Making Gold : Nuclear Alchemy

Prof. Paddy Regan

Department of Physics
University of Surrey
Guildford, GU2 7XH
p.regan@surrey.ac.uk

Medieval alchemisttrying to turn base metals into gold

Mistaketo try and use chemistryneeded nuclear physics

Atoms (indivisible) ~10-10 m, electrons (and their

orbital structure) determine chemistry of the elements, e.g., NaCl

Nuclei..~10-14m across, protons determine the

chemical element (Z); neutron number (N) determines
the mass, (A = N+Z). > 99.9 % of the mass of the atom
is in the nucleus.

Nucleons (protons and neutrons ~10-15m) have a

substructure, three quarks in each nucleon
(ups and downs)but they dont exists on their
own.

Elemental composition of the Solar Nebula

Z=43
Tc

Z=61
Pm

Z=84
Po

What makes a nucleus stable?

There is an ongoing interplay and competition between coulomb
repulsion and strong nuclear force interactions

The result is that only certain combinations of Z and N give rise

to stable configurations (about 300 in total).

Other non-stable types can radioactively decay (about 7,000

predicted).

Radioactive species in the body

Isotope

Average amount by weight

Activity

U-Uranium

90g

1.1Bq

Th-Thorium

30 g

0.11Bq

40K

17mg

4.4 kBq

Ra

31pg

1.1Bq

14C

22ng

3.7kBq

3H-tritium

0.06pg

23Bq

Po-Polonium

0.2pg

37Bq

Some variation- for example smokers have 4-5 times more Po.
10

Mendeleyev

Moseleys Law.evidence for

Atomic numbers.
Characteristic X-rayswith a
chemical (Z) dependence

X-rays come from

atomic vacancies
i.e. holes in the
electron shells
around the atom.
Quantum mechanics
means that the
electron orbits are
fixed in energy.
X-rays come from an
electron dropping
from one energy level
to a lower one

X-rays come from

atomic vacancies
i.e. holes in the
electron shells
around the atom.
Quantum mechanics
means that the
electron orbits are
fixed in energy.
X-rays come from an
electron dropping
from one energy level
to a lower one

X-rays come from

atomic vacancies
i.e. holes in the
electron shells
around the atom.
Quantum mechanics
means that the
electron orbits are
fixed in energy.
X-rays come from an
electron dropping
from one energy level
to a lower one

X-ray
emitted

Spectral Maps of the Galaxy

Ref

http://adc.gsfc.nasa.gov/mw/mmw_images.html

Radioactive 26Al around the Galaxy.

Diehl et al., Astron. Astrophys 97, 181 (1993)

Full-sky Comptel map of 1.8 MeV gamma rays in

26Mg following 26Al -decay.

Elemental composition of the Solar Nebula

Z=43
Tc

Z=61
Pm

Z=84
Po

How it all starts.Hydrogen (Z=1) to Helium (Z=2)

The Proton-Proton Chain

Nuclear Fusion creates energy up to A~56 (Z=26 = Iron)

If the star is hot enough, nuclear fusion will fuel the star
and create elements up to A~56

Once you have

4He

what next?

4He + H 5Li not energetically allowedneither is

4He+4He 8Bewere stuck with A=1,2,3 and 4.

BUT!!! 4He can fuse with 2 other 4He (8Be) stuck

together for a short time (~10-16sec) to make
12Ccomplicated but understood.
Once we have made 12C (Z=6) nuclei can fuse together
and gain energy (if the star is hot and massive enough) to
make all elements up to Z=26 (Iron=Fe).

B ~1.5 MeV per A

Once you have 56Fe what next?

Top of the binding energy per nucleon
curve reached at A~56fusion above this
costs energybad news for the star supernova
BUT elements from 27-92 exist in nature
how are these made ?
Neutron Capture neutrons have no
charge no electrostatic repulsion.

Beta radioactive decay, (consequence of E=mc2)

2 types: (i) Beta- plus proton changes to a neutron (Z ->Z-1)
(ii) Beta minus neutron changes to a proton (Z -> Z+1)

SN1987a before and after !!

A=N+Z = fixed

Mass Parabolas and Radioactive Decays

Super Heavies

For a give fixed A (isobar), we have

Fewer than 300 nuclei

different combinations of Z and N.

e.g., A=Z+N=137 can be from

Proton Drip Line

Z=56, N=81 137Ba81 ; or

Z=55, N=82 137Cs82 (see later)

A = constant

Neutron Drip Line

34

Example of a mass parabola

125In

125Ba

: Z=49

: Z=56; N=69

p
n
A=N+Z=125

p + - +
125Sn

n + + +
125Cs

: Z=50;

Mass energy
(mc2)

: Z=55; N=70

125Xe
125Sb

: Z=51;
125Te

125I

: Z=52; N=73

STABLE ISOBAR
FOR A=125

: Z=54; N=71

: Z=53; N=72

The Natural Decay Chain for 238U

Q210Pb) = 5.41 MeV
E = 5.30 MeV
E(206Pb) = 0.11 MeV
T1/2 = 138 days.
Radium

218At
=Radium B

210Po

Radon
=Emanation

=Radium F
E

218Po
=Radium A

Figure Wiescher, Regan &

Aprahamian, Physics World
Feb. 2002, page 33-38
Slow-neutron capture process
allows formation of elements
from A~56 to A=209 (Bi)...
terminates at 209Bi...why?

Neutron capture
no electrostatic barrier
to nuclear fusion.
all you need are enough
Neutrons

Nuclear reactions in
Red giant stars create
spare neutrons

Stellar neutron sources in the

middle of Red Giant stars
(e.g., Betelguese)
13C+4He17O*16O

+n
22Ne+4He 26Mg*25Mg + n

So, how do you make Gold ?

Gold has 79 protons (i.e. Z=79)
Start with Z=78 protons (i.e. Platinum)
Specifically 196Pt ( Pt = Z=78, N=196-78=118)
Reaction is 196Pt + neutron to make 197Pt
197Pt is radioactive and beta-decays to make
197Au (i.e., normal stable gold).

S-process makes 209Bi from 208Pb+n 209Pb (T1/2=3.2hr) 209Bi

Neutron capture on stable
210Po

209Bi

210Bi (T1/2 =5 days) 210Po.

+ 206Pb (stable nucleus, as is 207Pb and 208Pb).

Summary
Whats made where and how.
Hydrogen to Helium (in the sun, p-p chain CNO cycles).
Helium to Carbon, triple-alpha process, special fusion.
Carbon to iron: nuclear fusion reactions, if hot enough.
Above

56Fe,

(a) up to Z=92, 238U, supernova, rapid neutron captures...also spits

out material for future neutron capture in 2nd / 3rd generation star

(b) can get up to 209Bi (210Po end-point) by slow neutron

capture

Tomorrows Lectures
Nuclear Weapons and Security (Dr. Gilfoyle U. Richmond)
The Polonium-210 Story (Dr. Regan U. Surrey UK)