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1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Introduction

A calorimeter is a device used for calorimetry, the science of measuring the heat of
chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. The word calorimeter
is derived from the Latin word calor, meaning heat. Differential scanning
calorimeters, isothermal microcalorimeters, titration calorimeters and accelerated rate
calorimeters are among the most common types. A simple calorimeter just consists of
a thermometer attached to a metal container full of water suspended above a
combustion chamber.
To find the enthalpy change per mole of a substance A in a reaction between two
liquids A and B, the liquids are added to a calorimeter and the initial and final (after
the reaction has finished) temperatures are noted. Multiplying the temperature change
by the mass and specific heat capacities of the liquids gives a value for the energy
given off during the reaction (assuming the reaction was exothermic.). Dividing the
energy change by how many moles of X were present gives its enthalpy change of
reaction. This method is used primarily in academic teaching as it describes the theory
of calorimetry. It does not account for the heat loss through the container or the heat
capacity of the thermometer and container itself. In addition, the object placed inside
the calorimeter show that the objects transferred their heat to the calorimeter and into
the liquid, and the heat absorbed by the calorimeter and the liquid is equal to the heat
given off by the metals.

1.2

Types of Calorimeter

A reaction calorimeter is a calorimeter in which a chemical reaction is initiated within


a closed insulated container. Reaction heats are measured and the total heat is
obtained by integrating heatflow versus time. This is the standard used in industry to
measure heats since industrial processes are engineered to run at constant
temperatures. Reaction calorimetry can also be used to determine maximum heat
release rate for chemical process engineering and for tracking the global kinetics of
reactions. There are four main methods for measuring the heat in reaction calorimeter

1.2.1

Heat flow calorimetry

The cooling/heating jacket controls either the temperature of the process or the
temperature of the jacket. Heat is measured by monitoring the temperature
difference between heat transfer fluid and the process fluid. In addition fill
volumes (i.e. wetted area), specific heat, heat flow coefficient have to be
determined to arrive at a correct value. It is possible with this type of
calorimeter to do reactions at reflux, although the accuracy is not as good.

1.2.2

Heat balance calorimetry

The cooling/heating jacket controls the temperature of the process. Heat is


measured by monitoring the heat gained or lost by the heat transfer fluid.

1.2.3

Power Compensation

Power compensation uses a heater placed within the vessel to maintain a


constant temperature. The energy supplied to this heater can be varied as
reactions require and the calorimetry signal is purely derived from this
electrical power.

1.2.4

Constant Flux

Constant flux calorimetry (or COFLUX as it is often termed) is derived from


heat balance calorimetry and uses specialist control mechanisms to maintain a
constant heat flow (or flux) across the vessel wall.

1.2.5

Bomb calorimeters

A bomb calorimeter is a type of constant-volume calorimeter used in


measuring the heat of combustion of a particular reaction. Bomb calorimeters
have to withstand the large pressure within the calorimeter as the reaction is
being measured. Electrical energy is used to ignite the fuel, as the fuel is
burning, it will heat up the surrounding air, which expands and escapes
through a tube that leads the air out of the calorimeter. When the air is
escaping through the copper tube it will also heat up the water outside the
tube. The temperature of the water allows for calculating calorie content of the
fuel.

In more recent calorimeter designs, the whole bomb, pressurized with excess
pure oxygen (typically at 30atm) and containing a known mass of sample
(typically 1-1.5 g) and a small fixed amount of water (to absorb produced acid
gases), is submerged under a known volume of water ( ca. 2000 ml)before the
charge is (again electrically) ignited. The bomb, with sample and oxygen,
form a closed system - no air escapes during the reaction. The energy released
by the combustion raises the temperature of the steel bomb, its contents, and
the surrounding water jacket. The temperature change in the water is then
accurately measured. This temperature rise, along with a bomb factor (which
is dependent on the heat capacity of the metal bomb parts) is used to calculate
the energy given out by the sample burnt. A small correction is made to
account for the electrical energy input, the burning fuse, and acid production
(by titration of the residual liquid. After the temperature rise has been
measured, the excess pressure in the bomb is released.

1.2.5

Constant-Pressure Calorimeter

A constant-pressure calorimeter measures the change in enthalpy of a


reaction occurring in solution during which the atmospheric pressure remains
constant.
An example is a coffee-cup calorimeter, which is constructed from two nested
Styrofoam cups and holes through which a thermometer and a stirring rod can
be inserted. The inner cup holds the solution in which of the reaction occurs,
and the outer cup provides insulation.
Then
Cp = (W * DH / (M * DT))
where
DH = Enthalpy of solution
DT = Change of temperature
W = weight of solute
M = molecular weight of solute

1.2.7

Differential Scanning Calorimeter

In a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), heat flow into a sampleusually


contained in a small aluminium capsule or 'pan'is measured differentially,
i.e., by comparing it to the flow into an empty reference pan.
In a heat flux DSC, both pans sit on a small slab of material with a known
(calibrated) heat resistance K. The temperature of the calorimeter is raised
linearly with time (scanned), i.e., the heating rate dT/dt = is kept constant.
This time linearity requires good design and good (computerized) temperature
control. Of course, controlled cooling and isothermal experiments are also
possible.
Heat flows into the two pans by conduction. The flow of heat into the sample
is larger because of its heat capacity Cp. The difference in flow dq/dt induces a
small temperature difference T across the slab. This temperature difference is
measured using a thermocouple. The heat capacity can in principle be
determined from this signal
Note that this formula (equivalent to Newton's law of heat flow) is analogous
to, and much older than, Ohm's law of electric flow V = R dQ/dt = R I.
When suddenly heat is absorbed by the sample (e.g., when the sample melts),
the signal will respond and exhibit a peak. From the integral of this peak the
enthalpy of melting can be determined, and from its onset the melting
temperature.
Differential scanning calorimetry is a workhorse technique in many fields,
particularly in polymer characterization.
A modulated temperature differential scanning calorimeter (MTDSC) is a type
of DSC in which a small oscillation is imposed upon the otherwise linear
heating rate.

This has a number of advantages. It facilitates the direct measurement of the


heat capacity in one measurement, even in (quasi-)isothermal conditions. It
permits the simultaneous measurement of heat effects that are reversible and
not reversible at the timescale of the oscillation (reversing and non-reversing
heat flow, respectively). It increases the sensitivity of the heat capacity
measurement, allowing for scans at a slow underlying heating rate

1.2.8

X-ray Microcalorimeter

Figure1.1

X ray Microcalorimeter

In 1982, a new approach to non-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, based on the


measurement of heat rather than charge, was proposed by Moseley et al.
(1984). The detector, and X-ray microcalorimeter, works by sensing the heat
pulses generated by X-ray photons when they are absorbed and thermalized.
The temperature increase is directly proportional to photon energy. This
invention combines high detector efficiency with high energy resolution,
mainly

achievable

because

of

the

low

temperature

of

operation.

Microcalorimeters have a low-heat-capacity mass that absorbs incident X-ray


(UV, visible, or near IR) photons, a weak link to a low-temperature heat sink
which provides the thermal isolation needed for a temperature rise to occur,
and a thermometer to measure change in temperature. Following these ideas, a
large development effort started. The first astronomical spacecraft that was
designed, built and launched with embarqued cryogenic microcalorimeters
was Astro-E2. NASA as well as ESA have plans for future missions
(Constellation-X and XEUS, respectively) that will use some sort of microcalorimeters.

1.3

Theoretical Background

Calorimetry is the study of heat transfer during physical and chemical processes. A
heat transfer is always connected to a transport of energy. The total energy of a system
is called internal energy U,which is defined as the total kinetic and potential energy of
the molecules in the system.
Here by the system we mean the part of the world under observation. The system may
be able to interact with its sorroundings, i.e the region outside the system where the
measurments take place. Depending on the boundaries between the system and its
sorrundings the system can be characterized. A system is called open if matter can be
exchanged with its sorroundings and called closed otherwsie. Independent of the
ability to exchange matter is the capacity to exchange energy. Energy can be
exchanged in terms of mechanical work (e.g by expansion) or by the heat transfer. In
the latter, the system is called diathermic if heat transfer is permitted, and adiabatic
otherwsie. A system which has neither thermal nor mechanical contact with its
sorrundings is called an isolated system.

1.4

Conclusion

In this chapter we disscussed how heat can be measured using Calorimeter, what are
the types of Calorimeter and how each type used to measured heat energy, comparison
between each type and how theritical we can use Calorimeter.

2.
2.1

Block Diagram of Bomb Calorimeter

Figure 2.1

2.2

Block diagram

Explanation of Various Blocks


2.2.1

Sample cup

Sample cup Is basically the cup used to put the sample for measuring its
calorific value
2.2.2

Bomb with oxygen

The sample cup is the part of the bomb containing oxygen .the oxygen bomb
also contains the fuse wires which will be used in the combustion.
2.2.3

Temperature measurement

There is also a thermometer immersed in the calorimeter in order to measure


the temperature.
2.2.3

Level detector

The level sensors are attached in the calorimeter bucket in order to maintain
the water level in the calorimeter bucket.
2.2.4

PLC

All the equipments assembled in the calorimeter are controlled by the PLC.
2.2.5

Inner & Outer Bath

The Inner and outer baths are used to maintain the temperature of the bomb
calorimeter.

2.3 Flow Chart


START

SAMPLE PUT IN SAMPLE CUP

CONNECT WITH NICKEL WIRE

BOMB

CALORIMETER

PRESS START BUTTON

OXYGEN

FILL TAP WATER IN JACKET

LEVEL CHECK BY SENSOR

YES

NO
IF FULL

STIRRER ON

MAINTAIN TEMP BY USING HOT/COLD WATER

YES
IF TEMP
MAINTAIN

NO

PUT WATER IN INNER BATH FROM OUTER


BATH

IF WATER IS FULL

NO

YES
IF WATER IS
FULL

STOP SOLINOID

COMPARISON OF INNER AND OUTER BATH


WATER TEMP

YES
IF BOTH TEMP
EQUAL

NO

NICKEL WIRE START CONDUCTION

BURN THE SAMPLE BY NICKEL WIRE

TEMPERATURE OF INNER BATH INCREASE

TEMPERATURE OF OUTER BATH INCREASE BY


PLC

CONTROL OUTER BATH TEMP AND MAKE IT


EQUAL TO INNER BATH TEMP

YES

IF THE TEMP OF
INNER BATH
INCREASE

NO

NOTE THE FINAL TEMP OF INNER BATH

CALCULATE

?T

CONVERT IT INTO CALORIFIC VALUE

DISPLAY

DRAIN INNER AND OUTER BATH

STOP

2.4

Procedure

Handle the calorimetric apparatus with great care. There is a hazard of electrical
shock or of a short circuit from the exposed terminals. It is necessary to keep the
working space clean and dry. The bomb is expensive and should be handled with care.
In particular, be very careful not to scratch or dent any of the closure surfaces. When
the bomb is dismantled its various parts should be placed gently on a clean, paper
towel. Always place the lid to the calorimeter apparatus on its stand when it is not in
place on the apparatus. Be especially careful when moving the lid, not to break the
long thermometer or to bend the stirring shaft. When the bomb head is not in the
bomb, it should be carefully placed on the bomb head support stand. Check the
condition of the bomb. The bomb must be clean and dry, with no bits of iron wire in
the terminals. Make sure that the jacket is completely empty and that the inside of the
calorimeter is dry.
2.4.1

Preparing the Sample

Cut about a 10 cm length of the fuse wire, making sure that it is free of kinks
or sharp bends. Accurately weigh the piece of fuse wire (use an analytical
balance). Prepare pellets of the samples to be used. The pellets should be 0.8
0.1 g for the benzoic acid (a prepressed pellet may be used if available) and
0.5 0.1 g for naphthalene. Your lab instructor will show you how to use the
pellet press. Weigh the pellet accurately. If the pellet is too large, shave it to
the desired weight with a spatula. Reweigh the pellet, if necessary. Handle the
pellet and wire very carefully after weighing.
2.4.2

Ignition System

The cover of the oxygen bomb contains ignition terminals which are
connected to the fuse wire in order to initiate combustion of the fuel sample
inside the oxygen bomb. The lead wires from the ignition system are
connected to the ignition terminals of the oxygen bomb after it is submerged
in water in the calorimeter bucket. The circuit contains an ignition switch and
an indicator light. In order to initiate combustion (fire the bomb), the switch is
pressed held down until the indicator light goes out.

Figure2.1

Diagram showing the steps for attaching the fuse wire to the electrodes in
the bomb.

Figure 2.2

2.4.3

Photograph of the bomb head, where fuse wires are to be attached.

Installing the Bomb Head

Take care not to disturb the sample when moving the bomb head from the
support stand to the bomb cylinder. Slide the head into the cylinder and push it
down as far as it will go. Set the screw cap on the cylinder and turn it down
firmly by hand. Do not use a wrench. Hand tightening is sufficient to obtain a
tight seal. Check for electrical continuity with an ohmmeter. The resistance
between the two leads on the outside of the calorimeter should be quite low.
2.4.4

Filling the bomb with oxygen

Press the fitting on the end of the oxygen hose into the inlet valve socket and
the tighten the knurled union nut finger tight. Line up the fittings carefully

before tightening, since misaligning the threads may damage them. Close the
control valve on the filling apparatus. Then slowly open or "crack" the oxygen
cylinder valve not more than one quarter turn. Open the filling connection
control valve slowly and watch the outlet pressure gauge. When the bomb
pressure rises to the desired filling pressure of 18-20 atm, close the control
valve. Release the pressure in the bomb by slowly opening the knurled vent
valve on the bomb head. This is done to flush out the atmospheric nitrogen in
the bomb. Close the vent valve and refill the bomb to the desired pressure. The
bomb inlet check valve will automatically close when the oxygen supply is
shut off, leaving the bomb pressurized to the highest indicated pressure. DO
NOT VENT THE BOMB. Release the residual pressure in the connecting hose
by pushing downward on the lever attached to the relief valve. The gauge
pressure should now return to zero. Remove the oxygen filling connection.
Again, check for electrical continuity.

3.

Hardware & Software

3.1

Hardware

PLC

PT100 Sensors

Relays

Solenoid

Resistors

Diode

Transformer

Capacitors

DC Motor

3.2

Software

Syswin 3.4

3.3

The Pt100 Sensor


3.3.1

Description

Pt100 is the common abbreviation for the most common type of resistance
temperature sensor used in industry.
It has a specified resistance of 100.00 ohms at 0C and is made of Platinum
which has an accurately defined resistance vs. temperature characteristic.
There are two minor variations, the most common giving 138.50 ohms at
100C (DIN standard) and the other giving 139.00 ohms at 100C (popular in
Japan). It is most important to know which you are using when ordering or
calibrating instrumentation.
Because accurate tables of resistance v. temperature are available it is common
practice to calibrate instruments using precision decade boxes from table
values.

Pt100 sensors were originally made with platinum wire wound on a ceramic
former but are now made more cheaply by depositing a platinum film onto a
ceramic substrate.
Typical accuracies are 0.2%, 0.1% and 0.05% of value at 0C. The higher the
accuracy the higher the price.
Note that there are two error characteristics, an offset error (ie. how far out it is
at 0C) and a span or gain error (ie. how the resistance change with
temperature agrees with the theoretical figure). The gain error depends on the
offset error and the impurities in the platinum.
These sensors are also made in 200, 500, and 1000 ohms values. Although the
sensors are sold loose, it is usual to buy them made up into stainless steel
probes for insertion into processes.
3.3.2

Temperature Characteristics

Pt100 elements are specified over a temperature range of -200C to 850C


however the actual operating temperature is determined by the construction of
the probe into which they are incorporated. Typical low cost probes are made
by soldering the Pt100 to PVC or silicon insulated copper wires. Obviously
these are limited by the maximum temperature of the insulation. For higher
temperature work the Pt100 is silver soldered or crimped onto mineral
insulated wires and embedded in an insulating medium such as aluminium
oxide powder.
At higher temperatures the platinum film can slowly evaporate which
permanently changes the resistance of the sensor.
3.3.3

Errors

The low resistance of the Pt100 means that lead resistance can introduce
noticeable errors. Lead resistance introduces two errors, an offset error caused
by the lead resistance itself (which can be trimmed out) and a change in lead

resistance with temperature (which cannot be trimmed out). These can both be
overcome by the use of 3-wire and 4-wire compensation circuits.
Most probes are made in 3-wire configuration with one wire attached to one
terminal and two wires attached to the other. In a bridge circuit the two wires
end up in opposite arms of the bridge and their resistances cancel.
Note that 3-wire compensation is theoretically perfect only in constant current
bridges. Constant voltage bridges are only perfect when the bridge is balanced,
however in most cases the error is insignificant.
For two wire operation (normally very short cables) the twin wires are usually
joined together. Another cause of error is internal self heating. Because a
current must be passed through the sensor to obtain a voltage signal for the
electronics there is a small amount of power generated which causes the
sensor to warm up and thereby changing its resistance. A large current will
give a nice big signal for the electronics but also a larger self heating error. A
small current reduces this error but lower drift electronics is required to
minimize errors from the circuit. The best trade off depends on the application
however generally currents of the order of 1mA or less are typically used. Self
heating errors are larger when measuring gas temperatures because of the
poorer heat dissipation from the sensor.
The resistance/temperature characteristic of a Pt100 is not linear although for
many applications the error is acceptable without correction.
A typical example 0C = 100ohm, 50C = 119.4ohm, 100C = 138.5ohm.
Calibrating an instrument such that 0C = 0% and 100C = 100% will give a
reading at 50C = 50.4%.
There are several differing techniques for correcting the non-linearity of a
Pt100 sensor including break point linearizers, and look up tables, but a simple
technique is to slightly vary the current through the sensor as its value

changes. Careful component selection can reduce the error by a factor of 10 or


better.
3.3.4

Disadvantages

Most people regard the major disadvantages of the Pt100 sensor over other
industrial sensors, such as thermocouples, as response time and physical
strength.
Modern Pt100 sensors are now so small and light that the response time no
longer depends on the sensor itself. The response time of a Pt100 in a stainless
steel sheath will be almost identical to that of an insulated thermocouple in an
identical sheath because the thermal characteristics of the sheath are the major
contributing factor.
The physical strength of a thermocouple is still superior but a Pt100 sensor
properly packed in aluminiun oxide in a stainless steel sheath should withstand
everything short of a direct blow from a hammer.
3.3.5

Comparison of Sensors
SOLID
THERMOCOUPLE PT100

THERMISTOR STATE
DEVICES

Very wide Type T


can go down below Wide
OPERATING RANGE

-200C. Type W5 -200C


can

approach 600C

Very narrow

Narrow.
to Typically -40C
to 300C

Generally

Fairly

Low

inexpensive

inexpensive types

very

inexpensive

use

high

platinum wire.

types

to

accuracy Inexpensive

although type R & S


expensive

-40C
125C

1800C
PRICE

Typically

accuracy
more

expensive than

Pt100
ACCURACY

Moderate

Excellent

LINEARITY

Poor

Good

Poor
excellent
Terrible

Poor to very
good
PHYSICAL STRENGTH

Excellent

to

Depends on
probe
construction

Poor

to

Very good
very

good - Depends
on

Moderate

probe

construction

Good to very
good

Depends on
probe
construction

3.4Solid State Relay


Solid State Relays (SSRs) are switching devices consisting of electronic components.
The term "Solid State" means that these relays do not incorporate any moving parts in
the load switching circuit.

4.

DC MOTORS

4.1 History and Development

Figure 4.1

Jedlik's electric car of 1828.

The principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by


electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in
1821 and consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of mercury. A
permanent magnet was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury. When a current
was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the
current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often
demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in
place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of electric motors
called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These were
demonstration devices, unsuited to practical applications due to limited power.
The first real electric motor, using electromagnets for both stationary and rotating
parts, was demonstrated by nyos Jedlik in 1828 Hungary. He built an electric-motor
propelled vehicle in 1828.[1]
The first English commutator-type direct-current electric motor capable of a practical
application was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832. Following
Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the
intention of commercial use was built by the American Thomas Davenport and
patented in 1837. Although several of these motors were built and used to operate

equipment such as a printing press, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the
motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several
inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the
same cost issues with primary battery power. No electricity distribution had been
developed at the time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial
market for these motors.
The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Znobe Gramme
connected the dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor.
The Gramme machine was the first electric motor that was successful in the industry.
In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the
polyphase power transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in
the years to follow at the Westinghouse company.

4.2 Categorization of Electric Motors


The classic division of electric motors has been that of Alternating Current (AC) types
vs Direct Current (DC) types. This is more a de facto convention, rather than a rigid
distinction. For example, many classic DC motors run on AC power, these motors
being referred to as universal motors.
The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as
modern drivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed
of motor, driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or
some approximation of. The two best examples are the brushless DC motor and the
stepping motor, both being poly-phase AC motors requiring external electronic
control.
Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a
moving magnetic field and a moving current sheet for average torque production,
there is a clearer distinction between an asynchronous motor and synchronous types.
An asynchronous motor requires slip between the moving magnetic field and a
winding set to induce current in the winding set by mutual inductance; the most
ubiquitous example being the common AC induction motor which must slip in order

to generate torque. In the synchronous types, induction (or slip) is not a requisite for
magnetic field or current production (eg. permanent magnet motors, synchronous
brush-less wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine).

4.3

Comparison of Motor Types

Type

AC

Advantages

Induction

(Shaded Pole)
AC

Disadvantages

Least expensive
Long

life

high power

Induction High

(split-phase

high

capacitor)

torque

Rotation

with

Synchronous

long-life

from

frequency

Low

starting

power
starting

Rotation

slips

from frequency

freq

electric motor

Brushed

Long

holding

Uni/Poly-

Appliances

More expensive

Audio

phase AC

turntables

Requires

in

a printers

controller

and

floppy drives

lifespan High initial cost Hard

drives

low maintenance Requires

a CD/DVD players

High efficiency controller

electric vehicles

Low initial cost

Treadmill

DC Simple

electric motor

phase AC

Positioning

positioning

DC

Uni/Poly-

Fans

tape drives

torque
Brushless

Drive

Clocks

Precision
High

Application

torque

(alternator)

Stepper DC

Typical

slips

Rotation in-sync
AC

Typical

control
(Dynamo)

speed

High maintenance
(brushes)
Low lifespan

Uni/Polyphase AC

Multiphase
DC

Multiphase
DC

exercisers

Direct

automotive

(PWM)

starters

[2]

4.4

Torque Capability of Motor Types

When optimally designed for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage,
pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and core flux
density, all categories of electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the same

maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given physical size
of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the
maximum operating torque, such as short bursts of torque to accelerate an electric
vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating
temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum
operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric motors or
generators.
Note Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with Field Weakening
capability inherent in fully electromagnetic electric machines (Permanent Magnet
(PM) electric machine are excluded). Field Weakening, which is not readily available
with PM electric machines, allows an electric machine to operate beyond the designed
frequency of excitation without electrical damage.
Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as Field-Wound (i.e.,
electromagnet) or Permanent Magnet (PM) Synchronous electric machines cannot
realize bursts of torque higher than the maximum designed torque without saturating
the magnetic core and rendering any increase in current (i.e., torque) as useless.
Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PM synchronous electric machines
can be irreparably damaged, if bursts of torque exceeding the maximum operating
torque rating are attempted.
Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such Induction (i.e.,
asynchronous) electric machines, Induction Doubly-Fed electric machines, and
Induction or Synchronous Wound-Rotor Doubly-Fed (WRDF) electric machines,
exhibit very high bursts of torque because the active current (i.e., Magneto-MotiveForce or the product of current and winding-turns) induced on either side of the
transformer oppose each other and as a result, the active current contributes nothing to
the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, which would otherwise lead to
core saturation.
Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles short-circuit one
port of the transformer circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance of the
transformer circuit becomes dominant as slip increases, which limits the magnitude of

active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts of torque that are two to three times higher than
the maximum design torque are realizable.
The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric machine with a truly
dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with
no short-circuited port). The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be
unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited
power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to instantaneously
control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during motoring or generating
while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set (see
Brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine), the active current of the
Synchronous WRDF electric machine would be independent of the reactive
impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque significantly higher than the
maximum operating torque and far beyond the practical capability of any other type
of electric machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times
operating torque have been calculated.

4.5 DC Motors
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC
designs are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball
bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types
are the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutation
respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC source -- so they are not
purely DC machines in a strict sense.

4.6

Brushed DC motors

The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor with a
split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor
consists of a coil wound around a rotor which is then powered by any type of battery.
Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for
brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds,

brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the
irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. This limits the maximum
speed of the machine. The current density per unit area of the brushes limits the
output of the motor. The imperfect electric contact also causes electrical noise.
Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is
subject to wear and maintenance. The commutator assembly on a large machine is a
costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. There are three types of
DC motor
1.

DC series motor

2.

DC shunt motor

3.

DC compound motor - there are also two types

4.7

a.

Cumulative compound

b.

Differentially compounded

Brushless DC motors

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design.
In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is
replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position.
Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient, whereas DC motors with brushgear
are typically 75-80% efficient.
Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the
brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use
a permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall
effect sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics.
The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics as cued by
the signals from the Hall effect sensors. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronous
motors containing their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A specialized class
of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase
connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and velocity. These
motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles. When configured
with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modelists as outrunner
motors.

Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as
in computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CDROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers
and photocopiers. They have several advantages over conventional motors

Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient,


running much cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads
to much-improved life of the fan's bearings.

Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be


significantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator.
Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise;
without a commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used in
electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.

The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a
convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled)
applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK"
signal.

The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading


to precise speed control.

Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making


them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also,
sparking generates ozone which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings
risking harm to occupants' health.

Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and
are generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.

They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in
equipment that is affected by vibrations.

Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many


kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric
vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.

4.8

Coreless or Ironless DC Motors

Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron
(steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of
the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC
motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid
acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The
rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder inside the stator magnets, a basket
surrounding the stator magnets, or a flat pancake (possibly formed on a printed wiring
board) running between upper and lower stator magnets.
The windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated with Electrical epoxy
potting systems. Filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel
time. These systems are highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm. Typically
UL 1446 recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180C (Class H) UL File No.
E 210549.
Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed
from copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more
rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under 1 ms. This is especially true
if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no
metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often be
cooled by forced air.
These motors were commonly used to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives
and are still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, like radiocontrolled vehicles/aircraft, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation, medical
devices, etc.

4.9 Universal Motors


A variant of the wound field DC motor is the universal motor. The name derives from
the fact that it may use AC or DC supply current, although in practice they are nearly
always used with AC supplies. The principle is that in a wound field DC motor the
current in both the field and the armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields)
will alternate (reverse polarity) at the same time, and hence the mechanical force
generated is always in the same direction.

In practice, the motor must be specially designed to cope with the AC (impedance
must be taken into account, as must the pulsating force), and the resultant motor is
generally less efficient than an equivalent pure DC motor.
Operating at normal power line frequencies, the maximum output of universal motors
is limited and motors exceeding one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower) are rare. But
universal motors also form the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in
electric railways. In this application, to keep their electrical efficiency high, they were
operated from very low frequency AC supplies, with 25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation
being common. Because they are universal motors, locomotives using this design
were also commonly capable of operating from a third rail powered by DC.
The advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors
which have the typical characteristics of DC motors, specifically high starting torque
and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the
maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a result such
motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power tools which are
used only intermittently. Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on
AC is easily obtained by use of a thyristor circuit, while stepped speed control can be
accomplished using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that advertise
many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be
inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC).

Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances
such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high RPM operation is
desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills,
circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum
cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM, while Dremel and other
similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.
Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in excess of
design limits) if the unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors, sudden

loss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated


into the motor's protection and control schemes. In smaller applications, a fan blade
attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to limit the motor speed to a safe
value, as well as a means to circulate cooling airflow over the armature and field
windings.
With the very low cost of semiconductor rectifiers, some applications that would have
previously used a universal motor now use a pure DC motor, sometimes with a
permanent magnet field.

5.

Programmable Logic Controller

5.1

Introduction

Automation is the use of control system such as computers to control industrial


machinery and process replacing human resource. Special hardened computers known
as Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) are frequently used to synchronize the
flow of inputs from (physical) sensors and events with flow a tight control of almost
any industrial process.

5.2

Definition

It is a programmable solid state device which is used for the replacement of counters,
timers, relays etc. It is an automation method using relay technology.

Figure 5.1

PLC

Programmable Logic is a controller which stores instructions to command a device


such as valve, to which it is connected to start up, operate a shutdown.
A Programmable Logic Controller is small computer use for automation of real world
processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines. The PLC usually
uses a microprocessor. The program can often control complex sequencing and it
often written by engineers.

Figure 5.2

5.3

Applications of PLC

Features of PLC
5.3.1

Robust

A Programmable Logic Controller is a specialized controller use to control


machine and processes. It therefore shares common turns with typical PCs like
central processing unit, memory, software and communications. Unlike a
personal computer through the PLC is designed to survive in rugged industrial
atmosphere and to be very flexible in how it interfaces with inputs and outputs
to the real world.
5.3.2

Variable Sizes

PLCs come in many shapes and sizes. They can be so small as to fit in your
shirt pocket while more involve control systems required large PLC racks.
Smaller PLCs are typically designed with fixed I/O points for our
consideration; we will look at the more modular rack based systems. It is
called modular because the rack can accept many different types of I/O
modules that simply slides in to the rack and plugged in.
5.3.3

Alteration of Desktop PCs

The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include typical
relay control, sophisticated motion control, process control, distributed control
systems and complex networking. Today, the line between a general purpose
programmable computer and a PLC is thinning. The data handling, storage,
processing power and communication capabilities of some modern PLCs are

approximately equivalent to desktop computers. PLCs functionality,


combined with remote I/O hardware, allows a general purpose desktop
computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications.
5.3.4

Components of PLC

The components that make a PLC work, can be divided into three areas
1. The power supply and rack.
2. The central processing unit (CPU)
3. The input/output (I/O) section.

Figure 5.3

Components of PLC

The Power Supply and Rack


The rack is the component that holds every thing together. Depending on the
need of the control system it can be ordered in different sizes to hold more
modules.

Figure 5.4

Power supply

The power supply plugs in to the rack as well and supplies a regulated DC
power to the other modules that plug into the rack. The most popular power
supply works with 24Vdc sources.

Central Processing Unit


The brain of the whole PLC is the CPU module. This module is typically lives
in the slot beside the power supply. The CPU consists of a microprocessor,
memory chip, and other integrated circuits to control logic, monitoring, and
communications. The CPU has different operating modes. The CPU is then
placed in run mode so that it can execute the program and operate the process.
Since a PLC is a dedicated controller it will only process this one program
over and over again. One cycle through the program is called a scan time and
involves reading the inputs from the other modules, executing the logic based
on these inputs and then updated the outputs accordingly.
The scan time happens very quickly (in the range of 1/1000 th of a second.) The
memory in the CPU stores the program while also holding the status of the I/O
and providing a means to store values.

Figure 5.5

C.P.U

Input/Output System
The input/output system provides the physical connection between the
equipment and the PLC. Opening the doors on an I/O card reveals a terminal
strip where the devices connect.

Figure 5.6

I/Os

Inputs
Input devices can consist of digital and analog devices. A digital input card
handles discrete devices, which give a signal that is either on or off such as a
push button, limit switch, sensors or selector switches. And analog input card
converts a voltage or current (e.g. a signal that can be any where from 0 to
20mA) into a digitally equivalent number that can be understood by the PLC.

Figue 5.7

I/P O/P Mechanism

Outputs
Output devices can also consist of digital or analog types. A digital output card
either turns a device on or off such as lights, LEDs, small motors and relays.
An analog output card will convert a digital number sent by the CPU to its real
world voltage or current. Typical outputs signals can range from 0 to 10volts
dc. Or 4 to 20mA and are used to drive mass flow controllers, pressure
regulators and position control.

5.3

PLC Compared With Other Control Systems

PLC is well adapted to a certain range of automation tasks. There are typically
industrial processes in manufacturing where the cost of developing and maintain the
automation system is highly relative to the total cost of the automation, and where
changes to the system would be expected during its operational life. PLC contain
everything needed to handle high power loads right out of the box, very little
electrical design is required and the design problem centers on expressing the desired
sequence of operation in ladder logic (or function chart) notation.
PLC applications are typically highly customize systems so the cost of the PLC is low
compared to the cost of contracting a designer for a specific, one time only design. On
the other hand in the case of mass produce goods, customize control systems quickly
pay for themselves due to the lower cost of the components, which can be optimally
chosen instead of a generic solution. A micro controller based design would be
appreciate where hundreds or thousands of units will be produced and so the
development cost (design of power supplies and Input, Output hardware) can be
spread over many sales, and where the end user would not need to alter the control.
5.3

ADVANTAGES OF PLC

Smaller physical size than hard-wire solutions

Easier and faster to make changes

PLCs have integrated diagnostics and override functions

Diagnostics are centrally available

Applications can be immediately documented

Applications can be duplicated faster and less expensively

5.4

SOLENOID VALVE
A solenoid valve is an electromechanical valve for use with liquid or gas controlled
by running or stopping an electrical current through a solenoid, which is a coil
of wire, thus changing the state of the valve. The operation of a solenoid valve is
similar to that of a light switch, but typically controls the flow of air or water,
whereas a light switch typically controls the flow of electricity. Solenoid valves
may have two or more ports in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched
on or off; in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the
two outlet ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold.

Fig 5.8. Solenoid Valve


Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks
are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids.
5.5.1. ADVANTAGES
They are found in many application areas. Solenoids offer

fast and safe switching

high reliability

long service life

good medium compatibility of the materials used

low control power and compact design

CONCLUSION

The BOMB CALORIMETER is equipment, which is one of the major inventions to


find out the calorific value of a given fuel.
The automation of this project was not an easy task but we are very much thankful to
almighty ALLAH who helped us a lot in this project and off course the other people
like our internal and external who guided us throughout the project.

6.1. FUTURE RECOMMENDATION


6.1.1. Human Machine Interface (HMI)
The term user interface is often used in the context of computer systems and
electronic devices. The user interface of a mechanical system, a vehicle or an
industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human-machine interface (HMI).
Yet another term used is "operator-interface console" (OIC).

Fig 6.1. HMI view


The design of a user interface affects the amount of effort the user must expend to
provide input for the system and to interpret the output of the system, and how much
effort it takes to learn how to do this.
6.1.1.1. TYPES OF HMI
1.

Touch interfaces are graphical user interfaces using a touch screen display as a
combined input and output device. Used in many types of industrial processes and
machines, self-service machines etc.

2.

Attentive user interfaces manage the user attention deciding when to interrupt the
user, the kind of warnings, and the level of detail of the messages presented to the
user.

3.

Batch interfaces are non-interactive user interfaces, where the user specifies all the
details of the batch job in advance to batch processing, and receives the output when
all the processing is done. The computer does not prompt for further input after the
processing has started.
6.1.2. Programmable Automation Controller (PAC)
To serve by expanding machine and industrial control system development needs,
leading automation companies have created a new class of industrial controllers
known as PACs. PACs combine programmable logic controller (PLC) ruggedness
with PC functionality under open, flexible software architecture. With these
controllers, you can build advanced systems incorporating software capabilities such
as advanced control, communication, data logging, and signal processing with rugged
hardware performing logic, motion, process control, and vision.
It is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based
control system with that of a typical programmable logic controller (PLC). PACs are
most often used in industrial settings for process control, data acquisition, remote
equipment monitoring, machine vision, and motion control. Additionally, because
they function and communicate over popular network interface protocols. PACs are
able to transfer data from the machines they control to other machines and
components in a networked control system or to application software and databases.

Fig 6.2. A bank of Programmable Automation Controllers mounted on input/output (I/O) racks

PAC - PLC COMPARISON


Generally, PACs and PLCs serve the same purpose. Both are primarily used to
perform automation, process control, and data acquisition functions such as digital
and analog control, serial string handling, PID, motion control, and machine vision.
The parameters within which PACs operate to achieve this, however, sometimes run
counter to how a PLC functions.
Unlike PLCs, PACS offer open, modular architectures, the rationale being that
because most industrial applications are customized, the control hardware used for
them needs to allow engineers to pick and choose the other components in the control
system architecture without having to worry whether or not they will be compatible
with the controller.
PACs and PLCs are also programmed differently. PLCs are often programmed in
ladder logic, a graphical programming language resembling the rails and rungs of
ladders that is designed to emulate old electrical relay wiring diagrams. PAC control
programs are usually developed with more generic software tools that permit the
designed program to be shared across several different machines, processors, HMI
terminals or other components in the control system architecture.

Fig 6.3. Closeup of a Programmable Automation Controller

REFERENCE

WEBSITES
[1] http //www.google.com
[2] http //www.shimadzu.com
[3] http //www.wikipedia.com
[4] http //www.howstuffworks.com
.

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