Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mechanical
Properties of Metals
Engineering Materials H82 ENM
Spring 2013-14
Dr Joyce Tiong
Introduction
Stress
Plastic
Deformation
Mechanical
Properties
Strain
Elastic
Deformation
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 2
a. Tension
c. Shear
b. Compression
d. Torsion
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 3
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
s =
F
A
o
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
A c
F s
A o
t =
F s
A
M
2R
Simple compression:
Ao
F
s=
Ao
Note: compressive
structure member
(s < 0 here).
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 5
Hydrostatic compression:
Pressurized tank
>0
sz > 0
sh < 0
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 6
Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s:
Shear stress, t:
Ft
Area, A
Area, A
Ft
Ao
original area
before loading
lb f
in
or
Fs
Fs
Ft
s =
Ft
t =
Fs
Ft
Ao
Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 7
Engineering Strain
d /2
Tensile strain:
e = d
Lo
wo
Lo
Lateral strain:
eL = -dL
wo
d /2
Strain is always
dimensionless
q
x
90 - q
Shear strain:
g = x/y = tan
90
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 8
Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test machine
extensometer
specimen
gauge
length
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 9
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 11
2. Small load
3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
Linearelastic
Non-Linearelastic
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 12
2. Small load
3. Unload
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
planes
still
sheared
d plastic
d elastic + plastic
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear
elastic
linear
elastic d
d plasticH82ENM Chapter 5 - 13
Elastic Deformation
Linear Elastic Properties
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
Hooke's Law:
s=Ee
E
Linearelastic
e
F
simple
tension
test
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 15
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 16
eL
Poisson's ratio, n
- Negative ratio of transverse to axial strain:
eL
n=e
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless
-n
n
When force F is applied, the specimen will elongate in the z direction & contract in x direction.
10 mm
(negative because the diameter is reduced)
Given the Poissons ratio, = 0.34
2.5 x 104
= =
= 7.35 x 104
0.34
= = 7.35 x 104 97 x 103 MPa = 71.3 MPa
= =
2
N
= 71.3 x 106 2
m
10 x 103 m
2
= 5600 N
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 18
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 19
t
G
simple
torsion
test
t=Gg
V o
E
2(1 + n)
K =
E
3(1 - 2n)
V P
V o
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 20
E(GPa)
2 00
10 0
80
60
40
109
Pa
Graphite
Ceramics
Semicond
Polymers
Diamond
Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride
C FRE(|| fibers)*
<111>
Si crystal
<100>
A FRE(|| fibers)*
Glass -soda
G FRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete
GFRE*
20
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Composites
/fibers
CFRE *
G FRE( fibers)*
G raphite
Polyester
PET
PS
PC
C FRE( fibers)
AFRE( fibers)
*
*
Epoxy only
PP
HDP E
PTF E
Wood(
grain)
LDPE
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 21
d = FL o
EA o
Simple torsion:
d = - n Fw o
L
EA o
F
a=
2 ML o
ro4 G
M = moment
a = angle of twist
d /2
A o
wo
d /2
Lo
Lo
2ro
Plastic Deformation
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
Simple tension test:
Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress
engineering stress, s
Elastic
initially
ep
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
engineering strain, e
plastic strain
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 23
Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 24
200
Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr
100
70
60
50
40
Al (6061) a
30
20
10
Tin (pure)
dry
PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
PVC humid
PP
HDPE
Hard to measure,
300
Composites/
fibers
700
600
500
400
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
1000
Polymers
Steel (4140) qt
Hard to measure ,
2000
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Room temperature
values
Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
LDPE
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 25
Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TS
F = fracture or
ultimate
strength
engineering
stress
sy
Neck acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains
are
Tensile strength, TS
(MPa)
5000
3000
2000
1000
300
200
100
40
30
20
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
Composites/
fibers
C fibers
Aramid fib
E-glass fib
Steel (4140) qt
W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) aa
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a
Diamond
Si nitride
Al oxide
Si crystal
<100>
Glass-soda
Concrete
Graphite
Nylon 6,6
PC PET
PVC
PP
HDPE
wood(|| fiber)
GFRE ( fiber)
C FRE ( fiber)
A FRE( fiber)
L DPE
10
wood (
fiber)
Ductility
Elongation
L f -L o
x 100
% EL =
Lo
smaller %EL
larger %EL
Reduction in Area
Ao
Lo
% RA =
Af
Lf
e
Ao - Af
x 100
Ao
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 28
Resilience, Ur
Ur =
ey
sde
1
U r @ sy e y
2
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 29
Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve
E ngineering
tensile
stress, s
True Stress
True Strain
s T = F Ai
e T = ln i o
s T = s 1 + e
e T = ln 1 + e
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 33
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 34
Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression
--better wear properties
e.g.,
10 mm sphere
D
most
plastics
brasses
Al alloys
measure size
of indent after
removing load
easy to machine
steels
file hard
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness
cutting
tools
nitrided
steels
diamond
increasing hardness
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 35
Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100
Minor load
10 kg
Major load
60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 36
Brinell (1)
Brinell (2)
Vickers
Knoop
Rockwell
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 37
Hardening
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation
large hardening
sy
1
sy
small hardening
e
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
sT = K eT
true stress (F/A)
hardening exponent:
n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true strain: ln(L/Lo)
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 40
Mean
xn
x=
n
Standard Deviation
2
n
x i - x
s=
n -1
1
2
(MPa)
4
=1()
Std. deviation, =
=
4
=1
()
41
520
512
515
522
= 4.6 MPa
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 42
sw orking =
sy
N
between
1.2 and 4
sw orking =
220,000N
d2 / 4
sy
N
5
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
1045 plain
carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa
d
Lo
F = 220,000N
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 43
Summary
Homework:
Coming up next:
Example Sheet 4