BUILDING MATERIAL

Topic 2: Timber

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Topic 2: Timber
Introduction:
Timber is a valuable material for a number of reasons:
1.It is structurally useful because of its strength in relation
to its density
2.It is comparatively easy to work to a variety of shapes
either by hand or machine
3.It is durable under appropriate conditions
4.It gives a good finished appearance
However, as it is a product of nature which comes to use
in countless varieties and qualities, it must be properly
processed and selected to suit the work at hand

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The advantages of timber as a building material:
* It is structurally useful because of its strength in relation
to its density.
* It is comparatively easy to work to a variety of shapes
either by hand or machine
* It is durable under appropriate conditions
* It gives good finished appearance

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Sapwood

Heartwood

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Cross-section of a tree

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Outer bark:
Give protection to softer tissues inside the trunk
Inner bark:
Helps in conducting food materials to active living layers and storage
tissues
Cambium:
Responsible for the circumferential growth. Produces bark towards the
outside and wood towards the inside of the trunk
Sapwood:
Responsible for food conduction and storage
Heartwood:
Mainly concerned with providing mechanical stability and supporting the
heavy top part of the tree.

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CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER
All commercial timbers can be classified into two groups:
softwoods and hardwoods. The term softwood or
hardwood does not necessary indicate the relative
hardness or density. Sometimes hardwood is softer and
less dense than softwood. The true distinctive between
the two groups of timber is botanical
Softwood produced from the coniferous trees such as
pines and spruces which have characteristic needle like
leave. The trees are generally evergreen. They are
mainly found in temperate countries

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Types of
Coniferous Trees

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Hardwood is produced from dicothyledons group of
trees which are broad leafed trees such as oak, beech
and ash. They are found in most part of world.
Hardwoods are generally denser, stronger more durable
and more costly than softwoods

Dicothyledons trees

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Timber in sawmill

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CONVERSION OF TIMBER
Conversion is the term used to describe the processes in
which the felled truck is sawn into marketable sizes of
timber. Conversion of timber is usually done in fixed
sawmills normally located close to the source of timber.
The log is first sawn into manageable lengths either at
stump in the forest or at the mill and is then de-barked
giving a cleaner log for sawing
In large mills de-barking is done mechanically but in
smaller mills it may still be done by hand. The logs are
then swan lengthwise into the required sections using
following method of sawing

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Timber debarking

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Tangential sawing:
It is adopted when the timbers have distinct annual rings
Rift sawing:
The log is first sawn into four pieces and each quarter is
cut into boards. The rays appear irregularly on the
surface to produce the silver grain which is so highly
valued for high class joinery work. It is an expensive
form of conversion as much waste results
Slab sawing:
The inner pieces are rift sawn and outer slabs
approximate to tangential cuts. There is less waste by
this method and it is therefore the cheapest

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The advantages of various types of timber conversion methods:

Tangential sawn
timber
This sawing method
removes the maximum
amount of material in
clearer grades and
leaves the knot defects
mostly boxed into the
central portion.

Rift sawn timber

Slab sawn timber

The most economical

method.

Radially cut boards

have greater
dimensional stability
across the width

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Defects due to conversion:
Apart from the natural defects such as knots, common
conversion defects arise from the cutting of timber from a
round log. There are:
Waney Edge:
The original surface of the tree which remains at the edge
or edges of a piece of timber after conversion
Woolly Grain:
The condition of a machined surface on which the fibres
have been dragged up by the cutter or sawn instead of
being cut

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Waney Edge

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Defects due to conversion - continue:
Machine Burn:
Darkening or charring of wood due to excessive friction
during conversion
SEASONING OF TIMBER:
When just felled, timber contains a large amount of sap.
Before the timber can be used, most of this moisture
content must be removed otherwise the timber will shrink
excessively causing defects in the works, a tendency to
decay and insect attack

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Sap

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SEASONING OF TIMBER continue
Seasoning is the term used to describe the process of
drying timber in a controlled manner to reduce its
moisture content without introducing unwanted defects
such as splits or distortion. Moisture is present in
unseasoned timber both within the cell cavities and cell
walls. When the timber is seasoned, the water within the
cell cavities may be removed without any effect on the
timber. This may reduce 73% of moisture content in
timber. Drying below this point requires removal of water
from cell walls which results in shrinkage. The art in
seasoning is to remover this water with as little
detrimental effect on the timber as possible

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There are two methods of seasoning timber:
1.Natural Air Seasoning
In natural air seasoning, the timber is stacked in the open
air or in open-sided shed in such a way as to promote
drying without artificial assistance. The planks are
stacked horizontally off the ground about 150 mm above
the ground level, each plank being separately from the
next by means of wedges. This system of open stacking
allow free circulation of air and the stacks are protected
form the sun and rain by a light roof. Softwoods are more
porous than hardwood and therefore dry out more quickly.

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Timber Natural Air Seasoning

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When a number of such stacks may be constructed
under the same sheet, there must be a space of not less
than 450mm between stacks
The process of seasoning is checked by determining the
moisture content of the wood when it is first piled and at
definite intervals of time thereafter. The time taken for
air seasoning depends on the temperature and humidity
of the atmosphere, efficiency of stacking, thickness,
moisture and the species of timber. Usually the
seasoning period takes about 6 to 12 months

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The advantage of air seasoning is that it is cheap method
with very little loss in quality of timber if done properly.
The advantages are that it is relatively slow process and
very little control is possible
Kiln Drying
In Kiln Drying or artificial seasoning, temperature up to
80 degree celsius are used which cause the moisture in
the wood to move more rapidly to the surface from where
it is removed by the circulating air
A kiln is a closed chamber where circulation of air,
humidity and temperature can be controlled so that
drying can be regulated and damage due to shrinkage

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Timber pieces to be seasoned are stacked inside the
chamber such that spaces are left for free circulation of
air. Warm and fully saturated air is forced inside the
chamber. The air used in the kiln should be relatively in
high humidity so as to keep the rate evaporation of
moisture from the surface of the wood at a safe level
As seasoning proceeds the temperature can generally be
raised and the humidity of the air lowered. Air circulation
should be maintained fairly uniformly over the surface of
the timber and from time to time some of the air should be
replaced by a fresh supply for outside

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The advantages of kiln seasoning are its rapidity and
precision. A lower moisture content in timber can be
achieved by kiln seasoning. In properly operated kiln,
every piece of timber can be dried to uniform moisture
content throughout. Moreover the temperature used are
lethal to any insect or fungus that may be present in the
timber

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Timber Kiln Seasoning

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Results of seasoned timber:
1) Less danger of rot or stain developing
2) Improved strength and resilience
3) Resistance to fungal decay and insect attack
(furniture and powder post beetles) and dimensional
stability
4) Shipping weight of timber is reduced

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Effects due to incorrect seasoning:
1) Case-hardening
The condition existing in timber in which the outer
layers have undergone some drying and become
set without corresponding shrinkage, causing stress
between the inner and outer layers
2) Warp
distortion in converted timber causing departure
from its original plane

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3) Split:
A separation of the fibres along the grain forming a
crack that entends through the piece from one side to
another
4) Surface Stain:
A brownish discolouration of timber casued either by
oxidation or by accumulation of the extractives during
seasoning can be removed by planning

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Defects due to improper seasoning

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Defects (twist) due to improper seasoning - cupping

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Defects due to improper seasoning

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Twist

Defects (twist) due to improper seasoning

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Spring

Defects due to improper seasoning

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Knots are considered as defects because:

shrinkage is greater across the knot than in the surrounding

wood. Encased knots may loosen and drop out.

although intergrown knots remain tight, they may develop

radial cracks.

encased knots caused discolouration and the entraped bark

associated with them.

disorientation of grain direction is troublesome when

machining.

spike knot extending across a board may cause it to break in

half under small loads.

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Knots are considered as defects

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Timber in sawmill

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PRESERVATION OF TIMBER:
The sapwood of all timbers and heartwood of many
timbers are liable to be attacked by wood destroying fungi,
boring insects and termites. All untreated timbers placed
in salt waters are liable to attack by a variety of organisms
collectively known as marine borers
The heartwood of some timber, such as Balau and
Chengal are highly resistive to decay and insect attack and
do not require little treatment if kept dry and out of ground
contact. The sapwood of these species is not durable and
the presence of sapwood is in many cases of initial attack
in these species

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Sapwood

Heartwood

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Preservation of timber is the treatment of timber with toxic
chemicals to protect it from attack by both fungi and
insects
Types of preservations
The three types of preservative commonly in use are:
1) Tar Oil
2) Organic solvent
3) Water-borne

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1) Tar Oil Types:
These preservatives are derivatives of coal tar and wood tar, for
example coat tar are relatively inexpensive and effective but have
some practical disadvantages such as odour, their liability to stain
other materials.
2) Organic Solvent Types:
It consist of various toxic chemicals in an oil solvent which is
volatile (e.g. white spirit and petroleum distillates). They are
relatively costly but offer good penetration, dry quickly anc can be
over painted.
3) Water-Borne Types:
These are aqueous solutions of one or more toxic salts (e.g.
copper sulphate or aluminum sulphate etc). They are convenience
to use, offer good penetration and allow overpainting when dry.
However, the re-drying of treated timber by kilning may be
necessary.

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The merits and demerits of three (3) common types of timber
Preservatives method are as follows:
1) Tar oil types:
These preservatives are derivatives of coal tar and wood tar, for
example coal tar creosote. They are relatively inexpensive and very
effective, but have some disadvantages such as odour, their liability to
stain other materials and the fact that they cannot be painted over
directly with standard finishes.
2) Organic Solvent types
It consists of various toxic chemicals in an oil solvent which is usually
volatile (e.g. white spirit and petroleum distillates).
They are relatively costly but offer good preservation, dry quickly and
can be painted over.

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The merits and demerits of three (3) common types of timber
Preservatives method are as follows:
3) Water-Borne types
These are aqueous solutions of one or more toxic salts
(e.g. copper sulphate, zinc chloride and aluminium sulphate).
They are convenient to use, offer fairly good penetration and
allow over painting when dry. However, the re-drying of
treated timber by kiln drying may be necessary. Some are
unsuitable for external use owing to leaching tendencies.

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The two principle types of pressure treatment processes used in timber
preservation are as follows:
a) Full-cell Process:
The, timber is placed in an enclosed pressure cylinder. The timber is
subjected to low vacuum for a period of 30 minutes to I hour. While the
vacuum is maintained, the preservatives, usually, water-born type is then
introduced to fill the cylinder. Pressure is then gradually increased and
maintained for periods up to several hours until the required amount of
preservative has been introduced into the timber. The length of time is
depending on the type of timber and preservative.
Then the pressure is reduced and the cylinder is drained of preservative.
A further vacuum is applied for a brief period just long enough to clean
the surface of the timber.

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b) Empty-cell Process:
This differs from the full-cell process in which no initial vacuum is used.
As a result air remains in the cells and after treatment, the cell cavities of
timber are only partially filled with preservatives. This method is normally
Confined to treatment with creosote or tar-oil types.

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The ten essential requirements of a good timber preservative:
A wood preservative should have the following properties:
a) Toxicity:
High toxicity to wood destroying organisms is essential.
b) Penetration:
Ability to penetrate deeply into the wood is essential.
c) Permanency:
Should remain permanently in the wood in service and should not
leach or diffuse out of the wood in the presence of water or high
humidity.
d) Chemical stability:
Chemicals used should not break down nor lose their toxicity over a
period of time.

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The ten essential requirements of a good timber preservative - continue:
A wood preservative should have the following properties:
e) Safety:
Should be safe to handle and use and non-poisonous to animals
and humans when in the timber.
f)

Interaction with other materials:

The preservative should not react with other materials placed in
contact with it to cause corrosion, staining, etc.

g) Cleanliness and odour:

Preservatives used in buildings should be free from objectionable
smells, clean to handle and use, and should not contaminate
foodstuffs.

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The ten essential requirements of a good timber preservative - continue:
A wood preservative should have the following properties:
h) Painting:
It must be possible to paint, stain, varnish or polish treated timber
in the same manner as untreated timber.
i)

Fire hazard:
No treatment should increase the flammability of timber, and should
preferably impart fire retardant properties to timber.

j)

Moisture repellent:
The treatment should preferably impart moisture repelling
characteristics to wood.

In practice, a series of treatments are in use to meet these specialised

requirements.

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Method of Preservation:
The main methods of preservation include:
1) Brushing and Spraying
This is the earliest and least effective method which can be used with
all types of preservatives. Suitable for treatment of timber in situ.
The penetration obtained seldom exceeds 1.5 mm. Tar oil should be
preferably applied hot.
2) Immersion
This method may be specified for a variety of preservatives, although
the organic solvent type is most frequently used in this method. The
period of immersion may vary only a few seconds, to a few minutes
or up to one hour. Deeper penetration is obtained and hence this
method is more effective than the brushing and spraying

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3) Pressure Process:
Unlike the previous methods which are non-pressure processes,
here the preservatives are impregnated by application of pressure.
This gives deepest penetration and is the most effective method of
treatment for most timbers.

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Group A

Group B

Group C

Group D

Externally Strong

Very Strong

Strong

Weak

Chengal (HH)

Tembusu (HH)

Teak (MH)

Durain (LH)

Balu (HH)

Kapur (MH)

Ramin (LH)

Jelutong (LH)

Gian (HH)

Merbau (HH)

Meranti (LH)

Damar Minyak (S)

Bakau (M)

Kempas (MH)

Nyatoh (LH)

HH Heavy Harwood
MH Medium Hardwood
LH Light Hardwood

S Softwood
M - Mangrove

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PROPERTIES OF TIMBER:
1. Density:
The density of solid cell wall material in wood is effectively
constant, irrespective of species. The value is 1500 kg/m3.
though the density of commercial timber pieces differs for
softwood and hardwood. Variations in density from tree to
tree are often the results of differences in growth rate
under the influence of latitude, climate and soil conditions.
The major practical importance of density in timber is its
role as an indicator of strength

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2. Strength Properties:
Density and a wide range of naturally occurring defects
affect the strength of timber, its strength properties differ
with respect to the direction of loading relative to the grain
direction. Timber strength is also affected by moisture
content, rate of application and duration of loading and
temperature. For example, the wet strength in bending are
up to 50% less than the dry strengths. The effect of
temperature is a linear decrease in strength with increase
in temperature.

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3. Deformation:
Timber experience deformation due to applied loads,
change in moisture content or changes in temperature.
Like all materials, timber expands and contracts on
heating and cooling. The deformation response of timber
to load is quite complex. Under low levels of load applied
for short duration, timber deforms elastically. If load
applied is increased beyond a certain point, deformation
increase more rapidly and the stress-stain relationship
becomes more curvilinear before strength failure finally
occurs.

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4. Durability:
Timber is bio-degradable. Different species of timber will
deteriorate at different rates. Timbers are generally
classified in five broad categories ranging from perishable
(heartwood stakes survive less than 5 years) to very
durable (survival for more than 25 years). The very
durable timbers are all hardwoods and include teak.

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USES OF TIMBER
1. Structural Appliances:
1) Marine Work:
Much of the marine works traditionally require timber for
wharves, piers, sheet piling and cofferdam. The
requirements for the timber in marine work are high
density, close grain structure and natural durability and
wear resistance. All these qualities are found only in
hardwoods.

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2) Heavy Construction Work:
Timber is used in construction work mainly for piling.
Other uses include gantries, bridges and shoring etc.
The requirements of timber for this use are
high density, closeness of grain, resistance to impact
and chemical attack.
3) Medium/light Construction Work:
Roof trusses, partitions, screens, floors and wall panels
are produced using timber. The requirements in the
class of work are resistance to insect and fungal attack
and minimum dimensional change due to temperature
and humidity variations. The timber suitable for this use
is softwoods such as whitewood and redwood.

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2. Falsework Carpentry
the uses include shuttering for in situ or precast
concrete work, support formwork for brick or stone
arch. Timber is also used for scaffolding purposes.
The principle requirements for the timber are
dimensional stability, ease of working, weight for
handling and transportation and resistance to impact
and abrasion

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3. Finishing joinery
This category includes all of the non-structural timber
used in buildings including window, doors, stair,
floorboards, facings and paneling. Any softwood or
hardwood timber can be element within this class of
work. The requirements for timbers for joinery uses
are ease of working and finishing, good gain pattern
and appearance when clear-finished, dimensional
stability,
Resistance to infestation and fungal attack, availability
and cost. The most importance is often appearance.

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Usage

Timber Recommended

Foundation piling on land driven

below water table

Bakau and all timber in strength

group A and B

Trusses, purlins, rafters, post, beams, All timber in strength group A and B
joists etc
especially suitable are Balau,
Chengal and Kapur
Heavy flooring including paraquetry

Balau, Chengal, Gian, Tembusu and

Merbau

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SHEET MATERIALS:
Sheet materials are processed timber products include:
1)

Plywood

2)

Blockboard

3)

Laminboard

4)

Hardboard

5)

Chipboard

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Plywood

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Blockboard

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Laminated Boards

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Hardboard

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Chipboard

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SHEET MATERIALS - continue:
Plywood:
Plywood is a compound wood made up of several thin layers of
wood, glued together underpressure and usually arranged so that
the grain of alternate layers are generally at right angle to each
other. In this way, greater strength and lightness together with high
dimensional stability can be obtained
a sheet of plywood usually consists of odd numbers of piles (3-ply,
5-ply or 7-ply etc), depending on the thickness. Those which have
more than three plies are known as multi-ply boards.

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Plywood is generally produced in standard size of 2440 x 1220 mm
and in varying thickness of 3 to 25 m. Plywood is obtained in many
kinds of wood finishes. Timber for manufacture of plywood include
red meranti, kapur and teak etc
Plywood Uses
Plywood panels are used throughout house construction. Some of
the common uses are exterior siding, wall and roof sheathing, interior
wall paneling, flush door and concrete formwork etc
Advantages of Plywood:
The balanced construction of plywood offer utmost in strength,
lightness and practicability. The following factors influence its
usefulness.

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Advantages of Plywood - continue:
1) Plywood is comparatively light in weight
2) Screws and nails can be driven close to the edge without danger
of splitting the wood
3) Plywood can be bent more readily than solid wood
4) Plywood panels can be built to any size, while wood is limited to
the width of the tree
5) Plywood minimises the tendency of wood to buckle or twist due to
changes in moisture content
7) Under normal use plywood will not shrink or swell appreciably
Plywood has a greater strength across the grain than solid wood of
the same thickness and checking and splitting is negligible

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2) Blockboard
Blockboard consists of a core of wood made from strips up to 25
mm wide placed together with or without glue between each strip
to form a slab with their grain direction at right angles to the grain
of the core
3) Laminboard
It is similar to blockboard, except the core strips are narrower.
The core is built up from strips of wood glued together face to
form a slab.
It is heavier than blockboard, since more glue and in some cases
denser timbers are used in its construction and its greater cost

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4) Hardboard
Hardboard panels are made of wood fibres. Wood chips are broken
down into individual fibres then the fibres are formed into mat and
compressed by hot presses into a dry board. It is denser, more
durable and resistant to water absorption than other wood
composition boards. Hardboard is available in a variety of finishes
and thickness (3 to 12 mm)
5) Chipboard
It is made from dry wood chips which are bonded together by
pressure and heat with a resin bond. The size and type of the chips
used determines the textures and properties of the board. The
manufacture of chipboard is similar to hardboard except that the
binder is some type of resin that is resistant to decay and to termite
attack. Hardness and acid resistance are also increased. At the
same time, the wood becomes more brittle.
Uses: Flooring, wall, ceiling linings and furniture

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6) Plasteredboard
It consists of an aerated gypsum core sandwiched between and
bonded to strong paper liners. Most boards have one ivory-coloured
surface for direct decoration and one grey-coloured surface which
has better adhesion properties for plastering.