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WHICH

DIMENSION OF BRAND IDENTIFICATION, SIMILARITY, PRESTIGE,


DISTINCTIVENESS OR HERITAGE, AFFECTS A TTITUDE TOWARD A N A DVERT
ON HIGH/LOW INVOLVEMENT SERVICES?

Author:
Demi Ella OShea
11000230
Supervisor:
Dr Helen Watts





Business Project submitted as part requirement
for the B.A. (Hons) degree
in Business, Management and Advertising
at the University of Worcester.








Word count:
9793
Submitted:
April 2014

Abstract
This paper aimed to understand which dimension of brand identification,
similarity, prestige, distinctiveness and heritage, affects attitude toward advert on
high/low involvement services, exhibited through British Airways and Skype.
Understanding the consumer brand relationship is essential for both theorist and
practitioners, so optimal advertising campaigns can be made to deliver the
appropriate messages to consumers. It is the attitude toward the advert and
interpretation of the brand message that determines if the consumer will identify
with that particular brand. This paper examines how consumers identify with
brands through four dimensions; similarity, prestige, distinctiveness and heritage.

Currently, there is a lack of distinction between service and product advertising,
resulting in service brands inability to advertise successfully. As the literature has
found, there to be many components of advertising services that make it more
complex. This paper examines the dimensions of brand identification and there
affect toward attitude toward advert in both high and low involvement services.
Furthermore, this paper identifies the cause-and-effect relationship through four
conditions, high and low involvement and TV and print advert, exhibited through
British Airways and Skype. Moreover, the relationship was be examined by
regression analysis, of which found there to be different dimensions of brand
identification that predict attitude toward advert dependent upon the involvement
and channel type.

Table of Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................... 2
Table of Figures ......................................................................................................... 5
Preface ...................................................................................................................... 6
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... 7
1.0. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 9
1.1. British Airways ............................................................................................................................................. 11
1.2. Skype ................................................................................................................................................................ 12
1.3. Research Question and Objectives ...................................................................................................... 12
2.0 Context .............................................................................................................. 13
2.1. Attitude Toward Adverts ......................................................................................................................... 13
2.1.1. Consequence of Attitude Toward Advert ....................................................................................... 14
2.2. Advertising in Services ............................................................................................................................. 15
2.2.1.1. Performance ........................................................................................................................................... 15
2.2.1.2. Variability ............................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.1.3. Intangibility ............................................................................................................................................ 16
2.2.2. Service Competitors ................................................................................................................................ 17
2.3. Channels .......................................................................................................................................................... 17
2.4. Brand Identification ................................................................................................................................... 18
2.4.1. Similarity ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.4.2. Distinctiveness .......................................................................................................................................... 19
2.4.3. Prestige ........................................................................................................................................................ 20
2.4.4. Technological influences ...................................................................................................................... 20
2.5. Brand Identification and Attitude toward Adverts ...................................................................... 20
2.5.1. Heritage and Attitude toward Advert ............................................................................................ 21
2.6. Academic Gap ............................................................................................................................................... 21
3.0. Methodology .................................................................................................... 23
3.1. Research Design .......................................................................................................................................... 23
3.2. Research Method ......................................................................................................................................... 23
3.3. Preliminary Study ....................................................................................................................................... 24
3.3.1. Analysis ........................................................................................................................................................ 25
3.4. Quantitative Research ............................................................................................................................... 27
3.4.1. Participants ................................................................................................................................................ 29
3.4.2. Procedure .................................................................................................................................................... 29
3.4.3. Ethical Implications ................................................................................................................................ 30
3.4.4. Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................................. 30
4.0. Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 32
4.1. Descriptive Statics ...................................................................................................................................... 32
4.1.1. Gender ........................................................................................................................................................... 32
4.1.2. Age .................................................................................................................................................................. 32
4.1.3. Continuous Variables ............................................................................................................................. 33
4.2. Regression Analysis ................................................................................................................................... 37
4.2.1.1. High Involvement TV .......................................................................................................................... 37
4.2.1.2. Low Involvement TV ........................................................................................................................... 38
4.2.1.3. High Involvement Print ..................................................................................................................... 38
4.2.1.4. Low Involvement Print ...................................................................................................................... 39

4.2.2. Findings ........................................................................................................................................................ 39

5.0. Discussion ......................................................................................................... 42


5.1. Summary of results .................................................................................................................................... 42
5.2.1. Similarity ..................................................................................................................................................... 42
5.2.2. Prestige ........................................................................................................................................................ 43
5.2.3. Distinctiveness .......................................................................................................................................... 45
5.2.4. Heritage ....................................................................................................................................................... 45
5.3. Wider Implications ..................................................................................................................................... 46
5.4. Limitations ..................................................................................................................................................... 47
5.5. Suggestions for Further Research ........................................................................................................ 48
6.0. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 50
Reference List .......................................................................................................... 52
Appendices List ........................................................................................................ 57
Appendix A: Ethical Consent letter given to each of the participants .......................................... 57
Appendix B: Key Themes from the Focus Group ..................................................................................... 58

Appendix C: A template of the Quantitative Survey as it appeared to participants on


SmartSurvey. ...................................................................................................................................................... 64
Appendix D: Variable Coding .......................................................................................................................... 70

Table of Figures
Figure 1: Academic Gap Conceptual Model ......................................................................... 22
Figure 2: Focus Group Exhibits (Source: British Airways 2011, Skype 2013a,
Adsoftheworld.com 2012 and Tomorrowawards.com 2014) ................................ 26
Figure 3: Demographic Analysis Gender .......................................................................... 32
Figure 4: Demographic Analysis Age .................................................................................. 33
Figure 5: Mean and Standard Deviation Scores ............................................................... 34
Figure 6: Standard Deviation Similarity ........................................................................... 35
Figure 7: Standard Deviation Prestige ............................................................................... 35
Figure 8: Mean Scores Distinctiveness .............................................................................. 36
Figure 9: Mean Score Heritage ................................................................................................... 36
Figure 10: Mean Score Attitude toward Advert ............................................................ 37
Figure 11: Correlation Analysis ................................................................................................. 39
Figure 12: Significance Scores .................................................................................................... 40
Figure 13: Beta Scores ..................................................................................................................... 40

Preface
In a society surrounded by brands and advertising, it is of great interest to the
brands, advertising agencies and theorists to understand the consumer brand
relationship. To date, many scholars describe this relationship as complex. This
undergraduate research project aims to understand one dimension of the
consumer brand relationship, how attitude toward adverts impact how consumers
identify with brands.

The author would like to refer to a few quotes by Hegarty (2011), which inspired
the research topic.

The consumers part in a brands success is now even more
fundamental and indeed precarious. Misunderstand that
relationship and a brand is doomed to failure. Understand the role
[the] brand plays in peoples lives and knowing how to make it more
relevant is crucial.

In order for adverts to be engaging to consumers, theorists and practitioners, they
must assess how attitudes can predict the identification process. The author
started this journey unknowing of the results but thriving on the ability to
contribute toward the understanding of the consumer brand relationship.

Throughout the process of this business project, it became apparent how complex
research is. It also identified how under researched certain areas are and how this
piece of work could contribute toward the academic gaps. To some the thought of
contributing toward academic gaps can be a daunting process, however, the author
felt empowered. Nevertheless, the writing of the business project was at times,
stressful. Regardless, it could not of been possible without the willingness of the
participants and project supervisor, of whom the next section will acknowledge.


Acknowledgements
This business project would not of been possible without the help, support and
contributions of many people of which I would like to express my sincere
gratitude.

Firstly, I would like to thank my personal tutor and business project supervisor, Dr
Helen Watts. Without her continuing support and expert knowledge, this project
would not of been possible. Helen did not only act as my supervisor but also as a
mentor and a support system that I turned to regularly to keep me on track. I
cannot thank Helen enough for her encouragement and the time she took with me.
It was Helens passion in my ideas that encouraged me throughout and I am
forever grateful for her support on this project.

Secondly, I would like to thank Mark Regan, one of my lecturers at University of
Worcester. It was Marks passion for advertising in my first year of university that
confirmed my decision to start this journey in advertising. For the past three years
I have turned to Mark as a mentor. Even in times of doubt Mark consistently
reminded me of my passion and ability in the field of advertising. I cannot thank
Mark enough for his support over the past three years.

Thirdly, I would like to thank Matt Hoban and Molly Parsley. Matt Hoban, the
strategist on the British Airways account at BBH, took his time to answer my
questions and sent me a case study on the British Airways To Fly, To Serve
campaign. I am very thankful to him for this case study inspired this research
project. Also, I would like to express my gratitude for Molly Parsley from Skypes
advertising agency, Pereira and ODell, who spent her time sending me information
on the Skypes Stay Together and Its Time for Skype campaign, which
contributed greatly to this research project.

Fourthly, I would like to express my gratitude toward all my colleagues, lecturers
and fellow students, at the University of Worcester. Many of my colleagues

contributed directly to this business project and others supported me throughout


the past three years, for that I am thankful. I would also like to thank all my friends
who have supported me throughout the duration of my university career.

Finally, I would like to extend my gratefulness to my loving family for always
supporting me in my educational needs. My Father and Mother who have been
there for me both financially and emotionally for my whole life, without them I
would not be where I am today. No amount words could ever thank my family
enough; they are making my dreams possible. Thank you Dad, Mum, Shanne and
Lotte, I will forever be indebted to each of you.


1.0. Introduction
Scholars discuss the way in which a consumer identifies with a brand as a key
component in the process of advertising, and its link to purchasing products or
services. Brands spend millions of pounds on advertising each year, from
employing agencies, creatives and purchasing media space. The process is
calculated to an extent; however with many traditional medias, such as magazines,
which are measured by circulation months after publish; the calculations are not
always conclusive (Altstiel and Grow 2010). Nevertheless, brands still pay large
sums of money to ensure connections and messages are delivered to consumers;
emphasising the importance on the execution of these messages, quality adverts.

In order for a brands message to be delivered through quality adverts,
organisations must consider the consumers attitude toward an advert. It is
strongly suggested in the literature that there is a link between consumer attitudes
toward adverts and brand identification. Brands utilisation of techniques, such as
similarity, has the ability to contribute toward positive consumer attitudes,
potentially leading to the purchasing of products or services of the brand.
However, the digital age has changed the dynamics between consumer and brand,
consumers now have the ability to actively source out brands and involve
themselves with brands (Voorveld et al. 2011). The change of dynamics stress the
importance of understanding how consumers identify with brands and the affect
this has on their attitude toward adverts.

Consideration into product or service involvement should be taken into account
when developing an advert. Rossiter et al. (1991) suggests the involvement
consumers have with the product or service determines the creative tactics. High
and low involvement categories are distinguished by the perceived risk that the
consumer holds when debating the purchasing of the product or service (Percy
and Rosenbaum-Elliot 2012). Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliot (2012) describe the
perceived risk as either fiscal or psychological risk. The Foote, Cone, Belding
involvement grid (FCB grid) develops the determining of products or services

further by placing categories into four quadrants, high/low involvement and


think/feel categories. This advertising planning grid determines a brands position
on the grid that then has its own set of guidelines, including the most suitable
channels and techniques to use (Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliot 2012).

Although, the FCB grid is still used, Mortimer (2002) suggests it is widely criticised
for lack of clarification of particular services and products. Furthermore, the grid
is better suited for products as apposed to services. Whilst products and services
have similar influences, it should be taken into consideration that services are
affected by other influences making them more complex (Mortimer 2002).

The service sector should be considered independent from products as its people-
orientation makes it a key contributor to the UK economy because of its vast
employment. Monaghan and Inman (2014) reported the sectors 14th straight-
month rise in employability despite the UK economy still being in recovery from
the fiscal crisis. Chris Williamson, chief economist at Markit, reported by
Monaghan and Inman (2014) suggests that the service sector is the most
important driver of the UK economic recovery. Despite Markits differentiation
between the product-based sector and service sector, Levitt (1972: p.42)
dismissed any differentiation between products and services, as he suggests,
everybody is in service.

Nevertheless, services intangible outputs are referred to as intangible goods
suggesting advertising techniques and theories are transferred between both
goods and services (Vargo and Lusch 2008). As a consequence of this, a trend of
brand selling is apparent within service sector advertising in a bid to distinguish
them from the competition (Gauci and Hill 2003). Moreover, intensifying
competition within the service sector is adding to pressure for organisations to
distinguish themselves, within their advertising, from competitors as well as good-
based organisations. The intensifying competition, in the service sector, is further
discussed by Lovelock (1983) that suggests not only should the service sector be
separated from goods advertising, but they also need to be clustered into

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segments, like goods are, that share similar characteristics. Further research is
therefore required to justify services and goods as proportionate as apposed to
interchangeable. In conclusion, the service sector is highly complex; as a result the
sectors high complexity nature is transferred to their ability to advertise.

Advertising in the service sector is challenging and complex; further research is
required to suggest applicable advertising strategies. The required research should
utilise contrasting service organisations, high and low involvement, and different
types of advertising mediums, print and TV, in order for optimal advertising
strategies to be developed and implemented.

Mortimer (2002) suggests travel and holiday as feel (psychological), high
involvement and long distance phone calls as feel (social), low involvement. This
paper will explore the comparison between these two categories through British
Airways and Skype.

1.1. British Airways


As a full service global airline, British Airways (BA) prides themselves on their
British heritage and prestigious services (British Airways 2014a). Celebrating their
95th year in aviation in 2014, BA has been awarded with Superbrands number
one spot for Consumer British Brand 2014 (Superbrands 2014). This achievement
follows BA up-hill struggle throughout the twentieth and twenty-first century,
overcoming the 2001 terrorist attacks and 2008 economic downturn, both
crippling the airline industry (Milmo 2008).

Operating in excess of 30,000 flights per annum, BA state the training of staff is
paramount as consumers pay for the BA experience (British Airways 2014b). An
on-going rivalry between Virgin Atlantic and BA has lead to both brands to depict
distinctive identities which are the focal point of their advertising; Virgin Atlantic
as the modern, sexy airline and BA as the trustworthy, nostalgic airline. BAs recent
advertisement exhibits the timeline of events and changes within BAs history to

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present day, with the company slogan at the forefront of the advert To Fly, To
Serve.

1.2. Skype
In 2003, Skype originated as an Internet communication platform aimed toward
businesses for conference calls, however over the past decade Skype has
transformed day-to-day communication on a global scale (Skype and Microsoft
2014). Skype now gives the opportunity to anyone with Internet access worldwide,
the ability to communicate with other Skype users, from text to video calls (Skype
and Microsoft 2014). Skype have approximately 170m active monthly users with
600,000 more users joining daily (Johnston 2011).

In recent years Microsoft has brought Skype to secure the possibilities of
communication between Microsoft users for $8.5 billion (Johnston 2011). Johnston
(2011) suggests in order for the acquisition to be successful Microsoft must exploit
Skypes assets by exploring ways to grow Skypes online advertising revenue.
However, Skype has established a brand image independently, therefore their
advertising is still currently independent from Microsoft. Two themes have arisen
from there recent advertising, modern technological communication, to appeal to
the social media hungry youth, and the ability to communicate with people that
could have been deemed impossible before Skype, taking a nostalgic approach
(Johnston 2011).

1.3. Research Question and Objectives


This project aims to discover which dimension of brand identification, similarity,
prestige, distinctiveness or heritage, affects attitude toward an advert on high/low
involvement services. The research will therefore aim to:
Objective 1: To confirm the feasibility of the potential predictors; similarity,
prestige, distinctiveness and heritage.
Objective 2: To assess the predictive efficacy of similarity, prestige, distinctiveness
and heritage towards attitude toward advert across four conditions of
based on high/low involvement, and print/TV channel.

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2.0 Context

Tungate (2007: p.18) outlines that Claude Hopkins, a pioneer of advertising in the
twentieth century, overtly stated that the sole purpose of advertising was to
sell. However, Hegarty (2011: p.43), an advertising pioneer of the twenty-first
century outlines that in todays society, a brand isnt only made by the people who
buy it, but also by the people who know about it. Therefore, posing a new
challenge for the advertising industry to seek relationships with wider audiences
based on shared beliefs, attitudes, preferences, or behavior (Belch and Belch
2012).

2.1. Attitude Toward Adverts


This section will establish the importance of attitude toward advert and the role it
plays within advertising. Hackley (2005) suggests advertising brands plays a vital
role within social context, as it reflects the desires of society at that given time, and
sustained through other formats such as word of mouth and entertainment media.
Advertisings purpose is persuasive by nature; within social context it is debated
whether brands take advantage of their social power through the use of
manipulation and erotic content in their advertising. However, the Advertising
Standards Authority (2014) report a decline in complaints in 2013 compared to
the previous year which could suggest a change in consumers opinion on
advertising and/or brand, or a societal change.

A change within the external environment, consumers opinions toward the
advertising sector or brand, affects the output of advertising. Attitudes of
consumers toward adverts are seen to be able to predict behaviour (purchase) and
perception (loyalty). The literature suggests two methods evoke behaviour and
perceptions, emotional and cognition appeals in advertising. Shimp (1981) defines
the cognition process as the audiences ability to consciously understand visual
elements of the advert, and the emotional process as a sustained positive feeling
thereafter. Emotional appeals tend to be favoured as conclusive research suggests
its effectiveness. Alsop (1986) cited by Homer (1990) found positive emotions

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such as enjoyment from brands advertisements could determine an advanced


consumer-brand relationship.

Adverts can usually be distinguished by either emotional or non-emotional
appeals. Emotional appeals usually evoke affective responses in comparison to
non-emotional appeals, which usually contain features and more than likely are
factual. Janssens and De Pelsmacker (2005) conducted two experiments to
measure the effects of advertisements and context type, and the impact this had on
new or existing products. The experiment discovered that consumers generally
favour positive emotional adverts regardless of the other factors, however non-
emotional adverts favour new product brands and led to more positive cognitive
reactions (Janssens and De Pelsmacker 2005). Both experiments did, however,
conclude one common finding, that the measuring of the attitude towards the
advertisement resulted in three underlying dimensions: feeling, knowing and
understanding (Janssens and De Pelsmacker 2005).
2.1.1. Consequence of Attitude Toward Advert
Consumers attitudes towards adverts is three dimensional; their attitude is the
consequence of what they previously know about the brand, which may impact
what they think or feel, what they think about the advert and finally what they feel
about the advert. In order to measure the success or failure of an advert the
audiences attitude toward the advert must be examined. Nevertheless, brands
should still persuasively advertise in order to supply information, channel desire
and provide reasoning for selection over competitors (Kotler 1988).
The measurement of advertising is not simply to discover if the target audience are
receiving the adverts but also whether those adverts are successful in the journey
to achieve brand purchasing and brand loyalty. Ha et al. (2011) suggests the
effectiveness of advertising on consumer perceptions is critical in constructing
brand loyalty. Consumer perceptions of the adverts are therefore what predict the
success or failure of an advert and the consequences of that perception determine
purchase and loyalty.

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2.2. Advertising in Services


The following discussion of advertising in services will outline the necessity of the
independence of services from products, followed by the key features and the
affect these features have on advertising.

Frameworks and theories have been scrutinised for their lack of distinction
between advertising products and services. Abernethy et al. (1997) found that
there is limited research in the difference between products and services within
advertising context. Whilst this revelation was established over ten years ago, it is
still apparent today. Mortimer (2001) discusses the lack of distinction as well as
the lack of theory and framework. It is suggested by Mittal (1999) that special
consideration be given to service advertising due to its complex nature. Bateson
(1977) as cited by Hill et al. (2004) describes this complex nature as the inability
to touch or see services therefore resulting in a lack of visualisation. If brands
depend on consumers to visualise their brand, it could be result in a misconception
of their attitude toward the brand.

George and Berry (1981) found there to be three features of services, performance,
variability and intangibility.
2.2.1.1. Performance
Employment and training of staff is paramount to service performance, as very few
aspects of their supply chain are out of reach from the consumer (Lusch et al.
2010). Services must execute and sell an experience intertwined with their
employees, determining consumers perception of that brand. Many brands
portray themselves as trustworthy and quality-assured; Hill et al. (2004) suggests
that this is because consumers do not experience the quality of a service brand
until after the experience is brought. Therefore suggesting that the advertising and
marketing of a brand should be in check with their service performance in order
for consumers to make connections between the service and the brand that are
advertised.

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2.2.1.2. Variability
Lack of consistency is an issue for the service sector as it is people orientated.
However, many service brands undergo extensive training to ensure any
inconsistencies are not a risk to the brand image. However, there is a further risk
to services, consumers perceived risk. Theorists suggest the perceived risk of
brands determines the advertising appeals they should utilise (Belch and Belch
2012). Boshoff (2002) suggests this perceived risk occurs because services are
intangible, therefore risker than physical products, as consumers only experience
their purchase after their purchase. If consumers perceived risk is high it is
important for brands to ensure their advertising is reflective of the true experience
consumers will receive, reducing perceived risk (Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliot
2012).
2.2.1.3. Intangibility
The distinction between product and services is widely debated; one common
finding is the lack of a physical product within services is what differentiates it
from products. Mittal (1999) suggests it is the brands competitive appeal that
determines whether an advert features tangible or intangible aspects of the brand.
However, it can be argued that all services have tangible aspects; therefore it is
these aspects that should be utilised within adverts (Mittal 1999). Furthermore,
Berry and Clarke (1986) as cited by Mittal (1999) suggest tangibalization of
services will ensure the connection and understanding between consumers and
brands; including association, physical representation, documentation and
visualisation. The tangibalization process attempts to create visual cues for
consumers to connect with the service brand as they would a product brand.
However, Stafford (1996) found the presence of physical representation had no
significant affect on consumer perceptions. Nevertheless, Mittal (1999) suggests
that products have the ability to sell intangible benefits therefore this should not
be an issue for services.

Mortimer (2001) concludes that the lack of framework is a result of a lack of
consensus of the most appropriate service characteristics. Rossiter- Percy Grid is a

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framework that recognises both product and services in order to establish


guidelines (Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliott 2012). Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliott
(2012: p.187) state that the Rossiter-Percy grid is about a product or service in
terms of the target audiences involvement with the choice decision and the
motivation that drives its behaviour. Lovelock (1983) observed the necessity for
conceptual frameworks, over 30 years ago, for advertising agencies to utilise in
order to create long-lasting relationships with consumers.
2.2.2. Service Competitors
Service brands build their brand image on the service they provide; therefore
where competitors are similar, consumers only form of distinguishing the two is
through their advertising. Hill et el. (2004) suggests that due to services intangible
nature consumers find it difficult to differentiate one brand from the other,
resulting in the consumer generalising. Generalising of services places pressure on
firms to advertise their competitive appeal in order to stand out from their
competitors (Hill et al. 2004). Services also depend on other formats, such as word
of mouth, to increase brand awareness. However, along with human-orientation,
word of mouth can create inconsistencies, and are uncontrollable as they are
consumers messages and attitudes in comparison to advertising, which are brands
messages.

2.3. Channels
When developing an advert, brands must consider the channel platform for that
advert. Target audiences utilise different forms of platforms at different times and
places. The creation of a successful advert and its ability to reach consumers are a
consequence of what channel platform it is placed. Brand messages are
transported through different channel platforms to reach consumers to create
brand consumer relationships. The digital age has expanded the spectrum of
medium channels that these messages can be delivered through. Channels are sub
divided into two categories, traditional and non-traditional. Typically non-
traditional mediums are all channels introduced from the rise of the digital market
place. All mediums hold their own merit, however, brands still rely heavily on
traditional formats to deliver their messages (OReilly 2013). One reason for this is

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the unknown success of advertising on the World Wide Web on delivering


messages to establish brand consumer relationships (Voorweld et al. 2011). This
research project will therefore test the difference between two traditional
advertising channels.

In order to reach consumers, brands consider each formats ability to deliver
messages to their target audience. Both television and print channel mediums have
the ability to reach large audiences. However, television still remains one of the
most expensive and sought-after formats due to its ability to reach millions of
viewers (Thinkbox 2014). On the contrary, although some print sub mediums can
reach large numbers of consumers, it is utilised for its ability to target specific
audiences (Cannon 1983). As discussed, television advertising is expensive and
changes are costly, in comparison to newspaper advertising that can be changed or
introduced hours before publish. Nevertheless, television is still the most desired
channel by most brands, Altstiel and Grow (2010) suggest it is televisions ability to
combine both sight and sound; making it more likely to give consumers the
opportunity to consciously understand visual elements of the advert and maintain
positive feelings causing positive behaviour and perceptions prompting a
consumer brand relationship.

2.4. Brand Identification


Brand identification has been widely found to have a link with consumer attitude
toward advert; this section will identify brand identification, its use within
advertising and the vital role it currently has due to changes within wider society.

In recent times, a growing body of research has focused its attention to the
consumer brand relationship; also described as brand identification. Strong
consumer brand relationships have been linked to long-lasting consumer brand
relationships and fiscal success resulting in a high interest of theorist to discover
what builds the consumer brand relationship and the implications of that
relationship. Stockburger-Sauer et al. (2012) suggests successful brand

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identification has the ability to influence customer actions and measure the
effectiveness of brand management.

Scholars suggest brand identification has the ability to predict brand loyalty, brand
advocacy and customer recruitment (Bhattacharya and Sen 2003; Stockburger-
Sauer et al. 2012). Bhattacharya and Sen (2003) outline in their framework there
are three dimensions of brand identification, similarity, distinctiveness, prestige
that predict these factors.
2.4.1. Similarity
Consumers are becoming increasing aware of their sense of self, one reason for
this is the use of social media in todays western society; consumers are
increasingly publicising a depiction of themselves. It is through these depictions
brands have the ability to draw correlations and connections to their identity.
Pratt (1998) suggested that similarity between consumers and brands is a key
driver for brand identification as consumers are likely to be attracted to a brands
identity that is similar to their own (Bhattacharya and Sen 2003).
2.4.2. Distinctiveness
On the contrary to similarity, consumers also value uniqueness. Brands should be
able to uniquely identify with consumers however this can vary from consumer to
consumer as they have different cultural norms and social experiences. Brewer
(1991) discusses tension that the consumers have due to their need to be similar
and unique by identifying with groups that satisfy with both needs. Within in the
context of brand identification the consumer need for uniqueness is discussed in
Tian et al. (2001: p.50) paper as an individuals pursuit of differentness relative to
others that is achieved through the acquisition, utilization, and disposition of
consumer good for the purpose of developing and enhancing ones personal and
social identity. Furthermore, Stockburger-Sauer et al. (2012) suggests
distinctiveness is also dependent on the competitive landscape, as brands must
stand out from competitors in order for consumers to perceive them as distinctive.

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2.4.3. Prestige
Self-conception research by Kunda (1999) discusses that people build their self-
esteem through positive associations with themselves. People maintain their self-
esteem by identifying with organisations that have prestigious identities that
satisfy their positive self-view (Stockburger-Sauer et al. 2012). Therefore, brands
must build a prestigious identity in order for consumers to identify with them
positively. Brand operations should also hold prestigious qualities, as consumers
are dissatisfied with brands that deceive; this is applicable when discussing service
brands, as operations are a core contributor to the consumer brand identification
process (Bergami and Bagozzi 2000). Bhattacharya and Sen (2003: p.80)
summarise prestige in relation to brand identification as, consumers
identification with a company that has a prestigious identity enables them to view
themselves in the reflective glory of the company, which enhances their sense of
self-worth.
2.4.4. Technological influences
Technological developments have changed the dynamics of the consumer brand
relationship. Brands are becoming apart of western culture, suggesting the sense
of power brands have; however, with the dynamics changing because of
technological developments it is questionable who dictates whos future.
Consumers active involvement with brands gathers the debate of the importance
of brand identification, as brands are consistently becoming more transparent as
the feed of information is instant and public (Khansa at el. 2012).

2.5. Brand Identification and Attitude toward Adverts


The way in which consumers identify with brands has a direct correlation to their
attitude toward adverts. Bhattacharya and Sens (2003) conceptual framework
suggested knowledge and trustworthiness are determined by consumer
perceptions and reactions. As previously discussed, the knowledge and trust of a
brand is a dimension of consumer attitude toward adverts, of which can ultimately
determine the success or failure of an advert. However, the use of similarity,
distinctiveness and/or prestige enables brands to build trust-assured brands to

20

create long-lasting relationships provided their advertising is a true reflection of


their brand.
2.5.1. Heritage and Attitude toward Advert
Euromonitor International (2012: p.9) issued a Global Notalgia Marketing report
whereby stating that the continuing economic uncertainty will prompt consumers
to seek comfort in memories of times past. Heritage and nostalgia are techniques
that have been used for many years within advertising. Brands reflect on their past
or links to a past, to build a trustworthy brand image. Merchant and Rose (2013)
found the technique of brand heritage exploited in advertising helps enhance
brand personality and brand equity; the building of personality and equity is
another method to build relationships with consumers. Heritage and nostalgia
evoke emotions of consumers from times past, but also, the longing consumers
have for a time period they did not live through (Balmer 2013). Although, heritage
is an apparent trend with advertising currently it is still relatively under-
researched (Merchant and Rose 2013). Nevertheless, heritages ability to evoke
emotions, relates directly to the outputs of attitude toward advert, behaviour and
perceptions.

2.6. Academic Gap


The way in which consumers identify with brands has been widely discussed as
scholars have found correlations with powerful forces such as brand loyalty and
brand advocacy resulting in long-lasting relationships. Whilst brand identification
has been widely researched this project will add a forth dimension, brand heritage,
to Bhattacharya and Sens (2003) brand identification model illustrated in figure 1.
Currently, there is a limited research on the possibility of brand heritage as a
fourth dimension of brand identification; however, it is an up-to-the-minute trend
for current brand advertising campaigns and has been utilised creatively in the
past, commissioning the possibility to be explored.

21


Figure 1: Academic Gap Conceptual Model

As well as cause and affect dimensions, this project will look at it within the
context of services. Services and products have struggled to be differentiated
within theories and frameworks; however, Mortimer (2001) has now suggested
services warrant separate attention. Furthermore, Bhattacharya and Sen (2003)
concluded in their research, that services, as apposed to products, are more likely
to benefit from identification.

Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliot (2012) further subdivide services into high and low
involvement categories as they have found distinct factors to also warrant separate
attention. Presently, there is a lack of research of this subdivision being compared
within the context of brand identification; therefore this project will explore it
through comparison.

In conclusion, this project will explore four dimensions of brand identification,
similarity, distinctiveness, prestige and heritage, evaluating which dimension has
more of an impact. As well as considering if the impact differs from high to low
involvement service brands, through the brands BA and Skype.

22


3.0. Methodology
3.1. Research Design
This paper will adopt a positivism philosophy as it intends to explore a cause and
effect relationship between four dimensions of brand identification and attitude
toward advert. Adopting a positivism philosophy is appropriate when collecting
data about an observable reality (Saunders et al. 2012). Conducting research in
relation to observable reality requires the research to be reflective of the current
time, making primary research data necessary. The researcher will be value
neutral as their views are unnecessary when researching regularities and casual
relationships. The approach adopted by this research project is deduction, as this
research aims to explain casual relationships between concepts and variables. The
four, cause, independent variables, similarity, prestige, distinctiveness and
heritage, will be measured by their effect upon the dependent variable, attitude
toward advert.

3.2. Research Method


The use of a mixed method design for this research project will enable the use of
both quantitative and qualitative data within this single study. The utilisation of
mixed methods will ensure a more holistic understanding of the issue at hand
(Powell et al. 2008). Whilst mixed method design is useful for complex analyses,
Harrison and Reilly (2011) suggest that the extent to which the researcher is
mixing the methods needs to be clearly defined, as there is many ways to execute a
mixed method design. A two-phase approach will be adopted resulting in a
partially integrated mixed methods research design. The quantitative research
design will take a dominant role in the research project, whereby the collecting
and analysing of data will be solely within the parameters of a quantitative
research design, taking place in the second phase of the research project. The
qualitative research design will play a supporting role in this research project,

23

utilised at the beginning of the research, phase one, to establish credibility and
validity.

3.3. Preliminary Study


This project aims to explore an academic gap, the preliminary study aims to
determine if the study is worthwhile. It will also ensure a better understanding to
the researcher to the development of the quantitative research. Ultimately
validating the second phase of the research.

The research question makes a deductive assumption that there is a relationship
between high and low involvement services and the four dimensions of brand
identification. To ensure the reach is worthwhile and to confirm the feasibility of
the potential predictors, as outlined in objective one, a focus group will be
conducted. A focus group focuses upon a particular issue for participants to
discuss openly and freely in a tolerant environment (Saunders et al. 2012).
Typically focus groups consist of four or more participants dependent on other
factors; the participants are also particularly selected for their common knowledge
and characteristics with the topic. This research project selected a total of 5
participants as the qualitative focus group plays a supporting role in the project.
Three of the participants were male and two female, each were selected for their
ability to discuss adverts. The researcher adopted a mediator role within the group
to ensure discussion remained within boundaries and to generate interest.

Focus groups are semi-structured in-depth interviews, the structure of the focus
group consisted of fifteen open questions, e.g. how, why and what, that were asked
to the participants after the researcher presented each advert (Saunders et al.
2012). To ensure the independent variables were discussed four of the questions
consisted of the active words, similarity, prestige, distinctiveness and heritage.

The ethical implications were addressed at each stage of the qualitative process,
each participant signed a consent form to participate within the study, outlined in
Appendix A, and had the ability to opt-out at any stage, and all participants were

24

ensured of their confidentiality and were referred to as letters of the alphabet


instead of names.
3.3.1. Analysis
The focus group confirmed the deductive assumption, although not all the
participants agreed that all of the four adverts evoked similarity, prestige,
distinctiveness and heritage; the key themes are exhibited in Appendix B. Figure 2
(British

Airways

2011,

Skype

2013,

adsoftheworld.com

2012

and

tomorrowawards.com 2014) displays the adverts shown to the focus group for
discussion. Participants said the two print adverts (3 and 4), were both quite
distinctive, and that there was elements of heritage in both the TV adverts (1 and
2) they both portray different types of heritage, Skype because of how much hes
talking about home, but BA as a cultural, country, heritage.

The BA advert strongly evoked emotions of proud to be British and similarity to
the participants, one participant said It makes me feel proud to be British, to be
apart of, or my family were apart of, the growth of BA over that time period.
Nevertheless, the Skype adverts, particularly advert 4 (figure 2) were discussed as
distinctive and reflective of modern society with the term LOL and reference to
texting. One participant stated that they thought it was really good when you
realise its Skype it makes me reflect on when the last time I spoke to my family
properly and another said, you think about how much technology has taken over
our lives its so impersonal.

Adverts one and two (figure 2) were described as too long and the participants felt
disengaged, they were both, like, more than two minutes, youre never going to
see that whole advert on TV. Furthermore, advert 3, required contextual
background as it was selected from the Olympics advertising campaign,
participants found it to be unclear confusing and that they didnt get that one
(figure 2).

25

In conclusion, the focus group confirmed that the four dimensions of brand
identification were present in these adverts validating the second phase of the
research project.


Figure 2: Focus Group Exhibits (Source: British Airways 2011, Skype 2013a,
Adsoftheworld.com 2012 and Tomorrowawards.com 2014)

Although the focus group established the validity of conducting the second phase
of the research, dominant voices potentially drove this conclusion. Smithson
(2000) discusses dominant voice in focus group are those that take vocally
forward with their opinions and discourage others causing agreeable
participants, whereby participants agree with the dominant figure. Within this
focus group the moderator encouraged participants less dominant by asking direct
questions to include participants. However, this technique can also force opinions
that those participants may not of had before, questioning the reliability of the
research.

26

Nevertheless, as a supporting research method, the focus group fulfilled its


requirement and confirmed the deductive assumption made in the research
question. Moreover, the focus group served a second purpose, as a pilot study to
the quantitative survey. Participants identified key issues with the exhibits. As a
result, in phase two of the study both television adverts will be replaced with 60-
second adverts. Furthermore, participants expressed issues with the contextual
background to the BA print advert as it was from their Olympics campaign in 2012.
To address this issue and for the research to remain reflective of reality, a different
advert will be chosen for the quantitative study; as consumers do not receive
advertising context in reality, the study should not provide advertising context
(Saunders et al. 2012).

3.4. Quantitative Research


A quantitative approach is appropriate as distinction between data and
consumers attitudes need to be established, examining these relationships
between variables. The use of numerical data for the quantitative research will
produce qualitative numbers for statistical conclusions of generalisation to be
analysed (Saunders et al. 2012). To transform participants opinions, attitudes, into
qualitative numbers this research will utilise a survey. Saunders et al. (2012)
outlines surveys enable standardisation of data from a reasonable size of
participants to facilitate assumptive conclusions from the general public in the
case of this research project. Nevertheless, Krosnick (1999) suggests that
population representative samples can be significantly bias; in order to reduce bias
samples the procedure of this research project will have to extend the survey to a
range of demographics in order to conclude a representative sample. Regardless,
this research method will also suggest reasons for particular relationships
between variables. Finally, this project requires a cross-sectional time horizon, as
it is the consumers current attitudes that need to be measured in order for
optimal advertising strategies to be developed and implemented.

Developing established variables from previous literature is a component of
deductive research. Bhattacharya and Sen (2003) outline three aspects of brand

27

identification, utilising their tested model for this research project is appropriate,
as they have established creditability. Therefore, each question for similarity,
prestige and distinctiveness is consistent with Bhattacharya and Sen (2003)
measurement model. On the other hand, heritage is a modern concept of brand
identification, therefore, the questions for heritage was adapted from the Merchant
and Rose (2013) paper. Finally, Janssens and De Pelsmacker (2005) found 5
dimensions of attitude toward advert, one questions was selected from each aspect
of the reliability table. Each of these questions needed to be tested against the
controlled measure of high/low involvement services and TV/print format
adverts. Phase one of the research found the previous TV adverts were too long
and were therefore exchanged with 60-second adverts, a more common advert
length. Advert three, BAs print advert required contextual background according
to the focus group, therefore was exchanged with a different print advert from the
To Fly. To Serve. campaign. Advert four had no issues in the focus group and
therefore remained the same. The questionnaire template is exhibited in Appendix
C.

The survey will measure the four independent variables and dependent variable
on a continuous five-point Likert-type scale from Strongly agree to Strongly
disagree, pre coded in preparation for analysis of data. In order to achieve reliable
data with statistical power each independent variable will be represented by two
items (Saunders et al 2012). Furthermore, five items in the survey will represent
the dependent variable. A total of thirteen items will be presented to the
participants for four conditions, the first condition will measure the participants
attitude toward a BA television advert, the second, a Skype television advert, the
third, a BA print advert and fourth, a Skype print advert, as outlined in Appendix C.
Demographic characteristics, age and gender, will also be measured as moderator
variables, to ensure the sample section aim is reached and reflective of the general
public, so valid justified assumptions can be concluded.

28

3.4.1. Participants
The utilisation of an online survey enables the research to reach participants,
however the researcher has limited control on the response rate of those
participants. A total of 178 participants actively clicked on the link provided to
complete the survey, however 68 of those participants did not finish the survey
resulting in a 67.79% response rate.

An entire population can access advertising, and each individual holds their own
attitude toward advert; therefore, the sample size should be reflective of the
population. As a result of the response rate 67.79%, the sample size of 110
participants has been left to contribute toward this study. It is a large sample and
will enable the researcher to make justified assumptions of the view of the general
population. The sample size should hold equal weight of both male and females, to
ensure validity of results, as attitudes will therefore not be bias to one gender.
Furthermore, participants will not be measured for any other segmentation
profile, as the objective of this deductive research is to be reflective of the general
population and will maintain the research within ethical boundaries.
3.4.2. Procedure
In conjunction with modern societies access to the Internet, it was appropriate to
utilise an online survey design provider SmartSurvey. The use of
www.smartsurvey.co.uk enables the greatest reach of participants, high response
rate, as it can be published on social media platforms, emails and websites, for
participants to pass on to others for the sample size to be reach a wide variety of
people, ensuring bias representative samples will be reduced. SmartSurvey also
allowed for parameters to be put into place, such as only one answer per column
and an answer required to reduce the risk of anomalies.

A pilot study was conducted on five participants, one from each age bracket, three
females and two males. The pilot study was conducted to ensure access,
understanding and ability to complete the study (Saunders et al. 2012). All the
participants understood and gained access to the study easily, however, the ability

29

to complete raised a concern when mobile devises would only allow one answer
per advert, therefore the twelve other items on the survey were not enabling
selection, this issue was dealt with and showed no future issue throughout the
duration of the study.

The researcher will be dependent on participants for data, as participants have the
ability to opt-in to the survey by clicking the link provided to them. Participants
will have limited access to the researcher; this will reduce the researchers
influence as an external researcher. On the contrary, participants lack of access to
the research could cause data error as participants may misinterpret the
questions. Nevertheless, the research aims to access and interpret participants
opinions.
3.4.3. Ethical Implications
Compliance to ethical standards is of high importance to this study, as it requires
human participation. At each stage of the research process compliance to
University of Worcester ethical code of conduct will be met to the highest
standards. As outlined in the design of the survey, no personal information will be
required for this study ensuring confidentiality. The online accessibility of the
survey will ensure normal social settings for the conducting of research (Saunders
et al. 2012). Furthermore, the access to the survey will be entirely voluntary and
each participant has the right to withdraw from the study if they choose. Although
the researcher will post the survey link on social media platforms and send emails
to participants, there is limited interaction between participants and researcher. In
the case of consent, participants clicking on the survey link and submission button
at the end of the survey is confirmation of participant consent to be involved in the
research.
3.4.4. Data Analysis
Before the analysis process the researcher will examine the data. The use of five-
point Likert-type scale consequently results in the scale being pre assigned a
response, Strongly Agree is coded as 1, Agree as 2, Neutral as 3, Disagree as
4 and Strongly Disagree as 5. The ranked (or ordinal) data will be formatted onto

30

a data matrix, whereby each column will represent a different variable, Appendix D
outlines the data coding for each variable. The SmartSurvey settings put in place
by the researcher should prevent any data errors or missing data, to determine
this outcome the researcher will screen the data.

The analysis of results will utilise the Statistical Package for Social Science
Software (SPSS). Initially, descriptive statistics will be analysed by mean scores
and standard deviation. Each of the independent variables will be measured by
two items on the survey and therefore require an average score. The standard
deviation will determine how vast or compact the scores were. In order to access
the strength of a cause-and-effect relationship between independent and
dependent variables, the data will be analysed by regression analysis (Saunders et
al. 2012). Regression analysis will determine correlations, coefficient
determination and significance scores between the independent variables and
dependent variable. The results of the analysis will be reported in the form of a
discussion.

31

4.0. Data Analysis


4.1. Descriptive Statics
This research aimed to study a fair representative of the population. The profiles of
the 110 participants were segmented into two subsections of gender and age
demographics.
4.1.1. Gender
The gender segment, as illustrated in figure 3, suggests a relatively equal number
of female to male participants. The figure suggests a predominately female gender
of 51% of the total participants, whilst male is represents 49%. A total number of
54 males participated in the research in comparison to 56 female participants.


Figure 3: Demographic Analysis Gender
4.1.2. Age
Figure 4 outlines the five age brackets identified in the research questionnaire. A
total number of 9 participants are categorised within the 55+-age bracket,
representing 8% of the total participants. The 35-54-age bracket represents 29%
of the total participants. Twenty-two percent (22%) of the participants were aged

32

between 25-34. The largest contribution age demographic to this research is the
18-24-age bracket, resulting in 41% of the total participants. Finally, the under 18-
age bracket is represented by 2% of the total participants within this research.


Figure 4: Demographic Analysis Age
4.1.3. Continuous Variables
As discussed by Pallant (2010), continuous variables are recommended for scale
data analysis in order to produce more manageable data in the form of mean and
standard deviation. The questionnaire comprised of two questions for the all four
of the independent variables and five questions for the dependent variable, taking
the mean of these scores enables the static analysis required to deal with each
variable individually as outlined in figure 5.

33


Figure 5: Mean and Standard Deviation Scores

Similarity produced mean scores between 2.1 and 2.3 resulting in a neutral
interpretation. However, these scores have high standard deviation results that
suggest a wide variety as exhibited in figure 6. High involvement TV and print
scored 1.02 and low involvement print 1.00. Although, less than 1.0 is not
classified as a high deviation score, the low involvement TV condition scored 0.97,
suggesting that there was a wide variety of scores but not as wide in comparison to
the other conditions.

34


Figure 6: Standard Deviation Similarity

A neutral interpretation can be taken for all four conditions for Prestige. Mean
scores of 2.1 for the high involvement TV condition, 2.47 score for low involvement
TV, 2.16 for the high involvement print condition and the fourth condition scored
2.54. All the standard deviation scores are also less than 1 suggesting consensus
amongst the participants as displayed in figure 7.


Figure 7: Standard Deviation Prestige

Three out of the four of the conditions for distinctiveness have been interpreted as
agree. The high involvement TV condition mean-score was 2.0, low involvement

35

TV 2.03, and high involvement print 2.04. However, the low involvement print
condition scored 2.18, which is interpreted as neutral, exhibited in figure 8. The
standard deviation scores for all four conditions were low.


Figure 8: Mean Scores Distinctiveness

The final independent variable, heritage scored low standard deviation scores,
below 1.0, for all conditions. However, a mean score of 3.7 and 3.5 can be seen for
both the low involvement conditions, in comparison to the high involvement TV,
interpreted as agree and the high involvement print condition as neutral, as
displayed in figure 9.


Figure 9: Mean Score Heritage

36


Attitude toward advert scored low standard deviation scores in all four conditions
ranging from 0.51-0.72. The mean scores for all the conditions are interpreted as
neutral, however, there is a wide variety within the scores, as exhibited in figure
10. High involvement TV scored 2.44, low involvement TV scored 2.36, high
involvement print scored 2.54 and the low involvement print condition scored
2.55.


Figure 10: Mean Score Attitude toward Advert

4.2. Regression Analysis


The use of regression analysis enables the researcher to identify the relationship
between the one continuous dependent variable, attitude toward advert, and the
four independent variables, similarity, prestige, distinctiveness and heritage. The
use of four independent variables in multiple regression analysis allows for a more
sophisticated exploration of the interrelationships among the set of variables
(Pallant 2010).
4.2.1.1. High Involvement TV
Correlation measures the strength between two variables. Measuring the strength
between the dependent variable and the independent variable, similarity in the
high involvement television condition, produced a correlation measure of .443
suggesting a relationship between the variables. Prestige scored .542,
distinctiveness, .458 and heritage .394, also suggesting a relationship between

37

these independent variables and the dependent variable. The coefficient of


determination (r2), suggests this model explains 41.3% of the relationship
between the dependent variable and continuous independent variables. However,
in terms of significance, distinctiveness (.069) and heritage (.112) are not making a
significant unique contribution to the prediction of attitude toward advert, in
comparison to similarity (.001) and prestige (.004) that are making a unique
significant contribution. Whilst, prestige has a lower significance score to
similarity, the prestige beta score (.285) suggests it is the strongest prediction for
attitude toward advert in the high involvement television category.
4.2.1.2. Low Involvement TV
Within the low involvement television category, similarity (.427), prestige (.539)
and distinctiveness (.533) all produced a correlation with the dependent variable.
However, heritage scored 0.235 suggesting a limited relationship.. Overall, the
model summary suggests a 37.4% explanation between the dependent variable
and independent variables. Similarly to the high involvement television category,
heritage scored 0.9 in terms of significance suggesting it does not make a
significant unique contribution to the prediction to the dependent variable.
However, distinctiveness (.003), prestige (0.006) and similarity (.018) do suggest a
significant unique contribution to the prediction of attitude toward advert. In
terms of the beta score distinctiveness (.292) is the strongest prediction of attitude
toward advert compared to prestige (.278), similarity (.208) and heritage (.010).
4.2.1.3. High Involvement Print
The correlation between attitude toward advert and the continuous independent
variables suggest a relationship; similarity scored .582, prestige scored .568,
distinctiveness .500 and heritage scored .404. The coefficient of determination
suggests the model contributes a 48.1% explanation between attitude toward
advert and the four independent variables. Whilst, a relationship is suggested by
the correlation, the significant score suggests distinctiveness and heritage do not
uniquely contribute toward the prediction of the dependent variable. Nevertheless,
the two remaining independent variables, similarity (.000) and prestige (.004), are
significant unique contributors toward the prediction of attitude toward advert.

38

The beta score for the high involvement print category suggests the independent
variable similarity (.364) is the strongest prediction of the dependent variable.
4.2.1.4. Low Involvement Print
Upon analysis of the correlation between the dependent variable and continuous
independent variables, all four independent variables were found to have a
relationship with attitude toward advert. The model summary r2, suggests a 55.1%
relationship between attitude toward advert and the independent variables.
Dissimilar to the other categories, distinctiveness (.000) is the only independent
variable making a significant unique contribution to the prediction of attitude
toward advert. Furthermore, the beta score suggests distinctiveness (.523) is the
strongest prediction of attitude toward advert.
4.2.2. Findings
The following figures demonstrate the regression data analysis, followed by an
analysis of the findings. Figure 11 demonstrates the correlations, figure 12 exhibits
the significance scores, and figure 13 displays the Beta scores.


Figure 11: Correlation Analysis

39


Figure 12: Significance Scores


Figure 13: Beta Scores

40

Firstly, the independent variable, similarity, was found to have a relationship in the
correlation test for each condition. However, similaritys strongest correlation was
in the high involvement print condition. It also produced the highest significance
score in this condition and for the high involvement TV condition. However, it was
found to be the strongest predictor of attitude toward advert in the high
involvement print condition.

Secondly, prestige all produced a relationship with all the conditions but its
strongest correlation was with both high and low involvement TV. Furthermore, it
produced a significant score with high involvement TV, low involvement TV and
high involvement print, less than 0.05. However, prestige did not produce the
highest significance scores for any of the condition. Nevertheless, prestige was
found to be the strongest predictor of high involvement TV.

Thirdly, a relationship with all the conditions was established between attitude
toward an advert and distinctiveness, the strongest correlations being low
involvement print condition. No significance was found in the high involvement
conditions, however distinctiveness produced the highest significance with both
the low involvement TV and print conditions. Furthermore, the data found
distinctiveness to be the strongest predictor of low involvement print and low
involvement TV.

Finally, The correlation test showed a relationship with heritage and attitude
toward an advert in each condition apart from low involvement TV where no
relationship was found. Nevertheless, heritage correlation scores were the lowest
amongst all of the independent variables. Furthermore, heritage showed no
significance with any condition or was not the strongest predictor of any condition.



41

5.0. Discussion
This section will discuss the studys findings in relation to the literature.
Furthermore, the discussion will aim to answer the research question; which
dimension of brand identification, similarity, prestige, distinctiveness or heritage,
affects attitude toward advert on high/low involvement services?

5.1. Summary of results


The study found that different independent variables predict attitude toward an
advert for each condition. Prestige is the strongest predictor of attitude toward an
advert for the high involvement TV condition. Nevertheless, similarity produced
the lowest significant score within the high involvement TV condition, suggesting it
as viable predictor. The strongest predictor of attitude toward an advert for low
involvement TV is distinctiveness, however, prestige produced the strongest
correlation within the low involvement TV condition; suggesting it is the
secondary predictor of that condition. In comparison, the two print conditions
produced one predictor each. The strongest predictor of the high involvement
print condition was found to be similarity. Furthermore, the data analysis suggests
distinctiveness to be the strongest predictor of attitude toward an advert in the
low involvement print condition. The independent variable heritage was not found
to predict attitude toward an advert in any condition in this study.
5.2.1. Similarity
Similarity produced high significance scores for both the high involvement
conditions. Whilst, it was the strongest predictor of attitude toward an advert in
the high involvement print condition, it was the secondary predictor for the high
involvement TV condition. Therefore suggesting similarity to be one of two
potential dimensions of brand identification to utilise within advertising to ensure
loyalty, advocacy and recruitment with the high involvement service sector.

The study suggests that when consumers view a high-perceived risk service
advert, high involvement, their attitude toward the advert is dependent upon the
similarities or their perceived similarities, between themselves and the brands.

42

Bhattacharya and Sen (2003) suggested that consumers are more attracted toward
brands that are reflective of their perceived self. However, this study suggests that
the attraction is more likely to be sourced by a consumer when viewing an advert
of a high involvement brand. Moreover, suggesting that the greater the perceived
risk, the more likely consumers seek comfort in drawing correlations between
themselves and the brand, in order to reduce the psychological risk (Percy and
Rosenbaum-Elliot 2012).

However, the study did not find similarity to be the primary predictor of attitude
toward advert in the high involvement TV condition. Altstiel and Grow (2010)
suggest it is televisions ability to combine both sight and sound that enables it to
be the most desired advertising channel. According to this study, it may be more
difficult for consumers find correlations between themselves and the brand
through both sight and sound. Furthermore, brands utilising advertising space on a
television platform have approximately 60 seconds (the same as they had in the
study), in comparison to print advertising that enables the consumers, or
participants in the case of this study, to refer back to the advert at any given time.
This may result in connections between the consumers perceived self and the
brand, being sourced out during the extended time frame, by the consumers in
order to satisfy the perceived risk of the high involvement services.

This study merits Lovelocks (1983) proposal that product and service advertising
should be separate, and a further subdivision is required. Furthermore, that high
involvement should be one sub-segment as the study found different independent
variables affect high and low involvement categories differently. The development
of these segments will enable practitioners to utilise dimensions, such as
similarity, to create optimal adverts.
5.2.2. Prestige
Prestige produced the highest correlation scores for both TV conditions, high and
low involvement. Nevertheless, prestige prevailed as the strongest predictor of
attitude toward advert in the high involvement TV condition and the secondary

43

predictor in the low involvement TV condition, due to the independent variables


correlation score producing the highest in that test.

The literature found the dimension prestige, aims to enhance consumers self-
worth. The study suggests that television is the optimal platform to communicate
enhancing self worth. It could be argued that prestige exhibited through sight and
sound, television advertising, is more likely to impact consumers attitude toward
an advert, despite the involvement category. Furthermore, as the most expensive
channel platform, television could encourage prestige as a predictor of attitude
toward an advert. Prestige is defined as widespread respect and admiration on the
basis of a perception of a brands achievements or quality. Achievement and quality
are valuable qualities. Placing a prestigious brands advert on the most expensive
channel platform could influence brand identification as both can be described as
valuable.

Although prestige has been found to be a viable predictor of both high and low
involvement TV conditions, it is the strongest predictor for the high involvement
TV condition. Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliot (2012) suggest that the higher the
perceived risk the higher the involvement. The perceived risk can be either a
psychological or fiscal. It could be suggested that the more demanding the risk the
more likely consumers will search for or identify with brands that bear
achievements or quality. BA exhibited the high involvement TV condition. This
high involvement brand sponsored the 2012 London Olympics, celebrated its 95th
birthday and won Superbrands Consumer British Brand 2014. These current
achievements could of impacted the results of this study as the brands
achievements have been widely publicized.

As outlined by OReilly (2013) all channel platforms hold their own merit. The
finding that prestige is a viable predictor in both TV conditions in this study
reconfirms Lovelocks (1983) proposal that the service sector needs to be
segmented into clusters. This independent variable would suggest that the service

44

sector should be divided into channel segments that the service brand desires to
utilise in order for optimal adverts to be produced.
5.2.3. Distinctiveness
The study found distinctiveness to be the highest predictor of attitude toward
advert in both low involvement TV and low involvement print conditions. As a
result, the study suggests that distinctiveness has the highest predictive efficacy
for the low involvement conditions, despite not producing the highest correlation
scores in these categories.

The level of involvement is critical to building positive brand attitude as it affects
the ability to process an advertising message (Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliot 2012).
Distinctiveness was found to be the strongest predictor of attitude toward advert
in both low involvement conditions. The low involvement category suggests a
lower perceived fiscal or psychological risk to the consumer. This study suggests
that brands are able to exhibit uniqueness but only if they are in the low
involvement category. Moreover, the lower the risk the more distinct qualities a
brand can portray within its advertising.

As discussed previously, Lovelocks (1983) cluster suggestion is paramount, as this
independent variable, according to this study, can contribute toward optimal
advertising strategies for the low involvement category.
5.2.4. Heritage
This study found heritage to have a lack of predictive efficacy toward attitude
toward advert in all four conditions. Its inability to predict attitude toward advert
in any of the conditions disputes Merchant and Rose (2013) theory that heritage is
not a trend but has the ability to enhance brand personality leading to consumer
brand relationships. This is particularly apparent for the high and low involvement
TV conditions that the focus group suggested exhibited heritage. From this study, it
can be argued that heritage remains a trend or creative style utilised within
advertising. However, this trend shows no correlation toward the ability to predict
attitude toward advert.

45

5.3. Wider Implications


A growing body of theorists, including Mortimer (2001) have discussed the current
lack of distinction between products and service theory and the need for
categorisation. This study has contributed toward the emphasis that services merit
there own advertising. As discussed previously, Lovelocks (1983) paper suggested
the service sector required distinction and sub-segments. This paper suggests
channel and involvement sub-segments as the data suggests attitude toward an
advert can be predicted by different independent variables such as similarity,
prestige and distinctiveness.

As a low involvement service this research project would suggest Skypes
consumers identify with distinctive adverts. Therefore, for future advertising
campaigns Skype should adopt a unique approach for both TV and print adverts.
However, high involvement service advertising has been shown, in this research
project to be more complex. Market research will be required for BA and other
high involvement services to gather information on their target audience to draw
similarities between them and their consumers and exhibit the similarities in
adverts. However, as the project found there to be a different dimension of brand
identification for television and print adverts, brands within the high involvement
quadrant should exhibit their prestigious qualities when producing a TV advert.

Currently, the choice of a channel platform for an advert is either chosen due to
financial reasons or the optimal delivery of a brand message. However, this study
has found that brands should be aware of how channels can influence attitude
toward advert. The results found that different dimensions of brand identification
could predict attitude toward advert depending upon the channel utilised.

The FCB grid is a well-known advertising planning grid. The grid suggests brands
should determine their position on the grid in accordance with the consumers
involvement and think/ feel categories (Percy and Rosenbaum-Elliot 2012). This
study tested whether the involvement a consumer has with a brand could
influence their attitude toward an advert dependent upon different brand

46

identification dimensions. Although, the FCB grid is an established planning grid,


this study verifies that brands should be mindful of their involvement type when
creating adverts. Furthermore, the study also suggests that different brand
identification dimensions can predict attitude toward advert dependent upon the
involvement type of the service brand.

In conclusion, the study reiterates the complexity of consumer brand relationships
in current times. As discussed previously a variety of factors can influence attitude
toward an advert and intern impact the consumer brand relationship. The study
suggest that the stronger the predictor of the condition the more likely a positive
consumer brand relationship.

5.4. Limitations
Although the study established conclusions to the research question and found
results that contribute toward wider business context, the study also has its
limitations.

As the literature states, advertising brands plays a vital role within social context
(Hackley 2005). This research studied two brands, BA and Skype and exhibited
adverts from their current advertising campaigns. As a result, the findings are
relevant to present day advertising. The author cannot suggest that these findings
will be similar in past or future advertising as this was not a longitudinal test but a
cross-sectional study.

The study aimed to reflect the general population in its findings. Although a
relatively equal gender demographic participated in the study, the age
demographic of participants was not of equal distribution. The largest segment age
of participants was 18-24 year olds. However, it is one of the general limitations of
utilising online surveys, as the researcher has limited control over the participants
who choose to participate.

47

The study utilised two traditional channel platforms. However, as discussed


previously the digital age has changed the dynamics of consumer brand
relationships (Voorveld et al. 2011). Furthermore, the study did not access
television and print advertising in its natural format, which could suggest a lack of
validity.

It is suggested that services battle more for competitive differentiation (Gauci and
Hill 2003). However, this study does not access two rival brands. BA and Skype
have two different target audiences, different brand messages and utilise different
platforms of their advertising.

Finally, this study illustrated high and low involvement through two brands.
Although the brands were in accordance with Mortimer (2002) high and low
involvement differentiation, two brands cannot access the brand identification
dimensions predictive efficacy across all services. Moreover, the use of BA as a
high involvement brand could of influenced the data. Bhattacharya and Sen (2003)
found that consumers are attracted to brands that reflect the consumers perceived
self. Similarity between consumer and brand can be apparent within advertising or
the persona a brand portrays to the public. However, another contributor can be
the established relationship between brand and consumer, the interactions
between BA and the participants of the study. As the study was conducted in
Britain and the study utilised BA, it could be argued that the findings of similarity
are bias toward the chosen brand.

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research


In light of the limitations there is a range of suggestions for further research to
consider.

Firstly, the age bracket distribution of participants was found to be bias toward the
18-34 year old age demographic. In order for the study to reflect the UK
population, an increase in 55+ and under-18 demographic would be necessary.
However, as discussed previously, the inability to access participants is a limitation

48

of conducting an online survey. Therefore, further research should consider the


implications of utilising an online survey.

Brands target their products or services and advertising toward different audience
demographics, further research could identify the target audience and conduct
research based on the target audience.

Gauci and Hill (2003) found that services tend to advertise for competitive
differentiation. As a result, further research could examine which dimension of
brand identification affects attitude toward an advert between competitor service
brands.

As discussed previously, the research project utilised two channel platforms,
further research could utilise a wider variety of channel platforms. Similarly, the
research product utilised two brands. In order to establish validity and reliability
further research could use a range of brands.

Finally, to reduce any limitation that suggested bias results, a 50/50 mixed method
study could be conducted in further research. The introduction of qualitative data
to the main research will enable the author to access the reasoning behind the
participants choice. Moreover, developing an understanding of participants
attitude toward advert, researching what they previously know, think and feel
about a brand (Janssens and De Pelsmacker 2005).

49

6.0. Conclusion
In order to access the dimensions of brand identification and how those
dimensions affect attitude toward adverts on high/low involvement services, this
research project adopted a positivism philosophy in a cross-sectional mixed
method research design. The first objective of the project was to confirm the
feasibility of the potential predictors, to which the author conducted a preliminary
study in the form of a focus group. Conducting the focus group ensured
creditability and validity, and served as a pilot study. Furthermore, the outcome of
the preliminary study revealed the potential predictors to be feasible.

The main research aimed to assess the predictive efficacy of similarity, prestige,
distinctiveness and heritage towards attitude toward advert across four conditions
of based on high/low involvement, and print/TV channel, exhibited by BA and
Skype adverts. The chosen method for this research was quantitative and the
analysis chosen was regression enabling the author to access the cause-and-effect
relationship. Upon the data analysis, the author discussed the predictive efficacy of
similarity, prestige, distinctiveness and heritage toward the dependent variable.
Moreover, the discussion found there to be no predictive efficacy of heritage
toward attitude toward advert in any condition.

In conclusion, this business project accessed and assessed the relationship
between the brand identification dimensions and attitude toward an advert. The
predictability of the dimension of brand identification toward attitude toward an
advert was dependent upon the condition. Similarity was found to be a viable
predictor of both high involvement TV and print conditions, although, it was the
strongest predictor of the high involvement print condition. The second dimension
prestige, was found to a viable predictor of both high and low involvement TV
conditions, however, it was primarily the strongest predictor of the high
involvement TV condition. The independent variable distinctiveness was found to
be the strongest predictor of two conditions, low involvement TV and print.
However, despite the preliminary test confirming feasibility of heritage as a

50

potential predictor, the quantitative research found it not to be a viable predictor


of any of the conditions. In light of the results, it is apparent that the way in which
consumers identify with brands and the affect of attitude toward advert, is
dependent upon the involvement of the service and the channel platform chosen to
advertise on.



51

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Appendices List
Appendix A: Ethical Consent letter given to each of the participants
Dear Participant ______ ,

The purpose of my research is to explore consumers attitudes toward adverts from both low and
high involvement services; the brands I will be using are Skype and British Airways. I have asked
you to participate and I trust you will give open and honest opinions to help progress my
dissertation. You are free at any point to opt out of the focus group, please notify me of this before,
during or after and arrangements will be made.

I have asked a total of 5 participants made up of 3 males and 2 females. You will be required to
contribute toward the group your opinions on the adverts shown to you at the beginning of the
focus group. Your responses will be recorded via a Dictaphone, this is simply for me to write up
after the focus group, there will be no names used, you will be referred to as participant A, B, C etc. I
will also have a note pad and pen to write down anything I feel we could discuss further. My tutor
and myself will have a hard copy of your responses, which I am more than happy to supply you
with upon requested.

I will ask you to be available for two hours on Friday 13th December 2013, the focus should take
anywhere between 1hour to 2hour. Please note there is no risk or incentive to you participating in
the focus group.


I would like to thank you for participating in this focus group and the progression of my
dissertation.

Many Thanks
Demi OShea

Date: ______13/12/2013____


Participant Signature: _______________________________________________________


57

Appendix B: Key Themes from the Focus Group


Action Think/Feel/Act

Low Involvement TV Skype
I think the second one [Skype TV] has got, like, a more powerful meaning its
about how, like, families can be torn apart but still stay together at the same time

It makes me consider and think about what I have in life and how, like, easy it is to
take them for granted, and that obviously I shouldnt.

Definitely reminds me to stay in touch

Low Involvement Print Skype
Again its making you actually think about like when did you actually talk to your
loved ones on the phone
Rather than texting

It would definitely make me think about using Skype, you sometimes forget,
adverts I suppose, are good at reminding us of things we forgot.

It would remind me that Skype is there

Makes me think...
Yeah
Yeah
Yeah
Yeah more think about it than anything else

Its quite limited isnt it, if my mum read that she wouldnt know what it meant

I found that it made me think for quite some time after, because your trying to
working out what it meant, and how Skype would help you

Context

High Involvement TV British Airways
I think its trying to get you to use them over competitors
Yeah its not selling you anything, like, particular that BA does

Low Involvement TV Skype
The second one [Skype TV] can be adapted to any country and any culture, hmm,
whereas the first one [British Airways TV] is really only aimed at British and
British people, I would assume

High Involvement Print British Airways
Thats confusing
Yeah I dont get that one

58


At first glance its quite confusing

You definitely need to think about it to realise what its trying to say

I like the idea of it but I just dont quite get it
Its a bit limited, as to like, the time period it can be up

Unclear

Confusing

Didnt get that one

Low Involvement Print Skype
I dunno how I feel about this one, its a bit, like, unclear
Design
High Involvement TV British Airways

Err; I didnt like how long they were
Yeah I agree
Yeah

Took them too long to get to the message

The thing is your not going to get those sort of adverts on TV really, your only
going to see, really
Snippets
Yeah

It doesnt mention BA throughout it, but once you see the logo, you know..

They were both, like, more than two minutes, youre never going to see that whole
advert on TV

Low Involvement TV Skype
Err; I didnt like how long they were
Yeah I agree
Yeah

Took them too long to get to the message

The thing is your not going to get those sort of adverts on TV really, your only
going to see, really
Snippets
Yeah

59

They were both, like, more than two minutes, youre never going to see that whole
advert on TV

High Involvement Print British Airways
I like the message as well, because its about getting you to stay and theyve got the
sofa there which is where most people would watch the Olympics is from their sofa
in their houses, so I think thats quite a cleaver marketing tool how theyve got the
sofa in there as well

Low Involvement Print Skype
Because its so simple it makes you think it has a message to portray because its
not got all the colours
Yeah its not fussy

Also I think it just quite simple and just black and white, a lot of adverts are very
colourful, so by looking at something black and white Id personally me Id be more
inclined to look at it and think well thats different, cause you know lots of adverts
are colourful now? So if your not interested your not. Whereas, because, that one is
black and white you think actually; and you kind of pay more attention to it.

I think it needs to be a lot more eye catching as well because if you just saw
writing on, lets just say a billboard, you wouldnt necessary look at it, whereas lets
just say a little bit more colour on it or something a bit more eye catching on it
youd be more likely to actually look

Distinctive

High Involvement TV British Airways
I think they are both quite distinctive

Low Involvement TV Skype

I think they are both quite distinctive

It has such a powerful meaning, it kind of takes you a back

Low Involvement Print Skype
It the way its laid out it definitely is distinctive and the colours it uses, its not
garious, its not getting in your face, its more subtle, which is rare

I like, I like the Skype one, I think it gets across the product as well even though its
only two lines of text it gets across their product
Yeah I agree
Sort but effective

Its quite limited with the LOL
Yeah, cant access all of the population

60


Its Gripping, and eye catching and just all round gets your attention

Emotion

High Involvement TV British Airways
Its very emotional, in the way you think about how far it has come, and what,
what it has overcome, and now just look, its crazy how successful its become

I think the core message is about bringing people together

Low Involvement TV Skype
I think they are tugging at heartstrings really because they involve a connection
with families

Kind of makes me feel sad that like hes not got his all family and how he misses
stuff
Yeah makes me feel sorry for him

I dont know its quite hard because it starts off making it sad, and then obviously
[cough] as you, when you realise its Skype you kind of feel happy for him that he
can stay in touch
Yeah
Yeah

It sort of like evokes lots of emotions

Makes me feel sorry for him

I like start to realise how lucky I am but yet I dont take advantage of it

Its sort of good how, and makes me happy, how Skype can bring them back
together

Low Involvement Print Skype
It was really good when you realise its Skype it makes me reflect on when the
last time I spoke to my family properly

I dunno, it sort of makes me consider, how often I actually speak or see my loved
ones

You think about how much technology has taken over our lives its so
impersonal

Heritage

High Involvement TV British Airways

61

The first one definitely focuses on British heritage


Yeah
Yeah

They both portray different types of heritage, Skype because of how much hes
talking about home, but British Airways as a cultural, country, heritage

Low Involvement TV Skype
This one also has elements of heritage, because of how much hes talking about
home

I suppose the, like, focus on family is quite nostalgic

They both portray different types of heritage, Skype because of how much hes
talking about home, but British Airways as a cultural, country, heritage

High Involvement Print British Airways
Id say, like, something like, heritage is obvious in this advert
Yeah Id definitely agree

Similarity

High Involvement TV British Airways
It makes me feel proud to be British, to be apart of, or my family were apart of, the
growth of British Airways over that time period

Its very sequentially British and erm and I dont know I can relate to it more

I would act, like on the first one, like buy British

Its relatable because were British

The first one makes you feel about your past in Britain

Proud

Yeah proud to be British

It made me angry at the start; I thought it was quite pretentious at the start and
then when I realised what they were aiming at I kind of realised it wasnt but, if
that makes sense

The first one is really only aimed at British and British people, I would assume

It makes you feel like, be apart of Britain so fly British Airways

Low Involvement TV Skype

62

I think its a bit unrealistic, and un-relatable



I think that its so relatable because the technology is bringing them together, and
it brings me together with my family

High Involvement Print British Airways
To stay and support Britain

Its makes you, well me, kind of reflective on how I can support my country or how
I am British

To stay and celebrate Britain

Again, to be British and buy British and stay British

Like, its strange, an airline company is telling you not to fly, but it makes you
think, stay and support your country, makes the brand quite prestigious

63

Appendix C: A template of the Quantitative Survey as it appeared to participants on


SmartSurvey.
Business Project Survey: Advertising Brand Identification
Business Project Survey: Advertising
This is a multiple-choice survey for my module Business Project at University of
Worcester, researching brand identification. Please answer all questions as
accurately as possible
1) Please select the age demographic that represents you.
I am
Under 18


18 - 24

25 - 34

35 - 54

55+


2) Please select the gender that best represents you.
I am
Male


Female


Please watch the following TV advert.

(British Airways 2011)



How would you rate the following?


1-
Strongl
y Agree
3) Similarity
I recognise myself in British
Airways
My sense of who I am

matches my sense of British
Airways
4) Prestige
British Airways is a first

2- Agree

3-
Neutra
l

4-
Disagree

5-
Strongly
Disagree


64

class, high quality brand


I have widespread respect

and admiration for British
Airways
5) Distinctiveness
British Airways has a


distinctive identity
British Airways stands out

from its competitors
6) Heritage
British Airways displays


historic qualities
Heritage features in British

Airways identity
7) Attitude toward the advert
This advertisement attract

attention
This advertisement is


interesting
You have to watch this


advertisement frequently
to know what it is exactly
about
I would recommend this


brand to others
I will certainly try this


brand

Please watch the following TV advert.

4-
Disagree

5-
Strongly
Disagree


(Skype 2013)

How would you rate the following?

1-
2- Agree
3-
Strongl
Neutra
y Agree
l
8) Similarity
I recognise myself in Skype


My sense of who I am



65

matches my sense of Skype


9) Prestige
Skype is a first class, high


quality brand
I have widespread respect

and admiration for Skype
10) Distinctiveness
Skype has a distinctive


identity
Skype stands out from its


competitors
11) Heritage
Skype displays historic


qualities
Heritage features in Skypes

identity
12) Attitude toward the advert
This advertisement attract

attention
This advertisement is


interesting
You have to watch this


advertisement frequently
to know what it is exactly
about
I would recommend this


brand to others
I will certainly try this


brand

Please look at the following Print advert.

66

(metodocommunicacion.com 2013)

How do you rate the following?


1-
Strongl
y Agree
13) Similarity
I recognise myself in British
Airways
My sense of who I am

matches my sense of British
Airways
14) Prestige
British Airways is a first

class, high quality brand
I have widespread respect
and admiration for British
Airways
15) Distinctiveness
British Airways has a

distinctive identity
British Airways stands out
from its competitors
16) Heritage
British Airways displays

historic qualities
Heritage features in British

2- Agree

3-
Neutra
l

4-
Disagree

5-
Strongly
Disagree


67

Airways identity
17) Attitude toward the advert
This advertisement attract

attention
This advertisement is


interesting
You have to watch this


advertisement frequently
to know what it is exactly
about
I would recommend this


brand to others
I will certainly try this


brand

Please look at the following Print advert.

(Tomorrowawards.com 2014)
How would you rate the following?

1-
Strongl
y Agree
8) Similarity
I recognise myself in Skype
My sense of who I am

matches my sense of Skype
9) Prestige
Skype is a first class, high

quality brand
I have widespread respect
and admiration for Skype
10) Distinctiveness
Skype has a distinctive

identity
Skype stands out from its

competitors
11) Heritage
Skype displays historic

qualities
Heritage features in Skypes


2- Agree

3-
Neutra
l

4-
Disagree

5-
Strongly
Disagree


68

identity
12) Attitude toward the advert
This advertisement attract
attention
This advertisement is

interesting
You have to watch this

advertisement frequently
to know what it is exactly
about
I would recommend this

brand to others
I will certainly try this

brand



69

Appendix D: Variable Coding


Variables

Variable
Coding

High Involvement TV Advert: Similarity

HITVSIM

High Involvement TV Advert: Prestige

HITVPRES

High Involvement TV Advert: Distinctiveness

HITVDIST

High Involvement TV Advert: Heritage

HITVHERI

High Involvement TV Advert: Attitude toward advert

HITVATT

Low Involvement TV Advert: Similarity

LITVSIM

Low Involvement TV Advert: Prestige

LITVPRES

Low Involvement TV Advert: Distinctiveness

LITVDIST

Low Involvement TV Advert: Heritage

LITVHERI

Low Involvement TV Advert: Attitude toward advert

LITVATT

High Involvement Print Advert: Similarity

HIPRINTSIM

High Involvement Print Advert: Prestige

HIPRINTPRES

High Involvement Print Advert: Distinctiveness

HIPRINTDIST

High Involvement Print Advert: Heritage

HIPRINTHERI

High Involvement Print Advert: Attitude toward advert

HIPRINTATT

Low Involvement Print Advert: Similarity

LIPRINTSIM

Low Involvement Print Advert: Prestige

LIPRINTPRES

Low Involvement Print Advert: Distinctiveness

LIPRINTDIST

Low Involvement Print Advert: Heritage

LIPRINTHERI

Low Involvement Print Advert: Attitude toward advert

LIPRINTATT

70

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