Numerical Simulation of Tsunamiin Indian Ocean

NUMERICALSIMULATIONOFTSUNAMI
ININDIANOCEAN
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EUROPEANSCHOOLOFADVANCEDSTUDIESIN
REDUCTIONOFSEISMICRISK
ROSESCHOOL
NUMERICALSIMULATIONOFTSUNAMI
ININDIANOCEAN
ADissertationSubmittedin
PartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsforthe
MasterDegreeinEarthquakeEngineering
By
J.M.RUWANSANJEEWAAPPUHAMY
Supervisors:
Prof.STEFANOTINTI
Prof.CARLOG.LAI
May,2007
Universitdegli
StudidiPavia
IstitutoUniversitario
diStudiSuperiori
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ThedissertationentitledNumericalSimulationofTsunamiinIndianOcean,byJ.M.Ruwan
SanjeewaAppuhamy,hasbeenapprovedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforMaster
DegreeinEarthquakeEngineering.
Prof.StefanoTinti
Prof.CarloG.Lai
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NumericalModelingofTsunamiinIndianOcean
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ABSTRACT
Keywords:Tsunami,SriLanka,Runup,Inundation,NumericalSimulation,Safearea,Warning,
Evacuation,Savethenation.
Thetsunamiisthemostformidableofallnaturalhazards.Itisusuallygeneratedasaresultof
seismotectonicmotionsoftheoceanbottomintheseismicsourcezone.Tsunamiwavespropagate
farfromthesourceandcancausedamageeveninregionswheretheearthquakewasnot
manifested.Theunexpectednessoftsunamiisanadditionalriskfactor.
The26thofDecember2004wasanunforgettabledayforallSriLankansaswellasforthewhole
world.Onthatfatefulday,tsunamiwavesstrucktheEasternandSoutherncoastsofSriLankaas
wellaspartsofNorthernandWesterncoastssweepingpeopleaway,causingfloodingand
destructionofinfrastructures.WhenthehugewavessurgedupthecoastsofSriLanka,the
devastationofatsunamibroughtforthasurgeofgenerositythelikesofwhichtheworldhas
rarelyseen.Thetsunamiwaveswerecausedbyanearthquake,measuring9.1ontheRichterscale
thatoccurredintheseanearSumatra,Indonesia.Theotherneighboringcountriesaffectedbythis
tsunamiwereIndonesia,India,Maldives,SomaliaandThailand.SincemanySriLankansdidnot
haveanypreviousexperienceofthisnature,thedamagecausedtotheirliveswasunbelievable.
Thousandsofpeopleweredisplacedanddisappearedorkilledwithinaveryshorttime.
Oftentheonlywaytodeterminethepotentialrunupsandinundationfromalocalordistant
tsunamiistousenumericalmodeling,sincedatafrompasttsunamisisusuallyinsufficient.
Modelscanbeinitializedwithpotentialworstcasescenariosforthetsunamisourcesorforthe
wavesjustoffshoretodeterminecorrespondingworstcasescenariosforrunupandinundation.
Modelscanalsobeinitializedwithsmallersourcestounderstandtheseverityofthehazardforthe
lessextremebutmorefrequentevents.Thisinformationisthenthebasisforcreatingtsunami
evacuationmapsandprocedures.
Itthenmightbepossibletousesuchsimulationstopredicttsunamibehaviourimmediatelyafter
anearthquakeisdetectedandthegovernmentortheresponsibleauthoritiescantakethenecessary
actionstoevacuatetheinnocentresidentstothesafeareasshowninevacuationmapswhichhave
beencreatedbynumericalsimulations.SinceSriLankanislandislocatedfarenoughfromthe
destructivetsunamigenicplateboundaries,accurateandwelltimingwarningcanmakeourpeople
educateenoughtoselfevacuatetothosesaferlocationsandsavethenationinfuturedisasters.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
IwouldliketoexpressmydeepestgratitudetoProf.StefanoTintiandProf.CarloG.Laifor
guidingmeinthisresearchandbeingextremelysupportivethroughoutthewholeresearchperiod.
Itisessentialtostatethatwithouttheirkindandremarkablesupervision,thisworkcouldhavenot
beencompletedatall.
AlsoIwouldliketothankProf.LauraKong(Director,UNESCOIOC)forgivingmethegreat
opportunityandsponsoringtoattendtotheInternationalTrainingworkshopconductedby
UNESCOIOConNumericalModelingofTsunamiinIndianOceanatOostende,Belgium
whichreallyhelpedmetoconductthisdissertationresearchwork.AlsoIwouldliketothankProf.
EmileOkal,Prof.CostasSynolakis,Prof.AhmetYalcinerandDr.AndreyZaytsevfortheir
excellentguidanceduringthetrainingperiodatBelgium.Alsomyprofoundgratitudegoestothe
wholeabovementionteamforprovidingmetheAVINAMItsunamisimulationprogramforthis
researchwork.
ItismypleasuretobethankfultoDr.BeatrizBrizuelaandthewholeTsunamiResearchTeamof
theUniversityofBologna(Dr.AlbertoArmigliato,Dr.FilippoZamboni,Dr.RobertoTonini,Dr.
AnnaManucci,Dr.GianLucaPagnoni,Dr.SaraCarolinaandDr.LidiaBressan)fortheir
unconditionalhelpinnumerouswaysduringthisresearchperiod.
AndIwouldliketogivemyheartiestcomplimentstoProf.CharlesL.Mader(Director,Tsunami
society,Holonolu,Hawaii),Dr.NimalWijerathne(SeniorLecturer,UniversityofRuhuna,Sri
Lanka),Prof.CharithaPattiaratchi(SeniorProfessor,UniversityofWesternAustralia),Dr.K.
ArulanathanandMr.S.U.P.Jinadasa(NARA,SriLanka)fortheirkindcontributionandsending
somanyrequiredmaterialsforthisresearch.
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NUMERICALSIMULATIONOFTSUNAMIININDIANOCEAN
INDEX
ABSTRACT..i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....ii
INDEX......iii
LISTOFTABLES..vi
LISTOFFIGURES...vii
CHAPTER1:NATURALHAZRDS
1.1Introduction......1
1.2Floods...1
1.3Droughts...2
1.4Hurricanes....2
1.5VolcanicEruptions.......3
1.6Earthquakes..4
CHAPTER2:TSUNAMI
2.1Introduction11
2.2Tsunamisvs.WindWaves.13
2.3TsunamiGeneration...15
2.3.1Initiation..15
2.3.2Split.16
2.3.3Amplification..17
2.3.4Runup....17
2.4TsunamiWaveCharacteristics..18
2.4.1WaveDefinitions18
2.4.2BasicEquationsoftheWaveMotion.19
2.4.2.1TheVelocityPotential...19
2.4.2.2WaveLengthandWaveCelerity...20
2.4.2.3ConstancyofWavePeriod.20
2.4.3TsunamiWaveVelocity,WavelengthandPeriod..21
2.5DestructionduetoTsunami...23
2.6TsunamiIntensityScale.25
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CHAPTER3:HYSTORICALTSUNAMIEVENTS
3.1Introduction27
3.2PacificOceanEarthquakesandTsunamis.27
3.2.1April1,1946AleutianEarthquakeandTsunami...27
3.2.2November4,1952KamchatkaEarthquakeandTsunami..28
3.2.3March9,1957AleutianEarthquakeandTsunami.29
3.2.4May2,1960ChileanEarthquakeandTsunami..29
3.2.5March28,1964AlaskaEarthquakeandTsunami..30
3.2.6September2,1992NicaraguaEarthquakeandTsunami....31
3.2.7July12,1993Okushiri,JapanEarthquakeandTsunami32
3.2.8October4,1994RussiaKurilIslands,ShikotanEqk.&Tsunami....32
3.2.9November15,1994PhilippinesMindoraEarthquake&Tsunami...32
3.2.10October9,1995MexicoManzaniloEarthquakeandTsunami32
3.2.11February21,1996PeruNorthernEarthquakeandTsunami...33
3.2.12July17,1998PapuaNewGuinea(PNG)Earthquake&Tsunami...33
3.2.13November26,1999VanuatuEarthquakeandTsunami...34
3.2.14June23,2001PeruSouthernEarthquakeandTsunami...34
3.2.15January2,2002VanuatuEarthquakeandTsunami.34
3.3IndianOceanEarthquakesandTsunamis..35
3.3.1December12,1992IndonesiaFloresIslandEqk.&Tsunami35
3.3.2June2,1994Indonesia,JavaEarthquakeandTsunami..35
3.3.3May3,2000IndonesiaSulawesiIslandEarthquake&Tsunami....36
3.3.4December26,2004IndianOceanEarthquakeandTsunami..36
3.4TheGreatEarthquakeandMegaTsunamion26thDecember2004.37
3.4.1TectonicsoftheSumatraAndamanIslands...39
3.4.2HistoricalEventsinSumatranRegion41
3.4.3TsunamiGenerationfromthe2004M=9.1SumatraEarthquake...42
CHAPTER4:COMPARISONOFLOCALANDINTERNATINALDAMAGE
ASSESSMENTS
4.1Introduction45
4.2DamageAssessmentsconductedbyLocalAuthoritiesinSriLanka45
4.3DamageAssessmentsconductedbyInternationalOrganizations.55
4.3.1TsunamiHeights.55
4.3.2TsunamiSandDeposits..58
4.3.2TsunamiimpactonStructures,HighwaysandBoatHarbors60
CHAPTER5:RELATIONSHIPBETWEENRUNUPHEIGHTANDTHE
HORIZONTALINUNDATIONLENGTH
5.1Introduction63
5.2ContinentalMarginofSriLanka&theBathymetryaroundCountry...63
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5.3RunupandInundationLength..64
5.4RelationshipbetweenRunupHeightandtheInundationLength.65
CHAPTER6:NUMERICALSIMULATIONOFTSUNAMI
6.1GoverningEquations.72
6.1.1ShallowWaterTheory72
6.1.2BottomFriction...74
6.1.3GoverningEquation75
6.1.4Noteonconvectionterms...75
6.2NumericalScheme.76
6.2.1NumericalSchemeforLinearizedEquation...76
6.2.2NumericalSchemeforConvectionTerms..78
6.2.3Numericalschemeforbottomfrictionterm79
CHAPTER7:AVINAMIPROGRAM...81
CHAPTER8:TSUNAMISIMULATIONRESULTS
8.1Introduction82
8.2IndianOceanTsunami26thDecember2004Event83
8.2.1December26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)..83
8.2.2ComparisonofNumericalSimulationResultsofDec.26th,2004Event...91
8.2.3December26th,2004Event(SimulationwithMw=8.8)...94
8.2.4December26th,2004Event(SimulationwithMw=8.5,8.0,7.5,7.0)..96
8.2.5Magnitudevs.WaterLevelVariation....98
8.3ExpectedIndianOceanTsunamiEvent1.100
CHAPTER9:CONCLUSIONS.114
CHAPTER10:REFERENCE,GLOSSARYOFTSUNAMIMODELING&APPENDIX
10.1Reference...116
10.2GlossaryofTsunamiModeling.121
10.3APPENDIXManualofAVINAMIProgram....131
10.3.1DataInputandSimulationProcess.131
10.3.1.1CreatingtheInitialwavefromDifferentSources....131
10.3.1.2CreatinganInitialwavefromanImpact.132
10.3.1.3GeneratingtheSeaStateatspecifictimeintervalsofTsunami..133
10.3.2CalculatingDistributionofRunups..135
10.3.2.11EventOption135
10.3.2.2AlleventOption..136
10.3.3PlottingtheOutputFilesandPreparingPlotsforAnimations...137
10.3.4CameraSettings.138
10.3.5CreateAnimations.139
10.3.6CreateGaugePointFile.140
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LISTOFTABLES
Table1.1:Earthquakeswith1,000orMoreDeathssince1900...5
Table2.1:WaveClassification...14
Table2.2:TsunamiIntensityScale.25
Table3.1:The10largestearthquakesintheworld37
Table4.1:DamagedHousingUnitsandTsunamiAffectedPopulationinSriLanka
accordingtotheGNBasis46
Table4.2:DamagedHousingUnits,TsunamiAffectedPopulationandDead&Missing
PeopleinSriLankaaccordingtotheDistrictsBasis.....49
Table5.1:MeasuredMaximumRunupandInundationLengths..65
Table5.2:ValuesofMeasuredMaximumRunup,MeasuredandPredictedInundation
Lengths..71
Table6.1:ValuesofCoefficientofBottomFriction..........74
Table8.1:CorrespondingFaultDataforDifferentEarthquakeMagnitudes...101
Table8.2:ExpectedWaveHeightandtheWaveArrivalTimeof1stLeadingElevation
Wave.....113
Table8.3:ExpectedMaximumWaterLevelElevationandthePeakWaveArrivalTime..113
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LISTOFFIGURES
Figure1.1:FloodingcausedbyheavyrainsinAsia.1
Figure1.2:MercilessoftheDrought2
Figure1.3:TwophotographstakenduringaHurricane...2
Figure1.4:ThedifferentoutcomesofavolcaniceruptionandtheMt.Etna,Sicily3
Figure1.5:Theeffectsofthegroundshakingduetoanearthquake4
Figure2.1:GeneralviewofaTsunamiwave.12
Figure2.2:BasicdifferencesbetweenWindwaveandaTsunami13
Figure2.3:InitiationofaTsunamiwave16
Figure2.4:SplittingofaTsunamiwave.16
Figure2.5:AmplificationofaTsunamiwave17
Figure2.6:RunupofaTsunamiwave17
Figure2.7:ThebasicprofileofaSinusoidalwave18
Figure2.8:Thetsunamiwindow.22
Figure2.9:DifferentTypesofDamageswhichcausesbyTsunami..23
Figure3.1:DestructionofthelighthouseatScotchCaponUnimakIsland,Alaska.27
Figure3.2:November4,1952KamchatkaEarthquakeandTsunami28
Figure3.3:May2,1960ChileanEarthquakeandTsunami...29
Figure3.4:March28,1964AlaskaEarthquakeandTsunami...30
Figure3.5:July17,1998PapuaNewGuinea(PNG)EarthquakeandTsunami33
Figure3.6:December12,1992IndonesiaFloresIslandEarthquakeandTsunami35
Figure3.7:TsunamidamageinEastJava..35
Figure3.8:Theearthquakeepicenter,aftershocks,andtheextentofthemainfault
rupturefortheM=9.1December26,2004earthquakeandtheM=8.7
March28,2005earthquake..38
Figure3.9:TectonicbasemapoftheSumatrasubductionzoneshowingmajorfaults.39
Figure3.10:Oceanicoceanicconvergence...40
Figure3.11:Typesoffaultingofanobliquesubductionzone...40
Figure3.12:TsunamitriggeredlocationsintheIndianOceansince176241
Figure3.13:Variationoflocaltsunamiintensitywithmomentmagnitudeoftheeqk..42
Figure3.14:BasemapoftheSumatrasubductionzone43
Figure3.15:GenerationofTsunamiduethe26thDecember2004earthquake..44
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Figure4.1:TotalDamageofHousingUnitsaccordingtotheGNDivisionsBasis..48
Figure4.2:TotalAffectedPopulationaccordingtotheGNDivisionsBasis...48
Figure4.3:TotalAffectedPopulationaccordingtotheDistrictsBasis49
Figure4.4:TotalDeadandMissingPeopleaccordingtotheDistrictsBasis...50
Figure4.5:TotalDamageofHousingUnitsaccordingtotheDistrictsBasis..50
Figure4.6:TsunamiAffectedPeopleandDamagedHousesinSriLankainallDistricts.51
Figure4.7:TrainDisasteratParaliya.52
Figure4.8:GalleBusStand53
Figure4.9:BehindtheGalleHarbour53
Figure4.10:ClosetoGalleBridge.53
Figure4.11:ClosetoKittangeyaHospitalandDicksonPlaceinGalle.53
Figure4.12:TsunamiattackinPanadura...54
Figure4.13:TsunamiattackinFisheryHarbours..54
Figure4.14:MeasuredtsunamirunupandMaximumtsunamiheights56
Figure4.15:Tsunamiwatermarkat150mawayfromtheshorelineatMankerni56
Figure4.16:TsunamiwatermarkatYalaSafariHotel..56
Figure4.17:Tsunamiwatermarkat220mawayfromtheshorelineatKalmunai...57
Figure4.18:TsunamiovertoppedtheBridgeof3.7mabovesealevelatKuchchaveli57
Figure4.19:TsunamiWatermarksatPayagala.57
Figure4.20:VariationofTsunamiSandDepositioninMankerni.....58
Figure4.21:Measuredmaximumthicknessesoftsunamidepositsandminimuminland
extentoftsunamisediments...59
Figure4.22:TsunamiSandDepositsinNilaweliHotel.59
Figure4.23:SoilErosionsduetoTsunami....60
Figure4.24:DamagedBuildingsnearly500mofthecoastinKalmunai..60
Figure4.25:Tsunamiremovedthehousesatabout75minlandatMankerni...61
Figure4.26:RoomsattheYalaSafariResort61
Figure4.27:CompletedestructionofhousesatHikkaduwa..61
Figure4.28:DestructionofElectricitylineandCommunicationtoweratHambantota61
Figure4.29:RoadDestructionatKattankudy62
Figure4.30:RailwaytrackDestructionatPayagala..62
Figure4.31:AdredgewashedashoreinGallePort...62
Figure4.32:TiltPublicBathroomatThangalla.62
Figure4.33:DestructionoftheArugamBayBridge..62
Figure5.1:Tsunamiwavepropagationalonethelands.64
Figure5.2:MeasuredMaximumRunupandInundationLengths66
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Figure5.3:GeologicalfactorskusedforfindingarelationshipbetweenRunup&Inundation..67
Figure5.4:VariationofMeasuredMaximumRunupandInundationLengths68
Figure5.5:ProposedRunupvs.HorizontalInundationVariation169
Figure5.9:ComparisonofRunupvs.HorizontalInundationLengthsfromdifferent
PredictedMethods....71
Figure6.1:CentralFiniteDifferenceRepresentations...76
Figure6.2:ThePointSchematicsfortheNumericalScheme77
Figure8.1:FourmajordifferentTsunamigenicScenarios.82
Figure8.2:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)...83
Figure8.3:MaximumandMinimumWaterLevelElevationsforDec.26th,
2004Event(Mw=9.1)..84
Figure8.4:SeaStatesatDifferentInstantsforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1).85
Figure8.5:GaugepointLocationsaroundSriLankausedfortheSimulation..87
Figure8.6:WaterLevelVariationinJafnaforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)....87
Figure8.7:WaterLevelVariationinTrincomaleeforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)....88
Figure8.8:WaterLevelVariationinKalmuneiforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1).88
Figure8.9:WaterLevelVariationinYalaforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1).89
Figure8.10:WaterLevelVariationinHambantotaforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)...89
Figure8.11:WaterLevelVariationinGalleforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)..90
Figure8.12:WaterLevelVariationinColomboforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)....90
Figure8.13:WaterLevelVariationinDifferentcitiesaroundSriLankafor
Dec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)..91
Figure8.14:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforSumatraEvent..92
Figure8.15:SeaFloorOffsetaftertwohoursforSumatraEvent.92
Figure8.16:TsunamiwavearrivalstimesforSumatraEvent..93
Figure8.17:Minimum&MaximumWaterLevelElevationsforSumatraEvent....93
Figure8.18:WaterLevelVariationsinDifferentCitiesforSumatraEvent.....94
Figure8.19:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=8.8)........95
Figure8.20:Maximum&MinimumWaterLevelElevationsforDec.26th,
2004Event(Mw=8.8)...96
Figure8.21:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforDec.26th,2004Event.
(Mw=8.5,8.0,7.5&7.0)..96
Figure8.22:MaximumandMinimumWaterLevelElevationsforDec.26th,
2004Event(Mw=8.5,8.0,7.5&7.0)....97
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Figure8.23:WaterLevelElevationVariationwiththeEqk.Mag.at25mSeadepth...98
Figure8.24:ExpectedWaterLevelElevationVariationwiththeEqk.Mag.attheShore...98
Figure8.25:WaterLevelElevationVariationatYALAwiththeEqk.Magnitude
at25mSeadepth...99
Figure8.26:ExpectedWaterLevelElevationVariationatYALAwiththeEqk.
MagnitudeattheShore.99
Figure8.27:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforExpectedEvent1...100
Figure8.28:MaximumandMinimumWaterLevelElevationsforExpectedEvent1...100
Figure8.29:SeaStatesatDifferentInstantsforExpectedEvent1.101
Figure8.30:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforExpectedEvent2103
Figure8.33:WaterLevelVariationinJafnaforExpectedEvent2.106
Figure8.34:WaterLevelVariationinTrincomaleeforExpectedEvent2.106
Figure8.35:WaterLevelVariationinKalmuneiforExpectedEvent2..107
Figure8.36:WaterLevelVariationinYalaforExpectedEvent2......107
Figure8.37:WaterLevelVariationinHambantotaforExpectedEvent2..108
Figure8.38:WaterLevelVariationinGalleforExpectedEvent2.108
Figure8.39:WaterLevelVariationinColomboforExpectedEvent2...109
Figure8.40:WaterLevelVariationinDifferentcitiesaroundSriLankaforExpected
Event2....109
Figure8.41:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforExpectedEvent3...110
Figure10.1:WindowoftheInitialWaveGenerationduetoaSeismicFault.....131
Figure10.2:WindowoftheInitialWaveGenerationduetoanImpact......132
Figure10.3:ParametersusedfortheImpactWavegeneration.......133
Figure10.4:WindowoftheTsunamiSourceInput.134
Figure10.5:WindowoftheSeaStatecalculationforspecifiedTimeIntervals.134
Figure10.6:WindowoftheRunupCalculationfor1EventOption.....136
Figure10.7:WindowoftheRunupCalculationforAllEventOption......136
Figure10.8:WindowofthePlottingofOutputFiles.....137
Figure10.9:WindowofthePlottingofOutputFiles......138
Figure10.10:WindowoftheAnimationCreation......139
Figure10.11:WindowoftheAnimationCreation......140
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CHAPTER1:NATURALHAZARDS
1.1Introduction
Hazardscanbesimplydefinedasunpreventablenaturaleventsthat,bytheirnature,mayexpose
ourNationspopulationtotheriskofdeathorinjuryandmaydamageordestroyprivateproperty,
societalinfrastructure,andagriculturalorotherdevelopedland.Hazardsincludefloods,droughts,
hurricanes,volcaniceruptions,earthquakesetc.
1.2Floods
Flowingwatertowardstheinlandduetoheavyrainswithhighintensityand/orlongdurationcan
besimplydefinedasfloods.Floodsarethemostcommonandwidespreadofallnaturaldisasters,
exceptfire.Floodshavebeenanintegralpartofthehumanexperienceeversincethestartofthe
agriculturalrevolutionwhenpeoplebuiltthefirstpermanentsettlementsonthegreatriverbanksof
AsiaandAfrica.Seasonalfloodsdelivervaluabletopsoilandnutrientstofarmlandandbringlife
tootherwiseinfertileregionsoftheworldsuchastheNileRiverValley.Flashfloodsandlarge
100yearfloods,ontheotherhand,areresponsibleformoredeathsthantornadoesorhurricanes.
Figure1.1:FloodingcausedbyheavyrainsinAsia
[Cambridgeshire,U.K.floods,February2001]
[http://newsfromrussia.com/accidents/2005/09/27/63775.html]
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1.3Droughts
Basicallytheconverseoffloodingcanbedefinedasthedroughtsandworldwide,since1967,
droughtalonehasbeenresponsibleformillionsofdeathsandhascosthundredsofbillionsof
dollarsindamage.Manydifferentclimaticeventscantriggercropfailuresincludingexcess
rainfallleadingtoflooddamageorcropdisease,heatwaves,drought,fire,unexpectedcoldsnaps,
severestorms,climaterelateddiseaseoutbreaks,andinsectinvasions.Largescaleweather
patternssuchasElNio,LaNia,andthePacificDecadalOscillationaffectagricultureworld
widebychangingrainfallpatterns.
Figure1.2:MercilessoftheDrought
1.4Hurricanes
Fewthingsinnaturecancomparetothedestructiveforceofahurricane.Infact,duringitslife
cycleahurricanecanexpendasmuchenergyas10,000nuclearbombs.Hurricanewindsblowina
largespiralaroundarelativecalmcentreknownastheeye.Theeyeisgenerally20to30
mileswide,andthestormmayextendoutward400miles.Asahurricaneapproaches,theskywill
begintodarkenandwindswillgrowinstrength.Asahurricanenearsland,itcanbringtorrential
rains,highwinds,andstormsurges.AugustandSeptemberarepeakmonthsduringthehurricane
seasonthatlastsfromJune1throughNovember30.
Figure1.3:TwophotographstakenduringaHurricane
[www.archives.qld.gov.au/.../images/twentytwo.asp]
[www.nwri.ca/threats2full/ch31e.html]
[HurricaneRitaIINASA]
[HurricaneKatrina,USASandy]
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1.5VolcanicEruptions
Wecouldsayavolcanoisaliquidrockplumbingsystemwhichextendsfromseveraltensof
kilometersdepthtotheEarthssurface,andincludesthenearventdepositsoferuptions.Volcanic
eruptionsareoneofEarthsmostdramaticandviolentagentsofchange.Notonlycanpowerful
explosiveeruptionsdrasticallyalterlandandwaterfortensofkilometersaroundavolcano,but
tinyliquiddropletsofsulfuricacideruptedintothestratospherecanchangeourplanet'sclimate
temporarily.Eruptionsoftenforcepeoplelivingnearvolcanoestoabandontheirlandandhomes,
sometimesforever.Thoselivingfartherawayarelikelytoavoidcompletedestruction,buttheir
citiesandtowns,crops,industrialplants,transportationsystems,andelectricalgridscanstillbe
damagedbytephra,lahars,andflooding.
Figure1.4:ThedifferentoutcomesofavolcaniceruptionandapictureoftheMt.Etna,Sicily
Scientistshaveestimatedthatbytheyear2000,thepopulationatriskfromvolcanoesislikelyto
increasetoatleast500millions,whichiscomparabletotheentireworldspopulationatthe
beginningoftheseventeenthcentury.Clearly,scientistsfaceaformidablechallengeinproviding
reliableandtimelywarningsoferuptionstosomanypeopleatrisk.
[Imagecredit:TomPfeiffer]
[Picturecredit:USGS]
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1.6Earthquakes
Anearthquakeisaphenomenonthatresultsfromthesuddenreleaseofstoredenergyinthe
Earthscrustthatcreatesseismicwaves.AttheEarthssurface,earthquakesmaymanifest
themselvesbyashakingordisplacementofthegroundandsometimescausetsunamis,whichmay
leadtolossoflifeanddestructionofproperty.
Oneofthemostfrighteninganddestructivephenomenaofnatureisasevereearthquakeandits
terribleaftereffects.Asrelativemovementoftheplatesoccurs,elasticstrainenergyisstoredin
thematerialneartheboundaryasincreasedshearstress.Whentheshearstressreachesthe
ultimateshearstrengthoftherockalongthefault,therockfailsandtheaccumulatedstrainenergy
isreleased.Earthquakesmayoccurnaturallyorasaresultofhumanactivities.Initsmostgeneric
sense,thewordearthquakeisusedtodescribeanyseismicevent,whetheranaturalphenomenon
oraneventcausedbyhumans,thatgeneratesseismicwaves.
Iftheearthquakeoccursinapopulatedarea,itmaycausemanydeathsandinjuriesandextensive
propertydamage.Althoughwestillcannotpredictwhenanearthquakewillhappen,wehave
learnedmuchaboutearthquakesaswellastheEarthitselffromstudyingthem.Wehavelearned
howtopinpointthelocationsofearthquakes,howtoaccuratelymeasuretheirsizes,andhowto
buildflexiblestructuresthatcanwithstandthestrongshakingproducedbyearthquakesand
protectourlovedones.
Figure1.5:Theeffectsofthegroundshakingduetoanearthquake
[Kobe,1995,Japan(left)andLomaPrieta,1989,California(right)]
Earthquakeshappeneverydayaroundtheworld,butmostofthemgounnoticedandcauseno
damage.Largeearthquakes,however,cancauseseriousdestruction.Thetableherebelow
representsearthquakesthathappenedsince1900andcaused1,000ormoredeaths.
[Picturecredit:USGS]
[Picturecredit:TokyoUniversity]
Page 17
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Table1.1:Earthquakeswith1,000orMoreDeathssince1900(Datafrom:USGS)
DateUTC
Location
DeathsMagnitude
Comments
19020419
Guatemala
14N91W
2,000
7.5
19021216
EasternUzbekistan
(Turkistan)
40.8N72.6E
4,500
6.4
19030419
Turkey
39.1N42.4E
1,700
19030428
Turkey
39.1N42.5E
2,200
6.3
19050404
India,Kangra
33.0N76.0E
19,000
7.5
19050908
Italy,Calabria
39.4N16.4E
2,500
7.9
19060131
offthecoastofEcuador
1N81.5W
1,000
8.8
19060316
Formosa,Kagi(Taiwan)
23.6N120.5E
1,300
7.1
19060418
SanFrancisco,California
37.75N122.55W
about
3,000
7.8
Deathsfromearthquake
andfire.
19060817
Chile,Valparaiso
33S72W
20,000
8.2
19070114
Jamaica,Kingston
18.2N76.7W
1,600
6.5
19071021
CentralAsia
38N69E
12,000
8
19081228
Italy,Messina
38N15.5E
70,000to
100,000
7.2
andtsunami.
19090123
Iran
33.4N49.1E
5,500
7.3
19120809
MarmaraSea,Turkey
40.5N27E
1,950
7.8
19150113
Italy,Avezzano
42N13.5E
29,980
7
19170121
Indonesia,Bali
8.0S115.4E
15,000
19170730
China
28.0N104.0E
1,800
6.5
19180213
China,
Kwangtung(Guangdong)
23.5N117.0E
10,000
7.3
19201216
China,Gansu
35.8N105.7E
200,000
7.8
Majorfractures,landslides.
19230324
China
31.3N100.8E
5,000
7.3
19230525
Iran
35.3N59.2E
2,200
5.7
Page 18
Page6
19230901
Japan,Kanto(Kwanto)
35.0N139.5E
143,000
7.9
GreatTokyofire.
19250316
China,Yunnan
25.5N100.3E
5,000
7.1
Talifualmostcompletely
destroyed.
19270307
Japan,Tango
35.8N134.8E
3,020
7.6
19270522
China,Tsinghai
36.8N102.8E
200,000
7.9
Largefractures.
19290501
Iran
38N58E
3,300
7.4
19300506
Iran
38.0N44.5E
2,500
7.2
19300723
Italy
41.1N15.4E
1,430
6.5
19310331
Nicaragua
13.2N85.7W
2,400
5.6
19321225
China,Gansu
39.7N97.0E
70,000
7.6
19330302
Japan,Sanriku
39.0N143.0E
2,990
8.4
19330825
China
32.0N103.7E
10,000
7.4
19340115
India,BiharNepal
26.6N86.8E
10,700
8.1
19350420
Formosa
24.0N121.0E
3,280
7.1
19350530
Pakistan,Quetta
29.6N66.5E
30,000to
60,000
7.5
Quettaalmostcompletely
destroyed.
19350716
Taiwan
24.4N120.7E
2,700
6.5
19390125
Chile,Chillan
36.2S72.2W
28,000
7.8
19391226
Turkey,Erzincan
39.6N38E
32,700
7.8
19401110
Romania
45.8N26.8E
1,000
7.3
19421126
Turkey
40.5N34.0E
4,000
7.6
19421220
Turkey,Erbaa
40.9N36.5E
3,000
7.3
Somereportsof1,000
killed.
19430910
Japan,Tottori
35.6N134.2E
1,190
7.4
19431126
Turkey
41.0N33.7E
4000
7.6
19440115
Argentina,SanJuan
31.6S68.5W
5,000
7.8
Reportsofasmanyas
8,000killed.
19440201
Turkey
41.5N32.5E
2,800
7.4
Reportsofasmanyas
5,000killed.
19441207
Japan,Nankaido
33.7N136.2E
1,223
8.1
Page 19
Page7
19450112
JapanMikawa
34.8N137.0E
1,900
7.1
19451127
OffthecoastofPakistan
24.5N63.0E
4,000
8
Strongtsunamiwaves.
Considerableproperty
damage.
19460531
Turkey
39.5N41.5E
1,300
6
19461110
Peru,Ancash
8.5S77.5W
1,400
7.3
Landslides,great
destruction.
19461220
Japan,Tonankai
32.5N134.5E
1,330
8.1
19480628
Japan,Fukui
36.1N136.2E
5,390
7.3
19481005
USSR(Turkmenistan,
Ashgabat)
38.0N58.3E
110,000
7.3
19490710
Khait,Tajikistan
(Tadzhikistan,USSR)
39.2N70.8E
12,000
7.5
Nearlyallbuildings
destroyedbythe
earthquakeandlandslides
inazone6065kmlong
and68kmwide.Ahuge
slide,about20kmlong
and1kmwideburiedthe
townofKhaittoadepthof
about30m,movingoverit
atavelocityofabout100
m/sec.Thisandother
slidesintheYasmanRiver
Valleyalsoburied20
villages.Thedeathtollis
estimated.
19490805
Ecuador,Ambato
1.2S78.5E
6,000
6.8
Largelandslides,
topographicalchanges.
19500815
India,Assam,Tibet
28.7N96.6E
1,526
8.6
Greattopographical
changes,landslides,floods.
19530318
WesternTurkey
40.0N27.5E
1,103
7.3
Yenicedestroyedand
majordamageatGonen
andCan.Feltthroughout
theAegeanIslandsand
southernGreece.Macro
seismicareaestimatedat
200squaremiles.Damage
estimatedat$3,570,000.
19540909
Algeria,OrleansVille
36N1.6E
1,250
6.8
19570627
USSR(Russia)
56.3N116.5E
1,200
19570702
Iran
36.2N52.7E
1,200
7.4
19571213
Iran
34.4N47.6E
1,130
7.3
19600229
Morocco,Agadir
30N9W
10,000to
15,000
5.7
Occurredatshallowdepth
justundercity.
Page 20
Page8
19600522
Chile
39.5S74.5W
5,700
9.5
Tsunami,volcanicactivity,
floods.
19620901
Iran,Qazvin
35.6N49.9E
12,230
7.3
19630726
Yugoslavia,Skopje
42.1N21.4E
1,100
6
Occurredatshallowdepth
justundercity.
19660819
Turkey,Varto
39.2N41.7E
2,520
7.1
19680831
Iran
34.0N59.0E
12,000to
20,000
7.3
19690725
EasternChina
21.6N111.9E
3,000
5.9
19700104
YunnanProvince,China
24.1N102.5E
10,000
7.5
19700328
Turkey,Gediz
39.2N29.5E
1,100
6.9
19700531
Peru
9.2S78.8W
66,000
7.9
$530,000,000damage,
greatrockslide,floods.
19710522
Turkey
38.83N40.52E
1,000
6.9
19720410
Iran,southern
28.4N52.8E
5,054
7.1
19721223
Nicaragua,Managua
12.4N86.1W
5,000
6.2
19740510
China
28.2N104.0E
20,000
6.8
19741228
Pakistan
35.0N72.8E
5,300
6.2
19750204
China
40.6N122.5E
10,000
7
19750906
Turkey
38.5N40.7E
2,300
6.7
19760204
Guatemala
15.3N89.1W
23,000
7.5
19760506
Italy,northeastern
46.4N13.3E
1,000
6.5
19760625
Papua,Indonesia
4.6S140.1E
422
7.1
5,000to9,000missingand
presumeddead.
19760727
China,Tangshan
39.6N118.0E
255,000
(official)
7.5
Estimateddeathtollas
highas655,000.
19760816
Philippines,Mindanao
6.3N124.0E
8,000
7.9
19761124
TurkeyIranborderregion
39.1N44.0E
5,000
7.3
Deathsestimated.
19770304
Romania
45.8N26.8E
1,500
7.2
19780916
Iran
33.2N57.4E
15,000
7.8
Page 21
Page9
19801010
Algeria,ElAsnam
(formerlyOrleansville)
36.1N1.4E
3,500
7.7
19801123
Italy,southern
40.9N15.3E
3,000
6.5
19810611
Iran,southern
29.9N57.7E
3,000
6.9
19810728
Iran,southern
30.0N57.8E
1,500
7.3
19821213
WesternArabianPeninsula
Yemen
14.7N44.4E
2,800
6
19831030
Turkey
40.3N42.2E
1,342
6.9
19850919
Mexico,Michoacan
18.2N102.5W
9,500
(official)
8
Estimateddeathtollas
highas30,000.
19861010
ElSalvador
13.8N89.2W
1,000
5.5
19870306
ColombiaEcuador
0.2N77.8W
1,000
7
19880820
NepalIndiaborderregion
26.8N86.6E
1,450
6.8
19881207
Armenia,Spitak
41.0N44.2E
25,000
6.8
19900620
WesternIran
37.0N49.4E
40,000to
50,000
7.7
Landslides.
19900716
Luzon,PhilippineIslands
15.7N121.2E
1,621
7.8
Landslides,subsidence,
andsandblows.
19911019
NorthernIndia
30.8N78.8E
2,000
7
19921212
FloresRegion,Indonesia
8.5S121.9E
2,500
7.5
Tsunamiraninland300
meters,waveheight25m.
19930929
India,LaturKillari
18.1N76.5E
9,748
6.2
19950116
Japan,Kobe
34.6N135E
5,502
6.9
Landslide,liquefaction.
19950527
SakhalinIsland
52.6N142.8E
1,989
7.5
19970510
NorthernIran
33.9N59.7E
1,560
7.3
4460injured;60,000
homeless.
19980204
HinduKushregion,
Afghanistan
37.1N70.1E
2,323
5.9
818injured,8094houses
destroyed,6725livestock
killed.
19980530
AfghanistanTajikistan
BorderRegion
37.1N70.1E
4,000
6.6
Atleast4000peoplekilled,
manythousandsinjured
andhomelessin
BadakhshanandTakhar
Provinces,Afghanistan.
Page 22
Page10
19980717
PapuaNewGuinea
2.96S141.9E
2,183
7
Thousandsinjured,about
9500homelessandabout
500missingasaresultofa
tsunamiwithmaximum
waveheightsestimatedat
10meters.
19990125
Colombia
4.46N75.82W
1,185
6.1
Over700missingand
presumedkilled,over4750
injuredandabout250,000
homeless.
19990817
Turkey
40.7N30.0E
17,118
7.6
Atleast50,000injured,
thousandshomeless.
Damageestimateat3to
6.5billionUSD.
19990920
Taiwan
23.7N121.0E
2,400
7.6
Over8700injured,over
600,000homeless.Damage
estimateat14billionUSD.
20010126
Gujarat,India
23.3N70.3E
20,085
7.6
166,836injured,600,000
homeless.
20020325
HinduKushRegion,
Afghanistan
35.9N69.2E
1,000
6.1
4000injured,1500houses
destroyedintheNahrin
area.Approximately
20,000peoplehomeless.
20030521
NorthernAlgeria
36.90N3.71E
2,266
6.8
10,261injured,150,000
homeless,morethan1243
buildingsdamagedor
destroyed.
20031226
SoutheasternIran
28.99N58.31E
26,200
6.6
30,000injured,85percent
ofbuildingsdamagedor
destroyedand
infrastructuredamagedin
theBamarea
20041226
Sumatra
3.30N95.87E
283,106
9.1
andtsunami.Themost
devastatedeventinthe
recentpast.Mostofthe
victimswerefrom
IndonesiaandSriLanka.
20050328
NorthernSumatra,
Indonesia
2.07N97.01E
1,313
8.6
20051008
Pakistan
34.53N73.58E
80,361
7.6
20060526
Indonesia
7.961S110.446E
5,749
6.3
Atleast5749peoplewere
killed,38,568wereinjured
andasmanyas600,000
peopleweredisplacedin
theBantulYogyakarta
area.Morethan127,000
housesweredestroyedand
anadditional451,000were
damagedinthearea,with
thetotallossestimatedat
approximately3.1billion
U.S.dollars.
Page 23
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CHAPTER2:TSUNAMI
2.1Introduction
TsunamiisaJapanesetermderivedfromthecharacters"tsu"meaningharborand
"nami"meaningwave.Nowgenerallybytheinternationalscientificcommunityitis
usedtodescribeaseriesoftravelingwavesinwaterproducedbythedisplacementof
theseafloorassociatedwithsubmarineearthquakes,volcaniceruptions,or
landslides.Agooddefinitionoftsunamimaybethefollowingone:thetsunamiisa
seriesofoceanwavesofextremelylongwavelengthandlongperiodgeneratedina
bodyofwaterbyanimpulsivedisturbancethatdisplacesthewater.
Tsunamisareknownwithdifferentnamesindifferentnationsoftheworldandsomeofthemare
listedasbelow:
TsuNami(Harbourwave)[Japanese]
Maremoto[Italian,Spanish]
Razdemare[French]
Flutwellen[German]
Taitoko[Marquesan]
vl(Waralla)[Sinhalese](Proposed)
Tsunamiscanbegeneratedwhentheseafloorabruptlydeformsandverticallydisplacesthe
overlyingwater.EarthquakesareoftenassociatedwiththeEarthscrustaldeformation;when
earthquakesoccurbeneaththesea,thewaterabovethedeformedareaisdisplacedfromits
equilibriumposition.Wavesareformedasthedisplacedwatermass,whichactsunderthe
influenceofgravity,attemptstoregainitsequilibrium.Whenlargeareasoftheseafloorelevate
orsubside,atsunamicanbecreated.
LargeverticalmovementsoftheEarthscrustcanoccuratplateboundaries.Platesinteractalong
theseboundariescalledfaults.AroundthemarginsofthePacificOcean,forexample,denser
Page 24
Page12
oceanicplatesslipundercontinentalplatesinaprocessknownassubduction.Subduction
earthquakesareparticularlyeffectiveingeneratingtsunamis.
Comparedwithwinddrivenwaves,tsunamishaveperiods,wavelengths,andvelocitiestensora
hundredtimeslarger.Sotheyhavedifferentpropagationcharacteristicsandshoreline
consequences.
Asaresultoftheirlongwavelengths,tsunamisbehaveasshallowwaterwaves.Shallowwater
wavesaredifferentfromwindgeneratedwaves,thewavesmanyofushaveobservedonabeach.
Windgeneratedwavesusuallyhaveperiodof0.5to20secondsandawavelengthuptoabout200
meters.Atsunamicanhaveaperiodintherangeoftenminutestotwohoursandawavelengthin
excessof500km[Prager,1999].
Figure2.1:Generalviewofatsunamiwave
[Figurecredit:Prof.CharitaPattriarachchi]
Itisbecauseoftheirlongwavelengthsthattsunamisbehaveasshallowwaterwaves.Awaveis
characterizedasashallowwaterwavewhentheratiobetweenthewaterdepthanditswavelength
getsverysmall.Therateatwhichawavelosesitsenergyisinverselyrelatedtoitswavelength.
Sinceatsunamihasaverylargewavelength,itwillloselittleenergyasitpropagates.Hencein
verydeepwater,atsunamiwilltravelathighspeedsandtravelgreattransoceanicdistanceswith
limitedenergyloss.Forexample,whentheoceanis6100mdeep,unnoticedtsunamitravelabout
890km/hr,thespeedofajetairplane.AndtheycanmovefromonesideofthePacificOceanto
theothersideinlessthanoneday.
Page 25
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2.2Tsunamisvs.WindWaves
Tsunamisarecreatedbysuddenmovementsordisturbancesoftheseafloor,submarineexplosions,
orimpactsoflargeobjects,suchaslandslidesfromthecoastlineorasteroids,orlandslidesthat
occurinorflowintothesea,alsoknownassubaqueousslumps.Theseeventstriggeraseriesof
fastmoving,longwavesofinitiallowamplitudethatradiateoutwardinamannerresemblingthe
wavesradiatingwhenapebbleisdroppedintheocean.Incontrast,mostofthewavesobservedon
beachesaregeneratedbywinddraggingordisturbingthesurfaceofthesea.Tsunamisare
generatedbydisturbingtheseafloor,windwavesbydisturbingtheoceansurface.Another
mechanismfortriggeringtsunamisisshakingofaclosedbasin,suchasareservoir,lake,or
harbor.Thesetsunamisarealsoreferredtoassloshingwavesorseichesandsometimestheycan
beobservedseveralhoursafterlargeearthquakesevenatlargedistances.The1755GreatLisbon
earthquaketriggeredsloshingatLochLomondinScotlandthatpersistedforseveralhoursand
causedtheshorelinetoadvancerepeatedlytoelevationsupto1mfromthestillwaterline.
Figure2.2:Basicdifferencesbetweenwindwavesandatsunami
[Figurecredit:Dept.ofEarthandSpaceSciences,UniversityofWashington]
Ingeneral,wavesareconsidereddeepwaterwavesiftheirwavelengthLisrelativelysmall
comparedtothewaterdepthdthroughwhichtheytravel.Windwavesdonotfeeltheseafloor
untilwithintensofmetersfromthecoastline,dependingontheslopeofthebeach.Intheopen
ocean,wheredepthsaverageabout4km,mostwindwavesaredeepwaterwaves,i.e.,witha
shortwavelengthrelativetodepth,d/L>0.5.Incontrast,shallowwaterwavesarethosewitha
longwavelengthrelativetodepth,d/L<1/20.Thedepthandnatureoftheseafloorstrongly
influencehowshallowwaterwavespropagateortravel.Becausetsunamishavesuchlong
wavelengths,evenwhentravelingthroughverydeepwater,theyareconsideredshallowwater
waves[Prager,1999].
Page 26
Page14
Table2.1summarizeswaveclassificationcriteriaaccordingtorelativedepthandthewave
parameterkdbelow.
Table2.1:WaveClassification(Ippen,1966)
Rangeofd/L
Rangeofkd=2d/L
Typesofwaves
0to1/20
0to/10
Longwaves(shallowwaterwave)
1/20to1/2
/10to
Intermediatewaves
1/2to?
to?
Shortwaves(deepwaterwaves)
where:
Wavenumber(k):2timesthenumberofwavesperunithorizontaldistance.Itisequalto
reciprocalofwavelengthtimes2(k=2/L).
Wavelength(L):thehorizontaldistancebetweentwosuccessivecrestandtroughs.
Waterdepth(d):thetotaldepthofthewater
ThespeedorwavevelocityorcelerityciscalculatedbydividingthewavelengthLbyitsperiod
T.Thespeedofdeepwaterwavesdoesnotdependonthedepth,andthewavesaredispersive,as
eachcomponentfrequencyofacomplexspectrumpropagatesatitsownfrequencydependent
speed.Itisforthisreasonthatcomplexseastatesgeneratedbystormsfaroffshoremanifest
themselvesingroupsofwavesofapproximatelysimilarperiodwhentheystrikethecoast.
Shallowwaterwavestravelataspeedc=gd,wheredisthelocaldepth,henceallfrequenciesin
thespectrumofatsunamitravelatthesamevelocity.Itisforthisreasonthattsunamisdonotalter
theirshapesubstantiallyastheypropagateoverfairlyconstantdepth.Notethattheclassification
giveninthetablecanbemadelessrigidasregardsshallowwaterwavesandthatmanyconsider
thethresholdratio1/6oreven1/3ratherthan1/20.
Astheymovetowardthecoast,tsunamispassthroughvaryingdepthsandovercomplexseafloor
topography.Changesinthedepthandseafloorcausethemtocontinuouslyevolveandchange
shape.AtsunamigeneratedfromanearthquakeoffPerumaylookentirelydifferentalongthe
PeruviancoastlineascomparedtowhenitentersabayinCaliforniaandstilldifferentwhenit
strikesabeachinHawaii.Bothtsunamisandwindwavesbehavesimilarlyastheyapproacha
coastline;theyrefractandshoal.Shoalingistheprocessinwhichthewavefrontsteepensandthe
waveheightincreases.Thefrontofthewaveentersshallowerwaterandmovesmoreslowlythan
thetailofthewave,sincethedepthissmaller,hencethesteepnessatthefrontincreases.Ifthe
waveissufficientlysteepandthecontinentalshelflong,iteventuallybreaks,asthewavein
essencetripsoveritself.However,whenrefracting,thecrestlengthsoftsunamisoftencause
unexpectedwavepatternsinrefractioncomparedtowindwaves.
Page 27
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2.3TsunamiGeneration
Thebasicrequirementofgenerationofatsunamiistheverticalmovementofwatermasswhere
horizontalmovementoftheEarthscrustduetoanearthquakedoesnotleadstoatsunami.
Tsunamisaregeneratedduetothegravitationaloscillationofthemassofwaterintheocean,
followingadisturbanceoftheoceanfloororthesurface.Thisdisturbancecanbeduetoa
submarineearthquake,volcanicexplosionsatseaoramassivelandslideunderorclosetooceans.
Oneotherclassoftsunamisisthatgeneratedbyimpactsofcometsandasteroids.Whenan
asteroidhitstheoceanat70,000km/hthereisagiganticexplosion.Theasteroidandwater
vaporizeandleaveahugecrater,typically20timesthediameteroftheasteroid(thatis,a100m
asteroidwillcreatea2kilometerdiametercrater).Thewaterrushesbackin,overshootstocreatea
mountainofwateratthemiddleandthisspreadsoutasamassivewave,atsunami.Thecentreof
thecrateroscillatesupanddownseveraltimesandaseriesofwavesradiateout.Anideaofthe
mechanismcanbeobtainedbyburstingaballooninabathtub.
Tsunamigenerationincludesfourmajorprocessesandtheyare:
1.Initiation
2.Split
3.Amplification
4.Runup
2.3.1Initiation
Earthquakesarecommonlyassociatedwithgroundshakingthatisaresultofelasticwaves
travelingthroughthesolidearth.Earthquakesgeneratetsunamiswhentheseafloorabruptly
deformsanddisplacestheoverlyingwaterfromitsequilibriumposition.
Submarinelandslides,whichoftenoccurduringalargeearthquake,canalsocreateatsunami.
Duringasubmarinelandslide,theequilibriumsealevelisalteredbysedimentmovingalongthe
seafloor.Gravitationalforcesthenpropagatethetsunamigiventheinitialperturbationofthesea
level.However,nearthesourceofsubmarineearthquakes,theseafloorispermanentlyuplifted
anddowndropped,pushingtheentirewatercolumnupanddown.
Aviolentmarinevolcaniceruptionalsocancreateanimpulsiveforcethatdisplacesthewater
columnandgeneratesatsunami.Abovewater(subaerial)landslidesandspacebornobjectscan
disturbthewaterfromabovethesurface.
Page 28
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Oncetheeventwhichinitiatesthetsunamioccursthepotentialenergythatresultsfrompushing
waterabovethemeansealevelisthentransferredtohorizontalpropagationofthetsunamiwave
(kineticenergy).
Forthecaseshownbellow,theearthquakeruptureoccurredatthebaseofthecontinentalslopein
relativelydeepwater.Situationscanalsoarisewheretheearthquakeruptureoccursbeneaththe
continentalshelfinmuchshallowerwater.
Figure2.3:Initiationofatsunamiwave
(Note:Inthefigurethewavesaregreatlyexaggeratedcomparedtowaterdepth!Intheopen
ocean,thewavesareatmost,afewmetershighandspreadovermanytenstohundredsof
kilometersinlength.)
2.3.2Split
Withinseveralminutesoftheinitiation,theinitialtsunamiissplitintoatsunamithattravelsoutto
thedeepocean(distanttsunami)andanothertsunamithattravelstowardsthenearbycoast(local
tsunami).Theheightabovemeansealevelofthetwooppositelytravelingtsunamisis
approximatelyhalfthatoftheoriginaltsunami.Thespeedatwhichbothtsunamistravelvariesas
thesquarerootofthewaterdepth.Thereforethedeepoceantsunamitravelsfasterthanthelocal
tsunaminearshore.
Figure2.4:Splittingofatsunamiwave
[Figurecredit:USGS]
[Figurecredit:USGS]
Page 29
Page17
2.3.3Amplification:
Severalthingshappenasthelocaltsunamitravelsoverthecontinentalslope.Mostobviousisthat
theamplitudeincreases.Inaddition,thewavelengthdecreases.Thisresultsinsteepeningofthe
leadingwave,animportantcontrolofwaverunupatthecoast.Alsothedeepoceantsunami
travelsmuchfurtherthanthelocaltsunamibecauseofthehigherpropagationspeed.Asthedeep
oceantsunamiapproachesadistantshore,amplificationandshorteningofthewavewilloccur.
Figure2.5:Amplificationofatsunamiwave
2.3.4Runup
Asthetsunamiwavetravelsfromthedeepwater,continentalsloperegiontothenearshore
region,tsunamirunupoccurs.Runupisameasurementoftheheightofthewateronshore
observedaboveareferencesealevel.Contrarytomanyartisticimagesoftsunamis,mosttsunamis
donotresultingiantbreakingwaves(likenormalsurfwavesatthebeachthatcurloverasthey
approachshore).Rather,theycomeinmuchlikeverystrongandveryfasttides(i.e.,arapid,local
riseinsealevel).Muchofthedamageinflictedbytsunamisiscausedbystrongcurrentsand
floatingdebris.Thesmallnumberoftsunamisthatdobreakoftenformverticalwallsofturbulent
watercalledbores.Tsunamiswilloftentravelmuchfartherinlandthannormalwaves.
Figure2.6:Runupofatsunamiwave
NormalSeaLevel
[Figurecredit:USGS]
[Figurecredit:USGS]
Page 30
Page18
2.4TsunamiWaveCharacteristics
Tsunamiwavesbehavelikeshallowwaterwavesbecauseofitslongwavelengthinthedeep
ocean.Butitsbehaviorisentirelydifferentwhenitreachesthecoastalareaasitflowslikea
straightwatercolumn,ratherthancurloverlikenormalwindgeneratedwaves.
2.4.1WaveDefinitions
Figure2.7:Thebasicprofileofasinusoidalwave
DefinitionsforthewaveparametersthatarepartiallyshowninFig.2.7areasfollows:
Waveprofile():verticaldisplacementoftheseasurfacefromthestillwaterlevel(SWL)
asafunctionoftimeandspace.
Wavecrest:thehighestpointofwaveprofile.
Wavetrough:thelowestpointofwaveprofile.
Waveamplitude(a):theverticaldistancefromthestillwaterleveltothewavecrest.
Waveheight(H):theverticaldistancefromwavetroughtowavecrest.Itisequaltotwice
thewaveamplitude.(H=2a)
Wavelength(L):thehorizontaldistancebetweentwosuccessivecrestandtroughs.
Waveperiod(T):thetimeintervalbetweenthepassagesoftwosuccessivecrestspasta
fixedpoint.
Wavefrequency(f):thenumberofwavestopassagivenpointperunittime.Itisequalto
reciprocalofwaveperiod(f=1/T).
Wavenumber(k):2timesthenumberofwavesperunithorizontaldistance.Itisequalto
reciprocalofwavelengthtimes2(k=2/L).
Angularwavefrequency():itisequaltowavefrequencytimes2(=2f=2/T).
WaveH
eight
Crest
Trough
Page 31
Page19
Wavecelerity(C):thespeedatwhichawaveformmoves.Sincethewavemovesone
wavelengthduringawaveperiod,thewavecelerityisequaltothe
ratioofwavelengthtowaveperiod(C=L/T).
and:arethehorizontalandverticalwaterparticledisplacementsrespectively,whichare
functionsoftimeanddepth.
2.4.2BasicEquationsoftheWaveMotion
2.4.2.1TheVelocityPotential
Thesimplestandgeneralmostusefultheoryisthesmallamplitudewavetheoryfirstpresentedby
Airy(1845).
SolvingtheLaplaceequationdevelopsthesmallamplitudewavetheoryfortwodimensional
periodicwaves,wherexandyarethehorizontalandverticalcoordinatesrespectively:
0
2
2
2
2
(2.4.2.1a)
Withthebottomandsurfaceconditions,thefollowingvelocitypotentialisobtainedinanoceanof
constantdepthd,
)
cos(
cosh
)
(
cosh
t
kx
kd
dyk
k
a
+
=
(2.4.2.1b)
Foraprogressivewavetravelinginpositivexdirection.Thecorrespondingwaveprofileis:
)
sin(
t
kx
a
?
?
Similarlythevelocitypotentialcorrespondingtothewaveprofile:
)
cos(
t
kx
a
?
?
isgivenby,
)
sin(
cosh
)
(
cosh
t
kx
kd
dyk
k
a
+
=
(2.4.2.1c)
Page 32
Page20
2.4.2.2WavelengthandWaveCelerity
Therelationbetweenwavelength,waveperiodandwaterdepthiswrittenas
)/2
tanh(
2
2
Ld
gT
L
=
(2.4.2.2.1)
Eqn.(2.4.2.2.1)isanimplicitequation,sincetheunknownvariableLappearsbothintheleftand
righthandsidesoftheequation.ForgivenTanddvalues,toobtainLitmayrequiretocarryout
severaltrialcalculations.However,forconvince,solutionsareallreadygiveningraphicalform,
orintables.
Wavecelerityisequaltotheratioofwavelengthtowaveperiodas:
C=L/T
(2.4.2.2.2)
ThususingEqns.(2.3.2.2.1)and(2.3.2.2.2)weget,
)/2
tanh(
2
Ld
gT
C
=
(2.4.2.2.3a)
2/1
)/2
tanh(
2
=
Ld
gL
C
(2.4.2.2.3b)
2.4.2.3ConstancyofWavePeriod
Forasimpleharmonicwavetrain,thewaveperiodisindependentofdepth.Thiscanbeprovenby
thefollowingargument.Letussupposethatthewaveperiodcandependonthedepth.Letusthen
takearegionwherewaveentersfromonesideandexitfromtheoppositeside.Letusfurther
supposethatatthesetwosidestheoceandepthisdifferent,andthereforethewaveenteringwaves
haveperiodT1andtheoutgoingwaveshaveperiodT2.Inagiventimeintervalt,thenumberof
waveswhichenterintotheregionisn1while,whilethenumberofwavesleavingtheregionisn2
withn1=t/T1andn2=t/T2.
Then,thenumberofwaveswhichaccumulatewithintheregionisn1n2=t(1/T11/T2).
Whenthetimeintervalt,thenumberofwavesaccumulatedwithintheregionwillbe
dependingonT1
<
>T2.Thisisphysicallyunrealistic.ThentheonlyrealisticpossibilityisT1=T2
=T,thisresultholdsforanydepthd.
Page 33
Page21
2.4.3TsunamiWaveVelocity,WavelengthandPeriod
Classicaltheoryassumesarigidseaflooroverlainbyanincompressible,homogeneous,andnon
viscousoceansubjectedtoaconstantgravitationalfield.Linearwavetheorypresumesthatthe
ratioofwaveamplitudetowavelengthismuchlessthanone.Byandlarge,linearityisviolated
onlyduringthefinalstageofwavebreakingandperhaps,underextremenucleationconditions.
Inclassicaltheory,thephasevelocityc(),andgroupvelocityu()ofsurfacegravitywavesona
flatoceanofuniformdepthdare:
[
]d
k
d
k
gd
c
)(
tanh
)(
)(
(2.4.3a)
and
[
]
[
]
+
=
d
k
d
k
c
u
)(
sinh
)(
2
1
)(
)(
(2.4.3b)
Herek()isthewavenumberassociatedwithaseawaveoffrequency .Wavenumberconnects
towavelength()as()=2/k().Wavenumberalsosatisfiestherelation:
[
]d
k
gk
)(
tanh)(
2
(2.4.3c)
c(),u(),and()varywidely,bothasafunctionofoceandepthandwaveperiod.Waves
whosevelocityorwavelengthvarieswithfrequencyarecalleddispersive.Duringthepropagation,
dispersionpullsapartoriginallypulselikewavesintotheircomponentfrequencies.
Tsunamismaybeconsideredwaveswithwavelengthsgreaterthanatleastthreetimestheocean
depthatthepointoftheirorigination.Thisfactfixesashortwavelengthboundontsunamisnear
10km.Thedimensionoftheseafloordisturbancefixestheupperwavelengthbound.Thegreatest
earthquakesmightdeformaregion500kmacross.TheleftgraybandofFig.2.8colorsthe
tsunamiwindow(=10to500km)thatspans100to2000speriod.Wavesinthetsunami
windowtravelrapidly,reachingspeedsof160to250m/s(600900km/hr)intheopenocean.
Wavesatthebeachtravelat10m/s(40km/hr)aboutthespeedofamoped.Thelongperiod,
greatwavelength,andhighvelocityoftsunamishelpaccountfortheirdestructivepower.
Page 34
Page22
inoceansofdepthdsometimesincludetwosimplifications:Discussionsofwavesoflength
1.Longwaveapproximation(>>d,1/k>>d)and
2.Shortwaveapproximation(<<d,1/k<<d).
Underalongwaveapproximation,kd0andequations(2.4.3a)to(2.4.3c)predictnon
dispersivewavepropagationwithc()=u()=(gd)1/2.Longwavetheoryholdsfortheflatpart
ofthecurvesinFig2.8.
andtheequationspredictdispersivepropagationwithUnderashortwaveapproximation,kd
c()=2u()=(g()/2)1/2.ShortwavetheoryholdstotherightinFig.2.8,whereallthecurves
lieatopeachother.Wavesinthetsunamiwindowhaveintermediatecharacter,behavinglike
shallowwaterwavesattheirlongestperiodsandlikedeepwaterwavesattheirshortestperiods.
Neitherthelongnorshortwavesimplificationservesadequatelyintsunamistudies.Arigorous
treatmentwouldrequireanapproachthatworksforwavesofalllengths.
Figure2.8:Phasevelocityc()(solidlines)andgroupvelocityu()(dashedlines)oftsunami
wavesonaflatEarthcoveredbyoceansof1,2,4and6kmdepth.Wavelengthassociatedwith
eachwaveperiod.Thetsunamiwindowismarked(StevenWardinEncyclopediaofPhysical
ScienceandTechnology).
Page 35
Page23
2.5DestructionduetoTsunami
Tsunamisareoneofthemajordisasterswhicharepowerfulenoughtomakedifferentsortof
lossestohumanbeingsandthenature.Thesedestructionsmayincludeoneormoreofthe
followingwhenatsunamiwavereachesthelandarea.Theyare:
1.Floods,
2.DestroyStructures,
3.MoveAnything,
4.CauseFires,
5.DepositSediments,
6.Erode(Scour).
DuringthelastSumatraeventSriLankanislandwasoneoftheplaceswhichunderwentsevere
floodingfromallaroundthecountryandallfivedestructionsexceptthefire.Firescouldhappen
whenpetroltanksandgaslinesaredisturbedordamagedduetothetsunamigenicearthquake
and/ortheleadingtsunamiwavesthroughinlands.Tsunamiwavesareverydestructiveandcould
carryanythingawaybyitswaveforceandalsocausesanddepositionsaswellastheerosionin
everywheretheytravel.
Thefollowingfiguresshowsomeexamplesofthosedestructionsindifferentplacesintheworld
duetotsunamis.
[PhotoCredit:Prof.C.Pattriarachchi]
[PhotoCredit:Dr.NimalWijerathne]
[PhotoCredit:Prof.EmileOkal]
[PhotoCredit:Prof.CostasSynolakis]
Flooding:MainRoad,Paraliya,SriLanka
DestroyofStructures:Camana,Peru,2001
Flooding:BusStand,Galle,SriLanka
DestroyofStructures:Payagala,SriLanka
Page 36
Page24
Figure2.9:DifferentTypesofDamageswhichcausesbyTsunami
RoadErodeatPanadura,SriLanka
[PhotoCredit:USGS]
[PhotoCredit:Prof.A.C.Yalciner]
[PhotoCredit:Internetsources]
RoadErodeatSeenigama,SriLanka
SandDeposition:NilaveliHotel,SriLanka
SandDeposition:Lubang,Norway
FireduetoGreatLisbonEarthquake,1755
LocomotiveMove,Paraliya,SriLanka
MovingofDiyaKowullaDredger,SriLanka
[PhotoCredit:Prof.C.Pattriarachchi]
Page 37
Page25
2.6TsunamiIntensityScale
ThenewtsunamiintensityscaleproposedbyPapadopoulosandImamura,(2001)incorporates
twelvedivisionsandisconsistentwiththeseveraltwelvegradeseismicintensityscales
establishedandextensivelyusedinEuropeandNorthAmericainaboutthelast100years.The
newscaleisarrangedaccordingto(a)theeffectsonhumans,(b)theeffectsonobjects,
includingvesselsofvariablesize,andonnature,and(c)damagetobuildings.
Table2.2:TsunamiIntensityScale
Grade
Damage
Level
DescriptionoftheEffects
I
Notfelt
(a)Notfeltevenunderthemostfavorablecircumstances.
(b)Noeffect.
(c)Nodamage.
II
Scarcely
felt
(a)Feltbyfewpeopleonboardinsmallvessels.Notobservedinthecoast.
(b)Noeffect.
(c)Nodamage.
III
Weak
(a)Feltbymostpeopleonboardinsmallvessels.Observedbyfewpeoplein
thecoast.
(b)Noeffect.
(c)Nodamage.
IV
Largely
Observed
(a)Feltbyallonboardinsmallvesselsandbyfewpeopleonboardinlarge
vessels.Observedbymostpeopleinthecoast.
(b)Fewsmallvesselsmoveslightlyonshore.
(c)Nodamage.
V
Strong
(a)Feltbyallonboardinlargevesselsandobservedbyallinthecoast.Few
peoplearefrightenedandruntohigherground.
(b)Manysmallvesselsmovestronglyonshore,fewofthemcrasheachother
oroverturn.Tracesofsandlayerareleftbehindingroundsoffavorable
conditions.Limitedfloodingofcultivatedland.
(c)Limitedfloodingofoutdoorsfacilities(e.g.gardens)ofnearshore
structures.
VI
Slightly
Damaging
(a)Manypeoplearefrightenedandruntohigherground.
(b)Mostsmallvesselsmoveviolentlyonshore,orcrashstronglyeachother,or
overturn.
(c)Damageandfloodinginafewwoodenstructures.Mostmasonrybuildings
withstand.
VIIDamaging(a)Mostpeoplearefrightenedandtrytoruninhigherground.
Page 38
Page26
(b)Manysmallvesselsdamaged.Fewlargevesselsoscillateviolently.Objects
ofvariablesizeandstabilityoverturnanddrift.Sandlayerand
accumulationsofpebblesareleftbehind.Fewaquacultureraftswashed
away.
(c)Manywoodenstructuresdamaged,fewaredemolishedorwashedaway.
DamageofgradeIandfloodinginafewmasonrybuildings.
VIII
Heavily
Damaging
(a)Allpeopleescapetohigherground,afewarewashedaway.
(b)Mostofthesmallvesselsaredamaged,manyarewashedaway.Fewlarge
vesselsaremovedashoreorcrashedeachother.Bigobjectsaredrifted
away.Erosionandlitteringinthebeach.Extensiveflooding.Slightdamage
intsunamicontrolforest,stopdrifts.Manyaquacultureraftswashedaway,
fewpartiallydamaged.
(c)Mostwoodenstructuresarewashedawayordemolished.Damageofgrade
IIinafewmasonrybuildings.MostRCbuildingssustaindamage,inafew
damageofgradeIandfloodingisobserved.
IXDestructive
(a)Manypeoplearewashedaway.
(b)Mostsmallvesselsaredestructedorwashedaway.Manylargevesselsare
movedviolentlyashore,fewaredestructed.Extensiveerosionandlittering
ofthebeach.Localgroundsubsidence.Partialdestructionintsunami
controlforest,stopdrifts.Mostaquacultureraftswashedaway,many
partiallydamaged.
(c)DamageofgradeIIIinmanymasonrybuildings,fewRCbuildingssuffer
fromdamagegradeII.
X
Very
Destructive
(a)Generalpanic.Mostpeoplearewashedaway.
(b)Mostlargevesselsaremovedviolentlyashore,manyaredestructedor
collidedwithbuildings.Smallbouldersfromtheseabottomaremoved
inland.Carsoverturnedanddrifted.Oilspill,firesstart.Extensiveground
subsidence.
(c)DamageofgradeIVinmanymasonrybuildings,fewRCbuildingssuffer
fromdamagegradeIII.Artificialembankmentscollapse,portwaterbreaks
damaged.
XIDevastating
(b)Lifelinesinterrupted.Extensivefires.Waterbackwashdriftscarsandother
objectsinthesea.Bigbouldersfromtheseabottomaremovedinland.
(c)DamageofgradeVinmanymasonrybuildings.FewRCbuildingssuffer
fromdamagegradeIV,manysufferfromdamagegradeIII.
XII
Completely
Devastating
(c)Practicallyallmasonrybuildingsdemolished.MostRCbuildingssuffer
fromatleastdamagegradeIII.
Page 39
Page27
CHAPTER3:HYSTORICALTSUNAMIEVENTS
3.1Introduction
ThePacificisbyfarthemostactivetsunamizone,accordingtotheU.S.NationalOceanicand
AtmosphericAdministration(NOAA).Buttsunamishavebeengeneratedinotherbodiesofwater,
includingtheCaribbeanandMediterraneanSeas,andtheIndianandAtlanticOceans.North
Atlantictsunamisincludedthetsunamiassociatedwiththe1755Lisbonearthquakethatkilledas
manyas60,000peopleinPortugal,Spain,andNorthAfrica.Thisquakecausedatsunamiashigh
as7metersintheCaribbean.
3.2PacificOceanEarthquakesandTsunamis
3.2.1April1,1946AleutianEarthquakeandTsunami:
Figure3.1:DestructionofthelighthouseatScotchCaponUnimakIsland,Alaska
[Photographby:H.Hartman;CourtesyG.Fryer]
Magnitude:
8.6
WaveHeight:
35m
AffectedPlaces:NearUnimakIslandinAlaska'sAleutianIslandChain,Hawaiian
(wavesreachedfivehourslater)
BeforeTsunami
AfterTsunami
Page 40
Page28
DeathToll:
165
LossofProperty:Is$26(in1946dollars).
In1948,andasaresultofthistsunami,theU.S.establishedamillionPacificTsunami
WarningCenterinHawaii.
3.2.2November4,1952KamchatkaEarthquakeandTsunami:
Figure3.2:FloodingofMidwayIsland(Left)&PhotoofpeoplegatheredatAlaWaiboatharbor
inHonoluluwatchingthewithdrawalofwaterthatleftboatssittingonharbor
mud(Right)(AnExampleofveryfoolishthingtodoinaTsunami)
[Photographby:U.S.Navy]
Magnitude:
9.0
WaveHeight:
1m(InNewZealand),1.4m(InAlaska,AleutianIslandsandin
California),4.5mIslandofOahu,6.1m(TheislandofHawaii),413m
(FromKronotskyPeninsulatoCapeShipursky),5to15m(FromCape
PovorotnytoCapeLopatkka),418.4m(AtParamushirIsland)
AffectedPlaces:ThecoastofKamchatkaPeninsula,theKurilIslandsandotherareasof
RussiasFarEast.TherewasconsiderabledamageintheHawaiian
IslandsandsomedamageinPeruandChile.Thetsunamiwasrecorded
orobservedthroughouttheislandsofthePacific.
DeathToll:
Morethan5000.
LossofProperty:Is$800,000$1,000,000(in1952dollars)inHawaii.
Page 41
Page29
3.2.3March9,1957AleutianEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
8.3
WaveHeight:
16m(TheislandofKauai)3.9m(AtHilo,Hawaii,themaximum
tsunamirunupreached).
AffectedPlaces:SouthoftheAndreanofIslands,intheAleutianIslandsofAlaska.
DeathToll:
Noliveswerelost
LossofProperty:Is$5million(1957dollars).
3.2.4May2,1960ChileanEarthquakeandTsunami:
Figure3.3:TsunamisurginguptheWailuariver(Left)&Tremendousforceoftsunamiwaves
anddebrisbentparkingmetersandsnappedutilitypoles(Right)atHilo,Hawaii.
[Photographby:U.S.Navy]
Magnitude:
9.5(Thelargestearthquakeofthe20thcentury)
WaveHeight:
25m
AffectedPlaces:ThecoastofsouthcentralChile
DeathToll:
2,300peopleinChile.(Therewastremendouslossoflifeandproperty
intheHawaiianIslands,inJapanandelsewhereinthePacific),61
peopleinHilo,Hawaii,
LossofProperty:Itismorethan$500million(1960dollars).
Page 42
Page30
3.2.5March28,1964AlaskaEarthquakeandTsunami:
Figure3.4:Awoodenplunkwasforcedrightthroughatrucktirewhichshowshowpowerfulthe
tsunamiwasatWhiiter,Alaska(Left)&ALocomotivemoved1kminlandbythe
tsunamiwavesatSewardAlaska(Right)
[Photographcredit:ITIC(InternationalTsunamiInformationCenter)]
Magnitude:
9.3(Thelargestearthquakeofthe20thCenturyinthenorthern
hemisphere)
WaveHeight:
2.16.3m(CrescentCitytoMonterey);6m(CrescentCity,
California,)3.3m(AtSantaCruzHarbor)
AffectedPlaces:Alaska,VancouverIsland(BritishColumbia),thestatesofWashington,
CaliforniaandHawaii,intheU.S
DeathToll:
120people
LossofProperty:Itismorethan$106millionforWesternUnitedStatesandCanada;
$1,500,000and$2,375,000(1964dollars)forCalifornia,$7,414,000for
CrescentCity.
Page 43
Page31
3.2.6September2,1992NicaraguaEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
7.6
WaveHeight:
10m
AffectedPlaces:Nicaragua
DeathToll:
170people
LossofProperty:Isextremelyhigh.ThetsunamidestroyedmostofNicaraguasPacific
fishingfleet.
TherewasnotimetoissuealocaltsunamiwarningatNicaraguaatthattime,sinceitwasnotan
ITSUmember,thatisitwasnotacountrycoverbythePacificTsunamiWarningCenter.There
hadbeennostudiesassessingthetsunamitreatforthisarea.Thelargetsunamiwhichstuckwasa
completesurpriseeventoscientists.Itwasmuchlargerthanwhatwouldhavebeenexpectedfor
anearthquakeofthatmagnitude,anditdidnotbehaveinthetraditionalway.Thereweremany
lessonsthatwerelearnedfromthiseventforscientistsaswellasofficialsofdisaster
organizations.Coastalresidentsclaimedthattheydidnotfeelstronggroundmovements,asit
wouldhavebeenexpected,towarnthemofanimminenttsunamidangersotheydidnotrunto
higherground.
Thelessonlearnedwasthateachearthquakeincertainregionscanbeunique.Itwasdetermined
thatthemagnitudeofthisearthquakehadbeenunderestimatedbecausemostoftheseismic
stationsmeasuredonlyseismicwavesofshortperiod.Shortperiodwaveshadnotbeenreadily
producedbythisquakebecauseofitslongdurationoffaulting.Measurementswithlongperiod
seismometerswouldhaveshowntheseismicmomentofthisearthquaketobefivetimesgreater.
Thequickdissipationofshortperiodwavesaccountedfortheabsenceofstrongground
movementsorrumblinginthecoastalresidentsreports.Scientistslearnedthatunusuallylarge
tsunamiscanbegeneratedbyearthquakeswithslowfaultmotionwithinsubductedsediments.In
fact,severalsimilarearthquakeshaveoccurredaroundtheworldwhicharenowbeingcalled
tsunamiearthquakes.Itisestimatedthat5to10percentofalltsunamigeneratingearthquakes
maybesilentearthquakesofthistype.
Page 44
Page32
3.2.7July12,1993Okushiri,JapanEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
7.7
WaveHeight:
5to10m(Fieldsurveyshowsthatwaveheighttobe31mintheshort
valleyofOkushiriisland.)
AffectedPlaces:OkushiriregionofHokkaido.
DeathToll:
239people
LossofProperty:Itisextremelyextensive
3.2.8October4,1994RussiaKurilIslands,ShikotanEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
8.1
WaveHeight:
10m
AffectedPlaces:TheislandsofthePacificnationofVanuatu
DeathToll:
11people
LossofProperty:Itisextremelyextensive
3.2.9November15,1994PhilippinesMindoraEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
7.1
WaveHeight:
8.5m
AffectedPlaces:Mindora,VerdeandBacoIsland
DeathToll:
78people
LossofProperty:Itisextremelyextensive.
3.2.10October9,1995MexicoManzaniloEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
8.0
WaveHeight:
1.05.7m(onlyoneplace11m)
AffectedPlaces:Mexico
DeathToll:
40people
Page 45
Page33
3.2.11February21,1996PeruNorthernEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
7.8
WaveHeight:
60cm(atEasterIsland),25cm(atHilo)
AffectedPlaces:PortofCallaonearLima,beachofCampoSanta.
DeathToll:
12people
3.2.12July17,1998PapuaNewGuinea(PNG)EarthquakeandTsunami:
Figure3.5:ThedamagedvillageofBaieMartele(Spontaneousnightimeselfevacuation
followingapostPNGvideo.(Outof500residentsofthisvillage,only3diedA
goodexampleofeducationsurvivesthelivesofpeoplefromnaturaldisasters)
[PhotographCredit:Prof.EmileOkal]
Magnitude:
7.0
WaveHeight:
10m
AffectedPlaces:NortherncoastofPapuaNewGuinea.
DeathToll:
2182people
Page 46
Page34
3.2.13November26,1999VanuatuEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
7.4
WaveHeight:
23m
AffectedPlaces:TheislandsofthesoutwestPacific
DeathToll:
10people
3.2.14June23,2001PeruSouthernEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
8.4
WaveHeight:
34.5m
AffectedPlaces:
NorthoftownofOconainSothernPeru
DeathToll:
96people
3.2.15January2,2002VanuatuEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
7.5
WaveHeight:
3m
AffectedPlaces:
TheislandsofthesoutwestPacific
DeathToll:
10people
LossofProperty:Itisextensive.
Page 47
Page35
3.3IndianOceanEarthquakesandTsunamis
3.3.1December12,1992IndonesiaFloresIslandEarthquakeandTsunami:
Figure3.6:Themostlyaffectedareasduetothistsunami(Left)&theruinsafterthetsunami
eventinMaumerevillage(Right)
[Photographcredit:ITIC]
Magnitude:
7.7
WaveHeight:
26.2m(RiangKroka);25.2m(FloresIsland);
AffectedPlaces:Maumerevilage,FloresislandandsomepartsofeastTimor.
DeathToll:
2090people
3.3.2June2,1994Indonesia,JavaEarthquakeandTsunami:
Figure3.7:TsunamidamageinEastJava
[Photographcredit:ITIC]
Page 48
Page36
Magnitude:
7.8
WaveHeight:
114m
AffectedPlaces:
Indonesia
DeathToll:
423people
Thiseventhadseveralunusualcharacteristicsandwasconsistentwithsocalledsilenttsunami
earthquakes.AswiththeNicaraguaearthquakeofSeptember2,1992,residentsalongthe
southeasternEastJavacoastdidnotexperiencestronggroundmotins,thustheywerenot
concernedthatamajortsunamiwouldstrike.
3.3.3May3,2000IndonesiaSulawesiIslandEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
7.3
WaveHeight:
6m
AffectedPlaces:
SulawesiandtheneighbouringoffshoresmallerislandsinIndonesia
DeathToll:
46people
LossofProperty:
Isextremelyextensive(80%ofbuildingsweredamaged.)
3.3.4December26,2004IndianOceanEarthquakeandTsunami:
Magnitude:
9.1
WaveHeight:
6m
AffectedPlaces:
fromIndonesiaintheeast,tothecoastofAfrica,some7,000km
away,SriLankanisland.
DeadToll:
310,000people
MoredetailsonthishistoricIndianOceantsunamieventarecontainedinthenextpart
ofthischapter.
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3.4TheGreatEarthquakeandMegaTsunamion26thDecember2004
Themostfatal,destructive,tragicandsignificantdisastercausedbytheTsunamisinrecent
memorywastheoneoccurredinpeacefulmorningonthe26thdayofDecember2004.Thiswas
withamagnitudeofa9.1earthquakeintheNorthwestcoastoftheIndonesianislandofSumatra.
TheearthquakeresultedfromcomplexsliponthefaultwheretheoceanicportionoftheIndian
PlateslidesunderSumatra,partoftheEurasianPlate.Theearthquakedeformedtheoceanfloor,
pushingtheoverlyingwaterupintoatsunamiwave.
TheAsianTsunamiofDecember2004leftanunprecedentedtrailofdestructioninmymotherland
SriLankaandaroundmuchoftheIndianOcean.Whentheyarrivedwithlittleornowarning,the
megawaveswereruthlessandindiscriminate.Thetsunamiwavedevastatednearbyareaswhere
thewavemayhavebeenashighas25metersandkillednearly300,000peoplefromnationsinthe
regionandtouristsfromaroundtheworld.Inoverallterms,itslevelofdestructionishigherthan
inLisbonearthquake(1755AD)whichisregardedasthedeadliestearthquakeinmodernhistory
whichtookwellover100,000livesinLisboncity.
Thisisthethirdlargestearthquakeintheworldsince1900andisthelargestsincethe1964Prince
WilliamSound,Alaskaearthquake.Intotal,morethan283,100peoplewerekilled,14,100arestill
listedasmissingand1,126,900weredisplacedbytheearthquakeandsubsequenttsunamiin10
countriesinSouthAsiaandEastAfrica.
Table3.1:The10largestearthquakesintheworld.
No
Place
Mag.
Date
1
Chile
9.5
1960.05.22
2
PrinceWilliamSound,
Alaska
9.2
1964.03.28
3
Offthewestcoastof
NorthernSumatra
9.1
2004.12.26
4
Kamchatka
9.0
1952.11.04
5
OffthecoastofEcuador
8.8
1906.01.31
6
RatIslands,Alaska
8.7
1965.02.04
7
NorthernSumatra,
Indonesia
8.6
2005.03.28
8
AndreanofIslands,
Alaska
8.6
1957.03.09
9
Assam,Tibet
8.6
1950.08.15
10
KurilIslands
8.5
1963.10.13
[Datafrom:USGSNationalEarthquakeinformationcenter]
Page 50
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Theearthquakewasfelt(IX)atBandaAceh,(VIII)atMeulabohand(IV)atMedan,Sumatraand
(IIIV)inpartsofBangladesh,India,Malaysia,Maldives,Myanmar,Singapore,SriLankaand
Thailand.Thetsunamicausedmorecasualtiesthananyotherinrecordedhistoryandwasrecorded
nearlyworldwideontidegaugesintheIndian,PacificandAtlanticOceans.
OnDecember26,2004at06:58:53localtime(00:58:53GMT),afaultrupturewasinitiatedoff
thewestcoastofnorthernSumatra,IndonesiaalongtheSundaTrenchsubductionzoneplate
boundary,triggeringadevastatingtsunamiaroundmuchoftheIndianOcean.Theepicenter(the
pointontheEarthssurfaceabovewhichtheruptureinitiated)waslocatedat3.30Nand95.87E,
approximately250kmsouthsoutheastofBandaAceh,thecapitalcityoftheAcehProvincein
northernSumatra,Indonesia.Fromthispoint,therupturecontinuedtoexpandnorthwardformore
than1,200km,generatingamassiveM=9.1earthquake.
Figure3.8:Theearthquakeepicenter,aftershocks,andtheextentofthemainfaultruptureforthe
M=9.1December26,2004earthquakeandtheM=8.7March28,2005earthquake.
[Maptakenfrom:IndianOceantsunamireportofRiskManagementSolutions,USA]
Theearthquakerupturewaslocatedatarelativelyshallowdepthalongthesubductionzone;
estimatesofthefocaldepthrangefrom10to30km.Theaftershockdistributionsuggestsamain
faultrupturezoneof90kminwidth,extendingalongthe1,200kmruptureuptotheAndaman
Islandchain.Totalfaultmovementwasaround15mnearSumatra,withdecreasingdisplacement
tothenorth.Inthisregion,theIndianOceanplateismovingdowntotheeastundertheBurma
Microplateatarateof5.9cmperyear,sothedisplacementrepresentedupto250yearsof
accumulatedplatemotion.Hundredsofaftershockswererecordedinthefollowingdaysand
months,includingasecondsignificant,M=8.7earthquakeonMarch28,2005at23:09:36local
Page 51
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time(16:09:36GMT).Thisearthquakewaslocatedat2.076N,97.013E,southeastofthe
epicenteroftheDecember2004earthquake.Thissecondmajorshockcausedfurtherbuilding
damageandtriggeredanother,albeitmuchsmallerandlocalized,tsunami.
3.4.1TectonicsoftheSumatraAndamanIslands.
TheDecember26,2004M=9.1Sumatraearthquakeoccurredalongasubductionzoneinwhich
theIndiaPlate,anoceanicplate,isbeingsubductedbeneaththeBurmaPlate.Theinterface
betweenthetwoplatesresultsinalargefault,termedaninterplatethrustormegathrust,thatcan
betracedalonganarcparalleltotheSundaTrenchfromMyanmartoJava.Thebelowfigure
shows:theinterplatethrust,theepicenteroftheDecember26,2004mainshock,andmajorstrike
slipfaultsintheoverridingplateofthesubductionzone.
Figure3.9:TectonicbasemapoftheSumatrasubductionzoneshowingmajorfaults
[Maptakenfrom:USGSEarthquakesummaryposter]
Page 52
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Belowisageneraldiagramofanoceanicsubductionzone.
Figure3.10:Oceanicoceanicconvergence
[Figureistakenfrom:onlineeditionofThisDynamicEarth]
ThedirectionofconvergenceoftheIndiaPlaterelativetotheoverridingplateofthesubduction
zone(thickarrowsonmapabove)isorientedobliquetothetrenchaxis.Foranobliquesubduction
zonesuchasthis,straincanbepartitionedintwowaysasshowninthefigurebelow(Geist,1999)
Figure3.11:Typesoffaultingofanobliquesubductionzone
[Figureistakenfrom:USGSTsunamisandEarthquakeswebsite]
AsdescribedinaclassicpaperbyFitch(1972),theSumatrasubductionzoneischaracterizedby
decoupledfaulting,asin(b)above.Inthiscase,nearlypurethrustfaultingoccursalongthe
interplatethrustandtranscurrent,strikeslipfaultingoccursintheoverridingplate,mostnotably
alongtheGreatSumatranfault.
Page 53
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Figure3.12:Tsunamitriggered
locationsintheIndian
Oceansince1762.
[Figurefrom:RMSreport,USA]
2005=
3.4.2HistoricalEventsinSumatranRegion
ThereisalongrecordoftsunamisaffectingthecoastlinesoftheIndianOcean,principallyalong
thewesterncoastofSumatra,althoughtherehavebeennoneinrecenthistory.In1861,an
estimatedM=8.89.2earthquakerupturedmuchofthesubductionzonealongthewestcoastof
Sumatra,southofthe2004and2005faultruptures,causingdamageallalongthecoastandonthe
offshoreislandsofSumatra.
Othermajortsunamigeneratingearthquakeshad
occurredalongsegmentsofthesubductionzonein1797
andin1833,whenhugetsunamisfloodedthesouthern
partofwesternSumatraclaimingtensofthousandsof
livesineachincident.However,overtheprevious500
years,therehadneverbeenamajortsunamioriginating
fromthesectionofplateboundarythatbrokein2004.
Thelargestpreviouseventonthissectionwasin1881,
whenanestimatedM=8earthquakeintheAndaman
Islandscausedamodest1mtsunamirecordedontide
gaugesinChennai,India.Furtherbackintime,theplate
boundarytothenorthofthe2004faultrupturebrokein
agreatearthquakealongthewholeofthewestern
ArakancoastofMyanmarin1762,causingsignificant
coastalupliftandamoderatetsunamiinthenorthern
IndianOcean.A2mriseinthewaterlevelwasreported
nearDhaka,Bangladeshaftertheevent.
However,earthquakesarenottheonlytriggersoftsunamis.Atsunamigeneratingeventtook
placeintheregionin1883,whenacataclysmicvolcaniceruptionsuddenlycollapsedtheisland
volcanoofKrakataulocatedbetweenSumatraandJavainIndonesia,causingthedeadliest
tsunamiintheregionpriorto2004.Over36,000diedfromthewaves,whichhadamaximumrun
upof40malongthesurroundingshorelinesoftheislands.
OntheAndamanandNicobarIslandsinSumatra,theindigenouspeoplesweresufficiently
knowledgeableofthehazardfollowingmajorearthquakesin1883and1941.Afterexperiencing
thestrongshakingoftheearthquakeandrecognizingthesignsofanimpendingtsunami,theyfled
tohigherground.InSriLankaandThailand,withoutawarenessofthesignsandconsequencesof
atsunamiwave,evacuationwasslowerandconsequentlyyieldedmorecasualties.
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3.4.3TsunamiGenerationfromthe2004M=9.1SumatraEarthquake
Threegeneralaspectsofthe2004Sumatraearthquakeareimportantinexplainingthetsunamithat
wasgenerated:
Magnitude,
Mechanism,and
Centroid.
(a.)Magnitude:
Themagnitudeoftheearthquakeis,inmostcases,themostimportantfactorthatdetermines
thesizeofatsunami.Thefigurebelowshowslocaltsunamiintensity(afunctionofmaximum
tsunamirunup)plottedagainstthemomentmagnitudeoftheearthquake(Mw)foranumberof
tsunamisthatoccurredinthepastcentury.
Figure3.13:Variationoflocaltsunamiintensity(Imamurascale)withmomentmagnitudeofthe
earthquake[Figureistakenfrom:USGSTsunamisandEarthquakeswebsite]
Neartheearthquakesource,localtsunamisizeincreaseswiththemagnitudeoftheearthquake,
thoughthereissignificantvariabilityinthisrelationship(Geist,2002).Thetermtsunami
earthquakereferstoanomalousearthquakes,inwhichthetsunamiislargerthanexpected
fromthemagnitudeoftheearthquake.Tsunamiearthquakesalsotendtorupturethe
shallowestpartoftheinterplatethrustnearthetrench.Incontrasttonormaltsunamigenic
earthquakes,tsunamiearthquakesfollowawelldefinedtrend(blacklineabove).Thesizeof
2004Sumatralocaltsunamiisconsistentwiththesizeoftsunamisgeneratedbyother
earthquakesofsimilarmagnitude.Thoughtsunamirunupsfromthisearthquakeareamong
thehighesteverrecorded(nearly32m),thisearthquakedoesnotappeartobeananomalous
tsunamiearthquake.
Page 55
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Figure3.14:
BasemapoftheSumatrasubductionzone
showingseismicityassociatedwiththe2004
Sumatraearthquake
[Maptakenfrom:USGSEarthquakesummary
poster]
(b.)Mechanism:
ConsistentwiththedecoupledtectonicsoftheSumatrasubductionzonedescribedinthe
previoussection,thefocalmechanismforthe2004Sumatramainshockshowsthatrupture
occurredontheinterplatethrustwithverylittleobliquemotion.Aftershocksoccurredonboth
theinterplatethrustandfaultsintheoverridingplate,includingthetranscurrentfault.
Whennearlyallofanearthquake'senergyisreleasedinathrustmotion,asinthe2004
Sumatraearthquake,alargetsunamiisgenerated.Incontrast,largestrikeslipearthquakes,
suchasthe1906SanFranciscoearthquakewhichoccurredontheSanAndreasFault,arenot
efficienttsunamigenerators.
(c.)Centroid:
Thecentroidofanearthquakecanbesimplydefinedasthelocationofthecenterofenergy
release.Thelocationofthe2004Sumatracentroid,determinedbyHarvardUniversity,isnear
thetrench(blackcirclewithyellowplussignonthemapbelow).Thiscentroidlocation
indicatesthatmostoftheenergyreleasefromtheearthquaketookplaceindeepwater.This
generallyresultsinaninitialtsunamiwithlargerpotentialenergythanatsunamigeneratedby
asimilarrupturelocatedclosertoshorebeneathshallowerwater(Geist,2002).
Page 56
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Herebelow3Dfiguresshowthe2004DecemberIndianOceantsunamigenerationmodeling
conductedbyUSGS.
Figure3.15:GenerationofTsunamiduethe26thDecember2004earthquake
[FigureCredit:USGSTsunamisandEarthquakeswebsite]
BeforetheEvent
Initiationof
TsunamiWave
Splittingof
TsunamiWave
TsunamiWave
Propagation
TsunamiWave
Propagation
TsunamiWave
Propagation
Page 57
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CHAPTER4:COMPARISONOFLOCALANDINTERNATIONAL
DAMAGEASSESSMENTS
4.1Introduction
ThedamageassessmentsoftheIndianOceantsunami2004inSriLankanislandwerecarriedout
bymanylocalauthoritiesandinternationalorganizations.Thelocalauthoritiesmainlyinvolvedin
thisareCensusandStatisticsDepartment,NARA(NationalAquaticResourcesandDevelopment
Agency),DisasterManagementCenter,GeologicalSurvey&MinesBureauofSriLanka,
UniversitiesofSriLankaandmanymore.AlsomanyinternationalorganizationssuchasUSGS
(UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey),NOAA(NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration,
ITIC(InternationalTsunamiInformationCenter),IOC/UNESCO(IntergovernmentalOceanic
Commission/UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization),many
internationaluniversitiesandresearchgroupsandmanymore.Thischapterisdevotedto
comparingthevariabilityoflocalandinternationaldamageassessments.
4.2DamageAssessmentsconductedbyLocalAuthoritiesinSriLanka
CensusandStatisticsDepartmentofSriLankaconductedadetailedsurveytocarryoutthe
damagesduetothisdisasterinthewholeislandinallaffecteddistrictsandthefollowingtableand
figuresshowthosedataindetailbyGN(GramaNiladarie;thesmallestadministrativedivisionin
SriLanka)divisionsexcepttheareaswhichwereunderthecontrolofterroristsinthattime.
DuringthisinvestigationofCSDtheyhaveconcentratedonthecharacteristicsofthebuildings
(bothhousingunitsandotherbuildings),occupantsanddeadandmissingpersons.Furthermore,
thesereportscontaineddetaileddatarelatedtothe2004disasterinmanycategoriessuchas:
1.Materialsusedforconstructionofbuildings
2.Ownershipofbuildings
3.Floorareaofbuildings
4.Housingunitsbyincomecategory
5.Housingunitsbynumberoffamilies
6.Populationbyagegroup
Page 58
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7.Numberofpeopledisabled/injured/sickduetotsunami
8.Numberofpersonsengagedinfishingbeforeandafterthedisaster
9.Numberofpersonsengagedinotherfishingrelatedemploymentsbefore&afterthedisaster
10.Numberofpersonsengagedincoirindustrybeforeandafterthedisaster
11.Numberofpersonsengagedintourismindustrybeforeandafterthedisaster
12.Numberofpersonsengagedingovernmentemploymentbeforeandafterthedisaster
13.Numberofpersonsengagedinotheremploymentbeforeandafterthedisaster
Inthefollowingtable,someofthosedamagesasinCSD(CensusandStatisticsDepartment)
reportsaresummarized.Thefollowingabbreviationsareusedinthetabletonamethedistrictsin
SriLankaasdescribedbelow.
Table4.1:DamagedHousingUnitsandTsunamiAffectedPopulationinSriLankaaccordingto
theGNBasis(Source:CSD)
DamageHousingUnits
AffectedPopulation
MonthlyIncomeofthe
HousingUnit(Rs)
AgeGroup(Years)
District
DSDivision
Lessth
an
5000
5
0009999
100
00&
ab
ove
Not
reported
Total
Lessth
an
5
5to
14
15to29
30ormo
re
Total
EravurPattu
23486
6
3
329
155441429433
1458
Kattankudy
57668215171
1480
6131319169822775907
KoralaiPattu/S
29
28
0
1
58
35
61
4544
185
KoralaiPattu
6173634021
1041
329841121412693653
KoralaiPattu/N3363277539
3702
154339054564422414236
Manmunai/N14481742102248
4260
138432195352731817273
Manmunai/S
226115657021664694
158040055713781019108
BAT
ManmunaiPattu102678713638
1987
84419149582286915209
Colombo
3163018510
712
35268187113083212
Dehiwala
180176566
418
171328481693
1673
Moratuwa
1727167060517
4019
166733694999671516750
Rathmalana
290300439
642
29354779510772712
COL
Thimbirigasyaya23
24
7
1
55
18
35
5272
177
KALKalutara
KILKillinochchi
MATMatara
MULMullativu
PUTPuttalam
TRITrincomalee
BATBatticola
COLColombo
GALGalle
GAMGampaha
HAMHambantota
JAFJafna
Page 59
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Ambalangoda
1692141356
524
19839369211272410
Balapitiya
65581765914
2145
80817002770483610114
Bentota
12
14
120
38
17
23
3383
156
Galle4Gravets37554265813
1588
6821494222637128114
Habaraduwa
59347931533
1420
451950166928665936
GAL
Hikkaduwa
16791555137585
4694
157635965938990321013
GAM
Negombo
2042731378
622
28067192910852965
Wattala
96156540
306
151274375542
1342
Ambalantota
95
45
320
172
44
154214314
726
Hambantota
982292362
565
173355551980
2059
Thangalla
39039632816
1130
414954144023595167
HAM
Thissamaharama49
62
516
168
69
172210264
715
Vadamarachchi/E27151495136
2951
81321284177399911117
JAF
Vadamarachchi/N18701131939
2041
7872040280634069039
Beruwala
43364766542
1787
7081343226839508269
Kalutara
81565539922
1891
7461421249338318491
KAL
Panadura
69176848430
1973
6811346242940298485
Pachchilaipalli13312
0
4
149
77
194215232
718
Kandawali
14
1
0
0
15
10
9
2414
57
KIL
Poonakary
67
21
1
0
89
50
1041360
290
Devinuwara
131125989
363
176300515815
1806
Dikwella
3652592357
866
283682132418504139
Matara4Gravits47566485235
2026
6531498248448869521
MAT
Weligama
94882966149
2487
90419383475530511622
MUL
Marimepattu
3817121235017
5396
163745268070834722580
PUT
Wennappuwa
31
22
3
0
56
17
57
5797
228
Seruwila
10128
2
0
131
74
133146145
498
Town&Gravets78859824334
1663
8581689242027037670
Kinniya
11229513371022512
118628193662366211329
Verugal
969148258
1150
5991264155811664587
Muthur
8183106537
1230
5921312148114364821
TRI
Kuchchiweli
85374513242
1772
8581730204423256957
Accordingtotheabovedataitispointedoutthatintotal,67317houseunitsweredamagedand
294,494peoplewereaffectedin45GNdivisionsofthe12districtsinSriLankaduetothelast
tsunamidisasterin2004.Thefollowingfigures4.1and4.2representthesedamagesinGN
divisionsbasiswiththepercentageofdamagesineachGNdivisionwithrespecttothe
cumulativetotaldamageinthose45GNdivisions.
Page 60
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Figure4.1:TotalDamageofHousingUnitsaccordingtotheGNDivisionsBasis
Figure4.2:TotalAffectedPopulationaccordingtotheGNDivisionsBasis
Herebelow,dataaregivenfortheall14affecteddistrictsinSriLankaindistrictbasisaccording
todataavailableindifferentauthoritiesforthemomentinSriLanka.
TotalDamgeHousingUnitsAccordingtothe
GramaNiladariDivisons
0%
2%
2%
5%
6%
7%
1%
6%
0%
3%
0%
2%
2%
7%
2%0%
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
2%
2%
3%
1%
1%
3%
1%
8%
0%
3%
4%
2%
0%
0%
0%
1%
0%1%
0%
0%
3%
1%
1%
0%
ERAVURPATTU
KATTANKUDY
KORALAIPATTUSOUTH
KORALAIPATTU
KORALAIPATTUNORTH
MANMUNAINORTH
MANMUNAISOUTH
MANMUNAIPATTU
COLOMBO
DEHIWALA
MORATUWA
RATHMALANA
THIMBIRIGASYAYA
AMBALANGODA
BALAPITIYA
BENTOTA
GALLEFOURGRAVETS
HABARADUWA
HIKKADUWA
NEGAMBO
WATTALA
AMBALANTOTA
HAMBANTOTA
THANGALLA
THISSAMAHARAMA
VADAMARACHCHIEAST
VADAMARACHCHINORH
BERUWALA
KALUTARA
PANADURA
PACHCHILAIPALLI
KANDAWALI
POONAKARY
DEVINUWARA
DIKWELLA
MATARAFOURGRAVITS
WELIGAMA
MARITIMEPATTU
WENNAPPUWA
SERUWILA
TOWN&GRAVETS
KINNIYA
VERUGAL
MUTHUR
KUCHCHIWELI
TotalAffectedPeopleAccordingtothe
GramaNiladariDivisons
0%
2%
0%
5%
6%
6%
5%
6%
1%
3%
0%
3%
2%
7%
2%0%
4%
3%
3%
3%
4%
8%
0%
4%
2%
2%
2%
0%
1%
1%
1%
3%
3%
0%
1%1%
0%
0%
3%
1%
0%
1%
0%
1%
ERAVURPATTU
KATTANKUDY
KORALAIPATTUSOUTH
KORALAIPATTU
KORALAIPATTUNORTH
MANMUNAINORTH
MANMUNAISOUTH
MANMUNAIPATTU
COLOMBO
DEHIWALA
MORATUWA
RATHMALANA
THIMBIRIGASYAYA
AMBALANGODA
BALAPITIYA
BENTOTA
GALLEFOURGRAVETS
HABARADUWA
HIKKADUWA
NEGAMBO
WATTALA
AMBALANTOTA
HAMBANTOTA
THANGALLA
THISSAMAHARAMA
VADAMARACHCHIEAST
VADAMARACHCHINORH
BERUWALA
KALUTARA
PANADURA
PACHCHILAIPALLI
KANDAWALI
POONAKARY
DEVINUWARA
DIKWELLA
MATARAFOURGRAVITS
WELIGAMA
MARITIMEPATTU
WENNAPPUWA
SERUWILA
TOWN&GRAVETS
KINNIYA
VERUGAL
MUTHUR
KUCHCHIWELI
Page 61
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Table4.2:DamagedHousingUnits,TsunamiAffectedPopulationandDead&MissingPeoplein
SriLankaaccordingtotheDistrictsBasis
DepartmentofCensusandStatistics
NARA&OtherLocal
Institutions
District
Total
Population
(2003)
Tsunami
Affected
Population
Dead&
Missing
No.of
Damaged
Houses
Tsunami
Heights,
(m)
Inundation
Distance,
(Km)
Ampara
605,000
183,647
11,507
18,810
13
3
Batticaloa
536,000
186,743
3,654
17,450
NoData
Colombo
2,305,000
19,872
97
6,345
1
0.3
Galle
1,011,000
58,239
4,345
11,626
9
1
Gampaha
2,089,000
32,000
8
854
2.5
0.1
Hambantota
533,000
27,351
4,962
2,445
10
2
Jaffna
589,000
49,270
3,654
5,515
NoData
Kalutara
1,077,000
44,411
288
5,741
4.5
0.5
Killinochchi
140,000
51,020
687
NoData
NoData
Matara
780,000
25,445
1,503
6,238
5
0.5
Mullativu
141,000
27,057
4,741
5396
NoData
Puttalam
722,000
850
4
55
2.5
0.1
Trincomalee
377,000
86,054
1,405
7,531
5
0.5
Vavuniya
139,000
3,113
2,212
NoData
NoData
Total
795,072
39067
88,006
Figure4.3:TotalAffectedPopulationaccordingtotheDistrictsBasis
TotalAffectedPopulation
86,054
3,113
186,743
25,445
27,057
850
19,872
58,239
32,000
27,351
49,270
44,411
51,020
183,647
Ampara
Batticaloa
Colombo
Galle
Gampaha
Hambantota
Jaffna
Kalutara
Killinochchi
Matara
Mullativu
Puttalam
Trincomalee
Vavuniya
Page 62
Page50
Figure4.4:TotalDeadandMissingPeopleaccordingtotheDistrictsBasis
Figure4.5:TotalDamageofHousingUnitsaccordingtotheDistrictsBasis
TotalDeadandMissingPersons
2,212
1,405
11,507
687
288
3,654
4,962
8
4,345
97
4
4,741
1,503
3,654
Ampara
Batticaloa
Colombo
Galle
Gampaha
Hambantota
Jaffna
Kalutara
KillinochchiMatara
Mullativu
Puttalam
TrincomaleeVavuniya
TotalDamgeHousingUnits
6,238
5,396
55
7,531
6,345
0
11,626
854
2,445
5,515
5,741
0
18,810
17,450
Ampara
Batticaloa
Colombo
Galle
Gampaha
Hambantota
Jaffna
Kalutara
Killinochchi
Matara
Mullativu
Puttalam
Trincomalee
Vavuniya
Page 63
Page51
Thefollowingmapsalsoshowthetotalpopulation,totalnumberofaffectedpeople,deadand
missingpeopleandthetotalnumberofdamagedhousingunitsindistrictbasisallaroundthe
islandduetothetsunamiattackin2004December.
Figure4.6:TsunamiAffectedPeopleandDamagedHousesinSriLankainallDistricts
(Source:CensusandStatisticsDepartment,SriLanka)
Page 64
Page52
HerebelowtherearesomeofthepicturestakenafterthetsunamiattackinSriLankaindifferent
placesoftheisland.
Figure4.7:TrainDisasteratParaliya
[PhotoCredit:Prof.CharitaPattiaratchiandDr.NimalWijerathne]
Page 65
Page53
Figure4.8:GalleBusStand
Figure4.9:BehindtheGalleHarbour
Figure4.10:ClosetoGalleBridge
Figure4.11:ClosetoKittangeyaHospitalandDicksonPlaceinGalle
Page 66
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Figure4.12:TsunamiattackinPanadura
Figure4.13:TsunamiattackinFisheryHarbours
[PhotoCredit:Prof.CharitaPattiaratchi]
~5m
Galle
Beruwala
Hambantota
Beruwala
Page 67
Page55
4.3DamageAssessmentsconductedbyInternationalOrganizations
HeremainattentionwasgiventothepublishedUSGSdamageassessmentreport,basedonthe
surveyconductedonJanuary915,2005inSriLanka,ontheFieldSurveyreportpublishedby
DonaldBallanthyneandontheFieldSurveyreportpublishedbyJamesGoffandtheteam.
AccordingtothisreportofUSGS,deathtollinSriLankaduetothistsunamiattackismorethan
31,000whichisavaluethatmaybeconsistentwiththelocalinvestigationsaswell(accordingto
CSDdata,totaldeadandmissingis39,067)astherearemorethan5000peoplearestillmissing.
ThetotalpicturecreditofthissectiongoestoUSGS.
Theseassessmentsarebasicallyconcentratedonthetsunamiheights,tsunamisanddepositions
andthetsunamiimpactonstructures,highwaysandboatharborsetc.
4.3.1TsunamiHeights
Thechangeintsunamiheightwithdistancefromtheshorelineisanimportantinformationfor
determininghowthetsunamilostenergyasitmovedinland.Casualtiesanddamagetostructures
arestronglyrelatedtotheheightofatsunaminotonlyattheshoreline,buttohowitdecreases
inland.Waterlevelsareusuallygreatestneartheshorelineanddecreasetozeroatthelimitof
tsunamipenetrationwherealltheenergyofthetsunamiisexpended.Therewas,however,
considerablevariabilitycausedbyanumberoffactorsincludingunderwatertopography(focusing
ordefocusingoftsunamienergy,removalofenergybyfrictiononthebottomandbreaking)and
orientationofthecoastline.
InSriLanka,thetsunamiarrivedasaleadingelevationwavealittleovertwohoursafterthe
earthquake(2:55UT,8:55A.M.localtime).Thehighestwavewasontheeastcoastaround
Nonagamawithalaterandsmallerpeakwave,inundatingthesouthandwestcoastsuptoatleast
anhourlater.OnetothreerecognizablewavesinundatedSriLanka.Inmostcases,twowaves
werereported,withthefirstabout1mhighandthesecond,largerwaveabout10minuteslater
(Golf,J.etal.2006).AlongthewestcoastbetweenGalleandKalutara,athirdwavethatis
believedtohavebeenreflectedofftheMaldivesand/orIndiaarrivedataroundnoonandwas
reportedtohavebeenseveralmeterhigh(Liuetal.2005)
Thebelowfigure4.11showsthemeasuredtsunamirunup(inblue)andmaximumtsunami
heights(inblack).Redfilleddotsshowthesitesofelevationmeasurementandareasshadedin
blackarelessthan10mabovesealevel
Page 68
Page56
Figure4.14:Measuredtsunamirunup(inblue)andmaximumtsunamiheights(inblack)
[PictureCredit:JamesGoffandtheteam]
~2m
Figure4.15:Tsunamiwatermarkat150maway
fromtheshorelineatMankerni
~4.5m
Figure4.16:TsunamiwatermarkatYala
SafariHotel
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Figure4.19:TsunamiwatermarksatPayagala
[PictureCredit:Prof.CostasE.Synolakis]
Figure4.17:Tsunamiwatermarkat220maway
fromtheshorelineatKalmunai
~2.3m
Figure4.18:Tsunamiovertoppedthebridgeat
Kuchchaveli,whichis3.7m
abovesealevel
~3.7m
~6.0m
~4.0m
Page 70
Page58
4.3.2TsunamiSandDeposits
ThetsunamiinSriLankacarriedsandfromthebeachandoceanflooranddepositeditin
buildings,ontopofboulders,andontheground.Tsunamisanddepositswerefoundatallsites
thattheEastandSouthSriLankaTeamsvisited.Althoughtsunamisarecapableoferodingthe
land,erosioninSriLankawasoftenconcentratedinarelativelynarrowzonenearthecoast.For
example,atMankerni,therewasevidencethatagrassyareaerodedabout1meterinthevertical
inazoneabout20to30mwidenearthecoast.Thesanderodedwastransportedbothonshoreand
offshore.Thesandtransportedonshoreformedarecognizabletsunamisanddeposit.Tsunami
sanddepositsatMankernistartedabout50metersinland,anddecreasedinthicknessfromabout
10centimetertotalthicknesstoabout2cmthicknessatabout150minland.Inotherlocations
wherethetsunamiwaslarger,boththewidthoftheerosionzoneandthetsunamidepositwere
larger.
Figure4.20:VariationofTsunamiSandDepositioninMankerni
Thetsunamisanddepositsoftencontainedtwoormorelayers.Theselayerswereformedby
differenttsunamiwavesandbyvariationsinflowwithinawave.Fromlabanalysesandcomputer
modelingofthetsunamisanddeposits,wewillbeabletoestimatethespeed(flowvelocity)ofthe
tsunamiasitmovedinland.
Page 71
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Figure4.21:Measuredmaximumthicknessesoftsunamideposits(inblack)andminimuminland
extentoftsunamisediments(inblue)
Figure4.22:TsunamiSandDepositsinNilaweliHotel
(Left:TsunamisanddepositatNilaveliHotel.Thistsunamidepositisapproximately15cmthick
andcomposedofthreethicklayersandRight:Obliquecutoftsunamideposit.Thedepositis
approximately100minlandoftheshoreline.)
[PhotoCredit:BretwoodHigman]
Page 72
Page60
Figure4.23:SoilErosionsduetoTsunami
(Left:ErosionclosetoNilaweliHotelcreatedsmallislandsofpretsunamisoil.Erosionherewas
lessthan1mintheverticalandRight:Erosionofgrassyareaapproximately40minlandat
Mankerni.)
4.3.2TsunamiimpactonStructures,HighwaysandBoatHarbors
DamagetostructuresinSriLankawasmostapparentinareaswherepartofthestructurewasleft
standing.Oftenthough,theonlyindicationofapreexistingstructurewasaremnantofa
foundation.DamagetostructuresfromthetsunamiinSriLankawasgreatestwherethetsunami
heightwasgreatest.Insomeplacestherewasazonenearthecoastwhereallstructureswere
completelydestroyed.Forexample,inonepartofKalmunai,thezoneofdestructionextended
aboutonehalfakilometerinland.However,thedamagetostructureswasvariableovershort
stretchesofcoast.Lessthan2kmfromthislocation,mostofthestructureswerestandingand
relativelyundamagedatdistancesgreaterthan100mfromtheshoreline.Thisvariabilitycouldbe
theresultofbothinthetsunamiandinthequalityofconstruction.
Figure4.24:DamagedBuildingsnearly500mofthecoastinKalmunai
[PhotoCredit:PhillipLiu]
Page 73
Page61
Figure4.25:Tsunamiremovedthehousesatabout75minlandatMankerni
Figure4.26:RoomsattheYalaSafariResort
Figure4.27:CompletedestructionofhousesatHikkaduwa
Figure4.28:DestructionofElectricityline(Left)&Communicationtower(Right)atHambantota
BeforeTsunami
AfterTsunami
Page 74
Page62
Figure4.33:Twopilebentssettled(Left)andExposedsouthernabutment(Right)oftheArugam
BayBridge
Figure4.29:RoadDestructionatKattankudy
Figure4.30:RailwaytrackDestructionatPayagala
Figure4.31:AdredgewashedashoreinGallePort
Figure4.32:TiltPublicBathroomatThangalla
Page 75
Page63
CHAPTER5:RELATIONSHIPBETWEENRUNUPHEIGHTANDTHE
HORIZONTALINUNDATIONLENGTH
5.1Introduction
Thebasicaimofthispartoftheresearchwastofindoutsomeacceptablerelationshipsofrunup
heightandthehorizontalinundationlengthalonethecoastalbeltofSriLankawithreferenceto
thelastIndianOceantsunamiof26thDecember2004.Eventhoughitisquitehardtoproduce
directequationsormethodstofindoutthisrelationshipduetothevariationofgeologicaland
otherphysicalfactorssuchasbathymetryofthecoastalbeltalonetheisland,availabilityofcoral
reefs,canyonsandnarrowcontinentalshelves,slopingofthelandandthedistributionofbuildings
etc.Duetotheinfluenceofthesecoastalandlandgeomorphologyfeatures,thisvariationwas
rathercomplex.
5.2ContinentalMarginofSriLankaandtheBathymetryaroundCountry
SriLankaisanislandlyingnearthesoutherntipofIndiabetween5.5to10Nlatitudeand79.5
to82ElongitudeboundedonthewestbytheGulfofMannarandontheeastbyBayofBengal
(Wijayananda,1995).TheentirecontinentalmarginofSriLankahasbeenpassivemarginsince
latecretaceouswhenIndiariftedawayfromGondwanaland(Laughtonet.al,1972).Analysisof
continentalmarginexhibitsfewanomalousfeaturessuchassomeofthesteepestcontinentalbed
rockslopesintheworld(Curray,1984),faultingandslumpingalongthecontinentalslopeoff
northernandwesterncoastoftheisland(VestalandLowrie,1982)andadeformationfrontoff
thesoutheastmargin(Curray,1984).
Thecontinentalslopehasaninclinationabout45inthesouthofSriLanka.Thisisthesteepest
sloperecordeduptonow(Sahani,1982).Thebathymetryofeasterncontinentalslope
demonstratesslopesofaminimumof45,betweendepthof500and4000meters(Curray,1984).
However,thisisalargervaluecomparedtoworldaverageof4.28(Shepard,1963).
Page 76
Page64
ThecontinentalshelfofSriLankaisnarrowaveragingapproximately21kmandmaximumis
about35km(Wijayananda,1995).Accordingtobathymetriccompilation,thecontinentalslope
aroundSriLankaisdissectedbyeightcanyons,thelargestisatTrincomalee,northeastofthe
country,wherethecanyonheadsstartfromabaysurroundedbyland.Theaveragedepthofthe
continentalshelfisaround200m.Thenarrowbathymetrywastheonereasonforincreasethe
impactoftsunamiwave.
5.3RunupandInundationLength
Figure5.1:Tsunamiwavepropagationalonethelands
ThemaximumheightofthewateronshoreobservedaboveareferencesealeveliscalledasRun
upHeightwhichisusuallymeasuredatthehorizontalinundationlimitandthethedistancefrom
theshorelinetothelimitoftsunamipenetrationiscalledasHorizontalInundationLength,
expressionwewillusehereafter,orHorizontalInundationDistance.
RunupelevationmeasuredbytheoceanographydivisionoftheNationalAquaticResources
researchanddevelopmentAgency(NARA),SriLanka,isvariedfromlessthan1.5mtomore
than13m.Andthehorizontalinundationdistanceswerevariedfromlessthan300mtomorethan
3kmalongtheisland.
Ingeneral,runupelevationincreasedontheeastcoastofSriLankatowardsthesouth.Onthe
southandwestcoastsrunupelevationtypicallywasgreatestattheheadlands.Andingeneral,
inundationdistanceincreasedontheeastcoastofSriLankatowardsthesouth.
Therewas,however,considerablevariabilitycausedbyanumberoffactors,includingslopeofthe
land(greaterinundationdistancesinflatterareas),underwatertopography,andorientationofthe
coastline.ThesouthandwestcoastsofSriLankaarecharacterizedbyrockyheadlandsand
interveningembaymentswithnarrowbeachesandlow,coastalplaintopography.Tsunami
inundationwasgreatestintheembayments.
[Figurecredit:USGS]
Page 77
Page65
5.4RelationshipbetweenRunupHeightandtheInundationLength
Thehorizontalinundationlengthvariedwiththecoastalgeomorphologyandtopographyand
bathymetryofthecontinentalshelf.Thesoutheasterncoast,scatteredwithnumerouscoastal
plainestuaries,receivedthedirectbruntofthetsunami.Theaveragehorizontalinundationlength
is2km.
Figure5.1showstherunupandhorizontalinundationsinsomeselectedsites.Itshowstherunup
datafrom1matMattakkuliyato13matKalmunai,whilehorizontalinundationvariesfrom0.3
kmto3kmrespectively.Also,itrevealsthatmostoftheareaswerehighlydamagedbytsunami
wavesasshownintheTable5.1.
Thefigures5.4showthevariationofmeasuredrunupandhorizontalinundation.Andalsofrom
figure5.5,5.6,5.7and5.8weseefourdifferentmethodsIhaveelaboratedtorepresentthis
variationaroundSriLankanisland.SpeciallytheRunup&InundationSpectrum(shownin
figure5.7)canbeusedasasafermethodtopredictinundationlengthsaccordingtotherunup
height,andtheRIPGraph(Runup&InundationPredictiongraphfigure5.8)givesmore
reliablerelationshipbetweenrunupandhorizontalinundationlengthstoo.
Table5.1:MeasuredMaximumRunupandInundationLengths(SourceNARA,SriLanka)
SiteNo
Location
Runup,
R(m)
MeasuredHorizontal
Inundation,Lm(km)
Status
1
Mattakkuliya
1
0.3
Lessdamaged
2
Nilaveli
3.5
0.5
Highlydamaged
3
Kosgoda
3.5
0.8
Highlydamaged
4
Payagala
4.5
0.5
Highlydamaged
5
Muttur
5
0.3
Moderatelydamaged
6
Matara
5
0.5
Moderatelydamaged
7
Akkaraipatthu
5
2.0
Highlydamaged
8
Tangalle
6
1.0
Highlydamaged
9
Yala
8
2.0
Highlydamaged
10
Kirinda
8.2
1.5
Highlydamaged
11
Galle
9
1.0
Highlydamaged
12
Paraliya
10
1.5
Highlydamaged
13
Komari
10
1.5
Highlydamaged
14
Hambantota
10
2.0
Highlydamaged
15
Arugambay
13
3.0
Highlydamaged
16
Kalmunai
13.2
3.0
Highlydamaged
Page 78
Page66
Figure5.2:MeasuredMaximumRunupandInundationLengths(SourceNARA,SriLanka)
Page 79
Page67
Herebelowfigure5.3showsthegeologicalfactorskthatareusedforimprovingthecorrelation
lawbetweenrunupheightandthehorizontalinundationdistancefortheSriLankanisland.The
proposedrelationshipisshownasVariation1infigure5.5too.
Figure5.3:GeologicalfactorskusedforfindingarelationshipbetweenRunupandInundation
Page 80
Page68
Figure5.4:VariationofMeasuredMaximumRunupandInundationLengths
Thefourdifferentrelationshipsweintroducehereafterareshownbelowandinallthoseequations
LandRindicatethehorizontalinundationlengthinkmandrunupheightinm
respectively.
(1.)L=Log(R)+k;1<R<15
(2.)L=0.23e0.2R
;1<R<15
(3.)L=0.028R30.09R2+0.096R+0.266;1<R<5
L=2.0
;5=<R<=10
L=0.33R1.3
;10<R<15
(4.)L=0.231R
;1<R<15
Thefollowingfiguresshowthisrelationvariationwiththemeasuredvaluesalongthecoastalline
ofSriLanka.Eventhoughinrealityitisbithardtoexpressexactrelationshipsbetweenhorizontal
inundationlengthandrunupheightduetoitscomplexbehavioronsiteconditionslikecoastal
bathymetryandinlandtopography,theabovefourrelationshipsgivesmuchreliablevaluesto
predicttheinundationdistancesforimmediateevacuationpurposesinfutureeventsclosetoSri
Lanka.
VariationofRunupvsInundationLength
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
1.0
10.0
Runup(m)
In
un
d
a
tion
Length(km)
Measured
Page 81
Page69
Figure5.5:ProposedRunupvs.HorizontalInundationVariation1.Noticethatherekisthe
geologicalfactordisplayedinFigure5.3
Figure5.6:ProposedRunupvs.HorizontalInundationVariation2.Noticethatthemeasured
curveisbuiltbyselectingonlysomepointsfromthesetofobservations.
VariationofRunupvsInundation
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
M
attakkuliya(1.1)
Nilaveli(3.5)
Kosgoda(3.5)
Payagala(4.5)
M
uthur(5.0)
Matara(5.0)
Akkaraipattu(5.0)
T
angalle(6.0)
Y
ala(8.0)
Kirinda(8.2)
Galle(9.0)
Paraliya(10.0)
Komari(10.0)
H
ambantota(10.0)
Arugam
bay(13.0)
K
alm
unai(13.2)
Runup(m)atdifferentcities
Inund
a
tio
n(k
m
)
Measured
Log(R)+k
ProposedRunupInundationVariation1
LI=Log(R)+k
Where:LI=InundationLength(km)
R=RunupHeight(m)
k=Geologicalfactor
(0.2)
(1.5)
(1.5)
(2.0)
(0.5)
(0.2)
(0.2)
(0.5)
(0.2)
(2.0)
(2.0)
(1.5)
(2.0)
(0.5)
(0.5)
(1.5)
VariationofRunupvsInundation
Y=0.23e0.2X;1<X<15
Where:X=RunupHeight(m)&
Y=InundationLength(km)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Runup/(m)
In
unda
tio
n
/(km)
Measured
Expon.(Measured)
Page 82
Page70
12
14
16
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
HorizontalInundationLength/(K
m)
RunupH
eight/(m)
Runup&Inundation
PredictionGraph
(RunupInundationSpectrumforSriLankanCoasts)
(RIPGraphRunup&InundationPredictionGraph)
Runup&InundationSpectrumforSrilankanCoastalArea
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
Runup(m)
Horizona
tlIn
undation(km
)
MeasuredVariation
ProposedLinearPart
ProposedCurvedPart
4thProposal(Linearvariation)
Y=0.028X30.09X2+0.096X+0.266;1<X<5
Y=2.0
;5=<X<=10
Y=0.33X1.3
;10<X<15
Where:X=RunupHeight(m)&Y=InundationLength(km)
Page 83
Page71
Table5.2:ValuesofMeasuredMaximumRunup,MeasuredandPredictedInundationLengths
(Fromdifferentmethods)
SiteN
o.
City
Ru
nup,R(m)
Measured
Horizontal
Inundation
Lm(km)
Lo
g(
R)
Geological
Factor,k
Calculated
Inundation,
Lc1(km)
[Lc1=
Log(R)
+k]
Calculated
Inundation,
Lc2(km)
[Lc2=
0.23*EXP(0.2*
R)]
Predicted
Inundation,
Lc3(km)
[FromtheRIP
graph]
Predicted
Inundation
Lc4(km)
[Fromthe
Spectrum]
1Mattakkuliya1.1
0.3
0.020.2
0.22
0.29
0.25
0.30
2
Nilaveli
3.5
0.5
0.270.2
0.47
0.46
0.81
0.70
3
Kosgoda
3.5
0.8
0.270.5
0.77
0.46
0.81
0.70
4
Payagala
4.5
0.5
0.330.2
0.53
0.57
1.04
1.43
5
Muthur
5.0
0.3
0.350.2
0.55
0.63
1.15
2.00
6
Matara
5.0
0.5
0.350.5
0.85
0.63
1.15
2.00
7Akkaraipattu5.0
2.0
0.35
2
2.35
0.63
1.15
2.00
8
Tangalle
6.0
1.0
0.391.5
1.89
0.76
1.38
2.00
9
Yala
8.0
2.0
0.451.5
1.95
1.14
1.85
2.00
10
Kirinda
8.2
1.5
0.461.5
1.96
1.19
1.89
2.00
11
Galle
9.0
1.0
0.480.5
0.98
1.39
2.08
2.00
12
Paraliya
10.0
1.5
0.500.5
1.00
1.70
2.31
2.00
13
Komari
10.0
1.5
0.50
2
2.50
1.70
2.31
2.00
14Hambantota10.0
2.0
0.501.5
2.00
1.70
2.31
2.00
15Arugambay13.0
3.0
0.56
2
2.56
3.10
3.00
2.99
16Kalmunai13.2
3.0
0.56
2
2.56
3.22
3.05
3.06
Figure5.9:ComparisonofRunupvs.HorizontalInundationLengthsfromdifferentPredicted
Methods
ComparisonoftheVariationofRunupvsInundation
inDifferentMethods
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Mattakkuliya(1.1)
Nilaveli(3.5)Kosgoda(3.5)Payagala(4.5)M
uthur(5.0)
Matara(5.0)
Akkaraipattu(5.0)
Tangalle(6.0)
Yala(8.0)
Kirinda(8.2)
Galle(9.0)
Paraliya(10.0)K
omari(10.0)
H
ambantota(10.0)
A
rugam
bay(13.0)
K
alm
unai(13.2)
Runupheights(m)atdifferentcities
Inundation/(km)
Measured
Log(R)+k
0.23*EXP(0.2*R)
FromRIPGraph
SpectralVariation
Page 84
Page72
CHAPTER6:NUMERICALSIMULATIONOFTSUNAMI
6.1GoverningEquations
6.1.1ShallowWaterTheory
Tsunamiswhicharemainlygeneratedbythemovementofseabottomduetoearthquakesbelong
tolongwaves.Inthetheoryofsuchwaves,theverticalaccelerationofwaterparticlesisnegligible
comparedtothegravitationalacceleration[Kajiura,1963].Consequently,theverticalmotionof
waterparticleshasnoeffectonthepressuredistribution.Itisagoodapproximationthatthe
pressureishydrostatic.
Basedupontheseapproximationsandneglectingtheverticalacceleration,theequationsofmass
conservationandmomentuminthethreedimensionalproblemareexpressedbythefollowing
equations:
0
=
z
w
y
v
x
u
t
0
1
1
=
z
y
x
x
p
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
xz
xy
xx
0
1
1
=
z
y
x
y
p
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
yz
yy
xy
0
1
=
+
z
g
(6.1.1)
wherexandyarehorizontalaxes,ztheverticalaxis,ttime,hthestillwaterdepth,thevertical
displacementofwatersurfaceabovethestillwatersurface,u,vandwarewaterparticle
velocitiesinthex,yandzdirections,gthegravitationalacceleration,andijthenormaland
tangentialshearstressintheidirectiononthejnormalplane.
Page 85
Page73
Theequationofmomentuminthezdirectionwiththedynamicconditionattheseasurfacesthatp
=0yieldsthehydrostaticpressure
(
)z
g
p
.
WecansolveanywavepropagationproblemsbyusingthegoverningequationsEqs.(6.1.1)with
boundaryconditions.Thedynamicandkineticconditionsatsurfaceandbottomaregivenas
follows:
0
=
p
atz=
(6.1.2)
y
v
x
u
t
w
atz=
(6.1.3)
y
h
v
x
h
u
w
=
atz=h
(6.1.4)
Now,letusintegrateEqs.(6.1.1)fromthebottomtothesurfaceusingbyLeibnitzrule.For
example,thefirsttermofthemomentumequationinthexdirectionisrewrittenasfollows:
()
h
z
z
h
h
t
h
u
t
u
udz
t
dz
t
u
=
=
WithdynamicandkineticconditionsEqs.(6.1.2)(6.1.4),wefinallyobtainthefollowingtwo
dimensionalequations(thisiscalledtheshallowwatertheory):
0
=
y
N
x
M
t
=
+

2
2
2
2
2
y
M
x
M
A
x
gD
D
MN
y
D
M
x
t
M
x
=
+
2
2
2
2
2
y
N
x
N
A
y
gD
D
N
y
D
MN
x
t
N
y
(6.1.5)
whereDisthetotalwaterdepthgivenbyh+,xandythebottomfrictionsinthexandy
directions,Athehorizontaleddyviscositywhichisassumedtobeconstantinspace.Notethatthe
shearstressontheseaisneglected.MandNarethedischargefluxesinthexandydirections
whicharegivenby
(
)uD
hu
udz
M
h
=
+
=
(
)vD
hv
vdz
N
h
=
+
=
(6.1.6)
Page 86
Page74
6.1.2BottomFriction
Thebottomfrictionisgenerallyexpressedasfollows,inananalogytotheuniformflow,
2
2
2
2
1
N
MM
D
f
g
x
+
=
2
2
2
2
1
N
MN
D
f
g
y
+
=
(6.1.7)
wherefisthefrictioncoefficient.Often,insteadoffitispreferredtouseManningsroughnessn
whichisfamiliaramongcivilengineers.ValuesofnaregiveninTable6.1[LinsleyandFranzini,
1979].
ThefrictioncoefficientfandManning'sroughnessnarerelatedby
g
fD
n
2
3
1
=
(6.1.8)
ThisimpliesthatfbecomesratherlargewhenthetotaldepthDissmallasnremainsalmosta
constant.Thus,thebottomfrictiontermsareexpressedby:
2
2
3
7
2
N
MM
D
n
x
+
=
2
2
3
7
2
N
MN
D
n
y
+
=
(6.1.9)
Throughoutthepresentmodel,theexpressionofbottomfrictioninEq.(6.1.9)isbeingused.n
shouldbeselecteddependingontheconditionofthebottomsurfaceaccordingtotheTable6.1.
Table6.1:ValuesofCoefficientofBottomFriction,n(afterLinsleyandFranzini,1979)
ChannelMaterial
n
Neatcement,smoothmetal
0.010
Rubblemasonry
0.017
Smoothearth
0.018
Naturalchannelsingoodcondition
0.025
Naturalchannelswithstonesandweeds
0.035
Verypoornaturalchannels
0.060
Page 87
Page75
6.1.3GoverningEquation
Forthepropagationoftsunamiintheshallowwater,thehorizontaleddyturbulencecouldbe
negligiblecomparedtothebottomfrictionexceptforrunupontheland.Thefollowingequations
arethereforegivenasthefundamentalequationsinthepresentmodel.
0
=
y
N
x
M
t
0
2
2
3
7
2
2
=
+
+
N
MM
D
gn
x
gD
D
MN
y
D
M
x
t
M
0
2
2
3
7
2
2
=
+
+

N
MN
D
gn
y
gD
D
N
y
D
MN
x
t
N
(6.1.10)
6.1.4Noteonconvectionterms
Theotherexpressionsoftheshallowwaterequationusingtheaveragedvelocitiesinxandy
directions(uandv)areoftenintroducedby:
0
=
z
Dw
y
Dv
x
Du
t
0
2
2
3
1
2
=
+
+
v
uu
D
gn
x
g
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
0
2
2
3
1
2
=
+
+
uv
D
gn
y
g
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
(6.1.11)
Weshouldremindthattheaboveequationscannotbeappliedtoanumericalmodelonrunup
becausetheydonotsatisfytheconservationofmomentum.Forexample,theconvectiontermsin
themomentumequationinthexdirectioninEq.(6.1.10)dividedbyDcanbemodifiedas:
()()
tD
u
x
u
v
x
u
u
y
Dv
x
Du
D
u
x
u
v
x
u
u
D
MN
y
D
M
x
D
1
(6.1.12)
TheconvectiontermsinEq.(6.1.10)arenotthesameasthoseinEq.(6.1.11)andevenifthemass
conservationequationinEq.(6.1.10),isapplied,thethirdterminleftsideofEq.(6.1.12)cannot
beeliminated.Notethatinthecaseoftidalcurrentwithlongerwaveperiodthantsunamiinwhich
accelerationterm,thethirdterminleftsideofEq.(6.1.12)isneglected.
Page 88
Page76
6.2NumericalScheme
6.2.1NumericalSchemeforLinearizedEquation
Forthefirststeptodescribethenumericalschemeforthetsunamimodel,thelinearizedlong
waveequationwithoutbottomfrictionsinonedimensionalpropagation,Eq.(6.2.1),isintroduced.
0
=
x
M
t
0
=
x
gD
t
M
(6.2.1)
Letusintroducethefinitedifferencemethodtosolvetheaboveequationnumerically.Thefinite
differencemethodbasedupontheTaylorexpansionseriesisshownasfollows.
(
)()
.....
),(
!3
),(
2
),(
,
,
3
3
3
2
2
2
+
=
+
t
tx
t
t
tx
t
t
tx
t
tx
t
tx
(6.2.2)
wheretisthegridinterval.WecanformtheforwarddifferencebyrearrangingEq.(6.2.2),
()(
)()
()
tO
t
tx
t
tx
t
tx
+
=
,
,
,
(6.2.3)
wherethefirsttermintherighthandsideofEq.(6.2.3)isobviouslythefinitedifference
representationforthefirstorderoftimederivativeatt=t(seeFig.6.2.1.1).
Figure6.1:CentralFiniteDifferenceRepresentations
Thetruncationerrorwhichhavetheorderoft,(O(t))isthedifferencebetweenthepartial
derivativeanditsfinitedifferencerepresentation.MoreoverwecanrearrangetheTaylor
Page 89
Page77
expansionseriesinEq.(6.2.2)byreplacingtby+t/2andt/2andthenweobtaincentral
differencewiththesecondorderoftruncationerror.
()
()
2
1
,
2
1
,
,
tO
t
t
tx
t
tx
t
tx
+
=
(6.2.4)
ItisinterestingthatalthoughtheexpressionofthefinitedifferencerepresentationsinEqs.(6.2.3)
and(6.2.4)aresimilar,theorderoftruncationerrorsaredifferent.Byusingtheabovecentral
differencemethodwiththestaggerednumericalpointsforwaterlevelanddischarges,whichis
calledthestaggeredleapfrogscheme,wecandescretizeEq.(6.2.1)asfollows:
(
)
()0
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
+
+
xO
M
M
x
t
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
(
)()0
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
xO
x
D
D
g
M
M
t
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
(6.2.5)
Fordealingwithdiscretevaluesinnumericalcomputations,(x,t)andM(x,t)areexpressedforthe
caseofthestaggeredleapfrogschemeas:
()(
)
n
tnxi
tx
=
,
,
()
()(
)
{
}
2
1
2
1
2
1
,
2
1
,
+
+
+
=
n
i
Mt
nx
iMtxM
(6.2.6)
wherexandtarethegridsizesinxdirectionandintimet.Thepointschematicsforthe
numericalschemeareillustratedinFig.6.2.Thepointsforwaterdepthhisthesameasthosefor
waterelevation,.
i
n
i
n
i
h
D
+
=
Figure6.2:ThePointSchematicsfortheNumericalScheme
Page 90
Page78
6.2.2NumericalSchemeforConvectionTerms
Inthepresentnumericalscheme,anupwinddifferenceschemeisappliedtotheconvection
termsinordertomakethecomputationstable.Thereasonwhythisschemeensuresthestabilityof
computationisexplainedbytakingasimpleconvectionequationinthefollowing:
0
=
x
F
C
t
F
(6.2.7)
HerethecoefficientCisthepropagationvelocityandisassumedconstant.Thearrangementof
computationpointsinthepresentschemerequirestheforwarddifferenceschemeforthefirst
ordertimederivations.Thisyields:
(
)
()
2
2
1
2
1
tO
t
Ft
F
F
t
t
F
n
i
n
i
(6.2.8)
Inaddition,thecentraldifferenceisappliedtothespacederivative.
(
)()
1
1
2
xO
F
F
x
C
x
F
C
n
i
n
i
(6.2.9)
Asaresult,
1
+
n
i
F
isgivenby:
(
)
i
n
i
k
i
n
i
F
F
x
t
C
F
F
1
1
1
+
+
=
(6.2.10)
ThesolutionofEq.(6.2.10)isimplicitlyequivalenttothesolutionofEq.(6.2.7)withatruncation
errorof(t2+x2).SubstitutingEqs.(6.2.8)and(6.2.9)intoEq.(6.2.7)yields:
0
2
2
2
x
F
C
t
Ft
t
F
(6.2.11)
Ifthesecondorderderivativewithrespecttotimeisrewrittenbyusingthefollowingrelationship
(thisassumptionisvalidfortheprogressivewaves),
2
2
2
2
2
x
F
C
x
F
C
t
t
F
ThesolutionofEq.(6.2.11)isthesameasthesolutionofthefollowingdiffusionequationin
whichthediffusioncoefficientisnegative.
2
2
2
x
F
C
t
x
F
C
t
F
(6.2.12)
Page 91
Page79
Anegativediffusionworkstoamplifyroundofferrorswithtimeleadingtoinstability.Therefore,
Eq.(6.2.10)isanunstabledifferencescheme.
Inordertoobtainastablescheme,thespacederivativetermisapproximatedbyeitherforwardor
backwarddifferencedependingonthesignofcoefficientC.Withtheforwarddifference,wehave
(
)
()
2
2
1
2
xO
x
F
C
x
F
F
x
C
x
F
C
n
i
n
i
andwiththebackwarddifference
(
)
()
2
2
1
2
xO
x
F
C
x
F
F
x
C
x
F
C
n
i
n
i
Thecorrespondingdifferentialequationswearegoingtosolvearewithinthetruncationerrorof
O(t2+x2),fortheforwarddifference
(
)
2
x
F
x
tC
C
x
F
C
t
F
(6.2.13)
andforthebackwarddifference
(
)
2
x
F
x
tC
C
x
F
C
t
F
(6.2.14)
Therefore,tokeepthevirtualdiffusioncoefficientpositive(orsaytoensurethestabilityofthe
computation),wehaveusedthebackwarddifferenceincaseofpositiveC,andtheforward
differenceincaseofnegativeC,inadditiontosetting
C
t
x
>
.Inotherwords,thedifference
shouldbetakeninthedirectionoftheflow.Thisisthereasonwhythisschemeiscalledthe
"upwind"difference.Althoughtheleapfrogschemehasthetruncationerroroftheorderofx2,
aslongastheconvectiontermconcerns,itsorderbecomeslargeasx.
6.2.3Numericalschemeforbottomfrictionterm
Thefrictiontermbecomesasourceofinstabilityifitisdiscretizedwithanexplicitscheme.To
makethediscussionofinstabilitysimple,letusconsiderthefollowingmomentumequation
withoutconvectionterms:
0
3
7
2
=
+
MM
D
gn
x
gD
t
M
(6.2.15)
Page 92
Page80
TheexplicitformofEq.(6.2.15)is:
x
t
gD
MtM
D
gn
M
n
n
=
+
3
7
2
1
1
(6.2.16)
Whenthevelocitybecomeslargeorthetotaldepthissmallinaveryshallowwater,theabsolute
valueofcoefficient(amplificationfactor)ofthefirsttermontherighthandsideofEq.(6.2.16)
becomesmorethanunity,whichleadstonumericalinstability.Inordertoovercomethisproblem,
animplicitschemetosetafrictiontermcanbebasicallyintroduced.Forexample,asimple
implicitform,
+
=
tM
D
gn
x
t
gD
tM
D
gn
M
M
n
n
3
7
2
3
7
2
1
1
1
(6.2.17)
ensuresnumericalstability,becausetheamplificationfactorinEq.(6.2.17)isalwayslessthan
unity.However,theeffectoffrictioninshallowwaterbecomessolargethatnumericalresultsare
dumped.Anotherimplicitform,acombinedimplicitonetothefrictiontermisgivenby,
=
+
tM
D
gn
x
t
gD
tM
D
gn
tM
D
gn
M
M
n
n
3
7
2
3
7
2
3
7
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
(6.2.18)
Thisschemealsogivesastableresult.Itis,however,notedthattheaboveschemecausesa
numericaloscillationatthewavefrontbecausetheamplificationfactorcouldbenegative.
Someconsiderationisneededtoselectthebestschemeamongtheimplicitonespresentedabove
toapplythebottomfrictiontermwithManningsroughness.Consideringthefactthatthe
numericalschemesofconvectiontermsalsoinvolveartificialornumericaldissipation,selection
ofEq.(6.2.17)causesmuchdampingintheresult.Therefore,agoodchoiceseemstobethe
combinedimplicitschemeofEq.(6.2.18).
Page 93
Page81
CHAPTER7:AVINAMIPROGRAM
ThecodenamedAVINAMIver.1.2simulatesandanimatesTsunamigenerationandpropagation
inagivenarbitraryshapedbathymetry.ItisdevelopedbyC++programminglanguage.The
moduleforcoseismictsunamigenerationusesOkada,1985.Themodulefortsunamipropagation
solvesNonlinearShallowWaterEquations(NSW),whosenumericalsolutionprocedurearegiven
inShuto,N.,Goto,C.,Imamura,F,1990,andGoto,C.,Ogawa,Y.,1991,andusedinTSUNAMI
N2whichhadbeenauthoredbyProfs.ImamuraandShutoanddeveloped/distributedunderthe
supportofUNESCOTIMEProjectin1990s.Thisversionisdesignedtocomputetsunami
propagationatthedepthsdeeperthan15mdepth.
ThisprogramwasdevelopedbyProf.EfimPelinovsky,Prof.AndreyKurkin,Dr.Andrey
Zaytsev,Prof.AhmetYalcinerandProf.F.ImamurawiththekindcontributionsofProf.N.
Shuto,Prof.CostasE.SynolakisandProf.EmileOkal.
ThedetailsofusingthissoftwareisavailableundertheAPPENDIXofthisreportanditclearly
explainstheprocedureofDataInputandSimulationProcess,CalculatingDistributionofRunups,
PlottingtheOutputFilesandPreparingPlotsforAnimations,CameraSettings,CreateAnimations
andCreateGaugePointFilewithfigures.
Page 94
Page82
CHAPTER8:TSUNAMISIMULATIONRESULTS
8.1Introduction
ThischaptercontainsbasicallytheresultsofninesimulationscarriedoutbyusingtheAVINAMI
tsunamimodelingprogramforfourdifferentscenarioswhichcanbepotentialenoughtocreate
damagesinSriLankanislandanditsrelativenations.IndianoceanTsunami2004eventwas
simulatedbyusing6differentmagnitudes(Mw=9.1,8.8,8.5,8.0,7.5and7.0)tofindouta
relationshipbetweenthetriggeredearthquakemagnitudeandtheexpectedmaximumwaterlevel
elevationsindifferentcitiesofSriLanka.Theotherthreeexpectedtsunamigenicscenarioswere
simulatedwithamagnitudeofMw=8.8.Thefollowingfigure8.1showsthefourmajor
tsunamigenicscenariosusedinthesesimulations.
Figure8.1:FourmajordifferentTsunamigenicScenarios
Page 95
Page83
8.2IndianOceanTsunami26thDecember2004Event
The3rdlargesttsunamigenicearthquakeofMw=9.1occurredoffthewestcoastofNorthernSumatra
on26thDecember2004.Herebellowisthesimulationresultsforthateventfordifferentpossible
magnitudes.
8.2.1December26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
Inthe26thDecemberSumatraevent,thetsunamigenerationwasoccurredbytwomajorfault
segments.Butduetothelimitationoftheprogramwehaveused,followingdatahasbeenusedas
theseismicfaultdataforthetsunamisourcegenerationtocomputethebestresultsinSriLankan
costalarea.
StartpointoffaultXcoordinateWEaxis=94E
YcoordinateSNaxis=3N
EndpointoffaultXcoordinateWEaxis=91E
Widthofthefault
=80km
Focaldepth
=10km
Strikeangle
=335
Dipangle
=10
Rakeangle
=110
Displacement
=30m
GridSize
=3697m
Figure8.2:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
FaultLength=850km
Page 96
Page84
Thefollowingfigure8.3showsthemaximumandtheminimumwaterlevelelevationsduetothe
simulationprocessoftheabovementionedeventofMw=9.1IndianOceanmegatsunamidisaster
of26thDecember2004.
Figure8.3:MaximumandMinimumWaterLevelElevationsforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
Page 97
Page85
Theinitialwaveandtheseastatesatdifferentinstantsarepresentedbelow.
T=1min
T=15min
T=30min
T=45min
T=60min
T=75min
T=90min
T=105min
Page 98
Page86
Figure8.4:SeaStatesatDifferentInstantsforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
T=120min
T=135min
T=150min
T=165min
T=195min
T=180min
T=210min
T=240min
Page 99
Page87
Alsofollowing21gaugepointswereusedtoobtainthewaterlevelelevationsarroundtheSri
Lankanislandduringtheentiresimaulationprocessofthisresearchandtheyarenotedasfollows:
JJafna(3gaugepoints)
TTrincomalee(3gaugepoints)
KKalmunai(3gaugepoints)
YYala(3gaugepoints)
HHambantota(3gaugepoints)
GGalle(3gaugepoints)
CColombo(3gaugepoints)
Figure8.5:GaugepointLocationsaroundSriLankausedfortheSimulation
Thefollowingfigures8.6to8.13areshowingthewaterlevelvariationsofgaugepointslocatedin
differentcitiesarroundSriLankaandclosestgaugepointtotheislandislocatedatabout25m
depthaccordingtotherequirementsoftheAVINAMIprogram.
Figure8.6:WaterLevelVariationinJafnaforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
VariationofWaterLevelElevations
inJafna,SriLanka
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
WaterLev
elEleva
tio
n
/(m)
J2
J3
Page 100
Page88
Figure8.7:WaterLevelVariationinTrincomaleeforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
Figure8.8:WaterLevelVariationinKalmuneiforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
inTrincomalee,SriLanka
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
WaterLevelElevation/(m)
T2
T3
inKalmunei,SriLanka
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
WaterLevelElevation/(m
)
K1
K2
K3
Page 101
Page89
Figure8.9:WaterLevelVariationinYalaforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
Figure8.10:WaterLevelVariationinHambantotaforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
inYala,SriLanka
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
W
a
terLev
elElev
atio
n/(m
)
Y2
Y3
inHambantota,SriLanka
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
WaterLev
elEleva
tio
n/(m
)
H1
H2
H3
Page 102
Page90
Figure8.11:WaterLevelVariationinGalleforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
Figure8.12:WaterLevelVariationinColomboforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=9.1)
inGalle,SriLanka
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
Wa
terLevelElevatio
n
/(m)
G1
G2
G3
inColombo,SriLanka
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
W
a
terLevelElev
a
tio
n
/(m
)
C1
C2
C3
Page 103
Page91
Figure8.13:WaterLevelVariationinDifferentcitiesaroundSriLankaforDec.26 th,2004
Event(Mw=9.1)
8.2.2ComparisonofNumericalSimulationResultsofDecember26th,2004Event.
HerebellowaresomeoftheresultspublishedbyProf.StefanoTintiandtheseaquakeresearch
teamofUniversityofBologna,Italyfortherecentdisasterof26thDecember2004Sumatraevent.
TheyhaveusedtheTSUBOFDandTSUBOFEprogramsformodelingoftsunamiwhich
areusedwithfinitedifferencerectangulargridofconstantelementsandfiniteelementswith
triangulargridofdepthdependentsizerespectivelyinabovetwoprograms.
Themostimportantfeatureoftheseprogramsistheprovisionofsegmentalfaultingwhichincase
canproducemuchmoreaccurateresultsoftherealsituation.Anywayitisveryclearlyobserved
thattheresultsproducedbyAVINAMIalsogivesverymuchcloserresultswiththoseresults
producedbyabovetwoprogramsandhencewecouldconvincethatthreeofourprobabletsunami
eventsalsogivesthereliableresultsfortheplanningpurposesoffacingtsunamisinfutureforSri
Lanka.
VariationofWaterLevelElevationsin
DifferentCitiesclosetoSriLanka
6
4
2
0
2
4
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
W
a
terL
ev
elE
lev
a
tio
n/(m)
Trincomalee
Kalmunai
Yala
Hambantota
Galle
Colombo
Jafna
Page 104
Page92
Figure8.14:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforSumatraEvent
[FigureCredit:Prof.S.TintiandSeaquakeResearchTeamofUniversityofBologna]
Figure8.15:SeaFloorOffsetaftertwohoursforSumatraEvent
Page 105
Page93
Figure8.16:TsunamiwavearrivalstimesforSumatraEvent
Figure8.17:Minimum&MaximumWaterLevelElevationsforSumatraEvent
Page 106
Page94
Figure8.18:WaterLevelVariationsinDifferentCitiesforSumatraEvent
8.2.3December26th,2004Event(SimulationwithMw=8.8)
AccordingtotheempiricalrelationshipsamongMagnitude(M),RuptureLength(L),Rupture
Width(W)andSurfaceDisplacement(S)introducedbyD.L.WellsandK.J.Coppersmithin1994
whichareshownbellow,
Log(L)=0.59*M2.44
Log(W)=0.32*M1.01
Log(S)=0.69*M4.80
afaultruptureofmagnitude8.8wascreatedandsimulatedtofindoutthedifferencesofwater
levelelevationswithrespecttothemagnitudeoftheevent.Pleasenotethatinaboveempirical
equationssliptypewasconsideredasalltofindoutthecoefficientsandstandarderrorsasthey
givesusmuchconservativeresults.Moredetailsofthedatausedtoproducethiseventandthe
othersimulationsaredisplayedintheTable8.1.
Page 107
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Table8.1:CorrespondingFaultDataforDifferentEarthquakeMagnitudes
Figure8.19:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=8.8)
Magnitude
FaultData
9.1
8.8
8.5
8.0
7.5
7.0
StartXCoordinate(E)
94
93.5
93
93
92.75
92.75
StartYCoordinate(N)
3
4
4.75
5.5
5.75
6
EndXCoordinate(E)
91
91.5
92
92
92.25
92.25
EndYCoordinate(N)
10
9
8.25
7.5
7.25
7
FaultLength(km)
850
590
375
200
100
50
WidthoftheFault(km)
80
65
50
35
25
17
FocalDepth(km)
10
10
10
10
10
10
StrikeAngle()
335
335
335
335
335
335
DipAngle()
10
10
10
10
10
10
RakeAngle()
110
110
110
110
110
110
Displacement(m)
30
20
12
6
3
1
GridSize(m)
3697
3697
3697
3697
3697
3697
Page 108
Page96
Figure8.20:Maximum&MinimumWaterLevelElevationsforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=8.8)
8.2.4December26th,2004Event(SimulationwithMw=8.5,8.0,7.5and7.0)
AccordingtothefaultparameterscalculatedbyusingWellsandCoppersmith(1994)equationsas
showninTable8.1,earthquakeswithdifferentmagnitudeswerecreated.Thefollowingfigures
8.16and8.17showstheinitialverticalseaflooroffsetandthemaximumandminimumwater
levelelevationsrespectivelyfordifferentevents.
Figure8.21:InitialVerticalSeaFloorOffsetforDec.26th,2004Event(Mw=8.5,8.0,7.5&7.0)
Mw=8.5
Mw=7.5
Mw=8.0
Mw=7.0
Page 109
Page97
Figure8.22:MaximumandMinimumWaterLevelElevationsforDec.26th,2004Event
(Mw=8.5,8.0,7.5&7.0)
Mw=8.5
Mw=8.5
Mw=8.0
Mw=8.0
Mw=7.5
Mw=7.5
Mw=7.0
Mw=7.0
Page 110
Page98
8.2.5Magnitudevs.WaterLevelVariation
Thefollowingfigures8.18to8.21showstherelatioshipofthevariationofearthquakemagnitude
vswaterlevelelevationsofbothcalcualtedbytheAVINAMIprogramat25mdepthofthesea
andtheexpectedattheshoreline.
Figure8.23:WaterLevelElevationVariationwiththeEqk.Magnitudeat25mSeadepth
Figure8.24:ExpectedWaterLevelElevationVariationwiththeEqk.MagnitudeattheShore
VariationofMagnitudevsMaximumWaterLevelElevation
(At25mWaterDepth)
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
Magnitude
WaterL
e
v
elE
lev
a
tio
n/(m)
Trincomalee
Kalmunai
Yala
Hambantota
Galle
Colombo
Jafna
VariationofMagnitudevsMaximumWaterLevelElevation
(ExpectedattheShoreLine)
0.01
0.10
1.00
10.00
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
Magnitude
Wa
terLev
elElev
a
tio
n
/(m
)
Trincomalee
Kalmunai
Yala
Hambantota
Galle
Colombo
Jafna
Page 111
Page99
Figure8.25:WaterLevelElevationVariationatYALAwiththeEqk.Magnitudeat25mSeadepth
Figure8.26:ExpectedWaterLevelElevationVariationatYALAwiththeEqk.Magnitudeatthe
Shore
VariationofWaterLevelElevationsatYALA(At25mDepthoftheSea)
withDifferentMagnitudesoftheEarthquake
5
3
1
1
3
5
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
W
a
terLev
elElev
a
tio
n/(m)
Mw=9.1
Mw=8.8
Mw=8.5
Mw=8.0
Mw=7.5
Mw=7.0
VariationofWaterLevelElevationsatYALA(ExpectedattheShore)
withDifferentMagnitudesoftheEarthquake
12
8
4
0
4
8
12
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
W
a
terLevelElevation/(m
)
Mw=9.1
Mw=8.8
Mw=8.5
Mw=8.0
Mw=7.5
Mw=7.0
Page 112
Page100
8.3ExpectedIndianOceanTsunamiEvent1
Asweknowthattheearthquakesoccurduetothereleasingoftheaccumulatedstrainenergyina
certainfaultingarea,thereisariskofoccurringsuchearthquake,veryclosetothetopedgeofthe
Sumatranfaultandhencethefollowingsimulationprocesswascarriedouttoclarifythepossible
damagestoSriLankanislandanditssurroundingnationsdueatosuchprobableeventof
Mw=8.8.
Theflowingdatahasbeenusedastheseismicfaultdataforthetsunamisourcegeneration.
Widthofthefault
=100km
Focaldepth
=10km
Strikeangle
=12
Dipangle
=10
Rakeangle
=110
Displacement
=10m
GridSize
=3697m
simulationprocessoftheabovementionedprobableeventofM w=8.8.
Figure8.28:MaximumandMinimumWaterLevelElevationsforExpectedEvent1
FaultLength=650km
Page 113
Page101
T=1min
T=15min
T=30min
T=45min
T=60min
T=75min
T=90min
T=105min
Page 114
Page102
Figure8.29:SeaStatesatDifferentInstantsforExpectedEvent1
T=120min
T=135min
T=150min
T=165min
T=195min
T=180min
T=210min
T=240min
Page 115
Page103
Anotherprobabletsunamigenicscenariocanbedefinedasshownbelow,atthemiddlepartofthe
Sumatranfaultandhencethefollowingsimulationprocesswascarriedouttoclarifythepossible
Mw=8.8.
Widthofthefault
=100km
Focaldepth
=10km
Strikeangle
=355
Dipangle
=10
Rakeangle
=110
Displacement
=10m
GridSize
=3697m
simulationprocessoftheabovementionedprobableeventofM w=8.8.
FaultLength=600km
Page 116
Page104
T=1min
T=15min
T=30min
T=45min
T=60min
T=75min
T=90min
T=105min
Page 117
Page105
T=120min
T=135min
T=150min
T=165min
T=195min
T=180min
T=210min
T=240min
Page 118
Page106
Thefollowingfigures8.28to8.35areshowingthewaterlevelvariationsofgaugepointslocated
indifferentcitiesarroundSriLankaandclosestgaugepointtotheislandislocatedatabout25m
depthaccordingtotherequirementsoftheAVINAMIprogram.
Figure8.33:WaterLevelVariationinJafnaforExpectedEvent2
Figure8.34:WaterLevelVariationinTrincomaleeforExpectedEvent2
inJafna,SriLanka
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
WaterLevelE
lev
ation/(m)
J2
J3
inTrincomalee,SriLanka
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
Wa
terL
evelE
leva
tio
n
/(m)
T2
T3
Page 119
Page107
Figure8.35:WaterLevelVariationinKalmuneiforExpectedEvent2
Figure8.36:WaterLevelVariationinYalaforExpectedEvent2
inKalmunei,SriLanka
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
K1
K2
K3
inYala,SriLanka
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
WaterLevelElevation
/(m
)
Y2
Y3
Page 120
Page108
Figure8.37:WaterLevelVariationinHambantotaforExpectedEvent2
Figure8.38:WaterLevelVariationinGalleforExpectedEvent2
inHambantota,SriLanka
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
WaterLev
elEleva
tio
n
/(m)
H1
H2
H3
inGalle,SriLanka
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
Wa
terLevelElev
atio
n
/(m
)
G1
G2
G3
Page 121
Page109
Figure8.39:WaterLevelVariationinColomboforExpectedEvent2
Figure8.40:WaterLevelVariationinDifferentcitiesaroundSriLankaforExpectedEvent2
inColombo,SriLanka
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
WaterLevelElev
ation/(m)
C1
C2
C3
VariationofWaterLevelElevationsin
DifferentCitiesclosetoSriLanka
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time/(min)
Trincomalee
Kalmunai
Yala
Hambantota
Galle
Colombo
Jafna
Page 122
Page110
Accordingtohistoricalrecords,thereisanotherhighriskprobabletsunamigenicscenarioas
shownbelow,atthemostsouthpartoftheSumatranfault,where1833earthquakecanberepeat
onceagainandhencethefollowingsimulationprocesswascarriedouttoclarifythepossible
Mw=8.8.
YcoordinateSNaxis=3.5N
YcoordinateSNaxis=2.5N
Widthofthefault
=80km
Focaldepth
=10km
Strikeangle
=330
Dipangle
=10
Rakeangle
=110
Displacement
=10m
GridSize
=3697m
Thefollowingfigure8.5.2showsthemaximumandtheminimumwaterlevelelevationsdueto
thesimulationprocessoftheabovementionedprobableeventofMw=8.8.
FaultLength=750km
Page 123
Page111
T=1min
T=15min
T=30min
T=45min
T=60min
T=75min
T=90min
T=105min
Page 124
Page112
T=120min
T=135min
T=150min
T=165min
T=195min
T=180min
T=210min
T=240min
Page 125
Page113
AsallabovefiguresareshowingthewaterlevelelevationsindifferentplacesinSriLankaatthe
seahavingthedepthof25m.Theexpectedwaveheightandthewavearrivaltimeofthe1 st
leadingelevationwaveandtheexpectedmaximumwaterlevelsin25mdepthandpossiblearrival
timeofthatpeakwavearelistedinthebelowtable8.2and8.3respectively.
Table8.2:ExpectedWaveHeightandtheWaveArrivalTimeof1stLeadingElevationWave
ExpectedWaveHeight(m)
[At25mdeepwater]
Expected1stLeadingElevationWave
ArrivalTime
City
Event1
Event2
Event3
Event1
Event2
Event3
Jafna
0.676
2.137
1hr51min
1hr56min
Trincomalee0.240
2.796
0.295
1hr32min
1hr46min2hrs30min
Kalmunei
0.431
2.486
1hr40min
1hr47min
Yala
0.494
2.381
0.323
1hr46min
1hr42min2hrs20min
Hambantota
0.318
1.709
0.329
2hrs08min2hrs06min2hrs24min
Galle
0.161
1.013
0.319
Colombo
0.044
0.225
0.133
Table8.3:ExpectedMaximumWaterLevelElevationandthePeakWaveArrivalTime
MaximumExpectedWaterLevel
Elevation(m)
[At25mdeepwater]
ExpectedPeakWaveArrivalTime
City
Event1
Event2
Event3
Event1
Event2
Event3
Jafna
0.676
2.137
1hr51min
1hr56min
Trincomalee0.240
2.796
0.295
1hr32min
1hr46min2hrs30min
Kalmunei
0.516
4.001
2hrs42min2hrs20min
Yala
0.505
2.381
0.529
2hrs58min1hr42min3hrs49min
Hambantota
0.402
1.709
0.464
Galle
0.235
1.112
0.505
Colombo
0.063
0.225
0.133
Page 126
Page114
CHAPTER9:CONCLUSIONS
InSriLanka,thetsunamithatstruckonthemorningofDecember26,2004leftbehind
widespreaddestructionandkilledandmissedover39,000people,destroyedover88,000
homes,anddamagednaturalecosystems,andcoastalinfrastructure.Theeconomicimpactof
thetsunamiincludeassetlosses(directdamage),outputlosses(indirectdamage),andfiscal
costs(secondaryeffects).Preliminaryestimatesoftotaldirectlossesareapproximately$1
billion(4.5percentofGDP).Destructionofprivateassetsintheaffecteddistrictswas
substantial(about$700million).Thefishing($97million)andtourismindustries($250
million)lostinfrastructureandequipment,whilethehousingsectorsustaineddamagesclose
to$306341million.
RunupelevationsinSriLankawerevariedfromlessthan1.5meterstomorethan13meters
whilethehorizontalinundationdistanceswerevariedfromlessthan300meterstomorethan
3kilometeralongtheisland.Ingeneral,runupelevationincreasedontheeastcoastofSri
Lankatowardsthesouth.Onthesouthandwestcoastsrunupelevationtypicallywasgreatest
attheheadlands.Andingeneral,inundationdistanceincreasedontheeastcoastofSriLanka
towardsthesouth.Inmanyplaceshorizontalinundationwaslessthanthatwouldhavebeen
expectedandthemainreasonforthatwouldbetheinfluenceofthecoastalandland
geomorphologyofthearea.Alsosomestudiesrevealedthatthecoastalmorphologicalfeatures
suchassandduneshaveactedasbarrierstocontrasttsunamiwaves.Also,somestudies
revealedthattheincreaseoftsunamiheightwasdirectlyrelatedtothecoastalbathymetry.
Mostofthehighlydamagedareascouldhavebeenobservedclosetothecanyonsaswellasto
thenarrowcontinentalshelf.Also,shelfareaswerehighlydamagedbycoralminingandthis
wasthereasonforsevereimpactinsomeareas,especiallyatHikkaduwaandParaliyawhere
trainaccidentwashappened.
ItisevidentthatfindingadirectrelationshipofRunupvs.Inundationlengthisextremely
arduousasitdirectlydependsonthecoastalbathymetryandthetopographyofthearea.Still,
theRunup&InundationSpectrumcanbeusedasasafermethodtopredictinundation
lengthsaccordingtotherunupheight,andtheRIPGraph(Runup&InundationPrediction
Page 127
Page115
graph)givesmorereliablerelationshipbetweenrunupandhorizontalinundationlengths
whichcanbeusedforquickassessmentforselfevacuationsinfutureeventsifmoreaccurate
evacuationmapscouldbehardlyfound.
ThenumericalsimulationresultsshowthatthefirstwavereachtotheSriLankanislandtook
about115minfromthetimeofthefaultrupturingnearSumatrawhichisconfirmedbythe
actualavailabledataaswell.WherewecanclearlyseethatthewavesreachtoYala,
HambantotaandGalletookabout110120minutesandthewesterncoastsisaffectedafter
about150minuteswhenweseethewavesinColombo.Alsowecanseethattherearetwo
significantwavesattackingtheSriLankannorth,easternandsouthcoastsandathirdwave
alsoreachedtowesterncoastswhichreflectedfromtheMaldivesislandsandthiswas
confirmedbymanyeyewitnessesinthoseareasaswell.So,thesefactorsshowthepredicted
resultsareaccurateenoughandacceptableandcanbeusedfortsunamiinundationmodeling
inwhichtsunamipropagationresultsarecontinuedontoshoreusingdetailedlocalbathymetry
andtopography.Thenitispossibletoobtainrealisticresultsthatcanbereliablyusedto
developevacuationmapsusedtoensurepublicsafetyfromtsunami.
Outoftheotherthreepossibletsunamigenicscenariossimulations,resultsofthefirstand
secondprobablescenarioswhicharelyinginnorthernSumatrasegmentshowthatthereisa
hugeriskofreceivingdevastatingtsunamiwavesagaintoSriLankannorth,easternandsouth
coastsiftherewillbeanearthquakeinthatregion.Butthethirdprobablescenario(whichlays
onthesouthernSumatrasegment)simulationresultsshowthattheriskislowtoreceivebig
tsunamiwaves.
Weknowfromthehistoricalrecordsthatsomegreatearthquakeshaveoccurredrepeatedlyin
thesameregion:Mw=8.5earthquakeof2005occurredattherupturezoneofMw=8.7
earthquakeof1861andrupturezoneofthe1833Mw=8.7earthquakeencompassedthe1797
Mw=8.2earthquakerupturezone.Thoughsmallertsunamigenicearthquakesofmagnitude7.5
to8.0haveoccurredmorefrequently,atintervalsofoverafewdecades,like1907and1935,
majorearthquakesoccurrednearthe1861sourcezone.Fromtheseconsiderationsthe
probabilityofaseveretsunamihittingSriLankawithinacoupleofdecadesfromAndaman
northernSumatraregionappearstobelow,whichhasalreadyproduced2004and2005great
earthquakes.ThesouthernSumatrasegmentisapotentialzoneforagreatearthquake.
However,SriLankadoesnotlieperpendiculartothefaultinthispartofthetrench.Hence,
damageduetotsunamimaynotbesubstantialinSriLanka.InanycaseasSriLankanislandis
locatedfarenoughfromthedestructivetsunamigenicplateboundaries,accurateandwell
timingwarningcanavoidthatSriLankanpeoplewillexperienceanotheragonyaswehadin
26thDecember2004.
Page 128
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CHAPTER10:REFERENCE,GLOSSARYINTSUNAMIMODELLING&
APPENDIX
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[36]NOAA'sPacificMarineEnvironmentalLaboratory:
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[38]OkalE.A.,SynolakisC.E.andYalcinerA.C.,[2006],LecturenotesoftheUNESCOIOC
InternationalTrainingCourseonTsunamiNumericalModelingI,Oostende,Belgium.
[39]PapadopoulosG.A.andImamuraF.,[2001],Aproposalforanewtsunamiintensityscale,
ProceedingsofInternationalTsunamiSymposium2001,Seattle,Washington,pp569577.
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ProceedingsoftheFifteenthCoastalEngineeringConference,1117July1976,Honolulu,
HI,ed.J.W.Johnson,ASCE,Vol.III,pp22482253.
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http://www.cwr.uwa.edu.au/~pattiara/CoastalOceanography
[42]PattiaratchiC.,Tsunami:CausesandEffectswithreferencetotheIndianOcean,pp185.
[43]Prager,E.J.,[1999],FuriousEarth,McGrawHill,NewYork.
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Tsunami,EarthquakeEngineeringFieldInvestigationTeam(EEFIT)
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FieldInvestigationTeam(EEFIT),pp143.
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Margins,TheOceanBasinsandMargins,6,TheIndianOcean,pp353398.
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nearfieldtsunamis,CoastalEngineeringinJapan33(2),pp173193.
[52]SteveN.W.,Tsunamis,EncyclopediaofPhysicalScienceandTechnology
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10.2GLOSSARYINTSUNAMIMODELLING
Aftershock:Anearthquakethatfollowsalargerearthquakeormainshockandoriginatesator
nearthefocusofthelargerearthquake.Generally,majorearthquakesarefollowedbyalarger
numberofaftershocks,decreasinginfrequencywithtime.
Amplitude:Theriseaboveordropbelowtheambientwaterlevelasreadonatidegage.
Arrivaltime:Timeofarrival,usuallyofthefirstwave,ofthefirstwaveofthetsunamiata
particularlocation.
Attenuationareductioninwaveamplitude.
Averageperiod(Tav,Tz)Averagezerodowncrossingwaveperiod.Theaverageperiodofthe
wavesobserved,weightedbywaveenergy.
AverageWaveHeight(Hav)Averagezerodowncrossingwaveheight.Theaverageheightof
thewavesobserved.
BreakerAwavethathasreachedmaximumsteepnessandisbreaking.
Bodywave:Aseismicwavethattravelsthroughtheinterioroftheearthandisnotrelatedtoa
boundarysurface.
Bore:Travelingwavewithanabruptverticalfrontorwallofwater.Undercertainconditions,the
leadingedgeofatsunamiwavemayformaboreasitapproachesandrunsonshore.Aboremay
alsobeformedwhenatsunamiwaveentersariverchannel,andmaytravelupstreampenetrating
toagreaterdistanceinlandthanthegeneralinundation.
CapillaryWaveAwaveinwhichthevelocityofpropagationisafunctionofthesurfacetension
ofthewater.Windwavesofwavelengthlessthanabout2.5cm(1")areconsideredcapillary
waves.
ContinentalCrust:Outermostsolidlayeroftheearththatformsthecontinentsandiscomposed
ofigneous,metamorphic,andsedimentaryrocks.Overall,thecontinentalcrustisbroadlygranitic
incomposition.Contrastwithoceaniccrust.
ContinentalDrift:Thetheory,firstadvancedbyAlfredWegener,thattheearth'scontinentswere
originallyonelandmasscalledPangaea.About200millionyearsagoPangaeasplitoffandthe
piecesmigrated(drifted)toformthepresentdaycontinents.Thepredecessorofplatetectonics.
ConvergentPlateBoundary:Seesubduction,andsubductionzone.
CrestThehighestpointonawave.
CrestPeriod(Tc)theaveragetimebetweensuccessivemaxima,orcrests.Calculatedfrom
momentsofwavefrequencyspectrumasTc=squarerootof(m2/m4).
Crust:Theouterlayeroftheearth'ssurface.
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DeepWaterWaveAwaveforwhichwaterdepthisgreaterthanonehalfthewavelength.
Oceanwindwavesarenegligiblyaffectedbythebottomindeepwater.
Dip:Theanglebetweenageologicsurfaceforexample,afaultplaneandthehorizontal.The
directionofadipcanbethoughtofasthedirectionaball,ifplaceduponthetiltedsurface,would
roll.Thus,aballplacedonanorthdippingfaultplanewouldrollnorthward.Thedipofasurface
isalwaysperpendiculartothestrikeofthatsurface.
DiffractionAwaveprocessinwhichenergyistransmittedalongwavecrests.Whenawave
trainpassesabarrier,diffractioncausesenergytopropagateintoshelteredregionsbehindthe
barrier.
DispersionofWavesThetendencyoflongerwavestotravelfasterthanshorterwavesdueto
theproportionalitybetweenwavephasespeedandwavelength.
DivergentPlateBoundary:Theboundarybetweentwocrustalplatesthatarepullingapart(e.g.
seafloorspreading).
DominantWavePeriodTheperiodcorrespondingtothefrequencyofmaximumvarianceas
representedbyawavefrequencyspectrum.
DurationIntermsofwavegrowth,thetimeoverwhichthewindblowsataconstantvelocity.
Earthquake:Shakingoftheearthcausedbyasuddenmovementofrockbeneathitssurface.
Earthquakeswarm:Aseriesofminorearthquakes,noneofwhichmaybeidentifiedasthemain
shock,occurringwithinalimitedareaandtime.
Elasticwave:Awavethatispropagatedbysomekindofelasticdeformation,thatis,a
deformationthatdisappearswhentheforcesareremoved.Aseismicwaveisatypeofelastic
wave.
Epicenter:Thatpointontheearth'ssurfacedirectlyabovethehypocenterofanearthquake.
ETA:EstimatedTimeofArrival.Computedarrivaltimeofthefirsttsunamiwaveatcoastal
communitiesafteraspecificearthquakehasoccurred.
Fault:Aweakpointintheearth'scrustwheretherocklayershaverupturedandslipped.
FetchIntermsofwavegrowth,thedistanceontheoceanoverwhichthewindblowsata
constantvelocity.
Firstarrival:Thefirstrecordedsignalattributedtoseismicwavetravelfromaknownsource.
Firstmotion:Initialmotionofthefirstwave,ariseinthewaterlevelisdenotedbyR,afallbyF.
Focalzone:Therupturezoneofanearthquake.Inthecaseofagreatearthquake,thefocalzone
mayextendseveralhundredkilometersinlength.
Focus:Thatpointwithintheearthfromwhichoriginatesthefirstmotionofanearthquakeandits
elasticwaves.
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Foreshock:Asmalltremorthatcommonlyprecedesalargerearthquakeormainshockby
secondstoweeksandthatoriginatesatornearthefocusofthelargerearthquake.
Freefieldoffshoreprofile:Aprofileofthewavemeasuredfarenoughoffshoresothatitis
unaffectedbyinterferencefromharborandshorelineeffects.
Frequencyameasureofthenumberofoscillationsorcyclesperunittime;thereciprocalofthe
timeduration(period)ofanoscillation.(AwalloutletinNorthAmerica,forexample,hasa
voltageoscillationfrequencyof60cycles/s.)
FullyDevelopedSeaAseastateinwhichwaveshavereachedmaximumenergy.Additional
energyaddedtothespectrumisdissipatedbywavebreaking.
GravityWaveAwaveinwhichthevelocityofpropagationisafunctionofgravity.Water
wavesoverafewinchesinlengthareconsideredgravitywaves.
GroupVelocityThevelocityatwhichwaveenergypropagates.Indeepwater,itisequaltohalf
thevelocityoftheindividualwavesinthegroup.
Harborresonance:Thecontinuedreflectionandinterferenceofwavesfromtheedgeofaharbor
ornarrowbaywhichcancauseamplificationofthewaveheights,andextendthedurationofwave
activityfromatsunami.
Harmonicaquantitywhosefrequencyisanintegralmultipleofthefrequencyofaperiodic
quantitytowhichitisrelated.
HeightTheverticaldistancebetweenawavecrestandthenextwavetrough.
Horizontalinundationdistance:Thedistancethatatsunamiwavepenetratesontotheshore,
measuredhorizontallyfromthemeansealevelpositionofthewater'sedge.Usuallymeasuredas
themaximumdistanceforaparticularsegmentofthecoast.
HarmonicTremor:Acontinuousreleaseofseismicenergytypicallyassociatedwiththe
undergroundmovementofmagma,oftenprecedingvolcaniceruptions.Itcontrastsdistinctlywith
thesuddenreleaseandrapiddecreaseofseismicenergyassociatedwiththemorecommontypeof
earthquakecausedbyslippagealongafault.
Hypocenter:Thecalculatedlocationofthefocusofanearthquake.
ICG/ITSU:TheInternationalCoordinationGroupfortheTsunamiWarningSysteminthe
Pacific,aUnitedNationsorganizationunderUNESCOresponsibleforinternationaltsunami
cooperation.
Intensity:Ameasureoftheeffectsofanearthquakeataparticularplaceonhumansand/or
structures.Theintensityatapointdependsnotonlyuponthestrengthoftheearthquake
(magnitude)butalsouponthedistancefromtheearthquaketotheepicenterandthelocalgeology
atthatpoint.
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Inundation:Thedepth,relativetoastatedreferencelevel,towhichaparticularlocationis
coveredbywater.
Inundationarea:Anareathatisfloodedwithwater.
Inundationline(limit):Theinlandlimitofwettingmeasuredhorizontallyfromtheedgeofthe
coastdefinedbymeansealevel.
IntermediateWaterWaveAtermusedtodescribewavesthatareneitherdeepwaternor
shallowwaterwaves.Forbothofthesecases,equationsforwavescanbeeasilyapproximated.
Wavesareusuallyconsideredinintermediatewaterwhentheratioofthewaterdepthtowave
lengthisbetweenabout1/20andonehalf(1/2).
ITIC:InternationalTsunamiInformationCenterestablishedin1965.Monitorsinternational
activitiesofthePacificTsunamiWarningCenterandassistswithmanyoftheactivitiesof
ICG/ITSU.
Kineticenergytheenergyofanobjectorparceloffluidbyvirtueofitsmotion.Kineticenergy
isproportionaltomassandthesquareofthespeed.
Leadingdepressionwave:Initialtsunamiwaveisatrough,causingadrawdownofwaterlevel.
Leadingpositivewave:Initialtsunamiwaveisacrest,causingariseinwaterlevel.Alsocalleda
leadingelevationwave.
LeewardThedirectiontowardwhichthewindandwavesaregoing.
Liquefaction:Theprocessinwhichasolid(suchassoil)takesonthecharacteristicsofaliquidas
aresultofanincreaseinporepressureandareductioninstress.Inotherwords,solidgroundturns
tojelly.
Lithosphere:Therigidcrustanduppermostmantleoftheearth.Thicknessisontheorderof62
miles(100kilometers).Strongerthantheunderlyingasthenosphere.
Local/regionaltsunami:Sourceofthetsunamiwithin1000kmoftheareaofinterest.Localor
nearfieldtsunamihasaveryshorttraveltime(30minutesorless),midfieldorregionaltsunami
waveshavetraveltimesontheorderof30minutesto2hours.Note:Local"tsunamiis
sometimesusedtorefertoatsunamioflandslideorigin.
methodintheTriAxysDirectionalWaveBuoy.
Marigram:Tidegagerecordingshowingwaveheightasafunctionoftime.
Marigraph:Theinstrumentwhichrecordswaveheight.
Maximumwaveheight(Hmax)Thisisthelargestpeaktotroughheightseenduringarecord.
Meanzerodowncrossingwaveheight.
MeanLowerLowWater(MLLW):Theaveragelowtidewaterelevationoftenusedasa
referencetomeasurerunup.
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MeanWaveDirection(Dm)Overallmeanwavedirectionindegreesobtainedbyaveragingthe
meanwaveangle(theta)overallfrequencieswithaweightingfunctionS(f).Thetaiscalculated
bytheKVH
Ms:SurfaceWaveMagnitude.Magnitudeofanearthquakeasmeasuredfromtheamplitudeof
seismicsurfacewaves.Oftenreferredtobythemediaas"Richter"magnitude.
Mw:MomentMagnitude.Magnitudebasedonthesizeandcharacteristicsofthefaultrupture,
anddeterminedfromlongperiodseismicwaves.Itisabettermeasureofearthquakesizethan
surfacewavemagnitude,especiallyforverylargeearthquakes.Calibratedtoagreeonaverage
withsurfacewavemagnitudesforearthquakeslessthanmagnitude7.5.
Magma:Moltenrockbeneaththesurfaceoftheearth.Moltenrockeruptedatthesurfaceis
termed"lava."
Magnitude:Aquantitativemeasureofthestrengthofanearthquake.Magnitudeiscalculated
fromgroundmotionasmeasuredbyseismographandincorporatesthedistanceofthe
seismographfromtheearthquakeepicentersothat,theoretically,themagnitudecalculatedforan
earthquakewouldbethesamefromanyseismographstationrecordingthatearthquake.Thisisa
logarithmicvalueoriginallydefinedbyWadati(1931)andRichter(1935).Anincreaseofoneunit
ofmagnitude(forexample,from4.6to5.6)representsa10foldincreaseinwaveamplitudeona
seismogramorapproximatelya30foldincreaseintheenergyreleased.Inotherwords,a
magnitude6.7earthquakereleasesover900times(30times30)theenergyofa4.7earthquake
orittakesabout900magnitude4.7earthquakestoequaltheenergyreleasedinasingle6.7
earthquake!Thereisnobeginningnorendtothisscale.However,rockmechanicsseemto
precludeearthquakessmallerthanabout1orlargerthanabout9.5.Amagnitude1.0event
releasesabout900timeslessenergythanamagnitude1.0quake.Exceptinspecialcircumstances,
earthquakesbelowmagnitude2.5arenotgenerallynotfeltbyhumans.SeealsoRichterscale.
Majorearthquake:Anearthquakehavingamagnitudeof7orgreaterontheRichterscale.
Mantle:Thelayerofrockthatliesbetweentheoutercrustandthecoreoftheearth.Itis
approximately1,802miles(2,900kilometers)thickandisthelargestoftheearth'smajorlayers.
Microearthquake:Anearthquakehavingamagnitudeof2orlessontheRichterscale.
ModifiedMercalliScale:MercalliintensityscalemodifiedforNorthAmericanconditions.A
scale,composedof12increasinglevelsofintensitythatrangefromimperceptibleshakingto
catastrophicdestruction,designatedbyRomannumerals.Itdoesnothaveamathematicalbasis;
insteaditisanarbitraryrankingbasedonobservedeffects.ContrastwithRichterscale,atypeof
magnitudescale.
Normalearthquake:Anearthquakecausedbyslipalongaslopingfaultwheretherockabovethe
faultmovesdownwardsrelativetotherockbelow.
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Oceaniccrust:TheoutermostsolidlayerofEarththatunderliestheoceans.Composedofthe
igneousrocksbasaltandgabbro,andthereforebasalticincomposition.Contrastwithcontinental
crust.
P(Primary)wave:Alsocalledcompressionalorlongitudinalwaves,Pwavesarethefastest
seismicwavesproducedbyanearthquake.Theyoscillatethegroundbackandforthalongthe
directionofwavetravel,inmuchthesamewayassoundwaves(whicharealsocompressional),
movetheairbackandforthasthewavestravelfromthesoundsourcetoasoundreceiver.
Period:Thelengthoftimebetweentwosuccessivepeaksortroughs.Mayvaryduetocomplex
interferenceofwaves.Tsunamiperiodsgenerallyrangefrom5to60minutes.
PeakperiodTpTheperiodwiththemaximumwaveenergy,determinedfromthewave
spectrum.
Phase:Theonsetofadisplacementoroscillationonaseismogramindicatingthearrivalofa
differenttypeofseismicwave.
PhaseVelocityPropagationvelocityofanindividualwave.Indeepwateritisproportionalto
thewavelength,otherwiseitdependsonwaterdepth.
Plate:Piecesofcrustandbrittleuppermostmantle,perhaps100kilometersthickandhundredsor
thousandsofkilometerswide,thatcovertheearth'ssurface.Theplatesmoveveryslowlyover,or
possiblywith,aviscouslayerinthemantleatratesofafewcentimetersperyear.
Plateboundary:Theplacewheretwoormoreplatesintheearth'scrustmeet.
Platetectonics:Awidelyacceptedtheorythatrelatesmostofthegeologicfeaturesnearthe
earth'ssurfacetothemovementandinteractionofrelativelythinrockplates.Thetheorypredicts
thatmostearthquakesoccurwhenplatesmovepasteachother.
Rayleighwave:Atypeofsurfacewavehavingaretrograde,ellipticalmotionattheearth's
surface,similartothewavescausedwhenastoneisdroppedintoapond.Thesearetheslowest,
butoftenthelargestandmostdestructive,ofthewavetypescausedbyanearthquake.Theyare
usuallyfeltasarollingorrockingmotionandinthecaseofmajorearthquakes,canbeseenas
theyapproach.NamedafterLordRayleigh,theEnglishphysicistwhopredicteditsexistence.
Recurrenceinterval:Theapproximateaveragelengthoftimebetweenearthquakesinaspecific
seismicallyactivearea.
RecordintervalThetimebetweenthestartofsequentialrecords,whichmustbegreaterthan
therecordlength.
RecordlengthThetotaltimerequiredtocollectthedataforawaverecord.
RecordoffsetThetimetooffsetrecordstarttimesfromtheintegralmultipleoftherecord
interval.Forexampleiftherecordintervalis30minutes,andtherecordoffsetis10minutes,then
recordswillstart10minutesbeforeeachhourandhalfhour.
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ReflectionTheprocessbywhichwaveenergyisreturnedintheoppositedirectionafterawave
strikesanobjectorawaterboundary.
RefractionTheprocessbywhichthedirectionofamovingwaveischangedduetoits
interactionwiththebottomtopography.Waveheightsmaybeincreasedordecreasedby
refraction.
ResponsefunctionThecorrectionappliedtothespectrumofarecordtoallowforthefrequency
dependanterrorsintroducedbythewavebuoyandreceiver.
ReturnPeriodTheaveragetimeintervalbetweenoccurrencesofwaveheightsequaltoor
greaterthantheheightassociatedwiththereturnperiod.Itisameasureoftheinfrequentnessof
higherwaveheights.
Richtermagnitudescale:Thesystemusedtomeasurethestrengthormagnitudeofan
earthquake.TheRichtermagnitudescalewasdevelopedin1935byCharlesF.Richterofthe
CaliforniaInstituteofTechnologyasacollectionofmathematicalformulastocomparethesizeof
earthquakes.Asimilarscalewasdevelopedin1931byWadati,soitismoreappropriatetocall
suchscales"WadatiRichter"scales.Themagnitudeofanearthquakeisdeterminedfromthe
logarithmoftheamplitudeofwavesrecordedbyseismographs.Adjustmentsareincludedforthe
variationinthedistancebetweenthevariousseismographsandtheepicentersoftheearthquakes.
OntheRichterScale,magnitudeisexpressedinwholenumbersanddecimalfractions.For
example,amagnitude5.3mightbecomputedforamoderateearthquake,andastrongearthquake
mightberatedasmagnitude6.3.Becauseofthelogarithmicbasisofthescale,eachwholenumber
increaseinmagnituderepresentsatenfoldincreaseinmeasuredamplitude;asanestimateof
energy,eachwholenumberstepinthemagnitudescalecorrespondstothereleaseofabout31
timesmoreenergythantheamountassociatedwiththeprecedingwholenumbervalue.
Riftsystem:Theoceanicridgesformedwheretectonicplatesareseparatingandnewcrustis
beingcreated;alsoreferstotheonlandcounterpartssuchastheEastAfricanRift.
RingofFire:A40,000kilometer(24,855mile)bandofseismicityincludingmountainbuilding,
earthquakes,andvolcanoes,stretchingupthewestcoastsofSouthandCentralAmericaandfrom
theNorthAmericancontinenttotheAleutians,Japan,China,thePhilippines,Indonesia,and
Australasia.
Runup:Maximumheightofthewateronshoreobservedaboveareferencesealevel.Usually
measuredatthehorizontalinundationlimit.
Rupturezone:Theareaoftheearththroughwhichfaultingoccurredduringanearthquake.For
verysmallearthquakes,thiszonecouldbethesizeofapinhead,butinthecaseofagreat
earthquake,therupturezonemayextendseveralhundredkilometersinlengthandtensof
kilometersinwidth.
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S(secondary,orshear)wave:Aseismicbodywavethatinvolvesparticlemotionfromsideto
side,perpendiculartothedirectionofwavepropagation.SwavesareslowerthanPwavesand
cannottravelthroughaliquidsuchaswaterormoltenrock.
SampleintervalThetimebetweenwavesamples.Atypicalvaluewouldbe.78125seconds,or
1.28HertzforaDATAWELLwavebuoy.
SeafloorSpreading:Themechanismbywhichnewoceaniccrustiscreatedatoceanicridgesand
slowlyspreadsawayastheplatesseparate.
Seiche:Astandingwaveoscillatinginapartiallyorfullyenclosedbodyofwater.Maybe
initiatedbylongperiodseismicwaves,windandwaterwaves,oratsunami.
Seismic:Oforhavingtodowithearthquakes.
Seismicbelt:Anelongatedearthquakezone,forexample,circumPacific,Mediterranean,Rocky
Mountain.About75%oftheworld'searthquakesoccurinthecircumPacificseismicbelt.
Seismicconstant:Inbuildingcodesdealingwithearthquakehazards,anarbitrarilyset
accelerationvalue(inunitsofgravity)thatabuildingmustwithstand.
Seismicity:Earthquakeactivity.
Seismicseawave:Atsunamigeneratedbyanunderseaearthquake.
Seismiczone:Aregioninwhichearthquakesareknowntooccur.
Seismogram:Awrittenrecordofanearthquake,recordedbyaseismograph.
Seismograph:Aninstrumentthatrecordsthemotionsoftheearth,especiallyearthquakes.
Seismographstation:Asiteatwhichoneormoreseismographsaresetupandroutinely
monitored.
Seismology:Thestudyofearthquakesandearthquakewaves.
ShallowWaterWaveAwaveforwhichthedepthdividedbythewavelengthislessthan
approximately1/20.Equationsforwavescanbeapproximatedbyspecialequationsforsuch
shallowwaterwherewavesarestronglyaffectedbybottomdepth.
ShoalingChangesinwaveheightaswavesmoveintoshallowwater.Exceptforalimiteddepth
region,shoalingincreaseswaveheights.Shoalingoccursevenifwaveheightsanddirectionsdo
notchangeasaresultofwaverefraction.
SignificantWaveheight(Hs,Hmo,H1/3)Thisistheaverageofthehighest1/3ofallwavesina
timeseries.Itcanbecloselyapproximatedfromatimeseriesofwaveheightsasfourtimesthe
standarddeviationofthetimeseries.Thevaluecanalsobeapproximatedfromfourtimesthe
squarerootoftheareaundertheenergyspectrumofaFFTanalysis.ThisistypicallycalledH mo.
SignificantWavePeriod(Ts)Theaverageperiodoftheonethirdhighestwavesinawave
record.Thesignificantwaveperiodissomewhatshorterthanthedominantwaveperiod.
CalculatedfrommomentsofwavefrequencyspectrumasTs=squarerootof(m0/m1).IntheTri
AxysDirectionalWaveBuoyitistheaverageperiodofthesignificantzerodowncrossing
wave(s).
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Slip:Therelativedisplacementofformerlyadjacentpointsonoppositesidesofafault,measured
atthefaultsurface.
SpectrumAmethodofrepresentingthedistributionofwaveenergyasafunctionoffrequency.
Strikeslipfault:Anearlyverticalfaultwithsideslippingdisplacement.
Strikeslipearthquake:Anearthquakecausedbyhorizontalslipalongafault.
Subduction:Theprocessinwhichonelithosphericplatecollideswithandisforceddownunder
anotherplateanddrawnbackintotheearth'smantle.
Subductionzone:Thezoneofconvergenceoftwotectonicplates,oneofwhichissubducted
beneaththeother.Anelongatedregionalongwhichaplatedescendsrelativetoanotherplate,for
example,thedescentoftheNazcaplatebeneaththeSouthAmericanplatealongthePeruChile
Trench.
SurfWavesastheyreachtheareabetweentheshoreandtheareawherebreakersstarttooccur.
Surfacewaves:Wavesthatmoveoverthesurfaceoftheearth.RayleighandLovewavesare
surfacewaves.
SwellWindwavesthathavetraveledoutofastormgeneratingarea.Swellhaslongerperiods
andasmootherappearancethanwindwavesinthestormarea.
Tectonic:Pertainingtotheforcesinvolvedinthedeformationoftheearth'scrust,orthestructures
orfeaturesproducedbysuchdeformation.
Teletsunami:Sourceofthetsunamimorethan1000kmawayfromareaofinterest.Alsocalleda
distantsourceorfarfieldtsunami.
Thrustearthquake:Anearthquakecausedbyslipalongagentlyslopingfaultwheretherock
abovethefaultispushedupwardsrelativetotherockbelow.Themostcommontypeof
earthquakesourceofdamagingtsunamis.
Tidalwave:Commontermfortsunamiusedinolderliterature,historicaldescriptionsandpopular
accounts.Tides,causedbythegravitationalattractionsofthesunandmoon,mayincreaseor
decreasetheimpactofatsunami,buthavenothingtodowiththeirgenerationorpropagation.
However,mosttsunamis(initially)givetheappearanceofafastrisingtideorfastebbingasthey
approachshoreandonlyrarelyasanearverticalwallofwater.
TIME:TheCenterfortheTsunamiInundationMappingEffort,toassistthePacificstatesin
developingtsunamiinundationmaps.
TransformFault:Aplateboundarywhereoneplateslidespastanother;essentiallyalargestrike
slipfault.
Tremor:Lowamplitude,continuousearthquakeactivitycommonlyassociatedwithmagma
movement.
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Traveltime:Time(usuallymeasuredinhoursandtenthsofhours)thatittookthetsunamito
travelfromthesourcetoaparticularlocation.
TroughThelowestpartofthewavebetweensuccessivecrests.
Tsunami:AJapanesetermderivedfromthecharacters"tsu"meaningharborand"nami"meaning
wave.Nowgenerallyacceptedbytheinternationalscientificcommunitytodescribeaseriesof
travelingwavesinwaterproducedbythedisplacementoftheseafloorassociatedwithsubmarine
earthquakes,volcaniceruptions,orlandslides.
Tsunamiearthquake:Atsunamigenicearthquakewhichproducesamuchlargertsunamithan
expectedforitsmagnitude.
Tsunamigenicearthquake:Anyearthquakewhichproducesameasurabletsunami.
Tsunamimagnitude:Anumberwhichcharacterizesthestrengthofatsunamibasedonthe
tsunamiwaveamplitudes.Severaldifferenttsunamimagnitudedeterminationmethodshavebeen
proposed.
TWS:TsunamiWarningSystem,organizationof26PacificMemberStateswhichcoordinates
internationalmonitoringandwarningdissemination.OperatesthroughICG/ITSU
UTC:UniversalCoordinatedTime,internationalcommontimesystem(formerlyGMT,
GreenwichMeanTime).
WaveDirectionThedirectionfromwhichawaveapproaches.
WaverecordAwaverecordisagroupofcontinuousdatablocks.
WavesampleAsinglewaveheightmeasurement.
WindDirectionThedirectionfromwhichthewindisblowing.
ZeroCrossingsNumberofwavesdetectedbyzerocrossinganalysisofthedemeanedwave
elevationrecord.
ZeroCrossingWavePeriod(Tz,Tav)Theaveragetimeintervalbetweensimilardirection
crossingsofmeanwaterlevelforawaverecord.Thezerocrossingperiodcanalsobecalculated
fromthemomentsofwavefrequencyspectra.Tz=squarerootof(m0/m2).AlsocalledtheMean
SpectralPeriod.
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10.3APPENDIXManualofAVINAMIProgram
10.3.1DataInputandSimulationProcess
10.3.1.1CreatingtheInitialWavefromDifferentSources
Seismicfaultwindowallowscreatingtheinitialwaveusingthefaultparameters.Inorderto
generatetheinitialwaveduetoanearthquake;
1.Onthefaultsmenu,clickseismicfault.
2.Inthenameofthebathymetryfile(input)box,enterthenameofthebathymetryfileyou
wanttouse,orbrowsetolocatethefile.
3.Inthenameoftsunamisourcefile(output)box,enterthenameoftheoutputfilewhichis
goingtobethegeneratedinitialwavefile,suchasInitialWave.grd,orbrowsetolocate
thefile.
4.Inthestartpointandendpointoffaultaxisboxes,enterthecoordinatesofthestartand
endpointsofthefault.
5.Intheparametersofthefaultboxes,entertherequestedparametersaccordingtothedata
ofthefaultwhichproducedtheearthquake.Definitionsofthefaultparameterscanbe
foundintheGlossary.
6.ClickRuntogeneratetheinitialwave.
7.Ifyouwanttosavetheparameters,clickSave.Thewindowwillbeclosed.Theinitial
waveisnowgeneratedandsavedinthementionedlocation.
Figure10.1:WindowoftheInitialWaveGenerationduetoaSeismicFault
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10.3.1.2CreatinganInitialWavefromanImpactoranotherArbitraryDisturbance
Inordertogenerateaninitialwaveduetoanimpactoranotherarbitrarydisturbanceinelliptical
shapewithleadingelevationordepressionwavecondition,youcanusetestfaultoption.
1.Onthefaultsmenu,clicktestfault.
2.Inthenameofthebathymetryfile(input)box,enterthenameofthebathymetryfileyou
wanttouse,orbrowsetolocatethefile.
3.Inthenameoftsunamisourcefile(output)box,enterthenameoftheoutputfilewhichis
goingtobethegeneratedinitialwavefile,suchasInitialWave.grd,orbrowsetolocate
thefile.
4.Enterthegridstepwhichisthedistancebetweentwogridnodesofthebathymetryfilein
meters.
5.Enteramplitudeofcenter,lengthofmajorandminoraxis,amplitudeandwidthofleading
wave.Theseparametersareshowninthefiguresbelow.
6.ClickRuntogeneratetheinitialwave.
7.Ifyouwanttosavetheparameters,clickSave.Thewindowwillbeclosed.Theinitial
waveisnowgeneratedandsavedinthementionedlocation.
Figure10.2:WindowoftheInitialWaveGenerationduetoanImpact
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TOPVIEW
SIDEVIEW
Figure10.3:ParametersusedfortheImpactWavegeneration
10.3.1.3GeneratingtheSeaStateatspecifictimeintervalsofTsunami
Togeneratetheseastatesduetothecreatedtsunamisourceinspecifiedtimeintervals,itis
necessarytoinputthedatainthefollowingtwowindowsasexplainedbellow.Infirst,
1.Onthesimulationmenu,clickrun.
2.Clicktheboxofthetsunamisource1.
3.Enterthenameofthesourcefileinthetsunamisource1boxorbrowseforthelocationof
thefile.
4.Enterthetimewhenthedisturbanceoccurs.Ifitisanearthquake,thisisthetimethefault
isbroken.
5.Ifthereismorethanonesourceofdisturbanceatdifferenttimesfortheevent,clickthe
second(and/orthird,fourth)boxofthetsunamisource2(3,4).Thenenterthestartingtime
ofthisevent.
6.Clicknext.
Wl
Lmajor
Lminor
al
al
ac
ac:amplitudeatcenter
al:amplitudeoftheleadingwave
Wl:Widthoftheleadingwave
Lmajor:Lengthofthemajoraxis
Lminor:Lengthoftheminoraxis
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Figure10.4:WindowoftheTsunamiSourceInput
Thentheprogramwilldisplayitssecondwindowasshowninthebelowfigure10.5.
Figure10.5:WindowoftheSeaStatecalculationforspecifiedTimeIntervals
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Thenitisnecessarytoinputthedataasfollows:
1.EnterthenameofthebathymetryfileintheBathymetryfilenameboxorbrowseforthe
locationofthefile.
2.EnterthenameofthegaugefileintheGaugesfilenameboxorbrowseforthelocationof
thefile.Youdonotneedtoentergaugefiletoperformthecalculation.Gaugefileis
neededonlywhenseastateataspecificcoordinateiswanted.
3.ToobtainthetimestepforcalculationusetheObtaintimestepbox.
4.Enterthegridsizeofthebathymetryfile.ClickObtain.Theprogramwillautomatically
getthemaximumdepthandcalculatethetimestep.
5.Entertimestepinthetimestepbox.Usealargertimestepthanthecalculatedtimestep.
6.Enterthestartandendtimeofthesimulationinthetimestartandtimeendboxesin
minutes.
7.Enterthetimestepfortheoutputfilesintheoutputfiletimestepboxeswhichwillshow
theseastateattheenteredtimeintervals.Ifyouwanttohaveseastatesatthesametime
intervalsthroughoutthesimulationenterthesametimestepforbothoftheboxesanddo
notchangethesecondboxwhichisinitiallysetas10minutes..
8.Ifyouwanttoworkwithtwodifferenttimesteps,enterthefirsttimestepintheoutputfile
timestepandenterthetimeinthesecondboxsothatfromthestartofthesimulationtill
thistime,thetimestepinthefirstboxwillbeused.Thenenterthesecondtimestepyou
wantfortherestofthesimulation.
9.Enterthewalldepth.Walldepthisadepthwhereaverticalimpermeablebarrierislocated.
Nowavemotionispermittedbehindthisbarrier.Ifyouwanttoputabarrieratland,insert
negativedepth.
10.ClickCalculate.
11.Afterthecalculationends,closethebox.
10.3.2CalculatingDistributionofRunups
Onthedistributionmenu,goto1eventtocalculatethedistributionoftherunupforoneeventor
gotoAlleventstocalculatethedistributionofrunupsformorethanoneevent.
10.3.2.11EventOption
1.Enterthenameoftherunupfileontherunupfilenameboxorusebrowsetolocatethe
file.
2.Selectthecalculatepractic.dist?boxifyouwanttocalculatethepracticaldistributionrun
upandenterthenameofthepracticdistributionfileintheboxorusebrowsetolocatethe
file.
3.Selectthecalculatelognorm.distr?boxifyouwanttocalculatethelognormaldistribution
ofrunupandenterthenameofthelognormaldistributionfileintheboxorbrowseto
locatethefile.
4.ClickRun.
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Figure10.6:WindowoftheRunupCalculationfor1EventOption
10.3.2.2AlleventOption
1.Enterthenameoftherunupfileontherunupfilenameboxorusebrowsetolocatethe
file.
2.Clickaddfiletoaddtheselectedfiletothelist.
3.Repeat1and2untilyouhavealltherunupfilesyouneedonthelist.
4.Todeleteafilefromthelist,selectthefilethatyouwanttodeleteandclickdeletefile.
5.Enterthenameofthepracticdistributionfileintheboxorusebrowsetolocatethefile.
6.Enterthenameofthelognormaldistributionfileintheboxorbrowsetolocatethefile.
7.ClickRuntogetbothofthedistributionsfortheselectedrunupfiles.
8.ClickOKtoclosethebox.
Figure10.7:WindowoftheRunupCalculationforAllEventOption
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10.3.3PlottingtheOutputFilesandPreparingPlotsforAnimations
Inordertoplottheoutputfileswhicharecreatedbythesimulationprocessasdescribedinabove,
itisnecessarytoclickon3DPlot(AVINAMI)menu,gotoSettings.Then,
(A.)Inordertoplottheseastateataspecifictime:
1.Enterthenameofthebathymetryfileinthebathymetryfilename(input)boxoruse
browsetolocatethefile.Ifyouwanttouseadifferentcolorforthetopography,selectthe
colorbyclickingthecolorbuttonnexttothebathymetryfilenamebox.
2.Selecttheboxnexttowaterfilenameboxinordertoplottheseastateataspecifictime.
3.Enterthenameofthewaterfilename(input)forthespecifictimeyouwanttoplotor
locatefileusingbrowsefromseastate(t*******.grd)files.Ifyouwanttouseadifferent
colorforthewave,selectthecolorbyclickingthecolorbuttonnexttothewaterfilename
box.
4.Toentertitlesforthesimulation,usethetitle1andtitle2boxes.
5.Enterthecoordinatesofthestartingpointofthetitles.
6.Enteravalueinthemultiplierofheightboxtodecrease/increasetheheightsofthe
topography.
7.Enteravalueinthemultiplierofamplitudeboxtoincreasetheheightofthewavestogeta
welldefinedseastate.Thesemultipliersdonotaltertheoriginalcalculations.
8.Inordertoshowthetimeoftheseastate,selecttheshowtime?box.
9.SelectOK.
Figure10.8:WindowofthePlottingofOutputFiles
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(B.)Inordertoprepareplotsforanimation:
1.Enterthenameofthebathymetryfileinthebathymetryfilename(input)boxoruse
browsetolocatethefile.Ifyouwanttouseadifferentcolorforthetopography,selectthe
colorbyclickingthecolorbuttonnexttothebathymetryfilenamebox.
2.SelecttheboxintheAviPreparationboxinordertoplotseveralseastatefileshavinga
specifictimeinterval.
3.Enterthestartandendtimeofthesimulationinseconds.Youcaneitherstartthe
simulationwhentis0oratanysecondwithinthedurationoforiginalsimulationtime.In
ordertoproduceplotsofseastatesatdifferenttimes,youmustusethetimesoftheoutput
grd(t******.grd)files.
4.Enterthetimestepforsimulation.Thisnumbershouldbeequaltoormultiplierofthetime
stepusedintheoutputwaterfiletimestep.
5.Toentertitlesforthesimulation,usethetitle1andtitle2boxes.
6.Enterthecoordinatesofthestartingpointofthetitles.
7.Enteravalueinthemultiplierofheightboxtodecrease/increasetheheightsofthe
topography.
8.Enteravalueinthemultiplierofamplitudeboxtoincreasetheheightofthewavestogeta
welldefinedseastate.Thesemultipliersdonotaltertheoriginalcalculations.
9.Inordertoshowthetimeoftheseastate,selecttheshowtime?box.
10.SelectOK.
10.3.4CameraSettings
Figure10.9:WindowofthePlottingofOutputFiles
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1.On3DPlot(AVINAMI)menu,gotoCameraPosition.
2.Entercoordinatesinthecoordinateboxestolocatethecameratogetthedesiredviewof
theoutputfiles.
3.EntervaluesintheTurnobjecttoturntheoutputfiletogetthedesiredviewoftheoutput
files.
4.EntercoordinatesofthelightintheLightsourcepositionboxestolocatethelightsource
togetthedesiredviewoftheoutputfiles.
5.ClickOK.
6.On3DPlot(AVINAMI)menu,gotoPlottoplottheoutputfileswiththeselected
propertiesofview.Thisplottingmaytakesometime.
10.3.5CreateAnimations
Inordertocreateanimationsfromtheoutputfiles:
1.Firstplotoutputfilesforanimationusingtheguidelinegivenabove.
2.On3Dplot(AVINAMI)menu,gotoBMP2AVI.
Figure10.10:WindowoftheAnimationCreation
Z
X
Y
Xturnofobject
Zturnofobject
Yturnofobject
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3.Enterthenameofthedirectoryorlocateitbyclickingthebuttonnexttothedirectory
box.Oncethisnameisentered,theprogramautomaticallyshowsthebmpfilesasalistin
theFilesbox.
4.Bydefault,BMPoptionisselected.Ifnot,selecttheBMPoptionontheinputoptions
menu.
5.Ifyouwanttoinsertmusictotheanimation,enterthenameofthefileorlocatethefile
usingthebutton.
6.EnterthenameoftheAvifilewhichisgoingtobetheoutputsimulationfileorlocateit
usingbutton.
7.Entertheframerateandthekeyrateonoutputoptionsmenu.
8.ClickCreate.
9.Selectatypeofcompressor(codec)tocreatethesimulationfile.Thetypesofcodec
dependonthetypesofcodecyouhaveinyourharddisk.Changethecodecsettingstoget
thedesiredviewforthesimulation.
10.ClickOKtogeneratethesimulation.
10.3.6CreateGaugePointFile
Inordertocreateagaugepointfile,asgivenabove,iftheseastateofaspecificlocationisasked,
thecoordinatesofthelocationshouldbegiventotheprograminafilewhichhasapredefined
format.Inordertocreatethisgaugefile:
1.OntheGaugeeditmenu,gotogaugeedit.
2.Enterthenameofthegaugepointfileinwhichthecoordinatesofthelocationswillbe
storedorlocatethefileusingbrowseoption.Selecttheboxnexttoit.
3.Enterthenameofthebathymetryfileorbrowseit.Selecttheboxnexttoit.
4.ClickOK.
5.Thescreenwillshowthebathymetryfile.
6.Clickthelocationyouwanttoaddtothegaugefileonthescreen.
7.WritethenameofthelocationandclickOK.
Figure10.11:WindowoftheAnimationCreation

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