIPEO
C rAVI~G AN~ CRIENTATICN WITr PE~PECT Te CCCRDIC ~ATES SYSTEM COHAIN IS CEFI~E[ BY ~ECl(FS AlGCC RITH~ IS (AU(HY-GAUSS:POINTS FC~J,"EIGtT~ ftI41
C
C PARA~ETEPS
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
CA(3J,Ce(3),CCt~)
vECTO~S
[EFINI~G
CC~AIN
C
C SUBROUTI~E CALLEe
GA~(HX,~y,rZI
SE~I-~~RIOGRA~
Fl~CTI[N
C
C e
C
DIMENSION CAI3},CB(3),CC(~J,P(4J,~(4)
DATA P/.C571,.27ef,.583t,.~tC251
DATA R/.2710,.406S,.25~6~,.0623~1
F=O.
GC Te
c
c
c
(1,2,3J,IDI~
1 CO 10 1= 1,4
HX=P ( I)*CAlll
liV=P(11*CA(2)
Hl=P(IJ*CAl3J
10
F=F+.tIJ.GAM(~X,r~,Hl)
RETUR~
REel H~GL E
C
C
2 Co 2C 1=1,4
CO 20 J=I,-4
G=O.
J 1=-1
J2=-1
00 21 IN=1.2
J l=-J 1
CO 21 1"'=1.2
J2=-J i:
HX=Jl~P(IJ.CA(1)+J2*P(J).(E(lJ
~Y~Jl.P(IJCA(2)+J2*P(J).CE(~1
Hl=JJ*PII)*CAt3J+J2*PCJJ*Ce(31
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107
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
108
21
G=G+G~M(HX,Hy,Hlj
F=F+wII)*WIJ)*G/4.
20 CONTINUE
~ETURf\
PAEUllElEPIPEC
C
C
:3 00 30 1=1,4
CO 30 J=l,it
CO 30 K=l,4
G-=O.
Jl=-1
J2:1:-1
J3=-1
CO 31 IN=I,2
Jl=- J 1
00 3 1 I ~:= 1 , 2
J2=- J 2
00 31 IL:tl,2
J3=- J ~
HX=Jl.PII).CA(1)+J2*PIJ).(E(1)tJ~.f{~}.CC{11
HY;Jl*P(1)*CAIZ)+J2*PIJ}'CEI2)+J3*FCK).CC(2)
31
~l=Jl*P(IJ*CA(3}+J2*P(J)'(E(3)+J~*FIK)*CC(3)
G=G+f~~(~X,hy,HlJ
F=F+W([)*W(J)*wIK)*G/8.
30 CONT HUE
HTUR ...
END
L.
with r
= Ih I.
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109
The auxiliary function X(L) is defined as the mean value of y(h) when
the extremity of the vector h is fixed at the point A and the other extremity
describes the segment AB of length L:
1
X(L)= y(A, AB)= L I, y(u) duo
(11.76)
The auxiliary function X(L) thus represents a simple integral of the semivariogram y(h).
The auxiliary function P(L) is defined as the mean value of y(h) when
the two extremities of the vector h describe, independently of each other,
the segment AB of length L:
1
F(L)=y(AB,AB)=2
L
lL du lL y(u-u')du'.
0
(II. 77)
fL (L-u)y(u)du=22
2
F(L)=2
L
iL
uX(u)du.
(11.78)
1\
v
--L._---'
~--
I
FIG.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
110
It can be shown that this double integral of the isotropic function y(r) can
be reduced to the following simple integral:
2
a(L; I) = HAC, BD) = /2
(11.79)
Note that the auxiliary function a (L; l) is not symmetric in (L; I):
ai]; L) = y(AB, CD) y(AC, BD).
X(L; I)
IlL
L ()
a(u; l)du.
(II.80)
Note that the auxiliary function X(L; I) is not symmetric in (L; I):
x(l; L) = y(AB, ABCD) oj; HAC, ABCD).
= y(ABCD, ABCD)
(11.81)
iL
(L - u)a{u; I) du
= 22 fL
L
UX{u; I) duo
(II.82)
Note the similarity between these formulae and those of (II. 78) corresponding to one dimension. In fact, the two-dimensional function Fil; 1)
is nothing other than a one-dimensional function peL) with the mean value
over I having been taken beforehand.
The two-variable auxiliary function H (L; I) is defined as the mean value
of y{h) when one extremity of the vector h is fixed at anyone of the
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111
(II.83)
It can be shown that H (L; I) is also equal to the mean value of ')I (h) when
one extremity of the vector h describes one side of length I and the other
extremity independently describes the adjacent side of length L:
H(L; I) = y(AC, AB).
(11.84)
The auxiliary function H (L; I) is symmetric in (L; I) and represents a
double integral of the isotropic function ')I(r). It can be shown that H(L; I)
can be deduced from the auxiliary functions x(L; I) and F(L; I) by simple
and double differentiation, respectively:
1a
H(L; 1)= 21
a/
1
a
X(L; 1)= 41L al
(11.85)
but
and
and
A-
__ B
I
C
FIG.
(11.86)
I
D
= 0).
The auxiliary function F(L; l) corresponds to the highest order (4) multiple
integral of y(h), all other auxiliary functions can be deduced from F(L; I)
by differentiation or by setting a parameter to zero:
1 i
a
2
a(L'l)=- - L
F (L ' 1)=-Lx(L' I)'
2
,
2 aL
'aL
"
1 a 2P(L;
x(L; l) = 2L aL L
I)
2
and
1
a 2 2
H(L; 1)= 41L al aL I L F(L; I);
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(11.87)
112
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(i) the mean value of y(r) between the two square faces (12) of P,
(11.88a)
(II.88b)
(II.88~)
(iv) the mean value of y(r) between two adjacent faces of P which is
equal to the mean value between a side [ and P,
I(
E - - - -
(II.88d)
- - - - -
-L.F-..
~:""""G-----_..::..o H
......
e = 0)= y(L)
and
x(L; 12 = 0) = x(L)
and
F(L; [2 = 0) = F(L)
and
= 0) = X(L)
and
H (0; [2) =
a(L;
H(L;
[2
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xtl: I).
(II.89)
113
Expressions or charts of these auxiliary functions are given for each of the
four-point isotropic models -y(r) which are in current use.
1. The linear model
withr=lhl.
-y(h)=r
In one dimension,
and
X(L)=L/2
F(L)=L/3.
(II.90)
In two dimensions,
a(L; l)=-J(L +[
3
2
2
2
2 L2
L
l-r J(L 2 + [2)
)+- ~/2 (L-J(L +1 +-log
;
[L
1L
1L
I+J(L + f )
+ J(L 2 +[ 2 ) (1 - -1 -L-) +--log-----'-----.:....
X( L , [ ) = ~6 12
4 6 f
3 l
L
1 z2
L
+-12 L log
+ J(L 2 + [2)
[
;
(II.91)
2
3
IlL
1 -/2) +1 (L
F(L'/)=J(L 2+[2)(---2 - +z3-)
,
5151
15L 2
15 z2 L 2
1L
+ 6-/ log
1
H(L;
I+J(L + /
L
[2
2
l)=3 J(L + [2)+ 6L log
L+../(L 2 + Z2 )
+ (; L log
Z
;
1 l2
L+J(L 2+ f ) L 2
+ 6l
log
1+J(L 2 + z2 )
x(l; 1)=O'7351l,
F(l; l)=O'5213[,
l:
with r =
Ih I.
In one dimension,
X(L) = log L -1
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and
F(L) = log L
3/2.
(11.92)
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
114
0)
tan
23'
+ (7T_
(J.
(11.93)
25 tan ' ()
12 +-6-log sin ()
(J -
2B
0+--.
tan
3
L L2
L 3 L 2 1 L4
a(L'/)=
log
1--+7T-+-Iog
- 12
- -[4+ ... .,
,
2
1
1-2(2
1T L 1 L 2 L 11 L 2 1 L 4
x(L; 1)= log 1-"2+2/+3 [2 log i-18 [2- 60 14+' .. ;
3
3 1T L
1L
25 L
1 L
(II.94)
1
1 1
a (L; i) = log L + 12 L 2 - 60 L 4 +,
.. ;
7T I 1 [2
1 14
-- -+ - +
.
X( L ', I) = log L -1 + -6 L 12 L 2 180 L 4 . .
(II. 95)
3 1T 1 1 [2
I 25 [2
1 [4
F(L; 1)=IOgL-"2+'"j L +"6 L z log L -72 L 2-180 L 4 + ....
Remark For values r = Ihl < 1 the function log r has negative values.
Consequently. for small values of L and I, the auxiliary functions a, x, F
can take negative values. Every estimation or dispersion variance defined
on non-point supports and calculated with these auxiliary functions is.
nevertheless, always positive. since every regularization of the logarithmic
model is a conditional positive definite model.
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
115
Linear equivalents
IS
The auxiliary function F(a; b) for a rectangle with sides (a, b) and a > b,
is given by the first three terms of the limited expansion (II.95):
F(a; b)=log a
3
2
3
2
7Th
3 a
b
a
b)] -2=loga-2+~+""
3
3 b
3
[a( 1+-;;F(a;b)=log(a+b)-2=log
Thus, the two-dimensional auxiliary function F(a; b), for the rectangle
with sides a and b, is approximately eq ual to the one-dimensional auxiliary
function F{l) for the segment I = a + b :
with [ = a + b.
(11.96)
r-
3/2.
(11.97)
D\v/ V) = y(V, V)- y(v, v) = (log L - 3/2)- (log 1- 3/2) = log (L/ I).
If the two domains v and V are geometrically similar, e.g., if they are
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and
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
116
3 r 1 r3
2 a -2 a 3
for r =
1 = sill
for r
a (range)
3L
1L
4a-'87'
VLE[O,aJ,
3 a
1--8 L'
VL~a;
X(L)=
"2
F(L)=
1 L
a - 20 a 3 ,
1L
(11.98)
VL E [0, a],
2
3 a 1 a
1---+-~
4 L 5 L2,
VL~a.
In two dimensions, the exact expressions for the auxiliary functions x(L; I);
Ftl.; l) and H(L; I) can be found in J. Serra (l967 a) and D. Guibal (1973a).
In practice, the following charts, which are graduated in terms of LIa and
II a, are used.
Chart no. 1 gives the function l'G(L) = a(L; /)- a (0; 1) = a(L; 1)- F(l).
This function is simply the serni-variogram graded over the constant
thickness l, ct. section 11.0.3, formula (II.55). As F(l) is given by
formula (11.98), this chart also provides the values of the function
a(L; I).
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
no.
no.
no.
no.
no.
2 gives
3 gives
4 gives
5 gives
6 gives
the
the
the
the
the
with r =
Ih I.
(II.99)
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117
In two dimensions, the exact expressions for the auxiliary functions can be
found in J. Serra (1967) and D. Guibal (l973a). In practice, the following
charts, graduated in terms of L/ a and II a, are used.
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
no.
no.
no.
no.
no.
no.
11 gives
12 gives
13 gives
14 gives
15 gives
16 gives
5. The r B model
y(h)=r
withr=lhland
OE]O,2f.
X(L)= [/(8+1),
(II. roo)
In mining applications, the geometry of the data supports and of the blocks
to be estimated is very often rectangular, and, thus, the previously defined
and pre-calculated auxiliary functions can be used when calculating the
mean values y.
By way of example, several geostatistical operations will be given, with
results that can be read from charts.
More charts for the spherical and exponential models
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
118
with
and
ii(O, 0) = 1'(0) = 0
O"t = 2xUI2)-F(l)
(ii) The estimation variance of a segment AB of length I by two samples
located at its extremities A and B. Letting if;' = {A + B} designate the
set of the two sample points, this variance is expressed as
because of symmetry;
uL = 2x(l) ~ F(l) A
y(/)/2,
B
I
--------t
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yeo, OIBJ) =
H (l12; liZ),
because of symmetry;
and
HO, 0) = 1'(0) =
119
(iv) The estimation variance of the square ABCD of side l by the set 'iC
of its four corners, d. Fig. 11.50, is written as
because of symmetry;
y(g, 'iC) = yeA, 'iC) = ~[y(A, A)+ yeA, B)+ yeA, C)+ yeA, D)]
=
and, thus,
!-yU) + ~'Y(lv'2)
C~D
L
Charts no. 9 and 19 give the estimation variance of a rectangular parallelepiped P with a square base (L x 12 ) by its median square, d. Fig. II.52:
cr~6 = 2y(IJEF, P)-y(P, P)-y(IJEF, IJEF)
=
As the functions F(L; 12 ) and F(l; I) are given elsewhere (Charts no. 4, 5
and 14, 15), these charts no. 9 and 19 can be used to calculate the
2
three-dimensional auxiliary functions X (L; 1 ) .
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120
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(it = 2i(U, P) -
L
FIG. 11.52. Estimation of a parallelepiped by its median square.
As the functions Fil; [2) and P(L) are given elsewhere (Charts no. 5 and
15 and formulae (11.98) and (11.99)), these Charts no. 10 and 20 can be
used to calculate the three-dimensional auxiliary function H(L; [2).
L
I
I
-\
J
\
\
\
FIG.
This exercise is intended to familiarize the reader with the use of the
various auxiliary functions.
Let P be a rectangular panel with sides a and b, and located within an
isotropic regionalization represented by the point model y(r), cf. Fig. 11.54.
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121
I
I
I
I
[
K - - - - - - - T - - - - - - - La
I
I
I
I
J
FIG.
,Y
a+b
ax(b; a)+bx(a; b)
a+b
'#NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
a+b
122
Since
2(a+b)
aF(a)+2bH(a; b)+aa(b; a)
2(a + b)
=-....:..-..;~-----=-....;,.........:-....._....;,.......=--...:.
we finally obtain
2
UE
I
( b)
= Zax(b;a)+2bx{a;h)
-F a"
a+b
'
a 2P(a)+4ahH{a; b)+b 2P(b)+a 2a(b; a)+b 2a(a; b)
2(a +b)2
Considering formula (11.91)of the linear model and a square panel (a = b),
we get the following values for the auxiliary functions:
F(a)=a/3,
a(a;a)=1'077a,
Thus, (]'~l
= 0'0479a
and
xCa;a)=O'652a,
H(a; a)=0765a.
=~[F(b)+a{a; b)]
Similar calculations
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123
Considering the values x(aI2; a)= O'454a and H(aI2; aI2)=O383a, the
numerical application gives ui 3 = Q0288a, for a total sampled
length 2a.
Rectangle evaluated by a single median IJ
can be found:
Q0288a
II.E.4. Charts
All the charts given hereafter correspond to the two following spherical
and exponential isotropic models with a unit sill value. All the distances
considered by the charts are relative distances ria (divided by the
parameter a of the model).
Spherical model:
1 r3
y(r)= 2-;-2 a 3 '
{
1 = sill,
3 r
V r ;3 a (actual range).
Exponential model:
y(r)= l-exp (-ria),
with a sill equal to 1 and a practical range a'
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3a.
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
124
Chart no.
Spherical
model
Exponential
model
Grading
'YG(L)=a(L; 1)-a(O; I)
11
2
3
12
5
6
14
15
16
7
8
9
10
17
18
19
20
Auxiliary functions
X(L; I)
H(L; I)
F(L; I)
F(L; (2)
u.. f)-a(O; 12 )
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13
090 -----;..----i--
,-, ,-'--------t--
~-
____ ~_+---L
060
125
,
I
j--i---+-
-----j---+----l
------->---i-I------:.-
0,70
,
,
"T------i--+--r---,-!----'---+! ,,-
0_60
...J
'"
>...
---T-------+----.-.V.,
0,50_ ..._+-.-, ..
V. h.~
OAO
0,30
020
0.8
0,9
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1.0
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
126
10
9
8
7
6
--------t ---::---~
J""'.....
" t~s~~:."~F'" "1\."" """ "" "~0!J o.!J!J~
r-,
<,
" " .:\. ~
_p.
.
.
-I 1"--,' . !"\.. '" """
0.$l~ .~~
-----....,
.>:i"
:""'
"
""'
"
",,\"
<,
'\
r--.' :
'Po "-j"\
"
5
1'..
"I\. '\
'"
'j.,.
I 0'!J !J...
'PO'
0!J
I\.
4
3
1:)
-....
r---
'I'.
- ~ 1'-" 1\ 1\
0.,
0,
--I---- 'I'- ~ ~
o. '., ~
~ I--- I'--- 1'-.. [\ 1\
~
r'\
0:>, \
-=-I---I----I'---~
_~~r---...!'..f'.
-,
I
O,g
0'8
-......,,,
0-4
0'3
02
_,
\
~ -~
o \" \
~~. o~ .~ -'v--\
\
-,
~" 0'
_" \ \
0
a I '1,"'0\
0-1
~"
G'"" ~\
I"
'
~ "~ ~- ~.
~~.
1\
r"o \
\
r\
1\f\ r\ [\
l\l\
[\1\"
r, 1\ 1'\ l'~~
i\ \
\
1\
i\ \ \ \
1\
1\
"
"\ \
1\
1\
\"
\\\ \ \\ \ \1\
1\
f\~'
<, -, "~o""" 1\ \
'\ \
\ \ \ 1\ \ \
,,0"'0" \
r-, '"
r-,
r=====::::: <,
05
00
:~~I-"':'>'"
-......... ,............
---r-
0-7
06
1\
1\
\
1\
02
0-3 04
OG 08
45678910
i/o
CHART NO.2.
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127
10 r-------..,.--==-----.------,-.o::::-r--..:--r""'r"O<l'""""ll-.....--....-.........,..,...................,...,......................~.......__ .............._______,
9 I----=o::;;i:::::;:=-8
+--~~-....-:-____+_:::......I,._----=~P-Irt~~~~----"!.~~>J....."~~~~
7 ;----k=---_+__
61---"""""4:::.::::
5 ~==_.jk-~""_<d-.p"..J-Nx.:~~-~~~~~~
j----_~.:::- -~-.,-----f"--+~""-<
2!---=:t::::------''''''''''--.;;;;::-
0::.
....
<,
0'9
oa
07
06
0-5
0-4
03
02
02
03
04
06
08
L/o
CHART No.3. Spherical model. Function
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H(L; l).
6 7 8 910
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
128
~
.....
0-9
08
07
0-6
05
04
0-3
0-2
06
08
Llo
CHART NO.4. Spherical model. Function F(L; I).
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6 7 8 910
I:l
-....
129
,
0'9
06
0-7
0-6
05
0-4
0-3
02
0-3
0-6 08
04
Lla
CHART No.5.
NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
5678910
090
~.
i
i
----t-
s-
oso
060
---i "
.L.
f
I
+-
I-
;-
II
070
- ... _-f
-;
--
'"
r5 0-50
1:1
I
j---_._-
--t
N
..; 040
-t- ...
f---
1:1
,
(;
\'
'"'
030
__ -v} -
-t--,.
'I/o
020
010" "
11:
I/o
140
,'10,160
~- ~/O: 180
1/0'2,00
., I/o' 2 50 '1'-"""'----' ---- .,,['300!
= 4'00_-
_,n
L'IU-OO
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
OIS
' 09
Llo
f:
_1..___
131
a: E~
-, 18 -- 10
.............
t
-I
0-4
06 08
~,
03
02
01
009
008
007
006
005
/
004
003
002
0-2
03
I/o
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6 7 B 910
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
132
Liz LIZ
10 r-------...,...~-rr__r-..,_____,_,~..,..,,,.....,..._r____,_______..-------,...,...-7T-_,___,________,~.....,_____,__,
9
8
7
6
5
4
:3
<,
09
0'8
0-7
06
05
04
0'3
02
0-6
0,8
Uo
CHART NO.8.
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
crL.
7 8910
r:====r==r=~o=r==l+===:L~~r==C~*:r:l
10
133
---+------;.++----+--+-------r-
----:io-""-
6~-----:---+
51-----
4
3 1--------.;----._..--
21-----+--+--f'------+------+-
'"
<,
0-9
0-8
0-7
0-6
05
0-4
03
0-2
06 0'8
L!a
CHART NO,
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6 7 8 910
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
134
Ia r - - - -........-------,,..-----rT"-..,..-...-----,----y,-----r--,-__.,~r____.,_-___._-_r___,______,_____,......,..___r_l
9
8
7
6 I------------cf-
5
4
3
<,
-..j
0-9
0-8
07
0-6
0-5
0-4
0-3
0-2
(/a
CHART NO.
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6 7 B 910
....-
1. .
+.
090
~,
SI-
080
';n
070
f--
_~r~M
060
---'
::.'" 0 50
040-
,
(;
030
110
020
h_
/101000
~.
~
'"
11:
700
110 02000 -,
10
0-5
15
2-5
,~
35
L/a
I: ydL).
45
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
136
I~ c===::r:::::=::F3;;;J==r::r:S:r=:S=3:S::::I~Qr=D-:-1
-- ,------i'
----8 r=====;;===1===r:="
~ ~=~=~r===
5
~===-~+:-~~-.--J
4r-----....=-4:::::::.:=-=~
...----.--...-t.. -....
r------'---__
0:,
<,
....
09
08
07
06
0-5
004
-+- ..
03
---
02
0-2
0-3
04
06
0-8
L 10
CHART NO.
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
6 7 8 910
137
10 r-----.--~~====:'
9
8 F"---'=c;;;..;.:=:.....f--"-"::=;;,;.e:.;....-.~~..:.-
~ ~=--:----:-=:::-~~-~
5 F='--"-~=-=l~-.:--.--:..~~
3--
II-----~
09r---~~
08t--
07r--_~
r---_
06 -05
04
o 3 ~. . .
o I 01oQ~---'----'~~-'----'--;~~:-'::"------;~.J.J...7-::"-'7::-,-:"-------'_.L..~LL..Il......l...l-~-.-L....L.L-~-.L....L~L-.....J
2
CHART NO.
"3
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6 7 8 9 10
138
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
I~ C:==:I:=::======Eb:====:=:;;]C~=s[~h:5IS:CS:O;~
:~--_._._---i...-._-------T---_._----':----_ ....j,~".,_.
8 ---------------
~ r::==r=+=::=;=-=:"-+=4::~
5F==:~~~~~
....----.i.__~.~~m ~
2 ---
09
08
07
06
0-5
04
03
0-2
0-1
01
0-4
06
0-8
Ua
CHART NO.
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7 8 9 Ie
139
8
7
6
I
0-2
03
0-4
06
08
Lla
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[Z).
6 7 8910
I
I
---+-----;
i'
_, ~i . -----t,,------,
---+-------- - ----
090
__
_,
,
e
I-
080
f---= ",
1 -. t
-~_
t--"-r -. .
--_.... -.+--_._M'
~I
l--J-~
'
070
l J0
~-=- ~
,-----1---+---'-
-.,.0,10
_ .-
__'_" _"
~,-
-----t- "-~
~--+----------+-
II 0
060
'
"b--+
~ ..
._----~-+--
o
'" 050
'----i------
'"
'-
-:::J
040
l:l
030
(;
\'
'"'
~
020 ----
11:
05
10
15
-----'~_
2-0
i
25
30
35
40
45
Lta
CHART NO. 16. Exponential model. Grading over
n.
50
141
--
1--'
{
I 0
0-9
08
,--------r--:-...,--,.----r--r--r--,-,-r-----,----r---,----r~,..._I"1___rl
..
.._ .. ._.._ .....1...-.
---i
i- I ; -1 - --- -------~-"'~""" -------,--,,,,,,,--.
-'I, "'''-ri ----------,'
~
0,7
-:--1;; . .
- __
....
...
__._
',j;;
0'6
-----1----
05
--i-- .
0-4 -
0'"
......... "'-r
03
_-t
-----
02
"It
'
E~ ~t"'-
...--1-........
,
:
~.
1"I
01
009
008 007
a 06 f------------ ------ ------------ --i-------'/---
---.--
-f-'!
005
04
~--
,L..
--
~i!----+----
-----.-
--i-----~--_i_-~---~-"----------------------------------
---- --;--------
t------!
0- 03
J._
/
a2
CHART NO.
03
04
06
08
I
I/o
6 7 8 9 10
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142
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
10 ,-----------;--~-_.,___.~~__,__._______"_____,______,....__.____r_____,_______._______r_______r..,.....__,..,.__....,.......,,,......____.__r.>""l
9 . . -------S
7
6
5
4
<,
09
08 .
07
0-6
05
004
03
0-2
02
0-3
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004
6 7 8 9 II
,..,
1"11
143
.-1
i/2 i/2
10r-------r---,--....,...-,..---,--..,.....,.....,.......,.---."--x--~...,....-........,........,-.,...,,........_r__co
~ f----~~_~---+_--+-+----+----!--++-!------7''---,,L-_____7'''II______~~__!r_+_7'q._+___:J,.~
61-------f--51-------+---+
4 r------+-----t--_+___
31-----+---+--+
21-------f--------1f--
0-8 f-----.-"f--------Jl'-------+-+-+---++-+-+-+
0-6 r----+---+--,'--t--------.+-++---+-:fi---If--i---if--r
o 5 f----------t'--------+-+---I--- .f--f------A-----1I'------hI--+-----tf-t-.f--+--t
o 2 1-----+-------11-1'---......<-,
02
0-3 04
06
0'8
Llo
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6 7 8 910
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
144
8
7
6
5 ---4
2 ---------
1-
08
0-7
O6 1-------,1-----
05
004
02
06
08
l/a
CHART NO.
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6 7 8 9 10
I
~.
s-
00
090
080
.
__ :
: I '
" ',' .
I-
';n
070
f---------+--
;.
060
o 50 f------------+040
~---
-- -.....
....-----;------.-.-t- "...
MM"'''
030
.+_~_+c_.+_
020
I
(;
t-
---I
~.
~
'"
11:
01
02
0-4
06 08 10
5 6
8 10
20
30 40
60 80 100
0/1
CHART NO. 21. Spherical model. Regularized semi-variogram. First point, y/(l);
I
~.
s-
07
oil: 1- 3
I-
06 I
m __
---+--
~-:-~
0-9
0-511-----
S
~
04r
I'
031
5=1
___
___
0-21
\\'
';/",/:;>/
JB'C;;,/J,..r
:;;;0>"
--=
05
J
J-
o 1I
R I ::
_I
0-4
03
02
2-0
25
'"'
1,
1:
05
CHART NO.
10
15
hit
I
01
-: 7 / / v / /
....--
09
~.
so
"/ /
/'
08
./
v /
I-
./
0-7
0-6
';n
--c::
~
0/1 =2-0
0-4
./
18
H3
-:
,31//// / / /
r!}///IJ j/ -:
If,IV/li' / V V
II//;W /20/V
W//J'// /
/
-"'"
.//
/"
..-/
/"
,/
./"
1-4/
"oil'"
0-5
//
/ / 1/ /
~/ I / / /
J.7 / / I / / /
, A / I I I / /v /
/
./
./
"/
/'
15/
0-3
0-2
~.
~
'"
1
1:
01
~~V
V
2
10
II
h/t
CHART NO
12
13
.---
III
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149
0/ observation
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
150
1--F-~
--
- -- ------
Yo+Jj +Y2
70+ 71
--
71
--/
/
V
I
Co
Yo
--
-=='------
72
-- --
-----~-~
(10 m)
(200 m)
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
151
ify(h)=IYi(h).
(111.2)
The operator 'l acts identically on each of the components Yi of the nested
model y.
The same holds true for the covariance; the operator 'itt operates identically on each of the components C, of the nested model C:
g(C) =
gee)
if C(h) =
L C(h).
(111.3)
and
y(h)= C o + Yl(h),
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152
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
at the origin of amplitude Co, which is called the" nugget constant", d. Fig.
liLt.
Definition
The term "nugget effect" can be generalized from its specific meaning in
gold-bearing deposits. It is used to characterize the residual influence of all
variabilities which have ranges (ao) much smaller than the available distances of observation (h ao). A nugget effect will appear on the variogram (or covariance) as an apparent discontinuity at the origin.
It must be stressed that the definition of a nugget effect is
closely related to the scale of observation. The same structure 'YI (h) with
range al = 10 m and sill C 1 would be quite evident on a sampling grid of 3
to 5 m, but would appear as no more than a nugget effect on a grid of 30 to
50 m, cf. Fig. Il I.L Experimentally, on such a large grid the two
components Co and C 1 of the nugget constant would be indistinguishable
unless data are available to put into evidence the range a I.
For this reason, it is often advisable when a sampling programme has
been carried out on a systematic grid (of, for example, sides b = 100 m) to
take a few other samples on a smaller grid (for example, b/IO = 10 m). In
this way, data are available at two different scales of observation, which
makes it possible to study the nested structures and interpret any possible
nugget effect.
Scale effect
c(Ql
- ---------
C( h)= 0
o .. - -------------'
h
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153
Co
for h
G,}
'tlhl> e.
(IlIA)
In the course of this book, a pure nugget effect will often be represented
by the notation with square brackets: yo(h)=[Co(O)-Co(h)], so as to
distinguish it from a structure 'Y1 (h) with a greater range.
= Co
for h = O,}
Co - yo(h) = 0, \:Ilhl > e.
Co(h)= {CoCO)
(IlLS)
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154
MINING GEOSTATISHCS
C(h)= Co(h)+
C(h).
i= 1
Co(h) = 0
It was shown previously that the main geostatistical operators are linear
functions of the covariance C. If 'l: is one of these operators, then, from
(III.3), we have
k
g'(C)=
~(Co)+
~(C;).
i= 1
Mean values
Mean values of the type Co(v, v) or Co(v, V) are calculated for the four
possible relative configurations of the two supports v and V. The following
results are obtained.
(i) v
A
v
Co(O)~-.
and
yo(v, v)=
and
(III.6a)
(ii) v c V, V contains v:
Co(v, V) = V
(III.6b)
Co(V, V) = 0
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and
Yo(v, V) = CoCO).
(III.6c)
IS5
Co(v, V)=A
Mea:; n
yo(v, V)=
and
Co(O)~AMea~; n V.
(III.6d)
In all four cases, we have v, V ao, i.e., the range ao of the pure nuggeteffect model is very small compared with the dimensions of the supports v
and V~ also, A = f Co(h) dh (recalling that, in the three-dimensional space,
h is a vector and this integral in fact represents a triple integral over the
whole space).
Proof:
v~
v.
1L
Co(x - y)dy.
dx
A,
'VXEV,
oo
and, thus,
f
v
1
CoCv,
V) =-
A
-dx
v V
=A
-.
If not, i.e., if there exist points XoE v such that the sphere Bao(xo), centred
on Xo and with radius ao, is not entirely contained within V, then, for these
points xo, fv Co(x - y) dy ~ A. But, as regards the second integration, Iv dx,
the influence of these points Xo is negligible (since ao is very small
compared with the dimensions of v). Thus, the previous expression holds
true: Co(v, V) = AI v.
Having established the mean values Co of a pure nugget effect, we can
now proceed to the study of its effect on the three main geostatistical
operators.
(i) Regularization on a support v with e ao If "Yo(h) is the point semivarlogram, then the serni-variogram regularized on a support v is written,
according to (lIA1). as
'Yov(h) = 'Yo(v, Vh)- -ro(v, v),
where v" is the translation of the support v by the vector h.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
156
o
YOlJ(h)=
if h =0,
[1-
A
v -
Meas v
A
v
(I1I.7)
if Ihl > v,
with all the dimensions of observation much greater than the range ao, i.e.,
v, Meas v
n V,
and:
h ao
Vv ao.
In practice, point data are seldom available and the nugget effect will be
revealed by the regularized nugget constant Cov = A/ 0, when 0 is the
smallest support of information (e.g., piece of core). For all other supports
V, the regularized nugget constant Cov is given by the inverse proportionality relation:
v
COy
= Cov V'
with v, V ao
(III. 8)
if V contains v,
C ou( 1+
~),
A(!+~-2 Meas v n
v
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V\
vV-;
if v and
V are disjoint,
if v and V have a
non-zero intersection,
(III. 9)
157
v ao,
(III. 10)
VV no,
1 to n} is
u ao,
t Strictly speaking, the standard formula a.2 J n of the statistics of independent variables
corresponds to the estimation variance of the expectation E{Z(x)} of the RF Z(x}.
However, under the hypothesis of stationarity and ergodicity, the mean grade Zv~'
( I J v>S vZ (x) dx of a fixed domain V, with V (10' tends towards the expecta lion E {Z(x) } .
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158
..
-----------,
h)
.----------~,".~-
r, (
60
>-..
30
~~.,
10
60
50
h
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159
These experimental variances are greater than the above nugget constants,
the difference corresponding to the additional variability and nesting effect
of the macro-structure observed at large distances (h > 50 m).
On the scale of observation, hE [5,50 m], which is also the scale on
which production is carried out, this pure nugget effect indicates that
selective mining is not possible in this deposit, unless the size of the
selection unit is of the order of the vein (5 to 40 em). In fact, the absence of
spatial correlation makes impossible any local differentiation by estimation: at any location in the deposit, the best local estimator of the cumulative quartz thickness is the global mean, rn = 5 em m -1 in the direction
studied (approximately vertical).
This example is one of the rare examples of deposits in which the main
variable exhibits no spatial auto-correlation at the scale on which the study
is made. There is, however, a macro-structure which appears at greater
distances.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
160
100
15 to 20 m
(a )
(c)
( b)
,,-
-N- S
,,- ./
io
N-S
/
"/
I
I _
"
/.
05
I I
/
./
/
1/
II
Co
Co
100
500
0 10
50
100
h (m)
FIG.
Thus, what is seen on the hectometric scale as a nugget effect is, in fact,
the micro-structure of the jagged outline of the karstic foot wall. The total
variability of the bauxite thickness, up to h = 500 m in the N-S direction,
can, thus, be represented as a nested model which is the sum of two
transition models (spherical, for example) with ranges an = 20 m and a I =
250m.
This nested succession of variabilities at different scales is a very
frequent phenomenon in mining geostatistics. The best example of it is the
nested structures of the ferriferous basin of Lorraine (France) studied by J.
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161
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
162
Two properties
By means of the two following properties of positive definite functions, a
vast family of theoretical covariance or covariogram models can be defined
in terms of basic positive definite schemes.
(i) Every linear combination of covariances with positive coefficients is
a covariance. The same holds true for variograms:
C{h)=
i:
n1
L:
y(h)=
A7C(h),
(111.12)
Ail'i(h),
i= 1
L:
Z(x)=
AiYi(x)
.=1
C(h)=
TI c,.(h) =
(III. 13)
j=1
y(h)= C(O)-C(h)=
TI
C(O)-
;=1
TI
Ci(h).
(III.14)
i=1
Il" Y 1(x )
1=1
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163
y(.J(h~+h;+h~)),
where (h u , h", hw ) are the three coordinates of the vector h.
1. Models with a sill, or transition models
It will be recalled from formula (11.13) and Fig. 11.4 that the sill value of a
transition structure is the a priori variance of the RF Z (x) which is secondorder stationary and has a covariance C(h) = y(oc.) - y(h).
The models presented below have been normed to 1, i.e., they correspond to RF's with unit a priori variance:
Var {Z(x)}= C(O)= ')'(00)= 1.
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164
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
y(r)= {
3 r 1 /'
2" a -"2 a 3 '
VrE[O,a],
1 = sill,
'rfr';3!;a.
(III.1S)
b) Exponential model:
(III. 16)
Note that the spherical model effectively reaches its sill for a finite distance
r = a = range, while the exponential model reaches its sill only asymptotically, d. Fig. IlLS. However, because of experimental fluctuations of
the variogram, no distinction will be made in practice between an effective
and an asymptotic sill. For the exponential model, the practical range a
can be used with
I
a'
3a
O 95 = l.
r= a
a'/3, one third of the practical range for the exponential model.
Thus, the spherical model reaches its sill faster than the exponential model,
r(r)
....-----------------------------------,
I u0-F========*?~====3?~=::::::::~;;=:::::::::=======4
095I Ex ponenucl
I
I
I
I
I
IT
2/3
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r/o
165
Parabolic behaviour at the origin This very regular behaviour at the origin
is seldom found in mining practice. In the absence of nugget effect, it
corresponds to a RF Z (x), which is mean-square differentiable, and, thus,
to a ReV z(x), which is very continuous in its spatial variability. Thickness
variograms of continuous sedimentary beds sometimes display such a
parabolic behaviour at the origin, but are usually accompanied by a slight
nugget effect due to errors of measure.
(c) Gaussian model:
(Ill. 17)
The sill is reached asymptotically and a practical range can be considered
with a' = a.J3, for which yea') = 095 = 1, d. Fig. IlLS.
A parabolic drift effect (d. section ILA.3, "Behaviour at infinity" and
section II.A.5, Fig. 11.8) does not stabilize around a sill for large distances
and, thus, cannot be confused with the parabolic behaviour at the origin of
a Gaussian model.
However, for small distances (r < 2aj3), it makes little difference
whether a very regular local variation is interpreted as a drift effect or as a
stationary Gaussian structure.
with 8 E ]0,2[,
(JILI8)
Remark 1 For small distances (h ~ 0), the linear model can be fitted to
any model that has a linear behaviour at the origin (e.g., spherical and
exponential models).
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166
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Remark 2
y( r) , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
(111.20)
Note that log r ~ -00 as h ~ 0, so that the logarithmic model cannot be used
to describe regionalizations on a strict point support. On the other hand,
this model, once regularized on a non-zero support v, d. section II.D,
formulae (11.49) and (11.59), can be used as the model of a regularized
serni-variogram 'Yv (h). In particular, the regularization of a point
logarithmic model is a function which is null at the origin: 'Yv(O) = O.
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167
Vr~I=1.
with
Ci,>
05; C 1 = 15, al
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= 3;
C 2 = 2, a2
"rEU,131]
= 13.
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
168
Within the interval r E [I, 13i] the relative error involved in fitting the
nested model "If (r) to the regularized model 1'1 is less than 3 %, 11'1"If 1/1'1 < O 03. In practice, this can be considered as a very satisfactory fit.
x
2
FIG.
7
rll
I
9
I
II
13
yt
yt
yt.
3. Hole-effect models
A semi-variograrn y(h) is said to display a hole effect when its growth is not
monotonic, The hole effect can appear on models with or without sills, d.
Fig. III.8(a) and (b).
The following hole-effect model, positive definite in the three-dimensional space, is given:
C(r)=sinrlr
and
y(r)=l-sinr/r.
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(III.21 )
169
This model has a sill and parabolic behaviour at the origin, cf. Fig. III.8(a):
y(r)=r 2j6 when r~a.
Amplitude of the hole effect Let a be the relative amplitude of the hole
effect, i.e., the minimum value of the covariance divided by the sill value
C(O):
(o)
IS
a212,
r--------.....,
(b)
.:
C(r]
4".
FIG. III.S. Hole-effect model. (a) With sill; (b) without sill.
(I1I.22)
for one-dimensional h.
In this case, the relative amplitude a is equal to 1 and superior to 0-212.
The cosine model C(h) = cos h is not positive definite in three dimensions
and, thus, its use must be restricted to one particular direction.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
170
Note that the model (111.22) is periodic without any dampening of the
oscillations. In practice, however, such a hole-effect model is always associated, in a nested manner, with other models with or without sills and the
considerable oscillations of the cosine will, thus, be dampened, d. Case
Study 6 in section IV.B.
Interpretation A pseudo-periodic component of the regionalization may
appear on the experimental serni-variograms as a hole effect; for example,
the stationary sequence of two well-differentiated types of mineralization
in an ore body. If this sequence is not isotropic (and, in general, it is not),
then the hole effect will be observed only in certain directions, for example,
the vertical direction if the phenomenon is a pseudo-periodic sequence of
horizontal stratification, d. Fig. 1I1.9(a).
If the grades of Fig. II I. 9 are point grades, then the vertical semivariogram will exhibit a hole effect with an amplitude possibly greater than
0217 and the abscissae b, and b2 of the oscillations can be related to
the mean vertical dimensions of the waste and rich are strata. The
horizontal semi-variograms will differ according to whether they are
located within a rich or waste stratum, cf. Fig. III. 9(b).
z{ x)
~ - - - - - - - - - -,_._-~-,--
( b) I z( x)
I
;
Rich
"'tI'''i+f-I'tH-l/lI"ttf\t-+-tIf-'''i
I
40{.,\>~44>-,,: I
x
Tin'
~rI.-h-)----~-----------'
{a )
R,c"
__
. - - - - _ . ._----
Waste
ol~.
h
FIG. II 1.9. Verti cal hole effect. (a) Vertical dire ction ; (b) hori zontal direction.
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171
"
akiY;(x),
1=1
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(111.23)
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
172
Ckk,(h)=
L L
ak,ak'iKjj(h)=
,=1,=1
akiak'jKj(h).
,=1
yr
being
with y~ and y~' having the same direct covariance K;(h); y~ and
orthogonal except when i = j and 1=[' simultaneously. The cross-covariance of Zdx) with Zdx) is then written as
n
Ckk'(h)=
lIj
[La~ja~.;]K,(h)=
,=11=]
,~l
b~k,Ki(h),
with
Vi = 1 to n.
This last expression gives the n matrices of coefficients [b~k'] and is nothing
more than the general expression of a positive semidefinite matrix.
The linear model for coregionalization is then a model where
(i) all the direct and cross-covariances arc derived from linear
combinations of n basic direct covariances {Ki (h), i = 1 to n}, i.e.,
Ckk(h)=
I"
,=1
b~k" K;{h)
with
b~k'
b~,k,
Vi;
(111.25)
(ii) for a fixed index i, the coefficient matrix [b~k'] is positive semidefinite.
Remark 1 The condition enforcing the coefficient matrices [b~k'] to be
positive semidefinite is a necessary and sufficient condition for a set of
functions {Ckk(h)}, defined as linear combinations of n basic covariances
K(h), to constitute a linear model of coregionalization. The condition is
only sufficient for this set of functions {Ckk(h)} to constitute a model of
coregionalization.
Remark 2 Remember that a matrix [bkk,] is positive semidefinite if all its
eigenvalues are real and non-negative.
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173
b 12
bn
~O,
~o.
... ,
bK
bK 2
(111.26)
bK K
bL >0;
(Schwarz's inequality).
"
= L b~k"
with b ~k'
Yi (h)
i=1
b~'b
Vi,
(III.27)
and
Ckk,(h) = Ckd-h).
Zdx) =
~ aki Y;(x),
ac-, Yj(x).
j
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(111.28)
174
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
h k + h',
This last cross-covariance Ckk,(h) is no longer symmetric in (h, -h) as, Vi,
Ki(h -hk)r=. Kj(-h -h k) unless the lag h k is zero.
Restriction 2 The coeffident matrices [b ~k'], \;/ i, must be positive definite.
This condition entails Schwarz's inequality:
Vi,
Vk rfk'.
(111.29)
\Ii = 1 to n.
(III.30)
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175
yo(h). This model thus corresponds to variables Zk(X), Zk'(X), the variabilities of which are proportionally related to a unique principal cause
characterized by the model yo(h). This occurs in mining practice in the
study of the two proportional variables, thickness t(x) and accumulation
a (x) = t(x) . z (x); z (x) being the mean grade of the drill core of length t(x).
Restriction of the intrinsic coregionalization model The intrinsic coregionalization model is particularly convenient for calculations, since studying the coregionalization amounts to the study of the single regionalization
with model l'o(h). On the other hand, this model is a very particular one
and has an important limitation in applications: it can be shown, d. section
V.A.4 "Cokriging", that if two variables Z; and Zk' are in intrinsic coregionalization and if these two variables have been sampled in an identical
way (e.g., each sample is analysed systematically for Z; and Zd, then there
is no gain in using the Zk' information in the estimation of the Zi:
However, if the variable Zk has been undersampled with respect to Zk',
then the estimation of Z; can be improved by using Zi. values.
111.8.4. Models of anisotropy
As x represents a point with coordinates (x"' Xl" x w ) in the three-dimensional space, the notation y(h) represents a function of the vector h of
rectangular coordinates (h", h v , h w ) or spherical coordinates (I h I, a, 'P ),
where Ih I is the modulus of the vector h and a and (() its longitude and
latitude.
Isotropy When the function y(lhl, a, q; depends only on the modulus Ihl
of the vector h, the phenomenon is said to be "isotropic". The variability of
the three-dimensional RF Z (x"' xv, x w ) , characterized by the serni-variogram y(ih I), is identical in all directions of the space and, thus,
(i) in spherical coordinates,
Va and
tp ;
Anisotropy The phenomenon is said to be "anisotropic" when its variability is not the same in every direction. The structural function
y(lh I), a, 'P) characterizing this spatial variability in mean square thus
depends on the direction parameters a and tp,
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
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177
+ h ~2 + h ~))
(111.31 )
isotropic
with
h~ = as-h; +a12hv +a13hw,
= as.h; +a32h,,+a33hw,
- ;;>"T""------=~-----1
o
FIG.
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Ihj
178
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
represented by two spherical models with the same sill 1 and different
ranges aOl l and a 0l 2 Thus, since 1''''1 (h)"= y"'2(h), the phenomenon represented is anisotropic: the variability depends on the directions Cl'j and a2.
In order to make the two curves Ycq and 1''''2 in Fig. 111.10 coincide, it is
sufficient to multiply h, by the ratio of affinity QOI7./a"" or, conversely, to
multiply the distances h by the ratio a",) a",7.' Indeed, consider the two
spherical models
and
i.e.,
a
h',1 -h
I ~.
a",
Subject to the change of coordinates h', = h1a",)(l"'Il the variability in the
two directions a 1 and a2 is characterized by a single spherical model with a
range a"'2'
More generally, if n directional semi-variograms {y",Jh i ) , i = 1 to n} can
be represented by n transition models of the same type (spherical, for
example) with the same sill, and the n ranges of which form an ellipticalshaped directional graph (in two dimensions), or ellipsoidal (in three
dimensions), geometric anisotropy is present.
An example is given on Fig. 111.11, which shows four semi-variograms
for four horizontal directions ai, Cl'2, Cl'3, Cl'4. Spherical models with identical
sills and ranges of a",l' a"'2' a"'3' a"'4 have been fitted to these semi-variograms. The directional graph of the ranges, i.e., the variation of the ranges
a"" as a function of the direction ai, is also shown on Fig. 111.11. There are
three possible cases.
(i) The graph can be approximated to a circle of radius a, i .e., a = a,
for all horizontal directions ai, and the phenomenon can thus be
considered as isotropic and characterized by a spherical model of
range a.
Q ,
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179
is a linear transform of a circle. By applying this linear transformation to the coordinates of vector h, the isotropic case is produced (circular graph). The phenomenon is a geometric anisotropy.
(iii) The graph cannot be fitted to a second-degree curve and the second
type of anisotropy must be considered, i.e., zonal anisotropy in
certain directions, CK4, for example, on Fig. 111.11.
"'I
{i) lsotropy
(Ii) GeomelrlC
FIG.
orus otropy
If, instead of transition structures of range a"" as in Fig. III. 11, the directional semi-variograms are of the linear type, 'Y",; (hi) = W",,h'i, then the
directional graphs of the inverses of the slopes at the origin WO: will be
considered. An hypothesis of isotropy, geometric anisotropy or zonal
anisotropy will then be adopted according to whether or not this directional graph can be fitted to a circle or an ellipse.
j
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
180
[;J = [R~I[::]
In
with
tp,
Xv
Y1
FIG.
(ii) The second step is to transform the ellipse into a circle with a radius
equal to the major range of the ellipse. This is achieved by multiplying the coordinate Yz by the ratio of anisotropy A > 1. The new
coordinates (y~, yD are then deduced from the coordinates
Y2)
by the matrix expression
(Yl'
[Yy;~ J = 1Al[Yl]
Y2
with
1 ~J.
/\
[1]-=[0
/\ -
(iii) This last step is not necessary for a mere correction of geometric
anisotrophy.
The initial orientation of the coordinate system can be restored by
rotation through the angle -cp, and the final transformed coordinates (x~, x~) are given by
The final transformed coordinates (x~, x~) can then be derived from
the initial coordinates (xu, Xl!) by the transformation matrix [AI
which is the product of the three matrices [R-..,][AJ[R~], i.e.,
(III.32)
with
[Al=[;
~J
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and
a = cos
. 2
b =sm
c
= (l -
181
\.")
'1'+/\ s1O-'P,
2
A) sin
({!
cos tp,
If h is any vector in the two-dimensional space with initial coordinates li.; h,J, then, to obtain the value of the anisotropic
semi-variograrn y(h) = y(hr.;, h,J, we first calculate the transformed
coordinates (h ;,j, h ~) from
[hh;J= fAJ[hr.;]
hI;
L
anisotropic
isotropic
Remark 3
2. Zonal anisotropy
The model of zonal anisotropy is the one most currently used in practice,
since any observed anisotropy which cannot be reduced by a simple linear
transformation of coordinates will call for this model.
Let y(h) be a nested model characterizing a variability in the threedimensional space y(h) = 'i.m(h), where h is a vector with coordinates (hr.;,
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
182
hv , h w ) . Each of the components Yi(h) of this nested model can be anisotropic in h, i.e., y;(h) is a function of the three coordinates (h u , h-; h w )
rather than of just the modulus Ihl. Moreover, the anisotropy of YiCh) may
be completely different to that of YiCh). Thus, the structure Yl (h) may have
a geometric anisotropy, while Y2(h) is a function of the vertical distance h-:
only:
""'-~~~_~~~~~
~.~
__
~~----l~
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183
Remark. The model of zonal anisotropy, built from the nest of structures
having their own anisotropy, is flexible enough to be used as a model for
almost any type of experimental anisotropy.
However, the flexibility of this model must not be misused. When
a specific direction is differentiated (e.g., the vertical direction h.; of
the previous example), this direction must correspond to a preferential
direction of the mineralization. The known geology should always be
used as a guide when fitting a mathematical model y(h) to a natural variability.
Now that the different models of anisotropy have been studied, the following general expression of a structural model y(h) can be proposed, 1'(h)
being made up of the nested sum of N isotropic structures {"i(lhil), i = 1 to
N}:
N
y(h) =
(111.33)
1'i(lh i l)
i=1
The particular anisotropy (geometric or zonal) of each component structure 1'i is characterized by the linear transformation matrix [A;] which
changes the vector h into the vector hi. More precisely, let (h u , h.; h w ) be
the initial coordinates of the vector h; the coordinates (h i u , hi,v, hi,w) of the
transformed vector hi are deduced from the initial coordinates by the
linear relations
[hd
Example
[Ad [h].
(111.34)
with Yo(lh I) = Co when Ih I> I; characterizing an
1'1 (!h I)
characterizing
a
first
isotropic
1'z(J(h~ .... + htv + htw)), characterizing a second
regard to the coordinates of the transformed
For example, this second structure may depend
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184
MINING GEOSTATISTIC$
directions (hu , hv ) with a geometric anisotropy. The previous linear transformation is then written
h3 w
a. h., + a. hv + a. h;
O.
The general structural model of formula (111.33) is particularly convenient since it is made up of the sum of N isotropic structures Yi(!hjl)
which, in the course of a particular geostatistical operation, will be treated
separately one by one, ct. section lILA. I, "The linearity of geostatistical
operators".
All the case studies and practical exercises given in this book make use of
this general structural model.
Computer subroutine
CAX(4,3)=
I
I
all
O
0
0
al2
0
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-;.
CAY(4, 3)=
1
0
1
1
a2 1
a 22
0
0
FUNCTION
1
and
185
1
0
CAZ(4, 3)=
0
1
0
0
a a
GA~(rX,rY,HZJ
c
C
SE~I-VARICGRA~ FU~CTIC~
C
C DEFINED AS TrE SUM OF EXPJ~E~TIAL CR SFrfRICAL
C ~E~TED STRUCTURES TrES= SIRLCILRES ARE ISCTRCPIC
C
C
C CCMMCf\S
IGAfJ"Aj
JF
t\ST
NU~~ER
(NSfl
A.NST)
SILLS
RA"IGES <0 .. EXPCP\E!\ liAl
C
C
>0. SPHERlcn
CAX{I\iST,~}
C/. Y ( ~J ST ,
CAI(NST,~)
ELE~ENIA~Y STRU(TL~ES
LINEAR TRA~SF(~~ATI[~
tJATRICES CF
:3 COGROIf\ATU
......................................................
GAM'"
o.
H=SQRT(HX*rX+rY*~Y+rlZ*rZ)
IF(H.LT.l.E-03IRETUR~
CU 1 IS=l,NST
I JS= IS
IJSl=IJS+\JST
[JS2=IJSl+NST
CX=HX*CAX( IJS)+HY*CAX( IJSll+Hl*CA}l( IJS2J
ov =H X*C II V( I J S I +H V*C A'(( 1 J S 1 ) +HZ C A V ( I J S 2 )
Cl=HX*CAZ( IJSI+HV*CAZ( IJS 1 )+Hl*CAZ (1 .. 52)
H=$QRT (C)(*Cx'+-CY*CY+DZ*CZ)
IF!A{lS) 110.12,11
Gt\M=G/lt-l+(IS~*(I.-ExP( .. JtO{I5HI
GC Tel
10
11 IF(H.GE.A(ISllGO r c 12
G /J ~= Gll ~ + c( 1 S ) * I 1 '; "" H I A ( IS)1 C. 5* r *H'1' 1--/ ( A( IS) * A( IS) *A ( IS
GO TO 1
12 G" M.::; G A,.. + C( I S J
1 Cf'NT I f'.UE
RETLJRI\
END
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186
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Let x and x' be two points with coordinates (x"' xv, x w ) and (x~, x~. x ~).
Without any hypothesis of stationarity,
(i) the expectation of the RF Z(x) depends on the position x, i.e., on the
three coordinates (x". xv. x w ) ,
E{Z(x)} = m(x". x"' x w ) ;
(ii) the semi-variogram y(x, x') or the covariance C(x, x') depends on
the two locations x and x' of the R V's Z (x) and Z (x '), i.e., on the six
coordinates (x"' x"' x.,) and (x;" x ;" x~),
~E{[Z(x) - Z(x')f} = y(x, x').
The construction of a model of quasi-stationarity thus amounts to building a model of the structural function y(h, xo) which depends on the
argument xo.
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187
Proportional' effec t
This amounts to assume that there exists a stationary model yo(h) independent of the neighbourhood location Xu and such that:
y(h, xu) = f[m*(xo)]. yo(h).
(11.35)
The two quasi-stationary models y(h, xo) and y(h, xb) are said to differ from
each other by a proportional effect.
r
___- - - - - - - - - - y(h,xo)
---------~
___- - - - - - - - - - y ( h , x O )
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
188
r
r(h,xo)
r(h,xol
m*(xol>m*(x~l
m*(xom*(xo)
r(h,xo)
r(h,xo)
(c)
FIG. 111.16.
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189
and:
g[ y(h, xu)] = f[m*(xo)] . g[ yo{h)].
(III.36)
It is enough to work on the stationary model yo(h) and multiply the result
\E[ ')Io(h)] by the corresponding proportional effect factor f[ m * (x 0)].
f[m*(xo))
= [A -m*(xo)]2,
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190
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Note the similarity of this expression with the one quoted in (11.21), m *(xo)
being replaced by the estimate zf itself.
Remark 4 Proportional effect and nested structures. When nested structures are present, l' = LiYi, the proportional effect may be different for each
of the component structures, i.e., the function f;[m*(xo)] may be different
for each of the models 1'i.
Thus, on Fig. III. 16(c), the direct proportional effect affects only the
nugget constant Co:
the structure )'1 (h) being stationary (independent of the location x).
A good practical way to reveal a proportional effect is to draw the
relative serni-variogram (when a direct effect is suspected) on transparencies: the visual comparison thus shows whether or not the proportional effect affects the micro-structures (e.g., nugget effect) and the
macro-structures equally.
Remark 5 Genesis of a proportional effect. The proportional effect is an
experimental observation and can be interpreted as follows.
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191
VXu.
This does not hold true for any other definition of the conditioning
variable m *(xu).
(ii) When the RF Z(x) has a lognormal spatial law (i.e., Y(x)= log Z(x)
has a Gaussian spatial law) and if it has been conditioned by the
kriging BLUE estimator m;:"(xo) of the mean grade Yv(xo) of Y(x)
on V(xo), then the conditioning is expressed on the local semivariogram 1"z (h, xo) of the conditioned RF {Z (x)/ m 't-(xo)} as a pro2
portional effect in m t (xo):
where mv(xo)=E{Z(x)/m't-(xo)} is the expectation of the conditioned RF. In practice, this expectation will be estimated by the
experimental mean m~(xo) of the data Z(x) available on V(xo).
r(h) is a stationary reference semi-variograrn (independent of xo)
and is related to the stationary semi-variogram 1"(h) of the nonconditioned RF Z (x).
From this brief survey of the possible genesis of a proportional effect, it
is enough to remember that the experimental observation of such an effect
does not necessarily indicate a non-stationary phenomenon.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(111.39)
where N' is the number of pairs of data values on V separated by the
distance vector h.
If the domain V was perfectly known, i.e., if values of the realization
z (x) were known for every possible location x in V, the following variogram, called the" local variogram" on V, could be calculated:
2Y{Vl(h)
= ~,
t.
[z(x
+ h)-Z(X)]2 dx,
(111.40)
where V' represents the intersection of the domain V and its translation by
the vector h ; in other words, x E V' = V V h is equivalent to x, x + h E V.
The experimental variograrn 2y*(h) and the local variogram 2y(VJCh)
are both relative to the particular realization z (x) of the RF Z (x); these
two variograrns thus appear as random variables, the expectation of which
is precisely the theoretical variogram of the RF Z (x):
2y(h) = E{[Z (x
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193
E {[ y(h)- y(v)(h )]2} called the "fluctuation variance" of the local semivariograrn.
In fact, since the ReV z (x) is the only available reality (the RF Z (x)
being a mere probabilistic model), only the local semi-variograrn y(v)(h)
and its estimator y*(h) have any physical meaning; consequently, only the
E{[Y(L)(h)-y*(h)] }=4y(h).
2(O/L)
N'
'
where D\O/ L) is the dispersion variance of the point-support variable Z(x) in L. N' is the number of experimental data pairs [z(x; +
h), z(x;)] used in calculating the experimental semi-variograrn y*(h).
(ii) For the fluctuation variance,
L
for h <3
prohibitive value
with A = 4/3 for the linear model y(h) = Ih I.
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L
for h >2
194
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
For the linear model and for h > L/2, the relative fluctuation variance
E{[y(h)-Y(Llh)]2}/fy(h)]2 is about 2 (i.e., a prohibitive value of 200%).
Note that even if the estimation variance vanishes (very large number N'
of pairs), the fluctuation variance allows the choice of any possible
behaviour of the theoretical model y(h) for distance Ihl > L/2 greater than
the distance of reliability which is half the dimension of the field L considered.
Note again that this considerable value of the fluctuation variance prohibits the construction of goodness-of-fit tests for the fitting of a theoretical
model y(h) to an experimental semi-variograrn y*(h): such tests would
almost never invalidate the fit.
Practical rule
Although there is no reason for the RF Z (x) representing the ReV z (x) to
follow a Gaussian spatial law , the preceding expressions for the estimation
and fluctuation variances provide the following orders of magnitude:
and
(111.42)
C*(h)+m
= E{Z(x)}
N'
}=
On the other hand, to get an estimator of the centred covariance C (h), the
expectation m must also be estimated from the same set of data {z (x;)}, and
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195
a bias becomes obvious. Indeed, if N data are available on the quasistationary field V, the unbiased estimator of this expectation is
1
m" = ~
N
with
Z(Xi)
E{m*} = m.
j=l
1 N'
1
C*(h) = N' i~l [Z(Xi + h). z(xdl - N2 ~ ~ z(Xj)z(x{)
(111.43)
and, thus,
j').
The estimator C*(h) of formula (111.43) then shows a bias which is nothing
more than the mean value of the theoretical covariance C(h) when the two
extremities of the vector h independently describe the set of the N available data:
1
(III.44)
This bias can be assimilated to the mean value C( V, V) when the N data
are uniformly distributed on the field V. When the covariance model C(h)
is of transition type, i.e., C(h) = 0 when the distance Ih I is greater than a
range a, then the bias C(V, V) vanishes if the dimensions of the field V are
much greater than the assumed range a of the covariance model.
This bias is linked to the simultaneous estimation, from the same set of
data, of the expectation m and the non-centred covariance E{Z(x +
h) . Z (x)}. This difficulty does not appear in the estimation of the uariogram,
since the expression
E{[Z(x + h) - Z(x )]2}
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
knowledge gained from the studied phenomena, and also involves a certain
amount of "craft" in the choice and use of the various geostatistical tools.
While skill can only be gained by experience, structural analysis has certain
general attributes. In particular, it should:
(i) be adapted to the proposed aim of the study. Structural analysis is
most often a prelude to an intended estimation and, as such, should
be limited to the purpose of the estimation. Thus, it is no use to
specify structures on a petrographic scale if it is intended to estimate
blocks on a hectometric scale.
(ii) take critical account of all qualitative information. The experimental
knowledge of a geologist may lead him to give all importance to a
data file; conversely, and more rarely, an erroneous geological
hypothesis may bias the use of such a file.
geomorphology are presented, only to be completely ignored in the estimation phase when
methods such as polygons of influence are used. If estimation is divorced from geology, one
might rightly wonder about the purpose of the geological study. Obviously, geological
information must playa part in the estimation and the variograrn is used in geostatistics to
interpret the structural information to be used in the estimation procedures.
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197
IS
given
The various geostatistical tools are constructed from the available data. A
systematic error in these data will be reflected at every stage of the
geostatistical analysis. Geostatistics does not create data, it is a method for
treating information; in other words, geostatistics complies with the in situ
reality only as long as the data are an accurate reflection of this reality.
Thus, it is very important, especially at the data review stage, to detect all
possible causes of systematic error.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Through time An original sampling campaign may have been carried out
by different companies with different objectives and different equipment.
In space The same are body may have been sampled in different places
by very different methods, dragline samples on the surface, drill cores in
depth, samples taken along a drive, etc. Topography, rock type and
equipment used may vary from place to place and can lead to different
recovery rates and to biases (loss of fines in blasting holes for example).
Has the sampling of the various variables (thicknesses, grades, densities)
been homogeneous? In polymetallic deposits, certain trace metals,
although economically important, are not always as well sampled as other
metals (e.g., Ag and Au in Pb deposits). Some metal grades are measured
from other variables by regression, deconvolution (e.g, U), construction of
a metal "balance sheet", etc.
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199
1. Additivity of the variables The ReV must be such that all linear
combinations of its values retain the same meaning. If f(x) is a grade value,
:LA!(x;) and especially the arithmetic mean (l/nYLf(x;) must have the
same meaning as a grade.
Thus, a volumetric grade (in kg m", for example) defined on a constant
support is an additive regionalized variable. The same volumetric grade
defined on variable supports is no longer an additive ReV and, in fact, the
mean grade of two different supports is not the arithmetic mean of their
grades. In such a case, the additive ReV to be considered should be the
accumulation (or quantity of metal in kg), i.e., the product of the volumetric grade (kg m:') and the support volume (m'). However, when studying the spatial variability of this accumulation, it would not be possible to
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200
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
distinguish between the variability due to the grade and that due to the
variable supports.
If the preceding volumetric grade z (x) is associated with a granulometric
fraction r(x) and both analyses are defined on variable supports v (x)
centred on point x, then the additive ReV accumulation or quantity of
metal is defined as
a (x) = r(x) . z (x) . v (x).
2. Adequateness of the variables chosen for the purpose of the study The
chosen ReV's should be such as to encompass the main characteristics of
the problem at hand. They should also lead to operational solutions
without any superfluous precision or calculation.
Consider the example of a thin subhorizontal sedimentary bed with
obvious foot and hanging walls. Rich and poor zones will be selected by
mining on a horizontal plane, but no vertical selection is to be considered
(the entire bed thickness will be recovered). Since there is no vertical
selection, it is of no use to study the vertical regionalization of the grades,
at least for the strict purpose of ore reserve estimations. The chosen
additive ReV's for this estimation are:
(i) the thickness l(x) of the bed measured along the bore- hole located at
the point x of the horizontal two-dimensional space;
(ii) the vertical accumulation a(x)= t(x)xz(x), defined as the product
of the thickness and the corresponding mean grade z (x) sampled on
the mineralized section (of length t(x of the borehole.
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201
= E {Y(x)} does
then, the required estimation variance E{[Z(xo)-e v*(x o )j2} is not readily
derived from the variance
E{Y(xo)- Y*(XO)]2}
calculated from the structural function of the transformed variable Y(x).
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202
c~
C2
C1
I~(------"I~I
I
/,
12
I I~
I
I
He t erog eneous
cutting
~I~_I
I
I
I
I
I
Reconstitution of
homogeneous cu r tinq
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203
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204
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
2. The actual sample lengths are not constant and are not all analysed
This case is more often associated with a preferential analysis (e.g., of rich
facies only) rather than with a random one (e.g., one sample on two
analysed).
Random analysis is more favourable, and the non-analysed samples can
be considered as missing data. The missing datum is sometimes in rich facies
and sometimes in poor facies and, thus, does not cause any bias in the
structural analysis.
Preferential analysis is much more critical, especially when the nonanalysed facies (generally the poor ones) may actually be recovered by
mining. To reconstruct an homogeneous and unbiased data set, it is possible to act in one Or more of the following ways.
(i) To simulate the missing analyses. If the missing analyses correspond
to intersections with pure waste, a zero grade is given to the intersection; if the waste is, in fact, poor are which will be recovered (all
or in part) during mining, it is advisable to simulate the missing
analyses from the knowledge of the characteristics of this poor are,
deduced, for example, from systematically analysed drill cores.
(ii) To limit the calculation of the variograms to within the rich analysed
facies, thus characterizing the variability of these rich facies only.
This supposes that, during the mining stage, it will be possible to
select perfectly those facies with a negligible amount of contamination from other facies.
(iii) To calculate an inter-facies variogram by assigning a global grade
+ 1 or 0 to the various facies, according to whether they are rich or
poor. The drill core is then represented by a series of values of the
"all or nothing" type with constant support and the sequences of
facies may be characterized by the ranges of the variogram.
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205
grade in metal A
Such inequalities often characterize the mineral of interest and it is advisable to take them into account when simulating the deposit.
Case study
The mineralization of the precambrian iron deposits of West Africa
(Mauritania, Liberia, Guinea) is made up of itabirites concentrated in iron
oxides by departure of the silica and is essentially composed of two types of
ore:
(i) type cr, rich shallow hematite ore corresponding to a maximum
departure of the silica (67% Fe, and Si0 2 < 1%);
(ii) type {3, mixed poor ore (55 % Fe and SiD 2 > 5%) located at the
fringes of the deposits or deep at the contact with the clean itabirites.
Of course, when mining within each of these two main types of are,
several subdivisions will be considered according to the granulometry and
the degree of alteration (i.e., presence of goethite).
These two types Ct' and {3 can be clearly distinguished by
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Figure 111.18 shows the Fe-Si0 2 correlation diagram derived from the
core samples (of constant support) available on one of the Nimba range
deposits (Guinea). This diagram clearly reveals two sets corresponding to
I
I
t
40
I
I
"
2
3
30
I I
II
,
'"
:2: 2 I
I
20
1 I 2
J"
10
Fe ("Ie,)
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207
(0 )
{ b)
30
20
'"!'...:::e
>-.,
Fe
10
OI~(O)
005
....---.-J1
10
FlO
..L.-
50
Let h be a vector of modulus r = Ihl and direction a. If there are N' pairs of
data separated by the vector h, then the experimental serni-variograrn in
the direction a and for the distance h is expressed as
1 N'
(111.46)
y*(r,a)=2N' i~l [Z(Xi+h)-Z(x;)f
for a regionalization, and
1 N'
ytk' (r, a) = 2N' i~l [Zk(Xj + h)- zdx;)][zdxj + h) - Zk'(Xi)]
(III.47)
for a coregionalization.
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(c)
20
18
16
14
,.('
0
12
'"
VI
10
4
2
Fe (0/0)
><'
0
'"
'"
"!
0
7
6
5
4
3
2
(b)
56
58
62
66
Fe (%)
(c)
16
14
12
><' 10
0'"
Vl
:3
Al 20 3 (%)
FIG. W.20. (a) Fe-SiO z correlation diagram (F'derick). (b) Fe-Ah03 correlation
diagram (F'derick). (c) Ah03-Si02 (F'derick),
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209
n Q
1
I
1
JI (k{,a)
1
I
?
b
0011
1
1
'1
I
1
I
1
0
1
1
I
1
1
JrI1
t
(0 )
FIG.
III.2L Data aligned and regularly spaced. (a) Rectilinear drill core;
(b) channel samples along a gallery.
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210
The significance of the effect of this smoothing over the interval [r e(r)]
decreases as the tolerance e (r) becomes smaller with respect to the range
of the theoretical model y(r) to be estimated.
y
(r) , . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
---+---r---
Range
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211
increase to the sill value) has been calculated using at least three or
four classes; thus, the tolerance e (r) should not be too large.
(iii) Ensure that each distance class [r s(r)] contains enough pairs so
that the corresponding estimator of the variogram is reliable; thus,
the tolerance s(r) should not be too small.
(iv) Detect any risk of bias due to preferential location of data.
3. Non-aligned data
This category can be reduced to one of the former two.
(a) By defining approximately rectilinear pathways passing through the
available data locations. Each of these approximate alignments is
then treated separately with a possible grouping into distance
classes, cf. Fig. 1I1.23(a). The disadvantage of this method is that all
the available data are not used, and it is difficult to program.
(b) By grouping the data into angle classes followed by distance classes,
d. Fig. III.23(b). To construct the variogram in the direction a, each
data value z (xo) is associated with every other value located within
the arc defined by [a da ]. Within this angle class, the data can be
grouped into distance classes [r 8 (r).
(0 )
(b)
FIG. 111.23. Non-aligned data. (a) pathways; (b) grouping into angle classes.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
=N
~ z(x;)
and
=N
~ [z(x;)- z] .
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213
1't and 1'~ are calculated from two different zones A and B, or from
core samples for one and channel samples with the same support for the
other, or, again, 1'X and 1'~ correspond to two different directions Q'A and
as
Suppose that, after examining the two experimental curves, it is
concluded that they are not significantly different, and it is required to
group them together to form a single mean experimental variagram
21':t+s (r). This mean variogram is calculated from all pairs of data values
separated by a distance r, whether they come from A or B, which amounts
to weighting each of the elementary variograms 21't (r) and 21'~ (r) with
the respective number of pairs used in their construction:
INk(r)yk(r)
k
1'*(r)=-----
N~(r)
(I1I.48 )
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
LNkS~
S2([/ [) = \ : N
estimator of D
(l/ L),
(111.49)
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215
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216
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
semi-variograrn is calculated by combining the four directional semivariograrns, d. Table III.2 and Fig. 111.25. A linear model with no nugget
effect can be fitted to the mean serni-variogram:
Vria
)I(r)=4.1 ria,
[0, 3)2].
al
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
35-35-35-
a21
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I I
-
37-35-37---35-
I
I
I
37-40-42-
37-
I
I
-41-
--
--
FIG.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
---35-33~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
-41
~37-37-39-39-41
-34-36-41-
-35-
I
I
I
I
I
-33-
--
---
~-
---
--
--30-
-34
---
-42-33~
I
I
--39-
--
-31
Direction
0'1
0'2
0'3
0'4
Step 1
N'(I)
y(1)
24
22
19
18
TABLE
41
425
5
65
Step 2
A (2)
N'(2)
20
18
16
14
84
82
119
113
Step 3
N ' (3 )
y(3)
18
15
10
8
121
109
173
154
N'
y(h)
a,J2
2a
2a,J2
3a
3a,J2
46
41
37
57
38
83
30
116
33
116
18
163
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217
Computer subroutines
/
/'
/
/
15
/'
/
/
'*~
10
5
/
/
/
/
/
/
r/a
FIG. Il1.2S. Fitting a linear model to the mean isotropic serni-variograrn.
These three subroutines correspond to the three types of data configuration most often encountered in practice in mining applications.
1. One-dimensional configuration of aligned and regularly spaced data,
d. Fig. Ill. 21; e.g., a rectilinear drill core cut into samples of constant
length t.
2. Two-dimensional configuration of data at the corners of a regular and
rectangular grid, d. Fig. JIL26; e.g., the sampling of a subhorizontal
sedimentary deposit by vertical drills analysed over the entire
mineralized thickness, the drills being placed horizontally on a
regular, rectangular grid.
3. Two-dimensional configuration of data irregularly distributed over a
plane, cf. Fig. JIL27; e.g., the sampling of the previous sedimentary
deposit by vertical drills placed anywhere on the horizontal plane (but
not preferentially on rich or poor zones).
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218
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Remark The very general configuration corresponding to a threedimensional mass sampled by n drills in all directions can be regarded as
either none-dimensional configurations along the length of the n drills or
K two-dimensional configurations on each of K horizontal benches, the
data on each bench consisting of the intersections of the drill cores with the
bench.
GA~Al(VRt~D.K~A)tPAS,NC,GtltV,N,ISJ
c ..................................
c
SEMJ-VARICGR~~ AlC~G ~ ll~E
c REGULAR GRIC OF POI~TS M~~ t~~E ~ISSl~( CAlA
c
c ..... PARAt" ETERS
c VP(~C)
CtT~ ARRAY
NO
K~AX
p~S
C
C
C
C
C
NC(KMAXI
G(KMAX)
U
V
N
C CPH C ~s
C
C
IS.NE.l
RESULTS ARE
PP(~TEC
8Y
SLBRC~lI~E
C CCp.l.MC ~S
C
C
C
IGUT
TESI
C
C
OIME~SIO~
CC~MC~
VR(lJ,~C(l),G(l)
lCUT,TEST
INITIALIZE
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~U4i ~j J ~ ~-rU
IFeVRCNC)-TEST)12,12,1:
12 "'=0
tJ=o.
\1=0.
GC
rc
11
13 U=VR no
V:VR o..r.*VR(NC)
11
"'=1
ccnr H.UE
COMP~TE
SEMj-VARIOGRA~
A,.,C
co
1=I.NOl
'vRl= \lJH l )
IFIVRl.LE.TEST)GC TO 2
NaN+l
U=U+VRI
~~,,+vF11JR.1
I1~I + 1
J~~MI~O(I+KMA~tNCI
CO 21 J~Il,JM
I(:oJ-t
tF(VPtJI.lE.TESTJGO TO 21
t\C.K).1:~C(K)+l
'w~R'Rl-~R(JJ
G(K)=GtK)+0.5*VRR*VRR
21 CONT H,UE
c
c
c
2 CONT INUS
RESLLTS
IF(~.eQ.O)GO
yotV-l*U/N)/N
TC 3
U=U/N
co 30 IK-l,KM.AX
30 GlIKj-G(IKl/M.AXotl,NC(IKII
3 CONT HUE
IFtlS.EQ.1IGO TO 5
C
~~lle(ICUT,20CO)
RPITE(OUT,2001JU.V.N
DC 41 1<.=1,K/o(,6X
C-K*P,aS
41
4
~RITE(IOLT,2002)K,O''''C,G
caNTI~UE
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STA11~lI(S
219
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
220
C
2000
FORMAT(1~l,53Xt'SE~1-VA~I((R~M'/Ir
1~3Xt'****
GRIC 1 CI~EN~I(~)')
" AVERAGE = ttFIC.5,cX,'v~RIA~CE = t
I.cll.5,' NUM8ER OF DATA = 'tl5/1H ,'LAG CIST'
3,'ANCE I NC
VAQIOGR~~
I')
2002 FOR~ATtl""" tlXd2,2XtF8.?,~)I,' I ',I4,2),Ell.5,
12X,' I ')
21(REGLl~R
2001
****.* '.lC>,
FORMAT(l~
5 RETURI\
ff\ 0
I
I
I
I
0
0
I
Nli
lines
The data for subroutine GAMA2 (NLI lines and NCO columns) is input in
the form of a column vector VR(NLI*NCO). The subroutine calculates the
four experimental serni-variograms corresponding to the four main directions (the two directions of the grid and the two diagonal directions). The
subroutine also supplies the experimental mean and dispersion variance
corresponding to all the data available on the plane.
SLBRClTI~E
GA~A2(VR,l\lI,~C(,K~AX,I\(,(,L,V,~,IS)
C
SfMI-VARICGR~~ IN T~( CI~f~~IC~S
C
C REGULAR GRIC CF POI~TS M~Y ~~vE ~ISSI~f CATA
C TrIS IS A SA~PLE SUAROUTINE ~rC~I~G Cr~PlTATIC~
C fOR FOUR tIRECTlOl\S HQwEVER !vECTORS r r Jf\C JC tJAY
C ~E DEFINED FeR OTHER CIRECTI(~~
6
C
C
...... PARA~fTEf1S
vP(~LI*N(OI CATA ARRAY (SlCRE[
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COLL~N.I~fl
221
NLI
NCO
K~AX
C
C
C
C
C
C
10(4)
JD(4)
C
C
~C(KMAX*4)
G(K~AX*4)
U
V
~
C (PTtCl\S
IS.NE.1
C
C CCMMCl\S
leUT
LINE PRINTEq
C
C
C
C
TEST
LNIT "l~BER
INfERIOR BCUNCAR~ CF EXISTr"G CA Ttl
IF VP.Lf.TEST MISSING OR EllMINATEC CATU,..
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
~_~
CIMEt--SION
CATA
VRll),NC(I),(I"lO(4),JC(~J
leUT,TEST
COMMC~
IAII
'I
INITIALIZE
c
I(~M"'K"AX*4
u=o.
11=0.
Nc::O
CC 1 IK=l,KM~
"'((IK)=O
1 G(lKJ"O.
cr
10
1""1,-4
IOU 1=1
c
C
10 JO(J '=1
10(21=C
10(4)=-1
JC(!J"'O
CCMPUTE
SfMI-IJARIC(qAM,NE~
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PCINT
222
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
CO 2 l=l,NlI
CO 2 J=l,NCO
[J=IHLI*(J-l)
ST~l1STICS
C
C
vlH=\lR( IJ)
IrIVRl.lF.TESrtGO TO 2
N=N+l
V=V+'-'Rl*'vRl
l;=U+\lRl
3 U1NTlf\UE
C
C
NEk C(RECT!CN
CO 30 KC"lI:l,"
J3:JCCKDJ
13'-'= I C{ K C)
I 1.. I
J 1 ~J
(
/liE, LAG
C
C
CO 31 j(:l,KMAX
11'-11+13
IF(Il.LT.l.OR.Il.GT.NLOG( TO ;C
Jl=JliJ3
IF(Jl.LT.l.CP.Jl.GT.NCCIGC TO 3C
JJ1= 11+MI*CJl-l)
IK="..KMAX*CI(C-IJ
IF(VRUJl).LE.TESTIGC
31
rc 11
f\C(IK)=NC( {KIf!
Yf.lR=VR(lJl)-YRl
GCIK)=GC IK)+O.S*VPR*vRR
CONTtr...UE
30 CONTIf\UE
2 CONT II\UE
flESUI.TS
lfIN.EC.O.GO TO
Y-IV-U*U/NI/N
U-U/M
DO 40 II(-l.KMfIl
.0 GIIKJ-GIIKJ/.AXOC1,NCCJKIJ
c
e
,. CONTINUE
PRJNT If IS.HE.1
IFCIS.EC.l.GO TO ,
WIUT E CI OUT. 2000)
WRITE.(OUT.2001)U.Vt~
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223
WRJTEfIOUT,2002JIIA,IO,ICt,4)
IKMaK'AX*3
WRITECIOUT,2003)IIA,IO1,~)
DO ~5 K-t, KMAX
IK2-K+IK"
~S
WRITf(IOUT,2004JK,INCIIK)"tIK),IK=K,IK2,K~A})
2001
.5 flETURN
END
Oistonce
tolerance--y
- -....
)l.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
224
The subroutine supplies the NDI experimental directional semi-variograms as well as the experimental mean and dispersion variance corresponding to all the ND data available on the plane.
SUBROUTINE GAMA3(VR,X,~,~C,K~AX,PAS,CP,NOI,
lAlP,O_,NC,G,O.U,V,N, IS)
C
SEMI-V_RIOGR'M IN lwe [IME~SIO~S
C
C IRREGULAR GRID.TMERE MAY BE ~1~SlNG DA1A
C CALCULATION BY CLASS OF ANGLE 'hD DIST.~(E
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
PARA ..ETEIliS
VRCHOI
O'TA ARRAY
XCNDI,YCNOJ
X ANO Y (VORDIN'TES CF FClhTS
NO
NUMBER OF POINTS
KMAX
H'XIHU~ HUMBER CF CCfIIPUTATICN LAGS
PAS
LENGTH Of BASIC LAG
Op
WIDTH OF DISTANCE CLASS.IF CP~O.
OP=PAS/2. IS TAKEN
HDI
NUMBER OF DIRECTIO~5
ALPeNOl} ANGLES DEfINING Dl~ECTIONS ehlTH
RESPECT TO X AXIS IN OEGREE~1
OA
WIDTH OF ANGLE CLASS.IF CA=C.
OA=45. DEGREES IS TAKEN
NC(~HAX*NDl)
NUHfER Of CO~PlES/LAG/OIPE(TION
GCK~AX*NDl)
VARIOGRAH VALUES/lAG/CI~EC110N
OCKMAX*NDI) AVERAGE DISTANCE/lAG/DIRECTION
U
AVERAGE I
V
VARIANCE I OF DATA )TEST
N
NUMBER
OPTIONS
PRINTEO:O~E
P~GE
CF
PR[~TCUT
DtRECTICN~
C
C COMHO~S
LINE PRINTER LNIT NlMBER
C lOUT
INFERleR 8CUNnA~V OF EXISTI~G DATA
C TeST
IF VR.LE.TEST MISSING OR ELIMINATED CATUM
C
C
C CAP4ClTY:
C 10 DIRECTIONS:SANCIO),CANCICI
C
C
OIMENSION VRCll,XClJ,Y(1)
DIMENSION AlP(ll.CANtlC),S'NClOJ
DIMENSION Gtl),Otll,NCClJ
COHMON I(Ul,1EST
DATA tAl' 'I
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c
c
225
INITIALIZE
PI=3.1"1~92t5
Tel: CF
IFITOL.LE.O)TOl=PAS/2.
DALPH_=D,6
IFCOA.lE.O)0,6LPHA~5.
CO 1 KO=l,NOl
_LPHA:PIAlPC~O)/180.
CANIKCJ=COSIAlPHA)
1 SANIKC)=SINIALPHA)
THETA=PJ*OAtPHA/180.
COAzCtlSITHETA)
KMM#KflAX
DO 10 IKzl,Kf!4f11
NCClK)=O
OI'K I :z0.
10 G( IK }aO ..
IFIV~INCI-TEST.12,12,1~
12 N-O
u~o.
v-=o.
GO TO 11
13 H.-I
c
c
c
U-VRCfl,CJ
V=VAChO}.VR(NCJ
11 CONT INUE
COMPUTE
seM'-VARtCGP_~,NEW
P~tNl
N01-NO-l
00 2 lal.NCl
VIUaYAl1 J
IFeVR1.LE.TESTIGO TO 2
NaN.}
lJ::aU+ VR 1
Y-V+VRl*VRl
nal +1
NEW LAG
00 21 J- n,NC
IFIVRIJ).LE.TESTJGO TO 21
DX-X J'-JCC J)
Oy,.y (J ,-YI
I)
H=SQATCOX*OX+OY*OY)
IFIH.LT.I.E-Q3JGO TO 25
K=INTIH/PAS+O.5)+1
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
226
"lAeSCH-(~-l)PAS)
IFtK.GT.KMAX.CR.Hl.GT.TCL1EO TO 21
c
c
c
NEW OIRECTICN
CO 22
KO~l,NO I
COSDzCOX*CANCKO)+OY*SANCKCII/H
IFfABSfCOSOJ.GE.COAIGO TC ;3
22 CONT INUE
GO TC 21
23
IK.K.K~AX*fKC-l)
NCU";)zNC( IK)+l
OfIK)=OlIK)+ti
VRR=VFI CJ I-VR 1
GfIKI-GfIKI+O.S*VFlP*VRP
GO TO 21
25 WRITECIOUT,20001 I,xt U .... Ol,J,XCJ},'t(JI
21 CONT I~UE
c
c
c
2 CONTINUE
AESUlTS
IFlN.EQ.01GO TO 3
V.. (V-l*U/NI/N
U=U/N
CO 30 IK-=1.KJ4M
O(IK)~O(tK)/MAXOCl,NC(tKII
30
C
C
IF(IS.EQ.l)GO TO 5
It<-CI-IHS+l
IMP=
IO~~FlOATlNOII/FlOAT(I~P)+C.9999
00 42
1f~al,
IMP
WRITE(IOUT,20011IM
WRITECIOUT,Z002)U.V,N
101=1+10 .... ( 114-1)
I02;MINOINC].IOM.IM)
WRITElIOUT,200310AlPHA,P.S,TOl,
l(
lA, ] C, I Os J 0 1, 10 2 )
WRITECIOUT,2004)(AlPIID),J[I01,tD~1
WRITECIOUT,2005)(IA,IO=I[l,ID2)
IKO: KP'AX*( ]01-1)
lKM=]KO+KMAX*CIC2-101)
00 43 K: 1 , K/'til A)(
43
IK1=K+IKO
IK2= K+ IKf'
WR]TEIIOUT,2006)K,CNCCJKJ,C(IK).GCIK),
11K=IKl,IK2,K"~X)
tt2
CONTlf\.Ue
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227
41 CONT II\UE
C
OEFJ~EC
P(JNT [AIU~,
3,6X,'I'j
2004 FORM.T(lH ,5x.'I',5()X,F1.1,'DEGREES',6X,"')
2005 FORMATIIH " LAG 1',5(Al, 'NC DISTANCE "
1'1/2 ~ARIO I '1)
2006 FORMATI1H ,lX 3,' 1'.5(I?,tX,F1.2,1),
lEl1.5,'I'))
C
5 RETURN
END
The object of variogram analysis is to detect the major structural characteristics of the regionalized phenomenon under study by analyzing the
various experimental variograms, The structural information gathered
from such an analysis must be continually compared with the known
physical characteristics of the phenomenon (geology, tectonics,
mineralogy, sampling procedures, etc.). Under no circumstances should a
variographical study take the place of a good geological survey of the
phenomenon; on the contrary, the variography should always be guided by
geology. The variography completes and enriches the geological knowledge of the phenomenon, since the variogram quantifies the structural
information for use in estimation procedures.
For instance, geological studies may indicate a direction of preferred
variability of the mineralization due, for example, to alteration or diffusion.
A study of the anisotropies of the various directional variograms will
permit the verification of such an hypothesis and, moreover, will allow a
quantitative evaluation of the amount of total variability due to the
particular phenomenon of diffusion or alteration (e.g., in section IV.F,
Case Study 13 - the case study of the radial anisotropy of EI Teniente
deposit). Conversely, a significant anisotropy displayed by the variograms
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228
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
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229
experimental variograms calculated from the two sets of data, rather than
to compare a single vertical drill core with a single horizontal channel
sampling profile.
Second, if the two experimental variograms are defined on different
supports (channel sample and core sample in the preceding example) it is
advisable to determine whether the difference in support is sufficient to
explain the observed difference between the variograrns.
Third, if the means of the data used to calculate the variograms are
different, then it is advisable to look for a possible proportional effect; for
example, by plotting and comparing the relative semi-variograms y* / m *2
if a direct proportional effect is suspected.
Fourth, the preliminary review of the data may immediately reveal the
causes of an observed difference between two variograms: a single aberrant
data value, when squared, is enough to completely change the behaviour of
the variogram; the two sets of data may not have been collected with the
same equipment, etc.
Variography does not create data, it simply presents it in the synthetic
and quantified form of the variogram, A significant heterogeneity displayed by a variogram usually has an obvious physical explanation; when
this is not the case, an artefact of measurement or calculation should be
suspected. If only a slight difference is observed between two variograms
and there is no obvious physical explanation, then it is best to ignore it - by
assuming isotropy, for instance - rather than developing a complicated
model for anisotropy that may turn out to be illusory. The rule in such a
case is to adopt the simplest model.
Pure nugget effect or experimental fluctuations?
Let yo(h) be a point transition model with a range ao which is very small
when compared with the dimensions of the data support: ao v.
In practice, when v> ao, the regularization on the support v covers the
entire variability 1'0 so that it no longer appears on the regularized semivariogram except for a nugget constant, ct. formula (II. 7):
1'ov(h) =
COl) =
constant,
Vlhl > v,
with the rule of inverse proportionality to the support: Cov = (v' / v )C ov'
When the variability consists only of micro-structures of the type 1'o(h),
i.e., structures with ranges much smaller than the supports of the data, the
experimental semi-variograrns will appear flat or, more exactly, fluctuating
slightly around their sill values, as in Fig. III.28(a).
Before assuming the hypothesis of a pure nugget effect, it should be
ensured that nugget-like behaviours (i.e., without apparent increase) of the
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
230
experimental variograms are not due to a smoothing effect in the calculation of the variograms (e.g., due to reconstruction of core samples of
constant length, d. formula (III.45)) or a fluctuation effect (e.g., too few
data used for the construction of the variogram). Contrary to an apparent
nugget effect due to experimental fluctuations, a pure and stationary
nugget effect only shows slight fluctuations around the sill value, d. Fig.
I1I.28(a) and (b). A good way to verify a pure nugget effect is to test the
rule of inverse proportionality of the sills to the supports, d. in section
III.A.4, the case study of the Adelaida mine.
(a)
(b)
FIG. 111.28. Nugget-like variograms, (a) Actual pure nugget effect; (b) apparent
nugget effect.
As was the case for the analysis of the variograms, there is no unique
technique or method for fitting a theoretical model to a regionalization
identified by a set of experimental variograms. At the most, the following
remarks can be made.
Operational representation
The representation of a natural variability by a point or regularized variogram can never be unique. In practice, it is enough that this representation
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231
reflects the various experimental features which have been found (experimental variograms, anisotropies, a priori geological knowledge, etc.). This
representation must also be operational, i.e., simple and adapted to the
purpose of the study. In particular, certain minor features revealed by
structural analysis may be omitted from the adopted representation.
Similarly, when two geological or mineralogical causes contribute in the
same way to the observed variability at some scale, it is useless to complicate the model by distinguishing between these two causes.
Support and regularization
The dimensions of the support v of the data are often very small with
respect to the distances involved in the intended estimations, and also with
respect to the dimensions of the units V to be estimated. In such cases, the
support v of the data can be approximated to a quasi-point support (v ::::: 0)
and the experimental regularized semi-variogram 1'~ (h) can be treated as
if it were an estimator of the point model y(h).
The techniques of regularization (passing from y to y,,) or, conversely, of
deconvolution (passing from y" to y) are required only when comparing
variograms defined on different supports (y" and y,,' with v oF- v'), d. in
section II.DA, remark 3.
These techniques should not be used to deduce a point model which is
illusively detailed, e.g., a sophisticated point model with a large number of
parameters. To be rigorous, it is not possible to reach a greater degree of
precision than that of the smallest support v of the data without introducing supplementary and unverifiable hypotheses. It is always better to avoid
such hypotheses and stick to the available data; for example, by assuming a
quasi-point support.
Sill and dispersion variance
can sometimes be used in fitting the sill, provided that it is in fact a good
2(vjoo),
estimator of this sill (i.e., of the a priori variance D
when v is the
support on which the serni-variogram is defined), ct. section Il.Cd and
section III.C.4 (the note about the experimental dispersion variance S2
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
232
x x
xl
x
/'
/'
II
Nested models
It will be recalled from III.A.l that the nested structure y(h) = Lty,.(h) is a
model particularly well suited to applications because of the linearity of
geostatistical operators. Thus, it is not strictly necessary that the different
components 1", have a distinct physical interpretation. However, two
components Yi and l'i with markedly different sills and ranges will, in
practice, have a clear physical meaning.
Automatic fitting
As far as mining geostatistics is concerned in this book, any attempt at
blind automatic fitting of parameters to experimental variograms - such as
least squares methods - should be avoided.
It should be recalled that each estimator point y* (h) of an experimental
serni-variogram is subject to an error of estimation and fluctuation which is
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233
particular to that point; this error varies according to the separation distance h, the zone or data set from which the varicgram is calculated, etc.
The best method for weighting each estimated point y*(h) with its
"coefficient of reliability" comes from a critical review of the data and from
practical experience.
Among other things, physical knowledge of the phenomenon (geology,
for example), common sense involved in approximations and adapting
available information to the ultimate purpose of the study are all as
essential to a structural analysis as the calculated values of the experimental variograms.
Robustness of the geostatistical results with respect to the chosen type of
model
Consider the two transition-type models in current use which have a linear
behaviour at the origin, i.e., the exponential and the spherical models.:
y(r)= 1-exp(-r/a);
and
3r
y(r) =
1 r3
2a - 2 a 3,
{
1,
Vr,;;;;.a,
Vr~a.
The object of the study is to demonstrate the robustness of the geostatistical results with respect to the choice of either one of these two
models, provided that a correct fit to the experimental semi-variograrn has
been made.
Consider a spatial regionalization characterized by a point isotropic
exponential model with a unit sill and a parameter a = 1:
y(r)= l-e- r
Suppose now that this theoretical model is not known, and that a nested
model y*(r) consisting of two spherical models is fitted to the experimental
serni-variogram (1- e -r) in the interval r E [0, 3], cf. Fig. III.30:
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
234
For these two models, exponential y(r) and its fit y*(r), the values of the
following geostatistical operations in the one, two and three-dimensional
spaces are given in Table Il1.3:
(i) The dispersion variance of a point within a segment, square or cube
of side 1= 3a = 3, d. formulae (11.98) and (11.99) and Charts no. 4, 14 and
5,15;
(ii) The estimation variance of this segment and this square by a central
point, and of the cube by an axial core of length I, d. Charts no. 7, 17 and
10,20.
1-0 I--------------:==::;;:;;:;;;:;;,;;~~
...
0-5
7
'/
;t
'/
'/
If
0-1
rio
FIG. 111.30. Exponential model
TABLE
model chosen
Dispersion
vanance
Exponential y
Fit
Relative deviation
,.*
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Estimation
variance
R1
R2
R3
R1
R2
R3
0544
0535
0017
073
072
0014
082
081
0012
042
0419
0002
057
0571
0002
018
0179
0006
235
Note that the relative deviation between two results derived from the
two models is of the order of 2% for the dispersion variances and of several
per thousand for the estimation variances. The excellent concordance of
the results is to be expected since the fitting of y*(r) to y(r)on Fig. III.30 is
remarkable, at least within the working interval r E [0, 3].
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IV
This study concerns a section of the Athabasca tar sands (Canada) that
were proven by 40 vertical diamond drills, the cores of which were cut into
approximately constant lengths, IE (1S to 22 tr]. The drill-holes themselves
236
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237
/
(783)
10
100
50
150
hOI)
FIG.
(ii) The arithmetic mean of the 7000 grade values used is m"
= 88%
saturated weight.
(iii) The mean experimental dispersion variance of a core sample of
length I within the total core length Lis, s 2(lj L) = 173 % 2. This
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238
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
value was obtained by weighting the elementary dispersion variances for each drill core according to formula (III.49). This mean
experimental variance is an estimator of the theoretical dispersion
2
variance D (l/ L) of the grade of a sample, 1= 2 ft, in the mean
length of a vertical drill-hole L = 350 ft.
A spherical model with a nugget effect was fitted to the experimental
semi-variograrn y(h)=Co+Ydh), Vh vertical s j Z, 175ft], with C o = 6 % 2
for the nugget constant, and '}It(h) a spherical model with a sill C t = 13% 2
and a range a 1 = 36 ft, cf. formula (III.15).
The fit was achieved by considering the following features of the
experimental serni-variogram.
(i) The tangent to the curve at the origin was approximated by the
average linear behaviour of the first three experimental points. This
average linear behaviour gives the value Co = 6% 2 when
extrapolated to h = O.
(ii) The total sill value, Co + Ci = 19% 2 was estimated as the value
around which the serni-variograrn becomes stable.
(iii) The value of h at which the preceding tangent intersects the sill was
taken as two-thirds of the value of the range at of the spherical
model, i.e., 2 al/3 = 24 ft, and, thus, at = 36 ft.
Verification One way to verify the chosen model is to compare the
theoretical dispersion variance D 2(l/ L), derived from the fitted model, to
the experimental dispersion variance s2(l/L) = 17,3%2.
This dispersion variance is a linear operator of the serni-variogram y, d.
formula (III.2), and is the sum of the variances D6(1/L) contributed by the
nugget effect and Di(l/ L) contributed by the structure Yl:
2
A A A( I)
( 2)
2
Do(l/L)=---=1 ~- = Co 1 - - = 596
1 L
I
L
350
and, from formula (11.36), the variance contributed by the" structure 'Yt is
given by
Di(l/ L) = iit (L, L)- ii1 (l, I),
where 'Y1 (h) is the underlying point model of the model 'Yl(h) regularized
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239
by core samples of length 1. The range a ~ of the point model is thus equal
to a ~ = al -I = 34 ft, and the point sill value is given by formula (I1.51) as
[3] = O 97C
= C l 1- 2a~ - 20a~j
I [
1,
giving C t = 1339. Approximating the point model 1'1 (h) to a new spherical model with range a~ = 34 ft and sill value C; = 1339%2 and using
formulae (II.51) and (II.98), the following mean values y~ are obtained:
,[
'h(L , L)= C 1 1-
1 a ~2]
,
T
+s
""2
=O947C 1 = 1267.
4
3 ai
which is close enough to the experimental value s2(//L) = 17'3, and this
can be taken as a verification of the chosen model.
Remark 1 As the support 1=2 ft of the data is small with respect to the
experimental range al = 36 ft, it could have been approximated by a point.
The fitted model, y(h)= Co+'Yl(h), would then be considered as a point
model and the experimental dispersion variance could be accepted as an
estimator of the theoretical dispersion variance D 2(O/ L) of a point in L.
This variance D 2(O / L) can then be calculated directly from the model
y(h), i.e.,
at]
al
+:S1 L: =18,02.
D 2(O/L)=y(L,L)=CO+C l [ 1- 3 T
This value of D 2(OI L) is very close to the value 1824 calculated assuming
a support of length 1= 2 ft. Note that the quasipoint support approximation
greatly simplifies the calculations (see the remark on support and
regularization in section III.C.6).
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
240
I
I
Co
01
20
a/
40
60
r( m)
(0 )
(b)
The experimental serni-variograrns for each direction verify the hypothesis of isotropy of the mineralization, and they can thus be grouped
together to provide a single isotropic semi-variogram, y(h) = y(r), with
r= Ihj.
This experimental isotropic serni-variogram constructed from 8000 m of
drill core or approximately 4000 samples is shown on Fig. IV.2(b). For a
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241
VrE[2,60m]
of geopotential,
after
P. Delfiner
(1973bl
In meteorology, geopotential is the name given to the height Z(x) at a
point x of a given isobar surface (in the present case study this isobar
surface is 500 mbar). Taking the earth as a sphere, the distance h between
two points x and x + Il is a geodesic distance, i.e., a distance measured on
the great circle passing through these two points.
The experimental semi-variograrns of the 500-mbar geopotential for the
two main directions N-S (longitude) and E-W (latitude) are shown on Fig.
IV.3. These two directions are perpendicular and parallel to that of the
general circulation of winds, which is from West to East.
The N-S semi-variograrn shows a marked parabolic-type increase which
is characteristic of a drift effect, d. section ILA.3, formula (II. 14). The
E~W serni-variogram, however, shows a very regular behaviour at the
origin and attains a sill at a distance of about 3000 km. A Gaussian model
with a nugget effect has been fitted to this E-W semi-variogram:
y(h)= Co + Yl (h),
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
242
..a
E-W
2..-
'"E
2000
4000
Ii (km)
FIG.
The N-S drift can be seen directly on the data themselves; the N-S
profile of the mean values of the geopotential within zones of 5 of latitude
is shown on Fig. IVA. By contrast, the E-W profile of the mean values of
the geopotential within vertical bands of 10, shown on Fig. IV.S, appears
stationary.
(km)
50 52
Pole 90
5-4
0 '"-------
56
58
6,0
.....:...--J
EQualor
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
243
where m(x) = E{Z (x)} is the meridian drift, i.e., m(x)= m (x + h), whatever
h in the E-W direction may be.
60...--------------------------,
5-8
f-
..
~6.....
I '.-.-.
\ .-.'
~ 5 -4 f-- ,_~,
E
52f---
- - .-.- \..
/--., /.-
-e"
/-
, .......\ ,.
- \..
\ _/
..
\/
."
l.onqltude Eosl
FIG.
The first step in the mapping of the Noiretable region of France by kriging
was to construct the semi-variogram of the variable Z (x), defined as the
altitude at point x.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
244
The directional experimental semi-variograms showed no clear anisotropy over small distances (h < 300 m), and so they were grouped together
to provide a mean isotropic semi-variogram, as shown on Fig. IV.6.
A model without sill was fitted to this semi-variogram: y(r) = C/', with
C=07, and f) = 14<2, cf. formula (III.lS).
/'
/'
/
/
/
/'
10
'/'"
><
/'
.,.-
,/
/
,/
200
100
(m)
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245
50m
1=725
(al
FIG. IV.7. Survey of Mehengui deposit. (a) Vertical section; (b) horizontal section.
Vr";::;5 m.
with
C o=32,
C 1 = 7,3,
and ')11 and /'2 being two spherical models with unit sill values and respective ranges al = 50 m and a2 = 350 m.
Although the two chosen models are very different, the first one
having no sill while the second one has a sill equal to Co + C 1 + C 2 = 16, it
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246
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
is not possible to determine visually which is the best fit, at least within the
interval of reliability of the experimental semi-variogram (r < 500 m).
The theoretical calculations using both models lead to completely
similar results, d. the following evaluation of the theoretical dispersion
variance.
(a)
10
(b)
200
300
400
r(m)
This case study shows that the important thing in fitting variograms is not
the type of models, but rather-the agreement of the model with the various
experimental curves available, d. section III.C.6 (the paragraph on
robustness). Note the importance of the graph scale in plotting the variograms.
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247
For the logarithmic model, the mean value "l(D, D) in the rectangle D is
given by formula (H.97), which considers the linear equivalent (l = 1125 +
670 = 1791 m) of the rectangle D;
"'1
"'2
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248
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
/~
I
I
"
I
(
I
4
FIG.
Co + C l l' l (h ) + C 2 Y2(h ),
Vh vertical E [0,2 to 4 m]
with Co=3'5 (';(0 U)2, as nugget constant, and e l Yl and C 2 1' 2 being two
spherical models with sills C j = 37, C 2 = 11 (%'o U)2 and ranges a I = 1 m
and az = 3 m.
The two ranges correspond roughly to the abscissae of the maximum and
minimum of the hole effect observed on the serni-variograms S4 and SIO.
The two ranges can be interpreted as the mean thickness of the rich seams
(a 1 = 1 m) and the mean distance between two such seams (az = 3 m) which
tFor proprietary reasons, all the mean grades quoted in this example have been multiplied by
a factor.
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S'4
L '22m,286%"
249
10
::J
0
::<:
)...
SI6
L'IT4m,I16%"
I~
[l-__-----'---
L
2
h (rn )
,-----~~~-----~~----~-~-~--__.
/
I
h (m)
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MINING GEOSTATISTIC5
250
can also be seen on the vertical profile of the grades of drill-hole S4 on Fig.
IV.12.
Fitting a proportional effect
mt
%"U
o
I
10
~-------------
10
- -
-- -
------
g
~
~
E
15
L4'11-6m
s:
a.
<II
~
20
~
~
------- ----
FIG.
- - -
--~---
---
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251
variance s; is calculated with a larger number of samples (five per metre) and
can be considered as an estimator of the a priori variance D 2 (I/ oo ) of the
grades of core samples of support 1= 20 ern. A scatter diagram of cxperimental variance s1 is shown on Fig. IV.13. A parabola has been fitted to the
scatter diagram:
'im*E [13 to 3% U]
15
~ 10
t\l
V,
.:
,
. r..
I
FIG.
sl
versus
s;
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
252
6'8-48
=0417,
48
Vh vertical e [02 to 4 m]
with
'Yt(h) = A[l-exp (-f.Lh/ A). cos J.Lh],
A
= 2,26(% U)2,
A = 10 m,
Y2(h)={Bh,
Ba,
J.L = 25;
VhE[O,a],
\:fh??:- a,
with
B = 9(%'" U)2 m-- I ,
a =0'28m,
The model ')It(h) is constructed from formula (III. 13 ) for the covariance
function exp(- uh] A). cos J.Lh, which is the product of an exponential
covariance and the cosine covariance.
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253
645 ~ 478
478
0349.
IV.C. COREGIONALIZATIONS
Case Study 7. Coregionalization of uranium radiometry, after M.
Guarascio (1975)
o
I
50m
I
Hanging tuff
EZJ
as'"
B:SM
'4":
FIG.
.'
Mineralized tuff
Foot tuff
Sandstone
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254
N-S
Vertica 1
15
10
20
h(m)
mn
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255
grams are shown on Fig. IV.16, the coordinate axis being graduated now in
arithmetic scale. A remarkable isotropy between the three directions
studied is observed and a last grouping provides the mean isotropic relative
semi-variogram of chemical grades, 'Y~(h)/m:2, ct. Fig. IV.17.
E-W
Verti col
N-S
15
10
20
II (rn)
--2
.-'
//
v
.>:
.-
--- -- -----
/"
,/
.-.-
,/
'/
10
15
20
II (m )
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256
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
yi/ m:
m; .
(h) _
E{[Zg(x + h) - Zg(x )][ZR(X + h) - ZR(X)]}
P
- J(E{[Zg(x + h)- Zg(x )f}. E{[ZR(X + h)- ZR(X)]2})
Thus, the three experimental curves of Fig. IV.I? are not consistent. One
possible explanation is that the experimental cross-serni-variogram
has not been calculated from the same data as the direct semi-variograms
(in practice it is difficult to do otherwise, unless we consider only the few
points where the two measurements - grade and radiometry - exist simuland
taneously). Inconsistent and excessively small values of the means
m ~ can then explain the excessive variability of the experimental relative
cross-serni-variogram Y:-RI
~ as observed on Fig. IV.I?
Y;-R
m;
m: .m
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257
Mining is carried out using a bore and pillar method in an E-W direction;
pillars are 19 ft wide and stopes are 33 ft wide, cf. Fig. IV.19. On each
mining level, both faces of each pillar were sampled continuously by 10-it
chip samples, providing a set of data on a regular grid measuring 10 it in
the E-W direction and alternately 33 it and 19 it in the N-S direction.
Each chip sample is analysed for Pb, Zn and Ag.
100lj
1
30 m
(0 )
FIG.
(b)
~===- -
-f--
-=-'=::::::;-";)133 ft
"=:::J 19 ft
Chip
FIG.
samPlin(~~~~===~=-'LJ 33 It
For the E-W and N-S directions, the experimental direct semi-variograms for lead, zinc and silver grades are shown on Fig. IV.20(a), (b), (c), as
well as the experimental means and dispersion variances of the data used in
the calculation. The experimental variances calculated from formula
(III.49) are estimators of the dispersion variances D 2 (11L) of the grades of
a chip sample of length l within the mean length L of the drives ([' = 400 it
in the E-W direction).
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258
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
E-W
m:::;13-2Ofc,
5 2 *' = 4 9 .5
N
:0-
~-
n,
---
_. _.
:::"':"_...,..:==--~::=oo:::::'.
~
a;
lo...
10
40
(b)
N
""
N
~
">...
20 10
---
N-S
30 ,...
~'..-
..-
... - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~.
E-W
m 10.3 %
..../
5 2"-:::;
209
I
5
(c)
4
m=372 oz/ton
5
"'
.....
*= 2 -6 2
___
---- - ---.-=-=-~ _.
<:
0
.........
----~
"" ....
N-S
~-W. _ . _
lo...
10
100
lid
200
(ft.)
(ii) There are obvious sills which are well approximated by the experimental dispersion variances S2 and which, in all cases, are reached at
distances of about [hi = al = 60 ft.
(iii) There are obvious nugget effects.
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259
(iv) The variabilities begin to increase above the sills for distances lhl
greater than 150 ft. Although located in a zone close to the limit of
reliability of the experimental semi-variograrns (L/2 = 200 ft), this
increase may be due to the non-stationarity at large distances
caused by the presence of three different gangues: for distances Ihl
greater than 150 ft, when a point x is in one gangue, the point x + h
will probably be in a different gangue causing the square deviation
[z(x + h) - z (x)] to become particularly large.
The experimental cross-semi-variograrns for lead-zinc, silver-lead and
silver-zinc are shown on Fig. IV.21(a), (b) and (c). According to the
preceding hypothesis of isotropy, only the E-W direction has been considered. There are no nugget effects on these cross-semi-variograms, and
there is a transition structure with a range approximating that found for the
direct serni-variograms (al = 60 ft).
Fitting a model
The simultaneous presence of the same transition structure with range
al =60 ft on all direct and cross-serni-variograms suggests that the linear
model of coregionalization (111.27) would provide a good fit. This model is
given by
Vh horizontal E [0, 150 tt].
The indices (k, k' = 1 to 3) represent, respectively, the grade in lead, zinc
and silver. The index (i = a and 1) represents the two basic structures; a
transition model yo(h) with a very small range or nugget effect, and a
transition model Yl (h) with range a I = 60 ft, respectively.
As the nugget effect is not present on the cross-semi-variograms, the
coefficients b~k" Vk - k' are all zero.
A spherical model with a unit sill and a range al = 60 ft has already been
fitted to the basic structure Yl (h), and Table IV.1 gives the two matrices of
coefficients [b~k'] for i = 0 (nugget effect) and for i = 1 (Yl structure). The
corresponding fits obtained using this model are shown by the dotted lines
on Figs IV.20 and IV.21.
T ABLE IV.1. Coefficient matrices of the linear model
i~ ~ ~n
gg]
Ag
1.1
i=O
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39
14
[ 5_5
14.5
15
3.8
i=l
5 ]
3.8
1.8
260
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Remark 1 The coefficients b~k' verify the constraints of the linear model,
i.e., both matrices of Table IV.l are positive definite, d. conditions
(III. 26).
30
r---~~----~~---------.
(a)
20
----~_:-::_=-=:_~_::""':--
- - - - --
10
(b)
I
5
(c)
10
100
200
r(f!)
FIG.
Remark 2 Note the quality of the fit achieved for small distances (h <
range al = 60 ft). This coregionalization model is thus ideally suited to the
geostatistical procedure of co-estimation of one grade (e.g., Ag) by the
three data sets (Pb, Zn and Ag), d. section V.A.5, Case Study 2.
This co-estimation will be carried out within an horizontal neighbourhood
of approximately 60 ft around the unit to be estimated.
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261
The RF's YOk (x) represent the micro-variabilities of the grades for
distances (h < 10 ft) which are not accessible from the available data; these
micro-variabilities vary from one metal to the other and appear as different
nugget constants on the direct serni-variograms. The unique RF Y1(x)
represents a second variability common to all three metals. When the
hypothesis of a sedimentary origin of the deposit is accepted, this common
variability can be explained in terms of horizontal beds of deposition
micro-basins, the mean horizontal dimension of which is around 60 ft, ct.
Fig. IV.22.
60 It
FIG.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
262
IV.D. ANISOTROPIES
Case Study 9. Geometric anisotropy, after J. Serra (1967a)
/-
--
-_./ ./
/'
E-w
'"
1000
500
h(m)
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263
--
10 .---------------------------~
/
,...
--"E-W
"-
"-, ..... /
N-S
I
I
01'
500
100
1000
h(m
.-
.-
....-
OL---'------------I-100
500
----I..
------l
1000
h(m)
This right shift of the hole effect along the distance axis Ih I suggests a
model of geometric anisotropy between the E-W and N-S serni-variograms. When the E-W distances are multiplied by the anisotropy ratio
A = 700/200 = 3,5, the E-W and N-S maximum values of the hole effect
are made to coincide, cf. section IILBA, Fig. III. 10.
Genetic interpretation
It is generally accepted that the origin of the Lorraine ferriferous basin is
sedimentary with marine deltaic deposition of the upper toarcian, d.
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264
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Marine sedimentation
ErOSion
+
N-S
Sea
700 m
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265
(a)
100
378
500
1000
(h)
s2
10
NE-SW
\-
100
260
500
1000 1060
h (rn)
( c)
s
FIG. IV.27. Horizontal regionalization in the grey seam (Sancy). (a) N-S and E-W
directions; (b) NW-SE and NE-SW directions; (c) ellipse of geometric anisotropy.
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266
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
d'Avril, and, thus, the experimental semi-variograrn from Sancy will not
reveal the hole effect quite so clearly. However; the beginning of the hole
effect is quite obvious on the NW-SE semi-variogram which shows the
most rapid variability.
The first step in establishing a model of the geometric anisotropy at
Sancy was to approximate the sill of the various serni-variograms by the
experimental dispersion variance, 52 = 115 (%Fe)2 of all the data considered in the calculations. Next, a line representing the average slope of
the first few experimental points of each semi-variogram was extrapolated
to this sill, providing an abscissa which was transferred to the directional
graph on Fig. IV.27(c) (e.g., 260 m for the NW-SE direction). An ellipse of
geometric anisotropy can be fitted to this directional graph and shows that,
at Sancy and in the grey seam, the sedimentary units seem to be elongated
in the NE-SW direction and appreciably longer than those of the other
two mines, all facts which are corroborated by various lithological
observations.
The Salafossa zinc deposit is located in the dolomitic Alps (Italy) and
consists of an ellipsoidal mass with a main axis in the N-S direction,
dipping between 0 and 30 W. The mineralization (blend and galena)
consists of dolomitic breccia cement. Three types of ore can be clearly
distinguished during mining, each one being related to the dimension of the
elements of the host breccia, d. Fig. IV.28(a) and (b):
(i) type lore in the heart of the deposit, associated with gravelly
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267
Data available
The data come from fans of drills set in an E-W vertical plane approximately perpendicular to the N-S direction of advance of the main drives,
ct. Fig. IV.28(b). The cuttings from the drills were analysed in 15-rn and
3-m lengths according to the zone. Because of this configuration, no data is
available in the N-S direction.
IE'J
Ty pe lore
Ed Type 3 ore
~ Type 2 ore
NJ\I.1215
Niv,1I81
-------------
200
400
~O
(a )
FIG. IV.28. The three types of ore at Salafossa mine. (a) Vertical N-S cross-section;
VtIWW.minebook.blogfa.com
268
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Direction 1
10
N
)--_ _~3
30
45
h(m)
FIG.
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269
30
":-
<::
~
0
>20
3
.....
-, ..... '
/'".
10
...... -.
-"..--' /
Direction 2 +3
_I
I
/
30
15
Ihl (rn )
(=:
15 m.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
270
= 1,
= 37 (%
ell
Zn)2,
a1/
= 24 m.
20
....
15
\ Di rection 4
Direction 2+4+1
'"C
Direction 2
~ 10
e;
>-..
J5
Inl
FIG.
30
(rn)
'~3 m JC O ~ I (%Zn)2
01 = 21 m i C 1 ~ 4(%2n)2
02 = 36 m ; C2" 8{'%Zn)2
Zone E
Type 2
- 30 0 W
, " I 5
m ; Co = 47 (% Zn) 2
12 m i C 1 '" 12('%Zn)2
02= 24 m i C 2 " 20[%Zn) 2
01"
Zone W
Type 1
~
~
L = 1-5m; Co =3-3(%Zo)2
01= 9 m ; C 1 = 15(%Zn)2
C2 = 0 (%2n)2
Zone W
Type '3
and
Ct
C II / [1 - "Yl(l, I)]
= ell
x 1075 = 4.
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271
= 39 m
and
21
= 77 (% Znf
and
C 2 = C 2 1/ [I - Y2(l,I)]
=
e 2 1 x 104 = 8.
v; 3 m,
Direction 1
10
/.
/
/
/
/
/
Direc lion 3 t 4
/
/
/
/
/
/'
30
15
45
h (m)
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272
C 21Y21(h D ) being a spherical model with sill Cu and range a21. This
regularized model 'YI (h D ) is shown on Fig. IV.29 and is a good fit to the
experimental semi-variogram for direction 1.
The El Teniente copper mine in Chile has a daily production of 65000 tons
of crude ore assaying from 1 5 to 1 7% total copper and ranks among the
largest copper mines in the world.
Two mineralizations can essentially be distinguished:
(i) an intensive so-called "secondary" mineralization with high grades
of around 2% in the upper levels within a very fractured andesite
favourable to the flow of solutions.
(ii) a so-called "primary" mineralization with lower grades of about 1 %
in the lower levels within a much clearer andesite.
Available data
Two sampling campaigns are available:
(i) systematic horizontal channel sampling along the drives and crosscuts. The channel samples have been cut into 10-ft lengths and
analysed.
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273
(ii) drills are collared in each drive and developed in fans. The directions
are variable but the cores have been analysed in constant 10-ft
lengths.
The channel sample and core sample supports can be mixed with good
approximation and statistical studies have shown that there is no significant
bias between the two data sets.
Granodiorite
~~~
----------_
..............
Primary mi n arol ilotion
Andesite
FIG,
IV.34,
E~W
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274
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
increases with the mean m" of the data from which the serni-variogram was
calculated.
All the data of the channel samples from six levels were combined to
provide the two mean serni-variograms for the N-S and E-W directions
05
---
[-w
shown on Fig. IV.36. A considerable number of data were used: 3360 for
the E-W direction and 2730 for the N-5 direction. Again, the radial drift
effect on the E-W semi-variograrn and the proportional effect on the
-04
[- w
N-S
15
30
60
90
Ih!(m)
~_~_~'#!)NW.f!linebook.blogf
. .com
275
As the inclinations of the drill cores are very variable, they have been
grouped into angle classes, d. section IILC.4 Fig. III.23(b). Five classes,
corresponding to the following five mean directions, were considered: at;
vertical direction; (Y2, N-S horizontal; a3, E-W inclined at ~45; a4, E-W
inclined at +45"; as, E-W horizontal.
The mean serni-variograms for each angle class are shown on Fig.
IV.37(a) to (e). The following features can be discerned:
0) a very significant radial drift effect in the horizontal E-W direction,
and a less significant one in the E-W directions inclined at +45 and
-45;
(ii) a change in slope around to m;
(iii) the curves for directions al and a2, which are unaffected by the
radial drift, stabilize around 100 m;
(iv) a proportional effect on the nugget constant values.
superimposed, they will coincide except for the nugget constant, This
means that the two nested structures with IO-m and 100-m ranges are
isotropic. First of all, these two structures were fitted to the best-known
experimental serni-variogram, i.e., that for the channel samples in the N-S
direction, as shown on Fig. IV.36. The adopted model is
V r = Ihi> 10ft,
(IV.2)
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MINING GEOSTATlSTICS
276
0-2,.-------------(0 )
01
_--_
- - - - . -..
01
..__ ._----.-----~---------'
~ _...
(b)
... .-
-----------
--~------~--
/'
02
I
------",.,-,.,
..---
(c)
--~
.........................
--
01
./
N
OJ
e~
0'2 ( d)
>-..
--01
,.-----------------'~""--------
(e)
03
02
--
01
15
30
60
Inl
90
(rn)
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I
~.
s-
I-
TABLE
';n
Direction
Drills
A
Horizontal
Vertical
N-S
m*
,
(;
~.
~
'"
11:
C6'
Fitted parabola
C0
095
0043
0-037
065
0004
0004
- 4)
Channel samples
--.,
,,'-
E-W
+45
E-W
Horizontal
E-W
T4
N-S
T4
E-W
094
0-035
0-035
112
0-063
0-064
088
0-030
0-026
151
019
0184
1-66
0-24
0-242
-0
--
--,
All levels
N-S
E-W
131
0128
0118
153
0-20
0-19
278
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
These experimental points (CS, m*) are shown graphically on Fig. IV.38;
the parabola Co = 018 [m - 0'5]2 is a remarkably good fit.
To take account of the radial drift in the E-W directions, it is necessary
to add an additional anisotropic term to the preceding isotropic model
(formula (IV.2)). The deviations from the isotropic model of the E-W
020
0-10
./a
001
.::'-~
----l
---"--
---'
1-5
10
m(%Cu)
CS,
experimental; ~-, Co =
horizontal semi-variograms are shown on Fig. IV.39. A linear serni-variogram can be fitted to these deviations, at least for small distances (h u <
60m):
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279
. 2
au SIn
'P
2 [ 2
cos cp +a u
SIn
cp
. 2
SIn
a + COS ffJ J
196x 10-8
= . 2
2
400 [sm
. 2 'P Sin
. 2
Sin 'P cos a +
a + COS2cp]
from which it follows that
01
( 10
C)2
U
~'1
0'15
~ 0-10
x
005
DOl
x_--..
-)(
~.
x~-
----------
.~-=''''';~'''------'-------_ _----L
3 9 15
30
L -_ _--------J
....L..
60
90
hu
FIG. IV.39. E-W horizontal deviations from the isotropic model. ., Core samples;
x, channel samples.
E
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E~W
drift.
280
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Available data
The results from three types of sampling campaigns are available.
(i) The entire deposit was sampled by vertical diamond drilling (DDH)
on a pseudo-regular 100 m x 100 ill horizontal grid. The diamond
drill-holes were cut into constant lengths 1= 13 m and analysed for
copper. The 13-m core sample length corresponds to the height of
mining benches.
(ii) The primary production zones were sampled by rotary drilling
(RDH) on a regular 50 m x 50 m horizontal grid. These holes were
also cut into 13-m lengths.
(iii) The production benches were sampled by the same rotary drills used
for blast-holes. The drill cuts coming from these blast-holes (BH)
were approximately 14 m long. The blast-holes are located on an
irregular horizontal grid with constant density and a mean 8-m
distance between two BH. At the time this study was carried out, the
are production had just begun and the information from the BH was
very limited.
All samples were analysed for total copper (Cu T) and soluble copper
(Cu S).
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281
The three types of samples (DDH, RDH and BH) were studied
separately. The vertical regionalization can only be studied through the
DDH, which are the only sampled long enough. On the horizontal plane
(by grading over the constant 13-m thickness of a horizontal bench), these
DDH provide data over large horizontal distances (h > 100 m.) The RDB
provide a comparable horizontal information, i.e., graded over 13 m, for
horizontal distances (h ~ 50 m). The BH provide horizontal information
graded over 14 m (14 = 13), but at smaller distances (h ~ 8 m).
-......::..
cu
/-~-~-~-..
10
/
/
/
/
/
/
--..:::.
Cu S
250
300
Ihl
FIG.
350
400
450
(rn)
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282
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
The two other groups of samples - RDH and BH - were used to evaluate
these small-range structures. Care was taken to choose benches and zones
for which the Cu T and Cu S grades were similar to the corresponding
DDH grades (1,1 % Cu T and 08% Cu S). This precaution cancelled the
influence of the proportional effect.
-- ~:-..;:--~--
10
/"/"~-
Cu T
/"
/"
,
,,
/"
/"
Cu S
-~-----
-,
-,
0-5
50
150
200
Ihl
250
(rn
300
350
FIG. IV,42. Horizontal regionalization of the three types of samples (DDH, RDH,
BH).
-~-,
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283
{Co(O)- Co(r)} represents the nugget effect which appears on the grading
over the I = 13~m support as the nugget constant COl, ct. formula (lII.7).
Cj)'1 (r) and C 2 Y2(r ) are two spherical models with respective sills C 1 and
C 2 and ranges a 1 = 45 m a2 = 200 m.
The theoretical model of the semi-variograrn graded over the constant
13-m thickness is obtained from the point model by applying the practical
rules of section II.D.4, and is given by
yo(h)= C O/+CllYI(r)+C21l'2( r ),
V horizontal vector with modulus rE
[13,400 m],
(IVA)
and
C 2 1 = C 2 [1 - Y2(/, I)].
= 0,22,
Cll
= 0,10,
C2 l
= 064 (% ce T)2
and, thus, the parameters for the point model (IV.3) are
C j = Cllxl16=O12
and
C 2=C2 I Xl03=066(%CuTl.
The graded model (IVA) thus considered is shown on Fig. IVA2 and is a
good fit to the experimental curves.
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Ihl.
(IV.5)
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
284
,/ ">---
.....
/ <.
.>
c><>
10
./
".
./
<,
......
The 0ret i ca I
vertical model
-....-.
"
I
I
..... .....
.:
/
/
I I
1/
;1
;1
;'
05
~ Theoretical
horizontal model
13
26
s;
FIG_
65
52
39
78
91
(m)
h.,
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285
65 -13
52 m,
The regularized model (IV.6) thus considered is shown on Fig. IV.43 and is
a good fit to the experimental vertical serni-variogram.
The three-dimensional point model adopted for the Cu S grades is
completely similar, with the same vertical anisotropy, the same values for
the nested ranges at, a2, a3 and the same nugget constant COl, but with
different values for the sills Cj, e 2 , C 3
Remark.
Case Study 13. Structural analysis of the Mea nickel deposit, after J.
Deraisme (1976)
The nickel silicate deposit of Mea (New Caledonia) consists of altered basic
rocks. The following three components can be schematically distinguished
on the vertical, cf. Fig. IV.44.
(i) A seam of yellow laterites with low, uneconomic nickel grades.
(ii) A seam of silicate ore consisting of various facies of altered basic
rocks (dunites, harzburgites). These facies are more or less nickel
rich. Unaltered inclusions of variable sizes are found within this
silicate ore and consist of hard blocks caned pure waste, that can be
distinguished both when drilling and mining (selective crushing and
selection at the face by the miner himself).
(iii) A karstic bed-rock consisting of peridotites.
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286
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
t.
,80m
I
I
I
____ Laterites
"
'-waste
The drill cores were cut into constant l-m lengths within the silicate
seam. The pure waste was removed from the softer, altered material with a
geologist's pick and the lengths of the two separated materials were
measured and analysed for density and grades (of dry are) d. Fig. IV.45.
L en g t hl I-Ii
...r~------"7'Altered
Density.
{
Of
Grodes,Nf , Co
Co and impurities
1m
Pure
:J-------~waste
L engt h, Ii
{ Density, a,
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287
Core
If
sample _
FIG.
(b)
Vertical regionalization
The I-m and 3-m regularized vertical serni-variograms, 'Y/(h) and 'Y31(h)
for each of the above three variables, were calculated from the 167 vertical
drill-holes and are shown on Fig. IV.47(a), (b), (c).
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288
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Support i
( o)
0-5
Support 31
--------
/
/"
/"
01
Support l
----
-----~-----
Support 3'
Support l
(cJ
2
Support 3t
--/
10
20
r (m)
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289
Horizontal regionalization
The three accumulation variables graded over a constant thickness of
31 = 3 m were defined by the intersections of the vertical drill-holes with
each of the 3 m thick horizontal mining benches, cf. Fig. IV .46(b). The
graded variables were defined by weighting the analyses of the I-m core
lengths by the intersection of these lengths with the bench, according to
formula (III.45).
Using these variables graded over 3/, the graded experimental semivariograms were calculated, bench by bench, and for various horizontal
directions. The bench variograms are not significant, due to the small
number of data pairs used in the calculations, and they were combined into
mean directional variograms for all benches. These mean directional
variograms show no significant anisotropy and, thus, were combined into a
single mean isotropic, horizontal variogram valid for all benches. These
three mean isotropic semi-variograrns, graded over 31, are shown on Fig.
IV.48(a), (b), (c).
On each of these experimental curves, there is a horizontal macrostructure with a range a3 = 180 m and a very prominent nugget effect with
an amplitude approximately equal to the sills of variability of the vertical 31
regularized experimental serni-variograms 'Y3/(h), d. Fig. IV.47.
Thus, a three-dimensional model can be established by adding a macrostructure with a range a, = 180 m to the structure revealed by the vertical
regionalization,
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290
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Cb,31
\:1,= Ihl~80m_
-----
Suppor t 3/
02
01
0.--
---------_.~,,_._-----------------'
02r~lb)-~-,
"
--------------~
- --
Support 3/
01
o1'-
.,
(c )
2
Support 3t
I
Of
10
100
200
300
FIG. {VAS.
Remark Strictly speaking, the theoretical model C 3.31'Y3(r ) of the macrostructure, estimated from only the horizontal graded semi-variograrns,
describes only large-distance (r ~ 80 m) horizontal regionalizations. This
horizontal macro-structure is then extended to three dimensions by adopting an hypothesis of structural isotropy to give the isotropic term C 3'Y3(r ) of
the model (IV. 7).
This hypothesis has little effect on the vertical study as the vertical
thickness of the Mea silicate seam never exceeds 35 m and for such small
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291
To sum up, nested models of the type (IV. 7) have been adopted for the
three-dimensional point support regionalizations of the three accumulation
variables. The values of the sills, regularized on I and 3[, are given on Table
IV.3. The corresponding theoretical models, regularized by core samples
of lengths [ and 3/ and graded over 31, agree remarkably well with all the
available experimental curves.
TABLE
Waste accumulation
Ore accumulation
Metal accumulation
CO. I
C Ll
C:u
C3 .1
L: C.I
024
012
063
022
0105
079
0
0
061
0184
007
070
0644
0295
273
(b) Support 3l
Waste accumulation
Ore accumulation
Metal accumulation
C O3 1
CUI
C2,J1
C 331
L CD J
008
0-04
021
0'145
0-07
052
0
0
057
0185
0-07
070
041
018
20
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
292
;1 +~l
'Vr=31;
r
1'31(h) = [CO,3i + C(l' 5-log 3)] + C log I'
'r/r';331;
thus
1'1(h)- 1'31(h) = CO,I - C O,3i + Clog 3
=
2eO,3 1 + Clog 3,
-- -
Support I
-- -
2
Su pporl 31
F------,~,--~~--+-----
10
rlt
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293
The two following case studies show how the characterization of a spatial
variability through the variograrn model allows the prediction and, thus,
the control of the production grades. These two case studies can also be
considered as examples of practical applications of the two geostatistical
variances: the estimation and the dispersion variances.
Case Study 14. Prediction of the grade of planned production from
several stopes
U';,
ot
Block 8i'
SloCk 8;
True qr o de, 8,Estimated grade,!lt
Ta"noq~, Pri
Tonnage. p;,;
--"
tJ,*
~t
To to I tannoge,~-
Day
FIG.
True grade,
{
T;
Ii*
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t r-".j
294
tonnages Pu are calculated so that the predicted mean grade T] of the total
production P, of the day j satisfies the sales or milling constraints. Thus, for
a day i. the following relations hold:
N
= 1 Pij;
P, = L
L pijeU Pi;
true mean grade actually recovered, T, =.L Pii . lii/ P;
Tj
The object of the study is to control the difference between the predicted
grade Tj and the true grade actually recovered. This is done by means of the
estimation variance:
CT~i = E{[ t,
Tj ]2}.
Suppose that the N blocks B, are within the same stationary regionalization characterized by the grade expectation m. The various grades O!, fh
tij thus have the same expectation m and the non-bias for the prediction of
the daily grade is verified:
E{7j - Tj} =
L PijE{l ij - ef}/ P, =
O.
CTt = L pt E{[tjj -
eil 2 } / Pi.
et =
(tif -
OJ)+ (8 i
--->
en
and, thus,
The fluctuation (tij - Oi) of the elementary grades Iii within the block B I can
be assumed to be independent of the estimation error (01 - On of this
block, and, thus,
E{(ll; - Oi)(ei
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(1)} =
o.
295
1
2
2
V JE{(fij-Oi) }dx=D (PdB i ) ,
8,
.L p.;
J=1
As for the term E{(Oi - Or )2}, it is, by definition, the estimation variance
of the mean grade of block B; If this block has been estimated by
kriging, then
is simply the kriging variance of the block given by the
kriging system of equations.
Finally, the estimation variance of the mean grade TI of the total production PI of day j is written
a;,
0";,
<rEi =
2[ 2 / )
2]
Py1:!;::-1 Pu D (Pi B, +a c , .
(IV.8)
This variance thus depends not only on the dispersion of the grades of the
production units Pi in each block B, but also on the quality of the estimators of the mean grades of these blocks B;
Remark 1 If the programming of the mining for a day j is based on the
estimators tt of the grades tij of each production unit rather than on the
estimators
of the blocks or stapes B i , then the previous formula reduces
to the sum of N independent elementary estimations:
ot
1;'
2
aE i =~ L,
Pi
2
2}
1*
PiiE{(tii
ij )
(IV.9)
;=1
This case corresponds, for example, to an open-pit deposit for which the
mining program is based on blast-hole analyses which provide the estimator t~ of each production unit.
Remark 2 However, it sometimes happens that it is not possible to
directly estimate the grades (ii' either because the exact location of the
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296
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
and, thus,
(IV. 11)
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297
2
(TE
0-029
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298
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(T;'/ ei 2
0056,
V the panel i.
82.,2'''10 Ni
x
'%
V//
"/.
%%
I'
;5
------ x
------x
1--------1
60
8 3,1 5"/" Ni
1
///
2700 t cloy -I
+ 2700
///
1 - --
+900tdoy-1
t doy-I
(i) Shovel no.1, which has a small capacity (900 t day -1) is located in
workings B 1 with a rich mean grade estimated to be of = 35 % Ni.
This shovel moves a unit of size Pt = 20 m x 5 m x 5 m each day.
(ii) Shovels no. 2 and 3 have thrice the capacity (2700 t day") of shovel
no.1. Shovel no.2 is located in a workings of average grade (O! =
2% Ni), while shovel no. 3 is in a poor grade site (ot = 15% Ni).
Each shovel moves a unit of size P2 = P3 = 60 m x 5 m x 5 m per day.
The predicted mean grade of the 6300 t day -1 so produced is
ok
T' =
6300
.
200 % Ni.
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299
between the two auxiliary functions P(Pi) and F(B;) defined on the two
rectangles Pi and B; cf. section I1.E.2, formula (11.82), e.g.,
(p d 8 1 ) =
"1(8[,
(For the calculations of the values D (pJ B i ) , note that as the supports Pi
and B, are considerably larger than the support of the 5 m-Iorig core
samples, the influence of the nugget effect disappears and the relative
spherical model with range a = 300 m and sill elm 2 = 0-075 is sufficient.)
Immediate calculation and chart reading provide the following values:
D?(PI/ Bd = 3-5 2 (0-0117 ~ 0-001 95) = 0119 (% Nif,
D 2 (pzl B2) ="2 2 (CHH17 ~ 0-0(338) = C).(l33 (% Ni)2,
(T~
I
r:
a;;
at
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
300
1. The two shovels can advance in line on the same front. The weekly
production unit 5 can be approximated by a rectangle with horizontal
dimensions 360 m x 5 m. The height of the bench is 5 m, and the
average density of the dry ore is 18.
2. The two shovels can advance in parallel on two fronts, getting
progressively farther away from each other. The weekly production
unit 5 thus consists of two rectangles 51 and 52 with equal horizontal
dimensions 180 m x 5 m.
In the first case, the annual production (1,62 million tonnes over 50
weeks) can be approximated by a rectangle S with horizontal dimensions
720 m x 125 m; in the second case, it will be approximated by a rectangle S
with horizontal dimensions 500 m X 180 m.
Taking the weekly production as the homogenization unit, it is desired to
2(sj
calculate the dispersion variance D
S) of the weekly mean grades
actually obtained in one production year, using both types of shovel
advancement.
The horizontal regionalization of the Ni grades graded over the constant
thickness (5 m) of the benches is stationary with expectation m = 2% Ni
and characterized by an isotropic spherical model with a nugget effect,t
range a = 300 m and sill C = 03 (% Ni)2
The dispersion variance is given by the standard formula:
ex 0754 =
0226
ex 0700 = 0210.
for method 2
t There is no need to give the value of the nugget constant, as the nugget effect vanishes when
regularized on the previous supports sand S of the weekly and annual productions, d.
formula (IlLS).
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301
ex 0514 = 0-154.
The calculation of the term yes, s) for the second method is a little more
involved. As 5 is the union of the two rectangles 51, 52, it follows that
ex O'289 = 0087.
The term y(s}, 52) depends on the distance 2x between the two working
sites 51 and 52, cf. Fig. IV.52(b). The production year consists of 50 weeks
(i = 1 to 50) and, during week i, the distance between the two sites is
5(2i -1) metres. Approximating each working site by its median line of
180 m length, the term Y(Sl; 52) for week i becomes
720
I
I
,I
5:--I
5mL~L.......---_1_125m
I.
.1
2x 180 ~ 360 m
500 rn
'I
5
180 rn
o I~~-----+----FIG. IY.52. Two methods of shovel advancement. (a) Two shovels in line;
(b) two shovels in parallel.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
302
d. the definition (II.79) of the auxiliary function atL; l). On average, over
the 50 weeks of production, the term 1'(51,52) can be written as
Yes!> 52) =
50
ex 084 =
0252
0-170.
D 2(s/S)= 0072,
i.e., D(s/S)/m
013 = 13%
2(s/S)=
0'040,
i.e., D(s/S)/m
= 0,10= 10%.
for method 2
Configuration no. 2, with the two shovels in parallel, thus provides a
significant decrease in the dispersion variance.
Remark The knowledge of the dispersion over one year may not be
sufficient to control the variablity of grades. For example, it is important to
ensure that weekly mill-head grades will be sufficiently regular over a short
period of time (e. g.. 1 month). For this purpose, the dispersion variance
2
D (5/ M) of the weekly grades within a month's production can be calculated. Krige's additivity relationship (11.37) gives
2
D (sl S)
Thus, the distribution of the total annual variability D 2 (s/ S) between the
short-term variability D\s/M) and the long-term variability D\M/ S) can
be evaluated.
If it is desired to further increase the control of variabilities, the deposit
can be simulated, i.e., the spatial regionalization of the grades can be
simulated, ct. Chapter VII. A simulation of the mining method can then be
applied to this simulated deposit to give an idea of the fluctuations of
grades from one period to another, e.g., day per day, month to month, etc.,
d. the case study given in section VII.B.3.
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v
Kriging and the Estimation
of in situ Resources
SUMMARY
The in situ resources of a deposit are distinct from the recoverable reserves which
can be mined within some given technical and economical context. The object of
this chapter is the estimation of the in situ resources prior to the application of any
cut-off; the estimation of recoverable reserves will be treated in Chapter VI.
Section V.A introduces the technique of kriging, which provides a minimumvariance unbiased linear estimator of the mean characteristic of a block of any
given geometry. In the case of non-stationarity, several non-bias conditions are
required and this leads to the technique known as "universal kriging", or unbiased
kriging of order k. When a group of variables are correlated, the cokriging technique can be used to estimate any variable (e.g., silver grade) from the data
available on all the correlated variables (e.g., lead and zinc grades in addition to the
silver grades).
Section V.B deals with applying kriging techniques in practice and demonstrates
that it is possible to krige thousands of blocks with reasonable speed and cost. Some
typical subroutines are given along with numerous examples of kriging plans which
can be adapted to the estimation of a large range of deposits of variable
morphology.
Section V.C deals with the global estimation of a deposit or a large zone. The
global estimator is obtained by combining the various local kriged estimators of the
blocks or units which make up the zone. When calculating the global estimation
variance, a distinction is made between the geometrical error involved in evaluating
the limits of the mineralized surface or volume and the quality error due to the
estimation of the mean characteristics (e.g., grade) within a zone of fixed limits.
These two errors are then combined to provide the estimation variance attached to
global estimators, such as quantities of ore and metal and the corresponding mean
grades.
303
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
The problem
The problem of local estimation is to find the best estimator of the mean
value of a regionalized variable over a limited domain, the dimensions of
which are small compared to the dimensions of the quasi-stationary
(homogeneous) zones of the deposit, e.g., the mean grade of a block
located well within a zone of homogeneous mineralization. Local estimation differs from global estimation in that global estimation considers
distances larger than the limits of quasi-stationarity and, thus, sometimes
engulfs various heterogeneous mineralizations.
The available information used for local estimation within a quasistationary zone is generally made up of a set of data (e.g., n core grades)
and structural information (e.g., the variogram model characterizing the
spatial variability in the studied zone).
Kriging is a local estimation technique which provides the best linear
unbiased estimator (abbreviated to BLUE) of the unknown characteristic
studied. This limitation to the class of linear estimators is quite natural,
since it means that only the second-order moment of the RF (i.e., the
covariance or variogram) is required, and, in general, it is possible in
practice to infer the moment, cf. section II.B.2.
Of course, when the available structural information includes more than
the simple knowledge of the second-order moment, then non-linear estimators - more precise than simple kriging ~ can be defined, ct. Chapter
VIII, "Introduction to Non-linear Geostatistics". The present chapter will
be limited to linear estimators only.
V.A.1. Equations of krigIng
Let Z(x) be the RF under study. Z(x) is defined on a point support and is
second-order stationary, with
expectation,
E{Z(x)} = m,
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f
V(xo)
Z(x)dx
305
LA
m = E{Zv},
E{[Zv - Z~ f}
},
with
E{zt}=~f
V
1
E{ZvZ~d=LAa.
'"
VV a
J dx f
V
V",f-{3
2
E{Z(x)Z(x')}dx'=LAaC(V,va)+m,
Va
E{Z~2}=LLA"AB_l_,
(); (3
u"
'"
dXf E{Z{x)Z(x')}dx'
U(3
I
a
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
306
(The standard notation C(V, Va) designates the mean value of the covariance function C(h) when the two extremities of the vector h independently
describe the domains V and Va:, respectively.)
The estimation variance can, thus, be expressed as a quadratic form in
Aa , As, and is to be minimized subject to the non-bias condition L" AD: = 1.
The optimal weights are obtained from standard Lagrangian techniques by
setting each of the n partial derivatives a[E{[Zv - Z~ ]2}_ 2M If] ,1/31/ (lA",
to zero. This procedure provides a system of (n + 1) linear equations in
(n + 1) unknowns (the n weights Aa and the Lagrange parameter J.t) which
is called the" kriging system".
tl
i3~1
A13 C (v a ,
VI3)-
J.t
= C(v"" V),
Va = 1 to n,
(V. I.)
A",C(va. V)
(V.2)
a = 1
This kriging system can also be expressed'[ in terms of the semi-variogram function y(h), particularly when the RF Z (x) is intrinsic only and the
covariance function C(h) is not defined:
V"
L A13 =
~ 1 to n, }
(V.3)
13
and
(T~ =
L Aa)i(v""
t In practice, even when the covariance is not defined, the system (V.l) written in terms of
covariance is preferred for reasons of programming efficiency. For this purpose, it is enough
to define the "pseudo-covariance" C(h) such that YCh)=A-C(h), the constant A being
any positive value greater than the greatest mean value y used in the kriging system (V.3).
The non-bias condition I" A" = 1 allows the elimination of this constant A from the system
(V.3), which then becomes a (V. I)-type system written in terms of the pseudo-covariance
C(h).
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Matrix form
Both kriging systems can be expressed in matrix form as
[K] . [A I = [M2]
(VA)
[A]
and, [A
= [Kr 1 . [M2],
V) - [A It. [M2],
where the matrix of unknowns fA] and the second member [M2] can be
written as two column matrices:
C(VI,V)
Al
A2
[A] =
Aa
An
-/.J-
[M2] =
('(va, V)
C(v", V)
I
[K] =
Main diagonal
Note that the kriging matrix is symmetric, i.e.,
Va, (3.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
[C (Va, VI3)] is strictly positive definite and, thus, necessarily has a strictly
positive determinant. For this purpose, it is enough that the point covariancet model C(h) used is positive definite and that no data support
v'" coincides completely with another one. In fact, Va E Va' entails
that ct; v(3)= ci; v(3)' '1(3, and the determinant IC(v"" Vp)1 is, thus,
zero.
This condition for the existence and the uniqueness of the solution of the
kriging system thus entails that the kriging variance (V.2) is non-negative,
d. section II.A.3, relation (II.8).
Remark 2 Kriging, which is an unbiased estimator, is also an exact
interpolator, i.e., if the support V to be estimated coincides with any of the
supports Vc< of the available data, then the kriging system provides:
(i) an estimator Z~ identical to the known grade Z; of the support
V",= V;
(ii) a zero kriging variance, (T~ = O.
Remark 4 The kriging system and the kriging variance depend only on
the structural model C(h) or y(h) and on the relative geometries of the
various supports Va, V(3, V, but not on the particular values of the data Za.
Consequently, once the data configuration is known and before drilling is
undertaken, the kriging system can be solved and the corresponding
minimum estimation variance can be forecast. Thus, the kriging variance
can be used to balance the cost of a new drilling campaign with its forecast
utility (new data would decrease the estimation variance, thus providing
narrower confidence intervals) cf. O. Bernuy and A. Journel (1977).
+If the
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309
Remark 5
[AI=[Kr1fM21
and
{A']=[K]1.[M2'].
The kriging system and the kriging variance take into account
the four essential and intuitive facts, previously mentioned in section
II.B.2, remark 4, which condition every estimation. These are as follows.
(i) The geometry of the domain V to be estimated, expressed in the
term y( V, V) in the expression of the kriging variance Q"~.
(ii) The distances between V and the supports Va of the information,
expressed by the terms Hv w V) of the matrix tM2].
(iii) The geometry of the data configuration as expressed by the terms
y(vn, V(3) of the kriging matrix [K]. The accuracy of an estimation
depends not only on the number of data but also on their configuration in relation with the main features of the regionalization as
characterized by the structural function y(h) in the various terms
Yev{O v(:J).
(iv) The main structural features of the variability of the phenomenon
under study as characterized by the semi-variogram model y(h).
Consider the estimation in two dimensions of the panel V by the symmetric configuration of the four data A, B, C, D as shown on Fig. Y .1. The
underlying mineralization shows a preferential direction u of continuity
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
310
Dx
xB
~c
Direction of continuity
FIG. V.l. Influence of the variability structure on kriging.
The mean values C(v"" VtI) appearing in the kriging system are written,
according to formulae (111.6), as
if Vf3 c v"',
if v'" and vl3 are disjoint,
where A is a constant given by A = SCo(h) dh. (It is recalled - cf. section
III.A.3, formula (IIL7) - that this constant A appears in the nugget
constant value Co~ = AI v of a semi-variograrn regularized over the
support v.)
The kriging system (V.l) can then be written as
A", [AI v",
+ C\(v", va)] + 2:
{3r''''
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Af3 C\
(va ,
va'l
(V.S)
if all supports
Va, V/3'
311
If all supports v", V/3, V are not disjoint, then each of the terms C of the
kriging system must be calculated.
A case often found in practice is that of a configuration of data disjoint
among themselves, some of which (v c, ) being located within the support V
to be estimated:
Va,C
Va
V,
nV =
but
Vo;,n V/3
Vo;
= 0,
n V{3 =
0,
v,
(V.6)
13~0;
Va
,1/3C 1 (Vo;,
Va,
A~ = 1
and
In mining applications, the support V is very often much larger than the
data supports Vo;, V,,(, and the term A/ V is negligible when compared with
the terms Aio; or A/Va" When all the data supports Va, V(3 are disjoint,
system (V.S) is obtained.
If the semi-variogram l'(h) = {Co(O) - Co(h)} + 1'1 (h) is to be used instead
of the covariance C(h), it is enough to substitute (-Yt) for C t in the
preceding systems (V.S) and (V.6).
Note in system (V.S) that the influence of a nugget effect with nugget
constant COli = A/ v affects only the elements of the main diagonal of the
kriging matrix as an additional term A/ Va'
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
A"A/ v" -- u. = 0,
\;fa,
I AJ3 = 1
{3
and, thus,
= Va/~ V(3,
Aa
va,}
(V.?)
I-L
= A /~
V();} Va,
Ve
CT~ = A [ I
+V
V{3
J.
{3
The weights for the n available data values Zo. are proportional to the
volumes va of their respective supports.
Moreover, if the n supports Vc< are equal (e.g., n core samples of
constant length and volume v), then the system (V.?) becomes
Ao.=l/n,
Va = 1 to n,
if V v. }
The n weights Ac< are all equal and the kriging variance (T~ = COl)/ n is
simply the variance of estimation given by the statistics of spatially uncorrelated variables. The nugget constant COt; is the a priori variance of the
support v data, according to formula (IlL!!):
COt; = A/ v
D (v/ OO )
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313
Pone I to be
estimated
"-
Available
drill-holes
Kriging under a stationary hypothesis, like any other "stationary" estimation procedure such as inverse-squared distances weighting, will inevitably overestimate the real mean thickness of the panel V. For this reason, it
is essential to take the drift of the thickness intoaccount in the direction of
thinning of the seam.
The following method of "unbiased kriging of order k" (also called
"universal kriging") provides an unbiased linear estimator which takes the
drift into account, provided that both the form of the drift E {Z (x)} = m (x)
and the covariance or variogram of the non-stationary RF Z (x) are known.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
= m(x).
with
E{ Y(x)}
= 0,
Vx.
(V.S)
The drift m (x) expresses the regular and continuous variation of the RF
Z (x) at the scale of observation of the experimental data. The RF Y (x)
accounts for the erratic fluctuations around the drift, cf. Fig. V. 3.
m( x)
D(xO)
...
..
xo
The form of the drift m (x) is supposed known. For example, m (x) may
be a linear combination of any known functions {II (x), I = 1 to k}, the
coefficients a/ of which are unknown, so that the drift m(x) remains
unknown:
k
m(x)=
ad/(x).
(V.9)
/= 1
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315
(V. lOa)
Ql
+ a2X + Q3 X2,
(V. lOb )
Of course, this drift may only be evident in some directions. For example, the phenomenon may be stationary in the horizontal plane with a drift
in the vertical direction, in which case the previous quadratic drift would
reduce to
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
to estimate y(x, y) directly from the initial experimental data z (x",). This
would entail the simultaneous estimation of the drift m (x) and the semivariogram y(x, y) from a single realization z(x) of the RF Z(x), which is
not rigorously possible.t
In mining applications, experience has shown that, in most instances, it is
possible to take either of the following approximations for y(x, y):
(i) the quasi-stationary semi-variograrn y(h) calculated on neighbouring zones with a possible correction for a proportional effect;
(ii) more simply, the behaviour at the origin (in general, linear, with or
without nugget effect) of the neighbouring quasi-stationary semivariograrn, l' (x, y) = y(h) = w Ih I, where h = (x - y) is the vector
joining the two points x and y.
Consider the estimation of the mean grade Zv(xo), defined on panel V(xo),
from n mean grades Z; defined on the supports Va.
The corresponding point support RF Z (x) is non-stationary and, within
the estimation neighbourhood D(xo), it has an unknown drift of the form
k
E{Z(x)} = m(x)=
L ad/ex),
1=1
Matheron has proposed a model of intrinsic RF, the so-called "generalized covariances",
which can be inferred from a single experimental realization. The advantage of the structural analysis of intrinsic RF of order k is that it can be entirely programmed and is
commercially available in packages such as Krigepack or Bluepack, On the other hand, this
automatic procedure does not have the same flexibility as the "hand-made" structural
analysis presented in Chapters III and IV; in mining applications, all sorts of physical and
qualitative information (geology) intervene in a structural analysis.
The following references are pertinent to these techniques: G. Matheron (1969), Ch.
Huijbregts and G. Matheron (1970), G. Matheron (1971, p, 139) and G. Matheron (1973)
for the theory of universal kriging and intrinsic RF of order k (these publications are of a
rather advanced mathematical level and are not recommended 10 mining engineers or
geologists who have no prior geostatistical background); P. Delfiner (1975), A. Haas and C.
Jousselin (1975) for presentations of the packages Bluepack and Krigepack, respectively.
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317
l:"
Z~ =
AaZ".
"=1
Non-bias condition
E{Zv}- E{Z~} = 0,
where
E{Zv}
= V1
E{Z(x)} dx
V(xol
= L arr:1
I
E{Z~} = L AaE{Z,,} = I
a,
L Au ~
V"
. fi(x) dx
= L alb Iv,
V(xo)
!E(x) dx
= L a,
I
L Aab~",
a
denoting the mean value on the support v of the known function fl(x) by
l .
b v, I.e.,
b Iv = -1
f fT(x)dx.
v
To obtain a zero-error expectation, it is enough to impose the k following conditions, called the "non-bias conditions";
I" A"b~"
~
b ~ , V I = 1 to k.
(V. 1 I)
AaC(V, V a )+ I
"
AaAilC(v a, Vi3)'
i3
This estimation variance then appears as a quadratic form in A", A/3, just
as it did in the case of kriging under a stationary hypothesis. However, in
this case the estimation variance must be minimized subject to the k
non-bias constraints, instead of the single constraint for stationary kriging.
Using the standard Lagrangian technique, a system of (n + k) linear equations in (n + k) unknowns is obtained (the n weights A", and the k Lagrange
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
318
parameters J.1-1)' This system is called the "unbiased kriging system of order
k" or the "universal kriging system".
11
13 ~ 1
11
1= I
At3b~a=blv,
B=
ABC(vm Vi~
/-Llb~"
Va
= ('(v"" V),
1 to n,
(V.12)
VI
= 1 to
k.
ak=E{[Zv-Zkf}=c(v, V)+
minimized
11
J-tlb V
<>: ~
1=1
A(.c~(v(>, V).
(V.U)
I
t3
\fa
Af3b~13 = b 'v,
~ 1 to n, }
(V.14 )
Vi = 1 to k,
(3
and
O'~
A",')i(Va , V) +
L /-LIb ~ -
ii( V, V).
Remark 1 The kriging system (V. 1) in the stationary case can be seen as
an unbiased kriging of order k = 1, the stationary expectation being
reduced to an unknown constant aj:
Note that the mean value of the constant function I, (x ) = lover any
volume v is equal to 1: b~ = 1, Vv.
Remark 2 Existence and uniqueness of the solution. As was the case under
the stationary hypothesis, cf. section V.A.I, remark. 1, the covariance
matrix [C(v a , VB)] is assumed to be strictly positive definite. It can then be
shown that the system (V.12) of unbiased kriging of order k has a unique
solution if and only if the k functions fl(x) are linearly independent on the
set of the n data, i.e., if the n following linear relations
k
1= 1
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clb~"
0,
Va
= 1 to n,
(V.IS)
319
imply that ci = 0, V1= 1 to k. For example, consider a data set in which all
the data are aligned perpendicularly to the direction u, as on Fig. V.4. It is
obviously impossible to take a drift in the direction u into account, using
just this set of data, even if this drift is only linear: m (u) = a 1+ a2U.
= un,
=1
Va
Va
to n, and the n
1 to n,
C2
must be zero,
Remark 3 Matrix form. The first member matrix [K"J of the system
(V.12) of unbiased kriging of order k can be obtained by adding (k -1)
rows and (k - 1) columns to the first member matrix [K] of the system (V. 1)
for kriging under the stationary hypothesis, i.e.,
C(Vl' VI)
C(v" V,,) 1
(n
C(v n , VI)
c; vn )
b~"
b~,
b~n
(n + 1) columns
~O
b~"
~o~
rows
0
.. 0:
::
(k -1)
"
.
rows
0
0
.. .
0
~
(k -1) columns Main diagonal
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s:..
+ 1)
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
320
The column matrices of the unknown [.A 1 and of the second members
[M2 k ] are obtained likewise:
C(VIl,V)
[A]
[M2d =
bt.
-p.,k
The system (V. 12) for unbiased kriging of order k can then be expressed
in matrix notation as
[Kd [A 1= [M2d
[A] = [K k
r .[M2
(V.16)
k ],
and, thus,
(T~
[A
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321
tion of the available data can be formed to provide the estimator zt; =
L"A",Z" and the standard kriging systems, (V.12) or (V.I), to be considered can be used by replacing the index V by D (depending on whether
or not a drift is to be considered).
In mining applications, the global mean of an entire deposit D would
very rarely be kriged directly for the two following reasons.
(i) It is not usually possible to assume stationarity or a single drift of
known form over the entire deposit D. but only over limited neigh-
Consider again the point RF Z (z ), which is assumed to be either secondorder stationary over the extent of the zone or deposit D, or to have a drift
with a known form over the extension D.
The kriging systems (V. I) and (V.12) have the remarkable property that
only the second-member matrices [M2] or [M2 k l depend on the support V
1
to be estimated. The solution of the kriging system, [A l = [Kr . [M2], is
thus linear in V.
More precisely, let A,,(x) be the solution of the kriging of the point value
Z(x) at point x from the data configuration {Z",; a = 1 to n}. The mean
t Remark
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
322
(V.I?)
fLl(S) dx,
VI = 1 to k.
(i) in most cases, these data neighbourhoods effectively screen out the
influence of data values further away;
(ii) the hypotheses of stationarity or form of the drift are usually limited
to distances Ih I which are of the order of the dimensions of sliding
neighbourhoods.
(V.18)
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323
inside the polygonal contour which best approximates the form of the zone
to be estimated, d. Fig. V.5.
vizt;
and, thus,
(V.19)
: :6:
~===~~~
FIG.
to
Each time two elementary krigings zt, and Z't (j,,= i) have considered
] and
common data. the two corresponding errors of estimation [Zv. l
[Zvj-ztJ are correlated. Thus, most of the N(N -1) error covariances
E{[ ZV; - zt, ][Zv; - Z'tJ} are non-zero, and their sum cannot be neglected
with regard to the first term (11N 2 ) Li O"~ v, of the expression of the global
variance (T~D. Theoretically, the calculation of these error co variances is
j
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zt
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
324
V.A.4. Cokriging
Sometimes, one variable may not have been sampled sufficiently to provide
estimates of acceptable precision. The precision of this estimation may
then be improved by considering the spatial correlations between this
variable and other better-sampled variables. For example, the silver grade
of a panel can be estimated by lead and zinc grades in addition to those of
silver.
From a theoretical point of view, cokriging is no different from kriging;
difficulties arise essentially from notations, since an extra index k is
required to differentiate between the variables.
Consider a regionalization characterized by a set of K spatially intercorrelated random functions {Z, (x), k = 1 to K}. The first- and second-order
moments of these RF, assuming stationarity, are
E{Zdx)}=mk,
Vx;
cross-covarrance ;
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= 1 to K}
are defined on
325
zt
The estimator
is a linear combination of all the available data values
k
o
of all the K variables in coregionalization:
K
Z'tk O =
tl
L L=! A"kZ"k'
k 1
~
(V.20)
"k
zt
E{Z v, "
- 0
}
k
= E{Z v,
}-
A "k0
E{Z"k
}~
"
OCk"
2: A ukol - L
mka[ 1 -
"k
A"k o
zt, o } =
ko
I L A"'kE{ZaJ
k#k""k
mi; I A"k'
"10
= 1 and LA""
"""
0,
\;/k '" k o.
"10
Note that the condition LakO A"k0 = 1 cannot hold true if nk() = 0. In other
words, cokriging requires at least one experimental value of the main
variable Zk w
The minimization of the variance (T~kn = E {[ Z V k ,) ~ ztkO]2} under the K
non-bias constraints results in a system of (Lk n; + K) linear equations (the
unknown being the Lk ni; weights A"k and the K Lagrange parameters iLk)
called the "cokriging system";
K
"k'
A(3k'
k'=l I'h,'-l
c.;
(V(3".,
v"J- f-tk
Ckok(Vk " ,
v",J,
"ilk
1 to K,
(V.21)
kO
L
(3k
o
A 13k = 1,
= 1
O"vk o =
"k
L L
k=!
A",,,Ck,,dVk,,, va,,)
(V.22)
"'k~l
t It may happen that one of the secondary variables Z1<" with k' #; k o, has the same meaning
and the same expectation (mk' ~ mko) as ZkO, e.g., ZkO and Zk' are two lead grades, but one is
obtained from core analyses and the other one from cutting analyses. The two variables Zk;o
and Zk' may have the same expectation, but different structures of spatial variability
(generally, their nugget effect would be different due to different measurement errors). The
K previous non-bias conditions are then reduced to
'r:/k #- k o, k'.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Remark 1 Unlike the kriging system, the cokriging system can be written
simply in terms of the cross-serni-variogram 'Yk,dh) only if C'<'kCh)=
Ckk'(h), which entails that Yn (h) = C,,'dO) - Ce(h), i.e., if the crosscovariances are symmetric in (h, -h), cf. section n.AA. The cokriging
system written in terms of cross-serni-variograrns is then simply derived
from system (V.21) by replacing Ck'k by (-)in).
Remark 2 The existence and uniqueness of the solution. It can be shown
that the cokriging system (V.21) provides a unique solution if the covariance matrix [Ck'k (Vl"k" v",JJ is strictly positive definite, for which it is
enough that a positive point coregionalization model [Ck'k(h)) be adopted,
ct. section III.B.3, and that no data value is totally redundant with respect
to another, i.e., that v a k Vf3k" Vak 7'= 13k"
However, as explained above, the non ..bias condition is satisfied only if
the set of data values of the main variable Zk o is not empty, i.e., it is
necessary that n; 7'= O.
Remark 3 Intrinsic coregionalization. It will be recalled from section
IILB.3, formula (III.30), that the variables {Zdx), k = 1 to K} are said to
be in intrinsic coregionalization if their cross-covariances or cross-variograms are ail proportional to the same basic model:
Vk, k',
If the K data configurations of each variable Zi; are identical, then it can
be shown that the cokriging of a particular variable Zk o is identical to the
kriging of this variable from its corresponding data values {Zak o , ako = 1 to
nk o}'
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327
0t!
Limit of
I~ the deposit
I
I
S3
SI
II
04
I
/
/
zt = L
a<
A",Z(S",)
= I
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with
Z(S2)=HZ(04)+Z(05)].
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
328
= y(S1,
V),
(V.23)
and
y:
and
12
= ~H(3112; 1/2)-~H(l/2;
1/2),
A/V= C ov ~=O.
The auxiliary functions F and H for the linear model are given by
formulae (H.91). By way of example, we have
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= Co(O)- At ,
329
The previous values of the parameters COl' and wi have been chosen so as
to ensure, in three cases, a constant dispersion variance of data of
support v in the panel V:
2
D (v/ V)
= y(V,
The solution of system (V.23) is then immediate and the results are given
in Table Y.I and Fig. Y.7.
TABLE
Nugget
effect
Kriging
Poly
10
= 025
A2 = 050
A3 = 025
(T~ = 025
Al = 1
A2 = 0
0484
0344
0172
0324
0727
0182
0091
0553
idem
idem
idem
IT?,
030
0-40
)'1
Pure
)'1
Partial
..1. 2
..1. 3
at.
=0
"-3
O"~ = 1
= 046
= 040
= 0 ' 14
= 029
-,,=()734
ID2
A1=063
Absent
A. 2 = 029
idem
idem
idem
A3 = 008
(T~ = 022
0"1 = 0-468
027
025
A2 / 2
A3
AI
A,z/2
FIG. Y.? Weights used for the estimation of the square panel.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(i) In all cases, kriging provides the best unbiased linear estimator
(BLUE).
(ii) Depending on the nugget effect (i.e., the degree of spatial correlation), one or the other of the three standard estimators is close
enough to the kriging optimum, but only a structural analysis, i.e., a
geostatistical approach, can tell which one is the closest.
(iii) Generally, the greater the nugget effect (thus, the greater the screen
removing effect), the better are procedures (such as ID) which do
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331
not give too much weight to data preferentially placed with respect
to the panel to be estimated. On the other hand, the smaller the
nugget effect, the better are procedures (such as ID2) which favour
well-located data (by screening the influence of furthest data).
(iv) In all cases, an unbiased weighted average-type estimator such as ID
or ID2 fares much better than the POLY estimator. Had the
configuration of data been more clustered, e.g. if data 0 4 was located
nearby data O, the advantage of kriging over ID and ID2 would
have been much more decisive.
Non -stationary case Let us consider now a non-stationary regionalization
characterized by a RF Z(u, v) with an anisotropic linear drift which is
evident only in the direction of the coordinate u, i.e.,
E{Z(u, v)}=m(u)=al +a2u.
Panel to be
estimated
u.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
332
can thus be grouped into the set S2 = {04 U Os} of support 2v. And, as
previously, a linear estimator with three weights can be defined:
3
zt = L
Cf=
AaZ(S,,).
bL
b~
= 1,
bt
= U<;>.
1
1
h(u)du=V v
1
bt=-
udu=-,
EF
C+
1/2
udu=c,
(-1/2
L AI'Y (S""
.B 1
Va
1 to 3,
(V.24)
and
U3
= c ~ I,
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333
mt =
m*(u) du
m*(ud=~[Z(S,)+Z(04)+Z(05)]'
5) -
m*(uj)]2]
-:;l;
(T~.
Vr =
Ihl.
The same three cases (pure, partial and absent nugget effect) are considered with the same values for the parameters C ov (nugget constant) and eil.
The results of kriging (unbiased of order 2) are compared to those of the
four "non-regionalized" usual methods (i.e., Poly, ID, ID2 and LS) in
Table V.2.
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334
Nugget
effect
Pure
Kriging
LS
Poly
A 1 = 1/3
A z = 2/3
A1= 1/3
A2 = 2/3
A3 = 0
rJ'~ = 1/3
0
0
idem
idem
A3 = 0
a~ = 1/3
Partial
Absent
A1 = 052
A2 = 048
"-3 = 0
rJ'~ = 034
A1 = 066
A2 = 034
"-3 = 0
<T~ = 025
idem
idem
idem
Biased
Biased
idem
(J"t~ = 0,45
0.468
Unbiased
idem
0.734
idem
Unbiased
102
0484
0727
0182
0344
0172
0091
(d. non-defined
o-i, = 0.39
ID
Unbiased
-'*2/ 2
a
A3
AI
Az/2
FIG. V.9. Weights used for estimation of the square panel.
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Remark 3 In the presence of the directional drift m (u), the ID and ID2
estimators are biased. This bias. E{Zv - zt}, depends on the unknown
drift m (u) and is itself unknown. The existence of this unknown bias thus
prohibits the definition and calculation of the estimation variance (T~ =
Var {Zv - zt}.
Addendum. The tensorial inuariance property of the kriging systems
(V.25)
In fact, with the change of variables J.t; = fJ.l + 11-2C, J..L; = J..L2, the two systems
(Y.24) and (V.25) are equivalent. Thus, A~ =A s, V/3, since the solution of the
kriging system is unique.
This invariance property of the kriging system with respect to changing the origin
of coordinates is related to the polynomial character of the component functions
Mx) of the drift m(x) and is the reason why only functions of this type are used, in
practice, to characterize the form of the drift.
The equation corresponding to a = 3 can be eliminated from system (Y.24) as it
only serves to define the parameter 1-1-2, which has no purpose when c = O. The
system (V.24) then reduces to (V.26) which, in the stationary case, is the same as
kriging panel V by the two data 51 and 52:
Al Y_(5" 51) + (I-A d~(Sj, 5 2 ) +
= ~(51) V), }
A1y (S2, Sd+(l-A 1)r (S2, S2)+j..t1 = y(S2, V)
/-Ll
(V.26)
and
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336
data consist of the central point value Zl(5 0 ) of the main variable and the
five point values Z2(5 0 ) , Z2(A), 2 2(B), Z2(C), Z2(D) of the secondary
variable located at the centre and the four corners of the square. This
corresponds to the case of a variable Zl, undersampled with respect to
another variable (22 ) , and the problem is to evaluate the gain in precision
provided by cokriging (Z1 v is estimated from the two data sets on Z1 and
2 2 ) over kriging (ZI v is estimated from the single data set on Zl)'
8
x
x
o
So
)(------:x
FIG. V.10. Cokriging on the square ABCD. 0, Data set Z); x, data set Z2.
1(50 ) .
(V.2?)
where Hi, and Fi, are the auxiliary functions corresponding to the point
model 'Yl1(r) which characterizes the regionalization of ZI(X),
For cokriging, reasons of symmetry (the coregionalization matrix being
isotropic) allow the four peripheral samples in 2 2 to be grouped together
into one single set 5 R with a grade of
and
A2 + A3 = O.
(V.28)
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The two non-bias conditions have already been taken into account by the
form of the estimator (V.28) itself, and the cokriging system (V.21) reduces
to the following three linear equations in three unknowns (A and the two
Lagrange parameters, f.Ll and f.L2):
~11(50' V)
and
'5'kdV, V) =
n.. I).
(J"CK
UK -
(V.29)
AN,
(J"~ being given by formula (V.27). The gain in precision of cokriging over
kriging is th us equal to
g = (J"~
(J"~K = AN = N
1D.
Numerical application 1 Consider first the case in which all the semivariograms consist of a linear isotropic model with nugget effect:
Vr>
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
338
21'22(lJ2/2)-h'22(l)-h'22(lJ2)
With the two direct fixed models ')'11 and ')'22, the cross-model I'12(r) will
be made to vary, taking care that the coregionalization matrix [ - Ykk.(r)}
remains conditionally positive. For this purpose, it is enough that the two
parameter matrices [C kk ,] and [trrkk'] be positive definite, d. section III.B.3,
conditions (111.26). It is thus enough that the two following determinants
be positive or zero:
lee
ll
12
trrll
I 'fJJ12
el21 >0
::>
C12<J(C I l . C n ) = O2236 .
12
UT 1
trr22
::>
C 22
>0
Table V.3 gives nine pairs (Cn , "UT 12 1) which satisfy these conditions, and
gives for each one of them the value A of the weight assigned to the
secondary sample Z2(SR), as well as the relative gain gr provided by
cokriging.
Remark 1 When the increments [ZI(X + h)- Zl(X)] and [Z2(X + r)Z2(X)} of the two variables are independent, the cross-semi-variograrn
')'12(r) is zero, and the secondary data on Z2(X) adds nothing to the
estimation of the main variable ZI(X),
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Numerical application 2
12
0
0
0
01
01
01
0223
0223
0223
'UJ12
0
0411
0916
0
0-411
0916
0
0411
0916
gr
0
038
084
028
066
112
063
101
1-47
0
005
025
003
015
045
014
036
077
"}'11 (r)
for silver-lead
The auxiliary functions HI and F 1 for the spherical model '}'1 are given by
charts no. 3 and 4 in section ILEA. The following results for I = 100 it. are
thus obtained: for the kriging variance,
(T~ = 2-38(02 Ag e 1)2;
for co kriging, according to formulae (V.29),
N = 4'125(oz Ag
)(% Pb);
= 62.5(%
Pb)";
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
340
In general, the poor quality of the cuttings data set is balanced by the
large number of blast-holes on any mining bench.
To estimate the true mean grade Z, v of a block with support V, the
following estimator is used:
ziv = I
A<"lZ'(XaJ+
"'1E:SI
A. u.Z 2(Xu. ),
<X2E: S2
51 and 52 being the two sets of core data and cuttings data, respectively.
The supports of the core lengths and cuttings are negligible with respect to
the support V of the block.
As the matrix of coregionalization of the two variables ZI and Z2 is
['Ykk'(h), k, k' = 1,2], the cokriging system (V.2l) is written in terms of
se mi-variograms:
BlESI
fhES2
A/32Y12(X",p X.aJ+J.Ll
(V.3D)
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and
(TZ'K =
a2 ES2
"lES1
It should be recalled, from section V.AA, remark 2, that the set 5 I of the
unbiased data ZI(X a .) must not be empty. This restriction is quite natural,
since the unknown bias of the data set 52 cannot be corrected unless there
are actually some unbiased data in SI. Under the condition 51 - 0, the
influence of the unknown bias of the data set S2 is made nil by the relation
"'/31
+ L
I3,ES,
"'/32 =
1.
132ES2
But there is still a need for cokriging, since the two spatial structures
and Y22 of the two types of data may be different.
)'11
Numerical application The three RF's ZI(X), Zz(x), s{x) have the
following characteristics.
First, they are all stationary with unknown expectations:
E{ZI(x)}
= m1;
E{Z2(X)}
= m i:
mi -
ml,
E,
'v'lhl> an,
ao being a very small range compared to the distance Ih I of the experimental observation.
Fourth, the error e(x) is supposed to be independent of the true grade
Zl(X) (this is not always true, e.g., in banded hematite quartzite deposits,
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
342
the quantity of fines is inversely proportional to the iron grade Zl). Thus,
Y12(h) = tE{[Zl(X + h)- Zl(X )][Z2(X + h)- Z2(X)]} = '}'ll(h)
as
Z2(X + h)- Z2(X)
Yl1(h)+ C".
Indeed, in practice, the two direct serni-variograms /'11 and '}'22 are
calculated from the corresponding experimental data and they usually
differ only by the nugget effect:
Y22(h)-Yl,(h)= C e,
The cokriging configuration of Case Study 2, above, cf. Fig. V.1 0, will be
taken as an example, i.e., the estimation of the mean grade Z, v over a
square block V of side 1= 20 m by the two data sets 2,(50 ) with weight 1
for the central core analysis, 2 2(So) with weight -A and Z2(SR) with weight
+A for the cutting analyses at the centre So and the corners SR of the block.
The quasi-point serni-variogram YI1 (h) is the model fitted to the
experimental semi-variogram of the iron grades of core length at Tazadit
(Mauretania), d. section II.D.S, Case Study 1, i.e., a spherical model
without nugget effect, range a = 40 m and sill C = 133 (% Fe)2.
For the direct estimation of 2 1 V by the only central core grade Z, (So),
the variance O"i, given by (V.27), is
(]"~ = Q185C = 24'6(% Fe)2.
Cokriging, i.e., taking the cutting data into account, gives the following
results from (V.29):
N = 0243C
323
and
1.25 Ce +0451 C.
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In spite of their bias, taking the cuttings data into account provides a
relative gain of more than 50% in terms of estimation variance.
L: ~ 1 A"Za
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
~ A/3C(vcr., V(3)-1.l
1L:
/3
and
A/3
C(Vcr., V),
Va = 1 to n,
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The various steps in the practical application of the kriging of each panel
V are as follows.
(i) Select the data Z", to be used in the estimation of Z v
(ii) Calculate the mean covariances C(v"" VJ3) between all the selected
data (these are the elements of the first member matrix [K] of the
kriging system).
(iii) Calculate the mean covariances C(vO" V) between each of the
selected data and the panel V to be estimated (these are the elements of the second member matrix [M2]).
(iv] Choose an algorithm for the solution of the linear system.
To carry out a "crude" kriging without any consideration for computer
cost would consist of taking all available data without distinction within a
neighbourhood of quasi-stationarity centred on each panel V, calculating
exactly the various mean values C and then applying a precise algorithm
which would give an exact solution of the linear system (such as S[MQ~SSP
IBM). Such an application would yield very precise results, but would also be
very costly in terms of computer time.
To establish a practical alternative, each one of the preceding steps must
be critically examined to provide an approximate procedure which will
minimize computer time while yielding results that are within acceptable
limits of approximation.
The five essential points to be used in reducing the kriging cost are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
for distances Ih 1< b. Thus, to estimate a panel V(xo) centred on xo, only the
data inside a neighbourhood b(xo) centred on Xu are considered, d. Fig.
V.II. This neighbourhood is not necessarily isotropic.
.,..---.,.
/"
'
"' "-
I
I
\
J
\
\
"
FIG.
__
.....A(xo).... /"
It may happen that the data within b(xo) are either too few, in which case
more distant data may be included in considering a non-stationary kriging
system, or too many, in which case a reduced neighbourhood A(xo) may be
considered. In fact, this procedure amounts to neglecting the weights of
data exterior to A(xo), d. Fig. V.II. This approximation is justified when
the data within A (xo) can be considered as sufficiently screening the
influence of the data exterior to A(xo). This screen effect increases as the
nugget constant of the underlying structural function becomes smaller (d.
section V.A.I. remark 7, "The influence of the nugget effect") and also as
the data within A(xo) surrounds more completely the panel V(xa) in all
directions, without gaps.
A prime objective in defining a data neighbourhood A (xa) should be to
ensure that it avoids all risks of bias in the estimation. Thus, in two
dimensions, for example, when the data configuration is such that one
direction f3 is undersampled, although the structural continuity in this
direction is significant, it is advisable to extend the estimation neighhourhood A(xo) in this direction so as to include more data 2(3, which will take
into account the .a-direction continuity in the estimation, d. Fig. V.12.
Examples of such a procedure are the automatic mapping programs that
partition the space around Xo into equal parts (e.g., four quadrants in R 2 ,
or eight octants in R 3), and only the two or three data closest to Xo are
considered within each of these parts.
It often happens when estimating panels on the border of a deposit that
most of the data lie on one side of the panel, i.e., they are preferentially
located in a rich zone, ct. Fig. V.13. In such a case, it is advisable to do one
of the following:
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347
(i) limit the extent of the neighbourhood A (xn) to the favoured side of
the panel, so as not to give too much influence to the preferentially
rich data;
(ii) introduce, with due care, a supplementary non-bias condition corresponding, for example, to a linear drift m (x a ) = an + a lX a in the
direction a of impoverishment;
(iii) not carry out the estimation without any additional data - this would
be the proper course if preferential data positioning as well as
heterogeneity of the mineralization were suspected.
xx- - - - - - - -
-~~Z/l
)(
,
I
Xo
)(
J
A(xo)
---------_.--
a
...-..-/'
,/
"- ......
///
x\ x
I x
x t
x
J
"
Border
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
348
k =1
x x
)(
x
8
x
)(
vs;
This grouping of the available data into nine sets allows the initial
dimension (17) of the kriging system to be reduced to 10. The corollary of
this reduction in the dimension of the system is a loss in precision: the
kriging variance resulting from the nine mean grades Z; will be greater than
that resulting from the 16 elementary grades. If the data are distributed
more or less uniformly, as shown on Fig. V.14, then this loss in precision will,
in general, be negligible. To evaluate this loss in precision, the two kriging
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349
x,.
X"
a
FIG. V.IS. Structural and geometrical symmetries.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
In section V.A.l > remark S, it has already been noted that if the data
configuration is repeated from one panel to another, the first member
matrix [K] is the same for each panel and it is necessary to take its inverse
only once. Moreover, if the panels to be estimated are equal and have the
same geometry, the second member matrix [M2] is also the same for each
panel and, thus; there is a unique kriging system which needs to be solved
only once. The system of solution weights, [A] = [Kr 1 . [M2] is unique and
applies to all the panels to be estimated, d. the case study of the kriging of
Donoso copper mine in section V.B.S, Fig. V.27.
Systematic sampling on a regular grid is, in this sense, particularly
favourable for precise and rapid kriging. In addition, such regular sampling
plans facilitate the structural analysis which can be carried out precisely
and without any risk of bias due to preferential positioning of the data.
In practice, it is, thus, very convenient to have a data configuration that is
repeated identically from one panel to another. This may be achieved by:
(i) insisting on a systematic and regular sampling pattern when the
sampling campaign is being prepared;
(ii) defining the panels to be estimated on a constant support, at least
within the central homogeneous zones of the deposit;
(iii) considering a unique "mean" data configuration by using the techniques of random kriging or kriging of gaps in the data grid, d. the
following paragraphs.
Definition of the support to be estimated A constant estimation support is
very frequent in mining applications as it very often corresponds to
constant mining or selection units.
The geometry of the estimation support V should be simple (rectangular
in two dimensions or parallelepipedic in three dimensions) so as to make
the calculation of the terms y(v a , V) as easy as possible. The division of the
deposit into panels to be estimated should be in geometric harmony with
the regular data configuration. Thus, for the two-dimensional case shown
A
)(
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Kriging of gaps in the data grid It often happens that certain points on a
data grid have, for various reasons, not been sampled (difficulty of access,
accidental interruption of drilling, not enough time, etc.). Before considering these gaps as missing data, it should be verified (d. section III.C.l,
"Review of the data") that, in fact, they are not zero values nor preferentially located in some way. Thus, consider a regular grid with nonpreferentially located gaps. There are as many different kriging systems as
there are different locations of the gaps, cf. Fig. V.IB. The presence of gaps
in a regular data configuration thus increases the number of kriging systems
to be solved.
In order to return to a unique kriging system corresponding to a
complete data configuration, each gap can be replaced by its kriged estimate. It has been shown, d. A Journel (1977, French version), that the
x
x
XI
X2
Gaps
X
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
panel kriged estimator so obtained is identical to the direct kriged estimator, using the configuration with the gaps. Of course, the kriging variance
given by the completed configuration will underestimate that obtained
using the configuration with the gaps. In practice, prior kriging of data gaps
will be of interest only if there is a small number of such gaps. Then, the
kriging of these gaps can often be replaced by simply taking the arithmetic
mean of the neighbouring existing data, d. the Prony case study in section
V.BA.
x...1- Z(.Xi)
x
x
jJ,.
v'
v x
x
A
)(
Z(Xj)
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353
with
'Vk~k',
and, finally,
(V.3!)
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
The diagonal terms thus depend on the number and supports of the data
Z (Xjk) in each domain {3;, and the random kriging system is not identical for
each panel V to be estimated.
Some random kriging configurations The domain {3j of random locations
may be a volume, a surface, a line, or a set of discrete points, depending on
the type of sampling. Thus, for example, we have the following.
.---"""0'101
".~~
/1,. <,
[]
~--- Cross-section
( a)
( b)
rDrif'l
x
(c )
)(
( d )
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355
(iii) In one dimension, (3; may be one of the sides of the panel V to be
estimated; this side may correspond to a drift sampled by channel
samples, d. Fig. V.20(c).
(iv) In two dimensions, (3i may be the discrete set of the eight nodes of
the first aureole of a regular grid. Gaps may occur at random in any
of these eight locations, ct. Fig. V.20(d).
Before being able to solve a kriging system, the system itself must first
be written down, i.e., the terms y(v"" V(3) and y(v"" V) which make up
the matrices [K] and [M2] must be calculated. Algorithms for the rapid
calculation of these mean values f were presented in section II.E,
and it is recalled that there were two possibilities: either (i) to calculate the
required mean value y(v,,", V(3) by approximating each of the two supports
Va and Vf:' by a set of discrete points, or (ii) to split the calculation of
the multiple integral y(v,,", v.s) into successive steps, some of which being
calculated in advance and presented in the form of auxiliary functions or
graphs.
Some authors, ct. J. Serra (1967a), Royle (1975), have constructed
kriging graphs which give the weights and kriging variances for various
particularly simple panel data configurations (two-dimensional and
rectangular) and for various isotropic structural models. Experience has
shown that such graphs are only useful as demonstration exercises; in
mining applications there is no reason for any particular case to conform to
the necessarily very limited frame of these graphs. It is certainly more
precise, and often faster, to construct a kriging plan adapted to the particular problem rather than trying to compel the reality into the prerequisites
of a preconceived graph.
The smaller the number of different mean values y(v a , V(3) to be
calculated, the faster the calculation of the y terms will be. Again,
the advantage of a systematic data file on a regular grid is obvious. It
may very often be possible to calculate in advance all the values y(v a , vs)
that will be required by kriging; these values could then be stored in computer memory and read out at the appropriate stage of solving each kriging
system.
Note that the random kriging procedure allows a considerable reduction
in the number of different relative geometries (v,,", V(3) to be considered. In
fact, the random kriging system retains only the value y({3i, (3j), whatever
the particular locations XiI< and XiI<' of the available data are in the two
distinct domains {3. and (3j.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
In order to build a data file adapted to this kriging plan, the space is divided
into a certain number of grid squares, each square being indexed by a pair
of integer coordinates (iUk> jVk)' For each domain V k the following
information is recorded in the data file.
(i) The number n of data (with support supposed constant and quasipoint) within Vk .
(ii) The coordinates (Ui,., Vi,.) of the location Xi,. of each of these data
(ik = 1 to nk). This information allows the calculation of the mean
values y of the first member kriging matrix [KJ:
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357
Va,f3.
The symmetry property of the first member matrix [K] suggests the use
of the square roots method (the matrix [K] is expressed in the form of a
product of two triangular matrices, one the transpose of the other: [K] =
[Tf [T]), or the Cholesky method ([K] = [R] . [D] . [R]\ where [D] is a
diagonal matrix). Both these methods can be found in B. Demidovitch and
I. Maron (1973, pp. 287-294). These two methods were tried and rejected
at the Centre de Geostatistique of Fontainebleau, because of the machine
If the structural analysis has been carried out in terms of the serni-variogram y(h), the
kriging system can be written in terms of the covariance C(h) = C(O) - y(h) = 1'(0) - y(h),
provided the covariance exists. If the covariance does not exist (e.g., a serni-variogram
model without a sill, i.e., I' (co) = co), a pseudocovariance C'(h);; A - y(h) can be considered, where A is a constant with a value greater than the greatest value of Y(v", v/l) that
can be encountered in the various kriging systems. Because of the non-bias condition
L.a A(3 = J, A is eliminated from the kriging equations, which are then written as
L A.aC'(v", VIJ)- I
fJ
1J.1b ~a =
C'(v", V),
'ria
1 to n,
and provided there is no data grouping, nor hole effect in the model:
'rIa,{3.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
time involved. Two other methods are used at Fontainebleau: the standard
pivotal method and the method of successive approximations when the
number of unknowns is greater than 20 (which is not often the case in
mining applications).
Program RELMS (due to P. Delfiner) The speeding up of the pivotal
method is due to the fact that there is no search for the maximum element
on each line of the first member matrix [K], the pivots being taken in order
along the main diagonal of the matrix [K] written in terms of the covariance.
For a stationary kriging system (with only one non-bias equation) the
pivots chosen in this manner are effectively the maximum elements. For an
unbiased kriging system of order k (with n + k equations of which k are
non-bias equations) all pivots after the nth are not necessarily the maximum elements. However, it can be shown that these pivots are never null
because of the existence and uniqueness of the solution of the kriging
system, ct. relations (V.1S), The listing of RELMS is given in section
V.B.3.
Program REITER (due to A. Marechals The method of successive
approximations, cf., in particular, B. Dernidovitch and I. Maron (1973, pp.
294, 316, 447) consists of putting the matrix equation [K] . [A] = [M2] in
the form [A] = [B] + [A] . [A]. Let [A (0)] be the initial approximation; for
example, the second member column matrix could be taken as the first
approximation, [A (0)] = [M2]. Successive approximations are then derived
as follows:
[A (I)]
[A (2)]
=
=
[A (k+1)]
Ilall=max
j
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i> 1
ja iil<
359
or
,..
L la;jl<l
Ilall=max
i
i= I
or
"
,..
liaW = ;=1
L L
laill
< l.
i~1
(A
=- - - - - - - )-
A~k -I 11
at
6,(1" E k =
v" [ (k)]2 ;
1_ v '7 k ii LiA i
(V.34)
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Using this last relation, the iterations can be stopped as soon as the
imprecision ~(Tlk is less than a given limit.
The listing of program REITER is given in section V.B.3.
As it is REITER works only for simple kriging systems, d. section
VIlLA.!, i.e. for kriging systems without any unbiased ness condition.
REITER should therefore be modified before being used in KRI3D.
For the sake of comparison, the solution times for an n-dimensional
stationary kriging system, written in terms of covariance, are given in Table
VA for each of the following programs.
(i) GELG (standard IBM subroutine) pivot method with search for
maximum elements.
(ii) RECHOL, Cholesky method.
(iii) RELMS, pivot method without search for maximum elements.
(iv) REITER, method of successive approximations with Lusternik's
6
correction. The precision on the variance calculation is dO"t < 1 0for a kriging variance close to 1. The number of iterations is 2 for
n ~ 10 and 10 for n = 40.
TABLE VA. Solution times
Dimension,
n
5
10
15
20
30
40
GELG
RECHOL
RELMS
REITER
002
009
024
050
0-01
003
0-01
003
366
272
008
0-17
0-48
105
006
010
157
0-02
0-07
018
0-36
1-20
020
036
The times given in this table are only relative (in IRIS-SO seconds), the
same FORTRAN programs translated by another computer would result
in different absolute times.
Note that, for the most common dimensions (n :s; 15), RELMS is three
times faster than the standard GELG, and, for large dimensions, (n ~40)
REITER is more than 10 times faster than GELG. Moreover, the performance of RELMS and REITER can be improved if they are rewritten
taking account of the particularities of the machine language of the
computer used.
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361
The following subroutines of data classification (CLAS), of three-dimensional kriging (KRI3D), of linear system solving (RELMS and REITER)
should be considered as initial elements of a kriging packaget that must be
constructed according to each practitioner's requirements. It is clear that a
unique kriging program, even a three-dimensional one, cannot suit (within
reasonable cost limits) all the possible data configurations and kriging plans
that could be considered in mining practice.
Program CLAS
Four samples
Drill-hole 2
Drill-hole I
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
362
distinct drill-holes (e.g., two pieces of core for the block of Fig. V.21). The
characteristics of these pieces of core are put into memory.
If required, the program CLAS provides a listing of this classification
once completed.
IZC = I
BlOCk no NY
IYC e NY
f--+-+----------(
IZC" NZ
Origin of the block
network XYZ (3)
o
Reference
IXC~
NB
NX
axes
Organization of the data file Only the informed blocks (which contain at
least one sample or piece of core) have a memory reservation on the file.
The size of this memory reservation is given by the parameter NIMB maximum number of data per block; each datum being characterized by
nine values (the 2 x 3 coordinates of head and end of sample, the length of
sample, the number of the drill-hole and the mean grade); there are
9 x NIMB words reserved per block.
The location within the file of this memory reservation is read from the
integer table NUM (NX, NY, NZ). The number of data contained in each
informed block is given by the integer table NPB (NX, NY, NZ), with
1 < NPB >s; NIMB. If NPB;2< NIMB, only the NIMB first data are stocked in
the file.
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363
The CLAS version given here corresponds to a direct word coding on file
(ell French computer). This type of coding can easily be adapted to the
particular coding required.
SUBROUTINE CL~SINS,XYZ,N)~ltD8,INC,Il,IFl,IF2
l,NIMB.NUM,NPB,IS'
C
C
C
C
C
C PARAIitETEPS
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N$
IF2C20J
FOR~AT CF SAMPLES:EN( COORDl~AlE,~ALUE
NIMB MAXIMUM NU~8ER OF INFC~~AT[CNS (O~SIDEREO
IN A BLOCK:OEFINES RE(C~O LENGT~
NUM(NX*N~.Nl)
ACCRESS ON FILE IE CF eLCC~.IF
NUM=Q ai oc s (O",HIN$ ~o Ir-.FCR"'ATIC~
~PBCNX.~Y*Nl)
INCICATES ~u~eER OF DATA OF BLOCKS
CPTIOt\S
INC.EQ.O All DISTINCT CRlll-relE INTE~5ECTIO~S
ARE CO~PUIED AND ~RITTEN
INC.EO.J SCRTlhG AND FllIN( SAMPLE 8~ SA~PlE
IS.NE.l
SORTING RESULTS ARE PRIN1EC B~ SVBRCU1INE
C ..... COMMOf\S
LINE PRINTER UNIT ~lMeER
C lOUT
INFERICR BCUNCARY CF EXISTI~G DATA
C TEST
IF
T.lE.TEST
MISSING OR El(~I~ATEC DA1A
C
C
C
C
C
IWRIT/1E,Ifl,IE2
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NPB
364
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
OIME~SION
NUMIlI,NPB(l J,IFJ(20),IFi(iO),
lXYZ(3),N~YZ(3),OB(3)
(OMMeN ICUT,TEST
COMMO~/~RIT/IE,IE1,IE2
c
c
NX=NXYZC 1)
NY=NXYlt2t
hl=NXYl(31
NB=NX'\YNl
~OB=XYl(
YOB=XYZ(2)
NTUT=C
IRE~NIMB9
.~ITE(IOUT,2000)XYI,NXYZ,rE
.RITE(IO~T,2CC1)NS,NIMB
C
C
C
SORTING
ORIll-~ClE/D~lll-~(lE
CO 4 ISO"'~l,NS
REAO(Il,IFIINUS,NECH,XC,'C,ZD
N081=C
NECT=f\ECT+NECtJND=l
00 31 IECH=l,NECh
REAOIIL,IF2JXF,YF,IF,T
IFIT.lE.1EST}GO TO 3
C
XC=(XF-XC)/2.+XO
VC=IYF-YCa/2.+YO
lC=(ZF-ICI/2.+Z0
HC:SOPT(XF-XC).I~F-XO)+C'F-YOI*(YF-'D}+
l(IF-IC)*(IF-IC)}
IXC=INTXC-XOBJ/OBIIJ+l.!)
IYC:I~T(YC-YCB)/OB(2)+1.!)
IIC=INTt(Z08-1CI/C8(3J+1.!J
c
c
IYC=NY-Iye.!
If(IXC*CNX+I-IXC).LE.OIGC 10 3
IFIIYC*INY+I-IYC}.LE.OJGC fC 3
IFtllC*(NZ+l-IIC).lE.OJG( 10 3
NOBL=IYC+NY*IIXC-ll+NY*NX*IIlC-!J
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
I AD=NU~ PliOBl)
IFIIA[.GT.01GC TO 11
ICL=ICL-tl
NUM(NCBl)=ICL
11 IFlINC.EC.01GC TC 2
SORTI~G
AND
W~ITING
SA~PLE/SAMPlE
NPBCNCBL1=NPB(NOBl)+1
IF(NP8lNCBL).GT.NIMB)GC l( 13
12 NCUT=NCUT.l
C
C
C
W~ITE
~C(RESS
C
IDA=IRE*(NUM(NOBl)-1)+9.(~Fe(N08l)-lJ
WRITE DISC
IE,IDA,NUS,XO,~C.IO.XF,'F,ZF,HC,T
GC Te .:
13
~RJTECIO~Tt2002)hCBl~I~C,J)C,IIC,NFB(NCBl)
GO TO 3
C
C
C
2 IFCNOEl.EQ.OIGC TO 23
IF(NOEl.NE.Noel1GO Te 22
If(NPECNC8L).GT.NIMB)GC TC 3
I\CT=NCT"l
TV=TV+f-iC*T
t1l=Hl+t;C
XTF=XF
YTF=YF
ITF=Zf
IF(IEC~.lT.NECH)GO TO ~
20
END OF DPIlL-hCLE
C
21 JND= 1
IFCHl.lE.O.JGC TO 4
TV""T\I' IHL
NCUT~'CU1+NCT
IDA=IRE*(NU~("OBl)-1)+9.(~Fe(NOBL)-1)
c
c
C
C
WRITE DISC
lZTF,Hl,T'V
JE.IDA,NUS.JTtt'TO.ZID.)lf,~TF,
GO TC 4
XTF=)(C
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365
366
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
YTF=YC
ITF= Z r
TV=lV n"L
NCUT .. to.CUT+NCT
C
C
~OCRE~S
C
IOA=IRE*CNUM(NOBl)-ll+9*C~feCNOBl)-lJ
23 NOB1=t..OBl
t..P8(NCBl)=NPB(NOBL)+1
IFCNPBCNOBl).GT.NIMBJGC Ie 13
C
C
NCT= 1
NTUT=NTUT+l
JND= 1
IF(IEC~.EQ.NEC~)GC
TO 12
JNO=O
XTD=XC
YTD=YC
ZTD=Z r
XTF=Xf
YTF=Yf
ZTF=: If
TV=HC*T
HL=HC
3 CONTlt..UE
XO=XF
YD=YF
ID=Zf
31
caNTI~ue
IF(INC.EC.O.A~C.JNO.EQ.OJG(
TO 21
4 CONT I to.UE
DO 41 I J l =1 , NB
41 NPB(IJL)=MINOCNPe(IJL),Nl~E)
IAO=O
WRITE DISC IEl,IAO,(~U~(I),I=l,NB)
WRITE DISC IE2,lAD,(NP8(IJ.I=1,NBJ
IFCINC.EQ.OlGO TO 42
WRITE(IOUT,2003)ICl,NECT.~CUT
GO
42
c
c
c
TC
43
W~ITECIOUT,2004)ICl,NECT,NCUT,NTUT
43 IFCIS.EO.I1GO TO 5
PRl~l
wRITEIICUr,2010)
co 41 L=l,NI
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RESULTS IF IS.to.E.l
367
11=IOE-CE(3)*(L-l)
~RITE(IOUT,2C05)L,ZZ,TESl
DO 47
00 46
I=l,N'I'
J=l,NX
IJL=I+NY*(J-l)+NX*NY*{l-])
If(NP8IIJL).EC.OlGO TO 4t
VY=YOe+08(2J*(NY-I)
WRITE(IOUT,2006II,YY
r AD= NlM ( (Jl J
XX=XOE+OS(I)*(J-l)
WRITECIOUT,20C7IJ,XX,NFBCJJl),IAC
NO=N P E ( I Jl )
IDA= I RE* (IAD-l)
DO 45 1(=I,NG
2000
FORMAT(l~l,'SCRTING eN
l'INFO~MATIONS
2'XO=
',FIO.3,' VO=
',FI0.~,'
ZO= '.FIO.3/lH ,
2001
FORMAT(l~ ,'NUMBER
l'MAXI~UM NUMBER Of
OF DRIll-HOLES: ',I4,lOX,
INFOR~~110NS TA~E~ IN A '.
2'BlOCK =',12)
FORMAT(l~ ,' BlOCK
',IS,' IYC;',13,' IZC=',
113,' IIC='tI3,4X,'NU~8ER (F DATA 'tI3,'A80~E "
2'AllOwEO MAXIMUM')
2003 FORHAT(I~O,' NUMBER OF BLOCKS COhT~I~IhG DATA'
1,' .',15/lh ,'TOTAL NUMBER OF SA~PLE5 =',16,
2' NUMBER OF SAMPLES TAKEN ~',I6)
2004 fORHAT(l~O,' NUMBER OF BLeCKS COhT~I~ING DATA'
1,' ;',I5JIH ,'TOTAL NUMBER OF SA~PLE5 :',16,
2' NUMBER OF S,tMPLES TAKEr. =',16,' I" THE "
316,' INTERSECT IONS WRllTe .. f
2005 FORMATflllHO,' LEVEL ',15,' ElE~ATJOh,
l'lz ',FlO.3,' LIST OF \ALUES PER BLOCK*.'
2/1H ,Ell.5,'sMISSING ~Al~E5'.
2006 FORMAT(lHO,'.lINE ',15,' '=',FIC.3)
2007 FORMATCIH ,'COLUMN ',15,' X=',F1C.3,' hU~BERI
1,' OF DATA .',12,5X,' FilE AOORESS~ ',16)
2008 FORMATCIH ,'DRILL-HOLE ',18,' ST,tRT AND END'
I,'COQRDINATES '.6(2X,F8~3),SX,'LENGT~ =',FIO.3
21tH ,'VALUE ',FIO.3.
2010 FORHAT(llllHO.
2002
5 RETURfIi
END
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368
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Program KRI3D
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
369
for the definition of the nugget effect, the structure of this subroutine is
similar to that of FUNCTION GAM given in section III.B.5.
t
C
KRI-30 KRIGING
C
C KRIGING
O~
T~REE-DIMEN~lCN_l
PROG~~~
SYSTEM Cf
B~OC~S
C IN BLOCK SYSTEM
B~
elOC~
C PARA"ETE~S
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
370
C MEMOR~
peCUIRE~EN1S
CB,CBl,CB2
~S8=NSX.NSY.~5Z
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
XOB.YCB,ZOB
IP
3.N8T=3.(~P'1)+NPC2)+
NIH
~SB.NBX*N8Y.~EZ
+NPC~L))
~l.l
~8T.NIMB
XA,YA.ZA
TA
TK,SK
NUM,NPB
R,RR,X
A
~l
NX*NY*NS8
NX*NY*IJV(3)
(NL+l'*NSe
(HL+l)*CNl+c)J2
C (0I4MC,..5
LINE PRINTER UNIT
C lOUT
C
C
C
C
C
C
~lMBER
TEST
lNFERICR BOUNDA~Y CF EXI5TI~G DATA
IN CASE Cf fLOCK WITH NO INFCPMATICN
VALUES A~E THEN =1E51.
PARA~&lERS FeR ~(IS
l'JOtSII
PARAMETERS FOR C(~A
ISTRUtl
CPTIOfl,S
IS.EQ.l STATISTICS Of ~RJGE( BLOCKS _RE PRINTED
C IS.NE.l ALSO RE5UlTS BLOCK/BLOCK ARE P~I~TEO
C
C
C
C SUBROUTI~ES CALLED
C MRIGMS+RElMS KRIGING
C
C
C
VOIS
tBARS
COVA
SYS1E~+~OlUTION
C COMME"TS:
BLOCKS ARE NUMBERED AS I~ SteFoUTINE CLAS:BLOCK
C
C ~UMBER '+NY.(J-l)+NV*NX*(L-I) IS eN LINE I,
C COLUMN J,LEVEl l lINE 1 CC~RESPONCS lL~"S Te
C ~AXIMUM ~ COORO[NATE,COlU~~ I to CPIGIN,lEvEL 1
KRIGING PLA~:~E[GHBCU~H(C[ IS
C TC TOP lEVEL
.",,,.,.......
..
.. ~,"""ebook.blogf
..com
371
c
c ........
C
c
c
OIME~SlCN NP[lO),NOB(75)
DIMENSION C(5),A~t5),CA~C!,3),CA~[~,~),CAlI5,3J
DIMENSION CB(S),CBICSJ,CB2IBJ
DIMENSION XOf(64),YOB(641.ICBC64J
DIMENSION IP(225),NINIIIJ.1A(lC)
OIMENSIO~ XA(150),YAI150),ZAt150)
DIMENSION TKIEOOJ,SKISOOJ,JEXPIIOQ)
OlMENS10N NUM(300),NPBI3CC)
DIMENSION R(SBJ,RR(SB),XIEJ,A(33C)
DIMENSION
CO~MCN
IJ~e3J,N~Yl(3J,)'1(3),OBe3J,JlI3)
ICUT,lEST
COMMO~/VC(SI/~IMBtXB,Ye,lE,IJVL
COMMON/STRUC/NST.CO,C,~A,('~,CAY,C_l
C
INP~
IOUT-=3
READ(INP,lOOO)XOe,YOB,ICe,[eX,CeY,CBZ,NX,N~,
INl,TEST,NIM8,IS
~EAD(INP,lOOl)NSX,NS,NSl
cSX=CeX/NSX
CSY""C8YJfliSY
CSl:CEI/NSZ
"SB=N5X.~SY.NSl
WRITE(tOUT,2000)OBX,OB~,Cel,XOe,YCE,lCe,~y,~X,
C
C
INI,OSX.CSY,CS1,NSe
CEFINE
NEIG~B(URHOOO
A~O
CJ1A
G~GLFI~G
READ(INP,l002)~L,IIJV(I),I:l,3)
~EAO(JNP,l003.(NP(l),l:1,~l)
~RITEIIOUT,20Cl)Nl
Nl=O
NLJ=[JV(l)
NlC=IJV(1)*IJ~(2)
IJVL=JJV(3)IZ-tl
READ BLOCK
NU~8ERS
DEFINI~G
GROUPING L
C
CO 100 l=l,NL
N=NP ( l )
REAOe INP,l003J(NOB( IJhIJ:I,N)
W~ITE(lOUT,2002)L,(NOe(IJ.,IJ=1,N)
DO 100 1=1, N
Nl=Nl+1
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372
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
N2=3(~1-1)
lB=(NCB(I)-lJ/NlC+1
JB=CNCB(I)-Nl(.llB-l)-l)/~ll+l
IB=NOe(I)-NLI*(JB-l)-NlC*(lB-lJ
IPtN2+1'=IB-IJV(lJ/2-1
IP(N2+2J=JB-(JV(2)/2-1
IPIN2.3J=lB-IJV(3J/2-1
100 CONTIr-UE
ST~UCTUP~L
FARA~EIEFS
C
~EAD(INP,1004JNST,CO
~RITE(IOUT,20C3)NST,CO
DO 103
~=l,NST
READ(INP,l005JCIN),AA(NJ,(CAX(~,IJ,C~~(N,IJ,
lCAZtN, 1),1=1,3)
103
WRITE(IOUT,2004JC(NI,A~(~J,(CA)l(N,IJ,I=I,3Jt
ACCE5~
FILES
C
READ(INP.l006)IE,IEl,(E2,IE~,IC
NXYZ t l':::NX
NXVI12J=NY
NXYZ(?I=NI
XVZ(l}=XCa
XZ(2J=YCB
XY l ( 3 ).:;.ICB
CB(lJ=CBX
[;8(2)=08'1
CeC3J=CBI
SUBCIVIDE SUB-RLeCKS IN
FCI~TS
C
PEAD(INP,lOOl)~8x,NBYt~el
NCB=NeX*~BY.NBZ
11=0
00 14
lS=l,NSZ
Iso=ceI12.-0SI/2.-0SZ*tlS-lJ
DO 13 IS=l,NSY
YSO=C8V/2.-D5Y/2.-0SY*(IS-I)
Co 12 J$=l,NSX
XSO=-D8X/2.+0SX/2.+0SX*(J~-1)
Jl=-l
J2=-1
XO=XSC-DSX/2.+0SX/(4.*Ne~J
YO=YSO-O$Y/2 0SY/(4.*hB'I)
ZO=ZSO+CSZ/2.-0SZ/(Z.*hBZ)
L=O
DO 11 ll=l,NBI
J 1=- J 1
XO*XC+Jl*OSX/CZ.*NBXl
00 11 l2:::1.2
L=l+ 1
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
00 10 J=l~NB)(
00 10 l=l,NB'1'
r 1= 11 +l
X08(Il)=XO.(J-1)*OSX/NBX
YOBCll)=YO.(!-l)*OSY/NBY
10 loBt j 1)= 20
lO=lO-OSl/NBl
11 CONT If\UE
12
CONTI~UE
13
CONTI~UE
14 CONTIhUe
C
~ITHIN
SlB-BlOCK
C
NINt 1)=1
NIN(2)=NC8+1
CALL
c
C
C
CBARS(XCE.YCe.IOB.l~,NIN,XCe,YCBtIDB,
IhOB,NSB,CBJ
KRIGI~G
"Bl= a
UK=O.
IIK=O.
~K=O
IAD=O
"O=NX*~Y
IFtIS.NE.IJWRITECIOUT,20CtJ
00 1 lB=l,NI
le=IOE-C~I*(Le-1J
IF(IS.~E.l)W~ITE(IOUT,20Ci)L8~Ze
NBK=O
lO=MAXO( 1, lE- IJV (~J/2 J
ll=MI~O(~I,LB.IJV(3J/2J
C
C
C
PEAC IEXF,NuM,~pe
ON RESPECTIVE UNJ1~ IEX,IEl,IE2
ADCRESSES START 'T a
IADl=~X*~Y*(le-l)
f\ e1(= N E! K + 1
~BL=NEl+l
XB=XOf+ceX*CJB-IJ
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373
374
Jl ( l ) = I 8
JLC21=J8
JLC3J=L8
c
C
SORT CUT
INFOR~ATICN
WJT~Jh
NEIGHe(U~hCOO
CALL
VOIS(Nl,NP,IP,Jl,NX~Z,NPB,hU~,IE.)A,~A,
lZA,NI~.TA.NAJ
If(NA.EQ.OJGO TO 37
If(NA.GT.IJGO TO 31
(NlY C~E JNFCRM~TJ(N fCLNC
CAll CBARS(XA,YA.ZAtl,1,~I~.XDB.YCf,2CB.NCB,
INse, CEll
CALL CeAPS(XA.YA,ZA,l,C.NI~.xoe,~CE,lCB,NDe,
INSB,Ce2)
DO 30 /C.=l,NSB
J=I(.N S8. CNBK-l)
TK(J )=TAC 1)
$KlJI=C8CIJ-2*C82(K).CBICIJ
30
CONTI~UE
GO TO 34
C
31 CALL
INSB,R,RR,A.X,IER,CBll
IFlIER.NE.OIGC TO 36
C
SCLUTION
DO 33 K=l,NSB
J=K.NSB*tNBK-l)
1TK=0.
lK={N,A+l)*K
SSK=cetl,-x( IK)
DO 32 l=l,NA
lK=I.(~A+l).CK-l)
TTK=TTK+X(IK)+TA(I)
32SSK=SSK-)(IKj*RRCIKI
TKIJJ=TTK
33 SK(JJ "5SI<
34 00 35 K=l,NSB
J=K"'Nse* (NBK-l)
UK=UK+TK(JJ
VK=VK+1KCJI*TKlJJ
35 NK=NK+l
[F(IS.EQ.l)GO TO 3
PRINT OUT If IS.NE.!
WRITEtIOUT.200~)18,JB,)B,~f,NA
CO 40 K-l,NSB
GO
rc
3
ERRO~ED
S~SlE~
36 WRITElIOUT.200SJIB,JB
GO TC 38
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~o
INFORMAT]C~
375
37 WRITE(IOUT,2012tJ8,JB
38 00 39 K-" NSB
,J-K+NSS* 'N8K-l)
TK(JI-1EST
39 SKCJ.-TESt
:3 CONTINUE
2 CONT INUE
N2-H8K*NSB
RESULTS ON FILE
W~ITE
P~INT
C
WRITe(IOUT,2013JCSX,DS~,CS2,NBL
IFtNK.EQ.O)GC TO 4
VK~(V~-UK.UK/"'K)/NK
UK=UK/f\K
WRITE(IO~T,2014JUK,VK,NK
FORHATl4I2}
1003 FORMAT(4012}
100Z
1004
FQ~MAT(IZ,F10.4J
laOS FORMAT(fl0.4,F8.3,9F4.2J
1006 FOAMATI5IZ)
NUMBER',
RANGE
It' I
tAX
CA'I
.,
CAl' )
VtIWW.minebook.blogfa.com
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
376
2008
FO~MAT(l~O,.BlOCK
l'ERRO~ IN SYSTEM.')
IB=
',I:,'
J8= ',13,
',[),'***fJ
FC~~AT{l~
STOP
END
SUBRCUTINE
KRIGMSINA,X~,~J,lA,NIN,)CE,YCe,lCB
1,NDB,~SB,R,RR,A,X,IER,CB)
C
CO~PUTE KRIGING MATRIX At-C SClVE S~STEM
C
(
C PA~A"'ETE~S
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
G~OUPI~GS
SUBROUTINES C'llED
(BARS
COVARI~NCE COMPUTAl](N
PElMS
SYSTEM SOLUTION
C
C
C
OIME~SION
xAtl),YA(l),IAll),XOBllJ,~CB(lJt
IIDIHlI,NIN(l)
o1ME NSI 0 ~ C8 0
RClJ,RRIU,AU ),)0'
NEQ=N ... 1
hN=(NEC+!.*NEC/2
OIME""SIO~
COMPUTE COEFFICIENT
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
~ATP]~
377
IHuO
CO 1 J=l.NA
00 2 l:l.J
IN:J N+l
CAll CaAPS(XA.YA.ZAtl,J,~Ih,X08,YCe,lD8,NOB.
INSB,CeJ
"C INJ=CaiU
2 CONT I'~UE
C.t.ll C8ARSCXA,YA,lAtJtC.NI~tXDB,YCetlCB,NCB.
INSB.CE)
00 10 l""l,NSB
f(=-J+NEQ+(l-lJ
R (K)-CBCL)
10 RR(K)-R(K)
1 CONTINUE
00 3
J=l.,NA
INaIN+l
3 AlIN)a}.
IN:I:IlJN+t
UJNI=O.
CO 4 L=l.NSe
K-NEQfoNE,. fl-H
RU:)-l
.. RR(K):ltl.
NSHaNSe
M...NEO
CALL
SYSTE~
SCLUTICN
RCU11~E
CALL REl~SIX,"'.R.~.NSM.IEPI
RETURN
END
SUBROUTINE
REl~SIX,A,8'~t~,KTllTJ
C
C PARAMETERS
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
"'*
VtIWW.minebook.blogfa.com
378
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
c
c
c
c
c
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
.... COMMe~TS:
SOLUTION IS CONE BY MEANS ~~ GAUSS-Ell~INATJON
WITH PIVCTING IN ~AIN OIAGO~'l HehCE Nt SEARCH
OF ~AXI~UM ELEMENT EQUATIONS ARE KEPT IN ORDER
AND RIGHT-HAND SIDE ~ATRI~ IS FIRST ~EP1 SYSTE~
IS THEN SOLVED BY SI~PLY WORKING e'CKh'~OS
~TILTK I~OICATES HIGHEST RANK MINOR CE1(GCKJ)
IS ZERO IN GENERAL AFTEA T~lANGULATICN THE MAIN
DIAGONAL ELEMENT OF L[NE I N.! THE V'lue
'CI.C[+1./2J-OETCGCI/CET(GCI-l))
e REl~S SHCUlC BE USED ONLY FC~ SYSTEMS WITH NONe ZERO HIG~EST RANK MINORS
DIMENSION XCI),AC!),eCl)
IFCM.lE.C) GO TO 14
IFCM.GT.IJ GO TO 1
IFCAIIJ.EQ.O.) GO TO 20
00 19 I-1,N
19 XCI )-I!C I )lAC 11
KIll TaO
RETU~N
20 KTIll-1
RETU~N
INIT UlllE
C
C
1 TOl .. 0.0
KTIlY-O
NM,.N*fIl
/I( 1-M-l
KK-O
START TRIANGULATION
C
C
00 7 )(:II:1,M1
KK-KKiK
,61(#A (I( t< )
IFtAI(-TOll3,2,3
2 KTll T:I(
3
RETU RN
PlV-1./AK
II=KK
LP-O
K"'1""K-1
CO 6 I-K,M1
Ll .. II
11-[ 1+[
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
R-At ll)*PIV
lP=l P.. l
IJ" I [-KM 1
CO ~ J"J,Ml
IJ-I J"J
ll""ll+J
it
~CIJ)-~(IJ)-R*~CLl)
Lle-K,NM,flI
IN"'LLB+lP
5 BtIN)-81IN)-R*BellBJ
6 CONT I~UE
DO 5
CONTl~UE
~:cA(IJI
IFCR-TOL19,8,t;
8 KTIlT-M
lleTU~N
C
C
C
C
C
END
TRIA~GUl.TION
DO 10
llB.M,N~,M
10 XCllBJ-BtlLB)+PIV
taM
KK-IJ
DO 13 11*1 , M1
IlK-K.,-(
PIV-I.I... U(IO
1-1-1
DO 12 LLB-I,NM,M
IN-LLB
R-Be ltd
IJ-KIC
DO 11 J-J.Ml
IJ-IJ+J
IN-INti
11 R-R-A IIJ
'.JI(
12 Xlll8)-R*PJV
1'3 CONTINUE
C
C
C
C
C
IN)
END SOLUTION
RETURN
ERROR RETURN
14 KTJLT--!
Q:ETURN
END
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379
380
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
3~BRCLTINE
Ce~RSI~A,YA.l~.l,J,~IN,)Cf,~Ce,lCB
l,NOB,~SB,C8)
C
C
CCMPUTE AVERAGE CC\lRIA~(f eEl~EE~
C SETS OF CAT~ I A~C J OR Bla(~ IF J=~
(
C
C
P/IRAMETEPS
CBeNSB)
AVERAGE
CT~ER
COVARI~NCE
PftRA~ETERS
SEE
KRIG~S
C
C
C
C
SUBRCUTI~ES CftLlEC
COVA COVARIANCE FU~CTIrN
.................................................
o I ME'" 5 ION X /J. ( 1 ) , YIi 1 ) , 1A 1 It N IN ( 1 ) ,C E 1 J
DI~E~SION
XDBC11,~08(1),Z[e(1)
NC=O
CC 100 I=l,Nse
100 (811)=0.
IFe I .H:.CIRETliRN
Nl=NHdIJ
N2=NHdt+U-l
IFCJ.EQ.O)GO TO 3
AVER~~E
C
fIIl=NHdJJ
lQ=NUdJ+U-l
00 1
I2;:;Nl,~2
DO 2
J2=p.ll,~2
CB ( l
lYA(J2J.ZAI J2J)
NC=NC+l
2 CONTIJ\UE
1 CONT INUE
CBIl)=CB{lJ/~AXO(l,NC)
flETURt\
AVERAGE
COVARIA~CE
BET~EEN
~ET
I _NO
StB-BLOC~S
C
3 DO 4 Kl*l,NSB
Nt*a
00 5 J2*hl,~2
00 5 Jl*l,Noe
Jl*J l+ttOS* IK2-1)
C8(K2)-tBIKl'+COVAIXA(12),'1AfJ2),Z.(12',
lX08(J2),YOBCJ2),lOBIJ2))
Nt-Ne.l
tONT It<iUE
END
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381
SUBROYTI~E VCISINL.NP,IP.4l.NXYI.~PB,~LM,IE,XA
1,YA,1~.N(N,TA,NA'
C
SORTS OUT I~F(RMATIC~~
C
C BELONGING TO NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ESTf~~TEC ELCCK
C AND GROUPS T~ESE BY SETS WITh SAME ~PI'I~G WEIGHT
C ACCQRDING TO KRIGING PLAN CA1' ARE READ ON FILE
C PROVIDED ev <CLAS>
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
PARA MEIE~ S
IPI3*N8TI LOCATION OF 8l0CK~ ~ITHIN NEI~HBCURHCOO
XAINIMAI,YAfNIMAJ,lAINIMA) C(CRDI~ATES CF DATA
NIMA=Nel*~I"B
I~
NINe NL+l1
ARRAYS
C
C
c
c
CIMENSION NPIIJ,JLlIJ,JP(lJ
DIMENSION NXYZ(l),NPB(l'.~l~IIJ
DIMENSION XAIIJ,YA(lJ.IA(J),NIN(lJ,T~ll)
COMMON/VOISI/NIMB,XB,VB,Ze,IJVl
"X=NX'tZC 1)
N't=NX'tlC2J
"'Z=NXYlI3J
NA"'O
IA=O
J::zQ
NINCl)=l
N=O
NEW
G~OUPING
CONSIOEREC
00 1 Jlal.Nl
NB=NPHLI
IA=NA.l
t"A=O.
TACI.&'=O.
NEW BLOCK CF
l~(S
GROLPI~G
DC 2 JII':l,NB
N~N+ 1
Nl=3.1I\-U
IO=JLCll+IPINl+!)
JO=JL(2).IPINlt2J
lO=JL(3J+IPtNl+3J
l8=IPC~1+3)+IJVl
IF(IO*(NY+I-IOJ.lE.OlGC lC 2
IFCJO*(NX+I-JCI.lE.OtGC lC 2
'#NNtI.minebook.blogfa.com
,_lJJi ...-'..J
t...... ' J
.-
,'~, ~ ~
. . . - ..,............
382
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
IF(LO*CNZ+I-lO).LE.O)GC lC 2
IJL*IO+NV*CJO-l)+NX*NY*(LB-lJ
I A0" NFe ( I J U
IF(IAC.EC.OJGC TO 2
IDA=9*CNUMCIJLJ-ll*NIMB
c
C
CO 3 I"l,IAC
READ
t~TA
ON FILE IE AT
~CCRESS
IC~
lh WCROS
READ CIse
IEt]CAINUS.XC,'C.ZO,~f.YFtZf.HLtl
IF(T.lE.TEST)GO TO 3
J:J+l
XA(J)=~D+(XF-XC)/2.-XB
YAIJ)*YO+IYf-YCl/2.-VB
ZAtJ)=IC+(lf-lC)/2.-Z8
HA""'HA ..... L
TA(IA)=TA{lA)+T*~l
IOA-I[A+C;
3 CONT I"UE
2 CONTINue
IFCHA.EO.OlGO TO 1
C
G~OUPING
NINIIA+l)-aJ+l
TAU ,I TAIIAI/HA
NA-NA+l
1 CONTltoiUE
kITH tATA
FlETURN
END
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
COVARIANCE F~~CTION
DEFINED AS ThE su~ OF EXPO~EhTIAL CR SPHERICAL
STRUCTURES W~IC~ ARE ISOTRCPIC AFTER LINEAR
TRANSFORMATION Of THE INITIAL COOROI~A1E~ CF
T~E VECTOR (XI-X2.YI-Y2,Zl-Z~I
COMMONS
ISTRuel
NST NU~8ER OF ELEMENTARY SlFllCTURES
c co NUGGET EFFECT
c C(NST) SILLS
c AACNST RANGES <~. eXPONENTI_l
c
>0. SPHERICAL
c C~X(NST,3)tCA~(NS1.3 CAZ{N~1,3) llNeA~
c
TRANSFOR~ATICN OF ]~ITIAl CCCJCJ~ATE$
c
c
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383
COVA=O.
"X=X2-Xl
HY;Y2-Yl
HZ=Z2-Z1
H=SQRT(HX*HX+~Y.HY+HZ*HZ)
IFIH.GT.I.E-03)Gn TO 2
COVA=CO
2 00 1 IS-t,NST
IJS= IS
IJSlaJJS+NST
IJS2 aJJSl+NST
DXaH~*CAXtIJS)+HVCAX(lJS1'+HZ.CA)(IJS2)
DY-HX*CAYtJJS)+HV*CAYIIJSl)+HZ*CAYCIJS2)
DlaHX*CAZ(IJS)+HY*CAZIIJS1J+HZ*CAZtIJS2)
HaSQ~TIOX*OX+CY.OY+OZ*OIJ
IftACIS)lO,12.11
10
COVACOVA+C(IS)*eXPC~/AA(JS)
GO TO 1
11 JFtH.GE.'.IISGO TO 12
COVACOVA+C(IS).ll.-l.5*~I'A(lS).
12
CONTJ~UE
1 CONTINUE
JlETUAN
END
SU8ROYTl~E
RelTERIX,A.~,~,EPS,[ER)t
c
c ~
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
PARAMETEPS
XCM) VECTOR OF FINAL SOLUTJC~S
AIM*(M+11/2) UPFER lAIANGUL'~ PART QF
COEFFICIENT MA1~IX ILNM(CIFIEOJ
RIM) RIGHT-HAN[ SICE VECTOR
EPS TOLERANCE eN SOlUTIO~ (GI~EN '5 FRECISION
of I KRIG IN GI VARIA Ne E)
IER DIVERGENCE INDICATOR
IER:O Goeo SOLUTICN
IER=-1 DIVERGING S~SlE'
COMM ENTS:
THE MET~OO IS BY
successive
'PPRCXI~'TICNS
t As it is REITER works only for simple kriging systems (without the condition
NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
La A.. == 1).
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
384
C
C
c
c
(SEE ARRAYS T
50 ECUATIONS
~~o
DT)
.................................................
OiMENSIO~
TiSO),[l(SC)
DIMENSION A{IJ,RIII,X))
INI1I~l
$OlUTICN
c
c
CO I 1=I,M
lIU""O.
1 XIl)=R(l)
NEW ITER.aTION
1ER=O
fHTER=O
IT=4
2 CO 5 f(=l,IT
l=O
PRECEOI~G
SCllTION
DO 3 1=1,1'4
l=l+ I
~=XII)/A(LJ
eTC I )=V-l( I)
Til J =v
3 XCI)=FlIO
C
C
C
l=O
00 4 J=2,M
LENDaJ-l
l"'L+ 1
CO It I:zl,lENO
L=L+ 1
X(I)s)(IJ-A(l.*Y(JJ
4 X(JJ:xtJ,-AllJ*TII)
5 CONT I NUE
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TEST
OF ~CCURACY
385
AND G(N\EFGENCE
C
L=O
fIoI1ER=N ITER. IT
CNMU =0.
ODMU =0.
CSIG=C.
DO 6 I:l,M
L=L+ [
CSIG=(SIG"~*V.A(lJ
ANU= O(~U
IOM~ll
CIVERGI~G
$Y~lEM
IF(ABSCAhUJ.lT.I.OIJGO IC ~
DS:DSIG/CANU*(ANU-IJEPSJ
GIVEN ACClR~(' ACHIEvEC
IFeOS.LT.l.JGD TO 7
IfINITER.GE.20JGO TO 9
n-2
GO TO 2
FINAL SOLUTICN
1 ANU=l./IJNU-l.}
l=O
CO 8 l-l,M
L=<L+I
V""'XIIJ/AIl)
8
X'I)~V.(~-l(I))*ANU
~ETUflN
9 JER=-l
~ETUP~
END
V.BA. Typical kriging plans
Numerous complete geostatistical studies of actual deposits, from structural analysis to kriging, can be found in the bibliography. In this section,
some of these studies have been selected because they are typical examples
of kriging plans and their presentation will be limited to this kriging aspect.
Three types of deposit can roughly be distinguished: stratiform deposits
proven by vertical drill-holes; massive deposits (e.g. porphyry-copper)
proven by drilling on an irregular grid and in all directions; and vein-type
deposits proven by drilling or by drifts with channel samples.
This rough classification, based on geostatistical practice, does not correspond to any precise metallogenic limits. From a geostatistical point of
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386
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
The deposit was sampled by vertical drills on a regular grid. The drill cores
were cut into constant I-m lengths and analysed for Ni grade and MgO
impurity. From the experimental profile of the Ni grades of each drill-hole
5;, a new, more regular and representative grade file of a small panel
centred on the drill 51 was defined, using an unbiased kriging of order 3
(with a quadratic vertical drift), d. Fig. V.23 and Fig. ILl in section II.A.I.
100 m
51
5,
1%
!Ie (% Ni)
Service
varia bles
(Q)
( b)
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387
'#NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
388
in section V.B.2. All 100 unit panels within the 100-m grid square were
estimated considering the 16 data {Za, a = 1 to 16} of the first and second
aureola, d. Fig, V.24. The kriging estimator is thus a linear combination of
these 16 data,
16
Z*(V)=
Aa(v).ZO'
0'=1
for each of the 100 unit panels (v = 1 to 100). The dimension of the
stationary kriging system is, thus, 17 (16 weights A", plus the Lagrange
parameter J.L).
e
<XI
12
16
II
15
..
III
..
...
"
..
..
"
..
II
,.
..
..
::/
'"
r&i~- ~.-.7"'~6"
5
.. "43 111 ...
4!I
~i
/34
./.:2.~
II
6 "
..
..
.
..
ill
~-+-Iom
Unit to be es Ii mated
2i/I~
I~
...
/'4
10
100 m
.. I
<Xl
<XI
9
/~
lSI
13
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
389
fraction and for the tricalcic phosphate grade z (x) of this fraction. The two
studied regionalized variables are the percentage p(x) and the accumulation a (x) = p (x). z (x). These variables are defined on the constant su pport, O 5 m x horizontal section of the pit, and are regionalized in the
three-dimensional space. In addition to the 50-m regular square grid,
data were also available on two diagonal lO-m in-fill grids to detect
micro-structures.
The three-dimensional variograms that were fitted consist of three nested structures:
y(h". h.. h w ) = Co + 'YI(.J(h~ + h~), h w )+ 'Y2(.Jh~ + h~))
"1
"2
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390
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
weights, al, a2, a3, for the vertical data of pit 55 which runs down on one
side of the panel slice P.
Of course, if any of the data corresponding to the weights f3i or Cj are
missing, the dimension of the kriging system will be reduced accordingly.
The eight weights resulting from kriging the accumulation variable for
the particular configuration considered are also given on Fig. V.26. Note
that the value a 1 = 011 is significantly different from the value 1 which
I
$,
52
53
r-
, ~
55 I
$4 I
~--
--
57
56
8
---+-
_..J
56
..
$9
5Cm
8
A
,
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
50 em
would have been obtained if the value of each vertical section had been
assigned to the corresponding slice P (polygons of influence method). Note
also the significant influence of the eight pits of the first aureole, L f3 =
067; kriging of slices P results in little vertical differentiation. Although
kriging causes a smoothing effect (d. Chapter VI, relation (VI. 1, it is
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
391
s
al'II%,
a2' 12a 0/0
A 54
113'9-3%
_.--...c--------5r:-6 B
2. Massive deposits
In geostatistical applications, a massive deposit is one in which the
geometry of the mineralized mass has no preferential direction of
'#NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
392
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
The first campaign consisted of vertical drilling and horizontal drilling from
drives. All drill cores were cut into constant 2-m lengths and analysed for
copper.
The structural analysis, given in section IV.A, Case Study 2, resulted in
an isotropic structural model consisting of an exponential model with a
nugget effect:
'Vr E [2,60 m]
with r = Ihl = h~ + h~ +h:'.
A second campaign was then carried out with vertical drilling on a
regular 25 m x 25 m grid determined by the previous practical range 3al =
25 m. The object of this second campaign was to estimate the upper part of
the deposit (Donoso zone) which was to be mined by open-pit. The mining
units were cubic 12 m x 12 m x 12 In blocks, the horizontal dimension
being approximately equal to one quarter of the 25 m X 25 m square grid,
d. Fig. V.2? A single data configuration was used for the kriging of these
blocks. This configuration consisted of the following.
2
L x, = 1.
a =1
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393
Figure V.27 shows the weights of each core as a function of the distance
to the median horizontal plane of the block to be estimated. Note the
following:
10
8
6
4
I---i--+-'--~----~--~---"'
12
54
10
-2
-4
4
2
r-,
I'"
-2
-4
f\
K
-,
- __ .1_
I
I
I
"
-6
Weight (%)
FIG.
'#NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
394
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(i) Drilling in all directions. Drill cores are cut and analysed on l'5-m
lengths. These samples are used essentially for long term estimation.
(ii) Vertical blast-holes analysed over the thickness of l3-m benches.
These samples are used for short-term estimation of mining units.
The regularized variograrns calculated from the lS-m core lengths were
compared to the horizontal variograms graded over the constant 13-m
bench thickness calculated from the blast-hole data. The three-dimensional regionalization of the copper grades, with the l'5-m support assimilated to a point, is characterized by a model of anisotropic, nested
variograms, specifying two horizontal directions and the vertical direction.
The presence of a proportional effect means that neighbourhood of quasistationarity must be considered.
Block V to be estimated
For kriging purposes, the blast-hole data are grouped together inside
each of the nine neighbouring blocks already mined, d. Fig. V.28. Since
the number and exact arrangement of the blast-holes within each of these
blocks are variable, it is assumed when calculating the mean values 'Y of the
kriging system that each block contains, on average, six blast-holes on a
regular 6 m x 10 m grid, the grid being positioned in a uniform random
manner within the block, cf. Fig. V.29(a).
~~-
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395
Thus the terms Yea, f3) between two blocks a and (3 for which data is
available, each with six blast-holes, are approximated by the mean value
1
Block
Y(Xi -Xj).
={
I to 30
or
I to 6
Block JJ
j : I to 6
; : I to 6
(a )
( b)
FIG. V.29. Discrete approximation of the blocks (a) blocks for which data is
known; (b) block V to be estimated.
If the object is to estimate the mean grade of the entire block V, then the
terms Ha, V) are calculated using a discrete approximation of V consisting of 30 blast-holes on a regular centred grid within V, d. Fig. V.29(b),
On the other hand, if the object is to estimate the arithmetic mean of the
six blast-holes within V, then the terms yea, V) are calculated using a
discrete approximation of V consisting of six blast-holes on a regular
6 m x 10 m grid positioned at random within V:
Yea,
V)
with
y(x;, V) =
Using the blast-hole data file from the benches already mined, the
experimental arithmetic mean
of the blast-holes within V can be
calculated and compared with the kriging estimator Z ~ corresponding to
the discrete approximation (k = 1 to 6). Note that the same experimental
value zt. can be compared to two kriging estimators Z:<'w and Z~E
depending on whether the block V is considered as coming from the
Western front (the data a are then located East of the block) or from the
Eastern front (the data a are located West of the block), The comparisons
zt
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
396
by
(zt-
If the results corresponding to the East and West data configurations are
grouped together, the following remarkable verifications can be made:
(1) the non-bias of kriging, the mean error being 000% Cu;
(ii) the representativity of the kriging variance, (T~ = 0117, which
very close to the experimental variance of 0118.
W front
IS
E front
01
>.
<J
'"
c;
::I
005
001
-05
05
% ell
FIG_ V.30. Histograms of errors for the stationary case in which the kriging system
is of dimension 10.
For the Western front, mean error = ~011 % Cu; experimental estimation
variance = 0-125 COlo Cu)"; number of values=410. For the Eastern front, mean
error = +011 o Cu; experimental estimation variance = 0111 (% Cu?; number of
values = 400.
Grouping the two fronts, mean error = O 00 % Cu; number of values = 810;
experimental estimation variance = 0-118 (% Cul; kriging variance O'~ = 0-117
(% Cu?; mean grade of the considered zone = 2% Cu.
On the other hand, if a distinction is made between the East and West
configurations, there is a significant bias of modulus 011 % Cu, the sign of
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397
'Moil1
fault
The solution consists in taking this local E-W drift into account in the
short-term kriging system, which means introducing more non-bias conditions than the single condition,
9
Aa = 1,
a=1
presen t for the stationary case. The variogram model 'Y remains
unchanged, and a linear drift is considered which, in the three-dimensional
space, amounts to introducing three additional non-bias conditions:
9
Aau a = Uv,
a=l
where (u"", Va, wa ) and (Uy, vv, Wy) are the three-dimensional coordinates
'#NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
398
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
of the centre of gravity of the block a for which data is known and the
block V to be estimated, d. relation (V.lO) in section V.A.2.
Using the same data file coming from the same already-mined benches
considered above, the comparison of the kriging estimates Z~w, Z~E and
the experimental values
yields (cf. Fig. V.32):
zt
(i) an almost null bias, whether the East or West data configuration is
used;
(ii) an excellent agreement between the kriging variance ai = 0261
and the experimental estimation variance. Note that the value 0261
is greater than the value 0117 previously obtained for the stationary
W front
E front
0-1
>.
u
c:
'"
cr
J
Lt'" 0-05
0-01
-05
0-5
% Cu
FIG. V,32. Histograms of errors for the non-stationary case in which the kriging
system is of dimension 13,
For the Western front, mean error = -0,02% Cu, experimental estimation
variance = 0247 (% CU)2, number of values = 397. For the Eastern front, mean
error = +001 % Cu; experimental estimation variance = 0273 (% CU)2; number of
values = 397.
Grouping the two fronts, mean error = 0,00% Cu; number of values = 794;
experimental estimation variance = 0261 (% Cuf, kriging variance. ui = 0261
(% CU)2; mean grade of the considered zone = 2% Cu.
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399
60 m
'#NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
400
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
..
Va = 1 to n,
(3=1
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401
within this square); a random kriging plan was adopted for this estimation
of 100 m x 100 m x 15 m blocks. The estimation neighbourhood consisted
of 27 blocks: the block B to be estimated and the 26 blocks of the first
aureole surrounding it; cf. Fig. V.34. These 27 blocks were divided into six
domains {Dcl'; a = 1 to 6} within which it was assumed that the data were
randomly located within each 100 m x 100 m square.
D} is the domain consisting of the block B to be estimated; D 2 and D 3
are the blocks located above and below B, respectively; D 4 is made up of
the eight blocks of the first aureole surrounding B on the same level; Ds
and D 6 consist of the eight blocks located, respectively, above and below
the eight blocks of D 4
The data inside each domain D a consist of no; drill intersections, all
vertical, 15 rn long and of mean grade Zo;o In the general case, the six
domains Do; will all contain some data (no; > 0, Va), and the kriging
estimator will be the linear combination of the six mean grades Zo;:
6
Z~ =
I
0;
= 1
x.z:
Va
1 to 6,
,B=!
A,a
= 1.
{3
100m
Lf------...---"~4__~
4
~I-p~5
15m
'#NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
402
As the three intersections S1, S2~ 53 come from the same vertical drill
intersecting the block B, cf. Fig. V.35, then y(D lo D z) = y(Slo Sz), and
similarly for the other two rectangular terms y(Dl~ D 3 ) and y(D z, D 3 ) .
This relation holds, strictly, only when there is a single vertical drill intersecting each block B. For this reason, only one intersection per block was
retained in the classifying program of the data (nl; nz. n3 ~ 1); in any case,
only rarely did more than one drill intersect a block.
$2
$1
$'3
For the calculation of the other rectangular terms y(Da , D(3), a :-13~ the
hypothesis of random locations was used. Thus, for example y(Dl~ D 4 ) is
the arithmetic mean of the eight mean values 1(B, B k ) , k = 1 to 8, between
the block B = D 1 and the eight blocks Bk of the first aureole that make up
D4
The diagonal terms are
Similarly,
y(D 4 D 4 ) = -F(15)+
n4
n. ".
L L
n4
drill
ii(Bk~ B Ic ,) .
k=1/('''''1
k'..=k
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403
the second member matrix. Thus, for example, -y(D j , B)= y(8, B) and
1 8
y(D 4 , B) ="8 "~1 y(Bk' B).
In the case of a complete configuration (na > 0, 'tIa = 1 to 6, and
n4 = ns = n6 = 8), the following results are obtained:
A 4 = 0 ' 16 7,
A.s=A 6=0'215
fTi = 00212 (%
and
'dr=lhl>A
Two types of mineralization can be distinguished from the geology of the
deposit. The first one is a massive breccia which corresponds to the
exponential model (1- e-a,), cf. section IV.A, Case Study 2, the breccia
structure of the Los Bronces deposit. The second mineralization is due to
intensive enrichment within fractures, having a pseudo-periodic character
corresponding to the hole effect (1 - (sin br)/ br).
In the kriging of a cubic 100 m x 100 m x 100 m mining block B, the
following data sets were used, cf. Fig. V.36:
VtIWW.minebook.blogfa.com
300m
~.
Ie
I-
/_---~reOle
-----
/ /
---
/
/
0"'"
100m
0-"- /
,"- /
'i;>-~/
")0
Block B
//
a<$'
Zx= 172
o-}=O-006%2
,0
/
/
z. 2-IBo/o, ,I' 21
A,o:; 33,
I
\
A,05-01, Z
ol-B3 %
A~"605,
02-I?o/0,,,=19
A7 6-93, Z, 2 20 %
, ,, '
\\'
11:
17
no 15
/
/
'"'
, ,, =19
E
0
, n o I5
'1-54%,n
~jBo~;:'/7
___
8
9
10
FIG.
~~~e
":>.,'//
1i,o/
v'/
'i;>-/
/
08
~~
1/
A
..... : I
I
J
405
(iii) the set of channel samples taken along the drifts which run along the
base of block B.
This provides a total of 21 weights for the 21 data sets {Om a = 1 to 21},
and a stationary kriging system of dimension 22. As the results of this
kriging were to be used for production planning, it was essential that they
be as accurate as possible. For this reason, the number and exact location
of each in tersection S, constituting the cluster G, were taken into accoun t
when calculating the terms ii( Go:., G/3) rather than assuming random locations of the clusters Go: in their respective domains:
Similarly,
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
406
-.J:.!91l!-
-=:--
of the vein
-I
I
_ _ _ ____
I
I
~l:-
I
I
I"
"I
x+h
Data for this study consist of vein width and copper assay values taken at
approximately 10ft intervals along three main horizontal development
drifts located in the plane of the vein. The two regionalized variables used
in the study were the vein width and the corresponding copper accumulation.
Nested structures, y(h)=Yl(h)+Y2(h), were fitted to the variograms of
these two regionalizations. The two structures are spherical with respective
ranges for the width of a 1 = 20 ft and a2 = 100 ft. These two ranges can be
interpreted as pseudoperiods of the successive bulges in the vein, as shown
by the thickness profile obtained on one of the development levels d. Fig.
V.38.
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407
In the plane of the vein, the three levels are about 600 ft apart, which is a
much greater distance than the largest range az = 100 ft. Thus, local estimations of ore resources can be made only within 100 m of workings for
which samples are available, i.e., the zone of influence of the levels. This
Smoll st ructure
,
Lorge
--------._- -----
s truer ure
Small structure
1200
ft
Le~el
6930
Le~e~
~~-l-4-+-1-4-44-l--I-4-1-~~-+-+-+-+-++-+-+-+-t-1~=
6360
The three vertical bands of influence are split into panels of vertical
dimension 100 ft x 200 ft. For the estimation by kriging of the mean
horizontal thickness and the corresponding mean copper accumulation of
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408
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
each panel, the information on the central level is grouped into three data
sets, S1' 52, 53, d. Fig. VAO. 51 is the data set within the panel to be
estimated; 52 and S3 are the next data sets taken along the central level.
Existing
drift
100 ft
FIG.
VAO. Data configuration for the estimation of a 100 ftx 200 ft panel.
As the mining company planned to carry out additional sampling for the
local estimation of all the mining panels, several kriging plans were
established to predict the improvement to be gained by different additional
sampling plans, d. Fig. VAL It was shown that, with an additional level
between each of the existing ones, the relative standard deviation 0"/ m, of
the global estimation of the ore-tonnage, would be reduced from 48% to
23%, the relative standard deviation (TKI m, of the local kriging of the
ore-tonnage of 100 ft x 200 ft unit panels, would be reduced from 17% to
15%. This latter decrease is not especially significant; however, all the
units in the deposit could be differentiated by kriging, while, with the three
existing levels, only 40% of the panels were differentiated (had different
G1
--If-----------+--
200
II
(a)
FIG.
( b)
VAL Kriging plans with additional data. (a) Two additional drifts; (b) one
additional vertical raise.
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
409
kriging estimates). Similar results were obtained for the estimation of the
quantity of metal and the mean copper grade.
Drift
dZ
Block
Raise
[50m
I
I
Block
40m
50 m
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I
I
I.~---~I
d
dZ
dl
~~~
I
I
I
1
20 m
410
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
a;
(i) The distances involved in global estimation are usually greater than
the limits of quasi-stationarity defined by the structural analysis, and
sometimes include several heterogeneous mineralizations.
(ii) The global estimation does not have the repetitive character of the
local estimation. As the deposit is unique, there is only one global
estimation error and it is, thus, difficult to probabilize it.
The first aspect means that a global estimator should be built by combining various local or partial estimators, as shown in section V.A.3. In
general. kriging techniques can be used to provide local kriged estimates
within each zone or neighbourhood of quasi-stationarity; the global estimator is then defined by the weighted sum of these local estimators,
according to formula (V.18).
The problem of the definition and calculation of a norm of the quality of
a global estimation remains. In local estimation, the estimation configuration for a particular block Vi can be considered as repeating itself identically for a large number of blocks V within a zone of homogeneous
mineralization. In such a case, the probabilistic interpretation of the local
error (z Vi - Z t as a particular realization of the random error (2 v; - z t; )
has a physical meaning, and the local estimation variance E {[Zv; - zti
of a block V was then defined. In global estimation, the deposit D is
i
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f}
411
unique as well as its mean grade ZD. The probabilizationt of the global
error (zv - zt) is obtained, no longer by considering various particular
deposits DJ, but by considering various locations of the data configuration
as a whole over the unique and fixed deposit D: a particular global
estimate z~ corresponds to each particular position i of the origin of this
data configuration, cf. Fig. V.54, the example of two surface estimates
S*(xo) and S*(xo) linked to two particular locations Xo and xb of the data
grid origin. Thus, the global estimation error (z D - Z 0) has been probabilized, and the global estimation variance is defined as E{[ZD - zt, ]2}.
However, the distribution of the error (ZD - z}b) will always remain
inaccessible since, in practical applications, only one particular location io
of the data configuration over D is available. Hence, all confidence intervals (e.g., the 20" Gaussian standard) attached to the global estimation
variance will have but a mere conventional meaning.
Choice of the structural model y(h) or C(h), used in the calculation of the
global estimation variance
In practice, this local variogram is estimated by the experimental variogram, cf. formula (111.39),
where N' is the number of pairs of data (distant of vector h) available over
the whole domain D.
As this experimental variograrn 2y'b(h), and, thus, its fitted model
2YD(h) are defined over the whole deposit D, they may differ from the
quasi-stationary models 'Yi(h) used in the local estimation of each particular zone or block Vi of the deposit D. Often, in mining practice, these
t Note The global estimation error probabilization as well as the conceptual basis of the
global estimation variance calculation is related to an approach different from the approach
of regionalized variables considered in this book. This approach is called "transitive
theory", cf. G. Matheron (1965, p. 17) and (1971, p. 9), and results in calculation algorithms
and solutions remarkably similar to those provided by the regionalized variables theory. In
the present text, this transitive theory approach is briefly outlined in section V.CA, which is
devoted to the surface or volume estimation problem.
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412
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
D=
Vi.
;=1
Z'b ]2}
j ]} ].
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413
]} .
ZD -zt =
A.k(Zk -zt).
(V.35)
k=l
zt, ]2} = L
A ~E{(Zk -
zt ]2}.
(V.36)
k= 1
The problem thus consists in distinguishing n successive stages of estimation, the errors of which are approximately independent. These n successive stages will depend on the available data configurations; in mining
applications, there are essentially two cases, depending on whether the
elementary errors come from the same estimation configuration (d.
subsection 1, "Direct combining of elementary errors", immediately
following) or from different configurations (cf., hereafter, subsection 2,
"Combining the terms of a global estimation error").
1. Direct combining of elementary errors
z;
(lIN)IiZ~,
Any two units s, and s, which are separated by a distance less than 3! will
have common drill-holes in their estimation neighbourhood and, as a
consequence, the two estimation errors [ZSI - Z:'l and [ZSj - Z~] cannot
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414
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
E {[ Zs-Zs]
2}
1
=N 2
,2:N
,~1
1 2
E{fZsi -Z(x,)] 2 }=-<TEs
(V.3?)
ut
..
with 01s = 2H(lj2; 1/2)- F(l; l), according to the formula for
corresponding to Fig. II.50 in Section II.E.3.
Note that this sum of elementary independent errors, Zs, - Z (Xi)' is
related to the approximation
1
* =N,-Z(Xi)'
1"
Zs* =-IZs;
N
0
0
0
0
x~x
X X X
r---------x
x
'{.
L
0(
W W
x
X
L-_~~~
Xj
Xi
si
_______
FIG.
t The N elementary errors [Z.. - Z (Xi)J are independent but only as a first approximation,
although they do not involve any common data. This is because the spatial regionalization
entails a certain degree of correlation between the values ZS!' ZSj and their estimators Z(Xi),
Z(Xi)' However, formula (V.37) provides a good approximation for the estimator variance. as
will be shown later. in the addendum, on Figure V.47.
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415
E{[Zs - Z s]
N 2 ~ O"Es;'
In this case, each of the elementary errors [ZSi - Z (x;)] has its own
estimation variance O"~s, which depends on the particular position Xi of the
drill-hole in the grid square 5j. Over a large number N of such grid squares,
x will take all possible locations inside the grid square s and the elementary
estimation variances
will have the foIlowing mean value:
at
N i~l
2
O"Es j
If
} dx
= D (01 s).
Indeed, from formula (11.33), the mean value over s of the variance of
extension E{[Zs -Z(x)f} of a point datum Z(x) to the mean value Z; is,
2
by definition, the dispersion variance D (Ol s ) of this point datum in s. The
global estimation variance is then written as
1
*2
E{[Zs-Zs]}= N2~(jES' =
x
X
1
N
D (Ols).
sI
X
xI
X
X
X
X
X
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(V.38)
416
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Irregular grid Consider the same sedimentary deposit, this time with the
N positive data on an irregular grid, d. Fig. V.4S (the N surfaces of
influence s; are unequal). Note that under no circumstances can a preferential grid, with all its associated risks of bias, be assimilated to an
irregular grid, cf. section III.C.l.
The global estimator Z~ is the weighted sum of a certain number of
local estimators obtained, for instance, by local kriging; note that these
local estimators may not be defined on the surface of influence s, of each
positive hole. By expressing the global estimation error [Zs - Z~ J as the
sum of the N independent elementary errors [ZSi - Z (Xi)], of extending the
thicknesses Z (x;) to their respective surface of influence Si, the following
formula is obtained:
(VAG)
Note that the previous expression (V.40) of the global estimation variance is related to the approximation
1 ~ SiZs;*
Zs* = S
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S1 ~ SiZ(Xi),
417
zt
z:
(VAl)
with
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418
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
( a )
Z(x)
Ii
ii
~
II
II
...-----------.......
Z(Xi)
FIG.
II'
( b)
Z(Xi+ l)
V.46. Direct combining of elementary errors on a line. (a) Centred arrangement; (b) closed arrangement.
(V.42)
where L
L. l, and
ukl,
= E{[Zjj -
Z (Xi)]2}
= 2X(//2) -
F(li)'
Addendum
On this simple example of centred arrangement in one dimension, it is advisable to
test the robustness of the approximation underlying formula (V.41), i.e., the
influence of the hypothesis of independence of the N elementary errors of extending the central data to their segments f of influence. For this, a spherical scheme
with range a and unit sill and without nugget effect, was considered, d. formula
(IIL1S). The estimation variance of a line L =NI surveyed by N point data
regularly spaced on a central arrangement is then calculated from the exact formula
(II.27) and compared with the approximation given by formula (VAl). These
compared results are shown on Fig. V.47 (by courtesy of Michel David) for various
values of N and the quotient lJ a. The approximation is excellent for all small values
of the spacing (lla < 05, which is a common case in practice); for greater values of
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
419
the spacing (if a> 0-5, the number N must be great (N > 30) to provide a good
enough approximation.
007
/
/
006
I
~"
"-
005
/
/
,'\,
~'
004
NlI)
003
002
0-01
-0-2
01
0-3
0-4
0-6
05
0-7 08 0-9
ro
110
FIG. VA7. Estimation variance of a line L = Nl by N data on a centred arrangement. Spherical model, sill 1, range a.
, Exact values: - - - -, approximate
values.
crt;
I-----~--------\
I
I
~----------------~
Li
I SI
I
~
I
I
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - __ I
I
!
J
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420
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
S=
s,
i=1
EUZs -
Z~ ]2} = ;2 ~ S;l7L"
(VA3)
where
V=
Vj
;=1
-,+--5,.
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421
Note In the last two examples, corresponding to Fig. VAS and V.49, the
elementary extensions of the mean grade of a median drift or a median
level to its rectangle or parallelepiped of influence were considered. But
both the median drift and the median level have been estimated with a
certain estimation error. Thus, a term corresponding to this estimation
error must be added to the estimation variances given by formulae (V.43)
and (V.44); this results in combining the various terms of the global
estimation error.
2. Combining the terms of a global estimation error
L;
- Level 2
"
Chennel
scmples
-lev~1
FIG.
Drift
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422
(i) The estimation of the drifts by the channel samples. The estimation
variance corresponding to this step is called the "line term", T/.
(ii) The estimation of the levels by the drifts which are supposed to be
perfectly known. The estimation variance corresponding to this step
is called the "section term", T s .
(iii) The estimation of the slices of the mass by their median levels,
which are supposed to be perfectly known. The estimation variance
corresponding to this last step is called the "slice term" , Tv.
As a first approximation, the three estimation errors corresponding to
these three steps can be considered as independent, and the global estimation variance of the mass then consists of the sum of the three preceding
terms:
(VAS)
The following example of the calculation of these three terms is based on
Fig. V.50. Another example is given in the study of Ity Mount Flotouo gold
deposit in section V.C.S.
12
= N-
(TEl>
2
(TEl
Section term The three levels are assimilated to the sum of n rectangles
s, = hi X L; each estimated by a median drift L, supposed to be perfectly
known. The estimation variance of these three sections (of a total surface
S = I~=l 5,), known as the section term, is then obtained from the direct
combining formula (V.43):
T, =
(rES
= 52 ~ S i (TE,-"
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423
Slice term
where
Section
\v
Vertical
drills
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424
* A~
Zs =~.
Ts
Is t(x) dx
estimated by
v- = S* x
T~.
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425
a1
P* =A* B*
and
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426
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Putting PAB = (E{[A - A *][B - B*]}/O"A . 0"8) for the correlation coefficient
of the two estimation errors of the two factors, the formula can be written
as
(V.46)
In practice, the true values A and B in formula (V.46) are replaced by
their unbiased estimators A * and B*. The calculation of PAB will be
detailed later.
Estimation variance of the quotient Q = AI B
( Q+A)
B
B e 1 E 1
. [ 1--+-..,--+
...
3
B- B
(VA?)
and
(0*) =
o[
1+
cr~ B
E{EAEB} + ...
AB
J.
There is, thus, a relative bias, ((T~I B2)-(E{fAC8}! AB)+ . . " .which persists
even when the two estimations are independent, i.e., even when E{cAB} =
E{A} . E {fa} = O. In mining applications, this relative bias is negligible
when the relative estimation variance 0"1/ B 2 is less than 0.01, which is
often the case in global estimation. Using (V.4?), the relative estimation
variance of the quotient Q can be expanded up to the second order as
crb _ EUG Q2 -
Q2
i.e.,
(V.48)
PAB =
(TB)
Note first that if the two estimations of the two factors A and Bare
independent, the covariance EHA - A *][B - B*]} of the two errors is null,
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427
and the approximate formulae (V.46) and (VAS) reduce to the standard
formula of addition of relative variances:
2
Q2
crp
(TQ
or
p2
(T A
2
(TB
A 2 + B2 + ....
(V.49)
If the two variables a(x) and b(x) are intrinsically coregionalized, i.e., if
the two structural functions Ya(h) and Yb (h) are proportional, d. section
lILB.3, formula (IIL30), and if the two configurations for the estimation of
their mean values A and B are identical (similar in practice), then it can be
shown that the coefficient PAB is equal to the standard correlation
coefficient pal> between the two variables a (x) and b (x).
If the two variables a (x) and b (x) are not intrinsically coregionalized,
then the covariance of the two errors E{[A - A *][B - B*]} must be calculated, i.e., the coefficient PAB is calculated from the cross-structural
function
When the two configurations for the estimation of the two factors A and
B are identical (or very similar), a "reduced difference" variable can be
defined, d (x) = a (x)1 A - b (x)1 B. Its structural function can then be
determined:
2Yd(h) = E{[d(x + h)- d(X)]2} =
2Yb(h)
= 2Ya(h)
+--..-".-.2
2
A
b~)J}
4Yab(h)
AB'
If the two configurations for the estimations of the two factors A and B
are supposed to be identical, then the two estimation variances (T~ and a1
are obtained by applying the same linear operator g to the two structural
models Ya and Yb, respectively, cf. formula (111.2):
(T~ =E{[A-A*]2}= g'(Ya)
and
a1 =E{[B-B*]2}= %'(Yb);
similarly,
E{[A - A*][B - B*]} = gCYab).
ub
Q2=
1
1
2
A 2 g'(Ya) + 2 ?E'(Yb)- ABg(Yab)+ ...
B
= g'(Yd) + ....
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(V.50)
428
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(V.51)
g(y,,)+ ....
Up to this point, the geometric error has not been considered, i.e., the
error due to the ignorance of the exact limits of the mineralization. The
volume of the area to be estimated was assimilated to the sum of N positive
blocks or zones of influence Vi, i.e., the estimator of the total mineralized
volume V was taken as the sum
N
V* =
Vi
i=l
of the volumes of these blocks. In doing so, an error (V - V*) was incurred
and must be evaluated, for example, through a variance of the geometric
error. This geometric error (V - V*) not only affects the volume and the
are tonnage, but also the estimations of metal tonnage and mean grade of
the deposit D. Thus, it is equally important to combine the influence of the
geometric error with that of the different quality errors, e.g., the quality
error due to the regionalization of the grade variables in the total volume
V.
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429
The transitive approach Let k(x) be the indicator variable of the mineralized volume V to be estimated, This indicator is an all-or-nothing variable
defined as
k(x) =
{~
if the point x is in V,
if not,
xe V.
-e-co
k(x) dx
-co
+00
dr,
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-co
(V.52)
III
the three-
+00
dx,
LXl
k(x", xv, x w ) dx w .
(V.53)
430
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
k (x)k (x + h) dx,
(V.54)
+00
L
Pu =
~-co
k(xo u
Pt'! =-00
Pu. and P being two integers defining the various nodes of the regular grid.
If n(xo) is the number of positive drills, the estimator S*(xo) is then written
as S*(xo) = a laz . n (xo). Note that this estimator depends on the choice of
the origin within the elementary grid surface alaZ, ct. Fig. V.53.
)(
,-0
I
I
L_
I
I
_____________ I
a2(~
~Origin
of the grid
~
1
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431
xo
Note the similarity of this expression for the mean quadratic error to that
of the estimation variance E {fS - S* ]2}. Using this similarity, even though
no probabilistic interpretation is involved in this "transitive" definition, the
notation O'~ for the estimation variance can be used, i.e., in one-dimensional notation:
2
1
O'E(a)=-
' ] 2 dxo.
[S-S>i'(xo)
(V.55)
This mean quadratic error, called the "variance of the geometric error", is
a function of the available data grid; here, a = (a 1, a2).
If S*(Xo) is replaced in the integral of (V.55) by its one-dimensional
expression
S*(xo)=a
p=-oo
k(xo+Pa),
+00
J+co
(T~(a)=a p='2:. K(pa)~ -00 K(h)dh.
oo
(V.56)
The variance of the geometric error linked to the grid spacing a can be
expressed uniquely with the geometric covariogram K (h) of the surface 5
(or volume V) to be estimated. However, this covariogram is just as
unknown as the geometry and surface area of S (or V). It is at this point
that an important property of geometric covariograms is introduced, which
allows both the formula (V.56) and the transitive approach to geometric
errors to be of practical use.
Whatever the geometry and the extent of the domain to be estimated (S or
V) are, their geometric couariogram K (h) exhibits a linear behaviour at the
origin:
K(h)=K(O)-w"lhl+ ... , when Ihl~O.
The direction subscript a indicates that this linear behaviour may not be
isotropic.
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MINING G EOSTATISTI CS
432
Using this property, the first term in the limited expansion of the
expression (T~ (a) can be evaluated when a tends towards zero. This first
term is sufficient to give the order of magnitude of the geometric error
variance.
For the two-dimensional problem of the estimation of a surface from a
regular, rectangular grid (all az), it can be shown (d. G. Matheron (1965,
p. 108)), that the relative estimation variance can be expanded up to the
first order as
u~
S
[1
(N 1)2
+ ... ,
2=-2 6 N Z+ 0 0 6 -
. J
(V.57)
(T.~
1 [4
2S ]
52=1426+0-064 =0005,
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433
5, the more jagged (i.e., the longer) the perimeter, the more difficult is the
surface estimation.
When a portion of the perimeter is perfectly known (e.g., the limit of a
lease), this portion must not be considered in the calculation of the values
2
2N j and 2N2 , and this will reduce the relative variance (T;,/5 by approximately the ratio of known perimeter to total perimeter.
---'-.j--+----+-
, ; - 11
-- ---t-+;""1'---1'--+-
......--+----'t-""'t---i
'r-
(a )
( b)
FIG. V.54. Estimation of the same surface from two distinct origins of the data
grid.
(a) n = 37, 2N I = 26, 2N 2 = 22, s* = 37ala2' crl s = 45%, s = (3733)a 1a2'
(b) n = 39, 2N j = 32. 2N 2 = 28, s* = 39aj Q 2 , (T/ S =4 7",{" s = (39 37)alQ2'
Three-dimensional case For the estimation of volumes by a parallelepipedic grid of sides (a I, a-, a3) and when the distances (a h a2, a3) tend
towards zero, there is a first-order expansion formula similar to (V.S7), cf.
G. Matheron (1965, p. 105). In mining applications, such a parallelepipedic grid is rarely available and volumes are usually estimated by
combining the surface estimations of different sections, or sometimes by
the sum of prisms of influence of positive drill-holes.
First, let V = Ii Ii S,. be the volume estimated by V* = Ii 1St, where I; is
the thickness of the section S;(vertical or horizontal), d. Figs V.51 and 55.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
434
~ 1
V2
V2
2eTS;
~ v; 57 '
(V.58)
where u, = 1;. S;
--~---~--~-~~-
BJ
___________
~_~
I'
t,
5,.
a
FIG. Y.55. Estimations of a volume by combining sections.
L=-
11
I t;
;=1
at
S*
V = L
2
*2
1 [
n 2 0, 06A
1T
1]
+ 90 A z +, .. ,
(V.59)
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435
.-
Positive
hole
S1f~
C12
170102
ii
+
} /(x)
oLd
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
5*
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436
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Ts~=~l
t(x)dx,
S s~
estimated by T~* ;
(ii) the mean metal accumulation
estimated by A~*;
(iii) the mean grade Zs* = As*jTs*, estimated by zt* = A~*ITt*. (The
relative bias due to the quotient of the factors A~* and T~* is
neglected, d. section V.C.3, formula (V.47).
By means of the study of the two regionalizations, the thickness l(X) and
the accumulation a (x) = l(X) . z (x), defined as the product of the thickness
t(x) by the corresponding grade z (x), the corresponding estimation variances can be calculated, i.e.,
for the estimator T~*,
(j~A
= E{[A s* -
A~* J2}.
=~
a (x) dx.
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437
(Ts
2
E{(dsA)}= S2' Da(OjS),
2
(V.60)
(V.61)
Similarly, the global estimation variance of the mean thickness T s over
the true surface S by the estimator T~.. , defined on the estimated surface
S*, can be expressed as
(T~ = E{[Ts ~ T~ ..
+When
the limits of the mineralization are economic limits linked to the quality of the ore
(e.g., cut-off grade), the geometric error and the quality error cannot be considered as being
independent, particularly at the borders of the deposit. But if the extent of these border
zones is negligible with respect to the extent of the deposit (of surface S), an hypothesis of
internal independence can be made as a first approximation.
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438
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(FA crT
Z2= A2+T2-2PATA'y:+"
The quantity of metal in the deposit is the product Q = As. S of the
mean accumulation As and the true mineralized surface S. The global
estimation variance of Q by Q* = A~* . S* is obtained from formula
(V.49):
(V.62)
where the density d of the are is supposed to be constant and known. If this
density, d(x), is regionalized and sampled along the drill-holes, it should
then be studied by means of a new accumulation variable b (x) =
a(x). d(x).
Note All the preceding formulae correspond to a geometric error of
surface (S - S*). If a volume is involved, the border term E{(dvAf} =
E{[A y - A y * ]2} is written similarly to (V.60):
2
2
(Fv
2
E{(dvA) } = V 2 Da(Oj V),
where
(V.64)
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439
b z " 30 m
~
) b l ~ 20 m
)0
FIG.
CJ
x
)(
)(
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440
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
u1 12 [10
22 J
-==--+O06~ = 00014
2
52
58
10
'
A*=n
L a (Xi ),
;=,
Vr=lhl>o,
where Co = 030 and C 1 = 075, giving a sill value of Co + C, = 105, which
is very close to the experimental dispersion variance of the 58 positive
accumulation values, S2 = 10.
The estimation variance of the mean accumulation A s * over the estimated known field 5*, U~A =E{[A s . - A * ]2}, can be calculated either by
direct combining of elementary errors, assumed to be independent, or by
combining terms of the error [As - A *], cf. section V.C.2.
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
441
with
For a spherical model of range a and sill 1, the auxiliary functions Hand F
are given on Charts no. 3 and 4 in section ILEA:
(T~blb2 = Co + C x 011
= 038
and
Combining terms. In this case, the global estimation variance is calculated as the sum of a line term and section term. The line term (corresponding to the N-S lines which have the greatest data density, b, < b 2 )
measures the extension error of the 58 central accumulations to their
segments tb , = 20 m) of influence. This line term is expressed by formula
(VAl) as
The value of the variance of the elementary extension a~bl is read from
Chart no. ? and gives (j"~bl = C o+ C x 0077 = 0.36. (Note the preponderance of the nugget effect Co = 0,30.) The line term is then T1 =
036/58 = 00062.
The section term measures the extension of the mean accumulations of
the lines L;, j = 1 to 6, to their sections of influence (rectangle L, X b 2 ) . The
elementary extension variance of a median line L, to its rectangle of
influence L, x b: is calculated using Chart no. 8, and, for the first line
(L I = 160 m), this gives
a~Llb:l = C
001 = 00075.
In this case the nugget effect has no influence, d. formula (111.9); this is due
to the fact that the nugget constant COLI' regularized over the length L 1 ,
can be considered as zero because L 1 is much greater than the diameter of
the sampling pit, which is the support on which the constant Co = O 3 was
defined.
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442
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Table V.5 gives the variances (T~Lh as well as the variances weighted by
the square L of their length of influence, for each of the six lines L; The
section term is expressed by formula (VA3):
7,
. (jEL;b2'
7"L~
1534
I (TEL;b2
Ts =
(~ L
TABLE
= (1160)2 = 00011.
j)
Lj
1
2
3
4
5
6
160
240
200
240
160
160
(T~L;
b:
Lf(T~Li X b 2
00075
00060
00067
00060
00075
00075
192
345
268
345
192
192
L: = 1160 m
L: = 1534
00073.
Thus, the combining-terms method provides the same order of magnitude for the global estimation variance as the direct combining method
(0'0066). To be on the safe side, the higher value (T~A = 00073 is retained.
Calculation of the border term The preceding variance, (T~A =
E{[A s * - A *]2}, corresponds to an estimation on a known field S* and
takes no account of the surface error (5 - S*). The impact of this surface
error on the estimation of the mean accumulation As over the true surface
S is characterized by the border term, cf. formula (V.60),
2
E{(dsAf} =
~~ x D~(O/S),
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443
(TA
A *2 =
(TEA
0093.
Estimation variance of the quantity of metal The quantity of metal available in the deposit of surface S is equal to the product Q = As. S. This
quantity of metal is estimated by the product Q* =A*. S*. Under the
hypothesis of internal independence, the estimation variance of Q by Q* is
given by formula (V.49):
2
UQ
-2 =-2
as
t Recall that, since the regionalized variable is the relative accumulation, the calculated
variances are also relative.
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VI
444
-~
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.
445
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446
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
practice, amounts to saying that the sampling of G by the set of drill cores
is unbiased ~ no particular zone of G is preferentially sampled.
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447
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448
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
I
I
I
I
I
~
L __
I..
FIG. VI.2. Estimation using polygons of influence.
If the polygonal influence method is used, then the mean grade of the
central drill core S, is attributed to each polygon Vi. Now, if the cut-off
grade Zo is applied to the estimates obtained by this method, the estimated
recovered tonnage will correspond exactly to the hatched area of Fig. VI. 1,
with all the associated risks of bias. The results of the case study given in
section VLA.4 are particularly good illustrations of this point.
Another typical example concerns the method of estimation by inverse
squared distances and, more generally, all estimation methods which do
not take account of the particular geometry of the panel to be estimated.
For a given data configuration, such a method would give the same estimated value regardless of the estimation support v. Accordingly, if selection is made on these estimated values, the result will not depend on the
size v of the selection unit. Now, it is obvious that mining a deposit with a
small hammer (very selective mining with a very small support c) will yield
results very different from block-caving (the mining unit v being very
large), see P. Switzer and H. Parker (1975).
Within any homogeneously mineralized zone G (at the scale of mining),
geostatistics can be used to calculate the variance of dispersion D 2 (v/ G) of
~~~~~'
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""""'"
449
the grades Zv of the mining units of support v (d. section ILC.2), either
formally by the general formula (I1.36), D 2(v/G)= y(O, G)-f(v, v), or
experimentally by means of Krige's additivity relation (11.37), D 2 (v/ G) =
D 2(cIG)-D 2(c/v). The two dispersion variances of the core grades in G
and v can be obtained experimentally.
The mean over G of the grades of the units v can be estimated, for
example, by the mean m * of the grades of available core samples. But the
first two moments, mean m and dispersion variance D\v/ G), are not
sufficient to determine the distribution of the grades Zv. It is also necessary
to know the type of function.
(i) In some cases, this distribution may be known a priori; for example,
z;
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450
FIG.
Thus, on each level, the pit design defines the accessible surfaces; one then
proceeds to a second stage of selection which consists in distinguishing
waste from ore on the basis of the mining unit.
In this chapter, we limit ourselves to a one-stage selection only, made on
the basis of a mean characteristic (grade, for example) of the unit v,
independent of its location in the deposit or in the zone G. The difficult
problems of estimation of the recoverable reserves after a two-stage selection are still in the domain of geostatistical research. One approach to these
problems may consist of simulating the deposit and applying a simulation
of the mining process to this numerical model: the influence of technological conditions on the recovery of reserves can then be observed, d. J.
Deraisme (1977) and section VILB.3.
Smoothing effect
If the estimator Z~ used in the actual selection is a kriging estimator, then
the variances D 2(vjG) and Dk*(vjG) of the true and estimated values can
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----------------------------------
451
(VI.l)
where D (vI G ) is the dispersion variance of the true grades Zv(x) in the
deposit or zone G, and D~* (vi G) is the dispersion variance of the corresponding kriged values Z~li(X). From section II.C.l, it is known that
these two variances, D 2(vIG) and D~*(vIG), are estimators of the two
experimental dispersion variances s\vl G) and s~* (vi G) of the two histograms of the true and kriged grades of Fig. VL3.
2
IN
(TKv= -
N;=l
2
(TKVj
= -
L E{[ZVi -
*2
Z Kli,] }
is the mean value of the kriging variance of a unit v. There are N such units
v in the zone G. If the grid of available data over G is not regular, then the
various local kriging variances O"~Oi will be different. Ii = (11 N) L f-I-; is the
mean value of the Lagrange parameter used in the kriging system of each
unit v, d. system (V.l).
(T~G = E{[ZQ ~ Z'b J2} is the kriging variance of the mean grade ZG over
the zone G. In the case of a complete kriging system, it can be shown (d.
section V.A.3, "Theorem of combining kriged estimates") that the global
kriged estimator Z~G is the average of the N local kriged estimators Z~Vi'
i.e.,
ZKG
N1
~ Z *KV;,
7
The proofs of these two smoothing relations VLI) and (VI.2 are
given in the addendum at the end of this section, VI.A.2.
The smoothing relation (VI.2) implies a smoothing effect: D~* (vi G)~
2(v/G).
D
Indeed, the global kr~ing variance is always less than the mean
local kriging variance: O"~G ~ (TKv' On the other hand, in the local kriging
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452
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
At the time of selection, the true values z v are generally unknown, and the
actual selection is made on the estimators z ~ (preferably on the kriging
estimator z L). It is, thus, imperative to evaluate the recoverable tonnage
from the histogram of the estimators zt, i.e., by the dotted area (z~ ;:: zo)
on Fig. VI.3.
1. If, at the time of the evaluation of the reserves, the ultimate estimaupon which selection will be based, are known, then the histogram
tors
of the z~ is experimentally available and the recoverable tonnage (z~ :;:;: zo)
can be estimated without any problem. In the next section, VLA.3, it will
be shown that the kriging of the selected units (those for which z~v;;::: zo)
provides a fair estimator of the mean grade of this recoverable tonnage.
From the histogram of the kriging estimators z~", it is possible to obtain
an estimator of the histogram of the true values z, by the following means.
zt,
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453
;rv
In practice, at the time of the study, both the histogram of the core
grades z; and that of the kriged grades zt, are available, these two
histograms having respective variances D 2(c/ G) and D~* (vI G). The
problem is to obtain an estimator of the histogram of the ultimate estimators z ~* (to be used for selection) from these two experimentally available
histograms. To do this, it is necessary to act as follows.
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454
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(i) To evaluate the level of ultimate information which will be used for
future selection and to calculate the corresponding mean kriging
variance ~~*. Remember that a kriging variance can be calculated
in advance, once the corresponding data configuration is known. d.
section V.A.!, remark 4. However, the prior calculation of (T~~* is
often approximate, since it must take into account future information which may be difficult to quantify, e.g., the experience of the
shovel operator or information about the stope face.
(ii) Using one of the smoothing relations (VI. 1) or (VI.2), to deduce the
dispersion variance D 2**(vIG) of the ultimate estimators Z~*.
Thus, for example, if the following approximate smoothing relation
is used:
(iii) To deduce an estimator of the histogram of the Z~* from one of the
two experimentally available histograms by a variance correction
and assuming permanence of law.
If the core grade histogram is considered, the variance correction is a
2
smoothing, D **(vI G )< D \ cI G ). It is then advisable to verify that the
same permanence-of-law hypothesis will also reproduce the histogram of
the z; by correcting the variance D2(cjG)~D~*(v/G), with
2
D~*,vjG)< D **(vl G)< D 2 (cj G ).
If the histogram of the kriged grades Z~u is considered as the starting
point, correcting the variance then amounts to increasing the variability:
I 2*
D 2 **(V IG) ';3 D K2 * (10)"
V
, Since, III genera,
O"Ku::2: 2**
0- Ku .
The case study of section VLBA gives an example of the development of
such permanence-of-law procedures.
Note that, sometimes the sought after histogram of the ultimate selection
estimator Z~* can be obtained directly from data coming from zones or
benches already mined.
Addendum. Demonstration of the smoothing relations
(This demonstration does not provide any new insight into the problems of selection and can be omitted on a first reading.)
Let V be a stationary field made up of the union of N units, all with the same
support v, centred on the points {Xi, i = 1 to N}. The global mean grade over V can
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455
The dispersion variance of the true grades of the units v in V can be written
according to formulae (11.31) and (Il.35):
Consider now the N unbiased estimators Z~ (Xi) of the grades of the units v. The
global mean grade estimated over V is then
Z '"v (x ) = -I '\'
L. Z*
._" ( Xi ) .
N,
In a similar way. we can define the dispersion variance of the estimated grades of
the units v in V:
(v/ V) =
E{
~~ [Z~ (x,)-ztex )1
ex, ),
\:fa
= 1 to n;
= 1
13
and
Considering that C(h) is a centred covariance, and that the stationary expectation is m = E{Zku (x)} = E{Z~v(x)}, the following relation can be expressed:
E{[Z~UeXj}-m]2}=
{3
"
(VI.3)
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Now, by putting
and noting that C(Vj, Vi)= C(v, v), 'Vi (all units Vi have the same support v), the
following relation is obtained for the dispersion variance of the kriged grades:
= D~*(vIV) +aL, -
(VIA)
The term between the brackets is of the order of magnitude of the global
estimation variance over the field V, and can generally be disregarded when
compared to mean local estimation variance o-L. The first approximate smoothing
relation (VI. I) is then obtained:
D (v/ V)= D~* (vi V)+uL- 2ji.
2
The case of complete kriging The term "complete kriging" is used when the N
krigings Z~,,(Xi) have been carried out using the same data configuration comprising alit the available data in V. From section V.A.3, "Theorem of combining
kriged estimates", it can then be shown that the sum zt = (1/ N) L Z~" (x.) cor-
responds exactly to the direct kriging of Zv(x) from the previous data configuration. For E{[ Zt. v (x) - mY} we then obtain an expression similar to (VI.3):
E{[Z~v(x)-mf} = C(V, V)+2tLv -(T~v,
where
The mean local kriging variance t:T~u is always much greater than the global
kriging variance akv, and, thus, the previous relation reduces to
D (v/ V)= D~* (vi V) + o-i",
2
surrounding v. However. and provided there is no strong nugget effect (since the nugget
effect removes the screen, cf. section V. A.l, re mark 7), this nearby informatio n screens the
influence of more distant data and, thus, the kriging of v can be assumed to be complete and
taking all the available information over V into account.
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457
In the previous section, it was shown that the actual selection is carried out
on the estimators z~ and not on the unknown true values z., The recoverable tonnage (z~ ~ zo) must thus be estimated from the distribution of the
estimator Z ~. But once this selection is made, the mill receives the true
values, not the estimates; more precisely, it receives the true values z,
conditioned by the fact that their estimators z~ are greater than the cut-off
Zoo The set of recovered values is denoted by {zv/ z ~ ~ zo}.
By interpreting the true and estimated grades z; and
as realizations
of the random functions Zv(x) and Z~ (x), the bivariate distribution of the
two variables Z; and Z~ can be conveniently represented by the scatter
diagram (or correlation cloud) on Fig. VI.5. The true grades appear along
the ordinate axis and the estimated grades along the abscissa axis. The
distribution of the true grades, with variance D 2(v/G), can thus be seen as
the projection of this diagram on to the ordinate axis; similarly, the
distribution of the estimated grades, with variance D 2*(v/G), can be seen
as the projection of the diagram onto the abscissa axis.
A regression curve f(z), giving the mean of the true grades of the units
for which the estimated grades are equal to a fixed value Z~ = z, is also
shown on the same figure. In probabilistic terms, fez) is the "conditional
expectation" and is denoted by f(z) = E{Z,j z~ = z}, Note that the
recoverable tonnage for a cut-off Zo, {Zu! Z~ ~ zo}, corresponds to the
dotted area on Fig. VI.5.
zt,
--1f-----t- m
==-_z~
FIG. VI.S. Bivariate distribution of the true and estimated grades, Z" and Z~.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
458
Z:
(VI.5)
Vz,
Vz.
Note that this conditional non-bias condition is more severe than the global
non-bias condition E{Zv - Z~} = O. Note also that the conditional nonbias (VI.5) entails the unbiased ness of the estimation of the true mean
grade of the recoverable tonnage by the mean of the estimated grades of
the selected unit, i.e.,
z:
z:
Z:
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z:
459
z:
z:
f}
tiz:
+ 2 {[Zv -
z; )][f(Z~ ) -
Z~
f}
]}.
E{[Zv -
Z~ fl.
(VI.6)
za,
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
The deposit
This simulation can be considered either as a zone of sedimentary deposit
of variable vertical thickness (such as the lateritic or silicated nickel
deposits of New Caledonia, d. section IV.E, Case Study 13), or as a
horizontal mining bench of constant vertical thickness in a massive deposit
mined by open pit (such as a porphyry - copper deposit).
The simulated zone is a rectangle of dimensions SOu x lOu, made up of
500 square blocks Vi (of dimensions u xu), cf. Fig. VI.6. A total of 60 500
samples were simulated on a regular u] 11 x u] 11 grid over this rectangle,
giving a total of 11 xlI = 121 samples per block. These 60 500 samples are
considered as the real deposit G to be studied.
IOu
I'
"1
u
I'
:w;
:w;
x x
vI
x x x x
r----t----t:,..--.;;- - - -
'I
:w:
:-------:
S,.
II
x II drill- holes
Block
v,.
1----+--+ - - - - Deposit G
FIG.
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461
(i) A given distribution - with mean 957% and variance (T~ = 22,4%2
- which is, in fact, the experimental histogram of the nickel accumulations (thickness x grade) of the Mea deposit (New Caledonia).
Obviously, if z(x) is interpreted as a grade, the value m = 957% is
closer to a lead grade, while it is closer to a copper grade when
divided by 10.
(ii) A given model of spatial variability; in this case, a spherical model
with a nugget effect and isotropic in the horizontal plane:
!E{[Z(x +h)-Z(X)]2} = y(h)= Co+C,y,(r),
'rtr =
Ihl> u/ll,
x~x
This kriging configuration is complete only for the 384 blocks Vj inside
the zone 0' of dimensions Su x 48u, defined as the erosion of 0 by a unit
distance u. The following study will be confined to these 384 "blocks for
which the kriging system is identical.
The results AI, AZ, A3 ,
of the above kriging system are given in Table
VI.1. Since the true grades of these 384 blocks are available, the kriging
variance u~ = 1 32 % 2 can be compared to the experimental estimation
ai
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
TABLE
Krig
Al
..1. 2
..1. 3
O"~, theoretical
0'1, experimental
0204
0-458
0338
1323
1348
Poly
1
o
7307
6919
z:
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
463
zo};
7. the estimation of this quantity of metal, N(zo).E{Z7IZ7 ~ zo}.
TABLE
True
grade
selection,
Zv
Kriging,
Z*
"
Poly,
Z*
(1)
(2)
(3)
(5)
0
0
0
(6)
(7)
U
U
370
203
67
365
205
65
1013
12-82
16-04
1005
12-66
1591
1-36
1-36
156
3698
2628
1043
3668
2593
1034
{1~
337
199
67
10-51
12-52
14-93
3542
2491
1000
3599
2690
1136
- 4
10'08
1297
1619
(4 )
0
008
016
0-13
3730
2633
1085
Note that the selection made on kriged estimates results in a better recovery from the deposit, in terms of the global quantity of metal actually
recovered, Also note that the standard polygons of influence estimator
always overestimates the effectively recoverable quantity of metal, which is
particularly dangerous during a feasibility study. Selection based on the
VtIWW.minebook.blogfa.com
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
464
20
(0 )
15
10
>,
<.>
c:
<u
:I
C'
lL.
(b)
:>?
o
/
/
/
20
/
/
/
/
/
'"
'"
...
.... ....
,,-
15
,/
"..-
IOc...__--
..... ".......
.... ....
""
9
15
20
FIG. VL8. Conditional bias of the estimators. (a) Kriging. ~--, E{Zv/ zt, ~
, E{Zv/Z~ ~zo};
If, instead of a regular grid, the 384 blocks were estimated from data on
a pseudo-regular grid with clusters of data and gaps (which is often the case
in mining applications) the results obtained from kriging would be still even
better than those obtained from ID, ID2, and Poly.
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465
2(v/G')
= Dk* (V/Gf)+(T~v
(the global estimation variance (T~c:J' is disregarded). Indeed, the experimental values show
--
>-
<.>
"
'"0u:'"
~
10 f-
( b)
'--;.-' - ,--r--
--
,--
I--
I
18
14-4
rh
I--
20
144
r..
20
20
(c)
----
rh
1-8
I--
144
20
FIG. VI.9. Histograms of true grades and of their estimators. (a) Kriging: m* =
9,72, a 2*=1471. (b) Polygons of influence: m*=9'70, a 2*=2313. (c) True
grades: m* = 9,82, (T2 = 1614.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Zv,----------------------
-----..,
(a)
r-
l
I
:3.
I 2
I
I
E 1"-3
I"'-:!
....'6. 2
'5M
1
i! i:.
2:
4
I!
I
2'
.... 2" I
<
"
~ .... 1
r-z
I
I
I I
I
I
"
I I
I ~
.2 <
~
I ~
2" I
I 2
III
E Z
I .....
2: 2'2
"
,/1
1';'.':')'
"'1
,.,
f l r st
....
* I dose to
I Z l<t'
bisec tor
'"
M
(b)
,I
t
I I
,
, I
I I
I
,,
Z"
v
FIG. VI. 10. Scatter diagrams. true grade/estimator. (a) Kriging; (b) polygons of
influence.
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467
Z:,
1229.
The polygons of influence estimator gives the equation of D z as Z~ =
-0-144 + 1002ZtI , with a residual variance approximately equal to the
estimation variance 6919, cf. Table VLl. In this case, line D z corresponding to the Poly estimator is closer to the first bisector. In fact, the mean of
the grades Z* of the samples within a block v of true grade Z; = z is equal
to z. However, since the actual selection is made on the estimator Z~ and
not on the unknown true grade Zv, regression line D, is the line of interest
and, thus, the kriging estimator Z~v is retained and conditional non-bias is
ensured (D t is close to the first bisector).
It was D. G, Krige (1951) who first distinguished the practical influence
on mining selection of these two regression lines, and for this reason the
preceding scatter diagrams (Zv, Z~) are sometimes referred to as "Krige's
ellipse" the term ellipse is used because the experimental scatter diagram
takes an elliptical shape when the bivariate distribution is Gaussian.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
1. Permanence of normality
Let Z be a Gaussian stationary variable (in practice, a variable the histogram of which can be approximated by a normal distribution), with expectation m and variance <T~. Let U be a standard normal variable with zero
expectation and unit variance. These two variables are related by the
standard formula Z = m + Uz. U.
The hypothesis] of permanence of normality means that Y is considered
to follow a normal distribution with expectation m = E{ Y} = E{Z} and a
variance <T~ #- (T~. Y can be expressed in terms of the standard normal law
as
Y= m+Uy. U.
(VI.7)
2. Permanence of lognormality
Let Z be a lognormal variable with expectation m and variance a~. The
Gaussian transform function 'Pz which transforms a standard normal variable U into this lognormal variable Z is
Z
cpz( U) = em'+a~u
(VI.8)
or, conversely,
U = cP 2/ (Z) = (log Z - m')j <T~ ,
where m' and cr'l are the expectation and variance of the normal variable
log Z. These logarithmic parameters are deduced from the known arithmetic parameters m and (T~ by the standard relations
}
m = E{Z} = em'+a~/2,
{ u~ = Var {Z} = m 2(e(T] -1).
(VI.9)
t If Y can be expressed as a linear combination Y = Let AaZa of normal variables, and if the
distribution of the RF Z(x) is multivariate Gaussian, then its distribution is normal, and the
permanence of normality is a property of Y and not an hypothesis. However, normal-type
symmetrical distributions are not very frequent in mining applications; the histograms of
grades in particular are usually asymmetric of the lognormal type.
~-~~
, VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
.
469
({Jz
(VI. 10)
O"t
Y = 'PY (V) = m . e
O"t
O"t
IT'y
---o,2j2
Y
e ,r Y'-
(VI. 11)
Var {Y}
= m 2(e'T':j ~
1).
where:
< y} =
y=cpy(u)
or
Prob { U < u} = G( u ),
(VI.12)
U=tp1}(Y),
t The lognormal recovery functions formulae are given in the addendum to section VLB.3.
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470
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
the distribution of the variable Y with the same expectation but different
variances (T~;t a~, and not in the quality of the fit of the histogram of Z.
If the two modes of the Z histogram are to be exactly reproduced on the
estimated histogram of Y, then, under certain conditions, t the following
procedure can be used.
0/ , . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
0
(b)
(a)
Experimental
histogram
(m,cr})
-',
)IC
\.
Log normal fi I
"
:; I
"' -, \.
(m,cr})
-,
"-
o
FIG.
"
model.
(i) Using the simple two-parameter distribution which fits best the
experimental histogram of Z, make the variance correction a~ ---;. (Tt,
cf. the two lognormal distributions on Fig. VI. 11(b).
(ii) From these two two-parameter distributions, read the recoveries
corresponding to the cut-off grade zoo The quotient of these two
recoveries gives an estimate p of the correction coefficient, to be
applied to the recoveries deduced from the experimental histogram
of Z to obtain the recoveries corresponding to the histogram of Y.
Thus, if the recovery read on Fig. VI. 11(b) from the lognormal distribution (m, a~) is 20% (hatched area) and if the recovery read from the
lognormal distribution (m, a~) is 25% (dotted area), the correction
coefficient is 25/20= 125. The hatched area on Fig. VI. 11(a) gives the
recovery read from the experimental histogram of Z, say, for example,
18%. The estimator of the recovery of Y for this cut-off grade Zo is, then,
Prob* {Y;2< zo} = 18 x p = 225%.
t This indirect correction procedure retains all the secondary modes observed on the histogram of Z As a consequence, and in mining applications, this procedure will be used if these
secondary modes are significant and therefore should be reproduced on the histogram of Y.
For this, the variance correction (T~ ~ 17~ must not be significant; in practice, the relative
differences l(Ti-l7~I/u~ must be less than 30%. In fact, if this variance correction
represents a significant smoothing (l7~ (T~), this strong smoothing should mask the
secondary modes, which then should not appear on the Y-histogram.
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471
This procedure has the advantage of being simple and of reproducing the
major characteristics of the experimental histogram of Z on the estimated
histogram of Y. However, the histogram of Y estimated in this way will not
have the exact required values tm, O"~) of the mean and variance. In
practice, the deviations from the required values (m, at) can usually be
corrected by a slight modification of the few extreme values of the histogram of Y. In any case, no permanence-of-law procedure is robust enough
to be used for these extreme values (y greater than m + 3ay for instance).
4. Affine correction of variance
Y-m
. ..
Z-m
---has same distribution as - - - Oy
(VI.13)
Oz
(VI. 14)
where
az
z=-(y-m)+m.
cry
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
ut..
'Pz(u) =
l/J-
,L ~H;(u),
,=0 1.
where the H;(u) are the Hermite polynomials. The definition and main
properties of these polynomials will be presented in the following section,
VLB.3.
In practice, the Hermite expansion is carried out up to an order n, i.e.,
(f)z(U) =
.L
l/J;
--:-;H";(u).
'=0 I.
(VI. 15)
473
The order n is such that the distribution of the variable fPz( U) correctly fits
the experimental histogram of the data z. The method of fitting the (n + 1)
coefficients l/Ji of the expansion of (fJz from the experimental Z -histogram
is given in the following section, VI.B.3. It can be shown that
~ IjI~
1/10 = m,
L, -'f
j~l
I.
(VI. 16)
(Tz,
where m and O'~ are the mean and variance of the experimental Zhistogram.
Applying the hypothesis of permanence to this Hermite expansion
consists of considering that the Hermite expansion of the transform
function (fJy of the variable Y can be written as
n
!/J.e.
i=O
I.
I, ~ ~(u)
(,Oy(u)=
(VI. 17)
where
n
0/0 . Co =
i.e., Co = 1,
rn,
"
c...
.=1
.1,2 2
o/iCi _
~l--(Ty
l.
Thus, (fJz and cpy have the same Hermite expansion, except for the variance correction coefficients c; The variance correction is written c, = a' (a
to the power i) which entails
2
I/ITa 2 i
,= 1
1.
O'y=.2: -.,-=!(a).
(VI.18)
The justification for adopting the form c, = a' for the variance correction
is given later, in remark 1.
Since the n parameters {I/Ii, i = 1 to n} are known, the function f( a) can
be plotted as on Fig. VI.12. The known value (T~ then determines the
parameter a of the variance correction. Formula (VI.17) gives the expression of the Hermite expansion of ([iy, i.e.,
n IjIja i
fPy(u)=.2: -.-, H;(u).
.=0
(VI. 19)
1.
Remark 1
~u,
0/0 = m
+ O'z
u.
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o/f =
O'~.
474
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
2
1/112 a,
i.e., a
= cry/ Uz,
+ o-y.
u.
f( a)
0-
2
Y
o
FIG.
'Pz ( u ) = m . e
_.._(J"~,Z/2
;;::
.e
(T!'
where u'i. is the variance of the normal variable log" Z. It can be shown that
the Hermite expansion of this function 'Pz can be written as
'Pz(u)=
~ 0/;
L..
;~O
~ (-u~Y
~H;(u)=m L.
1.
'r
I.
j=()
H;(u;
thus,
0/; = rn(~u~Y,
i.e., % = m
E{Z}
and
.I
I =()
,{,2
'f/ i
21
-'1- =
'2
rn (e"z
2
'>.
-1) = m (e,ry -1),
1.
i.e., a = a'yJ cr~, the ratio of the standardldeviations of the variables loge Y
and loge Z.
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Y = (fly(U) =
,L
'=0
ljJ,a i
!py
~~(u)= m
1.
475
co
.I
1=0
(-(1"'
"y
I.
~(u)
(fly
of a
Thus, formula (VI. 18) adopted for the variance correction assures strict
permanence of normality and, above all, of lognorrnality, which is a
frequently observed experimental fact. By extension, this variance correction formula is used for all variables Z, whatever their distribution.
Remark 2 The variance correction by a Hermite model must always be
. t h e d'irecnon
.
2 --'" (1" 2y, were
h
2
rna de In
0 f smoot h"mg, i.e., IT z
o:2
y <
(TT
z. h 'IS
decrease of the variance corresponds to a convolution, and, in general, it is
much easier to convolute a curve than to deconvolute it. The variance
correction procedure, with c, = a i, is particularly unstable for an increase in
the variance (T~ > IT~) corresponding to a correction factor a > 1, and this
instability increases with the order n of the Hermite expansion, This is
illustrated by the example on Fig. VL20.
The decrease in the variance, (1"~ < (T~, corresponds to a < 1, which
entails a smoothing of the various secondary modes observed on the
Z -histogram; the Y-histogram tends, at the limit (when (T~ (T~), to the
normal distribution (m, (T~).
As a consequence, if the Y-histogram must faithfully reproduce the
shape of the Z-histogram with all its secondary modes, an affine variance
correction procedure should be used, d. section VLB.l, formula (VI.13).
The problem consists of determining whether or not the Y-histogram
(with the lesser variance (T~ < (T~) should smooth the secondary modes
observed on the experimental Z-histogram. In mining applications, Z
usually represents the grade of a core sample, for instance, and Y the grade
of a panel on a considerably larger support, which would involve a
smoothing of the secondary modes, and the Hermite procedure would thus
be preferable. However, this is not an absolute rule, d. the case study in
section VI.BA. The choice between methods will be made on the basis of
physical information about the studied phenomenon.
(This section can be omitted at first reading. For mathematical theory, see
P. Beckmann (1973); for geostatistical applications see G. Matheron
(1975c, d) and A. Marechal (1975a).)
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
476
G(u)=Prob{U<u}=
f"
r,
g(x)dx= /
e- x 2j 2dx.
v 2 7T Lco
(VI.20)
.( ) = e x2.j2 die
~ -x 2j2 = ~-Y1(x)
H ,x
.
j. I ' II
X
(VI.21)
1.
r+c
L;
where
I
{
b; = 0
i
if i = i.
if i ~ j.
[+00
Lee
71i(X).
7]j(x )g(x)
dx
bij
which entails
Ho(x) = 1;
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etc.
477
E{Z2}=E{'P~(U)}=
J.
-00
'P~(u). g(u)du<co.
This condition is satisfied for any variable Z with finite variance, which is
always the case in practice since this variance is deduced from the experimental histogram of Z. The following property then results: any function
(fl(x), such that
cp(x) =
co
0/.
.L k;7Ji(X) = ,=0
2: ~Hi(X).
,=0
I.
(VI.22)
0/; =
(CO
teo
<p(x)H;(x)g(x)dx,
Vi.
(VL23)
From this, it follows that the expansion (VI.22) is the best approximation, up to any order n, of If'(x) by a polynomial of degree n, in the
weighted (by g(x least squares sense. Indeed, with
the equations allao/i = 0, Vi, providing the minimum of I, give the relations
(VI.23) which define the coefficients !/Jj.
Now, let <pz be the Gaussian transform function of Z ~ the moments of Z
are written as
E{Z} = E{lf'z(U)} =
rco
Loo
'Pz(u)g(u)du =
eo eo
!/JT
=L~.
i=O I.
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!fro,
r
i;jt teo
Hi(u). ~(u). g(u)du
1/1.1/1.
+00
478
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
There are, thus, two relations relating the coefficients of the Hermite
expansion of ((Jz to the mean and variance of Z:
E{Z} = m =
l/Jo,
2
co
,1,2
'fJi
co
-,
(VI.24)
,1,2
wt
iT'
-.
-,/
,/
,/
,/
,/
Experi menIal
J histogram
1
I
I
u,z
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479
within each class interval (Zk' Zk+l). This way, a one-to-one correspondence Z ~u can be defined graphically, i.e., not only the transform z =
If'z(u), but also its inverse u = If' Zl (z).
If there are N data values zs, one solution consists in sorting these N
values by ascending order: z 1";: Z2";: . ~ ZN. The experimental cumulative
frequencies are approximated by: F'i: (Zk) = k/(N + 1). The graphical transform, d. Fig. VL13, consists in identifying the two cumulative distributions,
i.e. G(ud = F'i:(Zk). Hence the ordered series of gaussian values u is
given by:
Vk
1 toN.
(VI.25)
The coefficients l./!; of the Hermite expansion of CPL are given by the integral
(VL23). This integral can be approximated by the following discrete sum:
W; =
=L
'P(u~)H;(u~)g(uU.
[Uk - Uk-I]
(VI.26)
k=2
with:
u~ =
tu; + Uk-l)/2.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
[z (z ) dz,
':<0
O(zo)
= To.
+00
zfz(z) dz,
1:0
Remarks
Often in practice the density function fz (z ) is given through the discrete
form of a histogram.. The previous integrals should then be replaced by
discrete summations.
Note that for a zero cut-off:
T(O) = To,
0(0) = Tom,
m(O) = m,
[(z 2u
- m)2
(T2,
and
(z - m)
= (1" g ----;-
(z-m)
Fz(z) = G --;;- ,
g(u) and G(u) are the standard normal density and distribution functions,
d. Abramovitz, M. and Stegun, I. (1965), p. 931.
The preceding recovery functions are then written:
T(zo) = To-
[1_G(zo~m)J
Q{zo) = m . T{zo)
+ Tau.
g( zo~ m).
(VI.27)
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481
(VI.28)
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
482
o
FIG.
10 ,j,
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483
30
FIG. VL15. Kriged thicknesses histogram (100 m x 100m support, 200-m sampling grid). Experimental values for m = 11 83 and Di* == 241 are shown by the
histogram.
, Hermitian permanence, n = 15; - - - -, Gaussian fit.
(i) A normal distribution with the same mean and variance. There is a
slight probability that this normal distribution will result in negative
thicknesses.
(ii) An Hermite expansion, deduced by variance correction D1.(OIG)~
Di* (vi G) from the n = 15 order Hermite expansion fitted to the
histogram of thicknesses measured along the drill cores (d. Fig.
VI. 14). The correction factor a used in this variance correction is
given by formula (VI. 18) and a = 07064. Note that this histogram,
deduced by Hermitian permanence, tends at the limit towards the
normal distribution with the same mean 1183 and variance 241.
Indeed, the decrease in the variance is particularly significant here,
the difference between D 2(OjG)=4898 and D~*(vjG)=24'1
being more than 50%. Note that if an Hermite model were fitted
directly to the experimental histogram on Fig. VI. 15, the secondary
mode around 8 m would show up more clearly, d. Fig. VI.20.
Selection study
The 100 m x 100 m panel v is considered as the selection unit on which
future production will be carried out. The selection variable is the mean
mineralized thickness.
If the only information available at the time of study is the data from the
200-m sampling grid, the cut-off will be made on the preceding kriged
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484
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
values Zkv(X), i.e., on the experimental histogram on Fig. VI.15, the results
of which are shown in column 1 of Table VI.3. From this table, for
example, a cut-off thickness Zo = 5 m provides a recovery of 94 5% of the
panels, i.e., 945% of the kriged values z~v(x) arc greater than the cut-off
zo=5 m.
In fact, much more data are available at the time actual selection is
made; this future information is assimilated to a regular, square 25-m grid,
i.e., 16 samples per paneL The actual future selection is thus assumed to be
made on the ultimate estimators z~t (x) deduced by kriging from the data
on the 25-m grid. Therefore, the problem is to deduce an estimator of the
histogram of these 2214 ultimate selection values z~~ from the histogram
available at the time of study, i.e., the histogram of the kriged values z~v.
To do this, the procedure outlined in section VI.A.2 is followed.
(i) and (ii). The kriging variance (T~~* corresponding to the ultimate
25-m grid is calculated, and then the dispersion variance of the ultimate
kriged values z~t is calculated by means of the smoothing relation (VI. 1).
This results in a value D~** (vI G) = 328 m".
(iii) Using an hypothesis of permanence of law, an estimator of the
future histogram of the z~~ is deduced, either from the sample thicknessses histogram by decreasing the variance D\OI G)....::,. D~** (vi G),
or from the histogram of the now available kriged values zkv by
increasing the variance D~* (vI G)....::,. D~** (vi G). Applying the cut-off
thickness Zo to this estimated histogram of the z~t results in the required
prediction of actually recoverable reserves.
Two procedures based on two different permanence-of-law hypotheses
were considered, namely:
(i) the affine variance correction, d. section VI.B.l, point no. 4, the
correction by increasing the variance D~* . . : ,. D~** is made directly
on the ztv -histogram, according to formula (VI. 14);
(ii) the correction by decreasing the variance D 2 (OI G )---')o D~** is made
on the Hermite expansion fitted to the sample thicknesses histogram.
1. Affine variance correction Let zL be the variable kriged from the
200-m grid, with mean m = 11 83 and variance D~* = 241. The future
krigcd variable z:<.~ with the same mean and a variance D~** = 328 is
then considered as having a distribution identical to that of the variable
D**
y=--+(ztv ~m)+m,
DK
cf. relation (VI. 13), i.e.,
y= 117(ZL-l183)+1l83.
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485
The histogram of the future values zkt thus estimated is shown on Fig.
VI.I6. The corresponding recoveries for different cut-off thicknesses Zo are
given in columns 4, 5 and 6 of Table VI.3.
/-,
I
\
\
'-
"-\
\
\
\
~
J
J
-,
......
10
_- --
~- ...........
20
30
FIG. VI.16. Estimated histograms of the future kriged thicknesses (100 m x 100 m
support, 25-m sampling grid).
, Hermitian permanence; - - - -, affine correction. m = 1183, D~** = 328.
TAB LE
ZL
Zo
(1)
o 1UO
(2)
100
Z**
Kv
(3)
t4 )
1183
99 3
886
773
556
259
73
20
Zk",
Zk~,
(5)
(6)
99-97 1191
96-7 129
910 139
743 158
420 192
15-4 249
(7)
100
883
792
534
278
89
(8)
tOO
971
925
726
447
172
(9)
1183
130
138
161
190
229
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
For
Zo
+<:0
20
zf(z) dz/
--cc
zf(z) dz,
()
expressed in meters.
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
487
FIG.
--~,
Hermitian
The effect of the adopted hypothesis of permanence on the two histograms on Fig. VI.16 is twofold:
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488
'">
B
'"
'"
E
u
50
'\
\
,,
"-
"-
~O
"
10
30
.;
/'
/
/
/
/
/
/
a
FIG.
20
30
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489
1\
I 1
I I
I 1
15
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I :
I
10
(\
1
j
I
I
!
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
\
\
f
I
01
10
- --20
30
VtIWW.minebook.blogfa.com
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
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VII
Simulation of Deposits
SUMMARY
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
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493
(ii) On the other hand, the simulation {zs(x)}, or better the conditional
simulation {zsc(x)}, has the same first two experimentally found moments
(mean and covariance or variogram, as well as the histogram) as the real
grades {zo(x)}, i.e., it identifies the main dispersion characteristics of these
true grades. On the contrary, at each point x, the simulated value zs(x) or
zsc(x) is not the best possible estimator of zo(x). In particular, it will be
shown that the variance of estimation of zo(x) by the conditionally simulated value zsc(x) is exactly twice the kriging variance, ct. relation (VII.6).
In general, the objectives of simulation and estimation are not compatible. It can be seen on Fig. VII.1 that, even though the estimation curve
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
z*(x) is, on average, closer to the real curve zo(x), the simulation curve
(x) is a better reproduction of the fluctuations of the real curve. The
z:c
The right-hand side of the profiles on Fig. VII.l illustrates the fact that a
simulation cannot be used to replace sampling, which is always necessary
for a good local estimation of the deposit. In any case, the better the
deposit is known, the better the structure of variability can be modelled
and the denser the grid of conditional data will be, all of which will result in
a simulation closer to, and more representative of, reality.
Consider the regionalization of a variable zo(x), which may be, for example, the grade at point x. This regionalized variable is interpreted as a
realization of a stationary RF Zo(x), with expectation m and centred
covariance C(h) or variogram 2y(h). The problem is to build a realization
of a RF Zsc(x) isomorphic to Zo(x), i.e., a RF which has the same expectation and the same second-order moment, C(h) or y(h). Moreover, the
realization zsc(x) must be conditional to the experimental data, i.e., at the
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SIMULATION OF DEPOSITS
495
experimental data points the simulated values and the experimental data
values must be the same:
zsc(x,,) = zo(x,,),
VXIJI
data set 1.
Consider the true value zo(x) and its kriged value z tK (x) deduced from
the available data {zo(xa ) , Xa E I}. These two values differ by an unknown
error:
(VII. 1)
(VII.2)
'T/x, y.
(The proof of this result is given in the addendum at the end of this
section).
To obtain the desired conditional simulation, it is thus enough to replace
the unknown kriging error [Zo(X)-Z6K(X)] in formula (VII.2) by an
isomorphic and independent kriging error [Z, (x) - Z~K (x)]. More precisely, we consider a RF Zs(x) which is isomorphic to, but independent of
Zo(x). Given a realization zs(x) of this RF Zs(x), the kriging procedure,
when applied to the same data configuration {zs(x a ) , X'" E I} will result in a
kriging error [zsCx) - Z ~K (x)] isomorphic to the true error [zo(x) - ztK (x)]
and independent of Z6K(X). The required conditional simulation is then
written as
(VII. 3)
and
E{Z~K (x)} =
E{ZAx)}
which entails
E{Zsc(x)}=E{Zo(x)}=m,
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,,"",lJJi
Cow-J J 0.-.. ~ ~
496
(ii) The RF Zsc(x) is isomorphic to Zo(x). This follows from the fact that
the simulated kriging error [Zs(x) - Z~K (x)] is isomorphic to the
true error [Zo(x) - Z~K (x)] and independent of Z~K (x). In the
addendum, it will be shown that this isomorphism applies rigorously
to the increments of the RF's Zsc(x) and Zo(x) only. In other words,
the variograms of these two RF's are identical, but not necessarily
their covariances. This does not pose any problem since, in geostatistics, the variogram structural function is always preferred to
the covariance.
(iii) The simulated realization Z se( x) is conditional to the experimental
data. This follows from the fact that, at the experimental data
points, the kriged values are equal to the real values, i.e.,
'rIxo
I,
Remark 1 The kriging weights {.Ao , Va E I} are the same for Z~K (x) and
Z;K (x), since the two RF's Zo(x) and Z, (x) are isomorphic and the two
Consider the expansions of the type (VII.2) of the RF on any two points
Zo(x) = Z~K(X)+[Zo(x)- Z~K(X)] = Z~K (x)+ R(x),
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497
J,
The covariance between the kriging error and the kriged values then becomes
and the kriging error R (x) is thus orthogonal to the kriged values ztdy).
In the usual case of a kriging system with a non-bias condition, the ordinary kriging
system (V.1) is written as
L A13(x)a"'l3 -
f-t = a",x,
'VX", E
i, Vx,
13
2.:
v",a",x -
I I
v", A/3(x)aa/3 =
-J,L
~(3
L: v,,,
'r/x.
This covariance becomes zero when Ia v: = 0, i.e., for all linear combinations
La v", Zo(xa) known as "authorized" linear combinations, ct. section II.A.3. In this
case, the kriging error R(x) is orthogonal only to authorized linear combinations of
the data Zo(xa ) .
Now, the difference between any two kriged values is such an authorized linear
combination; indeed,
with
I ["\", (y ) -
A", (y')]
and, thus,
E{R(x). [Z~K (y)-Z6K (y')]) = 0, 'fix, y, y'.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
From expression (VIL3) for conditional simulation, this variogram is exactly that
of the RF ZscCx), since the error [ZAx)-Z;dx)} is isomorphic to R(x) and
independent of ZtK (x). Thus, the conditional simulation Zsc(x) ensures the
reproduction of the variograrn of the RF Zo(x), but not necessarily its covariance.
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,X
\
~~--
\
\
\
x+h
A final value is then assigned to each point x by taking the sum of the N
contributions from the N lines:
1 N,
z.,(x)=i L z;(x).
'IN i~l
(As the N lines can be deduced from each other by rotation, so can the
slices (or bands) which they define in the three-dimensional space, hence
the name "turning bands" method.)
The resulting realization zs(x) is a realization of a three-dimensional RF
Zs(x) = Z,(u, v, w) which is second-order stationary, has a zero expectation
and a covariance
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500
which, when N
-700,
tt
1 / 2 unit sphere
where <h, k> is the projection of the vector h onto the axis k.
'T = Ih) =! J (h ~ + h ~ + h~) is the modulus of the vector h.
The preceding integral can be written in terms of spherical coordinates,
d. Fig. VII.2:
C(r)
1 f217"
=-
21T ()
dB
f7T/2
1 IF
=-
C(l\s)ds.
~ s C(s).
os
(VII.6)
From Bochner's theorem, it can be shown that the function C(ll(s) given by
formula (VII.6), is a positive definite function in one dimension and can,
thus, be used as a covariance function.
It is thus always possible to determine the one-dimensional covariance
C(1l(s) to be imposed on the RF Y(ud simulated on the lines D; By
turning these lines and their corresponding bands in R 3 , the required
three-dimensional simulation zs(u, v, w), with the specified isotropic
covariance C(r) is obtained.
Remarkl Specified expectation. In general, the expectation of the threedimensional RF Z(x), a realization of which is to be simulated, is not zero:
E{Z(x)} = m O. To obtain the desired expectation, it is enough to add a
constant, equal to the specified mean m, to each of the previously simulated values zs(x), which constitutes a realization of the zero-expectation
RF Zs(x). This additive constant does not alter the second-order moments
(covariance or variogram) of the simulated RF Zs(x).
Note that this additive procedure can also be used for the simulation of a
non-stationary RF interpreted as the sum of a drift and a stationary
residual, Z(x) = m(x)+ R(x), ct. relation (V.8) in section V.A.2. The stationary residual R (x), with zero expectation and known covariance, is
simulated by means of the turning bands method. At each point of this
simulation, a simulation ms(x) of the drift m(x) is then added. The simulation m; (x) of the drift may be based, for example, on the expansion of m(x)
as a series of known functions:
m(x) =
L a.]' (x),
I
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d. formula (V.9). One such simulation of a functional drift will be presented in section VII.B.!.
However, if the drift m(x) is evident only in a restricted section of the
zone, to be simulated, a sufficient representation of this local drift may be
obtained by conditioning the simulation to true or fictitious data in this
section, ct. the left-hand side of the simulated profile on Fig. VII. I. More
precisely, a large number of conditioning data zo(x",) are placed in the
section in which the drift is evident; these data may be real (x.. E I) or, if
the real data are insufficient, fictitious. These conditioning data will force
the initially stationary simulation to follow the drift m (x) within the cpnsidered section. The conditioning confers robustness to the simulation with
respect to the local unmodelled characteristics of reality, and for this
reason, it is always advisable to use conditional simulations zsc(x) rather
than nonconditional ones zs(x). The robustness and hence the representativity of the conditional simulation zsc(x) will improve as the number of
real conditioning data {zo(x a ) , x'" E I} increases: simulation is not a substitute for a good survey of the real deposit.
Remark 2
Simulation of anisotropic regionalization. The three-dimensional covariance C(r) of formulae (VILS) and (VII.6) is supposed to be
isotropic, whereas, in practice, the three-dimensional RF's to be simulated
often have various anisotropies, However, as was seen in section IILB.5,
any anisotropic covariance C(h u , h., h w ) can be modelled as a nested sum
of isotropic models in spaces of dimension n 'S: 3. It is, thus, sufficient to
simulate independently the realizations corresponding to each of the
component models and then to sum up these realizations at each point.
Take, for instance, an anisotropic covariance of the type
where r = Ihl; K o, Ki, Kz, K 3 are positive constants; and Co, C h C 2 l C 3 are
isotropic covariances defined in three, one, two and three dimensions,
respectively. These covariances are, for example, spherical models with
ranges ao, at> aZ, a3 and unit sills.
In this case, the RF Z(x) can be interpreted as the sum of four independent RF's:
3
Z(x)=
~(x),
;~O
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
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503
(i) select from the simulation file the realization, spherical or exponential, that has a range closest to the specified value;
(ii) multiply all values of this realization by the constant J K.
Remark 3 The icosahedron approximation. Formula (VII-5) of the turning bands method shows that a three-dimensional isotropic covariance is
only attained as a limit for an infinite number N of lines D;. In practice, of
course, this number N will have to be finite. For example, we could take a
large number (N around 100) of lines distributed randomly over the unit
sphere. An equally good but much less costly approximation can be
obtained by taking the N = 15 lines joining the mid-points of the opposite
edges of a regular icosahedron, which is the regular polyhedron with the
maximum number of faces (20).
The sum z, = <Ii~l z;)/';15, corresponds to the covariance
(k, 1, 1 + k);
QVI,
(l,-l-k,k);
OWl.
(1 +k, k, -1);
(VII.7)
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which are the preceding 15 lines that form a regular partition of the
three-dimensional space
-(k+ 1)
k
1
-1
k
+1
(VILS)
[ ~ ~ ~J.
001
The turning bands method uses the simulation along lines of the onedimensional RF Y(u), with covariance C(l)(s), to provide realizations of a
three-dimensional RF with the required covariance C(r).
By means of the theorem of harmonic analysis of a second-order stationary process, one-dimensional realizations y(u) with any specified
covariance CO)(s), can be simulated, ef. A. Journel (1974b). However, this
method requires the Fourier analysis of the function CO\s), which can
sometimes be difficult; in addition, there are problems with the convergence of the results.
In mining applications, the usual three-dimensional models C(r), e.g.,
spherical or exponential, are such that the corresponding one-dimensional
covariances C(l}(s) can be expressed in the form of a convolution product
of a function feu) and its transpose leu) = f(-u):
c(l)(s)= I
: J= L;
(VIL9)
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505
t:
cc
Y(u)
feu +r)T(r) dr
*f
(VII.l0)
i-t.
cise 10, p. 104). A symbolic and brief demonstration of this result follows:
C(l)(s) = E{ Y(u). Y(u
+ s)} = E{f
L:
cc
with
E{T(dr)T(dr,)}={02
(T
dr
.if r v r',
Ifr=r'.
Indeed, the two random measures T(dr) and T(dr') are orthogonal if r'1'=- r',
The preceding double integral then reduces to
+OO
C(l)(s)=
-00
f(u+r)f(u+r+s)E{[T(dr)]2}=a 2 1* J
(T2,
Yi =
I
k=-oo
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tj+k
f(kb).
(VII. 11)
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
506
This formula is practical only when the function f(kb) decreases rapidly
towards zero as )kl increases, so that the discrete sum does not have to be
taken over the range k = - co to + oo,
I ,
weigh'~rtgl lu nction
flu)
t, + I
Ii
1<>:::J
li+k
I
It
These values y, can be viewed as a realization of a stationary onedimensional RF 1'; = Y(u), with zero expectation and a covariance
+00
+00
f(kb).f(kb-bs).
(VII. 12)
k=-a:>
This discrete sum C~l) (s) is simply the discrete approximation of the
integral in (VII.9), which defines the specified one-dimensional covariance
C(1)(s). This discrete approximation C~1) (s) can be calculated for each
weighting function feu) and for each value b of the discrete interval. The
bias C(l)(S)- C~l)(S) caused by the discrete approximation can then be
corrected. In practice, a multiplicative correction is enough, and this can be
achieved by manipulating the parameter (T2 = E{ T 2 } to ensure the equality
of the variances: C(l)(O) = C~1) (0). An example of the correction of this
bias is given in the case study of the simulation of the Prony deposit, cf.
section VII.B.2.
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'tt'rE[O,a],
'tt'r ';3 a (range).
The constant K = C(O) = Var {Z(x)} is the a priori variance of the threedimensional RF Z(x) and is also the sill of the corresponding semivariogram y(h)= C(O)- C(h).
The corresponding one-dimensional covariance function is given by
formula (VII.6):
.r 1--+~3'
3s 2s J
fiL
C(1l(s) =
{0, a a
3
'tt's
[0, a],
(VII. 13 )
\:j s ';3
a.
J(12Kja 3 ) . u,
VUE [ -
0,
if not.
a/2, + a/2], }
* f,
(VII. 14)
Yi =
ti+d(kb),
k=-R
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(VILIS)
A
",
VU~O,}
(VII. 16)
Vu<O.
0,
:":",
Vr;30,
C(1\s)=.K(I~~2)e~s2/a2,
Vs~O,
),.2 =
Vu E [-00, +ro],
(VII. 17)
* f, with
the
(VII. IS)
16 Kla 3 / st
In practice, this function is limited to the interval [-Za, +Za] and, on this
interval, the random measure T(dr) is approximated by (8R + 1) discrete
random variables T;+b corresponding to a separation interval b = 4a/8R =
ns; with R ~ 20.
VII.A.4. Gaussian transform
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2 0 = cPZ:J( U)
and
= cp z,~ (Zo).
Instead of simulating the grades zo(x), the transformed grades u(x) are
simulated. This simulation {us(x), x E deposit}, obtained by the turning
bands method, has a Gaussian histogram and the transform CPZu results in a
simulation {zAx) = cpZu(us(x)]} with the required histogram, i.e., a histogram similar to that of the experimental data zo(x",,). The covariance
imposed on the simulation uAx) must, of course, be the covariance
deduced from the transformed experimental data, u(x",) = cp~~ [zo(xa ) ],
V X(l E I. Although not rigorously, the inverse transformed simulation
zs(x)= 'PZo[us(x)] will then, in practice, have the required covariance
C(r).
Thus, the simulation zs(x) will reproduce not only the first two moments
- expectation and covariance or variogram - but also the univariate distribution or, more precisely, the experimental histogram of the data zo(x",).
If, in addition, the conditioning of the simulation to the experimental
data zo(xa ) is desired, it is advisable first to condition the simulation us(x)
to the transformed data u(X(l)=fPZ~ [zo(x",)] through relation (VII.3), i.e.,
usc(x) = u~(x)+ [uAx)~ U~K(X)],
and then to take the inverse transform zsc(x) = cPa, [usc(x )]. The kriged
values u~(x) and U:K(X) are deduced, respectively, from the transformed
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
data u(x",J and from the simulated values u.. (x.) located at the same points
Xc.' These krigings are carried out using the covariance Cu(r) of the transformed RF Vex).
By way of example, consider an experimental histogram of real grades
{zo(x",), 'tIxa E I}, to which a lognormal distribution can be fitted. The
transformed variable which follows a normal distribution is: V(x) = log
Zo(x), and, thus, Zo(x)=exp [U(x)}. After determining the covariance
Cu(r), which characterizes the spatial regionalization of the transformed
grades {u(xa)=logzo(xa), 'tIxaEI}, the turning bands method is used to
provide a simulation u,.(x) which has a Gaussian histogram and the
imposed covariance Cu(r). This simulation is then conditioned to the
transformed data u(x by formula (VII.3). Upon taking the inverse transform zsc(x)=exp [usJx)], the required conditional simulation is obtained.
In practice, however, the Gaussian tranform function Zo = cpzo(U) is not
always so simple or so obvious. The most general methods are a graphical
correspondence between the cumulative histogram of the data zo(x a ) and
the standard normal distribution of Vex), d. section VI.B.3, Fig. VI. 13, or
the approximation of function ({!Zo by an Hermite polynomial expansion, d.
section VI.B.3, formula (VI.22) and following.
Ol
A fundamental remark
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two states, one highly mineralized and the other waste, d. Fig. VIlA. Each
of these two states considered separately may have a Gaussian spatial law,
but when considered together they definitely do not. A straightforward
simulation of such a process, using the turning bands method, would result
in a profile (the bold line on Fig. VIlA), which, over large zones, may have
the expectation and covariance of the combined states of the real
phenomenon, but nevertheless would be a poor representation of this
reality.
In such a real case, the two states could be differentiated by structural
analysis, and they would then be simulated independently; the transition
from one state to another being simulated separately. Alternatively, one
could consider a regularized phenomenon, taking averages within volumes
sufficiently large to include a great number of different states; this
regularization would then provide moving average profiles with a more
continuous character open to simulation by the turning bands method.
FIG. VIlA. The turning bands method is not suited for the straightforward simulation of a two-state process.
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zsc(X) is conditional to the data zo(x",), the block simulation will also be
conditional to the same data.
The block is approximated by n interior points (Xi' i = 1 to n), and the
true grade of the block
2u
(x)=1. f
Z(y)dy
v v(x}
is approximated by the arithmetic mean of the n interior point grades
\", Z(Xi ).
ZtI* = 1
- s:
n i=l
It is this arithmetic mean that is simulated. The density of the discrete
representation of the block v, i.e., the number of interior points, depends
on the error (z, - zt) that is acceptable. The error should not mask the
structural variability of the true block grades. The number n of interior
points should, thus, be determined prior to each simulation of blocks,
taking into account the structural function (covariance CtI(h) or
sernivariogram 'YtJ(h which characterizes the spatial variability of support
D. This structural function, 'YtI(h), for example, which is a regularization on
the support v, is calculated from the point model 'Yo(h) by means of the
usual regularization formulae, d. section ILD.1, formula (HAl). In practice, it is enough to ensure that the error caused by the discrete approximation, E {[ ZtJ - Z~ f}, is less than the nugget constant COtJ corresponding
to the support v. If this support v is large, C OtJ will be close to zero, then the
variance E{[Zv - Z~ f} should be much smaller than the a priori dispersion
variance of the grades Zm i.e., E{[Zv - Z~ ]2} D 2 (v/ oo). As an example,
for a point spherical model with no nugget effect and a range a, a sufficient
discrete approximation of a cubic support v with sides a/4 can be obtained
with eight interior points on a regular grid, i.e., the regular square grid
spacing of the simulated points would be a/8.
This method of simulating blocks by averaging simulated point values
has several advantages.
(i) It allows a simultaneous simulation of block grades and the grades of
interior samples. Such a double simulation is essential for a study of
selection of mining units based on available samples. It will be
recalled from section VLA.3, Fig. VL5, that selection is always
based on estimates (i.e., linear combination of sample grades),
whereas the recovered grades are those of blocks.
(ii] No assumption is made about the structural variability or the univariate distribution of the regularized RF Zv(x). The entire simulation is based only on the available information, i.e., the information
obtained from samples.
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Zs(x)= <pZo{us(x)}.
C. Average this non-conditional simulation zAx) within the required
blocks, i.e., Z v"Jx) = (1/ n ) L wz; {us (xJ}, where the unit v is made up
of the n interior points Xi.
(These first three steps constitute the standard procedure for the nonconditional simulation of blocks by averaging non-conditionally simulated
points.)
D. From the histogram of the simulated val ues z v,s (x), determine experimentally the Gaussian transform function for a support v, i.e., z",s(x) =
'Pz~ {uv.s(x )}. Once tpz~ is known, the Gaussian simulated values can be
deduced from U",s (x) = tpz~ {zv,s(x )}. Note that, since the function 'P z~ is,
in general, non-linear, u".s (x) :;i: (1/ n ) L Us (Xi)'
E. Using the Gaussian simulated values uvAx) and Us (x",), simulate the
kriging error [uv,s (x) - u t. dx)]. The kriged value U :,sK (x) is a linear
combination of the simulated values u, (x",) at the data points X.,. E J, i.e.,
U ~.sK (x) = L", A", (x). uAx",,). In the kriging system, the first member
matrix consists of the experimental covariances E{us(x )us(y)} and the
second member matrix consists of E {us(x )u v .s (y)}.
F. Calcula te the kriged values of the blocks which are linear com binations
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514
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515
the term Z~K (x ) = 'L" A,,20(Xa ) . But the final term Z~,SK (x) requires a point
simulation z; (x"J on the actual data locations X a and this point simulation
must be coherent with that of the blocks zu,s(x), i.e., it cannot be carried out
independently.
One solution to this problem consists in conditioning the block simulation to constructed data z~(xa), defined on the same support v and located
at the same points X a E I, rather than to the real point data zo(x a ) . To do
this, the dimensions of the support v must be very small with respect to the
grid (xu> x,B) of the conditioning data. In practice, the dimensions of v must
be less than one tenth the mean distance between pairs of conditioning
data (x m x,B) However, it is always possible to restrict the number of
locations X a to be considered in the construction of the v-support data
z~(xaJ These constructed data z~(xa) may be, for example, the kriged
value of the block v(xa ) centred on Xa, plus an additional term to correct
the smoothing effect of kriging:
{VII. 19)
Z:K
where
(xu) is the kriged value of the block v {xaJ using the neighbouring
real data {zo(x a ) , x, E I}, and e; is a realization of a random variable with
zero expectation and a variance E{E~} such that the variance of the
constructed data z~(xa) is equal to the dispersion variance D 2 (vj oo ) of the
true grades of support v, cf. the kriging smoothing relation {VI.1) or (VI.2).
This latter variance D 2 (vj oo ) is calculated from the point structural model
'ro(h), d. formula (11.35) or (11.36).
This method of constructing the e-support conditioning data is an
approximation, since the variable E v is supposed to be independent of the
kriged value Z~K (x), whereas, in fact, the kriging error [Zv(x",)- ZtK (x a ) ]
is only orthogonal to the kriged value ZtK (x). This approximation alters
the spatial variability of the true values of support v, and can be justified
only when the variance E{E:~} is small, i.e., when the kriging variance of a
unit v centred on a data location x, is itself small with respect to the
dispersion variance D\v/ ro).
Once these u-support conditioning data z~(x",) are constructed, the
conditioning formula (VII.3) can be used in exactly the same way as in the
point case:
Zv,sc(x) = Z:K (x)
The kriged values ztK (x) and Zt,sK (x) are calculated from the conditioning v-support data z~(x",) and z~,s(x). The covariance used in this
kriging is the regularized covariance Cv(h).
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
516
mcmc-,
and
me
E{Zk (x l].
This covariance matrix must be positive definite and the linear model
proposed for it in section IILB.3, formula (III.25), is
n
Ckk,(h)=
L:
b1,.k' Klh).
(VU.20)
i~1
In this model, all cross- and direct covariances Ckk,(h) are expressed as
linear combinations of n basic direct covariances K;(h). (It will be recalled
here that, in the above notation, i in the superscript position represents an
index and not a power.)
Consider now n sta tionary RF's {Y; (x), i = 1 to n} with direct covariances K;(h), respectively, and all independent of each other. The L stationary RF's {Zk(X), k = 1 to L}, defined by the L linear combinations
n
Zk(X) =
(VII.21)
akiY;(x)
;=1
Ckk,(h) =
L akiak'iKi(h).
;=1
= 1 to n,
and
Vk, k' = 1 to L.
(VII.22)
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
517
ZLK (x )],
where ztdx) and Zk.sK(X) are kriged from the real data zdx a ) and the
simulated data Zk,s(Xa), respectively.
The nickeliferous laterite deposit of Prony (New Caledonia) is a surfaceweathered subhorizontal formation of basic rocks (peridotites). The
deposit was sampled by several successive campaigns of vertical drilling on
a regular horizontal grid; each core sample was analysed in I-m lengths for
nickel grade and the grade of impurity MgO. Global and local resources
and recoverable reserves were evaluated by geostatistical techniques after
each sampling campaign was completed.
Toe next step was to tackle some of the mining problems, such as
deciding on the type of mining and the corresponding equipment. the need
for blending, and the degree of flexibility of the mill. For this, it was
necessary to predict the fluctuations at various scales of such parameters as
overburden, mineralized thickness and the recovered Ni and MgO grades.
Thus. it was decided to simulate the deposit and test the various methods
considered for mining by applying them to the simulated deposit.
The simulation was limited to the first production zone, and consists of
17 600 simulated vertical drills on a square 10-m grid. The simulation was
based on a previous geostatistical structural analysis of 176 real drill-holes
on a square IOO-m grid within the first production zone, cr. Fig. V.24, and
was conditioned to these real data.
A conditional simulation involves three steps: structural analysis, which
provides a model of the deposit; conditional simulation itself; and, finally,
various verifications. Simulated deposits can be used for various purposes,
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518
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Drift and cut-off grades The vertical profiles of the Ni grades measured
along the drill cores all have a similar shape, d. Fig. ILL There is a
progressive enrichment in nickel from the upper surface, followed by a
rapid impoverishment, and, finally, a further enrichment at the bedrock
contact. This is translated into geostatistical terms as a vertical drift of the
Ni grades. The drift curve (or mean tendency) can be estimated by universal kriging from the vertical profile of the grades of the core sample
lengths, and it can be shown that this drift curve is an estimator of the
vertical profile of the mean grades of small panels centred on the drill
holes, d. Ch. Huijbregts and A. Journel (1972) and Figs.I1.1 and VII.5.
100 m
0--'~ ~ - - -..... 0
Smoll panel
~
c,
c e n t ra l
dr il l hol e
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
t,
M ine o bls
ore
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519
drill-hole on each mining unit. Thus, the cut-off grade t c. must be applied to
the previously defined drift curve estimating the vertical profile of mean Ni
grades of the mining unit, d. Fig. VII.5. For each value te , a certain number
of "service variables" are defined. These variables, regionalized in the
two-dimensional horizontal space, are: overburden thickness Po, mineralized thickness PL and the corresponding accumulations ANi and A M gO ' The
simulation of the deposit thus consists of generating a realization (coregionalization) of the corresponding service variables on a 10 m x 10 m grid
for each value of the cut-off grade t.,
Horizontal structural analysis At the time of this study, the first production zone was sampled on a systematic 100 m x 100 m grid, and by two
cross-shaped drilling sets spaced at 20 m to detect small structures. This
information was used to characterize the horizontal regionalizations of the
previously defined service variables. In the actual study, four cut-off grades
were considered; six service variables for each cut-off. But only the results
obtained for the mineralized thickness PI., the overburden Po, and the Ni
accumulation ANi for the two cut-off grades rc == 0 (no vertical selection) and
fc = 10% will be given here.
For proprietary reasons, all values given here have been multiplied by a
constant factor, which does not affect the relative curves (variograms
divided by the squares of the means), nor the relative dispersions.
Table VII.l gives the means m and the relative dispersion variances
2
D / m 2 of the various service variables within the zone of interest. These
experimental values were deduced from the 176 drills covering the first
production zone on a 100 m x 100 m grid. Table VII.2 gives the correlation
coefficients between these service variables for each cut-off grade.
Figure VII.6(a), (b), (c) gives the experimental relative variograms of the
variables Po for t; == 10 and PL and ANi for te = O. Figure VII.7(a), (b)
shows the scatter diagram for Po and Pl. and the corresponding crossvariogram for tc = 10.
TABLE
m
D
2Jm 2
PL
ANi
237
269
008
017
117
117
176
029
047
051
Po
10
D 2Jm 2
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
VU.2. Experimental correlation coefficients
TABLE
0-4
( a)
0-3
l-
"'-
.....
/'
0-2 l -
087
098
-045
10
./
0-1V0
20
100
200
300
400
0-10
(b)
0-05
"'-
100
200
300
400
500
( c)
~.
0-15
Direct ANi
..-:
.............
0-10
"'-
---- .
~
.
____
Cross ANi-fl
_.
005
100
200
300
400
500
h(m)
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521
20
( 0)
.'
30
..
.
..
. . ..
...
"
'
t-
10
...
...
...
...
..
.::...
oil
I\
.. ... ,....
"
l1li l1li
..
..... ,. :...
.... . iII-. .
.Jo.~
"
..-..
o
-0-07
-:......... ..-:
. .
.!
l1li.
,.,.
'II
10
..
":
30
40
r-----------~-------___,
( b)
"
-0-15
-023
100
200
300
400
h(m)
FIG. VII.7. Correlation PO-PL for tc = 10. (a) Scatter diagram; (b) relative crossvariogram.
O:s:::: Po ~ 32;
(VII.23)
As there is no evident structure on the experimental cross-semi-variogram 'YPo-PL(h), ct. Fig. VII.7(b), the two variables Po and PL for tc = 10
can be simulated independently as a first approximation, but the inequalities given in (VII.23) should be verified. In practice, all conditionally
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522
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
simulated values Zsc which do not satisfy these inequalities are replaced by
the corresponding kriged value ZtK, d. the conditioning relation (VII.3).
Such an approximation will slightly modify the structural variability of the
simulation Zw but is quite acceptable provided that the number of altered
simulated values is small.
Correlation PL - ANi. Except for their nugget constants, the direct and
cross-variograms on Fig. VII.6(b and c) can be deduced one from the other
by a multiplicative factor. This suggests a linear coregionalization model
with a single basic model, d. formula (111.25), i.e.,
YPL
-2
'Vr=lhl>O,
(VII.24)
= aupCo + l3apy(r)
with relative nugget constants Co = 004, aa = 15, (tap = I, and sill values
= 2,67, {3ap = 1-34. The values of these parameters ensure the positivity
of the coregionalization model (VII.24), since, from formula (III.26),
{3"
and
f3 ~p ::s;
e;
The basic model y(r) consists of two nested spherical models: y(r)=
C 1 Yt(r) + C2 Y2(r )
with
ranges
a t = 80 m,
{ az = 800 m,
and sills
{C] = 0,015,
C2 = 0036.
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523
m
D 2/ m
10
m
2
D /m
TABLE
Po
117
030
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262
0-175
112
046
16-7
0-51
-PL
o
-029
AN;
238
0-08
VIlA. Simulated
relation coefficients
PP"
10
PL
0-83
095
cor-
524
MINING GEO$TATISTICS
(a)
r-
.-I--
\----
f-- - r--
- --
-- -
r--
-- -
.---
f--
I-
I--
--
- -- r-r-
--
I-
f--
l-
- f--_
I-
I--
I\--
I-
l - I--
10
r-r-
-- -- l -
20
Ft=rl-r
30
Metres
(b)
-- ---------
40
30
lo..
20
10
010
100
300
200
400
500
hem)
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
525
There is a satisfactory agreement between the variograrns of the simulations and the theoretical models fitted to the experimental variograms, d.
Figs VII,8(b) and VII. 9(b).
(a)
F'
Ih
01
-~r-
LP-r-F1ft
10
20
40
30
Metres
.-
---
( b)
--
20 ....
I
o 10
100
200
300
400
500
him)
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
526
C(O)~ C(h). U"'" log Z is then a normal variable with the following characteristics,
given by formulae (VI.9):
mean,
E{U}
variance,
K (h) = log [1
covariance,
serni-variogram,
= K(D);
+ C( h)/ m 2];
'Yu(h)= K(O)-K(h).
Suppose a spherical model with range a I, nugget constant K o and sill K] is adopted
for 'Yu(h), i.e.,
yu(h) =
3 h
1 h.l)
a~'
x; + x, ( 2 ~- 2:
\;f h
e ]0, aJ.
(VlI.26)
The total sill is, thus, K (0) = K o + Kj, and the corresponding covariance is given by
3
3 h 1h )
K(h)=K(O)-'Yu(h)=K I ( 1---+,
2 al 2 3
aj
VhE ]0,
ad.
(VII.27)
Co =
'Yz{ )/ m 2 =
e Ko+K, - e K 1 ;
C o + C I = 'Yz(OO)/m 2 = e K n + K , -1;
K; = log (1 + C o + C
}
j ) -
(VII.28)
KI
C'o+ C 1 = 033,
al
= 260m;
from which
K 1 =0215,
K; = 0070.
It can be verified on Fig. VII.6(a) that the theoretical model (VII.27) thus determined is a good approximation of the experimental curve.
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
527
conditioning stage when the simulation is limited to the precise polygonal contour
defined by the 176 conditioning drills on a 100 m x 100 m grid.
The turning bands method (cf. section VIl.A.2) Each of the 15 generating lines D
are considered as NGMAX::= 300 points spaced at a constant interval of u ::::: 10 m.
Next, 300 bands (slices) are centred on each of these 300 points, See Fig. VII. 10.
The number NGMAX = 300 was chosen so that each simulated point of the square
of dimensions 200u x 200u would correspond to a band on each Qf the 15 generating lines, for which it is enough that NGMAX u > 200u,h (length of the
diagonal).
For each line D, the subroutine RANDU(SSP-IBM) is used to generate 300
independent realizations of a random variable T with a uniform distribution on the
interval [0, 1]. By definition, this variable T is such that E{T} = 1/2 and Var {T} =
1/12.
Inlerval
2R
I
--I
+1
1--1.1
I
I
I
I
I
D
'
--+- Bond
I
The values of T are then regularized by a discrete approximation of the weighting function f(x)=x on !he interval [-R, +R] to provide a realization of the
random function fl = T * f with a spherical covariance, cf. formulae (VII.1 0) and
(VII.14). The range (2R + 1) is an approximation of the range of the spherical
covariance to be simulated. The one-dimensional generating RF defined on each
line D is then = ko'+q, where the constants k and q are determined by the
expectation and variance imposed on y.
For the coregionalization PL - AN;, for (= 0, the three-dimensional variograms
(or covariances) to be simulated are nested: l' = C o + 1'1 + )'2, d. model (VII.24).
The procedure is thus to take three independent realizations To, T I , T z and then
regularize them by their respective weighting functions: flo::::: To, fl. ::::: T I * fl z ""
1'2 *k The three one-dimensional partial generating RF's can then be calculated:
t;
Ya = kafl o+ qo
for the nugget effect;
Y. = kin. + ql
and
Y z = k 2 f} z + q2
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
528
PL and ANi' which are coregionalized according to the linear model (VII.24).
From section IItB.3, formula (111.23), the linear model can be generated by
simulating two independent realizations z and z' of the same RF Z with zero
expectation and a semi-variogram y(r). The required realizations PL and aNi are
then obtained by taking linear combinations of these two realizations z and z', plus
a purely random variable that accounts for the nugget effect:
PL =
mAE + A IZ + ALz'], }
p
(VII.29)
aNi
"ypJ m~
relative semi-variogram
E{p} = 1 and
The identification of the other terms of the coregionalization model results in the
conditions
E{e a } = 1 and Var {ca} = aaCO = 006,
A~+ A~ <B; =
AlA] + A 2 A 4
2,67,
= {Jap =
1.34,
= 1,34, A 4 = 0-935.
Simulation of the purely random variables E For each of the 40401 points of the
simulation zone, the subroutine RANDU provides two independent realizations to
and t, of the RV T evenly distributed on the interval [0, 1]. The two purely random
variables defining the two nugget effects are, thus, given by
Ep =
kpTp + 1- kpl2,
where
Eo=k p T n - k p / 2.
The expectations of these two nugget effects are satisfied: E{e p } "" E{e a } = 1 and, by
identifying the variances, the parameters k p and a can be determined:
Var {E p } =:: k~ Var {Tp } = k;/12 = Ch
Var {eo} =
i.e., k p
= 069;
i.e., a = 0707.
since aap = 1.
Simulation of the regionalized variables z and z' The semi-variogram y(r) of the
RF Z consists of two nested spherical models: y(r)= C 1Y l(r)+ Cz'Yz(r), d. model
(VII.25). Thus, the required simulation can be achieved by simulating two
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
529
independent RF's Y r and Y2 on each of the 15 lines D and then taking the sum
Y=Y I + Y 2:
Y r =: krn l = kj(TI
* fr)
Y z = k 2n 2 = k z(T2 * 12)'
and
The simulated range (2R + l)u must approximate the real range and, thus, R is
an integer equal to a/2u. For the first structure )'1 with a range a r = 80 m, R, =:
80/20 =: 4 and the simulated range is, thus, a l = (8 + 1)10 = 90 m, which is a close
enough approximation of the real SO-m range. Similarly, for the second structure )'Z
with a range a 2 =: 800 ill, R z =: 40 and the simulated range is a; = 810 m. Note that
the two ranges a! and a 2 can be reproduced exactly by altering the spacing of the
simulated points along the lines D. In practice, the approximations (ai, a;) and
(a2, a2) are largely justified, as can be seen by comparing the variogram on Fig.
VII.1 L
E{n 1} = E{fl 2 } = 0,
't:/ R,
which entails
The parameters k, and k 2 can be determined from the variances Var { Yd and
Var {Yz}. For a range a = 2R, the regularized RF n can be expressed according to
(VILIO) as
and, thus,
Now,
where
mr = E{T} = 05,
Var{T}= 1/12
I
8..(y)= { 0
and
if x = y,
ifnot.
in} = o+lTi
I R
2R-'
a-'
x 2 dx = lTi. -- = lT~"-'
3
12
where a = 2R. But the simulated range is a' = 2R + 1, and, thus,
-R
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(2R
+ 1)'
144
530
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(2R+l)3
144
This last relation can be used to determine k. For t; = 0 and for the structure 'Yl
with a sill C 1 =0'015,
C 1 = 15F1
(2 R + 1)3
I
144
an d
kI
= 1405x 10--2 .
---
( 0)
---_ ........
40
--~
30
>-..
20
( b)
70
---~----_...--
50
30
o 10
FIG.
100
200
300
400
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531
550 m
~u
11m
----.-----
~
~
'<---------Zone 0
1m
II m
/-/ I m
10 m
----(lxlxO 5)
+
0-5
I
I
I'
i I
m;
LY
Ponel
Pit
FIG.
(VII.30)
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532
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
of a vertical profile of grades, ct. Figs ILl and VII.l3. The second term R (u, v, w) - represents the residual fluctuations around this drift.
We impose the condition E{Z} = E{D}, which entails that E{R} = O. The
realizations d(u, v, w) and r(u, v, w) of the two RF's, drift and residual, are
simulated independently. In this particular study, it was assumed that the
elementary grades followed a lognormal distribution, and so a Gaussian
transform was used to ensure that the final realization z = d + r produced a
lognormal histogram.
Simulation of the drift The vertical drift along each profile of grades
represents a progressive enrichment followed by an impoverishment, and,
finally, a further enrichment toward the bottom of the deposit, as shown on
Fig. VII.l3. The following RF was chosen to characterize this drift:
D(u, v, w)=K(u,
v)[A
w 3 B(U,v)
(VII.31)
+A2W2B(u,v)+A1WB(U,v)J,
where K(u, v) and Biu, v) are two stationary and independent RF's
defined in the horizontal plane (u, v), and A}, A2 , A3 are three positive
constants.
The cubic function f( w) = A3 w 3 + A2 w 2 + AI W is, thus, modulated by the
two RF's K (u, v) and B (u, v). The multiplicative factor K (u, v) defines the
maximum value f(wo) of the function f(w), d. Fig. VIL13(a) and (b). The
power Btu, v) defines the vertical coordinate Wo of this maximum, d. Fig.
VIL13(b), (c) and (d).
The horizontal variabilities of the two independent RF's K(u, v) and
B(u, v) are characterized by isotropic spherical semi-variograms without
nugget effect, with identical ranges equal to a = 100 m and sills C K and Cn.
Thus, two sampling pits less than 100 m apart on a horizontal plane will
have correlated drift curves d(u, v, w) and d'(u, v, w), while pits further
than 100 m apart will be independent. The expectations and variances (sills
0.-.:;::-_---.--_ _
Wo
--- -
10
--
f(
-~-
10
(a)
( b)
(c)
( d)
FIG, VII. 13. Various realizations of the random drift. (a) K = 2, B = 1; (b) K = 1,
s )., (c)K=l ,. B=Og'(d)K=1
,
.B=4
,.
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533
C K and CB ) of the two RF's K(u, v) and B(u, v) were chosen so that the
random drift D(u, v, w) accounted for a fixed part of the total variability of
the grade Z = D+ R.
The positive constants ;\], ;\2, ;\3 fix the form of the cubic f( w) =
3
2
;\3 w + A2 w +;\ 1 w, i.e., the general form of the drift.
Simulation of the residuals The three-dimensional regionalization of the
RF residual R(u, D, w) is anisotropic with a more rapid variability in the
vertical direction. The model chosen to represent this RF is the nested sum
R(u, v, w)= Oo(u,
D,
(VII.32)
= 0 =? E{Z} = B{D}.
Thus, on any given vertical grade profile, the residuals are correlated
only if they are less than 3 m apart. On any given horizontal plane, the
residuals are correlated only if they are less than 30 m apart. The horizontal correlation of the grades Z = D + R for distances from 30 m to 100 m is
due only to the correlation of the drifts.
Results The vertical profiles of the mean grades of the (11 m x 11 m x
05 m) slices of three blocks (full-line curves) and the grades of their
respective central pits (broken-line curves) are shown on Fig. VII.14. The
first two blocks (u = 72, v = 6) and (u = 83, v = 6) are contiguous and have
very similar mean grade profiles, while the profiles of the grades of their
central pits are notably different. The third block (u = 424, v = 50), which
is more than 300 m away from the first two, has a completely different
mean grade profile.
At the selection and mining stages, only the profiles of, for instance, the
central pits are known in practice. If the central pit profile is used unwarily
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
534
in place of the unknown block grades profile (polygonal influence estimation), then the resulting estimates of recoverable reserves will be biased, d.
the case study of section Vl.AA. Thus, a cut-off grade Zo = 003% applied
to the central pit profile of the second block on Fig. VII. 14 would result in
a recovered thickness of 2 m with a mean recovered grade of 0036%,
whereas no block slice has a mean greater than 003%. The aim of kriging
is to provide an estimated profile as close as possible to the profile of the
mean panel grades.
Grode
(726)
(83-6)
0-01
05
(%)
004
<'"
003
001
\
\
I
I
I
....
")
I
....
"/
-,
-,
-,
004
....
I
I
(42450)
a 001
I
I
....
0'04
">
I
I
-..
/
/
..... 1
I
I
"',2 m
~/~}
k"-
;'
I
I
\
\
I
I
\
/
;'
;'
;'
..-
10
FIG.
I
I
j
-..
"- ,
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535
method. Kriging is then used to condition the simulation to the real data
values, and the Gaussian transform Z = cpz( U) of this conditional simulation restores the required histogram. Finally ~ the simulation is verified by
means of a number of statistics, such as calculations of the direct and
cross-semi-variograrns, histograms, scattergrams, etc.
Uj(x)=
aj,kVk(X),
Vi.
(VII.33)
k= -R
(a;,d
1,
Vi.
k=l
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Program SIMUL
Yj
=L
k
kT;+k,
~-II
+ 1)(2R + 1)/36.
Y; =
k=O
with b = a/2R.
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537
C(1)(S)=_l_(l- Ab C""2Ab) e- A S ( l - J\ s )
d
12A
A
1
-2AbAb e"2Ab[ ~ 1 +Ab(l -e --2Ab)] e --As
+--e
12A
'
where A = 1 - e- 2 At,. The second term, which represents the additive bias,
is negligible and each value Yi can be corrected by the multiplicative factor
CK to obtain the imposed variance C(J \0) = 1. Thus,
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538
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
c ......
ThREE-DIME~SIONAl
SI~ll~lIO~
C PARAJI'EIEFiS
ItIiORJ< ING vsc HR:
C Y
l-CO~TAINS ThE RANOCM V~LlES Ie BE
C
CILLTEO eN KO TER~S.l~KE A DlJilE~SIOh
C
C
{RE~TER T~AN 8*NR+l
~R=RANGE/SUBDIV]SIOh CN BA~DS
C
C
SUBDIVISION IS EOLAL to MIN. (F Cl,CC,Dh
C
2-CC~TAINS T~E VALUES Of t~E ~S SI~llATIQhS
FeR A CClUMN OF NLI TERMS:~ChlJ.~S)
C
~S
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
CXCNGMAX~15*NS)
C
C
C
C
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
539
c Cl,De,ON
C
C
K= l,NS
c
c
N~AS
IUT
C
C
C
C(CYSCI.J,L).(=l,NLI.J~l,NCG),L=l.NIV),
SI~ULATEO
GC NS*28
C
C COMMONS
MEANS AND
UStNS), CSINS*NS)
lOUT
C(~ARIANCES
~ALUES
SEMI-VARIOGRAM AlCNG
LINE PRINTER
~NIT
CF
COlUMN~
~~MMER
C
C
c
c
OlME~SION
Y(l),oxtl),All),LSllJ,CSClJ,G(ll
DIMENSION
X(3).XI(3).S(3.3,4J,S~I~~).S)(~J
CIMENSIO~
F(401)
CCMMCN leur
ECUIV~LENCE(S(1,l,l),SlIJJ),(S)(lC).5(l.l,lIJ
DATA
Sl/C.5,-C.8C~011.0.30~011.0.8C'(17,
10.30~017.-0.5.0.30q017,C.!.C.80S0111
$UBRCUTINE
GENER~TES
IT5 (.N
RANC(~ ~L~BE~S
DATA [IV/Z39100000/.IAP/-1153314675/.
IlBRIB500000011
(
C
C
COMPUTE ROTATION
cc
~ATRIX
S) OF
T~E
15 BANDS
1 )(zl,B
1 SX(K,=C.
SX(1'=l.
5)(5)=1.
SX(9)=1.
CO 10 K=2,4
KO=K-1
DO 11 1=1,3
00 11 J=1,3
SCI. J ,to =0.
00 12 11=1.3
12 S(!,J,KlzSCI,J,KJ.SII.ll.KC).SIIl,J.))
11 CONT H~UE
c
C
C
10 CONT HUE
NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
PA~A~ETeRS
540
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
IH=I"~N"'AS-t18R
lS=O
CO 200 IS=l,NS
LStlS)=Q.
CO 200 JS=l,NS
lS"'lS+l
200 CS(LS)=O.
C
UN=AMINICDL,OC,ONJ
W~ITE(IOUT,2000)
UN,NlI,Cl,NCO,CC,~I\,ON
Cl=Ol/UN
DC=OC/UN
ON=DN/UN
NGMAX=SQ~TCNlJ*NllOl*Cl.~((N(O.CC[C+
INIV*N1V*ON*ON)+6
WRITE(IOUT,2aOl)hGMAX.~S
c
C
IP=O
DO 3
IS=l,NS
IF(A(IS).NE.O.JGC TO 3C
~UGGET EFFECl
AA=O.
I PAS =:3
NR=l
EPS= o.
PAS=UN I I PAS
GO Te 302
30 AA=AfSlA(lS).
NR=AA/(2*UNJ
I PAS = 1
lFfNP.GE.20)GC Te 301
NR=MAXO(l,NRJ
CO 30e IPAS=2,20
IF(N~*IPAS.GE.20)GO TO 3C1
300 CONTItolUE
301 PAS=Uh/IPAS
EPS=P"S/.6A
NR=NP*IPAS
IFIA( IS).l T.O.)GG TO 31
SPHERICAL S(~E~E
C
302
CK=StPTI36./N~/(NR+IJ/12.~~+1)J
KD=2.f\R-t1
DO 30: 1<=1,1(1::
3a3 F(K)=I<-NR-l
INO=O
GO Te 33
EXPCNENTIAl
31
KO=8*M~+1
DO 32 1(=I,KO
XT=EPS*(I(-lJ
VNIW.minebook.blogfa.com
~(HEME
541
32 FIKJ=fl.-XTj*EXP(-XT)
Cl=1.-EXP(-2.*EPS)
CK=SQRT(12 (1.Cl/(CI-EP~*EXP(-2 EP~))
JND=1
33 CO 34 10=1,15
[;0 340 K-=l,Ke
tH:IAFl*lH-tlBR
340 Y(K)=IH*OIV
O~
KO
R~NCO~
~AlUES
DO 3~ ~ .. ltNGMAX
IP-JP+l
AO-O.
KK-MOOCCJ-1J*IPAS,KOJ
DO 350 K-l,KO
IFCK~.EO.KOJKK~O
ICKaKK+l
350 AO-AO+FCKj*YCKK)
TRANSLATE
DO 351 K-l,IPAS
JFCKK.EQ.KDIKK-O
RA~[[M
~EASl~E
kK*KK +1
IH-JAfl*lh+IBR
3'1 YIKKJ-(H*O(Y
ADaAC*CK
USCIS)aUSCIS)+AD
DXU ')"AD
DO 352 JS-l,IS
IJS- I S+N S* J 5-1 )
JP-IP+NGMAX*15*(J$-ISJ
CSCIJSI-CS{IJSI+AO*OX{JPJ
35 CONTINUE
34 CONTINue
IF(IINC.EU.1 JGO TO 36
WRITE(IOUT,2002JIS,AA,PAS,EPS,IPAS,C_
~52
GO TO 3
36
WPITElIOUT,2003)JS,AA,PA!,EFS,IPAS,C~
3 CONT lihUE
IIlR ITE HOUT, 20Q4)( IS, IS"l,h ~)
DO 31 IS-l,NS
IIS-IS+NS.C JS-1)
CS (J I S J- Cesc J I S J-U SCI S ) *l' s CI S) I U 5
1115*HGMA)()
*~ G.. .A X)) I
USCIS)aUSCJS)J(15*NG~A~J
00 3 10 J S- I. I S
JflJS.EQ.IS1GO TO 370
IJS- J S+HS* CJS-l)
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542
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
~~lTEII0UT.2005)JS.US(ISJ,CCS(IJS).
IIJS-l!, II S, NS
37 CONT )HUE
C
C
LEVELS
fl,1=CNlhU/2
~2=(N(O+11/2
fIo3 zCNIV+ll/2
"'G=NGJlI~X/2
IK=O
LS=O
ISsI,NS
USCIS)sO.
CO 38
CO 380 JS"'I,NS
L 5=l 5+1
380 CSClS)=O ..
DO 38 1=1,28
IK= (1<.+1
38 GCIKJ=O.
SQ15=SCRl( 15. J
I AC-= 0
C
C
4 JlI:Il'l,NIV
X(3)=-O.5+CM-N31*ON
CO
DO 4 J=l,NCO
X(21=-O.5+(J-~2)*OC
IsI,NLI
XCl)=-O.5+(I-NIJ*OL
00 40
DO 400 IS=l.NS
11=1+t\ll*C IS-l)
400 y{ n J :x0.
INOzO
CO 41 IR'*l,5
kO"" t IR-ll*3
CO 41 JOsI.3
XItJtJ=O.
00 42 IL a l . 3
INO=[f\C+l
42
XltJOJ=XI(JO).X(ILJ.SX(I~n)
~G
IFIARG.LT.O.JlK-LK-l
lK=U( .fIoG
KO=KO+l
CO
43 IS=I,NS
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.~C
SU~
543
12=LK.NG~AX.(Ko-1).NGM~X.J!.(IS-l)
112:[+Hr*CIS-l)
43 YCIl):VCI1)+O)CI2)
41 CONTI~UE
00 44 IS=l,NS
II = I +fIIL 1+. 1S-1 )
V(ll)=YCll)/SC15
USCIS}=USC1S)+Y( 11)
DO 4" J S= 1, 1 S
12= 1.NL 1* ( J $-1 )
tJS= IS.NS*CJS-l)
c
C
44
40
CSCIJS)=CS(IJS)+Y(11).~(1~1
ccsr INUE
~RITE
COlU~N
CN DIRECT
~CCESS
filE
C
00 45 IS=l,NS
11= l.~l It 15-1 )
12=Nl I* I S
IAOl=I~O.NP.(IS-l)
c
C
lAO: IAC"f'.l I
COMPUTE
SE~I-VARIOGR.M
KV=O
CO 46 IN:el,2
GO TO (461f4~2.tIN
461 11=1
12=19
IP=l
GO TC 46:
462 11=20
12=100
IP=lO
K-l1,I2tIP
KL=NlJ-K
IFCKL.lE.OJGO TO "
KV=KV+l
00 464 la1,Kl
463 00 46
CO 464 IS==!yt\S
Jl=[+l\lI+C 15-1)
J2 z J l +K
T=yeJl)-yeJ2J
IK*[
5+~S*(KV-ll
464 GCIKI=GCIK).T*r
46 CONTIft.UE
It CONTlhUE
eDIT 5T_115TIC5 AND
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
V.RIOGP'~
ALCNG
CCLOMNS
544
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
CO 5
IS"" 1, NS
''''P
00 52 IM-l,lMP
151= 1+151'.( IM-l)
IS2""MINOINS,IS~*I~)
IKl""IK-l)*NS.. ISl
11<2::: IK-l)*NS+JS2
5~
00 54 IK""IKl,IK2
NC=NIV*NCO*INlJ-K)
GIIKJ""O.5.GIIK/NC
O=K.U~Ol
IfCK .GT.20JOzUN*Ol.UO.K-180)
WRITE(IOUT,2001)K,D,NC,{GIIKJ,IK:I~l,I~2)
53 CONT IHUE
52 CONT INUE
C
2000 FORMATIIH1,'
2,'
2002
SI'UlATIDNS
',I211t
fORM_Tll~ ,'.SIMUlATIO~.,J3,'
5PHEP.ICAl '.
I' SCHEME RANGE =',FS.4,' LAG ='.F(.~,
2' PRECISION "',FS.3, LAGS/SURD. a',I4,
3' FACTOR CK ""',F8.4)
2003 FORMAT(l~ ,'-SIMUlATION.,13,' EXFCNEhTIAl '.
I'SCHEME
RANGE "',Fe.4, lAG =',F.?,
a' PRECISION ~'.F5.3,' lAG~/SU8D. 2',14,
3' fACTOR CK s',F8.4J
2004 FOR"AT(l~O,' STATISTICS CF RESllT~ C~ BANDS'
1.'(CORRElATION MATRIX)'/J~ ,2X,lOf'-'.,
2' -- ------- -- -----'/l~ ,'SIMUlA1ICh'/lH ,
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545
2001
FORM~T(l~ tI3,lX,F7.2,:X.I~,2X,18f~.3)
END
1*
VII.B.3. Typical uses of simulated deposits
NNI.minebook.blogfa.com
546
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(v) A study of blending from various stopes to stabilize the tonnage and
quality of production (grades, hardness, mineralogy). A study of the
requirement for blending stockpiles, d. J. Deraisme (1977), whose
work is partially presented in the following case study.
(vi) A study of the determination of production rates and cut-off grades,
which vary in time, and their impact on recovered benefits, d. P.
Dowd (1976).
It must be understood that results obtained from simulated deposits will
apply to reality only to the extent to which the simulated deposit
reproduces the essential characteristics of the real deposit. Thus, the more
the real deposit is known, the better its model will be, and the closer the
conditional simulation will be to reality. As the quality of the conditional
simulation improves, not only will the reproduced structures of the variability become closer to those of reality, but so also will the qualitative
characteristics (geology, tectonics, morphology, etc.) that can be deterministically introduced into the numerical model. Once again, it must be
stressed that simulation cannot replace a good sampling campaign of the
real deposit.
t To
avoid confusion, the term "simulation" will be used here only for the simulation of the
various methods of mining and blending; the simulated deposit will be referred to as the
numerical model.
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547
(iv) an isotropic regionalization of the grades characterized by a spherical model with nugget effect, and a range of approximately 70 m.
Figure VII.I5 also shows the histogram of the block values kriged from
the central drill core intersections on a horizontal 18 m x 18 m grid. This
histogram of kriged values has a mean m * = 1% Cu and a variance
Dk*(v/G)=O'185%2; the kriging variance is a-k =0032%2.
r-
I-
--
I-- f - -
-:
.----
---
...
f--
--r-
,......
I--
I--
--
F=
=- -
-f--
I-
-~
a
05
1-0
1-5
2:0
25
0;., ClJ
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548
not significantly different from his prediction. The short-term (e.g., hourly)
fluctuations of the mill feed grade are the responsibility of the metallurgist
and the process controller.
It is assumed here that grade is the primary variable affecting mill
operation. Any other regionalized parameter (impurity grades, crushing
indexes, etc.) can also be simulated and used in an analogous manner.
Projected mining methods Three different mining methods were considered to meet the required degree of homogenization of daily mean grades
over a fortnight's production. These methods arc all non-selectioe: evcry
block is eventually sent to the mill.
Method 1. Zone G is mined by two l U-m-high benches, d. Fig.
VII. 16(a). From each bench, a big shovel of limited manoeuvrability can
extract two contiguous 18 m x 18 m x 10m blocks per day. The two shovels
advance parallel to the mining front and cannot reverse: they must extract
all the are along any given front (18 x 25 = 450 m long) before beginning
on the next front. All extracted arc is sent directly to the mill. Since the
motion of the shovels is predetermined in this method, there is no choice
for the mining engineer, who must relinquish his part in the homogenization process.
Method 1'. Mining is identical to the previous method, but some of the
mined ore can be sent to a stockpile where homogenization can take place,
d. Fig. VII. 16(b).
The stockpile consists of two subpiles, one rich, the other poor. The
maximum capacity of the total stockpile is two day's production (70 000
tons), which is the equivalent of eight large blocks. A block will be sent to
the stockpile when there is a risk that its mean grade affects the day's mean
feed grade. When a block is sent to the rich subpile, the equivalent of a
block is taken away from the poor subpile to meet the daily required
tonnage (35000 tons).
In addition, the existence of the stockpile provides some degree of
flexibility to the mining operation, since on certain days, three blocks may
be extracted from one bench and one on the other, provided that equilibrium is restored within eight days; alternatively, five blocks may be
extracted within any given day, provided that this over-production is
balanced by an equivalent under-production within the next eight days.
But mining is expected to adhere to the norm as often as possible, i.e., daily
production of two blocks per bench.
Method 2. The same zone G is mined by four 5-m-high benches, d. Fig.
VII. 17. From each of these benches, a mobile shovel can extract two small
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
549
A------------7
1"'-18 m
Mill
(0 )
Mill
(b)
(a) Method 1;
Simulation of the mining processes Only method 1, for which the path of
the big shovels is entirely determined, is completely simulated by
computer. For methods 1 and 2, the daily decisions such as which block to
mine, and whether to send it to the mill or to the stockpile, are made by an
operating mining engineer,' just as they would be in a real situation. The
decisions were made through visualization of the state of the fronts and the
stockpiles, taking the past and immediate future mill feed grades into
f
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
--:.,
</)
""'o0
:0
...c
....1::>0
.l::
l
Sl
V)
'-'
o:
.-
c
0
.....I-<
00
';::
's
<l.l
...c
....
....0
~
<l.l
:;
r-..:
.....
......
....
E
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>
u..
551
account. The decision of the mining engineer is certainly not always optimal, but the object of this study is precisely to reproduce reality (including,
in particular, human errors) and not an absolute optimum which is often
inaccessible in practice.
The engineer makes all his decisions on the basis of kriged estimates of
the mining blocks, the blocks being kriged from the central drill core
intersections. However, it is the true block grades that are delivered to the
mill, cf'. section VI.A.3.
As for the type of blending performed within the subpiles considered in
method 1', it is assumed that the true mean grade of the unit taken from a
subpile is a normally distributed random variable, with the following
characteristics.
(i) An expectation ms equal to the true mean grade of the subpile at the
time considered. This instant mean grade varies around 16% Cu for
the rich subpile, and 06% Cu for the poor subpile.
(ii) A fixed relative standard deviation as/ ms equal to O 25% 2 for the
rich subpile and O' 3 % 2 for the poor. These values were chosen so
that the confidence interval [ms2asl for the rich subpile, for
example, includes all individual true block grades sent to this particular subpile during the course of one year.
This model of the blending effect of the stockpile is very simplistic and
pessimistic, but is enough to give an order of magnitude of the influence of
the stockpile on the homogenization of the mill feed grades. In a real case,
it would be a simple matter to replace this model either by a deterministic
system or a more precise probabilistic model,
Results For the three simulated methods of mining zone G, Fig. VILl8
shows the variation in daily mean grades during the first two months (60
production days). J. Deraisme's study was carried out for a year's production (280 days) but there is not enough space here to show all the
results.
The full-line curves show the variations of the true daily grades (i.e., the
homogenization actually achieved), while the broken-line curves represent
the variation of the estimated daily grades (i.e., the homogenization predicted on the basis of the kriged block grades).
The mill operator will obviously prefer methods 1i and 2 to method 1,
which the mining engineer may prefer because of its lower mining cost.
Thus, there is a real problem involved, which can only be solved by
assigning costs to the mill recovery losses caused by method 1, and to
balance these costs with the ones caused by stockpiling (method 1') or by
the more flexible mining operation of method 2.
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
552
,r15
Melhod
"-"I
10
.,
.'~
I
I
.\
05
"
/.
,.:;.'
J-
\;.
\..J
~
I'
.J
\'.
1.- \
~./
"'..
'\'.
\,
10
I
1
I
l
I
I
1
I
05 l_------'---_----.-J'---_-'-----_-----'-_------'--_----.-J_
_---'--_-----'----_
........._
_J--_,-'-_.........J
I
60
5
15
35
40
45
50
55
10
20
25
30
Days
FIG. VILIS. Fluctuations of the daily mean grades at the mill-feed .- -....., True
grades; - - - -. estimated grades.
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553
TABLE
Method I
Dispersion variance
1 day within 7 days
00452
00362
0-00115
0-0040
0,0074
00018
Dispersion variance
1 day within 15 days
0-0501
()0422
0-0136
0,0052
00082
00016
Dispersion variance
1 day within 1 month
00525
00474
00156
0-0070
0,0106
00038
Dispersion variance
1 day within 1 year
0-0816
0-0405
(J.(B!O
Dispersion variance
15 days within 1 year
0-0260
0-0249
(J.()227
When there arc two values, the upper one refers to the true grades while the lower refers to
estimates.
The deviation between the dispersions resulting from the different mining methods increases as the time interval decreases. Thus, whatever
method is used, the amount and location of the ore extracted during a
given fortnight will be approximately constant, and the dispersion variances of a fortnight's mean grade over one year will also be approximately
the same, On the other hand, methods I' and 2 are particularly efficient in
stabilizing the daily grades within any week or fortnight.
The dispersions of estimated grades are always less than those of true
grades. This is a result of the classical smoothing property of the kriging
estimator, ct. relation (VI.l) or (VI.2): the dispersion of estimators is not a
good estimate of the real dispersion. For method 2, even though the
homogenization of the estimated grades is nearly perfect, there is still an
irreducible fluctuation of the true grades, due to the estimation variance of
the daily grades, ct. Fig. VII. 18.
The experimental estimation variances of the daily grades for each
method are:
method 1,
method 1',
method 2,
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lf~, = 0.0089% 2;
lf~ = 00131 {Yo 2;
(r~, = 0.0061 %2.
554
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Note that for methods 1 and 2, the dispersion variance D 2 of the true
grades can be deduced from that of the estimated grades D~* by the
approximate smoothing relation (VI.2):
+ (TE
2
D 2-- D 2*
K
This relation is not applicable for method I' because daily production does
not come only from the mine but also from the stockpile.
For one year of simulated production, 17% of the production from
method l' passed through the stockpile. This represents a considerable
proportion for a stockpile with a maximum capacity of two days' production. In fact, to obtain the homogenization shown on Fig. VII. IS,
almost 50% of production days involved departure from normal production (two blocks per bench). One solution would be to increase the
capacity of the stockpile by, for example, adding a third subpile of average
quality are. In any case, it would appear that the capacity of the stockpile
should not be greater than three or four days' production. Method I'
produces dispersions of the same order of magnitude as those of method 2
and since its mining cost is lower (10-m benches instead of 5 m) a feasibility
study would probably result in method l ' being chosen.
Globally, there is no selection involved in any of the methods considered
in this study. However, in his more complete study, J. Deraisme (1977)
studied various selection criteria for method 2 and compared the results of
applying these criteria on the simulations to the results that could be
predicted on the basis of grade histograms alone. The differences were
significant, and illustrate the well-known effects of concentration and dilution of reserves: a rich block with a grade above the cut-off will not be
selected when it is located in an overall poor zone; conversely, a poor block
with a grade below the cut -off will be selected when located in an overall
rich zone. The prediction made on the basis of the grade histogram (cf. the
various techniques outlined in section VI.A) are unable to take account of
this spatial localization of rich and poor grades; more generally, they
cannot take the technological conditions of the mining operation into
account. Once again, a solution is afforded by the simulation of the mining
operation on a numerical model of the deposit: the simulations can be used
to evaluate the effect of these technological conditions on the actual
recovery of the reserves.
WWW.minebook.blogfa.com
VIII
Introduction to Non-linear
Geostatistics
SUMMARY
The estimators that have been considered until now are linear combinations of the
available data, and their prerequisites are limited to only the moments of order 2 of
the RF Z(x). If more is known about the RF Z(x), for example, if its 1-, 2- or
k-variate distributions can be inferred, then non-linear estimators can be built.
These estimators are more accurate than the linear kriging estimators, and allow
the estimation of unknown functions which are not simply linear combinations of
unknown values.
The word "kriging" designates the procedures of selecting the estimator with a
minimum estimation variance within a given class of possible estimators (linear or
non-linear). This estimation variance can be viewed as a squared distance between
the unknown value and its estimator; the process of minimization of this distance
can then be seen as the projection of the unknown value onto the space within
which the search for an estimator is carried out. In terms of these projections,
section VIlLA introduces the various non-linear kriging estimators such as the
condi tional expectation or "disjunctive kriging".
Disjunctive kriging is developed in section VIILB, together with its application
to the estimation of non-linear functions, such as the so-called "transfer function"
defined as the proportion of unknown values (e.g., grades of support v) greater than
a given cut-off within a given domain V.
555
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
556
or, better still, considering a unique function of the n available data, i.e.,
z~ = l(z1> ... , z.,},
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557
v:
F0K =
L /,."(z,,,).
,\:= 1
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558
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
U x y'
The norm IIZ(x)11 of a vector Z(x) is thus defined as the positive square
root of (Z(x), Z(x, i.e.IIZ(x)11 2 = (Z(x), Z(x. The distance between two
elements Z(x) and Z(y) is defined as the norm IIZ(x)~ Z(y )'1 of the vector
Z(x)-Z(y).
Let Z(xo) = ZoE 'l: be any unknown variable and let <;g' c g be any
vector subspace (or, less restrictively, any closed linear manifold). The
Projection Theorem shows that there exists one and only one element
Z* E 'ie' which minimizes the distance 1120 - Z*II; this unique element is
then called the projection of Zo onto the subspace g', d. Fig. VIII. 1.
The kriging process is simply this projection of an unknown value onto a
particular subspace 'ie', within which the search for an estimator Z* is
carried out. The corresponding minimum squared distance, )120 ~ z*I)2 =
E{[Zo- z*f}, or minimum estimation variance, is then called "kriging
variance".
There are as many kriging processes and corresponding kriging estimators Z* as there are different sets 'l;' c if within which the projection of the
unknown Z(xo) is to be made. Consider the two sets 'j;" and 'if;' on Fig.
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559
VIlI.2, with 'l:/I c <g' c ?t, and the corresponding kriging estimators Z*/1 and
Z*I; as '$' includes 'is/I, the projection Z*' is nearer to the unknown than
Z*/I, i.e., in terms of estimation variance
I)Z(xo)- Z*,),2~ IIZ(xo)- z*/I11 2
Hence, as the set where the search for the estimator is carried out is
wider, the estimation is better. This remark is a prelude to the classification
of the various kriging estimators, d. section VIII.A.4.
(el
z*
FIG. VIII.1. The kriging estimator defined as the projection of the unknown Z(xo)
onto the subspace g' c g.
z (xo
FIG. VIII.2. Projection of the unknown Z(xo) onto two subspaces gil c 'C'.
Let us first consider the class of linear estimators, i.e., the vector subspace
~71+1 c %', of dimension (n + 1), generated by the linear combinations
11
AaZ", +A o1
a~l
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560
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
and
L A", =
1.
m(x)=
1=1
VNNI.minebook.blogfa.com
atf/(x),
561
"~
[,(xo),
V 1= 1 to L.
and is the projection of the unknown Z(xo) onto the vector space i"+l> ct.
Fig. VII!.3. This projection is unique and is characterized by the orthogonality of the vector Z(xo)- Zk o to each of the (n + 1) vectors generating
i,,+i:
(Z(xo)- ZL, 1) = 0,
(VIII.2)
Va = 1 to n. }
(Z(xo)- Z~o' ZcJ = 0,
FIG.
VIII.3. Simple kriging defined as the projection of the unknown Z(xo) onto
g'n+l'
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
562
Considering the centred covariance (T~,B = u a/3 - m(xa ) . m(xJ3), the previous system (VIII.2) can then be expanded into
Ao = m(xo)- I AKoJ3m(X/3),
,B
n
,~
L.
AKoper ",{3
13=1
= i faro,
Va = 1 to n.
Note that
m(x)=E{Z(x)} = (Z(X), 1).
,B= 1
AK o {3a-ap =
U ax",
Va = 1 to n.
(VIIL3)
r.e.,
The centred estimator {Z~o - m(xo)] thus appears as a linear combination of the n centred data {Z",-m(x",)]; more precisely, {Z~o -m(xo)] is
the projection of the unknown [Z(xo)- m(xo)] onto the vector space %'~
generated by the linear combinations of the n centred data.
Kriging variance The kriging variance E{[ Z (xo)- Z~ ]2} is simply the
minimum squared distance IIZ(xo)-Z~oW:
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563
0"
FIG. VIllA. Ordinary kriging defined as the projection of the unknown Z(xo) onto
the linear manifold C.
zt
This projection,
=
following two conditions.
Ie. AK1",Za,
e.
Y
generating ell with Z",. Y E C j As Y is an arbitrary element of C 1
(for example, the mean value Y=(1!n)I",Z,,), the previous
orthogonality is characterized by the n relations
(Z(xo)-Zt{,.
Za - Y) = 0,
- Y),
Va = 1 to n.
these relations and, thus,
Va = 1 to n.
(VIII.5)
L AKlI'30''''13 -
J.LI =
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(T",X;),
Va = 1 to n.
564
MINING GEOSTATTSTICS
This system is simply the "ordinary" kriging system (V. 1) most commonly
used, at least in mining practice.
Kriging variance The corresponding minimum
2
E{[Z(xo)I2 } = IIZ(xo)-_
11 , is found to be
zt
zt
squared
distance
(VIIL6 )
Note that the system (VIII.5), as well as the expression (Vll1.6), can be
restated by replacing the non-centred covariance by the centred covariance
2
(.r~y = (Txy - m". The unknown value m is eliminated from these equations,
thanks to the unbiasedness condition L" A Kw = 1. Similarly, these equations can also be written by replacing the covariance function (Txy by the
semi-variogram function 'Yxy defined by
2!,->:1,'
= (T~x
+ (T~y
.-
2(T~y
E{Z(x)} = m(x) =
addx).
1=, 1
The unbiasedness condition (VIII. 1) thus restricts the search for a linear
estimator to the linear manifold CL c t:" defined by the L following conditions on the weights:
VI
1 to L.
LAKI.,f3f,(xf3)=f/(xo),
AK,pu." -
f3
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L
I
!Ldl(x.)~
VI=ltoL,
o:"
Va
(VIII.?)
1 to n.
565
(F~L
a X"X()
LA
Ku..(TaX(J
+ L Mdl(xo),
(VIlI.8)
Once again, note that the relations (VIII.7) and (VIII. 8) can be written in
terms of the centred covariance a~f3 Of the serni-variogram Yaf3'
Prerequisites to obtain ZL. The form of the drift m(x), i.e., the L
functions fl(x), is assumed to be known, and the statement of the kriging
system (VIII.7) requires the knowledge of the covariance function (centred
or not) or of the serni-variogram. In practice, since only one realization of
the non-stationary RF Z(x) is available, problems arise in the inference of
the non-stationary covariance E{Z(x)Z(y)}, d. section V.A.2, G.
Matheron (1971, pp. 188), P. Delfiner, (1975).
VIII.A.2. Conditional expectation
If {2m a = 1 to n} are the n available data, the most general form for an
estimator Z* is a measurable function f(Zr, Zz, ... ,2,,) of these data. The
set H" of all these measurable functions of n data is a vector space which
contains, in particular, the vector subspace 'it:" generated by all the linear
combinations La AaZo. of the n data. As H" is the widest space where the
search for an estimator can be carried out, the projection of the unknown
Z(xo) onto H" is the best possible estimator of Z(xo) that can be deduced
from the n data 2 m d. Fig. VIII.5. By definition, the best possible estimator is simply the conditional expectation of Z(xo), given the n data, d. J.
Neveu (1964, pp. 116), i.e.,
EnZo = E{Z(xo)/ Zj, 2 2 ,
...
,Z,,}.
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566
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
FIG.
zl(Z).
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567
uL
(VULlO)
Note that, because the transform function fPz is generally not linear, the
conditional expectation E,,2o is not linear with respect to the initial data
(21 , Z2,' .. ,21'1).
Prerequisites to obtain E"Zo through the process of simple linear kriging
applied to the transformed variable The transform function (fJz must be
known, and this requires the stationarity of the RF Z(x) and the knowledge of its univariate distribution function. Then, the linear kriging estimator U~o must be built, which requires the knowledge of the stationary
covariance function E{ U(x)U(y)}; the inference of this covariance must be
made from the available transformed data V (x..). Ultimately, the linear
kriging estimator U~o must be assumed to be identical to the conditional
expectation EnUo, which requires the assumption that all the multivariate
distributions of the transformed RF V(x) are Gaussian.
In practice, these prerequisites are seldom met all together, and the
non-linear estimator zt = E{tpz[ U(xo)/ Vb' .. , Un]} provided by this
non-linear estimation procedure differs from the true conditional expectation EnZo. However, and under the condition that the univariate distribution of Z(x) is well known, practice has shown that this non-linear
estimator zt is generally better than the estimators Z~o or Zit provided
by the direct linear kriging processes applied to the initial data, i.e., by
projection of the unknown Z(xo) onto either ~1'I+1 or the linear manifold
C, c ~n+l.
Example If the initial RF Z(x) has a lognormal multivariate distribution,
the simple linear kriging process is to be applied to the RF V(x) =
log Z(x), more precisely to the RF U(x) given by formula (VI.8). The
expression (VIlLI0) thus provides, if not the true conditional expectation
EtlZo, at least a non-linear estimator of the unknown value Zo- This
process, called "lognormal kriging" is developed in the addendum at the
end of the present section, VIlLA.
VIII.A. 3. Disjunctive kriging
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
estimators, one can look for an intermediate estimator, more accurate than
the linear estimators but with less severe prereq uisites than the conditional
expectation. For this, a projection space included in H" and including it"
must be considered. A good choice for this intermediate space is the vector
space D; generated by the sums of n single-variable measurable functions,
I.e.,
D; = {g\(ZI)+ g2(Z2) + ... + g,,(Z,,)}.
This space satisfies the inclusions 're" cD" c H". The "disjunctive kriging
process" is then, by definition, the process of projecting the unknown
Z(xo) on to D", d. Fig. VIII.6.
FIG. VIII.6. Disjunctive kriging defined as the projection of the unknown Z(xo)
onto D n
I:
VYED".
E{Z(xo)/ Zd
= E{Z6K I Z\},
E{Z(xo)/ Zn}
E{Z6KI z.].
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VIII INTRODUCTION TO
NON~LINEAR
GEOSTATISTICS
569
v{3 = 1 to n.
(VII I. 12)
o= 1
V{3 = I to n,
Let d{3 be the vector space generated by all the single-variable measurable
functions of the particular datum Z{3. The conditional expectation (3Z0 =
E{Z(xo)/Z{3} upon the datum Zf3 is, by definition, the projection of Z(xo)
on to dj3, and, thus, the vector Z (xo) - E{3Zo is orthogonal to any vector
g(Zj3)E d{3, i.e.,
V g(ZI3) E d 13
E{3Zo = E(:JZbK,
which is the system (VIlLI 1).
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't/{3
= 1 to n,
570
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
e m ' + a-' Z/ 2
C(h) =
m2[e~'(h)-11 =?
}
(j2
= m2(e<Y'2 -1).
(VIII. 13)
The problem consists in estimating the unknown Z(xo) from the n data
{Z" = Z(x,,), a = 1 to n}.
Consider the n transformed data {Y", = log Z", ll' = 1 to n} and the
conditional variable Y(xo)/ Yt> . . . , Y n The RF Y(x) being multivariate
normal, this conditional variable is also normal with expectation En Yo =
E{ Y(xo)j Yj; ... , Y n} and variance E{[ Y(xo)- En Yof}. Moreover, the
conditional expectation En Yo is identical to the simple linear kriging estimator of Y(xo) from the n data Y", i.e.,
En Yo = y~o
m'+I AKo"[Y,,,-m'].
(x
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I
~.
s-
TABLE
I-
Vector space
';n
H"
Kriging estimator
Estimation
variance
(;
=>
Prereq u isires
Conditional expectation
"Zo (best possible
estimator)
IIZ(xo)- "ZoIl2
(n + 1 j-variate
distributions, e.g.,
Z (x ) statio nary and
multivariate
Gaussian
Space of projection
Vector space
{Jl t. (Z,,)}
{f(Z!> . . . ,Z,,}}
Vector space
if"H
{Ao + A"Z,,}
=>
(TDK
Bivariate distributions.
In practice,
stationarity of Z (x).
Zk"
2
(TKo
11:
The (n + I) expectations.
The covariance
function. In practice,
stationarity of Z (x).
~.
'"
A"Z"
+ L conditions
on A"
Disjunctive kriging
estimator ZbK
",;
Linear manifold
CL
=>
'--
__
nm
__ n
Universal kriging
estimator ZkL
2
~ (TKL
m(x}=
aJI(x).
I~l
The covariance
function.
Stationarity of
Z(x) not required
if L > 1.
Linear estimators
V
.l
572
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
The n weights AK w r are determined from the simple linear kriging system
(VIII,3), and the variance E{[ Y(xo)-E n Yof} is simply the corresponding
kriging variance aIfo given by expression (VIII.4).
Consider now
the conditional
variable
Z(xo)/ Z], , .. , Z; =
exp [ Y (xo)]/ Z I, . . . ,Z". This variable is lognormally distributed, and its
expectation EnZo is deduced from the parameters of the distribution of
Y(xo)/ Y i , . . . , Y n through the formulae (VIIL13), i.e.,
"Zo = E{Z(x()/ ZI, ... , Zn} = exp [ y~() + alZo/ 2].
(VIILI4)
(VIII. IS)
Prerequisites to obtain EnZo The RF Z(x) must be stationary and multivariate lognormal, and the expressions (VIIL14) and (VIII. 15) require the
knowledge of the expectation and covariance (of either Z(x) or Y(x) =
log Z(x.
zt
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573
experimental estimation variance) than the classical linear kriging estimators (simple or ordinary) that can be built directly from the initial data Zo..
tz,
Z~K =
0.=
fa(Za).
I
Vf3 = 1 to n.
a
v f3 = 1 to n.
(VIn.1 7)
~ Y(u)=o; u +du} = ~ e-
u2 2
/
du;
-..;27r
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
It can be shown that the density 0(u" Uj) can be expanded in a series of
Hermite polynomials 11k(U;):
00
(VIII. 19)
if k == k'
if k ~ k':
Consequently, from the expressions (VIII. 18) and (VIII. 19) of the Gaussian bivariate distribution of Y;, Yj" it follows that
r:
00
feu)
ATJk(U),
k=O
L:
ro
/k =
(f(u), Tlk(U
f(U)71k(U)G(du),
E{f(Y;)/Yj.}=
k=O
P~/k71k(lj).
(VIII.20)
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575
Y(X)=cp-l[Z(X)].
and
fII(U) =
.
L 'Pk 71du).
k=O
"
"
L lA Y",) = L L
0'=1
O'=lk=O
{a,k.11k( Ya ).
'Vf3 = 1 to n.
This sytem is satisfied if and only if, for any k
"
\~
I...
P al3
t.a.k: = POI3'Pk,
k
0 to K,
Vf3 = 1 to n.
(VIII.21 )
",=1
'L!n:.0 =
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Thus, the disjunctive kriging process very simply reduces to the solving
of K systems {k = 1 to K} of simple linear kriging type. The kriging matrix
of each system is deduced from the correlation matrix [Pa{3] by raising each
element Pec/3 to the power k.
Kriging variance
Taking account of the orthogonality of the two vectors Zo- Zt>K and
ZbK, i.e., E{[Zo- ZbK ]ZbK} = 0, the corresponding estimation variance
or kriging variance is wri tten as
with
zs
\~
2
E { 2} =f..,
({'k,
E{ZOZ~K}
k' a
k:
= L\' tpk 'f.
c: ec.kpO,r
(}I
It follows that
(VIIL22)
Note that the expression in brackets, ['Pk - LCtfa,kP~a], is similar to the
expression of a simple linear kriging variance, ct. expression (VIllA).
vu 1
(for this, it is enough to take fcr,k = 0, Va, Vk # 1) and
VI3=lton.
a
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577
The last n equations (for k = 1) are the simple linear kriging system of the
unknown z; d. (VIII. 3).
Thus, the disjunctive kriging estimator is written as
ZbK =
L f".1'TJ1(Z",) = - L fa,lZa = zt
a
Hence, under the hypothesis of univariate and bivariate Gaussian distribution, the disjunctive kriging estimator is identical to the simple linear
kriging estimator. If the multivariate distribution of Z(x) is assumed to be
Gaussian, the two estimators Zt;K and Zk o are identical to the conditional
expectation E".Zo, which is the best possible estimator.
cp( Y)
and
Y = ({J -1(Z).
=~
V
Prob
{Y(x)~ yj Y
.. ,
Yn } dx
(VIIL23)
with
YC=lj?-l(ZC) and
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
fycCY)=
I !k . l1k(Y)
k=O
with
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579
Let g(u)=(l/.J(21Te-- u 2 /2 be the Gaussian density and G(y) the corresponding distribution function. Taking account of the definition (VI.21) of
the Hermite polynomials H k(x), the parameters tk can be expressed as
vu
"
L L
k=O
a= I
The n(K + 1) unknown parameters fa,k are determined from the disjunctive kriging systems (VIII.21), i.e., for each k = 0 to K,
n
p:l3fo:,k
= !kTk(V, (3),
Vf3 = 1 to n,
0:=1
where
T k ( V, (3) = ~ f [Px.a]k dx.
V v
By putting Aa,k = !a,klik, these systems can be written as
n
L
a=1
P~I3Aa,k
T k ( V, {3),
V{3 = 1 to n,
(VIII. 24)
LA L Aa,k1]k( Yo: )
k
(VIII.25)
Yc
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(VIII.26)
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
(VIII.27)
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Bibliography
This bibliography is divided into three sections.
Section A concerns the field of mathematical methods applicable to
geology and, more generally, to analysis of data distributed in space. Most
of the works cited here, and especially those of F. Agterberg, J. Davis and
G. S. Koch, include remarkable bibliographical lists with adequate comments, to which the reader - geologist or miner ~ can refer.
Section B lists the theoretical and methodological basic references on
geostatistics as viewed by G. Matheron.
Section C lists the main practical applications of geostatistics, covering
various earth sciences fields, and essentially the mining field.
Abbreviations
CG Centre de Geostatistique, 35 rue St Honore, 77305 Fontainebleau,
France
ENSMP Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines de Paris, 60 Boulevard
Saint-Michel, 75006 Paris, France.
* The asterisk indicates the works that, in our opinion, are a must in a
somewhat complete geostatistical library.
"Geostat 75" NATO A.S.!. Congress "Geostat 75", Rome, Italy. The
proceedings are edited by M. Guarascio, M. David, and Ch. Huijbregts,
and published by Reidel Publishing Corporation, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
581
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582
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
A. MATHEMATICAL METHODS
Abramovitz, M. and Stegun, r. (1965). Handbook of Mathematical Functions,
Dover Publ., New York.
Agterberg, F. P. (1974). Geomathematics - Mathematical Background and Geoscience Applications, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Bass, J. (1974) Elements de Calcuf des Probabilites, Masson, Paris.
Beckmann, P. (1973). Orthogonal Polynomials for Engineers and Physicists,
Golem Press, Boulder, Co.
Cailliez, F. and Pages, J. P. (1976). Introduction l'Analyse des Donnees, Societe
Mathernatiques Appliquees, Paris.
Cooley, W. (1971). Multivariate Data Analysis, Wiley and Sons, New York.
Demidovitch, B. and Maron, I. (1973). Elements de Ca lcul Numerique, Mir, Moscow.
Doob, J. L. (1953) Stochastic Processes, Wiley and Sons, New York.
Feller, W. (1966-68). An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications,
Vols 1 and 2, Wiley and Sons, New York.
Formery, Ph. (1974). Cours de Probabilites, Vols 1 and 2, ENSMP, Paris.
Fraser, A. S. (1958) Statistics: an Introduction, Wiley and Sons, New York.
Gastinel, N. (1966). Analyse Numerique Lineaire, Hermann, Paris.
Hamming, R. W. (1971). Introduction to Applied Numerical Analysis, McGrawHill, New York.
Householder, (1953). Principles of Numerical Analysis, McGraw~Hill, New York.
Householder, (l964). The Theory ofMatrices in Numerical Analysis, Blaisdell, New
York.
Jenkins, G. M. and Watts, D. G. (1968). Spectral Analysis and its Applications,
Holden-Day, San Francisco.
Koch, G. S. and Link, R. F. (1970-71). Statistical Analysis of Geological Data,
Vols 1 and 2, Wiley and Sons, New York.
Neveu, J. (1964). Bases Mathematiques du Calcul des Probabilites, Masson, Paris.
Rohatgi, V. K. (1976). An Introduction to Probability Theory and Mathematical
Statistics, Wiley and Sons, New York.
Ventsel, H. (1973). Theone des Probabilites, Mir, Moscow.
Westlake, J. R. (1968). A Handbook of Numerical Matrix Inversion and Solution of
Linear Equations, Wiley and Sons, New York.
B. GEOSTATISTICAL METHODOLOGY
Alfaro, M. (I974). lntroduccion practica a la Geoestadistica, ETS Ingenieros de
Minas, Madrid.
Alfaro, M. (1975). Aplicaciones de fa Teoria de la Variable Regionalizada, ETS
Ingenieros de Minas, Madrid.
Carlier, A. (1964). Contribution aux methodes destimation des gisements
d'uranium, Doctoral Thesis, Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique, Paris,
Report no. 2352.
David, M. (1975). The practice of kriging, in "Geostat 75", pp. 31-48.
*David, M. (1977). Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
583
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MINING GEOSTATISTICS
584
c.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
585
79.
Alfaro, M. (1976). Aplicacion de la Teoria de las Funciones Aleatorias al reconocimiento forestal, in Trabajos de Estadistica y de Lnoestigacion operatiua,
Internal Report, ETS de Ingenieros de Minas, Madrid.
Alfaro, M. (1977). Reconnaissance heterogene et geosratistique, in Proceedings of
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era
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Forrnery, Ph. (1963). Etude geostatistique du gisement d'Ity Mont Flotuo, Internal CG report.
"Francois-Bongarcon, D. and Marechal, A. (1976). A new method for open-pit
design and parametrization of the final pit contour in Proceedings of the 14th
International APCOM Symposium, Pennsylvania State University, Oct. 1976,
pp.573-583.
Guarascio, M. (1974). Valutazione dei Giacimenti Minerari: l'approccio geostatistico, L'lndustria Mineraria, March, 1-20.
Guarascio, M. (1975). Improving the uranium deposit estimations (the Novazza
case), in "Geostat 75", pp. 351-367.
Guarascio, M. and Raspa, G. (1974). Valuation and production optimization of a
metal mine, in Proceedings of the 12th International APCOM Symposium,
Golden, Colorado, April 1974, pp. F50-F64.
Guarascio, M. and Turchi, A. (1976). Exploration data management and evaluation techniques for uranium mining projects, in Proceedings of the 14th International APCOM Symposium. Pennsylvania State University, Oct. 1976, pp.
451-464.
Guibal, D. (1973a). Les fonctions auxiliaires a deux dimensions pour le schema
spherique, Internal, Report N-347, CO, Fontainebleau.
Guibal, D. (1973b). L'estirnation des okournes du Gabon, Internal Report N-333,
CG, Fontainebleau.
Guibal, D. (1976). Elementos de geostadistica aplicada, Apuntes del Serninario
de Minero-Peru, June 1976, Internal report, Minero-Peru, Lima.
Haas, A. and Jousselin, C. (1975). Geostatistics in the petroleum industry, in
"Geostat 75", pp. 333-347.
Haas, A. and Mollier, M. (1974). Un aspect du calcul d'erreur sur les reserves en
place d'un gisement: l'influence du nombre et de la disposition spatiale des
puits, Revue de l'1.F.?, 29, 507~527.
Haas, A. and Viallix, J. R. (1976). Krigeage applied to geophysics, Geophysical
Prospecting, 24,49-69.
Huijbregts, Ch. (I 971 a). Courbes d'isovariance en cartographic automatique,
Sciences de la Terre, 16, 291-301.
Huijbregts, Ch. (1971 b) Reconstitution du variograrnme ponctuel a partir d'un
variogramme experimental regularise , Internal Report N-244, CG, Fontainebleau.
Huijbregts, Ch. (1973). Regionalized variables and application to quantitative
analysis of spatial data, in Proceedings of NATO A.S./. "Display and Analysis
of Spatial Data", Wiley and Sons, London and New York, pp. 38-53.
Huijbregts, Ch. (1975c) Estimation of a mass proved by random diamond drillholes, in Proceedings of the 13th APCOM Symposium, Clausthal, West
Germany, Oct. 1975, pp. A.I. 1-17.
Huijbregts, Ch. and Journel, A. (1972) Estimation of lateritic type are bodies, in
Proceedings of the 10th International APCOM Symposium, Johannesburg, April
1972, pp. 207-212.
Huijbregts, Ch. and Segovia, R. (1973). Geostatistics for the valuation of a copper
deposit, in Proceedings of the 11 th International APCOM Symposium, University of Arizona, Tucson, April 1973. pp. D24-D43.
Journel, A. (1969). Etude sur l'estimation d' une variable regionalisee: application
fa cartographie sous-marine. Service Hydrographique de la Marine,
Paris.
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588
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Journel, A. (1973b). Geostatistics and sequential exploration. Mining Engineering, Oct., 44--48.
Journel, A. (l974c). Grade fluctuations at various scales of a mine output, in
Proceedings of the 12th International APCOM Symposium, Golden, Colorado,
April 1974, pp. F78-F94.
Journel, A. (1975d). Ore grade distributions and conditional simulations - two
geostatistical approaches, in "Geostat 75", pp. 195-202.
"Journal, A. and Sans, H. (1974). Ore grade control in subhorizonta! deposits,
Transactions of the Institution for Mining and Metallurgy. Bulletin 812, A 74A84.
Journel, A. and Segovia, R. (1974). Improving block estimations at EI Teniente
copper mine (Chile), Internal Report N-371, CG, Fontainebleau.
Krige, D. G. (1966). Two-dimensional weighted moving average trend surfaces for are valuation, in Proceedings of the Symposium on Mathematics,
Statistics and Computer Applications in are Valuation, Johannesburg, 1966.
South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Johannesburg.
Krige, D. G. (1973). Computer applications in investment analysis, are valuation
and planning for the Prieska copper mine. Proceedings of the l l tk International
APCOM Symposium, University of Arizona, Tucson, April 1973, pp. G31047.
Krige, D. G. (1975). A review of the development of geostatistics in South Africa,
in "Geostat 75", pp. 279-293.
Krige, D. G. (1976). Some basic considerations in the application of geostatistics
to gold are valuation, Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, May.
Krige, D. G. and Rendu, J. M. (1975). The fitting of contour surfaces to hanging
and footwall data for an irregular ore body, in Proceedings of the 13th International APCOM Symposium, Clausthal, West Germany, Oct. 1975, pp. C.V.
1-12.
LaIIement, B. (1975). Geostatistical valuation of a gold deposit, in Proceedings of
the 13th International APCOM Symposium, Clausthal, West Germany, Oct.
1975, pp. I. IV. 1-15.
Le Du, R. (1976). Etude geologique et geostatistique de la mineralisation en
molybdene du gisement de Mont Copper, Mernoire M.Sc.A., Ecole Polytechnique, Montreal.
"Marbeau, J. P. (1976). Geostatistique Iorestiere, Doctoral Thesis, CG, Fontainebleau.
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sizes, in Proceedings of the 13th International APCOM Symposium, Clausthal,
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Nov., 1-12.
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on a simulated orebody, in "Geostat 75", pp. 137-161.
Marechal, A. and Roullier, J. P. (1970). Etude geostatistique des gisements de
bauxite Francais, Revue de l'Industrie Minerale, 52, 492-507.
Marechal, A. and Shrivastava, P. (1977). Geostatistical study of a lower proterOZOIC iron orebody in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Proceedings
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SIBLIOG RAPHY
589
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590
MINING GEOSTATISTICS
Royle, A. G. (1977). How to use geostatistics for ore reserve classification, World
Mining, Feb. 52-56.
Royle, A. G., Newton, M. J. and Sarin, H. K. (1972). Geostatistical factors in
design of mine sampling programmes, Transactions of the Institution for Mining
and Metallurgy, 81, A81-A88.
Royle, A. G. and Hosgit, E. (1974). Local estimation of sand and gravel reserves
by geostatistical methods, Transactions of the Institution for Mining and Metallurgy. 83, A53-A62.
Rutledge, R. W. (1973). Geostatistics, an introduction, in Proceedings of the
ANZAAS Meeting, August 1973, Perth, Australia.
Rutledge, R. W. (1975). The potential of geostatistics in the development of
mining, in "Geostat 75", pp. 295-311.
.
Sabourin, R. (1975). Geostatistical evaluation of the sulphur contents in Lingan
coal mine, Cape Breton, in Proceedings of the 13th International APCOM
Symposium, Clausthal, West Germany, Oct. 1975, pp. I. II. 1-16.
Sandefur, R. L and Grant, D. C. (1976). Preliminary evaluation of uranium
deposits. A geostatistical study of drilling density in Wyoming solution fronts,
in Proceedings of the 1976IAEA Meeting, Vienna, Austria.
Sichel, H. S. (1972). Statistical valuation of diamondiferous deposits, in Proceedings of the 10th APCOM Symposium, Johannesburg, 1972 pp. 17-25.
Sinclair, A. J. a nd Deraisme, 1. (1974). A geosta tistical study of the Eagle coppe r
vein, N. British Columbia, CIMM Bulletin, June, 1-12.
Sinclair, A. J. and Deraisrne, J. (1975). A two-dimensional statistical study of a
skarn deposit, Yukon Territory, Canada, in "Geostat 75", pp. 369-379.
Serra, J. (1967b). Un critere nouveau de decouvertes de structures: Ie variogramme, Sciences de la Terre, 12, 275-299.
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April 1975; Report N-387, CG, Fontainebleau.
Tulcanaza, E. (1972). Personal communication.
Ugarte, 1. (1972). Ejemplos de modelos de estimacion a corto y largo plaza,
Boletin de Geoestadistica, 4, 3-22.
Walton, J. (1972). Resumen de un estudio de estirnacion de bloque grande de
block-caving, Boletin de Geostadistica, 4, 43-54. Universidad de Chile,
Zwicky, R. W, (1975). Preliminary geostatistical investigations of tar-bearing
sands, in Proceedings of the 13th APCOM Symposium, Clausthal, West
Germany, Oct. 1975, pp. I. III. 1-15.
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Index A.
Geostatistical Concepts
A
Behaviour
at
infinity
(of
a
variograrn) 39
Behaviour near the origin (of a variogram) 38,44,232
Bias (of an estimation), see also Nonbias condition 49
Bivariate distribution of true and estimated values 457, 465
Bivariate Gaussian distribution 573
Border effect (on the dispersion) 64
Border term (of the globai estimation
variance) 437,442
c
Cauchy algorithm (for integral calculation) 99, 109
Cauchy-Gauss method (for calculation
of mean value ii) 98, 106
Charts (for auxiliary functions) 116,
123
Class of angles and distances, see Grouping into-
Cokriging 324,335,340
Combining terms of estimation 411,
441
Conditional non-bias 458, 462
Conditional expectation 457,565
Conditional
positive
definite
function 35, 161
Conditional simulation, see also Simulation of deposits 492,494
Confidence interval 14, 50, 57,60
Convolution product 504
Coregionalization 40, 47, 171, 253,
256,516
Correlation coefficient 41, 256
Correlogram 33
Covariance 31,34,36, 194
Covariogram, see Geometric covariogram, or Transitive covariogram
Cross-covariance and variogram 40,
171,260
o
Data file 356, 361
Deconvolution 90,231,270
Discontinuity at the origin of a variogram, see also Nugget effect 39
Discrete approximation of a block 96,
511
Direct variogram, see Variogram
Disjunctive kriging 567,573,575
Dispersion of grades 68, 70, 74, 297,
491
Dispersion variance 61,67,157,246,
297,450
Drift 40, 271, 313, 331, 500, 530
591
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592
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L
Lagrange procedure
306, 317
M
Massive deposits 391
Mean value y or C 95, 123
Measurement error 148, 197, 340
Models of variograrns 161, 230, 236
Moment of order 1, see Expectation
Moment of order 2, see A priori variance
Moving average 56, 505
Multivariate distribution 30, 509
N
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593
o
Ordinary kriging 304, 563
Optimum sampling grid 181,308
P
Permanence of distribution
hypotheses 468,481
Positive definite-type function 35,
161, 171, 260
Prerequisites for the construction of a
kriging estimator 562,571
Product of two regionalized variables 424, 443
Proportional
effect
(direct
or
inverse) ]86,247,250,278
Pure nugget effect 39, 152, 154, 157,
229,312
Q
480,483,554
Reduced difference (regionalized variable) 427
Regionalization and Regionalized variable 10,27,199,494
Regular grid 209, 413
Regularization (process of) 77, 89,
155,231
Residual
(fluctuation
around
a
drift) 314, 530
Resources, see In situ resources
Robustness with respect to the structural
model 167,233,245
Robustness of a sim ulation 491, 510
594
207
Stockpile (for homogenization) 548
Stratiform deposits 386
Structural analysis 12, 148, 195,236
Structural anisotropy or isotropy, see
Anisotropy or Isotropy
Support of the information 77, 148,
199,231
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to be estimated 15,350
of selection 21, 445
T
Transfer
function
(direct
indirect) 577
Transition phenomenon 37, 163
Transitive theory 411, 429
Turning
bands
method
simulation) 498,508,526
or
(for
U
Unbiasedness 49, 305,458
Univariate distribution 78, 468, 508
Universal kriging or Unbiased kriging of
order k 313,331,393,564
Y
Yariogram 11,31,34,162,207,227
Variography, see also Structural analysis 195,227
Vein type deposits 405
W
Weighted average, see Moving average
Z
Zero effect (on the calculation of 1')
Zonal anisotropy 181, 266
Zone of influence 13, 37
96
595
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Index C.
FORTRAN Programs
FUNCTI0N GBAR}
FUNCTI0N F
FUNCTI0N GAM
GAMA I}
GAMA 2
GAMA 3
CLAS
KRI3D
RELMS}
REITER
SIMUL
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184
219
220
223
596
-----
103
536
Index D. Notations
The notations appear as they do chronologically in the text.
(au, Ov, Ow)
indicates the reference system of rectangular coorx, or x
h, or hi
ReV
RV
RF
z(x), y(x), a(x), ...
Var{Z(x)}
C(h)
y(h)
p(h)
Aj , Aj , or A", A~
a
C, or K
Ckk"(h)
"Ykk,(h)
V, or Vex)
v, or v(x)
F(u)
dinates.
indicate a point of coordinates x or x"' (x"' xu),
(x"' xu, x w ) according to whether a one-, two- or
three-dimensional space is considered.
indicate a vector of modulus Ih 1= r, and threedimensional coordinates (h u , h.; h w ) .
generally indicates a direction in space, but can also
be a data index.
indicate one-, two- or three-dimensional space,
respectively. Thus x E R 3 indicates a point x taken in
the three-dimensional space.
abbreviation for regionalized variable.
abbreviation for random variable.
abbreviation for random function.
in lower-case letters, indicate regionalized variables
or realizations of random functions.
in upper-case letters, indicate the corresponding
random variables or functions.
indicates the expectation of the RF Z (x).
indicates the a priori variance of the RF Z (x).
indicates a stationary covariance function.
indicates a stationary semi-variogram function.
indicates a stationary correlogram function.
indicates the weights of linear combinations.
generally indicates the range of a variogram model.
generally indicate the sill of a variogram model.
indicates a stationary cross-covariance.
indicates a stationary cross-serni-variogram.
indicates the correlation coefficient between two RV
z, and Zk"
indicate a domain centred at point X
indicate a domain (generally of smaller dimensions
than V) centred at point x. v could also indicate the
second coordinate of the reference axes system (O,
Ov, Ow).
indicates the cumulative distribution function F(u) =
Prob{Z < u}, and, more often,
597
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598
INDEX D. NOTATIONS
F(l)
z*,y*,t*, .
Z*, Y*, T*,
.
Vv
O"~(v, V)
2
CTCK
D 2 (v/ V)
D 2(O; V)
D 2 (vl oo )
)',,(h), or
c.(h)
)'f(h)
)'oCh)
g(x)= 11*/2
f fJ(X - y)/2(Y) dy
/(x)=f(-x)
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dx",.
-or)
f f
dx
"
INDEX D. NOTATIONS
1 if x E V
o if not
Zk(X)=Z*f(
k(x)= {
viED
oc D
vn V
vU V
rb
vnv=rb
yo(h) = [Co(O) - Ca(h)]
Co = CoCO) = yo(h),
\flhl > E
C ov = Yav (h),
[K]
[M2]
[A]
599
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600
INDEX D. NOTATIONS
b~=.!rfb)dx
v J,
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" Geostatistics is the application of the formalism of random func tions to the reconnaissance
and estima tion of natural phenomena. ,.
With this definitio n, G. Mathe ron introd uced the term geostatlstlcs in 1962 to describe a
scientific approach to evaluation problems in geology and mining, from ore reserve estim ation to grade control. This approach provides, in application, a coherent and efficient set
of techniques enabfing the geologist, mining engineer or metallurgist to use available
informatio n and obtai n more accurate esti mates.
This book , the first complete reference work on the subject of mining geostatistics, is an
atte mpt to synthesize the practical experience gained by researchers fro m the Centre de
Morphologie Mathematiqu e of Fontainebleau, France, and by mining engineers and geologists all over th e w orld w ho have cont ributed their ideas to th e question. It is designed for .
students and engineers wh o wis h to apply qeostatistlc s to practical problems occurring in
the lifetime of a mine, and for this reason, it has been built around typi cal problems
progressing from the simplest to th e most complicated: structural analysis, guiding exploration, estimation of in situ resources and recoverable reserves, numerical models of deposits,
simulation of mining and homogenization processes, are grade control at production. An
exhaustive FORTRAN package is given, and the techniques developed are illustrated by a
large number of case studies. As an aid to the reader, each chapter starts with a summary of
contents, and there is a guide to the nota tion used.
The book is written by practising and experienced mining engineers for the benefit of other
practitioners, and should become the standard reference text for the field during the
1980's. It is intended for the mining industry at the exploration and project level; for
university departments of mining , geology and mineralogy; and also for the postgraduate
student in a number of related fields such as geophysics, meteorology, geochemistry ,
bathymetry and geological engineering.
From reviews of the casebound edition
' 7 he book is a practical treatis e, written by practising mmmg engineers and in tended f or
other practising engin eers. .. the best summary of geostatistical th eory as it stands at the
present time and as one of the standard reference texts for the next few years."
Mining Ma gazine
"Ibis is the book for which so many of us have been waiting: a p ractical, authoritative and
scholarly w ork on geostatistics applied to mining . It is well written, well illustrated and
usable both as a tex tboo k for advanced students of mining geology and as a reference book
for professionals . . . altogether a g ood book, the bes t available on the subject. ..
C.J. Dixon in IM M Bulletin
Academic Press
Harcourt Brace Jovanovi ch . Publishers
LONDON
m KYO
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24/2 8 Ch1II Road . london NWI l OX. &,:Iand
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