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05.

Mechanical
Properties of Metals
Engineering Materials H82 ENM
Spring 2013-14
Dr Joyce Tiong

Introduction
Stress

Plastic
Deformation

Mechanical
Properties

Strain

Elastic
Deformation
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 2

Concepts of Stress & Strain


There are 3 principal ways in which load may be applied:
Tension
Compression
Shear

a. Tension

c. Shear

b. Compression

d. Torsion
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 3

Concepts of Stress & Strain (cont.)


Simple tension: cable
F

A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
s =

F
A

o
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft


M

A c

F s

A o
t =

F s
A

M
2R

Note: t = M/AcR here


H82ENM Chapter 5 - 4

Concepts of Stress & Strain (cont.)

Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM


(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Balanced Rock, Arches


National Park

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Ao

Note: compressive
structure member
(s < 0 here).
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 5

Concepts of Stress & Strain (cont.)


Bi-axial tension:

Hydrostatic compression:

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Pressurized tank

Fish under water

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

>0
sz > 0

sh < 0
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 6

Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s:

Shear stress, t:

Ft

Area, A

Area, A

Ft
Ao

original area
before loading

lb f

in

or

Fs

Fs

Ft
s =

Ft

t =

Fs

Ft

Ao
Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf/in2
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 7

Engineering Strain
d /2

Tensile strain:

e = d
Lo

wo

Lo

Lateral strain:

eL = -dL
wo

d /2

Strain is always
dimensionless

q
x
90 - q

Shear strain:
g = x/y = tan

90
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 8

Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test machine

extensometer

Typical tensile specimen

specimen

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 9

The Tensile Tester

Elastic vs. Plastic Deformation

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 11

Elastic vs. Plastic Deformation


(cont.)
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

bonds
stretch
return to
initial

d
F

Linearelastic

Elastic means reversible!

Non-Linearelastic

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 12

Elastic vs. Plastic Deformation


(cont.) Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

bonds
stretch
& planes
shear

planes
still
sheared

d plastic

d elastic + plastic

F
Plastic means permanent!

linear
elastic

linear
elastic d
d plasticH82ENM Chapter 5 - 13

Have a break, have a

(or maybe not)

Elastic Deformation
Linear Elastic Properties
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
Hooke's Law:

s=Ee

E
Linearelastic

e
F

simple
tension
test
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 15

Elastic Deformation (cont.)


Example:
A piece of Copper originally 305 mm long is pulled in tension with a stress of 276
MPa. If the deformation is entirely elastic, what will the resultant elongation? E = 110
Gpa
The deformation is elastic, thus strain is dependent on stress,
= =

(276 MPa)(305 mm)


=
= 0.77mm
110x103 MPa

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 16

Elastic Deformation (cont.)


Elastic Properties

eL

Poisson's ratio, n
- Negative ratio of transverse to axial strain:

eL
n=e

metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless

-n
n

> 0.50 density increases

< 0.50 density decreases


(voids form)
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 17

Elastic Deformation (cont.)


Example:
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod that has a diameter of 10 mm.
Determine the magnitude of the load required to produce 2.5 x 10-3 mm change in diameter if the
deformation is entirely elastic. Given: The Poisson ratio value for Brass is 0.34. E = 97 GPa.

When force F is applied, the specimen will elongate in the z direction & contract in x direction.

For the strain in the x direction,


2.5 x 103 mm
=
=
= 2.5 x 104

10 mm
(negative because the diameter is reduced)
Given the Poissons ratio, = 0.34

2.5 x 104
= =
= 7.35 x 104

0.34
= = 7.35 x 104 97 x 103 MPa = 71.3 MPa

= =
2

N
= 71.3 x 106 2
m

10 x 103 m
2

= 5600 N
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 18

Elastic Deformation: Stress-Strain Behaviour


(cont.)

Slope of stress strain plot (which is proportional to the elastic


modulus) depends on bond strength of metal

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 19

Elastic Deformation (cont.)


Other Elastic Properties
Elastic Shear modulus, G:

t
G

simple
torsion
test

t=Gg

Elastic Bulk modulus, K:


P=-

V o

Special relations for isotropic materials:


G =

E
2(1 + n)

K =

E
3(1 - 2n)

V P
V o

Pressure test: Init.


vol =Vo
Vol chg. = V

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 20

Elastic Deformation (cont.)


Youngs Moduli: Comparison
Metals
Alloys
1200
10 00
8 00
6 00
4 00

E(GPa)

2 00

10 0
80
60
40

109

Pa

Graphite
Ceramics
Semicond

Polymers

Diamond
Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin

Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride

Carbon fibers only

C FRE(|| fibers)*

<111>

Si crystal

Aramid fibers only

<100>

A FRE(|| fibers)*

Glass -soda

Glass fibers only

G FRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete
GFRE*

20
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

Composites
/fibers

CFRE *
G FRE( fibers)*

G raphite
Polyester
PET
PS
PC

C FRE( fibers)
AFRE( fibers)

*
*

Composite data based on


reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or
glass (GFRE)
fibers.

Epoxy only

PP
HDP E
PTF E

Wood(

grain)

LDPE

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 21

Elastic Deformation (cont.)


Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
Simple tension:

d = FL o
EA o

Simple torsion:

d = - n Fw o
L
EA o
F

a=

2 ML o

ro4 G

M = moment
a = angle of twist

d /2

A o

wo
d /2

Lo

Lo

2ro

Material, geometric, and loading parameters all contribute to deflection


Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 22

Plastic Deformation
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress

engineering stress, s

Elastic
initially

ep

permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

engineering strain, e
plastic strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a), Callister


& Rethwisch 8e.

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 23

Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002

tensile stress, s

sy = yield strength

sy

Note: for 2 inch sample


e = 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in
engineering strain,
ep = 0.002

Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 24

Yield Strength : Comparison


Metals/
Alloys

200

Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr

100
70
60
50
40

Al (6061) a

30
20

10

Tin (pure)

dry

PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
PVC humid
PP
HDPE

Hard to measure,

300

Composites/
fibers

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since


in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

700
600
500
400

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

1000

Polymers

Steel (4140) qt

Hard to measure ,

Yield strength, sy (MPa)

2000

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Room temperature
values
Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered

LDPE

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 25

Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

TS

F = fracture or
ultimate
strength

engineering
stress

sy

Neck acts
as stress
concentrator

Typical response of a metal

strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains

are

aligned and about to break


H82ENM Chapter 5 - 26

Tensile Strength: Comparison


Metals/
Alloys

Tensile strength, TS

(MPa)

5000
3000
2000
1000

300
200
100
40
30
20

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

Composites/
fibers
C fibers
Aramid fib
E-glass fib

Steel (4140) qt
W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) aa
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a

A FRE (|| fiber)


GFRE (|| fiber)
C FRE (|| fiber)

Diamond
Si nitride
Al oxide

Si crystal
<100>

Glass-soda
Concrete
Graphite

Room temperature values

Nylon 6,6
PC PET
PVC
PP
HDPE

wood(|| fiber)
GFRE ( fiber)
C FRE ( fiber)
A FRE( fiber)

L DPE

10

wood (

fiber)

Based on data in Table B.4,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 27

Ductility

Elongation

Plastic tensile strain at failure:


E ngineering
tensile
stress, s

L f -L o
x 100
% EL =
Lo

smaller %EL
larger %EL

Engineering tensile strain,

Another ductility measure:

Reduction in Area

Ao

Lo

% RA =

Af

Lf

e
Ao - Af
x 100
Ao
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 28

Resilience, Ur

Ability of a material to store energy


Energy stored best in elastic region

Ur =

ey

sde

If we assume a linear stressstrain curve this simplifies


to

1
U r @ sy e y
2
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 29

Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve
E ngineering
tensile
stress, s

small toughness (ceramics)

large toughness (metals)

very small toughness


(unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain,

Brittle fracture: elastic energy


Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 30

Question: Resilience vs Toughness

Define resilience and toughness.


State their difference(s).

Engineering stress-strain vs True


stress-strain

Engineering stress-strain measures incorporate fixed


reference quantities.

Undeformed cross-sectional area is used.

True stress-strain measures account for changes in


cross-sectional area.

Instantaneous values for area is used.


Giving more accurate measurements.

True Stress & Strain


Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

True Stress
True Strain

s T = F Ai

e T = ln i o

s T = s 1 + e
e T = ln 1 + e

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 33

Elastic Strain Recovery

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 34

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression
--better wear properties
e.g.,
10 mm sphere

apply known force

D
most
plastics

brasses
Al alloys

measure size
of indent after
removing load

easy to machine
steels

file hard

Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness
cutting
tools

nitrided
steels

diamond

increasing hardness
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 35

Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100
Minor load
10 kg
Major load
60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 36

Brinell (1)
Brinell (2)

Vickers

Knoop

Rockwell

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 37

Rockwell Hardness Test

Brinell Hardness Test

Hardening
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation

large hardening

sy
1
sy

small hardening

e
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

sT = K eT
true stress (F/A)

hardening exponent:
n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true strain: ln(L/Lo)
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 40

Variability in Material Properties

Elastic modulus is material property


Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.)
Large sample to sample variability
Statistics
n

Mean

xn
x=
n

Standard Deviation

2
n
x i - x
s=
n -1

1
2

(where n is the number of data points)


H82ENM Chapter 5 - 41

Variability in Material Properties (cont.)


Example:
The following tensile strengths were measured for four specimens of the same steel alloy.
Compute:
1.
The average tensile strength
Sample number Tensile strength
2.
Standard deviation
Average, =

(MPa)

4
=1()

520 + 512 + 515 + 522


=
4
= 517 MPa

Std. deviation, =
=

4
=1

()
41

520

512

515

522

Answer: 517 4.6 MPa

(520 517)2 +(512 517)2 +(515 517)2 +(522 517)2


41

= 4.6 MPa

H82ENM Chapter 5 - 42

Design or Safety Factors


Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N
Often N is

sw orking =

sy
N

between
1.2 and 4

Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does


not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.

sw orking =
220,000N
d2 / 4

sy
N

5
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm

1045 plain
carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa

d
Lo

F = 220,000N
H82ENM Chapter 5 - 43

Summary

Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and


displacement, respectively

Elastic behaviour: This reversible behaviour often shows a linear


relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a
material with a large elastic modulus (E or G).

Plastic behaviour: This permanent deformation behaviour occurs


when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches sy

Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material

Ductility: The plastic strain at failure

H82ENM Chapter 3 (2) 44

Homework:

Define elastic strain recovery with the aid of an


illustration.
Difference between Rockwell and Brinell hardness test

Coming up next:

Example Sheet 4

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