Centre for Diploma Studies

Department of Civil Engineering

Title:
PLASTIC ANALYSIS
1.0 OBJECTIVE
To find the form factor and to investigate the load deflection relationship for a beam to the point of plastic
collapse
2.0 THEORY
During the design process for beams it would not be unreasonable for one to assume that no part of the
beam should experience a stress greater than that allowable for the working material. However, it can be
found that a beam will withstand much larger forces before collapse than simple elastic theory predict.
When a beam is bent around the neutral axis, the stress through the beam section varies with the distance
from the neutral axis, form the greatest at the extreme fibres (y = maximum) to zero at the neutral axis
(y = 0).

Figure 1: Beam bent at neutral axis

If the beam is subjected to an increasing bending moment, the stress will build up through the section to
a maximum at the extreme fibres. This means that although the outer parts of the beam may well have
yielded and are behaving plastically, the inner parts may still be behaving elastically and resisting load.
If the bending moment continues to increase, the plastic portion will move further into the beam leaving
a smaller elastic core. This called the partially plastic condition. The beam will continue to resist the
bending moment although with an increasing rate of deflection as the plastic portion moves further
toward the neutral axis. (See Figure 2)

Figure 2: Beam reaches plastic condition

Eventually the elastic portion will far enough into the beam and the beam will be fully plastic. It will
form a plastic hinge and be unable to resist any further bending moment (shown below).

Figure 3: Beam reaches fully plastic

The ratio of the fully plastic bending to the just plastic moment is call FORM FACTOR. The form
factor is entirely dependent on the shape of the beam and not on the size, material or fixing condition.
For cantilever beam,
Yield stress y

4WL
.equation 1
bd

For the simply supported beam,

Maximum bending moment, M p

WL
.equation 2
4

Bending moment at yield of the extreme fibre M y y I y

Experiment form factor = M p M y where the text book value is 1.5
3.0 PROCEDURE
Experiment (Simply Supported Beam)
1. Measure the cross section of specimen beam and calculate the second moment of area for the
specimen.
2. Remove the clamp plates and place the specimen beam across the chucks of the unit.
3. Push the roller mechanism outwards to its stop.
4. Put the pin through the load cell fork and adjust the load cell down until the pin touches the
specimen beam, zero both load cell and indicator.
5. Adjust the load cell down to 3mm measured deflection and take a reading of the force required.
6. Continue to adjust the load cell down with increment of 3mm deflection until there is no or
very little rise in load.
7. Record your results in Table 1.

4.0 APPARATUS

Figure 4: Plastic Analysis Equipment

5.0 RESULT
Table 1 : Experiment Result (Simply Supported Beam)
Deflection (mm)

Force (N)

0
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
33
36

Centre for Diploma Studies

Department of Civil Engineering
Title:
SPAN DEFLECTION (DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD)
1.0 OBJECTIVE
To determine the relationship between span and deflection
2.0 THEORY
A beam must possess sufficient stiffness so that excessive deflections do not have an adverse effect on
adjacent structural members. In many cases, maximum allowable deflections are specified by Code of
Practice in terms of the dimensions of the beam, particularly the span. The actual deflections of a beam
must be limited to the elastic range of the beam, otherwise permanent distortion result. Thus, in
determining the deflections of beam under load, elastic theory is used. In this experiment double
integration method is used to give the complete deflected shape of the beam.

d2y P L

2 2
dx 2
dy PLx Px 2
x x x EI

A
dx
4
4
PLx 2 Px 3
y x x EIy

Ax B
8
12
dy
When x 0 ;
0 A 0
dx
PL3 PL3
When x L 2 ; y 0 0

B
32
96
PL3
B
48
PL3
When x 0 ; y max
(mid span)
48 EI
PL2
When x L 2 ; y max
(at support)
16 EI

M x x EI

bd 3
Where E can be obtained by referring to formula on the equipment board and I
12
3.0 APPARATUS
1. Specimen beam (Choose one of the following materials: Aluminium, Brass or Steel)
2. Digital Dial Test Indicator
3. Hanger And Masses

Figure 1: Span Deflection Equipment

4.0 PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.

Positioned the moveable knife-edge supports so that the supports are 500mm apart.
Place the selected beam on the supports.
Place the hanger and the digital dial test indicator at mid span. Zeroed the digital reading.
Apply an incremental load (use any from 10 to 500 g) and record the deflection for each
increment in the tables below.
5. Repeat the above using span of 400mm and 300mm.
5.0 RESULT
Span = 500 mm
No

Mass* (N)

Deflection
(Experimental)

Theoretical Deflection
(Ymax)

% Difference

Deflection
(Experimental)

Theoretical Deflection
(Ymax)

% Difference

Deflection
(Experimental)

Theoretical Deflection
(Ymax)

% Difference

Span = 400 mm
No

Mass* (N)

Span = 300 mm
No

Mass* (N)

Centre for Diploma Studies

Department of Civil Engineering
Title:
FORCE IN A STATICALLY DETERMINATE CANTILEVER
TRUSS
1.0 OBJECTIVE
To examine a statically determinate frame and to analyse the frame using simple pin joint theory
2.0 THEORY
A truss is a structure composed of slender member joined together at their end points to form one or more
triangles. The joint connections are considered as pinned joint without friction.
In order to determine the forces developed in the individual members at a truss, the following
assumptions should be made:
1. The members are connected to each other at their ends by frictionless pins, that is only a force and
no moment can be transferred from one member to another.
2. External loads are applied to the truss only at its joints.
One of the methods to calculate the forces in the member of a truss is using Method of Joint.
Method Of Joints

Suitable to use in calculating all of the member forces for a truss.

This method entails the use of a free body diagram of joints with the equilibrium equations Fx = 0
and Fy = 0.
Calculation only can be started for joint where the numbers of unknowns are two or less.

3.0 APPARATUS

Figure 1: Force In A Statically Determinate Cantilever Truss Equipment

4.0 PROCEDURE
1. Unscrew the thumbwheel on the redundant member. Note that it is effectively no longer part
of the structure as the idealised diagram illustrates.
2. Apply the pre-load of 100N downward, re-zero the load cell and carefully apply a load of 250N
and check that the frame is stable and secure.
3. Return the load to zero (leaving the 100N preload), recheck and re-zero the digital indicator.
Never apply loads greater than those specified on the equipment.
4. Apply load in the increment shown in Table 1 recording the strain readings and the digital
indicator readings. Complete Table 2 by subtracting the initial (zero) strain readings. (be careful
with your sign)

5.0 RESULT
1. Tables
Table 1: Strain Readings and Frame Deflection for Experiment 1
Load
(N)

Strain Reading
1

50

100

150

200

250

Digital
Indicator
Reading
(mm)

Table 2: True Strain Reading for Experiment 1

Load
(N)
0

50

100

150

200

250

2. Graphs
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Choose a member (except member 6), and on the same axis plot a graph of Recorded
Strain against Load (N) and True Strain against Load (N).
On another graph, do the same for a different member.
Plot a separate graph of deflection (mm) against Load (N).
Comment on your graph

Using the Youngs Modulus relationship, calculate the equivalent member force. Complete the
experimental force in Table 3. (Ignore member 6 at this stage)
E = /
Where,
E = Youngs Modulus (Nm-2)
= Stress in the member (Nm-2)
= Displayed strain
and = F/A where, F = Force in member (N) and A = Cross section area of the member (m2)
Rod diameter = _______________ mm and Esteel = 2.10 x 105 N/mm2
Table 3: Measured and Theoretical Force in the Cantilever Truss
Member
1

Experimental Force (N)

2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Theoretical Force (N)

Centre for Diploma Studies

Department of Civil Engineering
Title:
FORCE IN A STATICALLY INDETERMINATE CANTILEVER
TRUSS
1.0 OBJECTIVE
To observe the effect of redundant member in a structure and understand the method of analysing type
of this structure
2.0 THEORY
In a statically indeterminate truss, static equilibrium alone cannot be used to calculated member force.
There would be too many unknowns and would not be able to complete the calculations. Therefore, a
method known as the flexibility method will be used which uses an idea known as strain energy. The
mathematical approach to the flexibility method can be found in the most appropriate text books.

Figure 1: Idealised Statically Indeterminate Cantilever Truss

Basically the flexibility method uses the idea that energy stored in the frame would be the same for a
given load whether it is the redundant member or not. In other word, the external energy is equal to
internal energy. In practice, the loads in the frame are calculated in its released from (that is, without
the redundant member) and then calculated with a unit load in place of the redundant member. The value
for both are combined to calculate the force in the redundant member and remaining members. The
redundant member load in given by:

fnl
n 2l

The remaining member force are then given by:

Member force = Pn + f
Where,
P = Redundant member load (N)
l = length of members (as ratio of the shortest)
n = load in each member due to unit load in place of redundant member (N)
f = Force in each member when the frame is release (N)
9

Figure 2 shows the force in the frame due to the load of 250 N. You should be able to calculate these
values from Experiment: Force in a statically determinate truss.

Figure 2: Force in the Released Truss

Figure 3 shows the loads in the member due to the unit load being applied to the frame. The redundant
member is effectively part of the structure as the idealised in Figure 2.

Figure 3: Forces in the Truss due to the load on the Redundant members
3.0 APPARATUS

Figure 1: Force In A Statically Indeterminate Cantilever Truss Equipment

10

4.0 PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.

Manually tighten the thumbwheel of the redundant member of the truss.

Apply the preload of 100N, re-zero the load cell and carefully zero the digital indicator.
Carefully apply a load of 250N and make sure that the frame is stable and secure.
Return the load to zero (leaving the 100N preload). Recheck and re-zero the digital indicator.
Never apply loads greater than those specified on the equipment.
Apply the increment loads as shown in Table 1. Record the strain and the digital indicator
readings.
Subtract the initial (zero) strain reading (be careful with your signs) and complete Table 2.
Calculate the equipment member force at 250 N and record in Table 3.
Plot a graph of Load vs Deflection from Table 1 on the same axis as Load vs Deflection when
the redundant member removed. The calculation for redundant truss is made much simpler and
easier if the tabular method is used to sum up all of the fnl and n2l terms.
Fill in Table 4 and carefully calculate the other terms as required.
Fill in your result in Table 3.

5.0 RESULT
Table 1: Strain Readings and Frame Deflection
Load
(N)

Digital
Indicator
Reading
(mm)

Strain Reading
1

0
50
100
150
200
250
Table 2: True Strain Reading
Load
(N)
0

50
100
150
200
250

11

Table 3: Measured and Theoretical Force in the Cantilever Truss

Member
1

Experimental Force (N)

Theoretical Force (N)

2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Table 4: Table for calculating the Forces in the Redundant Truss

Member

Length

1.414

1.414

1.414

fnl

Total

fnl
n 2l

12

n2l

Pn

Pn + f

Centre for Diploma Studies

Department of Civil Engineering
Title:
SPACE FRAME
1.0 OBJECTIVE
To verify member forces obtain from experiment with tension coefficient method
2.0 THEORY
If the members of a truss system is situated not in a two dimensional plane, then the truss is defined as a
space frame truss. In other words, space truss has components in three axis i.e. x, y and z.
Consider a member with node A (xA,yA) and B (xB,yB).

Assume the force in the member is TAB (+ve tension) and length LAB
Definition of tension coefficient (t), tAB = TAB / LAB
At A, the horizontal component TAB is:
TABcos = tABLABcos = tABLAB (xB-XA) = tAB (xB-xA)
LAB
Used the same method , the vertical component at A is equal to tAB(yB yA)
At B, the horizontal component TAB = tAB(xA-xB) and Vertical component TAB=tAB(yA-yB)
Using statics, the equation for each joint using the coordinate value and solve for t. Convert it
into force using:
TAB= tABLAB = tAB (xB-xA)2 + (yB-yA)2

13

3.0 APPARATUS

Figure 1: Space Frame Equipment

4.0 PROCEDURE
Part 1:
1. Select any weight between 10 to 25 N
2. Ensure distance a = 500mm and place load hanger on D
3. Measure the distance b, c and d and record it in Table 1
4. Record the dynamometer readings for members S1, S2 and S3
5. Put the selected load on the hanger at D and record the
6. Repeat step (2) to (4) with different value of a
7. Calculate the theoretical member forces and record it in Table 1

14

Part 2:
1. For part 2, use a distance of 350 mm for a
2. Place the hanger on D
3. Measure the distance b, c and d. Record the dynamometer readings for member S1, S2 and S3
in Table 2.
4. Put a load of 5N on the hanger and record the dynamometer readings
5. Repeat step 2 to 4 using different load
6. Complete Table 2 by calculating the theoretical member value
7. Plot the graph of force against load for the theoretical and experimental results

15

5.0 RESULT

Dimension (mm)
a

Dynamometer Reading
S1

Force (N)

S2

S3

Unloaded Loaded Unloaded Loaded Unloaded Loaded

Experimental
S1

S2

S3

Theory
S1

S2

S3

500
400
300
200
Load = .

Load
(N)

Dynamometer Reading

Distance (mm)
b

S1
Unloaded

S2
Loaded

Unloaded

Force (N)
S3

Loaded

5
10
15
20
25
Dimension a = 350 mm (fixed)
Dimension b = _______
Dimension c = _______
Dimension d = _______

16

Unloaded

Experimental
Loaded

S1

S2

Theory
S3

S1

S2

S3