1.

1 UNDERSTANDING WAVES
Waves are caused by oscillations or vibrations of particles of the medium in which
the waves travel.
An oscillation is a movement of a particle or body back and forth along a
line about a fixed central position.
Waves transfer energy and momentum from the oscillating source without
transferring matter:
When waves travel through a medium, the particles of the medium merely
vibrate or oscillate about their equilibrium positions the particles do not
travel in the direction of the waves.
Experimental proofs:
- The radio & candle flame experiment - the candle flame swaying back
and forth and not pushed to one direction only; or
- The floating ball on water waves the ball moves up and down on the
same spot without moving in the direction of waves.
TYPES OF WAVES
TRANVERSE WAVE
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
the vibrations of the particles are
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the waves
e.g.water, light and electromagnet
waves

the vibrations of the particles

are parallel to the direction of
propagation such as sound waves.
eg. Sound wave

Production of waves
Water waves are produced by a disturbance on a water surface causing
oscillations of water particles which produce the water waves.
Sound waves are produced by a disturbance on air particles such as by hitting
a tuning fork, plucking a guitar string, moving the diaphragm of a audio speaker
by an electromagnetic mechanism, etc.
Electromagnetic waves (including light) are produced by oscillations of
electrons in an atom; or, movement of electron from a higher energy orbital to a
lower energy orbital.
A wavefront is an imaginary line or plane that joins all the points or particles in a
wave which are in the same cycle and in the same phase of vibration (same
direction and magnitude of displacement)

6. Physical quantities involving waves

The amplitude, a, of an oscillation is the maximum displacement from the

equilibrium position.
The period, T, of the oscillation is the time taken to complete one oscillation.
The frequency, f, of a wave is the number of oscillations made in one second.
The wavelength, is the horizontal distance between 2 successive points of
the waves which are in the same phase OR is the distance travelled by waves in 1
complete oscillation.
Wave speed, v = distance travelled / time taken = wavelength / period ( v
= /T)

[SPM 2012 P2 Q2(c) @

When the frequency of the water wave is increased, what happens to:
(i) The wavelength of the water wave?
(ii) The speed of the water wave?
Answers:
(i) The wavelength decreases (since in the same medium - i.e. water of the same
depth in the ripple tank - wave travels at the same speed and speed being v = f )
(ii) The speed remains unchanged (since nothing is mentioned about the depth of
the water in the ripple tank being altered. Q only mentions frequency f is increased)]

The energy carried by a wave depends on its amplitude (for mechanical waves
like water waves, sound waves, etc) or frequency (for electromagnetic waves).
Natural frequency:
Anything that can oscillate if left to oscillate freely will oscillate at its natural
frequency.
Natural frequency is therefore the frequency at which an oscillating system
will oscillate without the action of any external force.

PHENOMENONS
DAMPING
A body oscillating freely at its natural frequency but with decreasing amplitude is
said to experience damping. Graphically, damping is shown as follows:

Damping occurs in an oscillating system when the system loses energy

resulting in the decrease in amplitude but not the frequency of the oscillation.
Examples: A pendulum swinging freely or a loaded spring oscillating freely in a
non-vacuum environment will see the amplitude of its swing (or oscillation)
gradually decreases (while the frequency remains unchanged) until the swinging
or oscillation stops:
When damping occurs, energy is lost in two possible ways:
- External damping; to overcome frictional forces whether in air or in
liquid
- Internal damping; due to the extension or compression of the
vibrating particles
To overcome damping, external force must be applied (thus energy is supplied)
to keep the amplitude from decreasing. Such an oscillation is called forced
oscillation

RESONANCE

Resonance occurs in an oscillating system when the system is driven or made

to oscillate at its natural frequency by an external periodic force.
When resonance occurs, the system oscillates at its maximum amplitude.
Examples of resonance:
Barton's pendulum system
Tuning radio or television to the frequency of the station or the channel
when tuner's frequency and the station's frequency are the same, resonance
occurs to cause increase in amplitude of the radio wave and therefore better
reception and clarity.
Loudness and clarity of musical notes by wind-pipe instruments such as
saxophones, trumpet, flute and the likes: When some particular keys or holes are
pressed, the natural frequency of the wind pipe changes. Frequency of air
vibrations caused by blowing which matches the natural frequency of the wind
pipe causes resonance to occur resulting in loud and clear musical notes.
Tacoma Narrows Bridge disaster in USA in 1940 wind blowing at the natural
frequency of the suspension bridge causing it to resonate and vibrate with
maximum amplitude resulting in its collapse