i.?PEi{ Dli.

Mineral and Rock ldentification

MI N ERAL IDENTIFICATION
Table C.3 lists many of the more common minerals. Representarive chemical formulas are provided for reference. Some appear
complex because of opportunities for solid solution; some have

been simplihed by limiting the range of compositions represented, although additional elemental substitutions are possible.
A few general identification guidelines and comments:
Hardness is at approximate measure of how readily a min-

rsrel describes the surface sheen of a mineral sample, and

tems (such as metallic, pearly, earthy)

are self-explanatory.
Cleavage is a mineral's tendency to break preferentally along
certain planes of weakness in the crystal structure.
the

Minerals showing metallic lustq are usually sulfides (or

native metals, but these are much rarer). Native metals have
been omitted from table C.2. Those few that are likely to be en-

eral scratches, oris scratched by, other minerals. Values ofhardness range from I (softest) to l0 (hardest) and are measured
against the ten reference minerals of the Mohs hardness scale
(table C.l). For example, a mineral that scratches quaz and is

countered, such as native copper or silver, may be identified by

their resemblance to household examples of the same metals.
Of the nonmetals, the silicates are generally systematically
harder than the nonsilicates. Hardnesses of silicates are typically over 5, with exceptions principally among the sheet silicates; many of the nonsilicates, such as sulfates and carbonates,

scratched by topaz would have a hardness of 7%.

are much softel

ru

Distinctive luster, cleavage, or other identifying Foperties

are listed under the column "Other Characteristics." In a few
cases- this column notes resrictions on the occurrence of certain
minerals as a possible clue to identification; for example, "found
only in metamorphic rocks," or "often found in pegmatites."

The Mohs Hardness Scale

A Note on Mineral Formulas

Mineral
talc

gypum

<- (hngernail)
calcite

e
fluorite

apatite

(copper penny)

<- (glass, pocketknife blade)

orthoclase

qratlz
fop^z
corundum
diamond

'l
8

l0

Hrdnesses ofsome common materiah are idicaEd for reference'

518

Each chemical element is denoted by a otre- or two-letter symbol. Many of these symbols make sense in terms of the Engsh
name for the element-O for oxygen, He for helium, Si for sil

icon, and so on. Other symbols reflect the fact that, in earlier
centuries, scientists were generally versed in Latin or Geek:
The symbols Fe for iron and Pb for lead, for example, are deited from ferrum and plumbum, respectively, the Latin names
for these elements.
The chemical symbols for the elements can express the
compositions of substances very precisely. Subscripts after a
symbol indicate e number of atoms/ions of one element present in proportion to the other elements in the formula. For example, the formula FqAl2Si3Or2 represents a compound in
which, for every twelve oxygen atoms, there ale three iron
atoms, two aluminum atoms, and three silicon atoms. (This happens to be a vadety of the mineral garnet.) The chemical

Mineral and Rock

fomula is much briefer than describing the composition in
words. It is also more exact than the mineral name ,,garnet,,'for
there arc several compositions of garnets with the same basic
kind of formula and crystal structure: Other examples include a
calcium-aluminum garnet with the fomula CarAlrSirO,, and a
calcium-chromium garnet, Ca,CrrSi,O,. Moreover, chemical
formulas are understood by all scientists, while mineral names
are known primarily to geologists.
Formulas can become very complex, especially when different elements can substitute for each other in the same site in the
crystal stucture. Iron and magnesium often do this in silicates.
Biotite, a cornmon, dark-colored mica, may be rich in iron and
have a formula of KFe,AlSirO,o(OH)r, or it may be rich in mag
nesium and have a fomula of KMg,AlSiaOl(OH)2, or, more
commonly, it may contain some iron and some magnesium, which
together total three atoms per formula. The generalized formula is
then K(Fe,Mg),AlSiaO,(OH)2, as it appears in table C.2.

guidelines:
1

2.

Glassy rocks or rocks containing bubbles are volcanic.

Coarse-grained rocks with tightly interlocking crystals are
likely to be plutonic, especially if they lack foliation.

3. Coarse-grained sedimentary rocks differ from plutonic

ocks in that the grains in the sedimentary rocks tend to

APPENDIX C

5',1

be more rounded and to interlock less closely. A breccia

does have angular fragments, but the fragments in a beccia are typically rock fragments, not individual mineral

crystals.

4.

Rocks that are not very cohesive, that cumble apart easily
into individual grains, are generally clastic sedimentary
rocks. One other possibility would be a poorly consolidated
volcanic ash, but this should be recognizable by the nature
of the grains, many of which will be glassy shards. (Note,
however, that extensive weathering can make even a granite crumble.)

5. More cohesive, fine-grained sedimentary

rocks may be distinguished from fine-grained volcanics because sedimentary rocks are generally softer and more likely to show a
tendency to break along bedding planes. Phenocrysts, of
coulse. indicate a (porphyritic) volcanic rock.

6. Foliated metamorphic

rocks are distinguished by their foliation (schistosity, compositional banding). Also, rocks containing abundant mica, gamet, or amphibole are commonly
metamorphic rocks.

ROCK IDENTIFICATION
One approach to rock identification is to decide whether the
sample is igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic and then look
at the detailed descriptions in the corresponding chapter How
does one identify the basic rock type? Here are some general

ldentification

7.

Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks, like quartzite and marble, resemble thei sedimentary parents but are harder, denser, and
more compact. They may also have a shiny or glittery appearace on broken surfaces, due to rccrystallization duing metamoryhism.

Once a preliminary determination of category (igneous,/

sedimentary/metamorphic) has been made, table C.3 can b
used in conjunction with the appropriate text chapter to identif]
the rock type. (Keep in mind, however, that e key and re\r focus on relatively common rock types.)

IEilg
A Brief Mineral ldentification Key
Formula
amphibole (e.9., hombleude)

(Na,Ca)z(Mg,Fe,Al)sSi8O22(OH)2

green, blue, brown, black

apatite

Cq(PO)(RCl,OH)

usually yellowish

azuaite

Cu3(C03(OH),

vivid blue

barite

BaSOn

colorless

beryl

Be3Al2Si6O rs

aqua to green

biotite (a mica)

K(Mg,FeAlSi3O ro(OH),

black

bomite

Cu5FeS

iridescent blue, purple

clcite

CaCOr

variable; colorless if pure

chalcopyrite

CUFeS?

brassy yellow

cblorite

(Mg,Fe)j(Si,Al)aOro(OH

light green

cinmba

Hgs

red

coundum

Arzo

variable; colorless in pure form

covellite

CuS

blue

dolomite

CaMg(CO3),

white or pink

epidote

CarRAlrSi3Orr(OH)

green

fluorite

CaF,

variable; often green or purple

galena

PbS

silver-gray

garnet

(Ca,Mg,Fe(Fe,Al)rSi30 D

variablel often dark red

graphite

dark gray

gypum

CaSOa ' 2HrO

colorless

halite

NaCl

colorless

hematite

Fqo

red or dark glay

kaolinite

Alrsiro5(oH)

white

kyanite

Alrsio5

blue

limonite

FeaO3(OH)6

yellow-brcwn

magnetite

FerOo

black

malachite

CurCO3(OH)2

green

molybdenite

MoS2

dark gray

muscote (a mic)

KAt3Si3Oro(OH),

colorless

olivine

(Fe,MgSioa

yellow-green

phlogopite

KMg,AlSi O'6(OH),

brown

plagioclase feldspar

(NaCaXAl,Si)rsirOs

white to gray

potassium feldspa

KAtSi3Os

white; often stained pink or aqua

pynte

FeS2

yetlow

pyoxene (e.g., augite)

(Na,Ca,Mg,FelSiro6

usually green or black

quartz

vaiable; commonly cololess or white

seryntine

sio2
M&SirOlOH)a

sillimanite

Al2sio5

white

sphalerite

ZnS

yellow-brown

staurolite

F%AleSiaoro(OH),

brown

sul

yellow

sylvite

KCI
Mg.SioO,(OH),
(NaCa),(Li,Mg,AlXAl,Fe,Mn)6{Bo)3Si6os(OH)a

cololess

talc

toumaline

520

green to yellow

white to green
black, red, green

Hardness
5 to 6
5
3% to 4
3 to 3'
1'lto 8
5%
3
3
3'

Other Characteristics
often forms needlelike crystals; two good cleavages forming l2Gdegree angle
crystals hexagonal in cross section

often associated with malachite

high specific gravity, 4.5 (denser than most silicates)
usually found in pegmatites
excellent cleavage into thin sheets
metallic luster
effervesces in weak acid

to 4

2to2k
2'A
9
ltL lo 2
3'Ato 4
6 to7
4
2%
7
I to2

cleaves into small flakes

earthy luster; may show silve flecks

most readily identied by its hardness

metallic luster
powdered mineral effervesces in acid
glassy luster
cleaves into octahedral fragments; may fluoresce in

ulraviolet light

metallic lusterl cleaves into cubes

glassy luster
skeaks like pencil lead

2Y
5' to

salty taste; cleaves into cubes

6'A

2
5 to7
2to3
6
3'A to 4
I fo 714
2to2k
6Yto1
2t4fo3
6
6
6 to 6'
5 to 7
7
3 to 5
6to'7
3Y to 4
7 to7%
ltL fo 2tA
2
I
'7 to1%

red-brown streak rcgardless of colo

eafhy luster
found in high-pressurc metamorphic rocks; often foms bladelike crystals

eafhy lustet yellow-bown streak

strongly magnetic
often foms in concentric rings of light and dak green
cleaves into flakes; more metallic luster than graphite
excellent cleavage into thin sheets
glassy luster

mica closely resemblirg biote

may show hne striations on cleavage surfaces
two good cleavages forming a go-degree angle: no striations
metallic lustel black streak
two good cleavages foming a 9o-degree angle
glassy luster; conchoidal fracture
waxy or silky luster; may be flbrcus (asbestos)
occurs only in metamorphic rocks; often forms needlelike crystats
glassy luster

found in metamorphic rccks; elongated crystals may have crosslike folm

sulfurous odo
cleaves into cubes; salty taste, but more bitter an halite
greasy or slippery to the touch
elongated crystals, tdangular in cross section; conchoidal fracture

521

;tl

Mineral and Rock ldentificaton

APPENDIX C

TEIilITE
A Key to Aid ln Rock ldentification
fneous Rocks
Ertremely coarse-grained: Rock is a pegmatite. (Most pegmatites ae gra tic, with or without exotic minerals.)

Mphanitic
A.

Quartz is visible or rock is light in color (white, cream,

prnk) : pr obably r hy o I te,
B. No visible quartz; medium tone (commonly gray or green);
if phenocrysts are present, commonly plagioclase, pyroxene,
or amphibole: probably andesite.

Phanedtic (coase enough that all grains are visibte to the naked
eye).

A.
B.

(grains too fine to distinguish easily with the

naked eye).

Significant quafz visible; only minor mafic minerals:

granite.
No obvious quatz; feldspar (light-coloed) and mafic minerals (dark) in simila amo].l,nts: diorite.

C. Rock is dak, commonly black any phenocrysts are olivine

ot pyrcxenei basah

C. No quartz; ock consists mosdy of mafic minerals: 8aro.

D. No visible quartz feldspar: Rock is ultamafic.
Poryhyritic with fine-grained groundmass: Go to Pat IV to de-

D. Rock

is glassy and massive: obsitl.ian (regardless

of

composition).

E. Rock consists of gritty mineral grains, ash and glass

scribe groundmass (using phenocryst compositions to asist);

adjective "porphyritic" will preface rock name.

i gnimb

shards:

rite (w elded fiff).

Sedimentary Rocks

I.
II.

B.

Rock consists of visible shell fragments ot of oolites; liestone.

Rock cosists of interlocking grains with texture somewhat like
that of igneous rock and is light in color probable chemical sedimentary rock.

A.

Tastes

C. Grains too ne to see rcadily with the naked eyet mudsto

like table salt lirire.

marked tastei hardness of 2 (if grains are lage enough to

scratch); does not effervescet gypsum.

D.

m.

Effervesces weakly in HCt, only

if

e.

If rock

shows lamination, and a tendency to part along paratlel planes, s&ale.

B. No

C. Effervesces in weak HCli lnestone (aalcite).

Sand-sized grains; gritty feel: saridstone. Ifpredominantly

qu.artz gtal].:s, quartz sandstone: if toughly equal proportions
of quartz and feldspar, arkose; if many rock fragments, and
perhaps a fine-grained matix, greywacke.

IV.

Relatively dense; compact, dark, no visible grains; massive texture, conchoidal fracture: cle, (silica).

scratcbed: dolomite.

Rock consists of grains apparently cemented or compacted together: probable clastic sedimentary rock.

A.

Coarse gmins (several millimeters or moe in diameter), perhaps with a finer matrix conglomerate if lhe graits arc
rctnded, breccia if they ae angular.

Metamorphic Rocks

I.

Nonfoliated; compact texture with interlocking grains: identied

by Fedominart mineral(s).

A. If quartz-rich,

perhaps with a sugary appeatance'- quarfzite.

B. If calcite or dolomite (identified by effervescence,

hardness):

marble.

C. Rock consists predominantly of amphiboles'. atnphibolite.

II.

Foliated: classified mainly by texture.

A. very

fine-gained; prcnounced rock cleavage along parallel

planes, to rcsemble flagstones: .tlr.

B.

Fine-graied; slatelike, but with glossy cleavage surfaces:

phyllite.

C. Coaser grains; obvious foliation, commonly defined by

prominent mica flakes, sometimes by elongated crystals like
amphiboles: sciisr.
banding, especially with altemating light (quafz, feldspar) and dark (ferromagesian) bands:

D. Compositional or textural
gneiss.