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Polyethylene Piping
Systems Manual

Innovative Supplier of
Quality Piping Systems.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................I-II
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................III
LIST OF FIGURES ..............................................................................................................IV
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................1
Driscopipe Piping Systems .....................................................................................2
Characteristics of HDPE Pipe .................................................................................2
Cautions ..................................................................................................................6
Driscopipe Materials ...............................................................................................8
Joining Polyethylene Pipe.........................................................................................9
Design Considerations .............................................................................................10
Installation Considerations ......................................................................................11
Other Considerations ..............................................................................................12
Contingency and Risk..............................................................................................13
DRISCOPIPEfi SYSTEMS DESIGN......................................................................................14
System Pressure Requirements .............................................................................14
Dimension Ratio .........................................................................................14
Design Pressure Ratings ............................................................................14
Positive Pressure Pipelines ........................................................................15
Water Hammer/ Pressure Surge ................................................................16
Longitudinal Stress From Internal Pressure ...............................................17
Fluid Flow ...................................................................................................17
Initial Flow Estimates .................................................................................18
Pressurized Flow .......................................................................................18
Fitting Pressure Drop .................................................................................20
Pressure Loss For Viscous Fluids .............................................................20
Gravity Flow ................................................................................................21
Vacuum or Suction Pipelines......................................................................25
Sliplining Existing Lines .............................................................................27
Gas Flow ...................................................................................................28
Thermal Considerations ..........................................................................................29
Working Pressure Ratings (WPR).............................................................29
Thermal Conductivity .................................................................................29
Thermal Expansion and Contraction .........................................................29
Thermal Stress Relaxation .........................................................................30
Thermal Considerations in Supported Pipelines ........................................30
Thermal Considerations in Overland Pipelines ..........................................30
Lateral Deflection Due to Thermal Movement ............................................30
Thermal Considerations in Buried Pipelines................................................31
Thermal Considerations in Marine Pipelines ..............................................32
Transition Connections ...............................................................................32
Burial Design ...........................................................................................................35
Buried Pipelines...........................................................................................35
Burial Design Considerations ......................................................................35
Limits on Buried Pipe Due to External Soil Pressure ...................................35
Calculation of Total Soil Pressure by Components .....................................36
Burial Design Guidelines .............................................................................42
DRISCOPIPEfi SYSTEMS INSTALLATION .........................................................................47
Supported or Suspended Pipelines............................................................................47
Pipe Support Spacing ..................................................................................47
Overland Pipelines ....................................................................................................49

Hot Climates ...............................................................................................49

Cold Climates...............................................................................................50
Marine Pipelines .......................................................................................................50
Critical Collapse Pressure ..........................................................................50
Anchor Weights .........................................................................................50
Anchor Spacing...........................................................................................50
Installation of Marine Pipelines ..................................................................52
Water Surface Pipelines..........................................................................................53
Marsh Pipelines ......................................................................................................53
Sliplined Pipelines ...................................................................................................54
Buried Pipelines ......................................................................................................55
Trenching and Bed Preparation .................................................................55
Pipe Laying .................................................................................................57
Fitting Installation .......................................................................................58
Pressure Testing Driscopipe Systems ....................................................................59
Repair Techniques ..................................................................................................60
SHIPPING, HANDLING, & UNLOADING ............................................................................62
Shipping ..................................................................................................................62
Handling ..................................................................................................................62
Unloading ................................................................................................................63
Storage ....................................................................................................................64
INDEX ..................................................................................................................................65

II

LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1:
Table 2:
Table 3:
Table 4:
Table 5:
19Table
Table
6:6:
Table 7:
Table 8:
Table 9:
Table 10:
Table 11:
Table 12:
Table 13:
Table 14:
Table 15:
Table 16:
Table 17:
Table 18:

Driscopipefi HDPE Chemical Resistance Data........................................................... 3, 4

Minimum Allowable Bend Radius @ 73.4 F....................................................................5
Identification by Cell Classification- ASTM D 3350.........................................................8
HDB Values for Medium and High Density Polyethylene............................................. 15
Working Pressure Ratings for Driscopipe PE 3408 Pipe at 23 C...................................15
C Values
Values for
for Hazen
..............................................................19
"C"
Hazen and
and Williams
WilliamsFormula
Formula
Equivalent Lengths for Estimating Pressure Drop Through Fittings................................20
Changes in Velocity and Flow Capacity as a Function of Full Flow.............................. 22
Differential Pressure (Vacuum or External Fluid) Capability for
Unsupported Pipe @ 73.4 F............................................................................................26
Multipliers for Temperature Rerating...............................................................................26
Driscopipefi PE 3408 Pipe - Pressure rating (psi) vs. Temperature ( F)........................ 29
Instantaneous Modulus of Elasticity (psi) vs. Temperature ( F)......................................30
Value of E Based on Soil Type (ASTM D 2321) and Degree of Compaction .............
.
36
Determining Soil Pressure from a Static Load ........................................................
.
. 40
Allowable Ring Deflection of Driscopipefi Polyethylene Pipe Based upon DR
45
Allowance for Expansion under Test Pressure ................................................
. 60
Standard Packaging for Driscopipefi Industrial Pipe ......................................................
. 62
Allowable Stacking Heights for Driscopipefi HDPE Pipe............................................
.
. 64

III

LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Figure 3:
Figure 4:
Figure 5:
Figure 6:
Figure 7:
Figure 8:
Figure 9:
Figure 10:
Figure 11:
Figure 12:
Figure 13:
Figure 14:
Figure 15:
Figure 16:
Figure 17:
Figure 18:
Figure 19:
Figure 20:

Examples of Critical Flow for Viscous Slurries and Slurry Tailings.................................24

Ring Deflection of Polyethylene Pipe.......................................................................... 27
Lateral Deflection Due to Thermal Movement in Overland Pipelines.......................
31
Unit Underground Soil Pressure Exerted by 1000 lb Load..............................................38
H20 Highway Loading......................................................................................................41
Cooper E-80 Live Loading................................................................................................42
Plot of Vertical Stress-Strain Data for Typical Trench Backfill
(Except Clay) from Actual Tests......................................................................................44
Calculating Ring Deflection........................................................................................
45
Pipe Support Spacing for DR32.5....................................................................................48
Pipe Support Spacing for DR26.......................................................................................48
Pipe Support Spacing for DR17.......................................................................................48
Pipe Support Spacing for DR11.......................................................................................48
Pipe Support Spacing for DR9...................................................................................
48
Maximum Span Between Concrete Weights for Underwater Driscopipefi Pipelines.......51
Anchor Weight Design.....................................................................................................52
Suggestions for Transitioning Polyethylene Pipe to a Concrete Manhole................ ......54-55
Examples of Concrete Thrust Blocks and Encasements.................................................56
Trench Construction and Terminology.............................................................................57
Concrete Supports for a Flanged Connection..................................................................58
Using Flanged Connections to Repair a Damaged Pipe Section.....................................61

IV

POLYETHYLENE PIPING
SYSTEMS MANUAL
INTRODUCTION
The plastics industry is more than 100 years old, but polyethylene was not invented until the 1930s.
Early polyethylenes were low density and were used primarily for cable coatings. Today's modern
polyethylene piping systems began with Phillips discovery of high density polyethylene in the early
1950s.
Today, Phillips Petroleum Company is one of the world's largest producers of polyolefin plastics.
Phillips technology is used to manufacture much of the world's high density polyethylene. From the
raw materials at the well head to the finished piping product, Phillips Petroleum Company and Phillips
Driscopipe develop and test high density polyethylene compounds and piping components. The

specialized polyethylene resins used in Driscopipe products are a result of this leadership and
technical expertise.

Driscopipe piping systems, produced with Marlex resins, have been installed world-wide. Tens of
thousands of miles of this pipe are in service in hundreds of different natural gas, industrial, and
municipal applications.
This manual provides accurate and reliable information to the best of Phillips Driscopipes knowledge,
but our suggestions and recommendations cannot be guaranteed because the conditions of use are
beyond our control. Each project has its own set of variables and conditions. Interpretation of these
variables is important. The user must apply proper engineering judgement when designing and
installing polyethylene piping systems. Phillips Petroleum Company and Phillips Driscopipe assume
no responsibility for the information presented herein and hereby expressly disclaim all liability relating
to the use of this information.
The information presented in this manual is based upon a PE3408 high density polyethylene resin with
a cell classification of 345444C per ASTM D3350.

DRISCOPIPE PIPING SYSTEMS

Phillips Driscopipe offers a complete line of pipe, fittings, and accessories as well as technical and
installation support. Driscopipe systems include the following:

Pipe and fittings in many sizes and design pressure ratings.

Custom fabrication of special components.
ISO 9001 Certification.
Technical personnel for consultation on design and installation of your system.
Product research, development, and testing.
Strategically located plants throughout the United States and abroad.
Qualified distributors.

ADVANTAGES Compared to traditional piping materials, Driscopipe HDPE pipe systems may offer
cost savings in installation, labor, and equipment. Considering the potential for reduced maintenance
costs and extended service life in many pipeline applications, Driscopipe polyethylene pipe is very
competitive.

APPLICATIONS Typical applications include chemicals, acid and caustic solutions, corrosive waste,
sewage, drainage, mine tailings, sludge, process and potable water, saltwater, corrosive gases,
slurries, mud, crude oil, fuel gases, and many others. Phillips Driscopipe manufactures products to
the requirements of NSF and the American Water Works Association for use in potable water
systems, ASTM D2513 for natural gas distribution systems, and Factory Mutual for installation of
underground fire protection systems.

PIPE Phillips Driscopipe produces high density and medium density polyethylene pipe and tubing in
sizes from through 54 in iron pipe sizes (IPS). Ductile iron pipe sizes (DIPS) are available through
24 for the potable water market. Copper tube sizes (CTS) are available for natural gas distribution
and water service tubing.

FITTINGS Molded fittings are available in sizes through 12" IPS. Fittings fabricated from pipe are
available in various pressure ranges in sizes 1/2" through 54". Standard fabricated fittings and special
items or assemblies are available on special order.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HDPE PIPE

ABRASION RESISTANCE In tests conducted by Williams Brothers Engineering Company (Tulsa,
Oklahoma), Driscopipe high density polyethylene pipe was compared with X-52 grade steel pipe.
Both piping systems were wear tested and compared using an iron ore-water slurry. The magnetite
had a specific gravity of five (five times the weight of water) and a coarse particle size. With a slurry
velocity of 13.5 feet per second, the Driscopipe system outperformed the X-52 steel pipe system 4 to
1. With a velocity of 17 feet per second, the performance ratio was 3 to 1. These tests, under
controlled conditions, demonstrate that polyethylene pipe is superior to steel in slurry handling
applications. Driscopipe products have demonstrated outstanding performance in handling mine
tailings, fly ash, mud and rocks from dredging applications, and other abrasive materials.

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE Driscopipe HDPE pipe is suitable for many chemical solutions.
Naturally occurring chemicals in the soil will not degrade the pipe. It is not an electrical conductor and
does not rot, rust, or corrode by electrolytic action. It does not support the growth of algae, bacteria,
or fungi and is resistant to marine biological attack. Gaseous hydrocarbons have no effect on

expected service life. Liquid hydrocarbons will permeate the wall and reduce hydrostatic strength.
When the hydrocarbon evaporates, the pipe will regain its original physical properties.
Some chemicals will affect polyethylene pipe. Chemical attack may be accompanied by any
combination of the following: swelling, discoloration, brittleness, or loss of strength. Laboratory tests
using non-stressed specimens under static conditions were used to develop the following data. The
ratings shown are based primarily on chemical attack, solvent swelling, and changes in physical
properties.

TABLE 1: DRISCOPIPE HDPE CHEMICAL RESISTANCE DATA

Legend: S -- Satisfactory O -- Some Attack U -- Unsatisfactory NA -- No Data Available
70OF

140OF

Acrylic Emulsions
Aluminum Chloride Dilute
Aluminum Chloride Concentrated
Aluminum Fluoride Concentrated
Aluminum Sulfate Concentrated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Ammonia 100% Dry Gas

Ammonium Carbonate
Ammonium Chloride Saturated
Ammonium Floride 20%
Ammonium Metaphosphate Saturated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Ammonium Persulfate Saturated

Ammonium Sulfate Saturated
Ammonium Sulfide Saturated
Ammonium Thiocyanate Saturated
Aniline 100%

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
NA

Antimony Chloride
Barium Carbonate Saturated
Barium Chloride Saturated
Barium Sulfate Saturated
Barium Sulfide Saturated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Benzene Sulfonic Acid

Bismuth Carbonate Saturated
Black Liquor
Borax Cold Saturated
Boric Acid Dilute

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Bromic Acid 10%

Bromine Liquid 100%
Butanediol 10%
Butanediol 60%
Butanediol 100%

S
O
S
S
S

S
U
S
S
S

Butyl Acetate 100%

Calcium Bisulfide
Calcium Carbonate Saturated
Calcium Chlorate Saturated
Calcium Hypochlorite Bleach Solution

O
S
S
S
S

U
S
S
S
S

Calcium Nitrate 50%

Calcium Sulfate
Carbon Dioxide 100% Dry
Carbon Dioxide 100% Wet
Carbon Dioxide Cold Saturated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Carbon Disulphide
Carbon Monoxide
Chlorine Liquid
Chlorosulfonic Acid 100%
Chromic Acid 50%

NA
S
O
U
S

U
S
U
U
O

Cider
Coconut Oil Alcohols
Copper Chloride Saturated

S
S
S

S
S
S

Copper Cyanide Saturated

Copper Fluoride 2%

S
S

S
S

Copper Nitrate Saturated

Copper Sulfate Dilute
Copper Sulfate Saturated
Cuprous Chloride Saturated

S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S

Cyclohexanone
Dextrin Saturated
Dextrose Saturated
Disodium Phosphate
Diethylene Glycol
Emulsions Photographic

U
S
S
S
S
S

U
S
S
S
S
S

Ethyl Chloride
Ferric Chloride Saturated
Ferric Nitrate Saturated
Ferrous Chloride Saturated
Ferrous Sulfate

O
S
S
S
S

U
S
S
S
S

Fluoboric Acid
Fluorine
Fluosilicic Acid 32%
Fluosilicic Acid Concentrated
Formic Acid 20%

S
S
S
S
S

S
U
S
S
S

Formic Acid 50%

Formic Acid 100%
Fructose Saturated
Fuel Oil
Glycol

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
U
S

Glycolic Acid 30%

Hydrobromic Acid 50%
Hydrocyanic Acid Saturated
Hydrochloric Acid 30%
Hydrofluoric Acid 40%

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Hydrofluoric Acid 60%

Hydrogen 100%
Hydrogen Bromide 10%
Hydrogen Chloride Gas Dry
Hydroquinone

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Hydrogen Sulfide
Hypochlorous Acid Concentrated
Lead Acetate Saturated
Magnesium Carbonate Saturated
Magnesium Chloride Saturated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Magnesium Hydroxide Saturated

Magnesium Nitrate Saturated
Magnesium Sulfate Saturated
Mercuric Chloride
Mercuric Cyanide Saturated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Mercurous Nitrate Saturated

Methyl Ethyl Ketone 100%

Methyl Bromide
Methylsulfuric Acid
Methylene Chloride 100%

U
O
S
U

U
U
S
U

Sulfuric Acid 96%

Sulfuric Acid 98% Concentrated
Sulfurous Acid
Tannic Acid 10%

O
O
S
S

U
U
S
S

Nickel Chloride Saturated

Nickel Nitrate Concentrated
Nickel Sulfate Saturated
Nicotinic Acid
Nitric Acid <50%

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
O

Tartaric Acid Saturated

Tetralin
Tetrahydrofuran
Transformer Oil
Trichloroacetic Acid 10%

NA
U
O
S
S

NA
U
O
O
S

Nitrobenzene 100%
Oleum Concentrated
Oxalic Acid Dilute
Oxalic Acid Saturated
Petroleum Ether

U
U
S
S
U

U
U
S
S
U

Trisodium Phosphate Saturated

Urea
Urine
Wetting Agents
Xylene

S
S
S
S
U

S
S
S
S
U

Phosphoric Acid 0-30%

Phosphoric Acid 90%
Photographic Solutions
Potassium Bicarbonate Saturated
Potassium Borate 1 %

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Zinc Chloride Saturated

Zinc Sulfate Saturated

S
S

S
S

Potassium Bromate 10%

Potassium Bromide Saturated
Potassium Carbonate
Potassium Chlorate Saturated
Potassium Chloride Saturated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Potassium Chromate 40%

Potassium Cyanide Saturated
Potassium Ferri/Ferro Cyanide
Potassium Fluoride
Potassium Nitrate Saturated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Potassium Perborate Saturated

Potassium Perchlorate 10%
Potassium Permanganate 20%
Potassium Sulfate Concentrated
Potassium Sulfide Concentrated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Potassium Sulfite Concentrated

Potassium Persulfate Saturated
Propargyl Alcohol
Propylene Glycol
Rayon Coagulating Bath

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Sea Water
Shortening
Silicic Acid
Sodium Acetate Saturated
Sodium Benzoate 35%

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Sodium Bisulfate Saturated

Sodium Bisulfite Saturated
Sodium Borate
Sodium Bromide Oil Solution
Sodium Carbonate Concentrated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Chlorate Saturated
Sodium Chloride Saturated
Sodium Cyanide
Sodium Dichromate Saturated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Sodium Ferricyanide Saturated

Sodium Ferrocyanide
Sodium Fluoride Saturated
Sodium Nitrate
Sodium Sulfate

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Sodium Sulfide 25% to Saturated

Sodium Sulfite Saturated
Stannous Chloride Saturated
Stannic Chloride Saturated
Starch Solution Saturated

S
S
S
S
S

S
S
S
S
S

Sulfuric Acid <50%

NOTE: Due to the infinite number of potential

combinations of chemicals and concentrations, it is
not possible to evaluate every situation that may be
encountered with Driscopipe HDPE pipe and
fittings. Appropriate chemical resistance testing
should be conducted if Driscopipe products are to
be used in a chemical solution that has not been
verified for use with polyethylene.

FLEXIBILITY

The flexibility of polyethylene pipe allows it to be curved over, under, and around
obstacles as well as make elevation and directional changes. In some instances, the pipes flexibility
can eliminate the need for fittings and reduce installation costs.
Driscopipe HDPE pipe can be bent to a minimum radius between 20 to 40 times the pipe diameter.

TABLE 2: MINIMUM ALLOWABLE BEND RADIUS @ 73.4F

SDR

Minimum Allowable Bend Radius, Ra

32.5
26
21
19
17
15.5
13.5
11
9
7

> 40 times outside diameter

> 35 times outside diameter
> 28 times outside diameter
> 27 times outside diameter
> 27 times outside diameter
> 27 times outside diameter
> 25 times outside diameter
> 25 times outside diameter
> 20 times outside diameter
> 20 times outside diameter

Example: Assume a 24 diameter DR 21 pipe was to be bent. The minimum bend radius can be
calculated as follows:

Ra > 28 D
Where:

Ra > 28 24"

Ra > 672" (56ft)

Ra is the radius of curvature of the bend in the pipe, in.

D is the outside diameter of the pipe, in.

The radius of the circular sector (bend) must be greater than 672 (56 ft).

FLOW FACTORS Driscopipe polyethylene pipe has a smooth inside surface. A "C" factor of 150 is
recommended in the Hazen-Williams Formula. Polyethylene pipe has a recommended Mannings n
-5
value of 0.009. The smoothness factor, , is equal to 7x10 ft. Smooth walls and the non-wetting
characteristic of polyethylene allow higher flow capacity and reduced friction loss with polyethylene
pipe.

LIFE EXPECTANCY The hydrostatic design basis for Driscopipe pipe is based on extensive
hydrostatic testing data evaluated by standardized industry methods. Based on ASTM D2837,
regression curves project a life expectancy of approximately 50 years when transporting water at
73.4F. Internal and external environmental conditions may alter the expected life or change the
recommended design basis for a given application.

LIGHTWEIGHT Polyethylene pipe is much lighter than concrete, cast iron, or steel pipe.
It is easier to handle and install. Reduced manpower and equipment requirements may result in
installation savings.

PRESSURE RATINGS

Phillips Driscopipe manufactures polyethylene pipe for gravity flow and

o
pressure service through 267 psi at 73.4 F. Some applications or design codes require that the pipe
be derated, resulting in lower design pressure ratings. The formulas used to design polyethylene
piping systems include a 2:1 safety factor in hydrostatic stress and a greater than 2:1 safety factor in
surge fatigue.

THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS Polyethylene is a thermoplastic material. Some changes in

physical and chemical properties occur when the system temperature is increased or decreased. For
instance, the pipe will expand and contract as it is heated or cooled. Temperature must be
considered when designing a Driscopipe system. The characteristics of polyethylene pipe are
established at ambient temperature (23C, 73.4F). As temperature increases, long-term strength
decreases, and vice-versa. The maximum recommended operating temperature for Driscopipe
products is 140F.
-4

The linear thermal expansion coefficient for Driscopipe pipe is approximately 1.2 x 10 in./in./F.
Refer to Driscopipe data sheets for the physical properties of a specific product.

TOUGHNESS Polyethylene has low notch sensitivity, high tear strength, and excellent scratch and
abrasion resistance. Its resistance to environmental stress cracking is outstanding.

ULTRAVIOLET PROTECTION Black polyethylene pipe, containing 2 to 2.5% finely divided carbon
black, can be safely stored outside in most climates for many years without damage from ultra-violet
exposure. Carbon black is the most effective single additive to enhance the weathering
characteristics of plastic materials. Other stabilizers or UV absorbers are not required when carbon
black is used.
In colors other than black, Driscopipe products can be stored outside in sunlight for three to four years
without degradation. Colored Driscopipe products use ultra-violet stabilization chemicals to provide
protection during outdoor storage. These products are not recommended for above ground
applications if the pipe will be exposed to sunlight for more than four years.

CAUTIONS

Driscopipe products have been used safely in thousands of applications. Still, there are
precautions that should be adhered to when using any product. The following is a listing
of some of the cautions that should be considered when using Phillips Driscopipe
products.

FUSION During the heat fusion process the equipment will reach temperatures of 375o
o

- 500 F. Caution should be used to prevent burns.

Review Heat Fusion Cards and Heat Fusion Qualification Guides

WEIGHT Although polyethylene pipe is not as heavy as some alternative pipe

products, there is significant weight involved. Care should be exercised when
handling or working around HDPE pipe.

Know the weight involved! Review Driscopipe size and dimension sheets
Review Phillips Driscopipes Recommendations for Handling and Unloading
sheet

AIR PRESSURE High pressure air is not recommended for testing Driscopipe
systems. Driscopipe products should not be used for process air. Consult your
supplier for additional precautions.

Review the installation procedures in this manual

STATIC ELECRICITY High static electricity charges can be associated with HDPE pipe products.
Improper use of pinch-off equipment and other procedures in the presence of flammable or explosive
gases can be extremely dangerous.

Review the installation guidelines in this manual

Review Driscopipe product brochures

UNLOADING Assure that proper equipment is used when unloading pipe. The equipment should be
of a size to handle the loads. The condition of all straps should be checked.

Review the Driscopipe Recommendations for Handling and Unloading Sheet

BURIAL Consult the appropriate authority on trench construction requirements. All safety precautions
should be taken when working in a trench.

TESTING Water is the recommended test medium. All precautions should be taken for pipe
movement and damage during testing.

Review the installation section of this manual

Review Driscopipe Technical Note #35

IMPACT OR HITTING HDPE pipe is impact resistant. Hitting the pipe with an instrument, such as a
hammer, may result in uncontrolled rebound.

Review product data sheets

PRODUCT CONSIDERATION Some products are not recommended for use in HDPE pipe
systems. Consult your supplier for a listing of chemical resistance.

Review Table 1

COILS Coiled HDPE pipe may contain energy as a spring. Uncontrolled release, i.e. cutting of straps,
can result in dangerous, irrepressible forces. Safety precautions and proper equipment are required.

Review Phillips Driscopipe Recommendations for Handling and Unloading Sheet

LOCATING Polyethylene materials are generally not detectable by standard magnetic locating
equipment. There are several methods available to aid in the detection of polyethylene pipelines.
These include tracer wires, identification tape, detection tape, line markers, electronic marker
systems, acoustic pipe tracing, and call before you dig line location. When installing a polyethylene
pipe system, consideration should be given to a method or methods that will allow the pipeline to be
located in the future. If posted signs are used to indicate the location of buried pipe, it is
recommended that the signs indicate that the buried line is polyethylene. This alerts the locating
personnel that the pipeline may not be identifiable by standard locating equipment. The gas company
should always be contacted prior to any excavation or trenching.

Contact utility companies

DRISCOPIPE MATERIALS
IDENTIFICATION AND STANDARD DESIGNATION OF PE MATERIALS
For many years, polyethylene piping materials have been identified using codes established in ASTM
Standard D 1248, Standard Specification for Polyethylene Plastics Molding and Extrusion Materials.
This standard classified polyethylene resin according to type, class, and grade. ASTM D 3350,
"Polyethylene Plastics Pipe and Fittings Materials", was written in 1974 to allow better identification of
PE pipe materials. Today, ASTM Standard D 1248 is incorporated into D 3350.
ASTM D 3350 uses a cell classification system which allows more specific identification of the PE
compound by using cell classification limits for density, melt index, flexural modulus, tensile strength,
environmental stress crack resistance, and hydrostatic design basis. These cells and their
corresponding values are shown in Table3. The color of the pipe and the ultraviolet (UV) stabilizer are
also recognized. For instance, Driscopipe 1000 series pipe is classified as a 345444C according to
3
ASTM D 3350. The 3 in the first cell corresponds with a density of 0.941-0.955 g/cm when tested
according to ASTM D 1505. The 4 in the second cell corresponds with a melt index <15 gm/10min
when tested according to ASTM D 1238. The values for the remaining cells can be determined in a
similar fashion. The new cell classification provides more information about the polyethylene
compound and assures the characteristics of the product are more clearly defined.
ASTM D 3350 also classifies polyethylene resin according to grade. Grade, as defined by ASTM D
3350, is a code for polyethylene pipe and fittings materials that consists of two letters that indicate the
kind of thermoplastic, followed by two numbers that designate the density and ESCR cell of the
thermoplastic. A grade PE34 pipe represents polyethylene (PE) pipe with a density value of 3 and
an ESCR value of 4 according to Table 3.

TABLE 3: IDENTIFICATION BY CELL CLASSIFICATION - ASTM D 3350

Property
1.
2.

3.

Density,
gm/cm3
Melt Index,
Condition E,
gm/10 min.
Flexural Modulus,
MPa (psi)

Test
Method

D 1505
D 1238

D 790

Cell
2

0.910 0.925
> 1.0

0.926 0.940
1.0 - 0.4

0.941 - 0.955

> 0.955

N/A

N/A

< 0.4 - 0.15

<0.15

N/A

N/A

<138

138 <276

276 - <552

552 - <758

758 - <1,103

>1,103

(40,000 <80,000)

(80,000 <110,000

(110,000 160,000)

(>160,000)

<(20,000)

(20,000 <40,000)

4.

5.

6.

Tensile Strength
at Yield,
MPa (psi)
Environmental
Stress Crack
Resistance,
a. Test Condition
b. Test Duration,
hours
c. Failure, Max. %
Hydrostatic Design
Basis,
MPa (psi) @ 23o C.
Color and Ultraviolet
Stabilizer

D 638

Number
3

<15

15 - <18

18 -<21

21 - <24

24 - <28

>28

(<2,200)

(2,200 <2,600)

(2,600 <3,000)

(3,000 3,500)

(3,500 <4,000)

(>4,000)

A
48
50

B
24
50

C
192
20

C
600
20

D1693

D 2837

NPR

5.52

6.89

8.62

11.03

Not
Pressure
Rated

(800)

(1,000)

(1,250)

(1,600)

Natural

Colored

Black with 2%
min. Carbon
Black

Natural with
UV Stabilizer

Colored With
UV Stabilizer

JOINING POLYETHYLENE PIPE

HEAT FUSION Polyethylene pipe is joined by butt fusion, socket fusion, or electrofusion. Extrusion
welding has been used with some success to fabricate non-pressure, structural components. It is not
recommended for joining pipe to be used in pressurized systems.

MECHANICAL JOINING Driscopipe pipe can be connected mechanically. Flange adapters with
steel or ductile iron back-up rings, mechanical joint adapters, compression couplings, and other
means are available for joining PE pipe. Each has its own set of advantages and limitations. The user
should be aware of these limitations.
Flange adapters and slip-on back-up rings are available in many sizes. Generally, a PE adapter to a
PE adapter does not require a gasket. However, large diameter, high pressure flange adapters may
require a gasket. Gaskets are recommended when transitioning polyethylene flange adapters to other
materials (steel, ductile iron, etc.). Sufficient torque should be applied evenly to the bolts to prevent
leaks. Re-tightening of the bolts is recommended after the connection has set for a period of time
(usually a few hours). Refer to Driscopipe Technical Note #33.
Driscopipe products are joined to bell joint
ductile iron pipe using a mechanical joint
adapter. This adapter uses a gasket seal and
is restrained by bolts. Due to the resilience of
the gasket, retightening of the bolts is not
required.

Compression type couplings with internal stiffeners are available in some sizes and are generally
satisfactory when temperature changes within the system are small. When using compression
couplings to join PE pipe, the pull-out resistance of the coupling must be considered. The pipe
should be anchored if the expected tensile loading in the pipe exceeds the couplings capability under
tensile loading.
Mechanical joining with bolt-on wrap-around clamps is generally not recommended as a permanent,
long-term method of joining polyethylene pipe unless the connection is stabilized in some manner.
Due to the magnitude of thermal expansion and contraction of polyethylene materials and its creep
flow characteristics under load, it can be difficult to maintain a permanent leak-proof seal with certain
mechanical wrap-around clamps. They have been used successfully in low pressure or non-pressure,
non-critical applications when it is not feasible to flange or fuse the sections together. Heat shrinkable

polyethylene sleeves have also been used for non-pressure applications to achieve an effective seal
but are also subject to tension pullout with thermal contraction of the pipe.

THREADING & GLUING Threading is not recommended for joining Driscopipe products. Solvent
cements or adhesives do not bond polyethylene. There is no known cement or glue recommended for
joining Driscopipe products.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The industries served by Phillips Driscopipe are diverse. The applications within each industry are
extensive. Some are clear and straightforward. Others are complex and may require consideration
beyond the scope of this manual.
Proper system design should give consideration to the following design criteria: burial, fluid properties,
operating conditions, temperature range, installation, and also the contingencies specific to each
design.

BURIAL Tests conducted on Driscopipe pipe at Utah State University by Dr. Reynold K. Watkins show
that it will not buckle under ordinary conditions if the soil envelope is properly compacted and is in full
contact with the pipe. Compaction to 85% Standard Proctor Density (AASHTO T-99) should be
considered a conservative minimum. ASTM D 2321, Standard Recommended Practice for
Underground Installation of Flexible Thermoplastic Sewer Pipe, should be used as a guide for
determining the method of placing and compacting the backfill.

FLUID PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY Driscopipe high density polyethylene pipe does not react with
most products being piped. There are some strong chemicals which affect it. When
reviewing Table 1, it is helpful to keep the following three factors in mind.
1. The chemical resistance of Driscopipe products is related to the chemical
itself, the operating temperature and the concentration of the chemical.
2. Strong oxidizing agents such as nitric acid, sulfuric acid, chlorine gas, and
liquid bromine are most aggressive and deserve special consideration.
3. Permeation of the pipe wall is negligible for most products. However,
aromatic hydrocarbon permeation rates should be reviewed.
DENSITY A close approximation should be made of the fluids density or specific gravity for
later use in flow calculations and/or installation calculations.
SOLIDS CONTENT HDPE pipe and fittings are used to convey many slurry mixtures. Some
are primary processing pipelines. Some are secondary waste conveying pipelines. The
system designer should consider the slurry solids content, its particle structure, abrasive
nature, size distribution, and net specific gravity.

OPERATING CONDITIONS
SYSTEM PRESSURES Since few pipelines operate at a stable pressure, the engineer
should accurately determine the systems design operating pressure. Typically, this is the
highest pressure at which the system is expected to operate. An additional safety factor is

10

gained when the system is operating at lower pressures. In addition, the engineer must
recognize the interdependence of the operating pressure and the operating temperature.
FLOW REQUIREMENTS Polyethylene pipe has a smooth wall. Compared to steel or
concrete, smaller diameter polyethylene pipe can often carry the same fluid flow at the same
pressure as the concrete or steel pipe. This makes polyethylene an ideal choice for relining
pipes while maintaining flow capabilities.
SURGE PRESSURES (Water Hammer) When flow in a fluid system is stopped quickly,
surge pressure can occur. Driscopipe HDPE pipe can absorb significant surge pressures. In
addition, surge pressures in Driscopipe systems are typically lower than other piping
materials. As with all systems, limitations in this area should be examined.
VACUUM Vacuum systems using HDPE pipe have operated successfully for many years.
Due to the long term creep properties of polyethylene, the appropriate DR should be used.
In full flow gravity lines, a siphon or vacuum condition can develop when sudden changes in
elevation are encountered. When vacuum is expected, Driscopipe systems must be
engineered to prevent pipe collapse. In gravity flow situations, the vacuum can be broken by
an air intake valve. Refer to Table 9 in the design section of this manual to review vacuum
capabilities.

TEMPERATURE RANGE
The temperature of the fluid being conveyed will have an effect on the service capability of
Driscopipe HDPE pipe. As with all thermoplastic piping, polyethylene pipe loses stiffness and
tensile strength as temperature increases. As temperature rises, the normal operating
pressure of the pipe must be derated. A heavier wall pipe can be specified to hold the same
pressure at higher temperatures.
As the temperature decreases, Driscopipe products gain strength. The pipe may be designed
o
to hold rated pressure at 73.4 F with recognition of a greater safety factor at lower
temperatures.
Allowances for thermal expansion and contraction should be engineered into any installation
based upon the fluid or environmental temperature.

INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS
LOADS ON SUPPORTED OR SUSPENDED PIPELINES

Support must be
frequent enough to minimize deflection from the weight of the pipe and contents. Supports
can also be used to control or restrain movements due to thermal expansion and contraction.

LOADS ON EXPOSED, ABOVE GROUND PIPELINES

Pipelines laid overland are

exposed to numerous hazards. From day to night and season to season, the pipe will
naturally expand and contract. Movement should be controlled by such means as snaking,
anchoring, or shallow trenching.
In summer temperatures, the pipe will typically become heated. This will decrease the
pressure rating of the pipe. As the winter temperature decreases, the safety factor on pipe
pressure is increased.

LOADS ON BURIED, UNDERGROUND PIPELINES

Buried installations must

consider earth loading and loads from external sources such as traffic, nearby structures, and
potential hydrostatic heads. If changes in system temperature are expected, control of
thermal expansion should be considered.

11

LOADS ON BURIED, MARINE PIPELINES

Driscopipe HDPE pipe is an excellent

choice when installing marine pipelines. It is lighter than water and will float. Design of buried
marine pipelines should include methods to anchor or secure the pipeline in place. If the
pipeline is not entirely filled with water at all times, the anchor weights should be increased to
maintain the appropriate amount of buoyancy under all operating conditions. The designer
should also consider anchoring the pipe as it enters or leaves the water.
Polyethylene pipe may be buried in marine installations, but it is not required. Consideration
should be given to possible damage from boat anchors, debris, and current action as well as
the potentially weak support capacity of the bottom material.
Driscopipe HDPE pipe is typically floated into position with the anchor weights attached.
Then it is filled with water and allowed to sink into place. This process must be controlled to
accurately place the pipeline and to minimize excessive strain on the pipe during the sinking
process.

LOADS ON BURIED, MARSHLAND PIPELINES

Marshy installations do not

simply imply those areas filled with peat moss and weeds. It also includes areas where the
soil may become liquefied or fluidized. Under such conditions, the pipe may be easily
displaced in the soil. Driscopipe HDPE pipe can be weighted to provide neutral buoyancy in
most conditions. The combination of soil loads, water loads, buoyancy, and soil support must
be considered.

LOADS ON EXPOSED, WATER SURFACE PIPELINES

Even when filled with

water, Driscopipe HDPE pipe will float on the water surface. As a float or a floating pipeline,
consideration should be given to wind forces and wave action. Possible damage by boats or
floating debris is also a concern. When the pipe is used for process fluids that may vary in
density (e.g. dredge lines), additional flotation should be considered.

LIVE TRAFFIC LOADS

Traffic operating over or near a buried pipeline causes the earth

to move slightly under its weight. This causes a dynamic load transfer from the vehicle to the
ground. The heavier the vehicle, the greater the load transfer. To distribute and reduce the
load on the pipe, it can be buried deeper and/or located farther from traffic. The stress on the
pipe may also be reduced by increasing the soil compaction (density). The system designer
should review the various traffic weight classes, soil compaction factors, and the associated
stress.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
STATIC ELECTRICITY

Electrical charges are generated on polyethylene pipe by friction. The

flow of air or gas containing particulate matter can build up significant static charges. Polyethylene
pipe should not be used to convey dry materials. Examples include grain chutes and pneumatic
transfer systems. Static charges can also occur when particles strike the exterior of the pipe. This
may occur in areas where polyethylene transporting a gas is damaged and leaking. Static charges
are a safety hazard, particularly in areas where there is leaking gas or an explosive
atmosphere.
Plastic pipe does not conduct electricity and static charges will remain in place until some grounding
device comes close enough to allow it to discharge. The result will vary from an slight physical shock
to a possible fire if a flammable gas-air mixture is present. The potential for a static discharge can be
minimized by applying a film of water with a 5% soap solution to the pipes surface to drain away the
static electricity. Since the plastic pipe is a non-conductor, a ground wire installed on the plastic pipe
will only discharge static electricity in a small, localized area.
When workers must enter a bellhole to hot tap a line or make emergency repairs to a damaged or
leaking line, it is important that all safety precautions be observed. If the potential for static charges

12

exists, the surface of the polyethylene pipe should be doused with soapy water before entering the
area. A 5% soap solution enables the water to form a continuous film on the pipe rather than forming
unconnected droplets. A wet cloth dipped in the soap solution should be kept on the pipe to drain off
static charge that may build up while working on the line.

ANIMAL AND INSECT ATTACK Polyethylene pipe will not support bacterial growth. It is not
digestible. Therefore, it holds no food value for insects, earthworms, marine worms, or small
mammals. Because Driscopipe is smooth and inert, it is difficult for marine growths and algae to
adhere.

MISCELLANEOUS The engineer should be aware of the total environment in which the Driscopipe
system is to be used. As with any other pipeline, pump cavitation and vibration should be eliminated
or minimized.
Driscopipe products cannot be located by metal detectors. If a buried pipeline needs to be traced, a
tracer wire should be buried above the pipe.
When polyethylene pipe is being used near a heat source, the pipe should be insulated from the heat
or appropriate design temperature service factors should be applied when calculating system
pressure ratings.
Hydrocarbons do not attack the pipe but will permeate the pipe wall causing swelling and loss of
strength. These effects are reversible. Heavier wall pipe should be selected to provide adequate
strength for the pipeline pressure.
NOTE: When Driscopipe HDPE pipe is used to transport potable water, it should not be direct buried
in soils contaminated by hydrocarbon fuels or other chemicals known to affect polyethylene. Dual
containment of the HDPE pipeline should be considered. Furthermore, polyethylene should not be
installed where there is a high risk of petroleum or chemical spills. In these applications, no piping
system, whether it is plastic or metal, can be considered immune to contamination by permeation
through the walls or joints. If the contaminating source cannot be safely controlled, it is best to change
the piping route altogether.

DISINFECTING For potable water systems using chlorine as a disinfectant, it is recommended to

limit the chlorine dosage to 25 mg/L free chlorine with a residual of 10 mg/L at the end of the 24 hour
stand period. The disinfectant is flushed per the requirements of AWWA C651, Standard for
Disinfecting Water Mains. The daily amounts of chlorine should not exceed 3 ppm.

CONTINGENCY AND RISK

In some cases, there is justification for the selection of a pipe size or wall thickness other than that
determined through an engineering analysis. For example, a thicker pipe is often specified for a slurry
application to maintain the desired pipe pressure rating as the wall wears over time.
Upgrading may also be a contingency against unknowns such as variable operating conditions,
system abuse, suspicious soil conditions, etc. Use of a thicker wall will reduce hoop stress and
increase the factor of safety. In situations where the risk of damage is high or when serious economic
consequences may result from a failure, the engineer may wish to provide an additional safety factor
in the design of the pipeline.

13

DRISCOPIPE SYSTEMS DESIGN

Design of a Driscopipe system is straightforward, but operating conditions can be extremely diverse.
Based on the projects operating requirements, a pipe with the correct pressure capability is selected.
Then, a size designed to transport the required flow is chosen. The design is completed by evaluating
the pipes ability to function when properly installed.
The following guidelines are typical considerations when designing a Driscopipe system. Due to
project requirements, it may be necessary to approach the design procedure in a different order.

GUIDELINES:

Determine pipe wall thickness (DR) to meet the projects pressure requirements.
If required, derate the pipe (DR) based on system operating conditions.
Evaluate the systems flow requirements to determine the pipe size.
Verify the pipes ability to function under planned installation conditions. Examples
include burial calculations, thermal effects, etc.
Adjust the pipe wall thickness as required for external loads.
Review the final pipe size and wall thickness to meet flow, pressure, and external load
requirements when the system is installed and operated as designed.

SYSTEM PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS

Most pipeline systems are designed for one of three types of service: a) pressurized flow, b) gravity
flow, or c) vacuum flow. When designing a pressurized pipe system, the pipe selected must hold the
internal pressure safely. In a non-pressurized system such as a gravity flow sewer, pipe selection
depends on structural and flow factors. Vacuum piping systems must resist collapse. For each
installation, the design engineer will use different design criteria and calculations

DIMENSION RATIO Polyethylene pipe design is based on the Dimension Ratio of the pipe,
typically abbreviated as DR. By definition, dimension ratio is the ratio of the pipes outside diameter
to its minimum wall thickness. This ratio may also be referenced as the SDR or Standard
Dimension Ratio of the pipe.

DR =
Where:

OD
t

DR = Dimension Ratio (also called Standard Dimension Ratio)

OD = Pipe outside diameter, inches
t = Pipe minimum wall thickness, inches

For a given DR, the ratio of the outside diameter to the minimum wall thickness remains constant.
The outside diameter of DR 11 pipe is eleven times the wall thickness. This is true for all diameters.
For high DR ratios, the pipe wall is thin in comparison to the pipe outside diameter. For low DR ratios,
the wall is thick in comparison to the pipe outside diameter.

DESIGN PRESSURE RATINGS

The hydrostatic design basis of Driscopipe products is

established using the procedures defined in ASTM D 2837. The hydrostatic design stress (S) is
calculated by dividing the hydrostatic design basis (HDB) by a typical safety factor of 2.0. This factor
of safety is an industry accepted standard designed to preserve the integrity of the pipeline as well as
to protect the public. Safety factors used to calculate the hydrostatic design stress vary by industry
and regulatory agencies.

14

TABLE 4: HDB VALUES FOR MEDIUM AND HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE

PE 2406

PE 3408

1250 psi
630 psi
2.0

1600 psi
800 psi
2.0

Hydrostatic Design Basis

(73.4F @ 100,000 hours)

Hydrostatic Design Stress

Safety Factor

Use of a higher design stress may reduce the factor of safety and shorten the service life of the piping
system. The prudent engineer will double-check the hydrostatic design stress according to the
industry accepted formula as defined in ASTM D 2837.

P=
Where:

2St
( D t)

P = Working Pressure Rating (WPR)

D = Average Outside Diameter

S = Hydrostatic Design Stress

t = Minimum Wall Thickness

POSITIVE PRESSURE PIPELINES The pressure rating of thermoplastic pipe is calculated from
DR and hydrostatic design stress. Polyethylene pipe with a numerically high DR has a lower pressure
rating than pipe with a low DR. In other words, as DR decreases, pressure rating increases, and vice
versa.
The formula relating DR and hydrostatic design stress has been adopted by ISO (International
Standards Organization), ASTM (American Society For Testing and Materials), and PPI (Plastics Pipe
Institute) as the standard for the industry.
The formula is:

P=
Where:

P
OD
S
t
DR

2St
OD t

or

P=

2S
DR 1

= Working Pressure Rating, psi

= Pipe Outside Diameter, in.
= Hydrostatic Design Stress, psi
= Minimum Wall Thickness, in.
= OD/t

All pipe of the same DR (regardless of diameter) has the same pressure rating for a given
design stress. Pressure ratings for PE 3408 materials are shown in Table 5. These values are
o
based on industry standard design conditions using water at 73.4 F and a hydrostatic design stress of
800 psi.

15

TABLE 5: WORKING PRESSURE RATINGS (WPR) FOR DRISCOPIPE

PE3408 PIPE AT 23C (73.4F)
Dimension Ratio
Pressure Rating, psig

32.5
51

26
64

21
80

19
89

17
100

15.5
110

13.5
128

11
160

9
200

7
267

Note: This chart is only valid at temperatures at or below 73.4F; Please refer to Table11 for higher temperature ratings.

WATER HAMMER/ PRESSURE SURGE Flowing liquid has momentum and inertia. When flow
is suddenly stopped, the mass inertia of the flowing stream is converted into a shock wave. High
static head exists on the pressure side of the pipeline. Some of the more common causes of
hydraulic transients are opening and closing (full or partial) valves, starting and stopping pumps,
changing turbine speed, reservoir wave action, liquid column separation, and entrapped air.
Quick surge pressures are shock waves known as water hammer. The pressure wave due to water hammer
races back and forth in the pipe getting progressively weaker with each hammer. Maximum surge pressure
results when the time required to change a flow velocity a given amount is equal to or less than 2 L/S such
that:

t
Where:

L = Length of the pipeline, ft

S = Speed of the pressure wave, ft/s
t = Time, s

S is determined from:

Where:

2L
S

S = 12

S = Speed of the pressure wave, ft/s

K = Bulk modulus of the liquid, psi = 300,000 psi for water
E = Modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi = 100,000 (short term)
DR = Dimension Ratio of pipe
3
w = Unit weight of fluid, lbs/ft
2
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/s

The excess pressure due to water hammer is:

Where:

KE
(w / g) (E + (K DR ))

Ps
Vc

Ps =

wSVc
144g

= change in pressure, psi

= change in velocity, ft/s occurring within critical time 2L/S
w, g and S are as above.

EXAMPLE: Water is flowing in a Driscopipe pipeline with a DR of 32.5 at a velocity of 10 ft/sec.

Determine the maximum pressure increase when a valve is closed in a time equal to or less than 2
L/S.
Where: DR = 32.5

K = 300,000 psi

E = 100,000 psi

16

S = 12

( 300,000 100,000)
= 476 ft / s
( 62.4 / 32.2) (100,000 + ( 300,000)( 32.5)
PS =

62.4 476 10
= 64.1psi
144 32.2

When the time to stop flow is greater than 2L/S, the change in pressure can be minimized. Particular
attention should be given to the final portion of valve closure. This is the time of maximum effect on
the velocity of the flowing liquid. The actual increase in pressure caused by valve closure is difficult to
determine but a closure time of 10 times 2L/S for a gate valve with linear closure characteristics
should reduce the pressure surge to the range of 10% to 20% of the surge caused by closure in a
time equal to or less than 2L/S.
In general, good system design will eliminate quick opening/closing valves. The design engineer
should use judgment with regard to surge pressures when selecting the thickness of the pipe. The
following rules of thumb may be of help:

Surge pressures in polyethylene pipe are significantly less than those encountered in rigid
pipe under the same conditions.
Occasional shock pressures can be accommodated within the design safety factor. Due to
the short time duration of the surge pressure, occasional shock wave surge pressures to 2.0
times the DR pressure rating at 73.4F are usually allowable.
If surge pressure or water hammer is expected in a system, maintain the flow velocity of the
system at a conservative level.
If surge pressure or water hammer is expected, maximize the time required to shut off a valve
or reduce flow. A shutoff cycle 6-10 times the time period 2L/S is suggested to minimize
surge pressures by gradually slowing the fluid flowstream. If constant and repetitive surge
pressures are present, the excess pressure should be added to the nominal operating
pressure when selecting the pipe DR.

LONGITUDINAL STRESS FROM INTERNAL PRESSURE When a fully restrained pipeline

is pressurized, longitudinal stresses develop in the pipe wall. The longitudinal stress is calculated as
follows:

SL =
Where:

P( OD t )
2t

SL = Longitudinal tensile stress, psi

P = Internal operating pressure, psi
t = Pipe wall thickness, in.

= Poissons ratio ( = 0.45 for HDPE)

OD = Pipe outside diameter, in.

Most pressurized pipe systems operate under a dual state of hoop stress and longitudinal stress. The
longitudinal stress factor is already included in the pipes pressure rating.

FLUID FLOW

Polyethylene pipe has excellent flow properties. Because polyethylene pipe has less
drag and less turbulence at higher flows, it may carry a greater volume of fluid than steel, cast iron, or
concrete pipe of the same size. Driscopipe HDPE pipe is corrosion resistant and less susceptible to
deposits and bacterial growth. Unlike other piping materials, polyethylene will retain these flow
characteristics over its service life.

INITIAL FLOW ESTIMATES

When the inside diameter of a particular pipe size is known and a

nominal velocity is chosen, the flow rate (gpm) can be calculated using:

17

1.)

Where:

Q = 2.449 V(ID)2

2.)

ID = 0.639

Q
V

3.)

Q
V = 2 0.408
ID

Q = Gallons per minute, gpm

V = Velocity, ft/s
ID = Inside Diameter, in.

Using these formulas, the engineer can calculate an approximate inside diameter, flow rate, or flow
velocity when the other two variables are known or estimated.

PRESSURIZED FLOW Many equations are available to show the relationship between fluid flow
and pressure drop in a given pipeline. The equations typically involve a friction factor based on the
pipe material.
Darcy-Weisbach is one commonly used equation. The Darcy-Weisbach equation requires the Moody
friction factor diagram or an equation to calculate the friction factor of the pipe based on its relative
-5
-4
roughness. The smoothness factor for Driscopipe is = 7x10 ft or = 8.4 x 10 in.
The Darcy-Weisbach equation and the Colebrook-White expression for the friction factor are shown
below. The Moody diagram has not been reprinted but is available in a number of reference books.

hf = f

Darcy-Weisbach:

Colebrook-White:

L V2
d 2g

2.51 / d
= 2 log
+

Re f
3.7
f

Where:
hf
d
V
g
f

Re
L

= Friction head loss

= Inside diameter
= Velocity
= Gravitational acceleration
= Friction factor
= Smoothness factor
= Reynolds number
= Length

For a simpler solution to fluid flow in Driscopipe HDPE pipe, consider the Hazen-Williams formula.
THE HAZEN AND WILLIAMS FORMULA:

P100 =

452Q 1.85
C1.85 D 4.86

18

Where:
P100
Q
C
D

= Friction pressure loss, psi per 100 feet of pipe

= Rate of flow, U.S. gpm
= Pipe coefficient (see Table 6)
= Inside diameter, in.

The coefficient C is essentially a friction factor. Table 6 outlines C values for various types and ages
of pipe. The designer must use proper judgment to select pipe sizes that best meet the project
conditions.
The following may be helpful:

At a given flow rate, a larger diameter pipe will have a lower velocity and
less pressure drop.
At a given flow rate, a smaller diameter pipe will have higher velocity and
increased pressure drop.
The frictional head loss is less in larger diameter pipes than smaller pipe
flowing at same velocity.

TABLE 6: C VALUES FOR HAZEN AND WILLIAMS FORMULA

Constant

Type of Pipe

150

Driscopipe HDPE pipe

140

New steel pipe or tubing

Glass tubing
Asbestos cement

130

Copper tubing
Cast iron- new

125

Steel pipe- old

120

Wood stave pipe

Concrete pipe
Cast iron pipe- 4-6 years old

110

Cast iron pipe- 10-12 years old

Galvanized steel

100

Cast iron pipe- 13-20 years old

Galvanized steel- More than 5 years old

90

Cast iron pipe- 26-30 years old

60

Corrugated steel pipe

*
Historically, Driscopipe has published a C Factor of 155. This was based on testing conducted in the 1970s. Similar
testing was repeated in 1995. Using state of the art measurement technology, the same laboratory established a C
Factor near 153. As a conservative design parameter, Phillips Driscopipe now states a C Factor of 150. For many years,
Driscopipe systems have been designed and have proven their performance with a C factor of 155.

19

FITTING PRESSURE DROP Fittings increase head loss in a system. To calculate the effect of
fittings on a systems flow, the fittings are converted to equivalent feet of pipe. The inside diameter
of the fitting (ft) is multiplied by the appropriate ratio to calculate an equivalent length (in feet) of pipe.
This value is added to the total footage of the piping system when calculating the total system
pressure drop.
These equivalent lengths should be considered an approximation suitable for most installations.

TABLE 7: EQUIVALENT LENGTHS FOR ESTIMATING PRESSURE DROP THROUGH

FITTINGS
Fabricated Fitting

Equivalent Length

Running Tee
Branch Tee
o
90 Fab., Ell
o
60 Fab., Ell
o
45 Fab., Ell
o
45 Fab., Wye
Conventional Globe Valve (Full Open)
Conventional Angle Valve (Full Open)
Conventional Wedge Gate Valve (Full Open)
Butterfly Valve (Full Open)
Conventional Swing Check Valve

20 D
50 D
30 D
25 D
18 D
60 D
350 D
180 D
15 D
40 D
100 D

Fabricated fittings are manufactured from segments of pipe using butt fusion. Due to geometric
considerations, the pressure rating of fabricated tees, wyes, and elbows is approximately 75% of the
pressure rating of the pipe used to make the fitting. To obtain a completely pressure rated system,
fabricated tees, wyes, and elbows should be chosen from a heavier wall pipe (lower DR). Alternately,
the fitting may be externally reinforced to bring it to the full pressure rating.
The need for reinforcement, encasement, or other support should be evaluated for each installation.

PRESSURE LOSS FOR VISCOUS FLUIDS

WATER BASE FLUIDS For water base fluids with viscosities different from pure water, an estimate
of the pressure loss can be calculated by multiplying the Hazen-Williams frictional pressure loss by
the specific gravity of the fluid.
NON-WATER BASE FLUIDS When the Reynolds number of flow in pipes is less than 1200, viscous
flow exists. The Reynolds number can be calculated from:

Re =
Where:

Q = flow rate, gpm

d = inside diameter, in.

50.7Q
d
= density of fluid, lbs/ft
= absolute (dynamic) viscosity, centipoise
3

The pressure drop for viscous flow typical of some oils and liquids other than water can be calculated
from:

P100 =

0.0237 Q
d4

20

GRAVITY FLOW
Gravity flow systems transport fluids without pumping. They are typically non-pressure systems. In
some installations, water head may cause pressure in a gravity flow system. Some may operate with
full flow and some may operate partially full.

Selection of Driscopipe HDPE for a full flow gravity system requires: (1) the flow rate
FULL FLOW
requirement in gallons per minute, (2) the slope of the pipeline, and (3) identification of an appropriate
pipe inside diameter. Based upon a full flow situation, the flow rate in gallons per minute can be
calculated from the Manning equation:

THE MANNING FORMULA:

The volumetric flow rate in a gravity system can be determined from the Manning formula:

Q = 98.3 ARh 3 S
Where:

Q
Rh
Rh
S
V
A

= Flow rate, gpm

= Hydraulic radius, in., cross-sectional flow area divided by wetted perimeter
= ID/4 for full flow
= Slope, ft/ft
= Velocity, ft/s
2
= Cross-sectional flow area of the pipe, in

Note: The above formula is a derivation of the Manning formula and includes a n value of 0.009
The velocity, inside diameter, and slope can be calculated by the following equations:

V =

ID = 2 .67

0.320Q
A
0.03279 Q
S

0.001075Q 2
S=
ID 5.34

PARTIAL FLOW A gravity pipeline will carry more liquid when running 85%-95% full than when
100% full.

21

TABLE 8: CHANGES IN VELOCITY AND FLOW CAPACITY AS A FUNCTION OF FULL FLOW

Velocity

Flow Capacity

% Full

(As a % of Full Flow)

(As a % of Full Flow)

100
95
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

100
111
115
116
114
108
100
88
72
56
36

100
106.3
107.3
98
84
67
50
33
19
9
3

Usually, a partially full gravity flow pipeline is evaluated as a full flow pipeline of a different, but smaller,
equivalent diameter. The equivalent diameter matches all the hydraulic characteristics of the larger,
partial flow gravity pipeline. The velocity, GPM flow rate, and slope are identical in each case. The
equivalent diameter is four times the hydraulic radius (DE = 4 x Rh). The hydraulic radius for partial flow
gravity pipelines is defined as the ratio of the cross-section flow area divided by the wetted perimeter.
EXAMPLE: At a slope of 0.01 ft/ft, 20 I.D. Driscopipe HDPE pipe will carry approximately 9000 gpm
at a velocity of 9.0 ft/s at full flow. From Gravity Full Flow chart, What will it carry if flow is 15 deep?

DP 15"
=
= 0.75
DF 20"
Q P = Q F 0.91 = 9000 0.91 = 8190 gpm
VP = VF 115
. = 9.0 115
. = 10.35 ft/s
In gravity flow systems, there is no supporting internal pressure. The pipeline must be able to support
any external water table over the long-term per Table 10. If there are areas where siphon (vacuum)
effects are anticipated, the internal vacuum (in feet of water) must be added to the external hydrostatic
head as an apparent external pressure. When a pressurized forced main is in operation, the internal
pressure often exceeds any external hydrostatic head.
SLURRIES A slurry is a two-phase mixture of solid particles in an aqueous phase where the two
phases do not chemically react and can be separated by mechanical means. Slurry systems are
divided into two types:
1. Non-settling slurries

2. Settling slurries

Non-settling slurries take on the flow characteristics of a viscous fluid. Such slurries are designed
according to standard procedures with allowances for the higher viscosity. Most slurry applications
are of the settling type. The solids tend to settle out of the carrier fluid. As the flow velocity is

22

reduced, the fluid flow goes through settling phases. Settling tendencies are often countered by
increases in flow velocity.

FLOW PHASES Changes in the flow velocity of a slurry affect the mode of flow. If the flow velocity is
initially high and then is gradually slowed, the slurry will pass through four flow modes:

Homogeneous Flow: This term describes a system in which the solids are uniformly
distributed throughout the liquid. This is the most desirable of all flow modes because
the particles do not contact the wall as frequently, thus reducing abrasion.
Heterogeneous Flow: The solids tend to flow nearer the bottom of the pipe but do
not actually slide on the pipe bottom. This is the most economical flow mode and is
typically used for sand sized solids.
Saltation Flow: In this mode, solid particles tend to bounce along the bottom of the
pipe. This flow is particularly aggressive in its abrasion of pipe. Due to the resilience
of Driscopipe polyethylene pipe, the particles tend to bounce and rebound. In steel
pipe, the particles work-harden the wall surface and chisel away at the steel.
Sliding Bed Flow: This mode of flow is generally unsatisfactory. Solids slide and roll
on the pipe bottom. Excessive erosion along the pipe bottom occurs rapidly.
Blockages can occur frequently.

The sliding bed and saltation modes can often be upgraded into homogeneous and heterogeneous
modes by increasing flow velocity. However, the operational cost (i.e., power requirements) could
increase significantly.

CRITICAL VELOCITY When the flow velocity of a slurry is below the critical velocity, the solid
particles tend to drop out of suspension and settle to the bottom of the pipe. The critical velocity is
determined by the particle size and shape, size distribution, concentration, particle density, and carrier
fluid density.
CRITICAL TRANSITION VELOCITY Some solids (e.g. fine fly ash) form a viscous fluid with the
liquid carrier. When the flow velocity of such fluids makes a transition from the turbulent flow region
to the laminar flow region, the viscous, homogeneous fluid changes from a smooth mixture to a
separated mixture. When turbulence stops and laminar flow develops, the homogeneous mode of
flow ends and the saltation or sliding bed mode begins. Turbulent flow is necessary to keep the solids
in suspension. The following rules of thumb should be helpful in designing a pipe system for this type
of slurry:

As the slurry viscosity increases, the flow velocity must be increased to prevent settling.
As the solids concentration increases, the flow velocity must be increased to prevent settling.
As the particle size increases, the flow velocity must be increased to prevent settling.
Slurries with high concentrations of fine size particles can be more abrasive than slurries with
larger size particles. The basic reason is that the particle/wall contact is greater and more
frequent with a fine slurry.

CRITICAL DEPOSITION VELOCITY Some particle solids will form a heterogeneous suspension
rather than a viscous, homogeneous fluid. In horizontal flow, the inertia and weight of the particle are
predominant. Even at full flow, the concentrations of solids along the bottom of the pipe are greater
than at the top. At the critical velocity, the weight of the particle exceeds the carrier fluids suspension
capability, and the solid begins to form deposits on the bottom of the pipe. The critical velocity,
therefore, is a deposition velocity. The deposition velocity, usually turbulent, is a function of particle
size, particle density, and solids concentration. For example, high concentrations of large, heavy
gravel in flowing water must be maintained at a fairly high velocity to prevent settling. The following
rules of thumb should be helpful in designing a pipe system for such a slurry:

23

As the particle fall velocity increases, the deposition velocity must be increased to maintain a
heterogeneous flow.
Generally speaking, as particle size increases, the deposition velocity must increase.
As the density of the solids increases, the deposition velocity must increase.
As the concentration of the solids in the fluid increases, the velocity must increase.
As the pipe diameter is increased, the deposition velocity must be increased to maintain
turbulence and prevent settling.
The deposition critical velocity represents the lower limit of safe operations due to increased
abrasion, solids, bed buildup, and plugging.

DUAL CHARACTER SLURRY Many commercial slurries are of a mixed character exhibiting
behavior of both deposition and transition settling. The size distribution of the solids may permit
the fines to join the fluid to form a homogeneous, viscous flow pattern, while the coarse solids are
heterogeneously suspended. A coal slurry is a good example of this dual behavior. For these
applications as well as for long-distance slurry pipelines, the design engineer should consider
turbulent flow for the full length of the pipeline. These additional rules of thumb and design hints may
be helpful in a specific application:

Generally, the smaller the particle, the easier it is to transport in a slurry.

The particle shape affects the settling rate (fall velocity) of the particle in the fluid.
The more spherical the particle, the faster it settles.
Heavier particles require higher transport velocities.
Heavier transport fluids such as saltwater reduce the weight of the particle through
buoyancy and will reduce settling velocities and transport velocities.
The use of viscous fluids such as fine slurries or oils reduces settling velocity. Thus,
slower transport velocities can be used for large, heavy solids.
Generally, slurries are pumped at a concentration of less than 25% by volume.
Slurries are usually specified in terms of concentrations by weight. Such
specifications should normally follow the previous criterion, taking into account the
bulk density of the solids.

FIGURE 1: EXAMPLES OF CRITICAL FLOW FOR VISCOUS SLURRIES

AND SLURRY TAILINGS
Slurry Critical Flow

Slurry Critical Flow

Total Suspension
Sub-Critical Velocity
Viscous Slurry Transition Settling

Total Suspension
Sub-Critical Velocity
Slurry Tailings Deposition Settling

Full Turbulence

Transition to Laminar Flow

Resulting in Separation

Full Movement

Slow Velocity Resulting

in Bed Buildup

SLURRY APPLICATIONS Driscopipe HDPE pipe is excellent for transporting many different kinds
of slurries. Typical slurry applications include dredging lines, coal or limestone slurry, wood chips,
sand, mine tailings, and many others. Slurry pipelines are usually installed above ground. This
provides easy access to lines if plugging should occur. Furthermore, the pipe can be rotated to
distribute wear more evenly around the inside diameter of the pipe.

24

Grade changes in slurry pipelines should be gradual. Exercise caution when slopes become
excessive. Turbulence often increases abrasion. Drop boxes are often used to reduce turbulence.
They are also used to relieve pressure buildup caused by surface gradients. Drop boxes are
generally used on gravity lines. However, pressure lines can also empty into drop boxes. Design of
the drop box should allow the slurry to fall freely into the fluid in the bottom of the box or utilize a
rubber liner on the wall opposite the inlet pipe.
It is difficult to predict actual wear characteristics when using polyethylene pipe to transport slurries.
Every application has different parameters. When transporting slurries with Driscopipe products,
minimum wear will occur when velocity is minimized and solids are kept in suspension. A maximum
velocity of 12-15 feet per second is preferred. It is generally recommended that very sharp abrasives
such as bottom ash should not exceed 10 feet per second. A solid concentration below 25% by
volume with particle size of or less is generally recommended. System temperatures at or near
ambient are preferred. Maximum wear and flow properties will be obtained if long radius elbows,
sweep elbows, and molded flange adapters are used in the installation.
Driscopipe products will withstand some abrasive particles along the inside of the pipe.
However, turbulent solids can be harmful to polyethylene pipe when the solids impinge directly
on the inner wall or at very sharp angles. For instance, in a dredging operation, the section of
pipe directly off the pump may experience excessive wear due to increased turbulence and
vibration.

VACUUM OR SUCTION PIPELINES

Driscopipe HDPE pipe may be subjected to internal pressure or internal vacuum. Vacuum systems
usually can be categorized into one of three general situations applicable to most installations. Those
are vacuum pipelines above ground, vacuum pipelines underwater (submerged), and underground
(buried) pipelines.
Typical applications for above ground vacuum pipelines could be:

Moisture removal (dryer) suction lines in a paper mill.

Suction lines for a dredge barge.
The down-hill run of a large-diameter gravity-flow siphon line.

When a vacuum condition exists in a pipeline, the pipe wall must be selected to resist the collapsing
forces. The dimension ratio of the pipe governs the amount of vacuum a pipeline can support on a
short-term or long-term basis. Selection of a thicker wall pipe will allow the system to operate under
higher vacuum conditions.
Phillips Driscopipe conducted extensive testing to develop data for practical, industrial installations
which would provide for long term vacuum service with a high degree of confidence and reliability.
The tests examined sections of various DR pipes in a controlled and monitored environment. The
data derived incorporates the pipe DR, ovality, acceptable tolerances in wall thickness, and time
duration of various stress levels. The aboveground vacuum capabilities given in Table 9 are the
practical, maximum levels of vacuum that Driscopipe HDPE pipe of a given DR can support.

25

TABLE 9: DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (VACUUM OR EXTERNAL FLUID) CAPABILITY

FOR UNSUPPORTED PIPE @ 73.4F
Service Life

Units

9.3

11

17

19

21

26

32.5

1 Day

psi
Feet of Water
Inches of Mercury

189
437
386

146
337
298

87
202
178

28
65
57

21
48
42

16
36
32

8
18
16

4
10
9

1 Month

psi
Feet of Water
Inches of Mercury

108
249
220

83
192
170

64
147
130

15
34
30

12
28
25

11
25
22

4
10
9

2
6
5

1 Year

psi
Feet of Water
Inches of Mercury

100
232
205

78
182
159

48
111
98

14
32
28

9
23
19

8
19
17

4
10
9

2
5
4

50 Years

psi
Feet of Water
Inches of Mercury

88
204
180

69
159
140

42
97
86

13
29
26

10
22
20

7
17
15

4
9
8

2
4
4

Table 9 is extrapolated from critical collapse test data of actual pipe samples
Full Vacuum is 14.7 psi, 34 feet of water or 30 inches of mercury

Note: The values presented in Table 9 represent the safe maximum differential pressures which can be
applied to polyethylene pipe without buckling or collapsing the pipe. These values are calculated using
lower tolerance limits based on extensive long-term differential pressure test data on lengths of pipe.
Temperature affects the long and short-term strength of polyethylene pipe. The following multipliers apply
to Table 9 for temperature rerating.

TABLE 10: MULITIPLIERS FOR TEMPERATURE RERATING

50F (10C)
1.14

73.4 (23C)
1.00

100F (38C)
0.79

120F (49C)
0.62

140F (60C)
0.50

Note: Direct burial or grouting of the pipe provides additional support for the pipe and can increase its
structural differential-pressure capability by up to four-fold. The degree of increase is difficult to quantify.
Structural support is dependent upon installation practices. Caution should be used if designs are based
on this factor.
If these vacuum ratings are exceeded, pipeline collapse may be accelerated. Under excessive vacuum,
the mode of failure is not immediate closure or collapse but rather progressive oval deflection. Failure of a
vacuum pipeline is considered to occur when the maximum pipe diameter in a deflected pipe is 120% of
the original pipe diameter, (i.e. Dmax = 1.2 x Do)

26

FIGURE 2: RING DEFLECTION OF POLYETHYLENE PIPE

DMAX
Deflected Pipe

DO

D MIN
100%
% RingDeflection = 1
DO

DMIN

D MAX

%Ovality =
1 100%
D MIN

At the deflection limit, the cross-sectional flow area of the pipe is reduced to about 98% of the area of
perfectly round pipe, and the flow is slightly impeded. Ring ovality at this level has been accepted as
the limit. Further deflection beyond this limit occurs rather rapidly, proceeding to full collapse and
closure of the pipeline.

SLIPLINING EXISTING PIPELINES Sliplining is an economical and effective method of

permanently restoring deteriorated sewer systems. Although a smaller pipe is slipped into an existing
main, the flow properties of polyethylene pipe may restore the capacity of the system while the buttfused joints eliminate groundwater infiltration. Eliminating infiltration reduces the quantity of sewage to
be transported and treated.
PERFORMANCE CAPABILITY When Driscopipe HDPE pipe is used as a non-pressurized liner, the
engineer must design a system that will resist any short-term or long-term external hydrostatic head
without the benefit of circumferential soil support. The external water table may infiltrate the space
between the old sewer and the new liner pipe. The polyethylene liner pipe must be capable of
supporting this external hydrostatic head.
Since most sewage flow is gravity flow, the Mannings formula can be
SLIPLINING CAPACITY
applied to many sliplining applications. Using the formulae on p. 21 of this manual, a liner size can
often be selected to restore the sewer to its original capacity. A good rule of thumb in sizing the pipe
liner is to allow 10% clearance between the existing pipe and the new sliplined pipe (i.e.: ODPolyethylene
= 90% IDSewer).
Using the Manning roughness coefficient for polyethylene, clay tile, and concrete, it can be shown that
for the same slope, the inside diameter of Driscopipe need be only 82.6% of the ID of the concrete
pipe and 89.8% of the ID of clay pipe to provide the same flow rate.
Example: A concrete sewer with an ID of 12 has been corroded by the hydrogen sulfide
produced by the sewage. It must be relined. What is the minimum inside diameter required
to restore full design flow when sliplining with Driscopipe HDPE pipe?
Because the ID of polyethylene pipe needs to be only 82.6% of the ID of the concrete pipe to
provide the same flow, a new liner can be selected as follows:

27

0.826 12" = 9.912"

One Driscopipe liner that would satisfy this application is 10 DR26 with an ID of 9.924. In
this application, the liner would offer greater than 100% of the original flow.
Additional information on design and installation of slip lined systems is available in ASTM F 585,
Practice for Insertion of Flexible PE Pipe into Existing Sewers, and the Plastics Pipe Institute
publication Pipeline Rehabilitation with Polyethylene Pipe.
Note: When sliplining sewers, allow the pipe to normalize to the ground temperature and
recover any imposed stretch (usually 8-10 hours) before cutting the pipe to length
between manholes. If the pipe is not secured at each end, it may contract or shrink into
the existing sewer.
GROUTING Pipe running through the wall of a manhole can be anchored by fusing a side-walled
branch saddle and encasing it into the concrete wall of the manhole. Expandable rubber seals and
grouting have proven successful in sealing an annulus between a casing pipe and polyethylene pipe
when it enters a manhole.
The annulus between the inner polyethylene pipe and the outer pipe is sometimes grouted.
Continuous grouting without voids can provide structural support to the liner pipe. If a void exists in
the annular space, the potential structural benefits will be lost. In actual grouting procedures, it is
extremely difficult to achieve a void free annulus.
Localized grouting can be used at connections to manholes and to stabilize movement of the liner
pipe. Caution must be exercised during the grouting process not to exceed the collapse pressure of
the polyethylene pipe. Please refer to Table 9 for external pressure capability of unsupported pipe.
In sliplining installations, consideration should be given to:
(1) Anchoring the polyethylene pipe within the casing pipe to eliminate expansion and
contraction if such a problem exists.
(2) Sealing the annulus to prevent infiltration and/or contamination.

GAS FLOW
The Mueller Formula will calculate the flow capacity of polyethylene pipe carrying a gas.

The Mueller Formula:

2
2
2826 P1 P2
Q = 0.425

G
L

Where:

Q
G
P1
P2
L
D

0.575

x D2.725

= Gas flow rate, standard cubic feet per hour (SCFH)

= Specific gravity (Air = 1.0; Natural Gas = 0.65)
= Inlet pressure, psia (absolute pressure; Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric)
= Outlet pressure, psia
= Pipeline length, ft
= Inside diameter, in.

Note: Polyethylene is a excellent electrical insulator. Static electric charge generated in the pipe wall due
to gas flow is not readily dissipated. Appropriate safety precautions should be used to prevent accidental
discharge of static electricity.
Additionally, in gas pipeline applications exposed to the sun, black Driscopipe products may result in a
temperature rise of the gaseous product and a subsequent increase in pressure.
28

THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS
Tests conducted on Driscopipe HDPE pipe have defined its response to temperature within a practical
o
range from below freezing to 140 F. This information allows the engineer to evaluate expansion and
contraction over the systems operating temperature range and to design anchoring when required.

PRESSURE RATINGS

Pressure rating is a function of DR and temperature.

The pressure rating of PE 3408 resin can be obtained from Table 11. A linear
interpolation may be made within the temperatures shown.

TABLE 11: DRISCOPIPE PE 3408 PIPE - PRESSURE RATING (PSI) VS. TEMPERATURE (F)
Temperature
F
50
60
73.4
80
90
100
110
120
130
140

Hydrostatic Design
Basis, psi
1,820
1,730
1,600
1,520
1,390
1,260
1,130
1,000
900
800

32.5
58
55
51
48
44
40
36
32
29
25

26
73
69
64
61
56
50
45
40
36
32

21
91
87
80
76
70
63
57
50
45
40

19
101
96
89
84
77
70
63
56
50
44

Pipe DR
17 15.5 13.5
114 126 146
108 119 138
100 110 128
95 105 122
87
96 111
79
87 101
71
78
90
63
69
80
56
62
72
50
55
64

11
182
173
160
152
139
126
113
100
90
80

9
228
216
200
190
174
158
141
125
113
100

7
303
288
267
253
232
210
188
167
150
133

TABLE 12: INSTANTANEOUS MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (psi) VS. TEMPERATURE (F)

140F
100 F
73.4F
50F
32F
0F
-20F

50,000 psi
100,000 psi
130,000 psi
165,000 psi
200,000 psi
260,000 psi
300,000 psi

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

The thermal conductivity of polyethylene is low compared to metals.

2
The coefficient of thermal conductivity is 2.7 BTU in/ ft hr F.

THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION All materials expand and contract as a result of
temperature changes. Polyethylene has a higher coefficient of expansion than most other piping
materials. The forces generated by thermal stresses are much lower due to polyethylenes lower
modulus of elasticity and its capability to stress relax. The expansion and contraction characteristics
of polyethylene should be considered in the design and installation of systems.
-4

The linear thermal expansion coefficient for Driscopipe HDPE pipe is 1.2 x 10 in./in./F. The
circumferential coefficient of expansion is approximately half of the linear expansion coefficient, (i.e.
-4
0.6 x 10 in./in./F).

29

The amount of linear expansion or contraction for an unrestrained polyethylene pipe can be calculated
from the following equation:

L = ( T2 T1 ) L
Where:

T2
T1
L

= Theoretical length change, in.

-4
= Coefficient of linear expansion, 1.2 x 10 in./in./F
= Final temperature, F
= Initial Temperature, F
= Length of pipe, in. at T1

THERMAL STRESS RELAXATION

When the temperature of a Driscopipe system changes,

internal stresses develop as the pipe expands or contracts. This does not adversely affect or
overstress the pipe. Polyethylene is a viscoelastic material and will relieve stresses by slightly
realigning its molecular structure until equilibrium is achieved. This is a valuable engineering property
which dissipates a major portion of the stress developed as the pipe tries to expand or contract.

The engineering formulas used to calculate forces resulting from expansion or contraction assume
instantaneous temperature change. It is physically impossible to change the temperature of an object
instantly. In laboratory experiments structured to create a near instantaneous temperature change
on the pipe, the thermal stress has been measured and found to be about half the theoretical,
calculated value. When the temperature change occurs over an extended period of time, the thermal
stress is further reduced as stress relaxation occurs. Typically, Driscopipe systems are designed
using one half the calculated tensile stress due to an instantaneous temperature change.

THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SUPPORTED PIPELINES If practical, install the pipe

when its temperature is near the maximum system operating temperature. As the pipe cools, tensile
stress will develop and keep it straight between supports. When the pipe warms to its installation
temperature, it returns to its installation condition and straightness. In this manner, sag between
supports is minimized.

THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS IN OVERLAND PIPELINES By installing overland pipelines

in a slightly snaked pattern, changes in the pipes length can be controlled by lateral deflection. As the
pipeline warms, the S configuration becomes slightly greater. As the pipe cools, the pipeline
becomes straighter. Surface lines that are continuously operated full of fluid normally experience
small temperature variations and are easy to control. The weight of the fluid also increases
friction between the pipe and the ground and therefore reduces deflection.
It may be necessary to anchor the line at intervals to direct and limit the deflection to selected
locations. In extreme cases, all deflection may occur in one area where friction is low. This condition
is most likely to occur with empty lines or where large, sudden operating temperature changes occur.

LATERAL DEFLECTION DUE TO THERMAL MOVEMENT The following formulae will

allow the designer to calculate lateral deflection of the pipeline and anchor point spacing.

Y = L 0.50T
L=

Y
0.50T

L=

D 96T

30

Where:

Y
L

T
D

= Lateral deflection, in.

= Length of pipe between anchors, in.
= Coefficient of thermal expansion, in./in./F
o
= Change in temperature, F
= Pipe outside diameter, in.
= Tangential strain, in./in.

FIGURE 3: LATERAL DEFLECTION DUE TO THERMAL MOVEMENT IN OVERLAND

PIPELINES

For any set of thermal conditions, an increase in anchor spacing will increase deflection, and vice
versa. Increasing anchor spacing, L, to the maximum will reduce the number of anchor points needed
but may increase wear on the pipe from movement and may increase the possibility of kinking the line
if lateral movement does not occur uniformly.
One practical approach is to calculate anchor spacing by limiting strain, , in the pipe wall between 1%
and 5%. The spacing at 5% strain will give the minimum distance between anchor points at the
maximum allowable strain (max). The spacing should be as large as possible considering other
factors such as available right-of-way and slope of the ground. Higher values for L mean less strain
and fewer anchor points.

Example: A pipeline installed on top of the ground in a straight condition and anchored at 50 foot
intervals undergoes an increase in temperature of 50F.

Y = 50 ft 12in./ ft 0.50.00012 50F

Y = 33in.
THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS IN BURIED PIPELINES In direct buried installations, soil
friction will normally restrain pipe movement caused by seasonal temperature changes. Anchor
requirements are minimized as stress relaxation occurs in the pipe. In some instances, concrete
collars are used to transfer the thermal force into the soil around the pipe. The force in the pipe must
be effectively transferred into the concrete collar. This is typically done by fusing branch saddles or a
waterstop to the pipe and embedding the waterstop into the concrete collar.
The final tie-ins on a system should be made as close to operating temperature as practical. When
installing polyethylene pipe that is warmer than the soil, a slightly longer length may be required to
compensate for contraction of the pipe as it cools to ground temperature. The snaking in the trench
which naturally occurs with pipe diameters 4" and below is normally sufficient to compensate for

31

thermal contraction. During a winter installation, the exact length of pipe should be used. Pipe which
is too short or not aligned must not be drawn up by the bolts of a flanged connection. Overstressing
the flange adapter may result in failure.
When the backfill is soft or becomes fluid, as in marshes or river bottoms, the pipe movement may not
be restrained by the backfill. Under this condition, the stress in the pipe is transmitted to the end
connections. This can damage weak connections. If this possibility exists, anchors should be
installed just ahead of the termination to isolate and protect the connection.
The calculated force due to temperature change is the product of the stress in the pipe wall and the
cross sectional area of the pipe wall. The length of pipe required to anchor the pipeline against this
calculated force depends on the circumference of the pipe, the average contact pressure between the
soil and the pipe, and the coefficient of friction between the soil backfill and the pipe.
The stress and force that develop due to temperature change in a restrained pipeline are independent
of the length and the burial conditions of the pipe. If pipe movement at the end sections cannot be
tolerated, the pipe must be anchored. Properly designed restraints transfer the forces into the soil. If
the pipe is not anchored to resist movement, the end sections will expand or contract as the
temperature changes. This change in length will extend into the burial trench until the frictional
resistance of the backfill is equal to the thermal force. These movements must be considered in the
design of such physical features as connections to pumps, catch basins, sewer manholes, etc.

THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MARINE PIPELINES In most marine applications, the

water temperature is relatively constant. Seasonal changes in water temperature occur over several
months. Thermal stress in marine applications is normally controlled by stress relaxation and vertical
deflection between anchor points.

TRANSITION CONNECTIONS

If the pipe is not anchored at the ends to resist movement, a few

feet at each end may expand or contract as the temperature changes. This zone will extend into the
burial trench to a point at which the frictional resistance of the backfill is equal to the thermal force.
These movements must be considered in the design. Anchoring should be provided when the pipe
must be connected to a tank, manhole, valve, etc. Figure 16 illustrates several anchor systems for typical
typical end connections.
A polyethylene pipeline is also subject to circumferential expansion and contraction. The designer
may need to consider this in certain applications.
The following example may be helpful.

EXAMPLE: 4 DR 15.5 Driscopipe PE 3408 pipe is buried five feet deep in dense sandy soil with a
o
o
high water table. The ground temperature is 60 F. Occasionally, it is used to carry 40 F water. The
line runs straight and is 1000 feet long. Calculate the following:

The temperature change

The theoretical strain
The theoretical length change
The instantaneous tensile stress in the pipe wall
The tensile force
Design a collar to isolate the terminal connection from the effects of thermal contraction.

DATA: Pipe Outside Diameter

Pipe Wall Cross-Sectional Area
Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Instantaneous Modulus of Elasticity
Temperature Change

D
A

E
T

= 4.5
2
= 3.84 in.
-4
= 1.2x10 in./in./F
= 180,000 psi @ 40F
o
= 20 F

32

Soil/HDPE Pipe Coefficient of Friction

Length of Straight Run
Soil Density
Depth of Burial

= 0.10
= 1000 Feet
3
= 130 lbs/ft
= 5 Feet

CALCULATIONS:
Thermal Strain, :

= () (T) = (1. 2 x10 in./in./ F)(20 F) = 0.0024 in./in.

-4

Theoretical-Instantaneous Unrestrained Contraction, L:

L = ()L
L = (0.0024 in./in.)(1000 ft)(12 in./ ft) = 28.8 in.
Note:

Since the soil restrains the pipe, it will not change length but will instead
develop tensile stress due to contraction.

Theoretical Tensile Stress, :

= E = (180,000 psi) x (0.0024 in./in.) = 432 psi

E=

Note: The instantaneous modulus of elasticity was taken at the lower temperature (i.e. E40
is approximately 180,000); Refer to Table 12.

Actual Tensile Stress, A:

A = 432/ 2 = 216 psi tensile stress (Thermal Stress Relaxation, p.30)

Actual Tensile Force, F:

F = (A)(A)
2

F = (216 psi) (3.84 in. )

F = 829.4 lbs (Tensile)
Soil Frictional Resistance, f:

f = N

Where:

Soil pressure = h = (130 lbs/ft )(5 ft) = 650 psf = 4.5 psi
3

Normal Force (N) = Force due to soil pressure on circumference of pipe

ring one inch wide.
N =(D) x (1ring) x (soil pressure)
N = ( x 4.5) x (1) x (4.5 psi)
2
N = (14.14 in. ) x (4.5 psi)
N = 63.62 lbs
f = N = (0.10)(63.62 lbs)
f = 6.362 lbs (per inch of pipe due to soil friction)
Beyond 130.4 inches (10.86 ft), the soil friction will overcome the tensile force developed by
thermal contraction of the pipeline. This is calculated by dividing the tensile force in the pipe by
the frictional resistance of the soil (i.e. 829.4 lbs / 6.362 lbs per in of pipe = 130 Inches).

33

Theoretical Movement of Unrestrained Ends, L:

L = (Length of unrestrained zone)()
L = (130 in.)(0.0024 in./in.) = .312 in.
Design of a Restraining Collar:
Movement at the ends of the pipe can be restrained by anchoring. In underground
installations, a concrete thrust block is often used to transfer the tensile loading in the pipe
into the surrounding soil. The tensile load in the pipe must first be transferred into the
concrete. Since the concrete will not grip the pipes smooth surface, a branch saddle or
waterstop fitting is fused to the pipe and embedded in the concrete. This transfers the
forces by shear into the concrete and the surrounding soil. Driscopipe HDPE pipe has a
shear strength of approximately 1,500 psi. The concrete thrust block is sized based on
the compressive strength of the soil.
Assume a square collar 12 inches x 12 inches and 6 inches wide. The net surface bearing
area of the collar is:
2
2
2
2
Net Area of Collar = (12 x 12) - ( x (4.5 /4)) = 144 in. - 15.9 in. = 128.1in.
The compressive stress on the soil due to load transfer by collar face:
2
S = 829.4 lbs 128 in. = 6.5 psi

S= F/A

EXAMPLE DESIGN SUMMARY: Under a 20 F temperature change, a 4 DR 15.5 pipeline 1000

ft long buried five feet deep will try to change length 0.312 at each end. The pipe is restrained by
soil friction from further contraction. A concrete collar with a square face of 12 x 12 will absorb
the tensile force of 827.3 lbs due to thermal contraction, and distribute it into the soil at a
compressive soil stress of 6.5 psi.

34

BURIAL DESIGN
BURIED PIPELINES Buried pipelines are subject to external loads. The effect of external pressure
on Driscopipe pipelines is more complex than the effect of internal pressure only. For design
purposes, a distinction is usually made between rigid and flexible pipes. A rigid pipeline (such as
concrete) is considered to be the total structure and must be designed to support all external loads as
well as internal pressure. Because polyethylene pipe is flexible, it is considered to be only one
component of the pipe-soil system.
In a buried situation, the DR of the pipe and the strength of the soil envelope must be specified to
keep the three burial design parameters (wall crushing, wall buckling and ring deflection) within
acceptable limits. Correct design is based on two key parameters. The first is matching the proper
wall thickness to the external soil pressure. Secondly, correct design calls for an analysis of how
Driscopipe HDPE pipe and the surrounding soil accept the backfill loading and transfer it to the
undisturbed walls of the trench.

BURIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS When polyethylene pipe is buried, the soil surrounding
the pipe will compress or deflect slightly under both static and dynamic loads. These loads include the
weight of the backfill above the pipe, the weight of the water table saturating the soil, vehicular traffic,
nearby structures, or any combination of these loads. In a flexible pipe-soil system, the pipe
deflection is assumed to be the same as the soil deflection.
After a pipe is laid in the trench, the backfill is placed in layers to an elevation above the top of the
pipe. It is compacted to a specified Proctor density. As additional layers are placed, the weight of the
soil over the primary, compacted backfill increases. This slightly compresses the soil around the pipe.
Since soil is not an elastic material, the compression, i.e. strain, is permanent. In its denser state, the
soil develops increased resistance to the vertical soil pressure until it reaches static equilibrium
without further compression or strain.

LIMITS OF BURIED PIPES DUE TO EXTERNAL SOIL PRESSURE

The ring deflection of Driscopipe HDPE pipe can be calculated by using the properties of the pipe and
the measured compressibility of the soil. As the pipe deflects with the soil, it forms a very slight ellipse
by decreasing in the vertical diameter an amount, Y, and by increasing in the horizontal diameter an
almost equal (but slightly less) amount, X. The horizontal diametrical increase further compacts the
fill at the sides of the pipe, developing lateral support. The vertical decrease in diameter relieves the
pipe of vertical soil pressure concentrations and forces the soil to support the major share of the
vertical load by arching action over the pipe.
Deformation of buried flexible pipe becomes critical when the pipe reaches that point of ring deflection
beyond which it can no longer resist any increase in soil loading. By limiting ring deflection through
proper soil compaction, the loading over a pipe is distributed through the soil and across the soil arch
around the pipe.
The Soil Modulus, E, is the ratio of soil pressure (stress) to soil deflection (strain) at a given soil
compaction. Refer to Table 13 for values of E.

35

TABLE 13: VALUE OF E BASED ON SOIL TYPE (ASTM D2321)

AND DEGREE OF COMPACTION
E (psi) for Degree of Compaction (Proctor Density, %)

Soil Type of Initial

Backfill Material

Loose
70%

Slight
( 70 - 85%)

Moderate
( 85- 95%)

High
> 95%

Manufactured angular,
granular materials

1,000

3,000

3,000

3,000

(Crushed Stone, or rock,

broken coral, cinders,
etc.)

II

Coarse grained soils

with little or no fines

Not
Recommended

1,000

2,000

3,000

III

Coarse grained soils

with fines

Not
Recommended

Not
Recommended

1,000

2,000

IV

Fine Grained Soils

Not
Recommended

Not
Recommended

Not
Recommended

Not
Recommended

Organic Soils

Not
Recommended

Not
Recommended

Not
Recommended

Not
Recommended

(Peat, Muck, Clay, etc.)

Note: This summary of ASTM D 2321 is provided for the design engineers convenience. This
specification should be reviewed in detail before specifying burial conditions.

MINIMUM COVER There are no firm rules regarding minimum burial depth. The variables change
for each installation, and the designer should check each design for wall crushing, wall buckling, and
ring deflection. However, the following guidelines may be helpful.

Consider a burial depth below the local frost line.

Where there will be no overland traffic, the designer may wish to consider a cover of
18 or one diameter, whichever is greater.
Where truck traffic may be expected, the designer may wish to consider a burial
depth of 36 or one diameter, whichever is greater.
Where heavy off-the-road truck or locomotive traffic is expected, the designer may
wish to consider a minimum cover of 5 feet or more.

CALCULATION OF TOTAL SOIL PRESSURE BY COMPONENTS Proper design of the

polyethylene pipe-soil system balances the response of the pipe and surrounding soil against the
total external soil pressure. Burial design by wall crushing, wall buckling, and ring deflection require
the calculation of the total soil pressure, PT, at the top of the pipe. There are many sources of soil
pressure above the pipe. It is helpful to examine the total soil pressure as the sum of its components.

36

The total external soil pressure at the top of the pipe includes the sum of:

Where:

PS =
PL =
PI =

PT = PS + PL + PI
Total Static Load pressure or dead load pressure.
Total Live Load pressure.
Total effective external pressure due to negative internal
operating pressure (vacuum).

Each of these soil pressure components is discussed and examples are calculated for use in a typical
design problem.
TOTAL STATIC LOAD PRESSURE, PS There are three sources of static load pressure. The total
static load pressure is the sum of these components:
PS = PDE + PWE + PB
Where:

PDE = Static load pressure of dry or slightly moist earth

PWE = Static load pressure of wet, saturated soil under the maximum water table.
PB = Static load pressure due to stationary surface structures such as buildings
or foundations.

DRY SOIL PRESSURE, PDE

The weight of dry soil is approximately 100-120 pounds per cubic foot
(pcf). Every foot of dry soil above the pipe exerts a pressure of 100 to 120 pounds per square foot
on the crown of the pipe. The dry soil component of the total static load pressure, P DE, is the product
of the dry soil density and the depth of the soil (in feet) from the ground surface to the top of the water
table over the pipe.
WATER SATURATED SOIL PRESSURE, PWE The water saturated soil component of the static
load pressure is the product of the wet soil density, approximately 120-140 pcf, and the height of the
wet soil above the pipe.
STATIC STRUCTURE SOIL PRESSURE, PB In some applications, the pipe may be installed under
or near a building or other structure. If the structure is located directly over the pipeline, the pressure
due to the weight of the structure is more concentrated and intense than if the structure is located at
some distance away. The distribution of vertical pressure into the soil below a static load is
represented by a bell or bulb shaped surface. Refer to Figure 4. The maximum pressure exerted by
the static structure is located at the centerline of the bulb. The pressure decreases downwards in all
directions and outwards from the center. The external soil pressure which a ground structure will
exert on HDPE pipe is greater when the pipe is buried near the structure and fairly shallow. The
external soil pressure is less when the pipe is buried deeper or farther away from the static structure.
The Boussinesq theory is recommended for determining the pressure from a concentrated load. By
this theory, the load at the top of the pipe caused by a superimposed static load is evaluated as
follows:

PB =
Where:

PB
W
Z
R

3WZ 3
2R 5
2

= Static structure soil pressure, lb/ft

= Superimposed surface load, lb
= Vertical distance from the point of load to the top of the pipe, ft
= Straight line distance from point of load to the top of the pipe, ft

R=

X 2 + Y2 + Z2

37

X and Y are horizontal distances at 90 to each other from the point of load to the top of the pipe in
feet.
Using this theory, a simplified chart can be used to show the underground pressure distribution
caused by a 1000 lb superimposed surface load (Figure 4). The underground pressure for other
superimposed surface loads can be calculated by multiplying the chart value by the load ratio per the
example in this section.
If the pressure on the pipe is caused by a uniformly distributed surface load such as a foundation,
spread footing, or bearing pad, the soil pressure on the pipe can be determined by dividing the loaded
area into a group of smaller individual areas. The load for each incremental area is calculated and
added to obtain the total soil pressure on the pipe caused by the foundation. This technique is
illustrated in the following example. A further discussion of this method is found in Soil Mechanics in
Engineering Practice by Terzaghi and Peck.

FIGURE 4: UNIT UNDERGROUND SOIL PRESSURE EXERTED BY 1000 lb LOAD

Example: Find static soil pressure of a 72,000 lb

weight on a pipeline buried 10 feet deep and 6.5
feet away.

PB =

72,000
2.0 psf
1,000

PB = 144 psf = 1psi

Example: A 24 diameter sewer line is to be laid through a plant area with the top of the pipe being 10
feet below grade. The seasonal water table rises to a maximum height of 7 ft below the ground surface
(i.e. 3 feet above the pipe). At one point, the centerline of the pipe is buried four feet from and parallel to
the long side of an equipment foundation which is 6 ft wide and 10 ft long and has a load bearing of 3000
psf at a depth of 3 feet below grade. Determine the total static load pressure on the pipe at point A.
Point A is located on the pipe directly across from the midline of the static structure (i.e. 5 feet).

38

Refer to the diagram below.

Given:

Density of dry soil = 100 lbs/ft

3
Density of saturated soil = 130 lbs/ft
Depth of burial, H = 10 ft
Height of saturated soil level above the pipe, h, = 3 ft
Height of dry soiI above the pipe, (H - h) = 7 ft
Foundation bearing load = 3000 psf @ 3 ft. deep

Diagrams:

Formula:

PS = PDE + PWE + PB

Where:

PDE = ( H h)(WE )
PWE = ( h)(DE )
i

PB =
O

3WZ 3
2R 5

Z = Vertical Height

R=

X 2 +Y2 + Z2

Note: For a simplified calculation of PB, use Figure 4.

39

Calculations:

PDE = (10ft - 3 ft)(100 pcf) = 700 psf

PWE = (3 ft)(130 pcf) = 390 psf
PB = 300 psf (see Table 14)

Summary:

PS = PDE + PWE + PB
Ps = 700 + 390 + 300 = 1390 psf
Ps = 9.65 psi at point A on the pipe
The load area of the static structure is divided into fifteen squares. Each
2
square is 2 ft x 2 ft for a total area of 60 ft . The total weight of each
2
square is the equivalent of 12,000 lbs (4 ft x 3000 psf = 12,000 lb).

TABLE 14: DETERMINING SOIL PRESSURE FROM A STATIC LOAD

Square

Weight

Vertical
Depth

1-1
1-2
1-3
2-1
2-2
2-3
3-1
3-2
3-3
4-1
4-2
4-3
5-1
5-2
5-3

12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000

7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.
7 ft.

Pressure
Horizontal
Distance
6.4
8.1
9.8
5.4
7.3
9.2
5.0
7.0
9.0
5.4
7.3
9.2
6.4
8.1
9.8

(From Fig.4)

Per
1000# Load
2.1 psf
1.2 psf
0.6 psf
3.0 psf
1.5 psf
0.8 psf
4.0 psf
1.7 psf
0.9 psf
3.0 psf
1.5 psf
0.8 psf
2.1 psf
1.2 psf
0.6 psf

x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =
x 12 =

12000#
Load
Per Square
25.2 psf
14.4 psf
7.2 psf
36.0 psf
18.0 psf
9.6 psf
48.0 psf
20.4 psf
10.8 psf
36.0 psf
18.0 psf
9.6 psf
25.2 psf
14.4 psf
7.2 psf
PB = 300 psf

TOTAL LIVE LOAD PRESSURE, PL Traffic operating over or near a buried pipelines causes the
earth to move slightly under its weight. Live loads are also evaluated by the Boussinesq theory. The
wheel or axle weight should be increased by 50% to provide a pipe design with extra strength and
endurance against the impact of these dynamic forces. The load at the top of the pipe caused by a
superimposed dynamic load at a given point is evaluated by:

3WZ 3
PB =
2R 5
Where:

W
Z
R

= 1.5 x Superimposed surface load, lb

= Vertical distance from the point of load to the top of the pipe, ft
= Straight line distance from point of load
to the top of the pipe, ft
R=

X2 + Y2 + Z2

40

Where X and Y = Horizontal distances at 90 to each other from point of load to the top of the pipe in
feet.
Unit underground pressures caused by a 1,000 pound superimposed static load are shown in Figure
4. Unit pressures for superimposed live loads can be obtained by multiplying the values in Figure 4 by
1.5. The readjusted unit pressure is then multiplied by the load ratio. The load ratio was twelve in the
previous example.
Figure 5, H20 Live Loading, and Figure 6, Cooper E-80 Live Loading, summarize the total pressure
due to the weight of the soil and the weight of the rolling vehicle. An allowance for impact is included
in each of these figures.
Beyond an optimum depth, the total pressure on the pipe increases primarily as a result of soil
pressure. This effect can be seen in Figures 5 and 6. At shallower depths, the load intensifies
because the pipe is nearer to the rolling equipment, and the live load is not as well distributed to the
soil.
If the live load pressure exceeds the capability of a specific DR pipe for a specific traffic situation, the
designer may want to consider methods to protect the pipeline.

FIGURE 5: H20 HIGHWAY LOADING

Note:
The H20 live load assumes two
16,000 lb. concentrated loads applied to
two 18 x 20 areas, one located over the
point in question, and the other located at
a distance of 72 away. In this manner, a
truckload of 20 tons is simulated.
Source: American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, DC

41

FIGURE 6: COOPER E-80 LIVE LOADING

Note: Cooper E-80 live load assumes 80,000

pounds applied to three 2 x 8 areas on 5
centers such as might be encountered through
live loading from a locomotive with three 80,000
pound axle loads.
Source: American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, DC

APPARENT EXTERNAL PRESSURE DUE TO INTERNAL VACUUM, PI Vacuum generates a

compressive hoop stress in the wall of a pipe and acts to collapse the pipeline. Under vacuum
conditions, the value of PI is positive. PI is added to the other two external pressure components, PS
and PL, to obtain the total external pressure, PT, acting on the pipe. An internal vacuum generates
pressure equal to the absolute value of the vacuum. The maximum apparent external pressure due to
a vacuum inside the pipe is 14.7 psi (2,117 psf).

BURIAL DESIGN GUIDELINES The design engineer must select the proper pipe DR and specify
the backfill conditions to obtain the desired performance of the pipe-soil system.
DESIGN BY WALL CRUSHING Wall crushing occurs when external vertical pressure causes the
compressive stress in the pipe wall to exceed the long-term compressive strength of the pipe material.
To design for wall crushing, the following check should be made:

SA =
Where:

( SDR 1)
2

PT

SA = Actual compressive stress, psi

SDR = Standard Dimension Ratio
PT = Total external pressure on the top of the pipe, psi

Safety Factor = 1500 psi /SA (where 1500 psi is the compressive yield strength of Driscopipe HDPE pipe)
DESIGN BY WALL BUCKLING Local wall buckling is a longitudinal wrinkling of the pipe wall.
Buckling can occur over the long term in non-pressurized pipe if the total external soil pressure, PT,
exceeds the pipe-soil systems critical buckling pressure, Pcb . Although wall buckling is seldom the
limiting factor in the design of a Driscopipe system, a check of non-pressurized pipelines can be made
according to the following steps to insure PT < Pcb . All pipe diameters with the same DR in the same
burial situation have the same critical collapse and critical buckling endurance.

42

1. Calculate or estimate the total soil pressure, PT, at the top of the pipe.
2. Calculate the stress, Sa, in the pipe wall:

Sa =

( SDR 1) PT
2

3. Based upon the stress Sa and the estimated time duration of non-pressurization, find the
value of the pipes modulus of elasticity, E, in psi (approximate value for E is 35,000 psi).
4. Calculate the pipes hydrostatic, critical-collapse differential pressure, Pc

( )3 (D MIN / D MAX )
(1 2 )

Pc =

Where:

2E t D

or

Pc =

2.32( E )
SDR3

(DMIN/DMAX) = 0.95
= Poissions Ratio = 0.45 for polyethylene pipe
E = stress and time dependent tensile modulus of elasticity, psi
E = 35,000 psi (approximate)
D = Outside Diameter, in.
t = thickness, in.

Calculate the soil modulus, E, by plotting the total external soil pressure, P T, against a
specified soil density to derive the soil strain as shown in the example problem below Figure
7.

6. Calculate the critical buckling pressure at the top of the pipe by the formula:

Pcb = 0.8 ( E ' )( Pc )

Where:

Pcb = Critical buckling soil pressure at the top of the pipe, psi
E = Soil Modulus, psi
Pc = Hydrostatic critical-collapse differential pressure, psi

7. Calculate the Safety Factor: SF = Pcb / PT .

8. The above procedures can be reversed to calculate the minimum pipe DR required for a
given soil pressure and an estimated soil density.
In a direct burial pressurized pipeline, the internal pressure is usually great enough to exceed the
external critical-buckling soil pressure. When a pressurized line is to be shut down for a period, wall
buckling should be examined.

43

FIGURE 7: PLOT OF VERTICAL STRESS-STRAIN DATA

FOR TYPCIAL TRENCH BACKFILL (EXCEPT CLAY) FROM ACTUAL TESTS

Example:
Find: E @ 2000 psf and 80% density
Formula: E = PT/S
Calculations: E = 2000 psf / (0.018 * 144) = 771 psi

Note: The curves shown on this chart are sample curves for a granular soil.
If other types of soil are used for backfill such as clay or clay loam, curves
should be developed from laboratory test data for the material used. Soil
pressures greater than 4000 psf may be extrapolated with the slope of the
curve or curves can be generated by testing at higher soil pressures.
Probable error of curves is about half the distance between adjacent lines.

Design by Ring Deflection Ring deflection, by definition, is the ratio of the vertical change in
diameter to the pipes original diameter. It is often expressed as a percentage.
Driscopipe HDPE pipe is designed to be flexible. This assumes the pipe will deflect the same as the
vertical compression of the soil around it. Design by ring deflection matches the ability of the pipe to
accommodate, without structural distress, the vertical compression of the surrounding soil. Design by
ring deflection calculates the vertical soil strain and compares it to the allowable ring deflection of the
pipe.

44

TABLE 15: ALLOWABLE RING DEFLECTION OF DRISCOPIPE

POLYETHYLENE PIPE BASED UPON DR

DR

Allowable Ring Deflection

32.5

8.1%

26

6.5%

21

5.2%

19

4.7%

17

4.2%

15.5

3.9%

13.5

3.4%

11

2.7%

The allowable ring deflection of polyethylene pipe is limited to create no more than 1 to 1.5%
tangential strain in the outer surface of the pipe wall. As the wall of a pipe becomes thicker (a lower
DR value), the distance from the neutral axis to the outer surface increases. As a result, less
deflection is required to create the allowable tangential strain. Deflection of the pipe-soil system is
controlled by proper specification of the backfill compaction.

FIGURE 8: CALCULATING RING DEFLECTION

Dmax

D
% RingDeflection = 1 min 100%
Do

Do

Dmin

The percentage ring deflection based upon strain for a given DR pipe can be calculated as follows:

Y
= ( 0.25)( )( SDR )
D

45

Where:

Y
D

SDR

= Vertical deflection, in.

= Pipe OD, in.
= Tangential strain in the surface of the pipe ring, in./in.
= Standard Dimension Ratio

Driscopipe recommends limiting tangential surface strain to 0.01. This value is based upon the
following criteria:

Most of the deflection of a flexible pipe occurs within a few days after final backfill
is completed. Development of a soil arch over the pipe relieves the pipe of much
of the vertical soil load by the arching action of the soil envelope and by the
development of soil restraint at the sides of the pipe.
An allowable strain value of 0.01 will allow for reasonable additional deflection due
to disturbance of the backfill by earthquake, fluctuations of the water table, etc.
An allowable design strain value of 0.01 allows for the normal deviation of
temperature encountered during installation.

In summary, a soil density can be specified for the bedding and initial backfill so that total soil
pressure at the top of the pipe, PT, will not cause a given DR pipe to exceed its maximum allowable
ring deflection.

46

DRISCOPIPE SYSTEMS INSTALLATION

Driscopipe products have been installed in many applications above and below ground. Polyethylene
pipe has been used to cross land, lakes, deserts, bogs, and arctic tundra. Each installation requires
thorough consideration of the environment in which the pipe is being installed.
Typical pipe installations can be categorized as one of seven types. The following pages discuss
design details for each type of installation.
TYPE 1:
TYPE 2:
TYPE 3:
TYPE 4:

Supported or Suspended Pipelines

Overland Pipelines
Marine Pipelines
Water Surface Pipelines

TYPE 5:
TYPE 6:
TYPE 7:

Marsh Pipelines
Sliplined Pipelines
Buried Pipelines

SUPPORTED OR SUSPENDED PIPELINES

Horizontally supported pipelines are affected by the weight of the pipe and its contents between
supports. When the sag or deflection between supports is minimized, the stress in the pipe wall can
be controlled. Supports should be spaced to limit the mid-span deflection to about using a simple,
continuous beam analysis.
Supports should cradle the pipe for at least 4 or 1.5 times the pipe diameter, whichever is greater. A
o
minimum of 120 of the pipes circumference should be supported. The supports should be free of
sharp edges.
Often, supported pipelines are installed outdoors. These installations are exposed to temperature
changes due to weather. If possible, a supported or suspended pipeline should be installed as near
its maximum operating temperature as practical (or in the hottest weather).
When a supported system is warmer than its installation temperature, the pipe will expand. As the
pipe increases in length, lateral deflection or snaking will occur between restraints. The total amount
of expansion that will occur depends on the pipes length and the temperature increase above the
systems installation temperature. While the total amount of expansion in a pipe cannot be changed,
the designer can limit the deflection in a section of the pipe by selecting appropriate anchoring points.
The pipe must be restrained at all fittings and can be restrained at each support. Clamping
the pipe at each support is recommended to limit deflections due to expansion. If the support
is designed as an anchor point, it must be capable of restraining the pipe. If the pipeline is
designed to move during expansion, the supports should provide a guide without restraint in
the direction of movement.

PIPE SUPPORT SPACING Figures 9 through 13 give the required design support spacing for
various DRs and pipe diameters. The distance between supports is based upon a continuous beam
analysis and a mid-span deflection of 0.25 when the pipe is filled with water.

47

Figure 9: Pipe Support Spacing for DR32.5

Figure 11: Pipe Support Spacing for DR17

Figure 10: Pipe Support Spacing for DR26

Figure 12: Pipe Support Spacing for DR11

Figure 13: Pipe Support Spacing for DR9

48

There are some additional recommendations concerning support spacing for polyethylene pipe. If an
operating or environmental temperature is expected to be 10 F higher than the installation
temperature, continuous support is recommended to control thermal expansion and prevent excessive
droop. When operating temperatures over 100F are expected and there is a possibility for rapid
temperature change, the next lower DR pipe at the DR 32.5 spacing can be used. For slurry
applications, multiply spacing by 0.90. Proper anchoring is required at entry and discharge ends of
the pipeline. Vertical piping should be supported at its base and spring hangers or collars used at 12
ft vertical intervals. Avoid expansion loops and design the entire pipeline to take care of its own
expansion by following proper support spacing and mounting practices.

OVERLAND PIPELINES
Black Driscopipe HDPE pipe resists damage from ultra-violet radiation. Colors other than black tend
to deteriorate under constant exposure to the sun and should not be installed in above ground
applications.
Generally, Driscopipe products are installed below ground. However, there are many situations in
which above ground piping has advantages. Some advantages are as follows:
Slurry or mine tailings lines which are often relocated and can be rotated to distribute
wear in the pipe.
The toughness and flexibility of polyethylene often allows installation through marshes
and bogs, over frozen areas, and across other harsh environmental conditions.
Installations over solid rock or across water are sometimes the most economical
methods of installation.
Driscopipe polyethylene pipe is lightweight and ease of assembly results in immediate
availability of a temporary above ground pipeline.
Above ground pipelines are exposed to environmental temperature changes. The pipeline will expand
and contract. It will want to snake or roll slightly. Allowances should be made for thermal expansion.
Polyethylene pipe should be anchored at predetermined intervals to limit movement.
Another method of controlling movement due to thermal expansion/contraction is to allow the pipeline
to move freely between two rows of pylons set in the earth. One row is installed on each side of the
pipeline. Some pipelines have been installed overland in shallow trenches to limit movement. When
a significant slope is encountered, anchors or trenches are recommended. Anchors, pylons, and
trenches minimize the possibility of the pipeline moving down the slope.

HOT CLIMATES Where possible, the line should be positioned to take advantage of maximum
shading from the suns direct rays. Thermal expansion may also be minimized if fluid flow can be
maintained at all times or, at least, during the hottest portion of the thermal cycle.
COLD CLIMATES A flame cannot be used to thaw a frozen polyethylene pipe. Other methods
must be used. Driscopipe products can be heat traced, but the temperature of the tape should be
o
limited to 140 F. Heat tracing tapes which self limit their temperature are preferred. When heat
tracing is used on polyethylene pipe, the system design temperature must be based on the
temperature of the pipe wall exposed to the tape.
Where freezing occurs in overland applications, precautions should be taken against plugging the
pipeline. Constant flow will reduce the chances of freezing. In addition, provisions to drain the pipe
may be included in the design.
Freezing will not cause the pipe to burst. The pipe will expand with the expanding fluid. When the
water is thawed, the pipe will return to its original dimensions unharmed.

49

MARINE PIPELINES
HDPE pipe can be buried, rested on the bottom, or floated on the waters surface. The primary design
criteria for submerged and weighted pipelines are (a) the critical collapse pressure for empty or
partially full pipelines, (b) weight of the concrete anchor, and (c) spacing of the concrete anchors.
Even though a marine pipeline is sometimes buried in an underwater trench, any support that the
pipeline receives from the backfill material is usually ignored for design purposes.
For marine applications, the ballast weights can be precast concrete or cast at the job site. Ballast
weights can be designed to hold the pipe away from the bottom using weights as legs or placed in a
trench or directly on the bottom. For pipe larger than 12, it is advisable to use weights with
reinforcing steel for added strength. It is further recommended that one turn of rubber gasket material
or 2 to 3 turns of 5 to 10 mil polyethylene sheet be wrapped around the pipe and under the weight to
act as a cushion and prevent damage to the pipe.

CRITICAL COLLAPSE PRESSURE A marine pipeline does not receive structural support
from the surrounding water. Unless properly designed, an empty or partially filled pipe is subject to
collapse. A marine pipeline that is full of water at all times minimizes the potential for collapse
because the internal pressure will be similar to the external pressure at any depth of water. Refer to
Tables 9 and 10 for allowable differential pressure ratings of various DR pipes
ANCHOR WEIGHTS The dry land weight of the concrete anchors, WtConcrete, can be calculated
from the following equation. The weight of concrete varies between 140 - 155 pounds per cubic foot.
The K value is an anchor constant. Neutral buoyancy is achieved when K = 1.0. To adequately
anchor a pipeline in lakes, ponds, and streams, a K value of 1.3 should be used. Where current or
tides are encountered, the designer may want to increase the K value to nearly 1.5 depending upon
design factors.

Wt Concrete =

) (

L Wt Driscopipe + Wt product K DenWater VDriscopipe( Out ) L

K DenWater

1
DenConc

Where:
WtConcrete
Wtproduct
WtDriscopipe
K
L
VDriscopipe (Out)
DenWater
DenConc
Denproduct

= Concrete dry land weight, lbs

= Density of internal fluid x internal volume of the pipe
= Pipe weight, lbs/ft
= Anchor constant (1.0 to 1.5)
= Weight spacing, ft (10 to 15 ft is recommended)
= External volume of the pipe (water displaced), cu. ft/ ft
= Density of the water, lbs/cu. ft
= Density of the concrete, lbs/cu. ft
= Density of product being carried, lbs/cu. ft

ANCHOR SPACING

The weight of the anchors develops a structural bending moment in the

pipe during installation. The interval span must be limited to prevent excessive deflection of the pipe
between anchors (or strain in the pipe at the anchors). The spacing between anchors can be
calculated for a given pipe DR using either deflection or strain as the limiting factor. In this calculation,
the pipe is examined as an integrated series of simple beams between anchors. Figure 14 illustrates
the maximum span between concrete weights for all available diameters and DRs. Although the
allowable spacing may be in excess of 10 to 15 feet, many users have sized their concrete anchor
weights based upon this interval in order to minimize handling and installation problems.

50

FIGURE 14: MAXIMUM SPAN BETWEEN CONCRETE WEIGHTS FOR

UNDERWATER DRISCOPIPE PIPELINES

EXAMPLE: Maximum Span Between Concrete Weights for Underwater Driscopipe Pipelines
A 16" DR 15.5 Driscopipe line will carry a brine solution with a density of 72.9 pounds per cubic foot
across a fresh water lake. Concrete weighing 150 lbs/ft3 will be used to fabricate the anchor weights.
GIVEN:

DENWater = 62.4 lb/ft3

DENConc = 150 lb/ft3
VDriscopipe(Out) = (/4) (16)2/144 = 1.396 cu. ft/ ft
WtDriscopipe = 21.21lbs/ft
Pipe ID = 16 - 2(1.032) = 13.936 in.
Wtproduct = (/4) (13.936)2 (72.9)/144 = 77.22 lbs/ft
WtConcrete =

(2121
. + 77.22) (13
. 62.4 1396
. )
= 32.3 lbs/f
. 62.4
13

1
150

From Figure 14, the maximum weight spacing for 16 DR 15.5 is found to be 30 feet. Anchor spacing of ten
to fifteen feet is common. With weights 10 feet apart, each will weigh 10 x 32.3 = 323 lbs. If 400 pound
weights are available, spacing will be 400/32.3 = 12.38 feet. The weights should be spaced at a 12 foot
interval.
51

If air can get into the pipe, extra weight should be allowed, and the weights should be spaced more
closely. Gas pipelines must be designed for underwater stability when full of gas at zero pressure and
thus have a design K greater than 1.0. In this situation, floats are required to install the pipeline.
If a current is present, movement of the pipe itself is not harmful. However, sharp rocks or other
objects may damage the pipe. If waves or currents present a problem, the best solution is to trench
and bury the weighted pipeline.

FIGURE 15: ANCHOR WEIGHT DESIGNS

INSTALLATION OF MARINE PIPELINES Driscopipe polyethylene pipe is often floated into

position on the water surface and then sunk slowly in a very gentle S configuration. For applications
where the pipe will not always be full of liquid or where the product will be lighter than water, very
heavy weights will be required. If additional flotation is required during installation, the floats should be
attached at intervals before towing the pipeline onto the surface of the water.
Depending on site conditions, various procedures have been used to assemble the pipeline. Some
common assembly procedures are as follows:

Fuse the pipe together onshore into continuous lengths.

Assemble the ballast weights to the pipe onshore after fusion and before the pipe is
launched into the water.
Fuse the pipe together onshore and pull or push the pipe into the water as in the
previous procedure. Assemble the weights to the pipe from a barge.
The pipe can be fused on land with flanged connections added to each end. The
flanged ends are capped and the sections are launched onto the water to be later
assembled on the water. Such floating lines are often used in dredging operations.

Installation of the ballast weights is usually accomplished onshore. To minimize drag and aid
movement of the weighted pipe into the water, a wood or steel ramp can be fabricated at water's
edge. Ballast weights may be installed from a barge or raft.

52

Any pipe which is temporarily stored on a body of water should be protected from marine traffic and
wave action. Waves could damage the pipe by pushing it against rocks or other sharp objects.
LAUNCHING AND SINKING
Each end of the pipeline must be sealed to allow floatation until it is
ready to be installed. Typically, this is done with a flange assembly and metal blind flange. This
provides an airtight seal. The pipeline is then moved into position for sinking by marine craft.
The transition of the pipeline from the shore to the water should be done in a trench before the sinking
operation begins. It is important to protect the pipeline from damage by debris, ice, boat traffic, and
wave action.
The sinking operation is controlled by the addition of water to one end and the evacuation of the
enclosed air through the opposite end. The addition of water to the pipeline at a controlled rate will
ensure that the pipe lies in the trench or adjusts to the profile of the bottom. The rate of sinking
should also be controlled to prevent an excessive bending radius.
During the sinking process, water must be prevented from running the full length of the pipe. This can
be done by inducing a water pocket at the shore end by lifting the offshore pipe above the water.
Water is introduced into the pipeline closest to shore allowing it to sink. Once the pipe reaches an
equilibrium, additional water can be added gradually to completely sink the line.
After the pipeline is installed on the bottom or in the trench, a thorough inspection should be made of
the pipe installation. All weights should be properly positioned and the pipe positioned in the center of
the trench or within the right-of-way. The trenched area where the pipe leaves the shore and enters
the water should be adequate to protect the pipe from damage. Where backfill is used, inspect for
proper installation and required depth.
It is better for a marine pipeline to be too long rather than too short. Never attempt to flange up a
pipeline that is too short by drawing the bolts together. This places the flanged connection in severe
tension and may cause leaks or a failure in the transition connection. Extra length can often be
accommodated by snaking the pipe.
INTAKE AND OUTFALL DIFFUSERS Phillips Driscopipe can provide special diffuser assemblies to
terminate outfall pipelines. Special sinking provisions are sometimes required to expose the vertical
diffuser while subjecting it to as few navigational hazards as possible.

WATER SURFACE PIPELINES

Water surface pipelines are either floated on the surface or submerged just below the water surface.
Polyethylene pipe is naturally buoyant. When filled with water, it floats just at the waters surface.

MARSH PIPELINES
In marshy areas, the pipeline route should be surveyed to determine the soil conditions. Where the
ground is solid, it can be treated as a buried pipeline. Where there is a firm bottom, the installation
can be treated as an anchored marine pipeline. Where the area is boggy, the pipeline can be
weighted to neutral buoyancy so that it neither floats nor sinks and then buried at a depth in line with
the rest of the pipeline.
Varying soil conditions may require the pipes DR to be matched to the performance characteristics of
polyethylene pipe. For example, in silty areas where the soil is highly fluidized, the pipe design may

53

be examined by considering the mucky soil as a high specific gravity fluid exerting a heavier external
hydrostatic pressure than clear water.

SLIPLINED PIPELINES
Polyethylene pipe is commonly used for renewing old, deteriorated pipelines. The sliplining process is
advantageous because there is a minimum disruption of surface traffic and municipal service lines.
Private property damage is reduced over direct burial applications and because of polyethylenes
smooth surface, flow capacity is often maintained with a smaller sized pipe.
There are seven basic steps to the sliplining process. First, the existing line must be inspected.
Video inspection equipment is used to examine the existing pipeline for leaks, obstructions, root
intrusion, or segments of collapsed or buckled pipe. Secondly, the line must be cleaned and cleared.
A small segment of sliplined pipe may be pulled through the existing pipe to ensure the old line is
adequately cleared for insert renewal. The polyethylene pipe is joined via the butt fusion process.
The original line is accessed. PPI and ASTM have guidelines for the dimensions of the access pit.
An appropriate pulling head is devised ,and the liner is pushed or pulled (or a combination of both)
through the existing pipe. The pipe will experience tensile stress over the course of the insertion as
well as thermal stress from temperature changes. A 24 hour relaxation period is recommended
before making service and lateral connections to the polyethylene pipe. After the stabilization period
and the service connections are made, the final step in the sliplining process is to make terminal
connections and stabilize the annular space when it is necessary. See Figure 16 for more information
on transitioning polyethylene pipe into a concrete manhole.
Additional information on sliplining can be found in ASTM F585, Standard Practice for Insertion of
Flexible Polyethylene Pipe into Existing Sewers and the Plastics Pipe Institute document Pipeline
Rehabilitation with Polyethylene Pipe.

FIGURE 16: SUGGESTIONS FOR TRANSITIONING POLYETHYLENE PIPE TO

A CONCRETE MANHOLE
Through Manhole
Remove top or drill holes to keep
manhole dry

Change of Direction
Good pullout resistance

54

FIGURE 16, CONTINUED

Lined Manhole
Good pullout resistance

Gas/Water Tight
Good pullout resistance

Grouted in Wall
Fair pullout resistance

Spool Connection
Good pullout resistance

BURIED PIPELINES
TRENCHING AND BED PREPARATION The trench width will vary with its depth and the
type of soil present. The bed width should allow for adequate compaction around the pipe. The
excavated material, if it is rock free and well broken up by the ditcher, may provide a suitable bedding
material. Maximum particle size of Class I or Class II materials used for bedding, haunching, or initial
backfill should be kept to for smaller pipe (< 8) and a maximum size of 1 aggregate for pipe
diameters greater than 8. Refer to PPI Technical Report TR-31, ASTM D2321, and ASTM D2774
for more information on underground installation . The trench bottom should be relatively smooth and
free of rock. Objects that may cause point loading on the pipe should be removed and the trench bottom

55

padded using 4-6 inches of tamped bedding. If an unstable soil condition exists, the trench bottom
should be undercut and filled to proper trench depth with a selected material.
Unless specified, accurate leveling of the trench bottom is unnecessary for most pressurized systems.
The slope should be graded evenly in gravity flow systems.
When joined by the heat fusion method, polyethylene pipe is a joint free piping system. Typically,
polyethylene pipelines do not require thrust blocks. Good soil compaction around fittings such as
elbows or tees is usually sufficient. If thrust blocks are used, sufficiently sized concrete encasement
or concrete bearing surfaces set in undisturbed soil will provide adequate protection. The
encasement or thrust block should be constructed of reinforced concrete and act as an anchor
between the pipe or fitting and the solid trench wall. Figure 17 illustrates various types of concrete
blocking and encasement of fittings.

FIGURE 17: EXAMPLES OF CONCRETE THRUST BLOCKS AND ENCASEMENTS

The following information on direct burial references ASTM D 2321, Recommended Practice for
Underground Installation of Flexible Thermoplastic Sewer Pipe. Refer to Figure 18 for terms
associated with burial of polyethylene in a trench.
The trench bottom should be smooth, dry, and stabilized as necessary.
If a bedding material is required, it should be of a suitable material as identified by ASTM D
2321. The material should be leveled and compacted to a minimum of 85% Standard Proctor
Density.
Place backfill material under the pipe haunches.
Tamping is required around the haunches using suitable tools.
Primary and secondary backfill should be placed evenly in layers not exceeding 12 inches,
and each layer should be compacted to a minimum of 85% Standard Proctor Density.

56

The primary backfill should normally extend to a height equal to 75% of the pipe diameter. If
the pipe is to be placed below the water table, consult the project engineer to determine the
height of this zone.
The secondary backfill should normally be 12 to 18 inches above the crown of the pipe.
Consult the project engineer to determine if additional material is required.
The final trench backfill, or trench spoil, should be of material which is free of large stones or
other foreign matter.
Adequate compaction should be obtained before any equipment is driven over the pipe.

Consult the project engineer before burial of any pipe to determine backfill specifications and special
conditions.

FIGURE 18: TRENCH CONSTRUCTION AND TERMINOLOGY

Excavated Trench Width

12-18

Pipe
Zone

Final
Backfill

Secondary
Backfill
Springline
Haunch Zone

Crown
Invert

Primary
Backfill
Bedding
Foundation (may
not be required)

PIPE LAYING Polyethylene pipe can be joined at ground level and lowered into the ditch. Excess
stress or strain should be avoided during installation. Flanged connections should be used as
necessary to facilitate the handling of pipe and fittings into and out of the fusion machine and during
installation.
The length of pipe which can be pulled into position depends on the pipe size and wall thickness. The
pulling force that can be applied to a pipe on level ground can be estimated with the following formula:
F = SA
Where:

F = Maximum pulling force, lbs

S = Maximum allowable stress (conservatively 1000-1600 psi)
2
A = Cross-sectional area of pipe wall, in.

When pulling pipe, use care to prevent the pulling cables from damaging the pipe. Never pull the pipe
by the flanged end! Refer also to ASTM F1804, Standard Practice for Determining ATL on PE Gas Pipe.

57

FITTING INSTALLATION When fittings are connected to rigid structures, movement or

bending should be prevented. The backfill must be compacted to provide full support, or a concrete
support pad should be constructed beneath the pipe and fitting. Particular attention should be given to
the compaction achieved around the fittings and extending several pipe diameters beyond the ends of
the fitting. Compaction of 90% Proctor Density or greater in these areas is recommended. If a
concrete pad is used to provide support, it should be rigid and extend one pipe diameter or a minimum
of 12" from the flanged joint. See Figure 19 for suggested methods.
The bolts in the flanged connection as well as the clamps in a support pad should be retightened
before burial. Surface connections can be observed while in operation.
Polyethylene pipe or fittings can be encased in concrete if required by the design. Reinforced
concrete encasement can be used to raise pressure rating of fittings, to stabilize heavy valves or
fittings, and to control thermal expansion or contraction.

FIGURE 19: CONCRETE SUPPORTS FOR A FLANGED CONNECTION

CAUTION: Driscopipe fabricated fittings are manufactured by fusing together pipe segments to
obtain the desired fitting. In most cases, the pressure rating of a fabricated fitting is 75% of the rating
of a molded fitting with the same thickness. Precautions must be taken when installing them into a
piping system. Refer to Technical Note #43 from Phillips Driscopipe.
Fabricated fittings, after being fused to the pipe, can be damaged by excessive strain created by
improper handling. Driscopipe resins are very tough; however, the tensile strength of polyethylene is
much less than steel ,and it will not support the excessive lifting and pulling forces that can be exerted
by powered installation equipment. If pipe is fused to the three sides of a tee and lifted without
supporting the weight of the pipe, the tee may be torn apart. Fabricated fittings must not be allowed to
carry the weight of the pipe!
Installation procedures should minimize lifting and moving of assembled pipe and fabricated fittings. If
it is necessary to pull the assembly into position, the fabricated fitting, flange adapter or stub end
should never be used as the point of attachment for the pulling line.
It is difficult to fusion join a fabricated tee or wye into a system because the assembly is complicated
by the third side. Handling becomes a problem when pipe is joined to the third side. Final handling
and positioning of these assemblies requires additional precautions.

58

MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDED ALTERNATE METHOD The potential for damage to a

fabricated tee or wye can be minimized by including a flanged connection on the branch side of the
fabricated fitting. This allows final positioning to take
place before the branch side is connected. It is
strongly recommended that flanged connections be
used on the branch side of fabricated tees and wyes
and on one end of elbows, especially in sizes above
24.

PRESSURE TESTING DRISCOPIPE SYSTEMS

Driscopipe piping systems should be pressure tested before being put into service. Water is the
preferred test medium. After all free air is removed from the test section, raise the pressure at a
steady rate to the required pressure. The pressure in the section shall be measured as close as
possible to the lowest point of the test section.
The pressure test can be conducted before or after the line is backfilled. The pipe should be covered
at intervals, particularly at curves to hold it in place during pressure tests. Flanged connections may
be left exposed for visual leak inspection.
Test pressure should not exceed 1.5 times the rated operating pressure of the pipe or the lowest rated
component in the system. Initially, the pipe should be raised to test pressure and allowed to stand
without makeup pressure for a sufficient time to allow for expansion of the pipe. This usually occurs
within 2-3 hours. After equilibrium is established, the test section is pressurized to 1.5 times
operating pressure, the pump is turned off, and the final test pressure is held for 1, 2, or 3 hours.
Polyethylene pipe holds pressure by developing stress in its walls. This process continues throughout
the test period and the pipe increases slightly in diameter. Pressure drop will occur due to continued
expansion of the pipe during the second phase of the test. A drop in pressure during the test phase is
common and does not prove with absolute certainty that a leak or failure is present in the system.
Polyethylene pipe is tested by measuring the make up water required to return the section to test
pressure. Allowable amounts of makeup water for expansion during the pressure test are shown in
Table 16 from PPI Technical Report TR 31. If the test pressure is not returned within the allowable
volume of water, the test fails. If there are no visual leaks or significant pressure drops during the final
test period, the pipeline passes the test.

59

TABLE 16: ALLOWANCE FOR EXPANSION UNDER TEST PRESSURE*

Allowance for Expansion
(U.S. Gallons / 100 Feet of Pipe)

Nominal Pipe
1 Hour
2 Hour
3 Hour
Size (Inches)
Test
Test
Test
3
0.10
0.15
0.25
4
0.13
0.25
0.40
6
0.30
0.60
0.90
8
0.50
1.0
1.5
10
0.75
1.30
2.10
11
1.0
2.0
3.0
12
1.1
2.3
3.4
14
1.4
2.8
3.2
16
1.7
3.3
5.0
18
2.2
4.3
6.5
20
2.8
5.5
8.0
22
3.5
7.0
10.5
24
4.5
8.8
13.3
28
5.5
11.1
16.8
32
7.0
14.3
21.5
36
9.0
18.0
27.0
40
11.0
22.0
33.0
48
15.0
27.0
43.0
*
These allowances only apply to the test period and not to the initial expansion phase.
Testing of non-pressure, gravity flow pipes, whether above or below ground, may be accomplished by
closing all openings below the top of the section to be tested. For test purposes, provide a means to
raise the water level to a height of at least 3-5 feet above the highest point in the line being tested. The
water level should be maintained for a time long enough to determine if leaks are present. If it is
impractical to raise the water level as suggested, the line can be pressurized with low pressure water.
Normally, pressure should not exceed 5-10 psi over a time period of 5-10 minutes.
CAUTION: Changes in temperature will increase or decrease the apparent test pressure in any
piping system. The effect depends on the rate of expansion of the pipe wall compared to the water in
the pipe. Polyethylene has a higher rate of expansion and contraction than water. When a Driscopipe
system becomes heated (e.g. on a sunny day), the system pressure will decrease. When a sealed
Driscopipe system becomes cooler, the system pressure will increase. When possible, testing should
be done during periods of relatively stable atmospheric temperatures. Early mornings and late
afternoons are good times to test the pipe when it has not been buried.
Under no circumstances shall the total time under the test exceed eight (8) hours at 1.5 times the
pressure rating of the lowest rated component in the system. If the test is not completed due to
leakage, equipment failure, etc., the test section shall be allowed to relax for eight (8) hours prior to
the next test.

REPAIR TECHNIQUES
PERMANENT REPAIR Repair can be accomplished on small diameter pipe by opening
sufficient trench space and cutting out the defect. Replace the damaged section with a new segment
of pipe.

60

Repairing large diameter pipe can be accomplished with a flanged spool piece. The damaged section
is removed. Next, the butt fusion machine is lowered into the ditch. Flanged connections are fused to
each open end, and the flanged spool assembly is bolted into place. The flanged spool must be
precisely made to fit the resulting gap in the pipeline. Figure 18 illustrates these methods.

FIGURE 20: USING FLANGED CONNECTIONS TO REPAIR A DAMAGED PIPE SECTION:

MECHANICAL REPAIR Wrap-around repair clamps with an integral gasket can be used but
are not as permanent as a flanged or fused repair. This type of repair is principally used in buried
applications because the compacted soil restrains the pipe from thermal movement and pull-out
forces caused by internal pressure. A longer repair clamp generally provides greater sealing
capability on thermoplastic pipe. A minimum clamp length of 1.25 - 2 times the nominal pipe
diameter is recommended. After the pipe is wiped clean of all foreign material, the clamp should be
tightened evenly. After the clamp is installed, backfill and compact around and over the pipe before it
is pressurized.
FITTING REPAIR Failed fittings are usually replaced by flanging a new fitting into the system.
Repairs using hot air or extrusion welding are not recommended.
UNDERWATER REPAIR To accomplish underwater repair on a pipeline, the pipe ends must
be raised above the water and a flange assembly fused to each end. The ends are then lowered into
position on the bottom and bolted together underwater. In some cases, a spool piece must be
fabricated to retie the pipeline.
Appropriate lifting equipment must be used to ensure that the pipe does not kink and that the
minimum bending radius is not exceeded. Normally, it is unnecessary to remove the weights before
lifting. However, extreme care should be exercised when lifting the pipe above the water level with
weights attached.

MISCELLANEOUS REPAIR METHODS

Under certain situations, a thermofit heat shrink

sleeve or an electrofusion repair patch can be used to seal a puncture or leaking joint. Many types of
sleeves are available. The sleeves are coated on the inside with a special sealant. When heated, the
sealant forces into a puncture or joint and prevents further leakage.

61

SHIPPING, HANDLING, AND UNLOADING

SHIPPING
The normal method of shipment is by truck. Standard packaging for Driscopipe industrial pipe is
shown below.

TABLE 17: STANDARD PACKAGING FOR DRISCOPIPE INDUSTRIAL PIPE

(Bundled)

40 Foot
Truckload

Nominal
Size

O.D.
Inches

Number of
Joints

Linear
Feet

Number of
Bundles

Linear
Feet

Number of
Joints

Linear
Feet

1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2"
3"
4
5"
6"
7"
8"
10"
12"
14"
16"
18"
20"
22"
24"
28"
32"
36"
42"
48"
54"

1.315
1.660
1.900
2.375
3.500
4.500
5.563
6.625
7.125
8.625
10.750
12.750
14.000
16.000
18.000
20.000
22.000
24.000
27.953
31.496
36.000
42.000
47.496
54.000

116
153
129
88
50
29
15
13
11
9
-----------------------------

2,320
3,060
2,580
3,520
2,000
1,160
600
520
440
360
-----------------------------

48 (20 ft bundles)
28 (20 ft bundles)
28 (20 ft bundles)
14 (40 ft bundles)
14 (40 ft bundles)
14 (40 ft bundles)
14 (40 ft bundles)
14 (40 ft bundles)
12 (40 ft bundles)
10 (40 ft bundles)
-----------------------------

111,360
85,680
72,240
49,280
28,000
16,240
8,400
7,280
5,280
3,600
-----------------------------

--------------------85
56
48
39
27
20
18
14
10
8
6
----2

--------------------3,400
2,240
1,920
1,560
1,080
800
720
560
400
320
240
----80

Pipe

Diameter

Bundle

40 Foot
Truck Load

Loose
Load*

102 wide trailer with 96.25 of loading space with pipe stakes
Polyethylene, like most plastics, is softer than steel. Hauling, unloading, and installing Driscopipe
products should be done with the care necessary to prevent damage to the pipe. Poor handling can
result in abrasions, cuts, gouges, and punctures.
Coiled pipe is available in through 6 sizes. 500, 1000, and 1500 lengths are most common,
though several larger and smaller coil lengths are available. Please contact your local distributor or
Phillips Driscopipe for more information.

62

HANDLING
All pipe should be carefully examined before installation and damaged pipe removed. Cuts and
gouges that reduce the wall thickness by more than 10% may impair long-term service life. Phillips
Driscopipe recommends these areas should be cut out and discarded. Minor scuffing or scratching
will have no adverse effect on the serviceability of Driscopipe products.
Damaged pipe may be repaired by any of the joining methods previously discussed. Heat fusion is
preferable for all applications where conditions permit. Some joining methods (e.g. extrusion welding)
are not satisfactory for continuous pressure systems.
Joints should be handled near the middle with wide web slings and spreader bars. Coils can be
handled in a similar manner. The use of chains, end hooks, or cable slings is not recommended. The
following procedures should be used when handling Driscopipe products:

When shipping or storing polyethylene pipe, always stack the heaviest pipe at the
bottom.
Protect the pipe from sharp edges when overhanging the bed of a truck or trailer
by placing a smooth, rounded protecting strip on the edge of the bed.
Polyethylene pipe has a very smooth inner and outer surface. Anchor the load
securely to prevent slippage.
Lengths of small-diameter, lightweight pipe can be unloaded manually.

The following procedures are commonly implemented when handling Driscopipe products
prior to and during the heat fusion process.

Pipe is stacked beside the fusion unit, fused, and pulled into position for
installation. Care must be taken to prevent damage from rocks or
excessive abrasion during the pulling process.
To prevent excessive loading on the fusion machines hydraulic system,
additional joints of unfused pipe are placed in the moveable jaw of the
fusion machine. The fixed jaw holds the previously fused long length of
polyethylene.
Stringing the pipe and moving the fusion machine is inefficient and is
not typically used during construction.

BENDING The minimum bend radius varies with the DR of the pipe. Thin wall pipe can be field
bent to a minimum radius of 40 times the pipe diameter. Thick wall pipe can be bent to 25 pipe
diameters. Refer to Table 2.
KINKS Normally, kinks do not impair the serviceability in low pressure applications. For high
pressure applications, severe kinks should be cut out and the pipe re-joined by fusing.
OVALITY Out-of-roundness due to excess loading during shipment or storage will not hinder the
serviceability of the pipe. The pipe should not be considered damaged unless the fusion machine
clamps cannot successfully round out the section for a good fusion joint. Occasionally, the pipe can
be placed in an unstressed condition so that it will relax and gradually round out.

63

UNLOADING
The following recommendations are given for unloading Driscopipe pipe:

Be sure the unloading equipment is rated to handle the weight of the

pipe.
The unloader must have adequate room on both sides of the trailer.
Advise all persons except lift operator to stand clear of the trailer.
Unload one pallet, bundle, or strip load layer at a time. Truck straps
securing a bundle or strip load layer should be released when that bundle
or layer is to be unloaded.
Never stand on a load of pipe.

STORAGE
If the pipe must be stacked for storage, avoid excessive stacking heights and stack the pipe in
straight rows. The pipe can be deformed if it is not stored properly. General stacking heights
developed by the Plastic Pipe Institute for polyethylene pipe are shown in Table 18.
Since Driscopipe HDPE pipe contains greater than 2% carbon black, it will resist damage from
sunlight. Expansion and contraction caused by uneven heating in the sun may cause the pipe to bow
if not restrained by racks. This does not damage the pipe but may be inconvenient when the pipe is
taken out of storage for installation.
When the pipe is laid directly on the ground, rocks and other objects that may scar or gouge the pipe
should be avoided.

TABLE 18: ALLLOWABLE STACKING HEIGHTS FOR DRISCOPIPE HDPE PIPE

Nominal Pipe
Size, inches
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
28
32
36
40
48
*

SDR* 18
and smaller
45
31
24
17
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
---------------------

Number of Rows High

SDR > 18
SDR > 26
to SDR 26
to SDR 32.5
26
14
17
10
13
8
10
6
8
5
7
4
6
4
6
4
6
3
5
3
4
3
4
3
3
2
3
2
-----2
-----2

Note: SDR = Standard Dimension Ratio =

OutsideDiameter
MinimumWallThickness

64

INDEX
Abrasion resistance
Advantages
Air Pressure
Anchoring

2
2
6
36, 54-56, 58

Gas flow
Gluing
Gravity flow
Grouting

28
10
21-25
28

Applications
ASTM D1248
ASTM D3350
Below ground installation

2
8
1, 8
55-57

H20 Live Load

Handling
Hazen/Williams flow factors
Hazen/Williams formula

41
63
5, 19
18-19

Bend radius, minimum

Benefits
Buckling
Buoyancy

5
2
42
50-53

Hydrostatic design basis

Hydrostatic design stress
Insect attack
Insert renewal

14-15, 29
14-15
13
27-28, 54

Buried pipelines
Butt fusion
Cautions
Cell classification

10-12, 32, 35-46

6, 9
6-7, 12
8

Installation considerations
Joining methods
Kinks
Life expectancy

12-13
9
63
5

Characteristics of HDPE
Chemical resistance data
Chlorine
Coils

2-6
2-4, 10
13
7, 12

Lightweight
Loads
Locating
Longitudinal Stress

5
12, 35-46
7
17

Collapse
Contaminated soil
Contingency and risk
Cooper E-80

43, 50
13
13
42

Manhole connections
Manning equation
Manning s number
Marine pipelines

54-55
21
5
12, 32, 50-53

Crushing
Deflection
Density
Design Data
Dimension ratio

42
26, 30-31,44-46
10
10-11, 14
14

Marsh pipelines
Materials
Mechanical joining
Minimum cover

12, 53-54
8
9, 61
36

Disinfecting
Expansion coefficient
Fabricated fittings
Fatigue resistance

13
6, 29
2, 58-59
16-17

Modulus of Elasticity
Movement
Ovality
Overland pipelines

29, 43
6, 11, 30
63
11, 31, 49

Figures, List of
Fittings
Flexibility

IV
2, 9, 20, 58-59
5

Permeability
Phillips Petroleum Company
Pressure drop through fittings
Pressure ratings

10, 13
1
19-20
5,10, 14-16, 26, 29

Floats
Flow characteristics
Flow factors
Fusion

50
17-18, 23-24
5, 17, 22
6, 9

Pressure surge
Pressure testing
Pulling force
Repair techniques

11, 16-17
59-60
57
60-61

65

Scope
Shipping
Sliplining
Slurries

1
62
27-28, 54
22-25

Smoothness factor
Soil modulus, E
Soil pressure
Stacking heights

5, 18
36
36-42
64

Static Electricity
Storage
Stress
Supported pipelines

7, 12-13
64
15, 17, 30
11, 47-49

Surge
Tables, list of
Temperature range
Temperature rerating

11, 16-17
III
6, 11
26

Testing polyethylene pipelines

Thermal conductivity
Thermal expansion/contraction
Threading
Thrust blocks

7, 59-61
30
6, 29-32
10
56

Toughness
Transition connections
Trenching
Ultraviolet Protection

6
32
55-57
6

Underwater installation
Unloading
Vacuum or suction pipelines
Velocity

50-54, 61
7, 64
11, 25-26, 42
17, 23

Viscous fluid pressure drop

Water hammer
Weatherability
Working pressure rating

20
11, 16-17
6
29

66