Chromosomes

Chromosomes are thread-like structures found within the nucleus, and the number of chromosomes in a
cell is characteristic of the species - for example, we humans have 46 of them. A photograph of
chromosomes taken from an electron microscope is known as a karyotype. Animals have two sets of
matching chromosomes, and as such their cells (except for reproductive cells, gametes) are called diploid.
Gametes, which only have one set of chromosomes are described as haploid cells. In humans, a diploid
cell has 46 chromosomes and a haploid cell has 23.

Structure

Look at the image to the right - it is a simplified drawing of chromosomal structure - and it can be seen that
a chromosome is a double structure, made from two identical structures called chromatids (1). This is so
because during interphase, a period between nuclear divisions, each DNA molecule makes an identical
copy of itself contained in a chromatid - these chromatids are held together by a centromere (2). Each
chromatid is one DNA molecule. The gene for a particular characteristic is always located at the same
place on a chromosome.

Homologous Pairs
Every chromosome is part of a matching pair known as a homologous (because they are the same) pair.
Each member of a pair posses genes for the same characteristic, known as an allele - they may differ in
how they code for those characteristics. Eye colour, for example is coded for by one allele that may be
different, but there are dominant and recessive alleles and that is how the eye colour is 'presented'. There
are two separate chromosomes which determine the sex of the individual, known as sex chromosomes, all
others are known as autosomes. Females have a double X chromosome, whereas males have a X-Y
chromosome.
Cystic fibrosis is caused by a faulty allele in a gene that codes for a chloride channel protein that produces
normal mucus, and the mutated allele causes very thick mucus to be produced indeed, leading to cystic
fibrosis. Only when both homologous chromosomes have a copy of the faulty allele will the person be a
victim of the disease - if not, the person will simply be a carrier.

Nuclear Division

Nuclear division is used for three things, growth, asexual production or sexual reproduction - and two
different types are used - mitosis and meiosis respectively.

Growth and Asexual Reproduction

When a diploid cell divides, it must maintain the same number of chromosomes as the original cell, this is
known as mitosis

Sexual Reproduction
Meiosis is used for sexual reproduction, and the resultant cell is a gamete - a haploid cell with half the full
number of chromosomes.

Mitosis
Mitosis is the type of nuclear division used for growth and repair within organisms - it produces genetically
identical cells with the full number of cells (diploid cells). It is a precisely controlled process known as
the cell cycle.

Cell cycle

The cell cycle is the period between one cell division and the next - it's three phases
are interphase,nuclear division and cell division. During interphase, the cell regrows to its normal size
following cell division and then carries on its normal processes, whatever its task may be. When a signal is
received to divide, the DNA replicates so that each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids.
Nuclear division then follows, and the whole cell then divides. In animals cells, cell division also involves
construction of cytoplasm - known as cytokinesis - between the two new nuclei.

IPMAT cycle[edit]

Interphase is stage I of the diagram

Prophase, Stage II,III- The chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called
chromosomes and the nuclear membrane begins to breakup. The nucleus also breaks up and forms
part of several chromosomes. Centrioles move to opposite poles of nucleus.

Metaphase, Stage IV - Condensed chromosomes, carrying genetic information, align in the middle
of the cell at their centromeres before being separated into each of the two daughter cells.

Anaphase - Stage V, VI Chromatids (identical copies of chromosomes) separate at their

centromeres as they are pulled towards opposite poles within the cell. They are pulled because the
microtubule fibres begin to shorten, pulling them along.

Telophase - Nucleus, nucleolus reforms and chromosomes unravel into longer chromatin
structures for reentry into interphase. Cytokinesis also occurs - the division of cytoplasm and cell into
two by constriction from edges of cell.

This section is called the IPMAT section as it is an easy way to remember the stages of mitosis
(Interphase-Prophase-Metaphase-Anaphase-Telophase)

Significance
Replacement of cells and repair of tissues is done via mitosis - cells are constantly being replaced by
mitosis. In some animals mitosis can regenerate entire sections of their bodies.

Mitosis is also the basis for asexual reproduction. This is more prevalent in unicelluar organisms
and plants. Plants bud off of their stem which simply grows into a new plant, becoming detached from
the parent and then living independently.

The nuclei of the two new cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus and
are genetically identical.

Cancer
Cancer is a common disease in developed countries, with over 140,000 deaths in the UK alone in 2005.
There are many different forms of cancer. Cancer is a result of uncontrolled mitosis, that is to say that they
divide repeatedly and are out of control. This uncontrolled mitosis produces an irregular mass of cells
known as a tumour, and these cells are usually abnormal in shape.

Carcinogens
Cancers are as a result of mutation to the genes that control cell division, and divide continuously from
there, passing the mutated gene to all its descendants. There are many different reasons that a gene may
mutate, and any factor that may cause it to do so is known as a mutagen - several of them at once are

thought to have to happen in one cell. A carcinogen is an agent that causes cancer, and some mutagens
are carcinogenic.

Radiation
X-rays, radioactive decay elements and gamma rays can all form damaging ions inside cells which can
break dna strands. UV light can damage genes, potentially causing skin cancer.

Chemicals
Chemicals in tar from cigarettes or cigars is an extremely common killer - 25% of all cancer deaths are due
to tar carcinogens. These chemicals can damage DNA molecules.

Viruses
More rarely, cancers can be caused by viruses, including Pallipoma, a virus that can be transmitted
sexually and has been linked to cervical cancer.

Predisposition
You do not inherit cancer, but you can inherit faulty genes that cause it, or simply a great susceptibility to
developing cancer.

Primary Growths
Primary growths are small groups of tumour cells. Both tumour types place a huge drain on the bodys
resources because of the constant cell division.

Benign
Do not spread from origin

Compress and displace surrounding tissues

Malignant
Far more dangerous

Spread through body, invade tissues and destroy them.

Distributed around the body via blood stream

Interfere with the functioning of the area where they started to grow.

Cancerous cells can break off and spread through the blood and lymphatic system to other parts of
the body to form secondary growths.