Why is it easier to process with thermosets than with thermoplastics?

Answer: Thermosets are low-molecular-weight liquid with very low viscosities and therefore good
wet-out between the fibers and the matrix for various processes such as filament winding, pultrusion,
and RTM. Therefore processability is easy and fiber impregnation is better.
Why do thermoplastics have shorter processing times than thermosets?
Answer: Thermoplastic are shaped by cooling in the mould which takes a few seconds whereas
thermoset are shaped by curing on applying heat and pressure that takes time.
Explain why bonding between carbon fibers and an epoxy matrix should be excellent, whereas
bonding between silicon nitride fibers and a silicon carbide matrix should be poor.
Answer: In carbon fiber/epoxy composite, strength and stiffness is the main property to be enhanced
and for that bonding between fiber and matrix should be strong to minimize fiber pull-out and
maximize the stress transmittance from the weak matrix to the strong fibers.
In silicon nitride/SiC (CMC composite), fracture toughness is the main property to be enhanced. Poor
bonding allows the fiber to begin to pull out of the matrix. This processes consume energy, thereby
increasing fracture toughness.
Hence, poor bonding rather than good bonding is required!
What are the functions of the matrix phase in a polymer-matrix fiber-reinforced composite?
Answer:
Binds the fibers together. Transmits load to the fibers.

Isolates the fibers. This stops or slows the propagation of brittle cracks from fiber to fiber.

Provides protection to reinforcing fibers against chemical attack and mechanical damage
(wear).
Provides a good surface finish quality (rigidity and shape to the structure).
Determines the maximum service temperature.
The matrix materials are normally ductile and therefore increase the toughness of the structure.
Strength of bulk glass of a certain composition is around 100 MPa whereas the strength of the
freshly drawn fibres from the same molten glass is 5 GPa. Why? Give reasons.
Answer: Strength of any material is actually determined by the size of the largest crack and overall
number of flaws and defects.
By reducing number and size of the flaws, strength of the material can be raised. Larger forms of the
same material will have larger and more frequent flaws. Glass fibre drawn from the same molten glass
to fine filament (10 m) is free of macroscopic defects + fibre too fine to contain defects of the size
found in bulk glass. Hence, a small diameter fiber is much stronger than the bulk material because of
the size effect.
What is a honeycomb structure and why is it used?
Answer: A honeycomb structure thin foils of aluminum alloy or aramid polymer that have been
formed into interlocking hexagonal cells, with axes oriented perpendicular to the face planes.
Strength and stiffness depends on cell size, cell wall thickness, and the material from which the
honeycomb is made.
It is used for high bending stiffness, high out-of-plane compression properties and out-of-plane shear
properties with overall low density and low cost.

Why are glass fibres immediately coated with a size? What are the different roles for the size put on
glass fibres?
Answer: Fibers are immediately coated because surface flaws or cracks will act as points of stress
concentration, which will dramatically reduce the tensile strength of the material.
Different roles for the size:
(a)

it facilitates the production of strands from individual fibres

(b) it reduces damage to fibres during mechanical handling
(c) it acts as a process aid during moulding.
(d) It improves the surface wettability with the matrix and creates a strong bond at the fibermatrix interface which is essential for effective reinforcement.
Why are laminated FRP products made by the spray-up method not as strong as similar products
made by hand lay-up?
Answer. Because in hand lay-up, orientation of the fibers is controlled; whereas in spray-up, the
fibers in each layer are randomly oriented.
What is the difference between the wet lay-up approach and the prepreg approach in hand lay-up?
Answer. In wet lay-up, the layer of fiber reinforcement is placed into the mold dry, and the
uncured resin is then applied to it to form the composite laminate. In the prepreg approach, layers
of fiber preimpregnated with resin are laid into the mold.
Hand lay-up is classified in which of the following general categories of PMC shaping processes
(more than one)? (a) closed mold process, (b) compression molding, (c) contact molding, (d)
filament winding, or (e) open mold process.
Answer. (c) and (e).
SMC molding is a form of which one of the following? (a) compression molding, (b) contact
molding, (c) injection molding, (d) open mold processing, (e) pultrusion, or (f) transfer molding.
Answer. (a)
Filament winding involves the use of which one of the following fiber reinforcements? (a)
continuous filaments, (b) fabrics, (c) mats, (d) prepregs, (e) short fibers, or (f) woven rovings.
Answer. (a)
What is the basic difference between low density and high density polyethylene?
Answer. LDPE has a branched structure and is amorphous. HDPE is linear and highly crystalline.
These differences account for HDPE higher density, stiffness, and melting point.
Elastomers and thermosetting polymers are both cross- linked. Why are their properties so
different?
Answer. Elastomers are lightly cross-linked, whereas thermosets are highly cross-linked. Light
cross-linking allows extensibility; a highly cross-linked structure makes the polymer rigid.
What are some of the factors that influence a polymer's tendency to crystallize?
Answer. Factors are: (1) only linear polymers can form crystals; (2) copolymers do not form crystals; (3)
stereoregularity - isotactic polymers always form crystals, atactic polymers never form crystals, and
syndiotactic polymers sometimes form crystals; (4) slow cooling from the molten states promotes crystal
formation; (5) plasticizers inhibit crystal formation; and (6) stretching the polymer tends to promote
crystallization.
As temperature of a polymer increases, its density (a) increases, (b) decreases, or (c) remains fairly
constant.
Answer. (b)

Ceramic matrix composites are designed to overcome which of the following weaknesses of
ceramics (more than one)? (a) compressive strength, (b) hardness, (c) hot hardness, (d) modulus of
elasticity, (e) tensile strength, or (f) toughness.
Answer. (e) and (f).
9.9 Which of the following polymer types are most commonly used in polymer matrix composites? (a)
elastomers, (b) thermoplastics, or (c) thermosets.
What does vulcanization do to the rubber?
Answer. Vulcanization causes cross-linking of the rubber molecules; this strengthens and stiffens
the rubber while extensibility is retained.
How is a prepreg different from a molding compound?
Answer. Prepregs have continuous fibers rather than chopped fibers as in molding compounds.
Why are laminated FRP products made by the spray-up method not as strong as similar products
made by hand lay-up?
Answer. Because in hand lay-up, orientation of the fibers is controlled; whereas in spray-up, the
fibers in each layer are randomly oriented.

What are the limitations of filament winding? What are its main applications?
What are the processing techniques for short fiber thermoset composites?
What are the four major steps typically taken in the making of composite products?
What are the manufacturing techniques available for continuous thermoplastic composites?
Write down the composite manufacturing techniques that use prepregs?
Which of the following methods are used for producing composites for non-structural (i.e., nonload-bearing)
applications?
1. Injection molding 2. SMC 3. RTM

4. Filament winding 5. Spray-up 6. Pultrusion

In which processes sandwich construction is also possible?

1. Injection molding
2. Hand lay-up
3. Spray-up
7. SMC 8. Vacuum bag

4. RTM

5. Filament winding

6. Pultrusion

Which processes need high capital investment?

1. Injection molding

2. Hand lay-up

3. Spray-up 4. RTM 5. Filament winding 6. Pultrusion

If the fiber is inadvertently sprayed with a very thin layer of lubricant, what will be the effect on
composite properties.
a

Make comparisons of thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers

(i) on the basis of mechanical characteristics upon heating,
(ii) according to possible molecular structures, and
(iii) type of bonding

b. Rubbers develop high strains at low stresses. Explain, why?

c. You want to extrude a complex component from an elastomer. Should you vulcanize the rubber
before or after the extrusion operation? Explain.
d. Which of the following polyethylene thin films would have the better mechanical characteristics:
(1) formed by blowing, or (2) formed by extrusion and then rolled? Why?
e. When polystyrene cools in a mold, will the shrinkage be greater or less for sydiotactic

polystyrene as compared to atactic polystyrene? Why?

f.

The glass transition temperatures of polyethylene (low density), polypropylene, and polystyrene
are 110C, 20C, and 100 C. Explain these relative values on the basis of molecular structure
and chemistry.

g. On loading a thermoplastic, there may be following 4 possible responses

i.

ii.
iii.
iv.

stretching C C bonds

stretching secondary bonds (weak forces between different chains)

chains uncoil, straighten out
chains slide past each other
Which of the above happen only above glass transition temperature?

h. Describe the relative tendencies of the following polymers to crystallize. Explain your answer.
(a) branched polyethylene versus linear polyethylene
(b) isotactic polypropylene versus atactic polypropylene
i.

What is a laminar composite? Why fibers are stacked in multidirections? How does it affect the
strength of the composite?

j. How do injection blow molding and extruder blow molding differ? Give one example of product
made from each process.
k. Predict which member of each pair of polymers has the better glass-forming ability. Why?
(i) Isotactic poly propylene [C2H3(CH3)], or Syndiotactic PVC [C2H3Cl]
(ii) Atactic polypropylene [C2H3(CH3)], or Isotactic PVC [C2H3CI]
(iii) Polyvinyl alcohol, or Polyvinyl acetate
l. What different molecular forces are there in polymers which provide them the strength?
m. What does it mean to say that rubber is an entropy spring?
n. Consider the following composite manufacturing processes:
1.

Injection molding 2. Filament winding

3. Spray-up 4. Pultrusion

Answer the questions given below.

a. Which of the above processes are closed mould type?
b. In which processes high fiber content can be achieved?
c. Which processes are continuous type?
d. Which of the above processes have high production rate?
e. Which processes can be automated?

Q.1

Fifteen kilogram of polychloroprene is vulcanized with 5.2 kg sulfur. What

fraction of the possible crosslink sites is bonded to sulfur crosslinks,
assuming that, on the average, 5.5 sulfur atoms participate in each
crosslink?
Ans: 0.174

Q.2

Compute the weight percent sulfur that must be added to completely

crosslink an alternating acrylonitrile-butadiene copolymer, assuming that
four sulfur atoms participate in each crosslink.

Q.3

The vulcanization of polyisoprene is accomplished with sulfur atoms. If

45.3 wt% sulfur is combined with polyisoprene, how many crosslinks will be

associated with each isoprene repeat unit if

it is assumed that, on the
average, five sulfur atoms participate in each crosslink?
Solution:
45.3 wt % is S. Therefore polyisoprene rubber is 54.7 wt %.
Mol. wt of one of isoprene unit = 5 x 12 + 8 x 1 = 68 g/mol
No. of moles of isoprene units = 54.7 / 68 = 0.8044 moles
There is one double bond per unit, therefore total no. of double bonds (or crosslinking sites) = 0.8044 moles
For each crosslink, 5 S atoms are required
For 0.8044 moles crosslinks = 5 x 0.8044 = 4.022 moles of S
4.022 moles of S = 4.022 x 32 = 128.7 g of S
Available S = 45.3 g
128.7 g S needed for 100 % crosslinks
45.3 g will crosslink = 45.3/128.7 = 0.352

Q.4

For the vulcanization of polyisoprene, compute the weight percent of sulfur

that must be added to ensure that 10% of possible sites will be crosslinked;
assume that, on the average, 3.5 sulfur atoms are associated with each
crosslink.

Q.5

A butadiene acrylonitrile rubber contains 32 % acrylonitrile. How much

sulfur is required to react with 100 kg of this rubber to crosslink 15% of the
crosslink sites? (Assume 2.5 S atoms are involved in each crosslinking
bond.)

Q.6. A rubber contains 54% butadiene, 34 % isoprene, 9% sulfur, and 3 %

carbon black. What fraction of the possible crosslinks is joined by
vulcanization, assuming that all the sulfur is used in crosslinking? (Assume
that 1.5 S atoms are involved in each crosslink).
Solution:
Total quantity of rubber = 54 + 34 = 88 g
Mol. wt. of butadiene mer =

4 x 12 + 6 x 1 = 54 g /mol

No. of butadiene moles

= 54/54 = 1mole = 1 mole of crosslinking site (One mole of butadiene
contains one double bond i.e. 1 crosslinking site)
Mol. wt. of isoprene mer =

5 x 12 + 8 x 1 = 68 g /mol

No. of isoprene moles

= 34/68 = 0.5mole = 0.5 mol of crosslinking site (One mole of isoprene
contains one double bond i.e. 1 crosslinking site)
Therefore 88 g of rubber contains 1.5 moles of crosslinking sites
1.5 sulfur atoms are used per crosslinking site or 1.5 moles of crosslinking sites will consume 1.5 x 1.5
= 2.25 mole of sulfur.
No. of moles of sulfur available = 9 /32 = 0.281 moles

2.25 moles of S crosslink = 1.5 croslinking sites

0.281 moles of S will crosslink = (1.5 x .281) / 2.25 = 0.187 moles of sites.
Fraction of crosslinking sites = 0.187/1.5 = 0.125
Q.7

A butadiene styrene rubber is made by polymerizing 1 styrene monomer

with 7 monomers of butadiene. If 22% of the crosslink sites are to be
bonded with sulfur, what weight % sulfur is required? (Assume 1 S per
crosslink).

Q. 8

100 g of natural rubber (polyisoprene) (CH 2C(CH3) = CHCH2) is vulcanized with 19

g sulfur assuming a single sulfur atom participates in each bond. After a certain period of time
this vulcanized rubber was found slightly embrittled because of oxidation reaction. Analysis
showed that 15 % of the remaining crosslinking sites were bonded to oxygen crosslinks.
Compute the weight of oxygen used assuming one oxygen atom participated in each crosslink.
(At. mass of S = 32, O = 16)

Q. 9 A sample of polypropylene is made by blending five separate fractions as given below:

wi

0.1

0.2

0.25

0.15

Mol.wt.

35,000

60,000

85,000

105,000

0.1
113,400

Determine its weight average degree of polymerization.

A polypropylene rod of 2.29 cm dia is made of the above sample. The rod weighs 370 g per
meter. Calculate:
(i)

the number of polypropylene chains in a 3-m length of rod

(ii) the total length of chains in the 3-m rod, assuming that carbon atoms in each chain are
approximately 0.15 nm apart.
(For a linear polymer molecule, the total chain length L is given by L = xd sin /2, where d is
the distance between chain atoms, is the angle between adjacent backbone chain atoms =
109.5, and x = total number of chain backbone bonds in the molecule)
The polypropylene used in the rod in (b) is 53.7 % crystalline.
Also, at room temperature the unit cell for crystalline polypropylene is monoclinic with lattice
parameters
a = 0.666 nm
b = 2.078 nm
c = 0.650 nm

= 90
= 99.62
= 90

If the density of totally amorphous polypropylene is 0.85 g/cm3 at room temperature, determine
the number of mer units and the number of C and H atoms per unit cell.
(Hint: The volume of a monoclinic unit cell, Vmono = abc sin)

10. Calculate the tensile modulus of elasticity of a laminate composite consisting of 62% by volume of

unidirectional high strength carbon fibers and an epoxy matrix stressed under isostress conditions.
The tensile strength and strain at failure of the high strength carbon fibers is 3.2 GPa and .0139, and
that of the epoxy is 60 MPa and .025.
11.

We want to produce 10 kg of a continuous unidirectional fiber-reinforced composite of HS

carbon in a polyimide matrix that has a modulus of elasticity of at least 176 GPa parallel to the
fibers. What will be the cost of this composite if the cost of polyimide is Rs. 600/- per kg and
that of HS carbon fiber is Rs. 1500/- per kg ?
Modulus of elasticity
Density
High Strength Carbon fiber
282 GPa
1.75 g/cm3
Polyimide
2.11 GPa
1.39 g/cm3
Ans: Rs.12,075/-

12.

In an aligned and continuous carbon fiber reinforced nylon 6,6 composite, the fibers are to
carry 97% of a load applied in the longitudinal direction.
(a) Using the data provided, determine the volume fraction of fibers that will be required.
(b) What will be the tensile strength of this composite? Assume that the matrix stress at fiber
failure is 50 MPa
Modulus of Elasticity
Tensile Strength
GPa
MPa
Carbon fiber
260
4000
Nylon 6,6
2.8
76
Ans: o.258 & 1088.4 MPa

A continuous and aligned fibrous reinforced composite having a cross-sectional area of 970 mm 2 is
subjected to an external tensile load. If the stresses sustained by the fiber and matrix phases are 215 MPa
and 5.38 MPa respectively, the force sustained by the fiber phase is 76,800 N and the total longitudinal
composite strain is 1.56 x 10-3, then determine
(a) the force sustained by the matrix phase
(b) the modulus of elasticity of the composite material in the longitudinal direction, and
(c) the moduli of elasticity for fiber and matrix phases.
Ans: (a) Fm = 3290 N, (b) Ecl = 52.9 GPa , (c) Em = 3.45 GPa, Ef = 138 GPa

A continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced composite is to be produced consisting of 30 vol% aramid

fibers and 70 vol% of a polycarbonate matrix; mechanical characteristics of these two materials are as
follows:
Modulus of Elasticity
Tensile Strength
GPa
MPa
Aramid fiber
131
3600
Polycarbonate
2.4
65
Also, the stress on the polycarbonate matrix when the aramid fibers fail is 45 MPa. For this composite, compute
(a) the longitudinal tensile strength, and
(b) the longitudinal modulus of elasticity.
Assume that the composite has a cross-sectional area of 320 mm 2 and is subjected to a longitudinal load of
44,500 N.
(c) Calculate the fibermatrix load ratio.
(d) Calculate the actual loads carried by both fiber and matrix phases.
(e) Compute the magnitude of the stress on each of the fiber and matrix phases.
(f) What strain is experienced by the composite?
Ans: (a) 1100 MPa, (b) 41 GPa, (c) 23.4, (d) 42,676N & 1824N, (e) 445 MPa & 8.14 MPa, (f) 0.0034
Compute the longitudinal strength of an aligned carbon fiber-epoxy matrix composite having a 0.25
volume fraction of fibers, assuming the following:
(1) an average fiber diameter of 10 x 10-3 mm
(2) an average fiber length of 5 mm

(3) a fiber fracture strength of 2.5 GPa

(4) a fiber-matrix bond strength of 80 MPa
(5) a matrix stress at fiber failure of 10.0 MPa, and
(6) a matrix tensile strength of 75 MPa
Ans: 905 MPa
Consider an aligned glass fiber-epoxy matrix composite in which the average fiber diameter and length are
0.010 mm and 2.5 mm respectively, and the volume fraction of fibers is 0.40.
What should be the fiber-matrix bond strength if the longitudinal tensile strength of the composite has to be 220
MPa, assuming that
(1) the fiber length > critical length
(2) the fracture strength of the fibers is 3500 MPa, and
(3) the matrix stress at fiber failure is 8.0 MPa
Ans: 75 MPa

It is desired to fabricate a continuous and aligned glass fiber-reinforced polyester having a tensile
strength of at least 1250 MPa in the longitudinal direction. The maximum possible specific gravity is
1.80. Using the following data, determine whether such a composite is possible. Justify your decision.
Assume a value of 20 MPa for the stress on the matrix at fiber failure.
Specific Gravity
2.50
1.35

Glass fiber
Polyester

Tensile Strength
3500 MPa
50 MPa

Assume that the composite described above has a cross-sectional area of 480 mm 2 and is subjected to a
longitudinal
load of 53,400 N .
(a) Calculate the fibermatrix load ratio.
(b) Calculate the actual loads carried by both fiber and matrix phases.
(c) Compute the magnitude of the stress on each of the fiber and matrix phases.
(d) What strain is experienced by the composite?
Ans: (a) 13.82, (b) 49,797 N & 3603 N, (c) 294 MPa & 11.6 MPa (d) 3.867 x 10-3

A reinforced plastic sheet is to be made from a matrix with a tensile strength of 60 MN/m2 and
continuous glass fibres with a modulus of 76 GN/m2. If the resin ratio by volume is 70% and the
modular ratio of the composite is 25, estimate the tensile strength and modulus of the composite.
Solution:
cl = f f + m' (1 f)
Since
ie
So

c = m = f then c /Ec = m /Em = f /Ef

f = m (Ef / Em)
c = m (Ef / Em) f + m' (1 f)
=

Also

Ec =

60 (25) 0.3 + 60 (0.7) = 492 MN/m2

Ef f + Em (1 f ) = (76 x 0.3) + [76 / 25] (0.7) = 24.93 GN / m2

Compute the longitudinal tensile strength of an aligned glass fiberepoxy matrix composite in which
the average fiber diameter and length are 0.015 mm and 2.0 mm , respectively, and the volume
fraction of fibers is 0.25.Assume that (1) the fibermatrix bond strength is 100 MPa, (2) the fracture
strength of the fibers is 3500 MPa, and (3) the matrix stress at composite failure is 5.5 MPa.
Ans: 821.7 MPa

Compute the longitudinal strength of an aligned carbon fiberepoxy matrix composite having a 0.20
volume fraction of fibers, assuming the following: (1) an average fiber diameter of 6 x 10 -3 mm, (2)
an average fiber length of 8.0 mm, (3) a fiber fracture strength of 4.5 GPa, (4) a fibermatrix bond
strength of 75 MPa, (5) a matrix stress at composite failure of 6.0 MPa, and (6) a matrix tensile
strength of 60 MPa.
It is desired to produce an aligned and continuous fiber-reinforced epoxy composite having a
maximum of 50 vol% fibers. In addition, a minimum longitudinal modulus of elasticity of 50 GPa is
required, as well as a minimum tensile strength of 1300 MPa. Of E-glass, carbon, and aramid fiber
materials, which are possible candidates and why? The epoxy has a modulus of elasticity of 3.1 GPa
and a tensile strength of 75 MPa. In addition, assume the following stress levels on the epoxy matrix at
fiber failure: E-glass 70 MPa; carbon 30 MPa; and aramid 50 MPa. Tensile strength of E-glass,
carbon, and aramid fibers is 3450MPa, 4000 MPa, and 3850 MPa respectively.
In an aligned and continuous glass fiber-reinforced nylon 6,6 composite, the fibers are to carry 90% of a load
applied in the longitudinal direction.
(a) Using the data provided below, determine the volume fraction of fibers that will be required.
(b) What will be the tensile strength of this composite (in MPa)? Assume that the matrix stress at fiber failure is
30 MPa.
(c)

Elastic Modulus

Tensile Strength

(GPa)

(MPa)

Glass fibers

72.5

3400

Nylon 6,6

3.0

76

Assume that the unit cell of an epoxy based composite containing commingled filaments of E-glass
and T-300 carbon fibers can be represented by a rectangular array shown in the following figure. The
diameters of the E-glass filaments and T-300 filaments are 7x10-6 m and 10x10-6 m, respectively.

1. Determine the unit cell dimension if the fiber volume fraction is 60%.
2. Determine the theoretical density of the hybrid composite.

Material
Epoxy
Carbon T 300
E-glass fibre

Density (g/cm3)
1.25
1.76
2.54

Solution
No. of T-300 carbon fibers in the unit cell = 2
No. of E-glass fibers in the unit cell = 2
Area of the E-glass fibers = 2 r2 = 2 x 3.143 x (3.5 m)2 = 77 m2
Area of the T-300 fibers = 2 r2 = 2 x 3.143 x (5 m)2 = 157.15 m2
Area of the unit cell = 1.2a2
T-300 = 157.15 m2 / 1.2a2 and E-glass = 77m2 / 1.2a2
Total vol fraction of the fibers = (77 + 157.15) / 1.2a2 = 0.6
And therefore, a = 18.03 m or 18.03 x 10-6 m
& b = 1.2 x 18.03 = 21.64 m or 21.64 x 10-6 m

E-glass = 77 m2 / 1.2 x (18.03)2

= 0.197

T-300 = 157.15 m2 / 1.2 x (18.03)2 = 0.403

(or simply 0.6 0.197)

epoxy = 1 0.6 = 0.4

composite = T-300 x T-300 + E-glass x E-glass + epoxy x epoxy
composite = 0.403 x 1.76 + 0.197 x 2.5 + 0.4 x 1.25 = 1.701 g /cm3