Advance Satellite Communication

A satellite is a physical object that orbits, or rotates about some celestial body.
Satellites occur in nature, and our own solar system is a perfect example. Theearth and other
planets are satellites rotating about the sun. The moon is a satelliteto the earth. A balance
between the inertia of the rotating satellite at highspeed and the gravitational pull of the
orbited body keeps the satellite in place.
Satellites are launched and orbited for a variety of purposes. The most commonapplication is
communication in which the satellite is used as a repeater. Inthis chapter, we introduce
satellite concepts and discuss how satellites are identifiedand explained. We summarize the
operation of a satellite ground stationand review typical satellite applications, with particular
emphasis on the GlobalPositioning System, a worldwide satellite-based navigational system.

Satellite Orbits:
The ability to launch a satellite and keep it in orbit depends upon following well-known
physical and mathematical laws that are referred to collectively as orbital dynamics. Inthis
section we introduce these principles before discussing the physical components ofa satellite
and how it isused in various communication applications.

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Principles of Satellite Orbits and Positioning:

If a satellite were launched vertically from the earth and then released. It would fall backto
earth because of gravity. For the satellite to go into orbit around the earth, it musthave some
forward motion. For that reason, when the satellite is launched, it is givenboth vertical and
forward motion. The forward motion produces inertia, which tends tokeep the satellite
moving in a straight line. However, gravity tends to pull the satellitetoward the earth. The
inertia of the satellite is equalized by U1e earth's gravitational pull.The satellite constantly
changes its direction from a straight line to a curved line to rotateabout the earth.
If a satellite's velocity is too high, the satellite will overcome the earth's pull andgo out into
space. It takes an escape velocity of approximately 25.000 mi/h to cause aspacecraft to break
the gravitational pull of the earth. At lower speeds, gravity constantly pulls the satellite
toward the earth. The goal is to give the satellite acceleration and speedthat will exactly
balance the gravitational pull.
The closer the satellite is to earth, the stronger the effect of the earth'sgravitationalpull. So in
low orbits, the satellite must travel faster to avoid falling back to earth. Thelowest practical
earth orbit b approximately 100 mi. At this height, the satellite's speedmust be about 17.500
mil/h to keep the satellite in orbit. At this speed, the satellite orbitsthe earth in approximately
1 and 1/2 h. Communication satellites are usually much farther fromearth. A typical distance
is 22,300 mi. A satellite need travel only about 6800 mi/h tostay in orbit at that distance. At
this speed, the satellite rotates about the earth in approximately24 h, the earths own
rotational time.
A satellite rotates in an orbit that forms a plane passing through the center of gravityof the
earth called the geocenter. In addition, the direction of satelliterotation may be either in the
same direction as the earth's rotation or against the directionof earth's rotation. In the former
case, the orbit is said to be posigrade and in thelatter case, retrograde. Most orbits are
posigrade. In a circular orbit, the speed of rotationis constant. However, in an elliptical orbit,
the speed changes depending upon theheight of the satellite above the earth. Naturally the
speed of the satellite is greater whenit is close to the earth than when it is far away.

Satellite Height.

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In a circular orbit, the height is simply the distance of the satellitefrom the earth. However, in
geometric calculations, the height is really the distancebetween the center of the earth and the
satellite. In other words, that distance includes the radius of the earth, which is generally
considered to be about 3960 mi (or 6373 km).A satellite that is 5000 mi above the earth in
circular orbit is 3960 + 5000 or 8960mifrom the center of the earth. When the satellite is in an
elliptical orbit, the center of the earth is one of the focal points of the ellipse. In this case, the
distance of the satellite fromthe earth varies according to its position. Typically the two points
of greatest interest are the highest point above the earth-the apogee- and the lowest point-the
perigee. Theapogee and perigee distances typically are measured from the geocenter of the
earth.

Satellite Speed. As indicated earlier, the speed varies according to the distance ofthe satellite
from the earth. For a circular orbit the speed isconstant, but for an elliptical orbit the speed
varies according to the height. Low earth satellites of about 100 miin height have a speed in
the neighbourhood of 17,500 mi/h. Very high satellites such ascommunication satellites,
which are approximately 22.300 mi out, rotate much moreslowly, a typical speed of such a
satellite being in the neighbourhood of 6800 mi/h.
Satellite Period. The period is the time it takes for a satellite to complete one orbit. It is also
called the sidereal period. A sidereal orbit uses some external fixed or apparentlymotionless
object such as the sun or star for reference in determining a siderealperiod. The reason for
using n fixed reference point is that while the satellite is rotating about the earth, the earth
itself is rotating.
Communication satellites are not originators of information to be transmitted. Althoughsome
other types of satellites generate the information to be transmitted. Communicationsatellites
do not. Instead, these satellites are relay stations for earth sources. If a transmittingstation
cannot communicate directly with one or more receiving stations becauseof line-of-sight
restrictions, a satellite can be used. The transmitting station sends the informationto the
satellite, which in turn retransmits it to the receiving stations. The satellitein this application
is what is generally known as a repeater.
Repeaters and Transponders

An earth stationtransmits information to the satellite. The satellite contains a receiver that
picks up thetransmitted signal, amplifies it, and translates it on another frequency. The signal
on thenew frequency is then retransmitted to the receiving stations on earth. The original

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signalbeing transmitted from the earth station to the satellite is called the uplink, and the
retransmittedsignal from the satellite to the receiving stations is called the downlink.
Usuallythe downlink frequency is lower than the uplink frequency. A typical uplink
frequency is6 GHz. and a common downlink frequency is 4 GHz.The transmitter-receiver
combination in the satellite is known as a transponde1:The basic functions of a transponder
are amplification and frequency translation. The reason for frequency translation is that the
transponder cannot transmit andreceive on the same frequency. The transmitter's strong signal
would overload, or "desensitize the receiver and block out the very small uplink signal,
thereby prohibiting any communication.Widely spaced transmit and receive frequencies
prevent interference.Transponders are also wide-bandwidth units so that they can receive and
retransmitmore than one signal. Any earth station signal within the receiver's bandwidth will
beamplified, translated, and retransmitted on a different frequency.Although the typical
transponder has a wide bandwidth, it is used with only oneuplink or downlink
signal to
minimize interference and improve communicationreliability. To be economically feasible, a
satellite must be capable of handling several channels. As aresult,most satellites contain
multiple transponders, each operating at a different frequency. A typical communication
satellite has 24 channels. 12 verticallypolarized and 12 horizontally polarized. Each
transponder represents an individual communicationchannel. Various multiple-access
schemes arc used so that each channel cancarry multiple information transmissions.
Frequency Allocations:

Most communication satellites operate in the microwavefrequency spectrum. However, there

are some exceptions. For example,many militarysatellites operate in the 200- to 400VHF/UHF range. Also, the amateur radio OSCARsatellites operate in the VHF/UHF range.
VHF, UHF and microwave signals penetratethe ionosphere with little or no attenuation and
are not refracted to earth, as are lowerfrequencysignals in the 3- to 30-MHz range.The
microwave spectrum is divided up into frequency bands that have been allocatedto satellites
as well as other communication services such as radar. These frequencybands are generally
designated by a letter of the alphabet. One of the most widely used satellite communication
bands is the C band. Theuplinkfrequencies are 5.925 to 6.425 GHz. In any general discussion
of the C band,theuplink is generally said to be 6 GHz. The downlink is in the 3.7- to 4.2-GHz
range. Butagain, in any general discussion of the C band, the downlink is nominally said to
be4 GHz. Occasionally, the C band is referred to by the designation 6/4 GHz, where
theuplink frequency is given first.

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Satellite Architecture and Organization:

Single Conversion Transponder

Double Conversion Transponder

Regenerative Repeater

All satellite communication systems consist of two basic parts, the satellite or spacecraftand
two or more earth stations. The satellite performs the function of a radio repeater orrelay
station. Two or more earth stations may communicate with one another through thesatellite
rather than directly point-to-point on the earth.Satellites vary in size from about I ft3 for a
small LEO satellite to more than 20 ftlong. The largest satellites are roughly the size of the
trailer on an 18-wheeler. Weightranges from about 100 lb for the smaller satellites to nearly
10.000 lb for the largest.The heart of a communication satellite is the communication
subsystem. This is aset of transponders that receive the uplink signals and retransmit them to

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earth. Atransponder is a repeater that implements a wideband communication channel that
cancarry many simultaneous communication transmissions.The transponders are supported
by a variety of additional ''housekeeping subsystems.These include the power subsystem,
the telemetry tracking and commandsubsystems, the antennas, and the propulsion and attitude
stabilisation subsystems. These are essential to the self-sustaining nature of the satellite. The
solar panels supply the electric power for the spacecraft. They drive regulatorsthat distribute
de power to all other subsystems. And they charge the batteriesthat operate the satellite during
eclipse periods. And ac-to-dc converters and dc-to-acinverters are used to supply special
voltages to some subsystems. The communication subsystem consists of multiple
transponders. These receive theuplink signals, amplify them, translate them in frequency, and
amplify them again forretransmission as downlink signals. The transponders share an antenna
subsystem forboth reception and transmission.The telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C)
subsystem monitors on-board conditionssuch astemperature and battery voltage and transmits
this data back to a groundstation for analysis. The ground station may then issue orders to the
satellite by transmittinga signal to the command subsystem, which then is used to control
many spacecraftfunctions such as firing the jet thrusters.
The jet thrusters and the apogee kick motor (AKM)are part of the propulsion subsystem.They
are controlled by commands from the ground.The attitude control subsystem provides
stabilization in orbit and senses changes inorientation. It tires the jet thrusters to perform
attitude adjusm1ent and station-keepingmaneuvers that keep the satellite in its assigned
orbital position.
Multichannel Subsystem:
There are two basic multichannel architechtures:
Broadband multiple channel repeater and multichannel(fully channelized) system

The above diagram shows a broadband multiple channel repeater. The receiver antenna is
connected to the LNA.Wide bandwidth tined circuits are used so that the entire 500Mhz
bandwidth received and amplified. A mixer translates all incoming signals into their

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equivalent lower down-link frequencies.A wideband amplifier following the mixer amplifies
this entire spectrum. The channelisation process occurs in the remainder of the transponder.
For example, in a 12 channel satellite, 12 bandpass filters each centred on one of the 12
channels is used to separate all the various received signals. The bandpass filters separate out
the unwanted mixer output signals and retain only the difference signals. Then individual
HPAs are used to increase the signal level. These are usually TWTs. The output of each TWT
amplifier is again filtered to minimise harmonics and intermodulation distortion problems.
These filters are usually part of a larger assembly known as a multiplexer or a combiner. In
any case, it is a waveguide-cavity resonator assembly that filters and combines all the signals
for application to a single antenna.

Another transponder architecture used in communication satellites uses individual

narrowband input channels instead of the single wideband input described previously.
The receiver antenna feeds a demultiplexer, a waveguide assembly that seperates a single
wideband input into equal feeds for separate channels. Separate LNAs and bandpass filters
centered on the designated channels are used at the inputs. The filters sort out the input
signals, and LNAs provide the desired amount of gain. Although each bandpass filter
contributes to the noise level, this is offset by the narrowband operation.Further HPAs and
BPFs are used for the purpose of amplification(by TWT) and removing the noise
respectively. The output bandpass filters are part of a multiplexer combiner unit which creates
one feed for the transmitting antenna.

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Power Subsystem

Today virtually every satellite uses solar panels for its basic power source. Solar panels are
large arrays of photocells connected in various series and parallel circuits to createa powerful
source of direct current. Early solar panels could generate hundreds of wattsof power. Today
huge solar panels are capable of generating many kilowatts. A keyrequirement is that the
solar panels always be pointed toward the sun. There are twobasic satellite configurations. In
cylindrical satellites, the solar cells surround the entireunit, and therefore some portion of
them is always exposed to sunlight. In body-stabilised, or three-axis satellites, individual
solar panels are manipulated with variouscontrols to ensure that they are correctly oriented
with respect to the sun.Solar panels generate a direct current that is used to operate the
various componentsof the satellite. However, the de power is typically used to charge
secondary batteriesthat act us a buffer. When a satellite goes into an eclipse or when the solar
panels arenot properly positioned, the batteries take over temporarily and keep the satellite
operating.The batteries are not large enough to power the satellite for a long time: they
areused as a backup system for eclipses, initial satellite orientation and stabilization,
oremergency conditions.The basic de voltage from the solar panel is conditioned in various
ways. For example,it is typically passed through voltage regulator circuits before being used
to powerindividual electronic circuits. Occasionally, voltages higher than those produced by

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thesolar panels must also be generated. For example, the TWT amplifiers in most
communicationtransponders require thousands of volts for proper operation. Special dc-to-dc
converters are used to translate the lower de voltage of the solar panels to the higher
dcvoltage required by the TWTs.

Satellite Applications
Surveillance Satellites
Another application of satellites is in surveillance or observation. From their vantagepoint
high in the sky. Satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see to groundstations
for a wide variety of purposes. For example, military satellites are used to
performreconnaissance. On-board cameras take photographs that can later be ejected fromthe
satellite and brought back to earth for recovery. TV cameras can take pictures andsend them
back to earth as electric signals. Infrared sensors detect heat sources. Smallradars can profile
earth features.Intelligence satellites collect information about enemies and potential enemies.
Theypermit monitoring for the purpose of proving other countries' compliance with
nucleartest ban and missile stockpile treaties.There are many different kinds of observation
satellites. One special type is themeteorological. or weather, satellite. These satellites
photograph cloud cover and send backto earth pictures that are used for determining and
predicting the weather. Geodetic satellitesphotograph the earth for the purpose of creating
more accurate and more detailed maps.
Navigation Satellites
A second applications area is navigation. Electronic systems have been used for years
toprovide accurate position information to ships, airplanes, and land-based vehicles.Loran
and Omega are well-known systems used in marine navigation.