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a. From eqn. 2.4 : p2 p1 = g( z2 z1) and taking sea level as datum point 1, then :
p1 = 0 Nm 2 , = 1002 kgm 3 , g = 9.81 ms 2 , z 2 = 2000 m and z1 = 0 m .
p2 0 = 1002 9.81 (2000 0)
p2 = 19.66 MNm2
b. From eqn. 1.12, we know K =
dp
and from eqn. 2.17, p =gz giving :
d
2 g dz = K d
If it is assumed that z is measured from the surface and is negative as depth
increases, then :
dz d
g = 2
K
If it is assumed that K is constant over small pressure ranges, we can then integrate
z2 g
2 1
z1 K dz = 1 2 d
2
gz z 2 1
=
K z1
1
2 =
K 2 1
1gz + K
dp
But we know that :
= g
dz
K1
g dz
dp =
K + 1gz
1
dp = 1 g gz dz
1 + 1
K
1
1
Integrating, NB
dx = ln(1 + ax )
1 + ax
a
K 1 gz z2
p2 p1 = 1g
ln 1+
1 g
K z1 = 0
gz
p2 p1 = Kln 1+ 1 2
K
We know that p1 = 0 Nm 2 , K = 2.05 109 Nm 2 ,
z 2 = 2000 m , hence :
1002 9.81 ( 2000)
p2 0 = 2.05 109 ln 1 +
2.05 10 9
1 = 1002 kgm 3
and
2.2
p2 = 19.75 MNm2
a. From eqn. 2.4 : p2 p1 = g( z2 z1) . Taking the free surface as datum point 1
then, p1 = 0 Nm 2 , = 1000 kgm 3 , g = 9.81 ms 2 , z 2 = 12 m and z1 = 0 m .
p2 0 = 1000 9.81 (12 0)
p2 = 117.72 kNm 2
b. From eqn. 2.16 : p =gh + patm
ie Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Here, gauge pressure = 117720 Nm 2 and atmospheric pressure = 101000 Nm 2 .
Absolute pressure = 218.72 kNm 2
oil
2.5
2.6
2.7
[p
gas
120m
h
gas 1
gas
Y
2.8
water
Y
(2)
2.9
We know that specific gravity of oil = oil 0.75 = oil oil = 750 kgm3
H2 O
1000
Also, poil = oil gh (from eqn. 2.17) where g = 9.81 ms 2 and h = 2 m, hence
poil = 750 9.81 2 = 14715 Nm 2
Similarly, for water, where = 1000 kgm 3 , g = 9.81 ms 2 and h = 3 m :
pH2O = 1000 9.81 3 = 29430 Nm2
pressure at base = (0 +14715 + 29430) Nm 2
pressure at base = 44.145 kNm 2 (gauge)
Now, Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Absolute pressure = (44.145 10 3 ) + (1 10 5) Nm2
r3
r1
r2
r
1 1
1
r1 2h1 = r2 2h 2 . But h 1 = 0.5 m 0.25 1 = h 2
2
3
3
r2
r
r
r
h
Due to similarity : 1 = 2 1 = 1 hence :
h 1 h2
r2 h2
2
2
r
h
0.25 1 = h2 0.25 1 = h 2 .
r2
h2
Substituting for h 1 = 0.5 m
h 2 = h H2 O = 0.397 m .
2
2
2
r
r
1 0.25 1 = 3 h 3
R
R
r
R
r
R
Again by similarity : 1 =
and 3 =
h1 H
h3 H
r1 h1
r3 h 3
=
and =
giving :
R H
R H
2
2
h1
h3
1 0.25 = h 3
H
H
Substituting for h 1 and H :
2
2
0.5
h3
1 0.25 = h 3
1
1
h 3 = 0.979 m .
But this is the combined height ie h oil&H 2 O = h oil + h H2O
0.979 = h oil + 0.397
h oil = 0.582 m .
Taking H2 O =1000 kgm 3 and oil = 900 kgm 3 ((since spec gravity of oil = 0.9)
pressure at base = (900 9.81 0.582) + (1000 9.81 0.397)
pressure at base = 9033 Nm 2
2 . 1 2 a. Area of large piston = r 2 where r = 0.3 m A l = 0.283 m2
0.3
Area of small piston = r 2 where r =
= 0.0375 m As = 4.418 103 m 2
8
m=3500kg
ratio 8:1
If the mass supported by the larger piston is 3500 kg, then the force on the larger
area is given by : force = mg = 3500 9.81 = 34335 N
force
Since : pressure =
area
34335
pressure =
= 121.33 kNm 2
0.283
This is transmitted to the smaller piston with
no difference in height, hence p is unchanged :
force = p A s = 121.33 10 3 4.418 103
Force = 536 N
b. If the smaller piston is 2.6 m below the larger piston, then the additional pressure
on the smaller area is given by :
fluid
= 0.8 fluid = 800 kgm 3 .
1000
We also know : g = 9.81 ms 2 and h = 2.6 m,
p = 800 9.81 2.6 = 20.4 kNm 2
Since this is in addition to the 121.33 kNm2 , the total pressure is :
pT =121.33 + 20.4 kNm 2 = 141.73 kNm2
This pressure is applied over the area As , hence the force can be found from :
Here, we know spec. gravity =
=
dh
dh
RT
p
RT
Integrating from p = p1 when h = h1 to p = p 2 when h = h2
p
g
log e 2 =
(h h )
p1
RT 2 1
(h 2 h1 )
p
2 = e RT
p1
Also, since p2 = 2 RT and p1 = 1 RT then :
p2 2RT 2
=
=
p1 1RT 1
g
(h2 h1 )
p
2 = 2 = e RT
p1 1
b. In the stratosphere, the above equation applies and if the pressure is halved with
p
1
altitude, then : 2 =
p1 2
We know that : g = 9.81 ms 2 , R = 287 Jkg 1K 1 & T = -56.5+273 = 216.5 K :
g
(h 2 h1 )
p2
= e RT
p1
1
9.81
= exp
(h 2 h1)
287 216.5
2
1
9.81
log e =
(h h 1)
2
287 216.5 2
h2 h1 = 4390 m
2 . 1 4 a. For a uniformly decreasing temperature with increasing altitude, eqn. 2.14 applies
g
T
RT
p
ie : 2 = 1 ( z2 z1)
p1 T1
45.5 10 3
T T2 T1 287 T
3 = 1
101.5 10
288
T
9.81
288
9.81
0.4483 = ( 0.86111)287 T
Taking the natural log of each side :
9.81
log e 0.4483 =
log e 0.86111
287 T
T = 6.37 103 K m 1
T = 6.37 o C per 1000 m.
b. Now, at (z 2 z1 ) = 3000 m, p2 is unknown. But we know from eqn. 2.14 that :
g
RT
p2 T
= 1
( z2 z1) where p1 , T1 , g and R remain unchanged.
p1 T1
p2
6.37 103
2876.37 103
=
1
3000
101.5 10 3
288
p2 = 70.22 kNm 2
c . To find 2 , we refer to the equation of state : 2 =
Substituting T2 = [ T1 T( z2 z1 )] gives :
p2
2 =
R[T1 T (z 2 z1 )]
70.22 103
2 =
287 [288 6.37 10 3 (3000)]
2 = 0.91 kgm 3
p2
RT2
2 . 1 5 a. Letting p and T = pressure and temperature at level z and p0 and T0 = pressure and
temperature at level z 0 , we know from eqn. 2.13 : T = T0 T(z z 0 ) .
T T
Rearranging gives : 0
= (z z0 ) and substituting into eqn. 2.14 :
T
g
RT
p T
= 1
(z z0 )
p0 T0
p T T0 T RT
= 1
p0 T0 T
g
p T R T
g
=
But we know that
is a constant, say n,
p0 T0
RT
p T
=
p 0 T0
b. We know that :
RT
p T
= 1
(z z0 )
p0 T0
287 6.5103
p 6.5 103
= 1
(10700)
p0 288
= 0.2337
p0
RT
T
c . From eqn. 2.15 :
= 1
(z z 0 )
0 T0
9.81
3 1
287 6.5 10
6.5 10
= 1
(10700 )
0 288
= 0.3082
0
2 . 1 6 a. Before the pressure at 14 500 m can be calculated, the pressure at the start of the
stratosphere ie that at the end of the troposphere must be known. Since the
troposphere experiences a uniform temperature decrease, eqn. 2.14 is applicable up
g
T
RT
p
to a height of 11 000 m ie : 2 = 1 ( z2 z1)
p1 T1
(z 2 z1 ) = 11000
10
m , g = 9.81 ms 2
9.81
p2
6.5 10 3
287 6.5103
= 1
(11000 )
101396
288
2
p2 = 22610 Nm
This pressure now becomes p1 in the stratosphere in which the following equation
p
g
applies : 2 = exp
(
z
z
)
2
1
p1
RT
22610
2
p2 = 13011 Nm
From eqn. 2.17 : p = Hggh
13011 = 13600 9.81 h
h = 97.52 mm
p
b. From the equation of state : 2 = 2
RT
13011
2 =
287 216.5
2 = 0.2094 kgm 3
2.17
Taking the fluid/air level in the right hand arm of the U-tube as the level XX, then at
XX : Sum of pressures in left arm = Sum of pressures in right arm
pA + ( gh1)H2 O + (gh 2 )Hg = patm where g = 9.81 ms 2 , H2 O =1000 kgm 3 ,
h 1 = 0.15 m , h 2 = 0.3 m and patm =101300 Nm 2 .
Also, since spec. weight of Hg = 13.6 spec. weight of water
(g)Hg =13.6 ( g)H 2O
Taking the interface on the left arm of the U-tube as the level XX, then at XX :
Sum of pressures in left arm = Sum of pressures in right arm
pA + ( 1ga) = p B + [1g ( b h)] + (2 gh )
(1)
We are told that : a = 1.5 m, b = 0.75 m, h = 0.5 m and that 2 = 13.61 .
13600
As fluid 2 is mercury (2 = 13600 kgm 3 ) 1 = 2 =
= 1000 kgm 3 .
13.6 13.6
Rearranging equation 1 gives :
pA p B = 1g ( b h a ) + 2 gh
We know that g = 9.81 ms 2
11
H2 O
H2 O@4 oC
H2 O
1000
h1
X
h2
h
0.075m
water
)]
12
= 12 o 39'
2.21
2.22
oil
13
44mm
A
water
oil
h3
h2
h4
X
X1
h1 =1cm Y1
Y
7mm
h 2 = 0.253 10 3 m
At the interface XY : px = py
pA + H2Ogh 3 = p B +oil gh 4
If (p A p B ) = p1 then :
p1 = oil gh 4 H 2O gh3
m is :
g
= 840 kgm 3 , g = 9.81 ms 2 , h = 0.8 m and a = 4 ms 2 giving :
4
9.81
Now, force = p area = 9280.32 (1.4 2)
Force = 25985 N
b. At constant velocity, acceleration = 0 and hence eqn. 2.23 reduces to :
14
p =gh
p = 840 9.81 0.8 = 6592.32 Nm 2
Similarly, force = p area = 6592.32 (1.4 2)
Force = 18458 N
2.24
=0.5
The force exerted on the top of the drum is caused by two components ie a force
due to rotation and a force caused by hydrostatic pressure. The force due to rotation
is calculated as follows:
Force =
r2
r1
gz r dA
2 r2
But we know that z r =
+ const (from eqn. 2.32)
2g
The free surface is open to atmosphere, hence at r = 0 , p = 0 and z r = 0.
2 r2
Substituting into eqn. 2.32 gives const = 0, hence : z r =
2g
We also know that dA = 2r dr .
r2
r2
2 r 2
Force = r g
2r dr = 2 r r 3 dr
1
2g
1
r
r4 2
Integrating gives : Force =
4 r1
0.025
Here, r1 =
= 0.0125 m (upper pipe radius)
2
0.5
& r2 = = 0.25 m (radius of the drum).
2
4 0.25
2 r
Force =
4 0.0125
Substituting for the limits of integration,
for and putting = 1000 kgm 3 gives :
2
15
0.25 4 0.01254
Force =1000 62.832
4
4
Force = 12111 N
To calculate the force caused by the hydrostatic pressure : p =gh from eqn. 2.17
where = 1000 kgm 3 , g = 9.81 ms 2 and h = 0.6 m.
p = 1000 9.81 0.6 = 5886 Nm 2
The force due to this pressure is found from : force = pressure area
where area = ( r2 2 r12 ) and r1 & r2 = 0.0125 m & 0.25 m respectively, giving :
Since the point C is on the centre line of rotation, then the pressure at C is purely
hydrostatic and can be calculated using eqn. 2.17 :
p =gh where = 1000 kgm 3 , g = 9.81 ms 2 and h = ( 50 + 250) mm
pC = 1000 9.81 300 10 3 = 2943 Nm 2
250mm
A
50mm
D
z
r
250mm
C
We know that the pressure at point D is generated by both hydrostatic and rotational
forces. Referring to figure 2.25a, we know that the hydrostatic pressure at point D
can also be calculated from eqn. 2.17 :
p =gh where = 1000 kgm 3 , g = 9.81 ms 2 and h = 50 mm.
p = 1000 9.81 50 10 3 = 490.5 Nm 2
Furthermore, the pressure generated by the rotational force is given by :
2 r 2
p=
+ const (from eqn. 2.33) where r = 0.25
2
But at r = 0, p = 0, hence const = 0. Thus for = 1000 kgm 3 :
16
1000 2 0.252
p=
+0
2
2
p = 31.25
Since the pressure at point C equals
the pressure at point D ie pC = pD
2943 = 490.5 + 31.25 2
= 8.86 rad s 1
2N
But we know that : =
60
2N
8.86 =
60
N = 84.6 rpm
b. We have established that for any radius, r, at height z from point D, the pressure
can be calculated from :
pT = hydrostatic press. at B + hydrostatic press. due to z + rotational press. at r
2r 2
pT = 490.5 +gz +
2
3
Knowing = 1000 kgm , g = 9.81 ms 2 and = 8.86 rad s1
pT = 490.5 + 9810 z + 39249.8 r 2
Hence, for varying heights from point D at the corresponding radius, r, the total
pressure head can be calculated. Knowing that the equation of this quadrant can be
2
expressed as : (z) + r 2 = 0.252 (from the equation of a circle ie x 2 + y 2 = r 2 ), the
graph shown below was plotted.
4000
3500
Pressure, Pa
3000
Total hydrostatic pressure
2500
2000
Rotational pressure
1500
Total pressure
1000
500
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
This shows the line representing the total hydrostatic head (which obviously
increases with distance from point D), as well as that for rotational pressure. The
curve representing the sum of the two is also shown and from this the value and the
position of the maximum pressure head is easily obtained.
17
We know that if the tank is rotating at 180 rpm, then angular velocity can be
2N 2 180
calculated from : =
=
= 18.85 rad s1
60
60
We are told that the tank (diameter 1 m) originally contains water to a depth of
2
3.3 m, hence the volume of water = r 2 depth = ( 0.5) 3.3 = 2.592 m 3
p=40kNm-2
L0
4m
3.3m
L1
1m
Since
i) no water is lost
ii) volume of a paraboloid = half volume of the circumscribing cylinder
iii) whilst rotating, the water wets the top of the tank :
Volume of water = Volume of tank - Volume of paraboloid where :
1
1
2
Volume of paraboloid = ( r 2 Lo ) = (0.5) Lo = 0.3927 Lo m 3
2
2
2
2.592 = (0.5) 4 [ 0.3927 Lo ]
L o = 1.4 m
Hence, the height of water left in the tank is : L 1 = 4 L o = 4 1.4 = 2.6 m
At the centre of the tank, the pressure is due only to the hydrostatic head and the air
pressure. Using eqn. 2.17 and knowing p = 40 103 Nm 2 , H2 O =1000 kgm 3
and g = 9.81 ms 2 , the head due to the air pressure can be calculated as :
p
40 103
h=
=
= 4.08 m of water :
g 1000 9.81
Pressure head at the centre of the tank = 2.6 m + 4.08 m (gauge)
18
We know that atmospheric pressure = 101325 Nm2 which again using eqn. 2.17
p
101325
equates to a head of h =
=
=10.33 m .
g 1000 9.81
Thus, absolute pressure at the centre of the base of the tank = 2.6 + 4.08 + 10.33 m
Absolute pressure = 17.01 m
To calculate the pressure at the circumference, we need to know the pressure due to
rotation, which from eqn. 2.33 is given by :
2 r 2
p=
+ const
2
To find the constant, we know that at r = 0, p = 40 103 Nm 2
40 10 3 = 0 + const
const = 40 103 Nm 2
2r 2
Substituting into eqn. 2.33 : p =
+ 40 103
2
At the circumference, r = 0.5, hence :
1000 18.852 0.52
p=
+ 40 103 = 84415 Nm 2
2
Again using eqn. 2.17, this equates to :
p
84415
head, h =
=
= 8.6 m
g 1000 9.81
Since the air pressure has been included
in the calculation here, only the hydrostatic
pressure need be added to get :
Gauge pressure = 8.6 + 2.6 = 11.2
Absolute pressure = 11.2 + 10.33 m
Absolute pressure = 21.53 m