Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Transmission Lines in
Communication Systems
Student Manual
36970-00
Printed in Canada
|30369700005129~
AB
COMPUTER-BASED ELECTRONICS
TRAINING SYSTEM FACET
TRANSMISSION LINES IN
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
by
the Staff
of
Lab-Volt Ltd.
Printed in Canada
December 2005
Foreword
In electrical engineering, transmission lines are used to transfer energy from a
source (generator) to a load. This energy can be in the form of electrical power or
information signals. In electrical power transmission, the energy is transmitted over
frequencies usually ranging around 50 or 60 Hz. In information signal transmission,
the energy can be transmitted over frequencies ranging from around 20 kHz (radio
signals) to 109 Hz and higher (terrestrial microwave signals and light signals).
Common types of transmission lines include the two-wire transmission line, the
waveguide, and the optical fiber.
This course deals specifically with the transmission of radio signals over two-wire
transmission lines. It teaches the principles and operational characteristics of these
lines under transient (step testing) and steady-state conditions. In addition, students
gain valuable experience testing and troubleshooting these lines using time-domain
reflectometry (TDR).
The curriculum has been written for use with the FACET TRANSMISSION LINES
circuit board. This board uses two RG-174 coaxial cables. Two generators provide
step and sinusoidal signals for transient and steady-state testing of the line behavior.
Various load impedances (purely resistive, capacitive, or inductive) can be
connected to the receiving end of the lines to permit analysis of their behavior under
various load conditions.
The Lab-Volt Instructor Guide Transmission Lines in Communication Systems
provides answers to all the procedure steps and review questions found in each
exercise in this manual. The books listed in the bibliography of this manual can be
used as references to complement the course.
III
IV
Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX
Installation of the Circuit Board and Insertion of Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XI
Unit 1
1-17
VI
A
B
C
D
E
Bibliography
We Value Your Opinion!
VII
VIII
Introduction
This manual provides students with the theory and measurement skills required to
implement and test transmission lines. Students first learn the principles and
operational characteristics of transmission lines. They then learn how to conduct
transmission line measurements under transient (step testing), and sinusoidal
steady-state conditions. Finally, students acquire a valuable foundation in the theory
and practice of time-domain reflectometry (TDR), as well as impedance matching
and transformation.
Also included is an exercise fully dedicated to troubleshooting. In this exercise,
students must locate and identify the nature of discontinuities (faults) introduced by
the instructor along transmission lines, using time-domain reflectometry (TDR). This
allows students to develop their troubleshooting skills and to test all their newly
acquired knowledge.
The course is divided into three units:
Each unit contains exercises that provide a systematic and realistic means of
learning transmission line principles. Each exercise contains the elements listed
below.
IX
If the Base Unit is not computerized, faults can be inserted through the use of
manual switches.
The TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board can also be operated without a FACET
Base Unit (stand-alone mode). In that case, the circuit board must be powered by
an external 15 VDC power supply. The power supply is connected to the
AUXILIARY POWER INPUT section of the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board.
The LED indicators in this section are on (lit) when adequate power is supplied to the
circuit board.
Throughout the manual, it is assumed that the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board
is used with the FACET Base Unit.
Installation of the TRANSMISSION LINES Circuit Board into the FACET Base Unit
Before performing each exercise, make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit
board has been installed into the Base Unit as directed below:
Open the connector in the Base Unit by turning the knob on the right side of the
Base Unit away from you. Do not use force; the knob should turn with
reasonable pressure.
Insert the circuit board into the Base Unit by sliding it along the grooves in the
Base Unit. Be sure the connector of the circuit board fits all the way into the slot
at the back of the Base Unit.
Lock the Base Unit connector by turning the knob toward you about a quarterturn.
Turn on the Base Unit by setting its POWER switch (located on the right-hand
side) to the I (ON) position. In the upper section of the Base Unit, verify that the
LED's next to the two adjustable control knobs are both on, confirming that
proper DC power is distributed to the circuit board. Turn off the Base Unit by
setting its POWER switch to the O (OFF) position.
Note: The two control knobs of the Base Unit permit adjustment of the
voltage provided by secondary built-in DC voltage sources. These sources
are not required for the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board. However,
always make sure that the LED next to each source's knob is turned on
after you turn on the Base Unit, to confirm that adequate power is
distributed to the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board.
Note: Some Base Unit models come without a built-in power supply. In that
case, the Base Unit must be connected to an external 15 VDC power
supply in order for the Base Unit to distribute adequate power to the
TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board.
XI
XII
You should never have more than one faults introduced at any one time.
The exercise procedure will tell you when to ask the instructor to introduce faults
in the circuits.
The faults to be inserted by the instructor are indicated in the Lab-Volt Instructor
Guide Transmission Lines in Communication Systems, under the section
Answers to Procedure Questions of Exercise 2-5.
Unit
UNIT OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit, you will be familiar with the basics of transmission lines.
You will be able to describe different types of transmission lines and how they are
used. You will know how to determine the equivalent circuit of a transmission line.
You will be familiar with the concepts of characteristic impedance and impedance
mismatch.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Basics of Transmission Lines
A transmission line is a conducting device used to transfer energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves from a source (generator) to a load. In television and radio
systems, for example, transmission lines are used to connect transmitters to
antennas, or antennas to receivers, as Figure 1-1 shows.
1-1
1-2
1-3
The two-wire open line consists of two parallel conductors that are spaced a few
centimeters apart and that are held by spacers placed at regular intervals, as
Figure 1-5 shows. This type of line is used mainly for connections over short
distances for high power lines and rural telephone lines. It is susceptible to noise,
cheap, and simple.
1-4
The two-wire line is called twin-lead line when the parallel conductors are insulated
by a dielectric material, as Figure 1-6 shows. This type of line is often used to
connect home television sets to their antennas.
1-5
The shielded pair line consists of two parallel conductors surrounded and separated
by solid dielectric material, as Figure 1-8 shows. The dielectric material is
surrounded by a copper braid that acts as an electrical shield. The entire assembly
is housed in a flexible protective cover. The main advantage of this type of line is that
the conductors are isolated from external noise sources.
The coaxial line is widely used for cable television. It comes in two types: rigid and
flexible. Both types are constructed in the same way: an inner conductor is
surrounded by a tubular outer conductor. This type of conductor minimizes radiation
losses, as well as interference from other lines.
1-6
In the case of the flexible coaxial line, shown in Figure 1-9, the inner conductor
is insulated from the outer conductor by solid, dielectric material. The outer
conductor consists of a braided copper shield, giving the cable its flexibility. This
type of line minimizes the impact of electromagnetic radiation and skin effect.
In the case of the rigid coaxial line, the inner conductor is insulated from the outer
conductor by spacer or beads at regular intervals. This type of line minimizes
losses, as well as interference from other lines.
Finally, the optical fiber is designed specifically for transmitting light, which can be
modeled as an electromagnetic wave. The optical fiber consists of a central
conductor, called the core, made of glass or plastic, as Figure 1-11 shows. The core
is surrounded by a protective cladding. The whole assembly is housed in a
protective sheath. Advantages of optical fibers are their very high bandwidth, their
noise immunity, and their small size.
1-7
Impedance
In alternating-current (AC) circuits, the resistance of a component to the flow of
current is called impedance. Impedance is symbolized by a capital Z. Impedance
is measured in ohms (). Impedance is quantified by a complex number that can be
expressed in either of the polar or rectangular form, as Figure 1-12 shows.
in polar form, with some resistance value R, expressed in ohms (), and a given
angle, , in degrees or radians (E or rad): R p .
1-8
Most of the time, impedance is neither purely resistive nor purely reactive. It is
composed of both a real (resistive) component and a reactive component, as
Figure 1-14 shows.
When the vector is located in the first quadrant of the chart (between 0 and 90E),
the reactive component is inductive.
When the vector is located in the fourth quadrant (between 90 and 0E), the
reactive component is capacitive.
1-9
For example, the vector in the fourth quadrant of Figure 1-14 consists of a true, or
purely resistive component, and a reactive component that is capacitive: 6 p18E.
Basic Transmission Line Circuit
The upper section of Figure 1-15 shows a basic transmission line circuit. The
transmission line consists of two conductors.
1-10
The sending end of the line is connected to an AC voltage source, ES, having an
internal impedance ZS. The receiving end of the line is connected to a load having
a certain impedance, ZL.
The impedance seen at the sending end of the transmission line, ZIN, is the ratio
of the voltage to current (VIN/IIN) at that point of the circuit. ZIN corresponds to the
impedance presented to the voltage source by the transmission line and the load.
The lower section of Figure 1-15 shows the circuit when the transmission line used
is a flexible coaxial line. This is the type of transmission line used on the
TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board. The inner conductor is insulated from the
outer conductor by solid, dielectric material. The outer conductor consists of a
braided copper shield. Since the source provides an AC voltage, the polarity of the
two conductors is always opposite, since the current in the circuit alternates from
positive to negative.
Throughout this course, transmission lines will be represented by two parallel
conductors.
Characteristic Impedance of a Transmission Line
The most important property of a transmission line is characteristic impedance.
Characteristic impedance is represented by the symbol Z0.
Z0 is determined mainly by the physical characteristics of the line:
A more practical definition of Z0 is that it is the input impedance, ZIN, of a line of finite
length when the impedance of the load, ZL, is perfectly equal to Z0, as Figure 1-17
shows.
When the losses in a line are low and the frequency of the carried signals is relatively
high, which is a common situation, the reactive component of Z0 is usually
disregarded, and Z0 is considered to be purely resistive.
The characteristic impedance of transmission lines usually stands between 50 and
600 .
1-12
Twisted-pair transmission lines are used for telephone distribution and have a
characteristic impedance of 600 .
When ZL is not equal to Z0, an impedance mismatch occurs. In this case, not all the
received energy is absorbed by the load, as Figure 1-19 shows. Instead, part of this
energy is reflected back toward the source, resulting in a loss due to reflection.
1-13
If, additionally, the impedance of the source, ZS, is not equal to Z0, the reflected
energy, when it gets back to the source, will be partly re-reflected down the line, as
Figure 1-19 shows. The reflected energy will continue to bounce back and forth on
the line for a certain time, increasing the losses between the point of transmission
and the point of use, and resulting in transmission inefficiency.
It is therefore important that the impedance of the load and source be both equal to
the characteristic impedance of the line, in order for the maximum possible energy
to be transferred from the source to the load.
To summarize, when the load impedance, ZL, is not equal to the characteristic
impedance Z0, not all the received energy is absorbed by the load, due to reflection.
Equivalent Circuit of a Transmission Line
A transmission line can be viewed as many tiny sections distributed evenly along the
entire length of the line, as Figure 1-20 shows. Each section contains a same
combination of discrete components per unit length. One unit length may be any
convenient length: centimeter, meter, foot, etc.
1-14
R'S, L', R'P, and C', because they are distributed uniformly along the line, are called
distributed parameters. The values of the distributed parameters are determined
by the physical characteristics of the line: the diameter of the conductors, the relative
spacing between the conductors, and the insulating material used.
In applications where R'S is negligible and R'P is very high (G' is very low), the line
is said to be lossless.
In applications where R'S is significant and R'P is relatively low (G' is relatively high),
some part of the transmitted energy is lost through R's due to I2R losses (series
losses), and also through R'p due to insulation leakage losses (shunt losses). The
line is said to be lossy and the losses are converted into heat. This is why high
power transmission lines must have special cooling mechanisms such as copper
tubing soldered along the sides of the guide and carrying a liquid. The liquid can be
water or ethylene glycol.
1-15
where
Z0 =
L' =
C' =
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
In order to complete the exercises in this unit, you will need the following:
1-16
Exercise
1-1
1-17
Five probe turrets with their associated coaxial-shield turrets that permit
observation and/or measurement of the signal along the entire length of the line
with an oscilloscope. The posts are equally distributed along the line, thereby
dividing the line into four segments of equal length [6 meters (19.7 feet) each].
The AUXILIARY POWER INPUT section, shown in Figure 1-22, is used to power the
TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board with an external 15 VDC power supply, if the
board is operated in stand-alone mode (without a FACET Base Unit). The LED's in
the AUXILIARY POWER INPUT section are on (lit) when adequate power is supplied
from the external supply.
The STEP GENERATOR, shown in Figure 1-23, delivers a 50-kHz signal consisting
in a rectangular pulse that occurs every 20 s. The STEP GENERATOR output
signal is available at five BNC connectors, each connector corresponding to a
different generator output impedance.
1-18
1-19
1-20
Thevenin's Theorem
Thevenin's theorem is named after the French engineer M.L. Thevenin. Thevenin's
theorem allows any electrical linear circuit seen at two terminals to be represented
by a Thevenin equivalent circuit. The Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a
voltage source, ETH, and an impedance in series with this source, ZTH. Figure 1-26
shows how a simple circuit is thevenized.
Voltage ETH is equal to the open-circuit voltage, VOC, measured across the two
terminals of the circuit to thevenize.
Impedance ZTH is the impedance seen at the two terminals when the voltage
source of the circuit to thevenize is replaced by a short circuit.
1-21
1-22
1-23
where
VL
ZL
ZTH
ETH
=
=
=
=
When the load is adjusted so that the voltage across it, VL, is equal to ETH/2 (see
Figure 1-29), the equation for calculating VL becomes:
Consequently, by adjusting the resistance of the load so that VL = ETH/2, and then
measuring this resistance, the value of ZTH can be determined.
A method identical to that just described can be used to determine the Thevenin
equivalent circuit of the SIGNAL GENERATOR of the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit
board.
As will be seen in detail in Unit 2, a transmission line acts as a load when it is
connected to a voltage source. This causes the instantaneous applied voltage to be
attenuated by a specific amount determined by the voltage divider rule.
1-24
Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will determine the Thevenin equivalents of the STEP
GENERATOR and SIGNAL GENERATOR on your circuit board.
PROCEDURE
Determining the Thevenin Equivalent at the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC
Output
2. Referring to Figure 1-30, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC output
to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input, using a short coaxial
cable.
Then, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- BNC output to the trigger
input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Finally, using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope
to the probe turret just next to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.
Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the probe to the associated
(nearby) common (L) turret.
3. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
Then, connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to
the I (ON) position. (That is, set both switches S1 and S10 to the I position.
The other switches must all be left to the O position).
Turn the knob of resistor R1 fully clockwise. This sets the impedance of the
STEP GENERATOR output load to 500 approximately.
1-25
Figure 1-30. STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC output connected to oscilloscope channel 1 and to the
LOAD-section input.
1-26
G Yes
G No
7. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load at the STEP GENERATOR 50-
output in the open-circuit condition (4 ).
1-27
8. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to
the I (ON) position.
Adjust the knob of resistor R1 until the voltage of the pulses on the
oscilloscope screen is equal to half the Thevenin voltage measured in the
previous step.
Record below this voltage, ETH/2.
ETH/2 =
Disconnect the oscilloscope probe from the probe turret at the LOADsection input.
Hold the tip of one of the ohmmeter probes on the probe turret at the
LOAD-section input, while touching the nearby common (L) turret with
the other ohmmeter probe.
G 10. Reconnect the coaxial cable coming from the STEP GENERATOR 50-
BNC output to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.
G 11. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R4
(100- resistor) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to the I
(ON) position.
Reconnect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the probe turret at the LOADsection input.
1-28
G 13. Using the Thevenin voltage, ETH, and the Thevenin impedance, ZTH,
measured in steps 7 and 9 of this exercise, use the voltage divider rule to
calculate the theoretical voltage present across a 100- load, ZL, connected
to the STEP GENERATOR output:
G Yes
G No
G 14. Disconnect the circuit by removing all the connecting cables and probes.
Determining the Thevenin Equivalent at the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50- BNC
Output
G 15. Now, determine the Thevenin equivalent at the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50-
BNC output:
1-29
Figure 1-32. SIGNAL GENERATOR 50- output connected to oscilloscope channel 1 and to the
LOAD-section input.
G 16. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load at the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50-
output in the open-circuit condition (4 ).
G 18. Adjust the frequency of the SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal to 3 MHz
approximately. To do so, adjust the FREQUENCY knob of this generator
1-30
Figure 1-33. SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal frequency set to 3 MHz approximately.
VPK
G 19. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to
the I (ON) position.
Adjust the knob of resistor R1 until the peak (positive) amplitude of the
sinusoidal voltage on the oscilloscope screen is equal to half the Thevenin
voltage measured in the previous step. Record below this voltage, ETH/2.
ETH/2 =
VPK
Disconnect the oscilloscope probe from the probe turret at the LOADsection input.
Hold the tip of one of the ohmmeter probes on the probe turret at the
LOAD-section input, while touching the nearby common (L) turret with
the other ohmmeter probe.
G 21. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The STEP GENERATOR on your circuit board produces a rectangular signal
a. whose frequency can be determined through measurement of the voltage
at the REFERENCE OUTPUT.
b. available at five BNC connectors, each connector corresponding to a
different line input impedance.
c. having a frequency of 50 kHz.
d. that occurs every 20 ms.
2. The TRANSMISSION LINES on your circuit board
1-32
5.0 V
0.2 V
0.5 V
1.0 V
0.8 V
4.0 V
2.0 V
1.2 V
1-33
1-34
Exercise
1-2
Velocity of Propagation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
Upon completion of this unit, you will know how to measure the velocity of
propagation of a signal in a transmission line, using the step response method.
Based on the measurements, you will know how to determine the relative permittivity
of the dielectric material used to construct this line.
DISCUSSION
Velocity of Propagation
A radio signal travels in free space at the velocity of light (approximately
3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.8 @ 108 ft/s). In a transmission line, a signal will travel at a relatively
lower speed. This is due mainly to the presence of the dielectric material used to
construct the line. In fact, the velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission
line, vP, is dependent upon the distributed inductance and capacitance of the line, L'
and C' (see Figure 1-34). The equation for calculating vP is:
where
vP =
L' =
C' =
1-35
Velocity of Propagation
1-36
Velocity of Propagation
Figure 1-35. Measuring the velocity of propagation of a signal by using the step response method.
The signal propagation through the line is described below (refer to Figure 1-35).
Incident step VI propagates at a certain velocity, vP, along the line. It arrives at the
receiving end of the line after a certain transit time, T. There its level has
decreased by a certain amount due to the resistance of the line.
Since the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the line is in the opencircuit condition (4 ), it does not match the characteristic impedance of the line.
This impedance mismatch causes the incident step to be reflected back toward
the generator. The reflected step, VR, gets back to the step generator after a
time equal to twice the transit time, 2T. 2T is synonymous with round-trip time,
or back-and-forth trip time.
The signal at the sending end of the line, as a function of time, is the step response
signal. As Figure 1-36 shows, this signal is the algebraic sum of the incident step
VI and reflected step VR. Step VR is superimposed on step VI, and is separated by
a time 2T from the rising edge of VI.
1-37
Velocity of Propagation
Figure 1-36. Voltage at the sending end of the open-circuit line (step response signal).
where
vP =
l =
2T =
Transmission lines that are lossy, and whose series losses are predominant, will
appear as a simple RC network (resistor-capacitor network) for a short time following
the launching of a voltage step, as Figure 1-37 shows. This is due to the highfrequency components contained in the voltage step.
1-38
Velocity of Propagation
The time constant, , of the RC network (not to be confused with the transit time T)
is determined by constants Rs and C, which are themselves derived from the
distributed series resistance, R's, series inductance, L', and parallel capacitance, C',
of the line. Consequently, the time constant of the RC network is independent of the
length of the line.
In that case, the incident and reflected steps observed at the sending end of the line
will first rise to a certain level, and then increase exponentially at a rate determined
by the time constant of the RC network, as Figure 1-38 shows. This does not prevent
the measurement of time 2T on the oscilloscope screen for calculation of the velocity
of propagation. However, it is clear that lossy lines cause a degradation in the rise
time of voltage steps.
1-39
Velocity of Propagation
Figure 1-38. Incident and reflected steps at the sending end of a lossy line with predominant series
losses.
Velocity Factor
The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line is usually expressed as
a percentage of the velocity of light in free space. This percentage is called the
velocity factor, vF. For example, a transmission line with a vF of 66% will transmit
signals at about 66% of the velocity of light.
where
1-40
vF =
vP =
c =
Velocity of Propagation
In the case of coaxial cables, the velocity factor varies from about 66 to around 85%,
as indicated in Table 1-1.
TYPE OF COAXIAL CABLE
RG-8
66
RG-58
66
RG-174
66
RG-400
70
RG-11
75
RG-316
79
LMR-195
83
RG-8X
84
LMR-400
85
TRANSMISSION LINES A and B of the circuit board are RG-174 coaxial cables.
Consequently, they have a theoretical velocity factor, vF, of 66%.
Relative Permittivity (Dielectric Constant)
The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line is determined mainly by
the permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct the line. Permittivity is a
measure of the ability of the dielectric material to maintain a difference in electrical
charge over a given distance.
The permittivity of a particular dielectric material is normally expressed in relation to
that of vacuum. This ratio is called relative permittivity, or dielectric constant. When
the velocity of propagation in a transmission line is known, the relative permittivity
of the dielectric material used to construct that line, r, can be determined by using
the equation below.
where
r =
c =
vP =
The formula for calculating relative permittivity indicates that a higher velocity of
propagation indicates a lower relative permittivity, since the velocity of light is a
constant value.
Table 1-2 lists the relative dielectric constants of various materials.
1-41
Velocity of Propagation
MATERIAL
RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY,
r
VELOCITY FACTOR,
vF (%)
Vacuum
1.00000
100
Air
1.0006
99.97
Teflon
2.10
69.0
Polyethylene
2.27
66.4
Polystyrene
2.50
63.2
3.30
55.0
Nylon
4.90
45.2
Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will measure the velocity of propagation of voltage
steps in the transmission lines of the circuit board. Based on the measured velocity,
you will determine the relative permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct
these lines.
PROCEDURE
Measuring the Velocity of Propagation
2. Referring to Figure 1-39, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC output
to the BNC connector at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Leave the BNC connector at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A
unconnected (open-circuit).
Then, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- BNC output to the trigger
input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Finally, using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope
to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret at the sending end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A. Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the probe to the
associated 0-meter (0-foot) shield turret.
Note: When connecting an oscilloscope probe to one of the five
probe turrets of a transmission line, always connect the ground
conductor of the probe to the associated (nearest) coaxial-shield
turret. This will minimize noise in the observed signal due to the
parasitic inductance introduced by undesired ground return paths.
1-42
Velocity of Propagation
Figure 1-39. Measuring the velocity of propagation of voltage steps through TRANSMISSION
LINE A.
1-43
Velocity of Propagation
G
4. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the step response signal at the sending
end of TRANSMISSION LINE A. This signal corresponds to the step
response of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Does the reflected step appear
superimposed on the incident step, a certain time interval separating these
two steps, as Figure 1-40 shows?
G Yes
G No
Figure 1-40. Incident and reflected steps at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
5. Observe that the incident and reflected steps first rise to a certain level, and
then increase exponentially, as the voltage across a capacitor charging
through a series resistor. Does this indicate that TRANSMISSION LINE A
have predominant series losses?
G Yes
1-44
G No
Velocity of Propagation
G
@ 10!9 s
1-45
Velocity of Propagation
G
8. Based on the round-trip time, 2T, measured in the previous step, and on a
line length, l, of 24 meters (78.7 feet), calculate the velocity of propagation,
vP, through the line.
vP =
where c = velocity of light in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.84 @ 108 ft/s)
vF =
The result should be quite near the theoretical value of 2.25 for polyethylene
(dielectric material used to construct the RG-174 coaxial cables used for
TRANSMISSION LINES A and B).
where c = velocity of light in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.84 @ 108 ft/s)
r =
Effects that a Change in Line Length Has on the Round-Trip Time (2T)
G 11. As Figure 1-42 shows, increase the length of the line from 24 to 48 meters
(78.7 to 157.4 feet) through end-to-end connection of TRANSMISSION
LINEs A and B. To do so, connect the BNC connector at the receiving end
of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the BNC connector at the sending end of
TRANSMISSION LINE B, using a short coaxial cable. Leave the
1-46
Velocity of Propagation
BNC connector at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE B
unconnected (open-circuit).
Figure 1-42. Increasing the length of the line from 24 to 48 meters (78.7 to 157.4 feet).
G 12. Set the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div. Observe that the round-trip
time, 2T, separating the rising edge of the incident step from the rising edge
of the reflected step has doubled, as Figure 1-43 shows.
1-47
Velocity of Propagation
Figure 1-43. The round-trip time, 2T, separating the rising edges of the incident and reflected steps
has doubled.
G 13. On the oscilloscope screen, observe that the incident and reflected steps
first rise to a certain level, and then increase exponentially as they did with
the shorter 24-meter (78.7-foot) long line.
These steps increase at the same rate as they did with the shorter length.
This occurs because the time constant of the series RC network temporarily
presented by the line is determined by the
a. characteristic impedance, which is a constant.
b. total series resistance and parallel capacitance of the entire line.
c. series resistance, parallel capacitance, and series inductance of the line
per unit length.
d. velocity factor, which is a constant.
G 14. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
1-48
Velocity of Propagation
CONCLUSION
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In a transmission line, a signal travels at a velocity
a. that is null if the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the line is in
the open-circuit condition (4 ).
b. that is directly proportional to the relative permittivity of the dielectric material
used to construct the line.
c. that usually increases as the diameter of the line conductors is decreased.
d. relatively less than 3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.8 @ 108 ft/s.
2. The permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct a transmission line
a. is a measure of the ability of the material to maintain a difference in
propagation velocity over a given distance.
b. is called dielectric constant, or relative permittivity, when expressed in
relation to the permittivity of vacuum.
c. is usually expressed as a percentage of the velocity of light in free space.
d. does not determine the velocity factor of that line.
3. The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line can be determined
by using
a. a high-impedance oscilloscope probe connected to the sending end of the
line and a step generator connected to the receiving end of the line.
b. a simple formula, if the time required for a voltage step to travel to the
receiving end of the line and back to the generator is known.
c. the step response method, provided that the load impedance perfectly
matches the characteristic impedance of the line.
d. a step generator and a high-impedance oscilloscope connected to the
receiving end of the line.
1-49
Velocity of Propagation
4. When the step response method is used, the signal observed on the
oscilloscope at the sending end of the line consists of
a. a reflected step superimposed on an incident step, the rising edge of the
incident step being of higher voltage than that of the reflected step due to
attenuation.
b. an incident step superimposed on a reflected step, the rising edge of the
incident step being of higher voltage than that of the reflected step due to
attenuation.
c. a reflected step superimposed on an incident step, the time separating these
steps being directly proportional to the velocity of propagation.
d. several incident steps, the time separating two successive incident steps
being determined by the length of the line.
5. When a voltage step is launched into a lossy line whose series losses are
predominant,
a. the high-frequency components contained in the voltage steps make the line
temporarily appear as a simple RC network.
b. the incident and reflected steps will first rise to a certain level and then
decrease exponentially.
c. it is not possible to measure the time separating the incident and reflected
steps.
d. the line will appear as a simple LC network from the perspective of the load.
1-50
Exercise
1-3
At time t = 0, the step generator produces an incident step, VI, that is launched
into the line.
The incident step travels down the line until it reaches the receiving end of the
line at the transit time T. If the load impedance does not perfectly match the
characteristic impedance of the line, the incident step experiences a change in
impedance as it quits the line and encounters the load. This causes part of the
energy contained in the incident step to be reflected back toward the generator
instead of being absorbed by the load. Consequently, the step response signal
observed at the sending end of the line is the algebraic sum of the incident step,
VI, and reflected step, VR.
1-51
Figure 1-44. Determining the nature of the load impedance by using the step response method.
The step response signal can have several different shapes, this shape being
determined by the nature of the load impedance ZL. When ZL is purely resistive, the
reflected voltage has the same shape as the incident voltage, as Figure 1-45 shows.
When ZL is both resistive and inductive, the reflected voltage in the step response
signal has the same shape as the voltage across a capacitor discharging through a
series resistor. Thus, this voltage decreases exponentially until it stabilizes to a
certain level, as Figure 1-46 shows.
1-52
When ZL is both resistive and capacitive, the reflected voltage in the step response
signal has the same shape as the voltage across a capacitor charging through a
series resistor. Thus, this voltage increases exponentially until it stabilizes to a
certain level, as Figure 1-47 shows.
1-53
where
VR =
ZL =
Z0 =
VI =
Voltage of the reflected step at the receiving end of the line at the
transit time T (V);
Load impedance ();
Characteristic impedance ();
Voltage of the incident step at the receiving end of the line (V).
when ZL is greater than Z0, the voltage of the reflected step, VR, is of positive
polarity. Consequently, the reflected voltage adds up to the incident step when
it gets back to the sending end of the line, as Figure 1-48 shows.
when ZL is lower than Z0, the voltage of the reflected step, VR, is of negative
polarity. Consequently, the reflected voltage subtracts from the incident step
when it reaches the sending end of the line, as Figure 1-48 shows.
when ZL is equal to Z0, the voltage of the incident step is perfectly absorbed by
the load. Consequently, there is no reflected voltage in the step response signal,
as Figure 1-48 shows.
1-54
Figure 1-49. Measuring the characteristic impedance by means of a variable resistor connected
to the receiving end of the line.
The resistance of the load is adjusted until no reflected voltage appears in the step
response signal, as Figure 1-49 shows. In this condition, ZL is equal to Z0. The load
can then be disconnected from the line, and its resistance value be measured to
determine ZL.
When the receiving end of the line is not accessible for connection to a variableresistance load, there is another way of determining the characteristic impedance of
the line. This method consists in measuring the voltage of the rising edge, Vre, of the
incident step in the step response signal. The method can be applied regardless of
the nature of the load impedance (see Figure 1-50):
capacitive;
inductive;
purely resistive.
1-55
Figure 1-50. Measuring the voltage of the rising edge (Vre) of the incident step in order to
determine the characteristic impedance.
Voltage Vre is determined by the impedance seen by the step generator immediately
after it launches the voltage step into the line, as Figure 1-50 shows. This impedance
is the input impedance of the line, that is, the characteristic impedance of the line.
Consequently, the voltage of the rising edge, Vre, is
where
Vre
ETH
ZTH
Z0
=
=
=
=
Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will observe the step response of a transmission line
under various purely resistive load impedances. You will then measure the
characteristic impedance of this line, using two different methods.
1-56
2. As Figure 1-51 shows, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC output
to the BNC connector at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using
a coaxial cable. Then, connect the BNC connector at the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A to the BNC connector at the input of the LOAD
section, using a coaxial cable.
Then, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- BNC output to the trigger
input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Finally, using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope
to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret at the sending end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A. Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the probe to the
associated shield turret.
Note: When connecting an oscilloscope probe to one of the five
probe turrets of a transmission line, always connect the ground
conductor of the probe to the associated (nearest) coaxial-shield
turret. This will minimize noise in the observed signal due to the
parasitic inductance introduced by undesired ground return paths.
1-57
Figure 1-51. Step response of a transmission line under various (purely resistive) load
impedances.
3. In the LOAD section of the circuit board, make sure all the toggle switches
are set to the O (off) position. Then, connect the LOAD-section input to the
common via resistor R1 (500- potentiometer) by setting the appropriate
switches in this section to the I (ON) position.
Turn the knob of resistor R1 fully clockwise. This sets the impedance of the
load at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A to around 500 .
1-58
5. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the step response signal at the sending
end of the transmission line. Since the impedance of the load connected to
TRANSMISSION LINE A (about 500 ) is greater than the characteristic
impedance of this line (50 ), the reflected voltage adds up to the incident
voltage, as Figure 1-52 shows. Is this your observation?
G Yes
G No
6. Slowly turn the knob of resistor R1 fully counterclockwise, which will cause
the impedance of the load connected to TRANSMISSION LINE A to
decrease from about 500 to 0 .
While doing this, observe what happens to the step response signal on the
oscilloscope screen. As the load impedance is decreased,
a. the reflected voltage, which initially subtracts from the incident voltage,
increases, becomes equal to the incident voltage, and then adds up to
the incident voltage.
b. the incident voltage, which is initially lower than the reflected voltage,
increases, becomes equal to the reflected voltage, and then adds up to
the reflected voltage.
1-59
7. Adjust the knob of resistor R1 until no reflected voltage appears in the step
response signal. If a small notch (discontinuity) remains in the reflected
voltage, adjust R1 in order to reduce this notch to a minimum, as
Figure 1-53 shows.
1-60
Hold the tip of one of the ohmmeter probes on the probe turret just next
to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input, while touching the
nearby common (L) turret with the other ohmmeter probe.
Record below the measured resistance, Z0. Note that Z0 could differ
fairly from the manufacturer's value of 50 , since the obtained value is
dependent upon the accuracy of measurement and on the
R1-adjustment.
Z0 =
9. Leave the connections as they are, with the BNC connector at the LOADsection input unconnected, and proceed with the exercise.
G 10. Determine the Thevenin voltage, ETH, at the STEP GENERATOR 50- BNC
output by using the following steps:
G 11. Determine the Thevenin impedance, ZTH, at the STEP GENERATOR 50-
BNC output by using the following steps:
1-61
G 12. Reconnect the coaxial cable coming from the STEP GENERATOR 50-
BNC output to the BNC connector at the sending end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A. Reconnect the coaxial cable coming from the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A to the BNC connector at the LOAD-input section.
In the LOAD section, turn the knob of resistor R1 fully clockwise.
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
0-meter (0-foot) probe turret at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
1-62
Figure 1-54. Measuring the voltage (height) of the fast-rising edge, Vre, of the incident step.
G 15. Based on the fast-rising edge voltage Vre, and on the STEP GENERATOR
Thevenin equivalent measured in the previous steps, calculate the
characteristic impedance, Z0, of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Z0 =
G 16. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
1-63
The step response method can be used to determine the nature of the load
impedance terminating a line. The shape of the step response signal indicates
whether the load impedance is purely resistive or complex.
When the load impedance is purely resistive, the reflected voltage has the
same shape as the incident voltage. It adds up to or subtracts from the
incident voltage, depending on the relation between the load impedance and
the characteristic impedance of the line.
When the load impedance is both resistive and inductive, the reflected
voltage decreases exponentially until it stabilizes to a certain level, therefore
having the same shape as the voltage across a capacitor discharging
through a series resistor.
When the load impedance is both resistive and capacitive, the reflected
voltage increases exponentially until it stabilizes to a certain level, therefore
having the same shape as the voltage across a capacitor charging through
a series resistor.
When the receiving end of the line is not accessible, the characteristic
impedance can be determined by measuring the voltage of the rising-edge of the
incident voltage in the step response signal. This voltage and the Thevenin
equivalent of the step generator are then used to calculate the characteristic
impedance.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. When the load impedance is both resistive and inductive, the reflected voltage
in the step response signal
a.
b.
c.
d.
1-64
decreases more and more with time until it stabilizes to a certain level.
increases exponentially until it stabilizes to a certain level.
suddenly increases and then remains at a constant level.
has the same shape as the incident voltage.
100
50
75
125
1-65
1-66
Exercise
1-4
Figure 1-55. Signals lose some energy in each R'S and R'P.
The energy losses cause the level of the transmitted signal to gradually decrease as
the signal travels down the line, as Figure 1-56 shows. The decrease in signal level
over distance is called attenuation. Attenuation increases as the distance from the
transmission point increases.
1-67
Attenuation is normally expressed in decibels (dB). The formula for calculating the
attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end of a line is as
follows:
where
A =
log =
PD =
PS =
1-68
0.5
-3
0.25
-6
0.125
-9
For example, the attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end
of the line, if the ratio PD/PS is 0.75, will be -1.25 dB.
When voltage measurements, which are most common, are performed instead of
power measurements, the formula for calculating the attenuation in signal power at
a distance D from the sending end of the line becomes:
where
A =
log =
VD =
VS =
For example, the attenuation in signal power at a distance D from the sending end
of the line, if the ratio VD/VS is 0.75, will be -2.5 dB.
Line manufacturers usually provide graphs that indicate the attenuation per unit
length, , of a line as a function of signal frequency. They must do this because at
higher frequencies, the attenuation per unit length, instead of being constant,
increases with frequency due, among other things, to a phenomenon known as skin
effect.
The skin effect is illustrated on Figure 1-57. At direct current (DC) or low frequency,
the current density is quite uniform across the conductor. At higher frequencies, the
current density tends to concentrate near the surface (hence the term "skin") of the
conductor, thereby increasing the resistance to current flow and, in turn, the
attenuation per unit length, .
1-69
1-70
The frequency spectrum differs from one type of signal to another, as Figure 1-58
shows. For example, a rectangular signal consists of a set of odd harmonics, while
a sawtooth signal consists of both even and odd harmonics.
Distortion
In a transmission line, the velocity of propagation of the fundamental and harmonics
that compose a transmitted signal is determined mainly by the relative permittivity
of the line dielectric material.
In lines that are lossless or that have very low losses, relative permittivity stays
approximately constant with frequency. Consequently, the fundamental and
harmonics of the transmitted signal all propagate at the same velocity along the
line. As a result, the signal at the receiving end of the line is a faithful reproduction
of the transmitted signal, as the left-hand section of Figure 1-59 shows. The
signal is said to be distortionless.
In lines that are lossy, however, relative permittivity varies with frequency.
Consequently, the fundamental and harmonics of the transmitted signal
propagate at differing velocities. This phenomenon is known as dispersion.
Dispersion causes distortion: the signal at the receiving end of the line has a
1-71
Thus, the change in shape of the transmitted signal in the figure occurs because the
rise time and fall time of the transients in the transmitted signal are longer in the
received signal.
Attenuation and distortion can be significant problems in today's high-speed
transmission systems, due to the high-frequency signals inherently involved in these
systems. Figure 1-60, for example, shows how distortion affects the transmission of
non-return-to-zero (NRZ) data. A comparison of the transmitted data (A) shows that
the recovered data (C) does not truly reproduce the original data, which may
introduce errors.
1-72
Figure 1-60. Attenuation and distortion affect the recovery of the original NRZ data.
1-73
Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will measure the attenuation of the STEP
GENERATOR output signal at the receiving end of a 48-meter (157.4-foot) line. You
will then answer theoretical questions about distortion.
Note: Since the lines used on the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board
are not long enough to permit observation of the effects of dispersion,
the procedural section on distortion will consist of theoretical questions.
PROCEDURE
Attenuation
1-74
Figure 1-62. Observing the attenuation of the STEP GENERATOR output voltage along the line.
Now, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- output to the trigger input of
the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret
at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using an oscilloscope
probe.
Finally, using another oscilloscope probe, connect channel 2 of the
oscilloscope to the 24-meter (78.7-foot) probe turret at the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE B.
1-75
3. In the LOAD section of the circuit board, make sure all the toggle switches
are set to the O (OFF) position. Then, connect the LOAD-section input to
the common via resistor R3 (50- resistor) by setting the appropriate
switches in this section to the I (ON) position.
1-76
Note that the voltage of the pulses in the STEP GENERATOR signal is
lower at the receiving end of the line, as Figure 1-63 shows. This occurs
because
a. of the energy lost in each series inductance and parallel capacitance
per unit length of the line.
b. the pulses at the sending end of the line lost some energy as they
traveled down the line.
c. of a phenomenon known as dispersion.
d. the transmitted signal lost energy in the 50- characteristic impedance
of the line.
6. Measure the voltage (height) of the pulses at the sending end of the line, VS.
VS =
7. Measure the voltage (height) of the pulses at the receiving end of the
line, VD.
VD =
8. Using the measured voltages, VS and VD, calculate the attenuation in pulse
power at the receiving end of the 48-meter (157.4-foot) line by using the
formula below.
1-77
where
A =
log =
VD =
VS =
A=
Distortion
G 10. If you look at Figure 1-65, which of the following statements could explain
why the received signal has a shape that is quite different than that of the
transmitted signal?
a. The harmonics of higher order in the transmitted signal were less
attenuated than those of lower order as they traveled down the lossy
line.
b. The fundamental and harmonics of the transmitted signal propagated
at the same velocity along the lossy line.
c. The harmonics of higher order in the transmitted signal were more
attenuated than those of lower order as they traveled down the lossless
line.
d. The fundamental and harmonics of the transmitted signal propagated
at differing velocities along the lossy line.
1-78
G 11. If you look at Figure 1-66, which eye pattern corresponds to the best
probability of recovering the transmitted pseudo-random NRZ data without
error?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Eye pattern A
Eye pattern B
Eye pattern C
Eye pattern D
1-79
G 12. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION
1-80
Distortion is a change in the shape of the transmitted signal that also occurs in
lines that are lossy. Distortion is caused mainly by dispersion, a phenomenon by
which the fundamental and harmonics that compose a transmitted signal
propagate at differing velocities. Distortion can also be caused by the highfrequency signal components being attenuated differently, since attenuation is
frequency dependent.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The attenuation of a transmitted signal in a lossy line
a.
b.
c.
d.
is due to the dissipation of part of the signal energy by heating of the load.
is a decrease in the signal level as the signal travels down the line.
decreases as the distance from the transmission point increases.
decreases as the signal frequency is increased.
1-81
1-82
Unit Test
1. The harmonics of a rectangular signal having a period of 0.5 s are
a.
b.
c.
d.
1-84
1-85
1-86
Unit
Consequently, Z0 and vP can easily be calculated when L' and C' are known:
2-1
Figure 2-1. Examples of step response signals obtained for the measurement of L' and C'.
When neither the impedance of the load, ZL, and of the step generator, ZTH, match
the characteristic impedance, multiple successive reflections occur on the line until
the voltage on the line stabilizes to a final value.
2-2
The voltage reflection diagram, on the left-hand side of the figure, is a vertically
oriented graph. It indicates each instant when a sudden change (voltage step)
occurs in the line voltage.
The voltage reflection diagram can be used conveniently to graph the voltage as
a function of time at any arbitrary point, z, along the line, as shown on the righthand side of the figure.
when the load impedance is mostly inductive, the reflected voltage decreases
exponentially over time;
2-3
when the load impedance is mostly capacitive, the reflected voltage increases
exponentially over time.
Figure 2-4. Examples of step response signals with inductive and capacitive load impedances.
2-4
The step generator launches a pulse into the line under test.
When the pulse encounters a discontinuity along the line, part of the pulse energy
is reflected back to the step generator for display on an oscilloscope.
In the displayed signal, the discontinuities encountered by the pulse appear in the
form of transients.
By measuring, on the oscilloscope screen, the time between the rising edge of
the launched pulse and the transient caused by a discontinuity, the location
(distance) of the discontinuity can be determined. Moreover, the shape and
Figure 2-5. Using time-domain reflectometry (TDR) to detect and locate discontinuities along a
line.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
In order to complete the exercises in this unit, you will need the following:
2-5
2-6
Exercise
2-1
2-7
where
Z0 =
L' =
C' =
Figure 2-7. Measuring the distributed capacitance by using the step response method.
2-8
Figure 2-8. Step response of the RC circuit made by RTH and CT.
In fact, the overall shape of the successive steps that form the rising edge of each
pulse form an exponential transition having a time constant, . The time constant, ,
is determined by the resistive component of the generator impedance, RTH
(neglecting the resistance of the line, which is low by comparison), and the total line
capacitance, CT. Consequently, the time constant is
where
=
RTH =
CT =
2-9
At time t = 0.69, the voltage reaches 50% of the voltage excursion, as the figure
shows.
By measuring the time required for the voltage to increase by 50%, that is, from
the initial level to V/2 on the oscilloscope screen, and then dividing this time
by 0.69, the time constant, , can be determined and CT be calculated:
Figure 2-9. At time t = 0.69, the voltage reaches 50% of its excursion (V/2).
where
2-10
C' =
CT =
l =
Figure 2-10. Measuring the distributed inductance by using the step response method.
At time t = 0, the step generator launches an incident step, VI, into the line. This step
arrives at the receiving end of the line after a certain transit time, T. There it is
reflected back toward the generator due to the impedance mismatch. The reflected
step, VR, which is of negative polarity, gets back to the generator at time t = 2T (twice
the transit time, i.e., equal to the round-trip time). There, it is re-reflected down the
line due to the impedance mismatch.
This phenomenon continues for a certain time, the reflected step bouncing back and
forth on the line, and becoming lower and lower in level. Consequently, the step
response signal is the algebraic sum of the incident and successive reflected steps.
This causes each pulse in this signal to look like the step response of an RL circuit,
as Figure 2-11 shows.
2-11
Figure 2-11. Step response of the RL circuit made by RTH and LT.
In fact, the overall shape of the successive steps that form the falling part of each
pulse form an exponential transition having a time constant, . The time constant is
determined by the resistive component of the generator impedance, RTH, and the
total line inductance, LT. Consequently, the time constant is
where
=
LT =
RTH =
2-12
By measuring the time required for the initial voltage to decrease by, for example,
50% of V and then dividing this time by 0.69, or to decrease by 75% of V and
then dividing this time by 1.4, the time constant, , can be determined and LT be
calculated:
Figure 2-12. At time t = 0.69, the voltage reaches 50% of its excursion (0.5V). At time t = 1.4, the
voltage reaches 75% of its excursion (0.75V).
2-13
where
L' =
LT =
l =
Moreover, the velocity of propagation of the signals, vP, in this line can also be
calculated, using the equation below:
where
vP =
L' =
C' =
2-14
Connect the STEP GENERATOR 100- output to the trigger input of the
oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
0-meter (0-foot) probe turret at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the probe to the associated
shield turret.
2-15
4. In the step response signal, note that the rising edge of the pulses increases
exponentially, going from an initial voltage of about 0 V to a final maximum
voltage, like the voltage across a capacitor charging through a series
resistor (see Figure 2-14).
The signal on the oscilloscope is the step response of the RC circuit made
by
a. the resistive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line inductance.
b. the reactive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line capacitance.
c. the resistive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line capacitance.
d. the resistive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
distributed line capacitance.
2-16
Figure 2-14. Step response of the series RC circuit made by RTH and CT.
V =
2-17
7. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.5 s/div. Observe that the first
reflected steps that form the exponentially-rising edge of the pulse are
distinguishable, as Figure 2-16 shows.
Note that the reflected steps are somewhat rounded, due to a low rise time
caused by attenuation and dispersion of their high-frequency components.
Measure the time required for the exponentially-rising edge of the pulse to
rise from 0 V to V/2 as accurately as possible. This time, t50%, corresponds
to 0.69.
t50% =
2-18
@ 10-9 s
8. Using t50% obtained in the previous step, calculate the time constant, , of the
RC circuit:
@ 10-9 s
9. Using the time constant, , obtained in the previous step, calculate the total
line capacitance, CT. (Consider RTH to be equal to 500 ):
CT =
@ 10-9 F
2-19
C =
@ 10-12 F/m
G Yes
G No
2-20
G 13. On the oscilloscope screen, observe that the pulses first peak very quickly
to an initial voltage, and then decrease exponentially to a final voltage,
which corresponds to the step response of an RL circuit (see Figure 2-18).
2-21
Figure 2-18. Step response of the RL circuit made by RTH and LT.
The signal on the oscilloscope is the step response of the RL circuit made
by
a. the resistive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line inductance.
b. the reactive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
distributed line inductance.
c. the resistive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line capacitance.
d. the reactive component of the STEP GENERATOR impedance and the
total line inductance.
2-22
Figure 2-19. First reflected steps in the pulse section where the voltage is exponentially
decreasing.
Further decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.1 s/div. As Figure 2-20
shows, measure the voltage (height) of the rising edge of the pulse at
midpoint between the beginning and the end of the rounded part (first
reflected step). This approximately corresponds to the initial level of the
exponentially-decreasing voltage, VINIT.
VINIT. =
G 15. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div. As Figure 2-21 shows, measure
the final level of the exponentially-decreasing voltage, VFIN..
VFIN. =
2-23
2-24
V =
0.75V =
G 18. Set the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div. Referring to Figure 2-22,
measure the time required for the exponentially-decreasing voltage to
decrease from the initial level (VINIT.) to VINIT. 0.75V as accurately as
possible. This time, t75%, corresponds to 1.4.
t75% =
@ 10-6 s
2-25
G 19. Using the value measured for t75% in the previous step, calculate the time
constant, , of the RL circuit.
@ 10-6 s
G 20. Using the time constant, , obtained in the previous step, calculate the total
line inductance, LT. (Consider RTH to be equal to 5 ).
LT =
2-26
L =
@ 10-7 H/m
Z0 =
vP =
The obtained value for vP should theoretically be near the theoretical velocity
of propagation of 1.96 @ 108 m/s (6.43 @ 108 ft/s) for the RG-174 coaxial cable
used as TRANSMISSION LINE A. However, since the obtained value is
dependent upon the accuracy of the measurements and calculations used to
find C' and L', vp may differ fairly from the manufacturer's value.
2-27
The characteristic impedance and the distributed parameters of a line are both
related to geometrical and physical properties of the line. Consequently, the
values of Z0 and of each distributed parameter are constant, regardless of how
long the line may be.
When R'S is negligible and R'P is very high (G' is very low), and the frequency of
the carried signals is relatively high, Z0 can be considered as purely resistive. In
that case, the step response method can be used to measure the distributed
capacitance, C', and distributed inductance, L', of the line.
Once C' and L' are known, Z0 and vP can be calculated by using simple formulas.
This occurs because Z0 and vP are related to the distributed C' and L' of the line.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. When measuring the distributed capacitance of a line by using the step response
method,
a. the resistive component of the step generator is set to a value that is much
greater than Z0, while the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the
line is placed in the short-circuit condition (0 ).
b. the resistive component of the step generator is set to a value that is much
lower than Z0, while the receiving end of the line is in the open-circuit
condition.
c. an impedance mismatch is created at both the sending and receiving ends
of the line.
d. the impedance of the step generator and that of the load must both be equal
to Z0.
2. When R'S is negligible and R'P is very high (G' is very low), and the frequency of
the carried signals, f, is relatively high (such that 2fL' o R'S and 2fC' o R'P),
which is a common condition,
a.
b.
c.
d.
2-28
5. When 2fL' o R'S and 2fC' o R'P, the velocity of propagation is approximately
equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.
2-29
2-30
Exercise
2-2
2-31
At time t = 0, the generator produces a voltage step that is launched into the line.
As it quits the generator and encounters the line, the voltage step experiences a
change in impedance. Consequently, the voltage step is attenuated by a certain
amount, determined by the voltage divider rule. The actual voltage of the incident
step, VI, is
where
VI
Z0
ZTH
ETH
=
=
=
=
.
VI travels toward the receiving end of the line at a velocity vP =
Figure 2-24 shows VI traveling on the line at a certain instant, t, comprised within
the time range 0 # t < T (T being the transit time). The abscissa (D) indicates the
distance from the origin, which corresponds to the generator. The letter "l" on the
abscissa corresponds to the total length of the line.
Figure 2-24. Voltage on the line at a certain instant, t, comprised within the time interval 0 # t < T
(T being the transit time).
At the transit time, T, VI reaches the load end of the line, where it experiences a
change in impedance, since ZL is not equal to Z0. Because of this, part of
voltage VI is reflected down the line. How much the impedance changes
determines the magnitude of the reflected voltage. In fact, the incident voltage is
reflected by a coefficient L:
where
L =
ZL =
Z0 =
2-32
As Figure 2-25 shows, the reflected voltage has the same shape as the
incident voltage, since the impedance of the load is purely resistive. This
reflected voltage is equal to the product of L and the voltage incident at the
load:
where
VI =
L =
The product VILcan be either positive or negative (since L can be either positive
or negative). When L is positive, the reflected voltage adds up to the incident
voltage. When L is negative, the reflected voltage subtracts from the incident
voltage. Thus, the total voltage present at the load at time T is equal to the
algebraic sum: VI + VIL.
Figure 2-25. Voltage on the line at an instant t comprised within the time range T # t < 2T.
At time t = 2T, the voltage reflected from the load reaches the generator, where
it experiences a change in impedance, since ZTH is not equal to Z0. Because of
this, part of this voltage is re-reflected by a coefficient g:
where
g =
ZTH =
Z0 =
2-33
where
VI =
L =
g =
VILg can be either positive or negative (since L and g can be either positive or
negative). The total voltage present at the generator at time 2T is equal to the
algebraic sum: VI + VIL + VILg. This voltage is reflected down the line toward
the load.
Figure 2-26. Voltage on the line at an instant t comprised within the time range 2T # t < 3T.
At time t = 3T, the voltage reflected from the generator reaches the receiving end
of the line. Because of the impedance mismatch, part of this voltage is rereflected down the line by coefficient L.
As Figure 2-27 shows, the voltage of the reflection created at the load at time 3T
is equal to
The total voltage present at the load at time 3T is equal to the algebraic
sum: VI + VIL + VILg + VIL2g. This voltage is reflected down the line toward the
generator.
2-34
Figure 2-27. Voltage on the line at an instant t comprised within the time range 3T # t < 4T.
The process goes on for a certain time, a new reflection being created at the load or
generator at multiples of the transit time, T. The voltage of each new reflection is
always a fraction of the preceding one, since L and g are both less than unity
(except when the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the line is 0 or
infinite), and since they can be both negative.
Consequently, the voltage on the line, which is the algebraic sum of the successive
reflected voltages, eventually converges to a final, steady-state value. According to
the voltage divider rule, this value, VFIN., is given by the equation
where VFIN.
ZL
ZTH
ETH
=
=
=
=
In this section, we have studied the reflections on a lossless transmission line. In that
particular case, the successive reflections have the same shape as the launched
voltage, and their magnitude and polarity are determined by the relationship between
ZTH, ZL, and Z0. At each odd multiple of time T, a new reflection is created at the load
whose voltage is equal to that of the reflection created at the load 2T earlier,
multiplied by L.
For lines that are lossy, the principle stays the same. Nevertheless, the calculation
of the voltage of each newly created reflection is more complex, since attenuation
and distortion cause the reflections to have a different shape than the voltage initially
launched into the line.
2-35
At time t = 0, step VI is launched into the line. VI travels down the line at a
velocity vP. It is represented by the first oblique line, marked VI, from the origin.
The slope of this line is positive, and is equal to 1/vP.
At time t = T, VI reaches the load. This creates a first reflection represented by the
oblique line marked VIL. The slope of this line is negative, and is equal to -1/vP.
At time t = 2T, the voltage reflected from the load reaches the generator. This
creates a second reflection, represented by the oblique line marked VILg. The
slope of this line is positive, and is equal to 1/vP.
Additional reflections are created at multiples of time T, until the voltage on the line
eventually converges to a final value.
As Figure 2-28 shows, the total voltage present at the load, VLOAD, changes at times
T, 3T, 5T, and so on. Between each change, this voltage stays constant. Similarly,
the total voltage present at the generator, VGEN., changes at times 2T, 4T, 6T, and so
on. Between each change, this voltage stays constant.
2-36
Between times 4T and 6T, VGEN. stays at the total voltage created at
4T,
.
The voltage reflection diagram can be used to determine the voltage as a function
of time at an arbitrary point on the line. For example, Figure 2-29 shows how to
determine the voltage at a point z = z1, located 0.2@l from the generator. In this
example, Z0 = 50 , ZTH = 10 , and ZL = 250 .
A vertical line is first drawn, starting from point z1 on the abscissa, and
intersecting all the oblique lines.
Then, from each intersection point, a horizontal line is drawn toward the vertical
time (t) axis. The instants where each horizontal line crosses the t axis are at t1,
t2, t3, t4, t5, and so on.
2-37
At each of these instants, a new reflection arrives at point z1, creating a sudden
change (step) in the voltage at that point.
The graph on the right shows the voltage at point z1 as a function of time. The
sudden changes in voltage at instants t1, t2, t3, and so on, form overshoots and
undershoots in the voltage.
Figure 2-29. Variation of the voltage as a function of time at an arbitrary point, z1, on the line for
Z0 = 50 , ZTH = 10 , and ZL = 250 .
As Figure 2-30 shows, the width of the overshoots and undershoots is determined
by the location of point z1 on the line. The nearer this point is to the generator, the
narrower the overshoots and undershoots are. Conversely, the farther this point
is from the generator, the wider the overshoots and undershoots are. In both
cases, however, the voltage eventually converges to a final, steady-state value.
Note: In this example, Z0 = 50 , ZTH = 10 , and ZL = 250 . The results under
different impedance conditions, therefore, may vary in a significant way from
those shown in the figure.
2-38
Figure 2-30. The width of the overshoots and undershoots is determined by the location of point z1
on the line for Z0 = 50 , ZTH = 10 , and ZL = 250 .
The voltage at point z1 as a function of time can be determined from the voltage
reflection diagram as indicated in Table 2-1.
TIME INTERVAL
0 # t < t1
VI
VI at t1
VI + VIL
VIL at t2
VI + VIL + VILg
VILg at t3
VI + VIL + VILg +
VIL2g
VIL2g at t4
...
...
...
...
...
...
Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will observe the voltage reflections along a
transmission line under various mismatch conditions at the generator and load ends
of the line. You will compare the voltage of the observed reflections to the theoretical
voltages calculated and recorded in a reflection diagram.
2-39
2-40
4. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the pulses launched into the line by the
STEP GENERATOR.
Decrease the channel-1 sensitivity to 0.2 V/div, and the time base to
0.2 s/div in order to be able to see the initial rising edge of a pulse more
distinctly, as Figure 2-32 shows.
2-41
Figure 2-32. The rising edge of the pulse is followed by changes (steps) in the pulse voltage.
2-42
5. The voltage reflection diagram shown in Figure 2-33 will allow you to
calculate and record the theoretical reflection voltage present along the line
at multiples of the transit time T with ZTH n Z0 and ZL = 4 .
Figure 2-33. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0, and load
impedance ZL= 4 .
6. Measure the voltage (height) of the initial rising edge of the pulse. This is the
approximate voltage of the incident step, VI. Record this voltage in the
voltage reflection diagram of Figure 2-33, over the first oblique line.
2-43
8. Using the incident voltage, VI, and the reflection coefficients g and L
previously recorded in your reflection diagram, calculate the voltage of the
reflections created at the generator and load at times T, 2T, 3T, and 4T, if
the line were lossless. Record your results over the corresponding oblique
lines of the reflection diagram of Figure 2-33.
a. Reflection created at the load at time T:
Now, calculate the total voltage present at the generator and load (and
reflected down the line) at times T, 2T, 3T, 4T, and 5T, if the line were
lossless. Record your results in the proper fields of the reflection diagram
of Figure 2-33.
e. Total voltage at the load at time T (VLT):
f.
i.
2-45
G 10. Leave channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe
turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to
the LOAD-section input, using an oscilloscope probe.
Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:
Channel 1
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V/div
Channel 2
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
On the oscilloscope, you should now see the rising edge of the pulse at both
the generator and load ends of TRANSMISSION LINE A, as Figure 2-35
shows.
2-46
Figure 2-35. Pulse voltage at the generator and load ends of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Observe that, following the rising edge, the pulse voltage at both ends of the
line goes through some changes that form overshoots and undershoots,
until it eventually stabilizes. These changes do not occur suddenly as in the
case of a lossless line, since TRANSMISSION LINE A is lossy.
Also, observe that the changes in pulse voltage at both ends of the line
occur near multiples of time T. In fact, these changes occur near
a. even multiples of time T at both the generator and load ends.
b. odd multiples of time T at the generator end, and near even multiples of
time T at the load end.
c. even multiples of time T at the generator end, and near odd multiples of
time T at the load end.
d. odd multiples of time T at both the generator and load ends.
G 11. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.1 s/div in order to better see the
changes in pulse voltage that occur just after the rising edge of the pulse
(that is, between times t = 0 and 7T, approximately).
Compare the actual voltage of the pulse present at the generator and load
ends of the line at multiples of time T to the theoretical voltages previously
recorded in your voltage reflection diagram.
2-47
Figure 2-36. Pulse voltage at the generator and load ends between times t = 0 and 7T with
generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0 and load impedance ZL= 4 .
G 12. Leave the connections as they are. In the LOAD section, set the toggle
switches in such a way as to connect the input of this section directly to the
2-48
G 13. Leave channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe
turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to
the 12-meter (39-foot) probe turret (mid-point) of this line, using an
oscilloscope probe.
On the oscilloscope, set the sensitivity of channels 1 and 2 to 0.2 V/div, and
the time base to 0.5 s/div. Observe that, following the initial rising edge of
the pulse, the pulse voltage at both the generator end and mid-point of the
line goes through several changes, until it eventually stabilizes, as
Figure 2-37 shows.
Figure 2-37. Pulse voltage at the generator end and mid-point of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
G 14. You will use the voltage reflection diagram in Figure 2-38 to calculate and
record the voltages present along the line at multiples of the transit time T
with ZTH n Z0 and ZL = 0 .
2-49
Figure 2-38. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0 and load
impedance ZL= 0 .
G 15. Measure the voltage of the rising edge of the pulse, VI, at the generator end.
Then, calculate the reflection coefficients at the STEP GENERATOR and
load, given a generator impedance, ZTH, of 5 , and a load impedance, ZL,
2-50
G 16. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.1 s/div in order to better see the
changes (steps) in pulse voltage that occur just after the rising edge of the
pulse, as Figure 2-40 shows.
2-51
Figure 2-40. Pulse voltage at the generator end and mid-point of the line.
G 17. Compare the actual voltage of the pulse present at the generator end of the
line at even multiples of time T to the theoretical voltages previously
recorded in the voltage reflection diagram.
Then, compare the actual voltage of the pulse present at mid-point of the
line (point z1) to the theoretical voltage present at this point, given the table
below.
TIME RANGE
2-52
VI
VI at 0.5T
VI + VIL
VIL at 1.5T
VI + VIL + VILg
VILg at 2.5T
VILg at 3.5T
VILg at 4.5T
...
...
...
Table 2-2. Voltage at mid-point of the line (point z1) as a function of time.
For example, Figure 2-41 shows the actual pulse voltage at the generator
end and mid-point of the line in comparison with the theoretical voltage. How
does the actual pulse voltage differ from the theoretical pulse voltage at the
generator end and mid-point of the line?
a. At both the generator end and mid-point of the line, the actual voltage
does not differ from the theoretical voltage between times t = 0 and 7T.
b. At mid-point on the line, the actual voltage becomes increasingly greater
than the theoretical voltage beyond time 1.5T.
c. At the generator end, the actual voltage is significantly different than the
theoretical voltage between times t = 0 and 2T.
d. At mid-point on the line, the actual voltage becomes significantly
different than the theoretical voltage over time, due to the cumulative
effects of attenuation and distortion on each successive reflection.
2-53
Figure 2-41. Pulse voltage at the generator end and mid-point of the line between times t = 0 and
7T with generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0 and load impedance ZL= 0 .
G 18. Leave channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe
turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to
the 24-meter (79-foot) probe turret (receiving end) of this line, using an
oscilloscope probe.
Observe that narrow overshoots occur in the pulse voltage at the receiving
end of TRANSMISSION LINE A near odd multiples of time T, as Figure 2-42
shows. These narrow overshoots
a. occur because the point of observation of the pulse is not exactly at the
load, but at a short, not null distance ahead of it.
b. are abnormal since the reflection diagram previously obtained indicates
that the pulse voltage at the load should be null at odd multiples of
time T.
c. would be wider if the pulse were observed directly at the load.
d. would be even narrower if the pulse voltage was observed at the
18-meter (59-foot) probe turret of the line.
2-54
Figure 2-42. Pulse voltage at the generator and sending ends of the line between times t = 0 and
6T with generator impedance ZTH (5 ) n Z0 and load impedance ZL= 0 .
G 21. You will use the voltage reflection diagram in Figure 2-43 to calculate and
record the voltages present along the line at multiples of the transit time T
with ZTH o Z0 and ZL = 4 .
2-55
Figure 2-43. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load
impedance ZL= 4 .
G 22. Using the oscilloscope, observe the pulse voltage at the generator and load
ends of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Measure the voltage of the rising edge
(VI) of the pulse at the sending end of the line. Then calculate the reflection
2-56
Figure 2-44. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load
impedance ZL= 4 .
G 23. On the oscilloscope, compare the actual voltage of the pulse present at the
generator and load ends of the line to the theoretical voltages previously
recorded in the voltage reflection diagram.
2-57
G Yes
G No
Figure 2-45. Pulse voltage at the generator and load ends between times t = 0 and 7T with
generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load impedance ZL= 4 .
G 24. Leave the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A connected to the STEP
GENERATOR 500- output, and the receiving end of this line to the input
of the LOAD section. In the LOAD section, set the toggle switches in such
a way as to place the impedance of the line load in the short-circuit condition
(0 ).
G 25. Leave channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe
turret of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Make sure channel 2 of the oscilloscope
is connected to the 24-meter (79-foot) probe turret (receiving end) of this
line.
2-58
Figure 2-46. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load
impedance ZL= 0 .
2-59
of the line. Then calculate the reflection coefficient g and L. Record your
results in the corresponding fields of the reflection diagram of Figure 2-46.
Complete the other fields of the reflection diagram by calculating the
reflection coefficients created at the generator or load at time T, 2T, 3T, and
4T. Record your results in the diagram of Figure 2-46.
Finally, calculate the total voltage present at the generator or load at times
T, 2T, 3T, 4T, and 5T. Record your results in the reflection diagram of
Figure 2-46.
Figure 2-47. Voltage reflection diagram with generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load
impedance ZL= 4 .
G 28. On the oscilloscope, compare the actual voltage of the pulse present at the
generator end to the theoretical voltage previously recorded in the voltage
reflection diagram.
2-60
G Yes
G No
Figure 2-48. Pulse voltage at the generator and load ends between times t = 0 and 6T with
generator impedance ZTH (500 ) o Z0 and load impedance ZL= 0 .
G 29. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
2-61
At the load, reflections are created at odd multiples of time T; at the generator,
reflections are created at even multiples of time T. Theoretically speaking, the
process should continue back and forth indefinitely. However, each newly
created reflection is usually weaker than the one previously created, which
eventually leads to a steady-state condition.
The voltage present at any given point and time on the line is the algebraic sum
of the successive reflected voltages present on the line at that point and time.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A reflected voltage arriving at the generator at time 2T will not be re-reflected
toward the load, if
a.
b.
c.
d.
2. At time t = 3T, the total voltage present at the load and reflected down the line
toward the generator is equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.
the ordinate indicates the voltage along the line as a function of time.
the point 'l' on the D axis corresponds to the length of the line.
the ordinate indicates the distance from the generator output.
the abscissa indicates the elapsed time, t.
2-63
2-64
Exercise
2-3
2-65
Immediately after time T, the impedance of the inductor starts to decrease. This
allows current to start flowing through the inductor and, therefore, through the
resistor. This in turn causes the load voltage to start decreasing, as part (b) of
Figure 2-49 shows.
The impedance of the inductor decreases exponentially over time, causing the load
voltage to decrease in the same way. The exponential decrease in load voltage
therefore has a time constant, , determined by the total resistance seen by the
inductor, which is RL in series with Z0:
where
LL
RL
Z0
=
=
=
=
Five time constants after time T, the impedance of the inductor becomes
approximately null, so that the load resistance becomes equal to RL only.
Consequently, the final value of the load voltage is
Note that VFIN. can also be determined by using the equation below, derived from the
voltage divider rule:
2-66
Note that VINIT. can also be determined by using the equation below, derived from the
voltage divider rule:
2-67
where
LL
RL
Z0
=
=
=
=
Five time constants after time T, the impedance of the inductor becomes
approximately null, so that L becomes equal to -1. The final value of the load voltage
is, therefore,
2-68
Note that VINIT. can also be determined by using the equation below, derived from the
voltage divider rule:
where
=
RL =
Z0 =
CL =
Five time constants after time T, the impedance of the capacitor becomes
approximately infinite, so that L becomes equal to 1. Consequently, the final value
of the load voltage, VFIN., is
Parallel RC Load
Part (a) of Figure 2-52 shows a line terminated by a load consisting of a resistor, RL,
in parallel with a capacitor, CL. In this example, RL is > Z0.
At time t = 0, a voltage step, VI, is launched into the line. When VI reaches the load
at the transit time, T, a reflection is created, due to the impedance mismatch. At that
2-69
where
=
RL =
Z0 =
CL =
Five time constants after time T, the impedance of the capacitor becomes
approximately infinite, so that the load resistance becomes equal to RL only.
Consequently, the final value of the load voltage is
Note that VFIN. can also be determined by using the equation below, derived from the
voltage divider rule:
2-70
Touch the inner conductor of the BNC connector at the sending end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A with one of the ohmmeter probes, while
touching the inner conductor of the BNC connector at the receiving end
of this line with the other ohmmeter probe.
In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
2-71
You should observe that inductor L2 has a certain resistance, which is low
but not null.
Inductive Load Impedances
Series RL Load
4. In the LOAD section, make sure that all the toggle switches are set to the
O (OFF) position. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via
resistor R1 (500- potentiometer) only by setting the appropriate switches
in this section to the I (ON) position.
Using an ohmmeter, adjust the resistance between the LOAD-section input
and the common (i.e., the setting of resistor R1) to around 15 . Then,
modify the setting of the toggle switches in order for the LOAD-section input
to be connected to the common through resistor R1 (still set to 15 ) in
series with inductor L2 (68 H).
2-72
7. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the step response signal at the sending
end of the line. Since the line is terminated by an inductive load, an
exponentially-decreasing reflected voltage is superimposed on top of each
pulse, as Figure 2-54 shows.
2-73
8. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div to better see the rising
edge of the incident voltage in a pulse, as well as the exponentiallydecreasing voltage that follows this edge, as Figure 2-55 shows.
When the incident voltage reaches the load at the transit time T, the load
inductor acts as an open circuit (infinite resistance), so that the reflection
coefficient at the load, L, is 1. Consequently, if the line were lossless, the
rising edge (maximum height) of the exponentially-decreasing reflected
voltage, VINIT., observed on the oscilloscope screen would be equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.
2-74
0V
0.5VI
2VI
VI
Figure 2-55. Rising edge of the incident voltage followed by the exponentially-decreasing voltage.
G 10. Set the oscilloscope time base to 1 s/div in order to be able to see the end
of the exponentially-decreasing voltage, as Figure 2-56 shows.
2-75
2-76
G Yes
G No
Figure 2-57. Theoretical step response of TRANSMISSION LINE A if it were lossless as compared
to the actual response of this line.
Parallel RL Load
G 13. Disconnect the end of the coaxial cable connected to the BNC connector at
the LOAD-section input.
In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
Then, connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) only by setting the appropriate switches in this
section to the I (ON) position.
Using an ohmmeter, adjust the resistance between the LOAD-section input
and the common (i.e., the setting of resistor R1) to 200 . Then, modify the
setting of the toggle switches in order for the LOAD-section input to be
connected to the common through resistor R1 (still set to 200 ) in parallel
with inductor L1 (68 H).
Reconnect the coaxial cable coming from the receiving end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 2-58. (The toggle-switch
setting is not shown).
2-77
G 15. On the screen, observe the step response signal at the sending end of the
line. Since the line is terminated by an inductive load, an exponentiallydecreasing reflected voltage is superimposed on top of each pulse, as
Figure 2-59 shows.
2-78
G 16. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div to better see the rising
edge of the incident voltage in a pulse, and the exponentially-decreasing
voltage that follows this edge, as Figure 2-60 shows.
When the incident voltage reaches the load at the transit time T, the load
inductor acts as
a.
b.
c.
d.
2-79
Figure 2-60. Rising edge of the incident voltage followed by the exponentially-decreasing voltage.
G 17. If the line were lossless, the rising edge (maximum height) of the
exponentially-decreasing voltage, VINIT., observed on the oscilloscope would
be equal to
a. 2VI
b.
c.
d.
2-80
G 20. Disconnect the end of the coaxial cable connected to the BNC connector at
the LOAD-section input.
In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
Then, connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500- potentiometer) only by setting the appropriate switches in this
section to the I (ON) position.
2-81
2-82
G 22. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the step response signal at the sending
end of the line. Since the line is terminated by a capacitive load, an
exponentially-increasing reflected voltage is superimposed on top of each
pulse, as Figure 2-63 shows.
G 23. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div to better see the rising
edge of the incident voltage in a pulse, as well as the exponentiallyincreasing voltage that follows this edge, as Figure 2-64 shows.
When the incident voltage reaches the load at the transit time T, the load
capacitor acts as a short circuit (0- resistance), so that the load resistance
is determined by RL only. Consequently, if the line were lossless, the initial
2-83
d.
Figure 2-64. Rising edge of the incident voltage followed by the exponentially-increasing voltage.
2-84
G 25. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div in order to be able to see the end
of the exponentially-increasing voltage, as Figure 2-65 shows. Five time
constants after the rising edge of this voltage, the impedance of the load
capacitor becomes infinite, so that the reflection coefficient at the load, L,
is 1. Consequently, if the line were lossless, the final level of the
exponentially-increasing voltage, VFIN., observed on the oscilloscope screen
would be equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.
2VI
0.5VI
0V
VI
G 27. In the LOAD section, modify the setting of the toggle switches in order for
the LOAD-section input to be connected to the common through resistor R1
(still set to 100 ) in parallel with capacitor C1 (22 nF).
The circuit should now be as shown in Figure 2-66.
G 30. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div to better see the rising
edge of the incident voltage in a pulse, as well as the exponentiallyincreasing voltage that follows this edge, as Figure 2-68 shows.
When the incident voltage reaches the load at the transit time T, the load
capacitor acts as
a.
b.
c.
d.
2-87
Figure 2-68. Rising edge of the incident voltage followed by the exponentially-increasing voltage.
G 31. If the line were lossless, the initial value of the exponentially-increasing
voltage, VINIT., observed on the oscilloscope screen would be
a. 2VI
b. 0.5VI
c. 0 V
d.
G 33. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div in order to be able to see the end
of the exponentially-increasing voltage, as Figure 2-69 shows. Five time
constants after it is at its initial level, the exponentially-increasing voltage
a. becomes equal to the incident voltage, since L becomes equal to -1.
b. reaches its final, minimum level because the impedance of the load
capacitor becomes null.
2-88
d. reaches its final, maximum level because the impedance of the load
capacitor becomes infinite.
G 34. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION
When an impedance mismatch exists at the load end of a line, and the load
impedance is complex (either capacitive or inductive), the voltage reflected back
toward the generator does not have the same shape as the incident voltage.
Depending on whether the line is lossless or lossy, the step response signal of
the line may differ significantly in regard to the initial level, final level, and time
2-89
2. When a line is terminated by a capacitor in parallel with a load resistor RL > Z0,
a. the capacitor acts as an open circuit (infinite resistance) when the incident
voltage step reaches the load.
b. the final value of the exponentially-increasing reflected voltage is equal to
twice the incident voltage.
c. the reflection coefficient at the load, L, is equal to 1 when the incident
voltage step reaches the load.
d. the capacitor impedance becomes infinite five time constants after time T
(transit time).
3. When a line is terminated by an inductor in parallel with a load resistor RL < Z0,
the reflected voltage, after going through a
a.
b.
c.
d.
4. When a line is terminated by an inductor in series with a load resistor RL < Z0,
a. the inductor acts as an open circuit (infinite resistance) five time constants
after time T (transit time).
b. the reflection coefficient at the load, L, is equal to 1 when the incident
voltage step reaches the load.
c. the final value of the exponentially-decreasing reflected voltage is equal to
twice the incident voltage.
d. the reflected voltage increases exponentially over time until it reaches 2VI.
5. When a line is terminated by a capacitor in series with a load resistor RL < Z0, the
reflected voltage, after going through a
a.
b.
c.
d.
2-90
2-91
2-92
Exercise
2-4
2-93
To detect and locate discontinuities, a TDR uses the same technique as bats or
radars: the echo technique.
The step generator launches a pulse into the line under test.
When the pulse encounters a discontinuity along the line, or a mismatched load
at the end of the line, part of the pulse energy is reflected back to the TDR for
display on the oscilloscope.
The signal displayed by the TDR is, therefore, the algebraic sum of the incident pulse
voltage and reflected voltage. The TDR signal is often called the signature of the
line, because it reveals the presence and nature of discontinuities, if any.
Examples of TDR Signals
Figure 2-72 shows a TDR signal for a coaxial line that is free from discontinuity, but
that is terminated by a load whose impedance does not match the characteristic
impedance of the line. The signal shows the beginning of the launched pulse.
2-94
Figure 2-72. TDR signal for a coaxial line terminated by a load whose impedance does not match
the characteristic impedance of the line.
In that particular case, the actual length of the line can easily be determined, using
the steps below.
The time between the rising edge of the incident voltage and the leading or falling
edge that follows it, due to the impedance mismatch at the load, is measured on
the TDR oscilloscope.
The measured time, equal to the round-trip time, 2T, is then converted to length,
using the equation below:
where
l =
vP =
2T =
a warped area that compresses the inner conductor of the line, creating a partial
open circuit (increase in the resistance) of this conductor;
a crushed area that creates a complete short circuit across the inner and outer
(shield) conductors of the line.
2-95
Figure 2-73. TDR signal for a line that has two discontinuities.
where
D =
vP =
tn =
The formula indicates that the distance from the TDR to a discontinuity varies in
direct proportion to the transit time to the discontinuity.
The shape of a rising or falling transient in the TDR signal indicates the nature of the
discontinuity that causes this transient: purely resistive, mostly inductive, or mostly
capacitive. Moreover, the magnitude of the transient reveals how significant the
discontinuity is. The greater the magnitude of the transient, the more severe the
discontinuity. The nature and severity of the transient both give clues to the probable
cause(s) of the fault.
TDR's normally have a selectable pulse width. The larger the pulse width, the farther
the pulse can travel along a line and, therefore, the longer the line length that can be
tested. However, the narrower the pulse, the better the detection of discontinuities
located near the TDR or near each other. Consequently, when testing a line, the
shortest pulse width should be selected first to make sure that discontinuities located
2-96
2-97
Figure 2-74. Measuring the length of a line by measuring time-domain reflectometry (TDR).
4. On the oscilloscope, observe the step response signal at the sending end
of the line.
Since the receiving end of the line is in the open-circuit condition, a reflected
voltage adds up to the voltage in the step response signal, as Figure 2-75
shows. Is this your observation?
G Yes
2-98
G No
Figure 2-75. Step response signal when the receiving end of the line is left unconnected.
5. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.1 s/div in order to be able to see
the initial rising edge of a pulse more distinctly, as Figure 2-76 shows.
Measure the time 2T (round-trip time) separating the rising edge of the
incident voltage from the rising edge that follows it, due to the impedance
mismatch at the load.
2T =
@ 10-9 s
2-99
Figure 2-76. Measuring time 2T with TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B connected end-to-end.
lAB =
m (or ft)
Is the obtained length near the theoretical value of 48 m (157.4 ft) [that is,
the total line length made by TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B connected
end-to-end]?
G Yes
2-100
G No
7. Reduce by half the length of the line. To do so, remove the coaxial cable
between the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A and the sending end
of TRANSMISSION LINE B. Leave the BNC connector at the receiving end
of TRANSMISSION LINE A unconnected.
@ 10-9 s
lA =
m (or ft)
Is the obtained length for a single line, lA, approximately half the length
previously measured when both lines A and B were connected end-toend, lAB?
G Yes
G No
2-101
Figure 2-78. Step response signal when the load impedance is in the short-circuit condition.
G 12. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
2-102
To operate, a TDR launches pulses into the line under test and displays a step
response signal, or signature, that reveals the presence and nature of
discontinuities, if any.
The shape and magnitude of a transient in the TDR signal indicate the nature
and severity of the discontinuity that causes this transient.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. To determine the length of a line, using a time-domain reflectometer (TDR),
a. the impedance of the load at the end of the line must be perfectly equal to
the characteristic impedance of the line.
b. the velocity of propagation must be divided by the round-trip measured with
the TDR oscilloscope.
c. the round-trip time must be measured with the TDR, and the velocity of
propagation must be known.
d. the transit time to any other discontinuity must be measured with the TDR.
2. The magnitude of a rising or falling transient in the TDR signal
a. is independent of the distance to the discontinuity that causes this transient
when the line is lossy.
b. indicates whether the nature of the discontinuity is purely resistive,
capacitive, or inductive.
c. varies in reverse proportion to the voltage reflected from the discontinuity.
d. reveals how great the impedance mismatch that causes this transient is.
3. When using a TDR that has a selectable pulse width,
a. the selection of larger pulse widths can permit the detection of
discontinuities located near the TDR that would otherwise go undetected.
b. it is recommended that the line be tested with the narrowest available pulse
width first.
c. it is recommended that the line be tested with the largest available pulse
width first.
d. the selection of narrower pulse widths can permit the testing of longer line
lengths.
2-103
2-104
Exercise
2-5
Troubleshooting
EXERCISE OBJECTIVES
In this exercise, you will locate and identify the nature of discontinuities (faults)
introduced by your instructor along the transmission lines of the circuit board, using
time-domain reflectometry.
PROCEDURE
Setting Up the Transmission Line Under Normal Operating Condition
2-105
Troubleshooting
G
3. On the oscilloscope, observe the step response signal at the sending end
of the line.
Since the impedance of the line load ( 500 ) is much greater than the
characteristic impedance of the line (50 ), most of the voltage incident at
the load is reflected back toward the STEP GENERATOR. Consequently,
a reflected voltage adds up to the voltage in the step response signal, as
Figure 2-79 shows. Is this your observation?
G Yes
G No
Figure 2-79. Step response signal when the load impedance is set to 500 approximately.
4. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div in order to be able to see
the initial rising edge of a pulse more distinctly. Measure the round-trip
time, 2T.
2T =
@ 10-9 s
5. Match the impedance of the line load with the characteristic impedance of
the line. To do so, adjust the knob of resistor R1 until no reflected voltage
appears in the step response signal, as Figure 2-80 shows.
Note: If a small notch remains in the reflected voltage, adjust R1
in order to reduce the notch to a minimum.
2-106
Troubleshooting
Fault Insertion
8. A fault has now been introduced along the transmission lines of your circuit
board.
Examine the step response signal. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to
0.2 s/div to better see the beginning of a pulse in this signal, as
Figure 2-81 shows.
2-107
Troubleshooting
2-108
Troubleshooting
G
where
D =
vP =
td =
G 11. A new fault has now been introduced along the transmission lines of your
circuit board. Examine the step response signal. Decrease the oscilloscope
time base to 0.2 s/div to better see the beginning of a pulse in this signal,
as Figure 2-82 shows.
2-109
Troubleshooting
G 12. Determine the approximate distance from the generator output to the
discontinuity. What is the approximate distance?
a.
b.
c.
d.
2-110
Troubleshooting
G 13. Set the oscilloscope time base to 2 s/div.
Have your instructor confirm that you have properly located and identified
the nature of the discontinuity created by the fault. Then, ask your instructor
to disable this fault and insert the new fault indicated in the Instructor Guide.
G 14. A new fault has now been introduced along the transmission lines of your
circuit board. Examine the step response signal. Decrease the oscilloscope
time base to 0.1 s/div to better see the beginning of a pulse in this signal,
as Figure 2-83 shows.
2-111
Troubleshooting
G 15. Determine the approximate distance from the generator output to the
discontinuity. What is the approximate distance?
a.
b.
c.
d.
G 17. A new fault has now been introduced along the transmission lines of your
circuit board. Examine the step response signal. Decrease the oscilloscope
time base to 0.5 s/div to better see the beginning of a pulse in this signal,
as Figure 2-84 shows.
2-112
Troubleshooting
a. The time separating the rising edge of the incident voltage and the rising
edge that follows it, due to the discontinuity, is more than three quarters
of the round-trip time, 2T.
b. The reflected voltage is a significant proportion of the incident voltage,
indicating that the discontinuity is due to a partial open circuit of the load
at the end of the line.
c. The discontinuity is located near the end of TRANSMISSION LINE B.
d. The reflected voltage is a significant proportion of the incident voltage,
indicating a discontinuity of the short-circuit type across the inner and
outer (shield) conductors of the line.
G 18. Determine the approximate distance from the generator output to the
discontinuity. What is the approximate distance?
a.
b.
c.
d.
G 19. Have your instructor confirm that you have properly located and identified
the nature of the discontinuity created by the fault. Then, ask your instructor
to disable this fault.
Now that the circuit has returned to the normal operating condition, turn off
the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
2-113
Troubleshooting
2-114
Unit Test
1. The distance from the TDR to a discontinuity varies
a.
b.
c.
d.
in direct proportion to the width of the pulse launched into the line.
in reverse proportion to the velocity of propagation in the line.
in direct proportion to the transit time to the discontinuity.
in reverse proportion to the length of the line.
2. When a line is terminated by an inductor in series with a load resistor RL < Z0,
a. the inductor acts as an open circuit (infinite resistance) five time constants
after time T (transit time).
b. the reflection coefficient at the load, L, is equal to 1 when the incident
voltage step reaches the load.
c. the final value of the exponentially-decreasing reflected voltage is equal to
twice the incident voltage.
d. the reflected voltage increases exponentially over time until it reaches 2VI.
3. When the distributed parameters R'S and R'P of a line are insignificant, and the
frequency of the carried signals, f, is relatively high (such that 2fL' o R'S and
2fC' o R'P),
a.
b.
c.
d.
4. Once C' and L' have been determined by using the step response method, it is
possible to calculate
a.
b.
c.
d.
5. In a voltage reflection diagram, horizontal lines are drawn from the points of
intersection that lie on the oblique lines and a vertical line starting from a
point, z1, located at mid-point on the line. The instants t1, t2, t3, and so on, where
each horizontal line crosses the ordinate (t axis) correspond to the instants when
a new reflection arrives at
a. mid-point on the line, creating a re-reflection of lower voltage toward the
load or generator.
b. mid-point on the line, creating a sudden change (step) in the voltage at that
point.
c. the generator end and re-reflected down the line toward the load.
d. the load end and re-reflected down the line toward the load.
2-115
10. In a lossless line where L is -1, at what instant between times T and 2T does a
sudden change in voltage (step) occur at mid-point on the line, and what is the
voltage of the reflection arriving at that point at that instant?
a.
b.
c.
d.
2-116
Unit
UNIT OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit, you will know what standing waves are and how the
voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) can be used to determine if a line is properly
matched to a line. You will be able to define and calculate important parameters
related to the transfer and loss of power in transmission lines: insertion loss, return
loss, and mismatch loss. You will know what a Smith Chart is, and how to use it to
determine the impedance at any point along a mismatched line, for various electrical
lengths and load impedances. Finally, you will know how quarter-wavelength (/4)
line sections are used for impedance transformation and matching.
UNIT FUNDAMENTALS
Transient and Steady-State Conditions
In many applications, such as telephone or computer networks, transmission lines
are used to carry digital signals. These lines are said to operate under transient
conditions, because it takes a certain time, or transitional period, for the pulses in
digital signals to reach a steady value.
In other applications, transmission lines are used to carry analog signals. These lines
are said to operate under steady-state conditions when the carried signals, which
consist of a sum of homogeneous frequency components that repeat periodically,
show only negligible change over a relatively long period of time.
In this unit, we will study the behavior of transmission lines that carry sinusoidal
signals under steady-state conditions. The basic concepts of distributed parameters
and characteristic impedance studied under transient conditions remain applicable
under steady-state conditions:
When R'S is negligible and R'P is very high, Z0 is usually considered to be purely
resistive. In this condition,
3-1
When R'S is high and R'P is relatively low, the line is lossy, so that
where L' =
C' =
Additionally, new concepts that would have no meaning under transient conditions
must be introduced when studying the behavior of a line carrying sinusoidal signals:
standing-wave ratio, attenuation constant, return and mismatch losses, and the
Smith chart.
Period and Wavelength of a Sinusoidal Voltage
A sinusoidal voltage cyclically varies as a function of time, following a sinusoidal
pattern, as Figure 3-1 shows. The time required for one cycle of variation to occur
is called the period, T.
where
T =
f =
For example, the period of a sinusoidal voltage whose frequency is 4.0 MHz is
0.25 s.
In the context of transmission lines, the variation of a sinusoidal voltage traveling
down a line is usually considered as a function of distance rather than time. The
distance over which one cycle of variation occurs is called the wavelength.
Wavelength is represented by the Greek lowercase letter lambda, .
3-2
The formula for calculating the wavelength of a sinusoidal voltage along a line is:
where
=
vP =
f =
or
Besides, a wavelength of 192 m (629.8 ft) propagating through the transmission lines
of your circuit board corresponds to a frequency of 1.02 MHz.
3-3
Figure 3-3. The electrical length of a line is determined by the wavelength of the carried signal.
3-4
When the wavelength of the sinusoidal voltage is 96 meters (314.9 feet), the line
has an electrical length of /2, as the upper part of Figure 3-3 shows.
When the wavelength of the sinusoidal voltage is 24 meters (78.7 feet), the line
has an electrical length of 2, as the lower part of Figure 3-3 shows.
Given a velocity of propagation of 1.96 @ 108 m/s (6.43 @ 108 ft/s), for example, the
electrical length of the 48-meter (157.4 ft) line of your circuit board at 2 MHz is
approximately /2.
The electrical length of a line (rather than its actual physical length) determines
whether the line is short or long with respect to the frequency of the signal it carries.
A line is considered to be long when the voltage varies noticeably along the line.
For example, a /2 line is a long line. At very short wavelengths (i.e. at very high
frequencies), a few centimeters may represent a long line.
For example, a 75-m (246-ft) line carrying a sinusoidal voltage whose wavelength
is 100 m (328 ft) is considered to be long, because the sinusoidal voltage goes
through three quarters of its complete cycle of variation as it travels down the line.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
In order to complete the exercises in this unit, you will need the following:
3-5
3-6
Exercise
3-1
At time t = 0, the generator produces a sinusoidal voltage that is launched into the
line.
After a certain transit time, T, the voltage reaches the receiving end of the line,
where it is reflected back to the generator due to the impedance mismatch. At
that very moment, the incident and reflected voltages have the same phase,
because the incident voltage is reflected with the same phase as if it would have
continued if the line had not ended.
After time T, the reflected and incident voltages travel through each other, but in
opposite directions, along the line, thereby combining vectorially. This results in
3-7
At the receiving end, the incident and reflected voltages are always in phase,
whatever the phase of the incident voltage may be.
Along the line, the voltage of the standing wave can vary between twice the
positive maximum and twice the negative maximum of the incident voltage
(assuming a lossless line), depending on the phase of the incident voltage (or
time of observation) of the incident voltage.
Along the line, the voltage of the standing wave invariably reaches a minimum or
maximum at multiples of /4 from the receiving end of the line, as Figure 3-5
shows.
At odd multiples of /4 from the receiving end, the incident and reflected
voltages are 180E out of phase. Consequently, the voltage of the standing
wave is at a minimum.
At even multiples of /4 from the receiving end, the incident and reflected
voltages have the same phase. Consequently, the voltage of the standing
wave is at a maximum (positive or negative).
3-8
Figure 3-5. Standing waves on an open-ended line versus distance (D) at three different
instants, tn.
Even if the voltage of standing waves continually changes polarity with time, the
conventional way of representing these waves is with their negative and positive halfcycles pointing upward.
Figure 3-6 shows the conventional representation of a standing wave on an openended line. This representation actually corresponds to the result obtained when
measuring the amplitude of a standing wave after rectification and filtering as with
a peak detector.
The points where the voltage is minimum are called nodes. At a node, the
voltage is null if the line is lossless. A node occurs at every odd multiple of /4
from the receiving end. Since Z = V/I, the input impedance of an open-ended
lossless line that is exactly /4 long (or 3/4, 5/4, 7/4 long, ...) is null (0 ).
The points where the voltage is maximum are called loops, or antinodes. A loop
occurs at every even multiple of /4 from the receiving end. At a loop, the current
is null if the line is lossless. Consequently, the input impedance line of an openended lossless line that is exactly /2 long (or , 3/2, 5/2 long, ...) is infinite
(4 ).
3-9
3-10
At time t = 0, the generator produces a sinusoidal voltage that is launched into the
line.
After a certain transit time, T, the voltage reaches the receiving end of the line,
where it is reflected back to the generator due to the impedance mismatch. At
that very moment, the incident and reflected voltages are 180E out of phase,
because the incident voltage is reversed (shifted in phase) as it is reflected.
After time T, the reflected and incident voltages travel through each other, but in
opposite directions, thereby combining vectorially. This results in the creation of
a standing wave of voltage along the line. The standing wave is the algebraic sum
of the instantaneous values of the incident and reflected voltages at each point
all along the line.
Figure 3-8 shows standing waves on a short-ended line versus distance (D) at
different instants of time. The amplitude of the standing wave is different in each
case, due to the fact that the incident voltage has a different phase when it reaches
the receiving end of the line at time T.
At the receiving end, the incident and reflected voltages are always 180E out of
phase, whatever the phase of the incident voltage may be. Consequently, the
voltage of the standing wave is always 0 V (assuming a lossless line).
Along the line, the voltage of the standing wave invariably reaches a minimum or
maximum at multiples of quarter-wavelengths (/4) from the receiving end of
the line, as Figure 3-8 shows.
At odd multiples of /4 from the receiving end (/4, 3/4, 5/4, etc.), the
incident and reflected voltages have the same phase. Consequently, the peak
voltage of the standing wave is at a maximum.
At even multiples of /4 (2/4, 4/4, 6/4, etc.) from the receiving end, the
incident and reflected voltages are 180E out of phase. Consequently, the peak
voltage of the standing wave is at a minimum.
3-11
Figure 3-8. Standing waves on a short-ended line versus distance (D) at different instants of time.
3-12
On a short-ended line, a node invariably occurs at the receiving end of the line.
Nodes also occur at every even multiple of /4 from the receiving end. At a node,
the voltage is null if the line is lossless. Consequently, the input impedance of a
short-ended lossless line whose electrical length is an even multiple of /4 is null
(0 ).
Loops occur at every odd multiple of /4 from the receiving end. At a loop, the
voltage is maximum, and the current is null if the line is lossless. Consequently,
the input impedance of a short-ended lossless line whose electrical length is an
odd multiple of /4 is infinite (4 ).
When a line is properly matched, all the transmitted energy is transferred to the
load. There is no reflection and, therefore, no standing waves. The voltage
remains constant along the line. Consequently, the ratio VLOOP/VNODE is equal to
unity if the line is lossless. Consequently, the VSWR is 1, and the efficiency is
optimum.
In the worst situation, the load is in the open- or short-circuit condition, so that the
node voltage is equal to 0 V (if the line is lossless). Consequently, the VSWR is
infinite (4).
3-13
In Figure 3-10, for example, ZL = 2Z0, so that the VSWR = 2. If ZL is increased to 4Z0,
then the VSWR will be 4, and so on.
Figure 3-10. Standing waves on a line when ZL > Z0, as compared to when ZL = 4 .
3-14
Figure 3-11. Standing waves on a line when ZL < Z0, as compared to when ZL = 0 .
The VSWR is a scalar quantity: it consists of a real number that does not take
account of the phase of the incident voltage as it reaches the load. This implies that
a same VSWR can be caused by different load impedances.
For example, as you have seen, a VSWR of 2 can be caused by a load impedance
of 2Z0 (i.e. higher than Z0) or of Z0/2 (i.e. lower than Z0). However, the standing
waves produced in each case differ in the location of their loops and nodes:
With a load impedance higher than Z0, the situation is similar to that of an openended line: the nodes occur at odd multiples of /4, while the loops occur at
even multiples of /4.
3-15
With a load impedance lower than Z0, the situation is similar to that of a shortended line: the loops occur at odd multiples of /4, while the nodes occur at
even multiples of /4.
Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will determine the effect that a change in electrical
length has on the characteristics of the standing wave created on a short-ended line.
You will then observe the differences between the standing waves and the VSWR
that occur on a line of given electrical length when ZL < Z0 and when ZL > Z0.
PROCEDURE
Standing Waves on a Short-Ended Line for Different Electrical Lengths
3-16
Figure 3-12. Measuring the standing-wave voltage along a short-ended line for different electrical
lengths.
3-17
Figure 3-13. The frequency of the sinusoidal voltage observed at the sending end of the line is
maximum (5 MHz approximately).
3-18
Figure 3-14. The voltage at point z continually varies as the frequency of the standing wave
decreases.
2
/2
/4
3-19
Figure 3-15. The amplitude of the voltage reaches a maximum at around 1 MHz.
7. Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage along the
entire length of the line. To do so, connect the oscilloscope probe to each
of the probe turrets listed below, and record the amplitude at each distance
from the sending end in the graph of Figure 3-16.
3-20
Figure 3-16. Standing waves on a short-ended line for different electrical lengths.
8. Connect the dots your recorded in the graph of Figure 3-16. The obtained
curve corresponds to the standing wave on the short-ended line when the
electrical length is /4. This should resemble that shown in Figure 3-17.
3-21
3-22
Figure 3-18. The amplitude of the voltage reaches a minimum at around 2 MHz.
G 10. Since the frequency of the voltage is 2 MHz approximately, the wavelength
of the voltage is around 98 m (321 ft). Consequently, the line is nearly
/2 long.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage along the /2 line.
Record your results in the graph of Figure 3-16. Then, connect the dots to
obtain the standing wave for the /2 line.
G 11. Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret
of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Further increase the generator frequency until the amplitude of the
displayed voltage reaches a new maximum. The frequency of this voltage
should now be around 3 MHz (T 0.33 s), as Figure 3-19 shows.
3-23
Figure 3-19. The amplitude of the voltage reaches another maximum at around 3 MHz.
G 12. Since the frequency of the voltage is 3 MHz approximately, the wavelength
of the voltage is 65 m (213 ft) approximately. Consequently, the line is
nearly 3/4 long.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage along the 3/4 line.
Record your results in the graph of Figure 3-16. Then, connect the dots to
obtain the standing wave for the 3/4 line.
G 13. Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret
of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Further increase the generator frequency until the amplitude of the
displayed voltage reaches a new minimum. The frequency of this voltage
should now be around 4 MHz (T 0.25 s), as Figure 3-20 shows.
3-24
Figure 3-20. The amplitude of the voltage reaches another minimum at around 4 MHz.
G 14. Since the frequency of the voltage is 4 MHz approximately, the wavelength
of the voltage is 49 m (161 ft) approximately. Consequently, the line is
nearly 4/4 long, i.e. long.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage along the entire length
of the -long line. Record your results in the graph of Figure 3-16. Connect
the dots to obtain the standing wave of the -long line.
G 15. The four standing waves you plotted in the graph of Figure 3-16 should be
similar to those shown in Figure 3-21.
As the frequency of the generator voltage is increased,
a.
b.
c.
d.
3-25
Figure 3-21. Standing waves on a short-ended line for different electrical lengths.
G 16. On your graph of Figure 3-16, locate the points of minimum voltage (nodes)
in the standing waves plotted for the /2, 3/4, and lines. Observe that the
voltage at the nodes is not null (0 V), due to the resistance of lossy
TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B.
According to the plotted waves, a node occurs at
a.
b.
c.
d.
/4 from the receiving end of the line, for any electrical length.
/2 from the receiving end of the line, for any electrical length.
/2 from the receiving end of the line for the /2 line only.
/4 from the receiving end of the line for the 3/4 line only.
G 17. On your graph of Figure 3-16, locate the points of maximum voltage (loops)
in each standing wave. Note that as the electrical length increases, the
voltage at the loop(s) of a standing wave decreases, due to the fact that
attenuation through lossy TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B increases with
frequency.
3-26
/2 from the receiving end of the line, for any electrical length.
/4 and /2 from the receiving end of the line for the 3/4 line.
/4 from the receiving end of the line, for any electrical length.
/2 from the receiving end of the line for the /4 line.
G 18. Based on your graph of Figure 3-16, the distance between two successive
loops, or between two successive nodes in any standing wave is invariably
equal to
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
/2.
/4.
.
G 19. Based on your graph of Figure 3-16, for which electrical length is the voltage
at the sending end of a short-ended line maximum and, therefore, the input
impedance of the line maximum?
a.
b.
c.
d.
/4
Odd multiples of /2, such as /2, 3/2, 5/2, etc.
G 20. Leave the connections set as they are. Proceed with the exercise.
Standing Waves on a Line for ZL < Z0 and ZL > Z0
G 21. Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret
of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
Make sure the frequency of the displayed voltage is 4 MHz approximately
(T 0.25 s), in order for the line to be long. Make sure the impedance of
the line load is in the short-circuit condition (ZL = 0 ).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage along the
line. In the graph of Figure 3-22, record the measured amplitude at each
distance from the sending end. Then, connect the dots to obtain the
standing wave for ZL = 0 .
3-27
Figure 3-22. Standing waves on a -long line for ZL < Z0 and ZL > Z0.
G 22. In the LOAD section, modify the setting of the toggle switches in order for
the LOAD-section input to be connected to the common through resistor R2
(25 ).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage along the line. Record
your results in the graph of Figure 3-22. Then, connect the dots to obtain the
standing wave for ZL = 25 .
G 23. In the LOAD section, modify the setting of the toggle switches in order for
the LOAD-section input to be connected to the common through resistor R4
(100 ).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage along the
line. Record your results in the graph of Figure 3-22. Then, connect the dots
to obtain the standing wave for ZL = 100 .
G 24. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load in the open-circuit condition (4 ).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage along the
line. Record your results in the graph of Figure 3-22. Then, connect the dots
to obtain the standing wave for ZL = 4 .
3-28
G 25. The standing waves you plotted in the graph of Figure 3-22 should resemble
those shown in Figure 3-23:
The wave obtained for ZL = 100 is weaker than for the open-ended
line (ZL = 4 ), because part of the voltage is absorbed by the 100-
load;
Similarly, the wave obtained for ZL = 25 is weaker than for the shortended line (ZL = 0 ), because part of the voltage is absorbed by the
25- load.
Figure 3-23. Standing waves on a -long line for ZL < Z0 and ZL > Z0.
G 26. Locate the nodes and loops in each of the standing waves you plotted in the
graph of Figure 3-22. Observe that for any given wave, the voltage at the
loops and nodes of the wave decreases over distance from the sending end
of the line, due to attenuation through the line.
3-29
G 27. Based on the standing wave you plotted in the graph of Figure 3-22 for
ZL = 0 , calculate the VSWR at this impedance. To do so, use the loop
voltage measured at 3/4 from the receiving end and the node voltage
measured at the sending end.
Note: The voltage at the loops and nodes of the standing wave
decreases over distance from the sending end, due to attenuation
through lossy TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B. Consequently,
the VSWR varies over distance, depending on the loop and
adjacent node used for its calculation. The loop and node used
here have been chosen arbitrarily, just for the sake of showing
how the VSWR is calculated.
VSWR (0 ) =
According to your result, the VSWR for ZL = 0 is
a.
b.
c.
d.
G 28. Based on the standing wave you plotted in the graph of Figure 3-22 for
ZL = 4 , calculate the VSWR at this impedance. To do so, use the loop
voltage measured at the sending end and the node voltage measured at
3/4 from the receiving end.
VSWR (4 ) =
According to your result, the VSWR for ZL = 4 is
a.
b.
c.
d.
nearly 4.
not equal to the theoretical value of 1 because the line is lossy.
lower than the theoretical value of 1 for a lossless line.
lower than the theoretical value of 4 because the line is lossy.
G 29. Based on the standing waves you plotted in the graph of Figure 3-22 for
ZL = 25 and ZL = 100 , calculate the VSWR for each of these
3-30
G 30. Compare the VSWR's obtained in the previous steps for ZL = 25 and
ZL = 100 to those obtained for ZL = 0 and ZL = 4 .
G 31. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION
When a line is mismatched at its load, standing waves are created along the
line. The points of maximum voltage in a standing wave are called loops. Those
of minimum voltage are called nodes.
When ZL is higher than Z0, loops occur at even multiples of /4 from the receiving
end, and nodes at odd multiples of /4 from the receiving end. This implies that
the input impedance of an open-ended lossless line is null when the line is /4
long, and infinite when the line is /2 long.
When ZL is lower than Z0, nodes occur at even multiples of /4 from the receiving
end, and loops at odd multiples of /4 from the receiving end. This implies that
the input impedance of a short-ended lossless line is infinite when the line is /4
long, and null when the line is /2 long.
The ratio of the loop voltage to node voltage is called the voltage standing-wave
ratio (VSWR). The VSWR is comprised between 1 (no standing wave) and 4
(short- or open-circuit load). The closer the VSWR is to 1, the better the
impedance match between the line and load and, therefore, the better the
efficiency of power transfer on the line.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The electrical length of a line is determined by the actual (physical) length of the
line and on the
a.
b.
c.
d.
2. If the electrical length of a lossless line with standing waves is an exact odd
multiple of quarter wavelengths (/4) and is open-ended, its input impedance
looks like
a.
b.
c.
d.
3. If the electrical length of a lossless line with standing waves is an odd multiple
of quarter wavelengths (/4) long and is short-ended, its input impedance looks
like
a.
b.
c.
d.
4. What voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR) would a lossy line have if it were
partially short- or open-ended?
a.
b.
c.
d.
5. A line can have the same VSWR for both ZL < Z0 and ZL > Z0the difference
lying in the location of the loops and nodes in the standing wave created. For
example, a lossless line will have the same VSWR if
a.
b.
c.
d.
3-32
ZL = 3Z0 or ZL = Z0/3.
ZL = 0.25 @ Z0 or ZL = 2Z0.
ZL = 0.25 @ Z0 or ZL = 4Z0.
Both (a) and (c)
Exercise
3-2
R'S increases as the frequency of the carried signal is increased, and therefore
so does attenuation.
In the theoretical example of an infinite line, the transmitted signal would gradually
lose all of its power. Consequently, there would be no power reflection toward the
generator, as if a perfectly matched load were continually absorbing all the received
power.
Attenuation Constant
Figure 3-24 shows a sinusoidal signal propagating down a line between two points,
a and b. Due to attenuation over distance, the amplitude of the voltage at point a (Va)
is higher than the amplitude of the voltage at point b (Vb).
3-33
where
e =
=
D =
The attenuation constant, , in nepers (Np), is specific to the particular line being
used. This constant is determined by the geometrical and physical characteristics of
the line. It is therefore related to the distributed parameters of the line at the
frequency of the carried signals.
Rearranging the attenuation equation just stated in order to isolate gives:
where
=
ln =
Manufacturers often specify the attenuation constant of a line per unit length.
Consequently, if D is a unit length in the attenuation-constant equation just stated,
then
For both cables, the attenuation constant increases as the frequency of the
carried signal increases.
The attenuation constant of the RG-58 cable is lower than that of the RG-174, for
any given frequency. This occurs because the conductors of the RG-58 cable
have a larger diameter than those of the RG-174.
Note that, in this example, the American Wire Gauge (AWG) standard is used to
specify the conductor diameters. The lower the AWG of a conductor, the greater the
diameter of the conductor.
3-35
where
log
PR
PS
VR
VS
=
=
=
=
=
Base-10 logarithm;
Power of the signal at the receiving end (V);
Power of the signal at the sending end (V).
Amplitude of the voltage at the receiving end (V);
Amplitude of the voltage at the sending end (V).
Since the power or voltage ratio is always lower than 1, the insertion loss always has
a negative value. Dividing the insertion loss by the length of the line gives the
distributed attenuation constant of the line, '.
For example, the insertion loss in the 24-m coaxial cable used as TRANSMISSION
LINE A of your circuit board, will be 2.4 dB if ' at the frequency of the carried signal
is 0.1 dB/m.
Return Loss and Mismatch Loss
Part of the power transmitted on a line, in addition to being lost through the
distributed series and parallel resistances of the line, is also lost by reflection
whenever a discontinuity, or impedance change, occurs along the line.
If, for example, the impedance of the load does not perfectly match the characteristic
impedance of the line, not all the voltage incident at the load is absorbed by the load.
Instead, part of this voltage is reflected back toward the generator by a reflection
coefficient L:
where
L =
ZL =
Z0 =
Important terms relating to the loss of power must be known when studying the
behavior of lines with mismatched load impedances. These terms include the return
loss and the mismatch loss.
3-36
Since the power or voltage ratio is always lower than 1 (except when the impedance
of the load is 0 or 4), the return loss always has a negative value. The greater the
absolute value of the return loss, the lower the power or voltage lost by reflection at
the load.
If, for example, the return loss is -10 dB, then about 30% of the voltage incident at
the load is reflected, as shown below:
Since
then
When the reflection coefficient at the load, L, is known, the return loss can also be
calculated in terms of this coefficient:
Mismatch Loss
The mismatch loss is the difference between the power or voltage incident at the
load and the power or voltage reflected at the load. When there is no impedance
mismatch, there is no reflection, so that all the power received at the load is
absorbed by the load.
A formula for calculating the mismatch loss, in terms of L, is
3-37
When the line is lossless, the VSWR, which stays constant along the line, can be
calculated in terms of the reflection coefficient at the load L, using a simple formula:
In a lossless line, the VSWR remains constant over distance from the generator,
so that VSWR measurements are useful to determine how efficiently the power
is transferred from the generator to the load.
3-38
Figure 3-26. Attenuation causes the incident and reflected power to become weaker over distance.
The result of the power gradually becoming weaker and weaker is that the VSWR
decreases (become better and better) as we approach the sending end of the
line. Consequently, a VSWR measurement made at the sending end can give an
illusion of having a good VSWR and, therefore, an efficiency that is much better
than reality.
Figure 3-27 shows how attenuation improves the VSWR. For example, assume
an insertion loss of 12 dB. The line has a VSWR of 1.09 (good) if measured at the
sending end. However, the line will have a VSWR of 5 (poor) at the load.
Because of this, the VSWR should be measured at the receiving end rather than
at the sending end.
3-39
Procedure Summary
In the first part of this procedure section, you will measure the insertion loss in a line.
You will then double the length of the line and see the effect that this has on the
insertion loss.
In the second part of this procedure section, you will measure the VSWR at the
sending end and receiving end of a lossy line terminated by a mismatched load. This
will allow you to see the effect that attenuation has on the VSWR.
PROCEDURE
Measuring the Insertion Loss
3-40
3-41
Figure 3-29. The frequency of the voltage at the sending end of the line is set to 4.0 MHz
approximately.
3-42
VR =
6. Using the voltages measured in the previous step, calculate the insertion
loss of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
dB
7. Referring to Figure 3-30, double the length of the transmission line by using
the following steps:
end
of
3-43
Figure 3-30. Measuring the insertion loss of both transmission lines connected end-to-end.
8. On the oscilloscope, the frequency of the voltage at the sending end of the
line should still be set to 4.0 MHz (T 0.25 s).
Measure the peak amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage at the sending end
(VS) and receiving end (VR) of the line. Record your measurements below.
VS =
VR =
9. Using the voltages measured in the previous step, calculate the insertion
loss of TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B connected end-to-end.
3-44
dB
G Yes
G No
G 11. Calculate the distributed attenuation constant, ', of the 48-m (157.4-ft) line
by dividing the insertion loss of this line by the length of the line.
where
=
l =
dB/m
G 12. Leave all the connections as they are and proceed to next section of the
procedure.
Effect of Attenuation on the VSWR
Measuring the VSWR at the Sending End
G 13. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the 48-m
(157.4-ft) in the open-circuit condition (4 ). This also sets the reflection
coefficient at the load to 1 and, therefore, the theoretical return loss at the
load to 0 dB.
G 14. With channel 1 of the oscilloscope connected to the sending end of the line,
adjust the FREQUENCY knob of the SIGNAL GENERATOR in order for the
frequency of the voltage at that point to be 3.0 MHz (T = 0.33 s)
approximately. This makes the line 3/4 long approximately.
Since ZL is higher than Z0, nodes occur at odd multiples of /4 from the
receiving end of the line. Consequently, a node occurs at the sending end
of the line (i.e., at 3/4 from the receiving end).
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage at the sending end.
Record your measurement below.
VNODE (3/4) =
3-45
G 16. Calculate the VSWR at the sending end of the line, based on the loop
voltage previously measured at 4/4 and on the node voltage previously
measured at 3/4.
G 17. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to the 12-m (39.4-ft) probe turret of
TRANSMISSION LINE B. Since the line is 4/4 long approximately, this
turret is located at /4 from the receiving end.
Since ZL is higher than Z0, a node occurs at /4 from the receiving end of the
line. Very slightly readjust, if necessary, the FREQUENCY knob of the
SIGNAL GENERATOR in order for the voltage at that node to be minimum.
Then, measure the peak (positive) amplitude of this voltage, and record your
measurement.
VNODE (/4)
G 18. Connect channel 2 of the oscilloscope to the receiving end of the line [24-m
(78.7-ft) probe turret of TRANSMISSION LINE B].
Since ZL is higher than Z0, a loop occurs at the receiving end of the line.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of this voltage, and record your
measurement.
VLOOP (RECEIVING END) =
3-46
G 20. Compare the VSWR measured at the sending end of the line to that
measured at the receiving end of the line, and observe they are different.
Which of the following best describes your observation?
a. The VSWR at the sending end is closer to reality than that measured at
the receiving end.
b. The improvement in VSWR caused by the insertion loss is more
apparent at the receiving end of the line.
c. The VSWR at the receiving end is higher than that at the sending end,
due to attenuation.
d. A poorer VSWR occurs at the receiving end of the line, because the
insertion loss causes the difference in voltage at a loop and adjacent
node to be lower at the receiving end of the line.
G 21. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
CONCLUSION
As for pulsed signals, sinusoidal signals undergo attenuation as they travel down
a line. Usually, the distributed series resistance of the line, R's, is responsible for
most of the attenuation. Power is lost by heating of the line.
The attenuation constant of a line is a measure of the attenuation per unit length
of the line. The attenuation constant increases with frequency. Consequently,
manufacturers provide graphs or tables indicating the attenuation constant of a
line as a function of frequency.
Important terms relating to the loss of power are the insertion loss, the return
loss and the mismatch loss, all expressed in decibels (dB). The insertion loss is
the total loss occurring along the line. The return loss is the ratio of the voltage
incident at the load to the voltage reflected at the load. The mismatch loss is the
difference between the voltage incident at the load and the voltage reflected at
the load.
3-47
In lines that are lossy, attenuation improves the VSWR. The improvement in
VSWR by attenuation is greater at the sending end of the line than at the
receiving end. Consequently, it is preferable to measure the VSWR at the
receiving end of the line, or to measure the insertion loss of the line rather than
the VSWR per se.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The attenuation constant of a line
a. decreases as the frequency of the carried signal is increased, due to the
skin effect.
b. increases as the AWG of the line conductors is increased.
c. corresponds to the quantity e-D.
d. usually specified per unit length.
2. How much of the voltage incident at the load of a mismatched line is reflected
toward the generator, if the return loss is -6 dB?
a.
b.
c.
d.
25%
50%
75%
100%
3. What are the VSWR, return loss, and mismatch loss of a lossless line whose
reflection coefficient at the load, L, is 0.333?
a.
b.
c.
d.
4. When a line is improperly terminated, standing waves will result and the line can
have high losses. If the line is lossless, the VSWR can be calculated, using a
simple equation, in terms of the
a.
b.
c.
d.
loop and maximum voltages measured at the receiving end of the line.
distributed attenuation constant of the line.
reflection coefficient at the load.
insertion loss along the line.
3-49
3-50
Exercise
3-3
When the line is open-ended, the input impedance is minimum for lengths that
are odd multiples of /4; it is maximum for lengths that are even multiples of /4.
When the line is short-ended, the input impedance is maximum for lengths that
are even multiples of /4; it is minimum for lengths that are odd multiples of /4.
Very often, however, it is necessary to know the value of the input impedance for line
lengths that are not exact multiples of /4.
Figure 3-31 shows how the input impedance, ZIN, of an open-ended line varies as
a function of electrical length. ZIN varies according to a specific pattern that repeats
at every half of wavelength. The figure shows that
3-51
ZIN is purely resistive at resonance, that is, for lengths that are either odd or even
multiples of /4. Thus, ZIN is minimum for odd multiples of /4; conversely, ZIN is
maximum for even multiples of /4.
ZIN is capacitive (R - jXC) for lengths that are between 0 and /4, or between an
even /4 and the next longer odd /4;
ZIN is inductive (R + jXL) for lengths that are between an odd /4 and the next
longer even /4.
Figure 3-31. Input impedance as a function of electrical length for open-ended lines.
Figure 3-32 shows how the input impedance, ZIN, of a short-ended line varies as a
function of electrical length. ZIN varies according to a specific pattern that repeats at
every half of wavelength. The figure shows that
3-52
ZIN is purely resistive at resonance, that is, for lengths that are either odd or even
multiples of /4. Thus, ZIN is minimum for even multiples of /4. Conversely, ZIN
is maximum for odd multiples of /4.
ZIN is inductive (R + jXL) for lengths that are between 0 and /4, or between an
even /4 and the next longer odd /4.
ZIN is capacitive (R - jXC) for lengths that are between an odd /4 and the next
longer even /4.
Figure 3-32. Input impedance as a function of electrical length for short-ended lines.
If, for example, the electrical length of an open-ended line is increased from /2 to
nearly, but less that 3/4, the input impedance of the line will change from purely
resistive to capacitive.
The Smith Chart
The Smith Chart is a graphical computation tool developed by Dr. P.H. Smith in
1939. This chart greatly simplifies evaluation of transmission line parameters, such
as the VSWR caused by a given load and the impedance at any point along a line
for various line lengths and various load impedances.
3-53
3-54
All resistance and reactance values on the chart are normalized to the characteristic
impedance of the line, Z0. Resistance values correspond to R/Z0. Reactance values
correspond to jX/Z0. This allows the chart to be used with transmission lines of any
characteristic impedance.
As Figure 3-34 shows, the "R" coordinates are a set of circles tangent at the right
end of the horizontal centerline of the chart. The point of tangency is called the
common point, or infinity point.
Each circle represents a constant resistance (R) value:
the largest circle, which outlines the chart, corresponds to a constant R value of
0 ;
3-55
3-56
The upper half of the chart contains coordinates for inductive reactance (+ jXL).
Thus, each arc curving upward represents a constant inductive reactance.
The lower half of the chart contains coordinates for capacitive reactance (- jXL).
Thus, each arc curving backward represents a constant capacitive reactance.
3-57
3-58
3-59
3-60
3-61
2. From the left-hand extremity [zero (0) point] of the horizontal centerline, move to
the right to find the 0.6 resistance circle, as shown on the chart.
3. Move up around the 0.6 resistance circle to the point intersecting the 0.2 inductive
reactance arc. This point, marked "A" on the chart, represents the normalized
impedance 0.6 + j0.2.
3-62
3-63
2. Using a compass, draw a circle having its origin at the center point of the chart
[the mark "1.0" (i.e., 1 + j0)] on the horizontal centerline], and with a radius such
that the circle crosses the load impedance (point A). This circle is a constant
VSWR circle: all impedances on this circle would produce the same VSWR.
3. Read the VSWR from this circle at the point where it cuts the horizontal centerline
on the right side of this line (VSWR = 1.55).
Another way of determining the VSWR and the corresponding dB value is by
using the SWR scale in the RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS section below
the Smith Chart, as Figure 3-40 shows. To do so, first set the compass for the
distance from the center point of the Smith Chart to point A. Then, place one leg
of the compass on the CENTER line (VSWR value of 1) of the RADIALLY
SCALED PARAMETERS and determine where the other leg cuts the SWR scale.
This scale gives the ratio and the dB value. (VSWR = 1.55 or 3.75 dB).
3-64
3-65
The inner scale is marked "WAVELENGTHS TOWARD LOAD" (that is, from the
generator). The values on this scale increase when moving around the circle in
a counterclockwise (CCW) direction.
The reason the maximum value of each scale is 0.5 is that the impedance variation
along a line invariably follows a precise pattern that repeats cyclically at every halfwavelength. Consequently, distances greater than 0.5 are measured by turning
around the circle as many times as necessary.
3-66
3-67
3-68
3-69
3-70
Figure 3-43. Transformation of the line input impedance, using a /4 open line.
/4 line sections can also be used for impedance matching. For example,
Figure 3-44 shows a 100- transmission line that must transmit power to a 25-
resistive load at around 2.0 MHz.
3-71
Figure 3-44. Using a /4 line section to match a 100- transmission line to a 25- resistive load.
In spite of the impedance mismatch between the line and load in Figure 3-44, an
effective transmission can be obtained if the transmission line is connected to the
load through a /4 line section having an impedance Z/4 and length l/4 of
where
Z/4
Z0
ZL
l/4
vP
f
=
=
=
=
=
=
Therefore, the line will see an impedance of 100 if the impedance of the
/4 section is
Now let's look at the Smith Chart of Figure 3-45 to see the computation of this
example.
1. The load impedance is normalized with respect to the characteristic impedance
of the /4 line section, and then plotted on the chart (point A).
3-72
Therefore, the impedance seen by the 100- transmission line is 100 . Indeed, it
is as if the line is matched to the load, thereby permitting the effective transfer of
power from the line to the load.
3-73
Figure 3-45. Matching a 100- transmission line to a 25- resistive load, using a /4 line section.
3-74
/2 shorted line sections can be used to create short circuits to DC, while
remaining open to RF signals.
Thus, the open-ended /4 lossy line, which would normally appears as a short circuit
to the generator, acts as a resistive load of about 12 .
3-75
Figure 3-46. Correction made to find the actual impedance of a lossy line.
3-76
3-77
Figure 3-47. TRANSMISSION LINE A in the open condition (before impedance transformation).
3-78
a node occurs at the sending end of the line (that is, at /4 from the
receiving end), causing the amplitude of the voltage (and therefore the
impedance) at that point to be minimum;
a loop occurs at the receiving end of the line, causing the amplitude of
the voltage (and therefore the impedance) at that point to be maximum.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage at the sending end (VS)
and receiving end (VR) of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Record your
measurements below.
VS (BEFORE IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION) =
Figure 3-48. A node occurs at the sending end of line A, while a loop occurs at the receiving end
of this line.
end
of
3-80
6. On the oscilloscope, the frequency of the voltage at the sending end of the
TRANSMISSION LINE A should still be set to 2.0 MHz approximately
(T 0.5 s).
a node now occurs at the receiving end of this line instead of a loop.
Figure 3-50. With impedance transformation using a /4 open line section, a loop now occurs at
the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A, while a node occurs at the receiving end of this line.
7. Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage at the sending end (VS)
and receiving end (VR) of TRANSMISSION LINE A.
VS (AFTER IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION) =
8. Compare the voltages measured at the sending and receiving ends of the
transmission line, before and after impedance transformation.
From your comparison, did impedance transformation, through the addition
of a /4 open-ended section to TRANSMISSION LINE A, cause the node to
be replaced by a loop at the sending end of this line, and the loop to be
replaced by a node at its receiving end?
3-81
G No
9. Disconnect all the cables and probes. Proceed with the exercise.
G 10. Measure the Thevenin voltage, ETH, at the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100-
BNC output:
G 12. Make sure the frequency of the SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal is
2.0 MHz approximately (T 0.5 s), as Figure 3-51 shows.
Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage on the oscilloscope
screen. This is the Thevenin voltage, ETH, at the SIGNAL GENERATOR
100- BNC output.
ETH =
3-82
Figure 3-51. SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- output signal set to 2.0 MHz approximately.
G 13. Remove the coaxial cable between the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- BNC
output and the LOAD-section input.
Connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100- BNC output to the sending end
of TRANSMISSION LINE A, using a short coaxial cable. Connect the
receiving end of this line to the input of the LOAD SECTION, using a short
coaxial cable. In the LOAD section, set the toggle switches in such a way
as to connect the input of this section to the common through resistor R2
(25 ).
Using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the
sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A [0-meter (0-foot) probe turret].
The connections should now be as shown in Figure 3-52.
3-83
G 14. Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the voltage at the sending end of
TRANSMISSION LINE A on the oscilloscope screen. Record your result
below.
VS =
G 15. Compare the voltage measured at the sending end of the line, VS, to the
Thevenin voltage of the STEP GENERATOR 100- output, ETH, previously
measured.
You should observe that VS is approximately equal to half VTH. This indicates
a relatively efficient transfer of power between the generator and the load,
in spite of the impedance mismatch between the generator Thevenin
impedance (100 ) and load impedance (25 ).
This occurs because TRANSMISSION LINE A, which is 24-m (78.7-ft) long,
makes a /4 section when operated at f 2.0 MHz, as Figure 3-53 shows.
3-84
where
ZIN
Z/4 =
ZL =
Figure 3-53. TRANSMISSION LINE A is used as a /4 section for matching the 100- Thevenin
impedance of the SIGNAL GENERATOR to the 25- impedance of the load.
G 16. The Smith Chart in Figure 3-54 will allow you to perform the steps to follow.
3-85
3-86
0.79 + j0.24
1.15 - j0.35
0.79 - j0.24
1.15 + j0.35
39.5 - j12
57.5 - j17.5
39.5 + j12
57.5 + j17.5
G 18. Figure 3-55 shows computation of the problem performed in the previous
step. The data on this chart should resemble the data you plotted on the
chart of Figure 3-54.
3-87
Figure 3-55. Determining the impedance at a given point along a lossless line.
G 19. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.
3-88
The Smith Chart is a graphical computation tool that permits evaluation of the
VSWR and impedance at any point along a line, for various electrical lengths
and load impedances. It consists of a set of impedance coordinates used to
represent normalized impedance. The "R" coordinates are represented by
circles of constant resistance values. The "jX" coordinates are represented by
arc of constant reactance values.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the normalized value of the impedance 80 + j40 , given a characteristic
impedance of 75 ?
a.
b.
c.
d.
0.94 + j1.88
1.06 + j0.53
1.6 + j0.8
0.625 + j1.25
2. The center point of a Smith Chart represents a purely resistive, normalized value
of
a.
b.
c.
d.
0
4
1
50
3. When looking at a Smith Chart, the circles that are all tangent at the right end of
the horizontal centerline each represent a
a.
b.
c.
d.
4. Assuming that the normalized load impedance on a lossless line is 0.85 - j0.3,
the VSWR on this line is approximately
3-89
a.
b.
c.
d.
1.1
1.4
2.2
3.1
5. If the line of review question 4 were a 150- line /4 long, its input impedance
for the load condition and VSWR stated would be
a.
b.
c.
d.
3-90
132 + j34.3
75 - j15.2
87 - j13.1
161 + j52.5
Unit Test
1. A wavelength of 192 m (629.8 ft) propagating through the transmission lines of
your circuit board corresponds to a frequency of
a.
b.
c.
d.
10.2 kHz
102 kHz
1.02 MHz
10.2 MHz
25%
50%
75%
100%
4. When looking at a Smith Chart, the circles that are all tangent at the right end of
the horizontal centerline each represent a
a.
b.
c.
d.
a perfectly matched load were continually absorbing all the received power.
the line were short-ended.
the line were open-ended.
None of these.
3-91
8. A line can have the same VSWR for both ZL < Z0 and ZL > Z0the difference
lying in the location of the loops and nodes in the standing wave created. For
example, a lossless line will have a same VSWR if
a.
b.
c.
d.
ZL = 3Z0 or ZL = Z0/3.
ZL = 0.25 @ Z0 or ZL = 2Z0.
ZL = 0.25 @ Z0 or ZL = 4Z0.
Both (a) and (c)
9. The horizontal centerline and the 0- R circle of the Smith Chart bear marks that
are used to measure values of
a.
b.
c.
d.
3-92
Appendix
A-4
A-6
A-7
A-8
Appendix
Figure B-1. Step response signal of a lossless line terminated by various load impedances, ZL.
B-1
B-2
Appendix
C-1
C-2
Appendix
Figure D-1. Graph for plotting the standing waves on a 48-m (157.4-ft) transmission line.
D-1
D-2
Appendix
E-1
Bibliography
Field and Electromagnetic Waves, David Keun Cheng, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company Inc., 1993, ISBN 0-201-12819-5
Elements of Electromagnetics, Matthew N.O. Sadiku, Saunders College Publishing,
a division of Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1989, ISBN 0-03-013484-6
Communications Electronics Circuits, J. J. DeFrance, Rinehart Press, a Division of
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1972, ISBN 0-03-083139-3
Electronics Principles, Albert Paul Malvino, Ph. D., McGraw Hill Book Inc., 1983,
ISBN 0-07-039912-3
Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas- Module 10,
Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series.
Fundamentals of transmission lines and electromagnetic fields, S.R. Seshadri,
Addison-Wesley, 1971, 598 p.
High-Speed Digital Design - A Handbook of Black Magic Design, H. Johnson, M.
Graham, Ch. 4, Prentice-Hall, 1993.
Time Domain Reflectometry, Application Note 62, Hewlett-Packard Company, 1964.
COMPUTER-BASED ELECTRONICS
TRAINING SYSTEM FACET
TRANSMISSION LINES IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
36970-00
First Edition: December 2005
Printed: December 2005
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