Lecture 3

Design Wind Speed

Tokyo Polytechnic University

The 21st Century Center of Excellence Program
Yukio Tamura

Wind Climates

Temperature Gradient due to

Differential Solar Heating
Density Difference
Pressure Gradient
(Conservation of mass/momentum)
- Global Circulations (Hadley, 1973)
- Monsoons
- Frontal Depressions
- Tropical Cyclones
(Hurricanes, Typhoons, Cyclones)
- Thunderstorms (Down Bursts)
- Tornadoes
- Devils
- Gravity Winds (Katabatic Winds)
- Lee Waves
etc.

Tropical Cyclones
(Hurricanes, Typhoons)
1000 hPa

1000 hPa
100 2000 km

EYE OF HURRICANE

Temporal Variation of Wind Speed

(Hurricane Celia, 1970)
Maximum Peak Gust

19:00

20:00

21:00

22:00

23:00

24:00

1:00

Cook, 1983

Wind Speed

Wind Speed Distribution in

Tropical Cyclones
r

1/r
100

rm

Distance from Center

Wind Speed Distribution in

Tropical Cyclones
Moving Direction

10m/s

20m/s
30m/s
50m/s
40m/s
Dangerous
Semicircle

Temporal Variation of Wind Speed

(Typhoon)

13:28
50.6m/s
SSE

Cumulonimbus

Downbursts

240m

Down Draft
180m
120m

Down Draft

60m

Intense Blowoff
Stagnation Cone

Gust Front

600m 1200m 1800m 2400m 3000m 3600m

4km

Tornadoes
Cumulonimbus

Geostrophic Wind
Geostrophic Wind Speed UG

dp

+ aUG f = 0
dn

a : Air Density

Low Pressure

Isobars

Pressure Force
UG
Coriolis Force
High Pressure

f : Coriolis Parameter
= 2 sin = 1.45410-4 sin (rad/s)
: Earths Rotational Speed
: Latitude

Gradient Wind
Gradient Wind Speed Ug

Isobars

Low Pressure

(without consideration of
ground surface friction )

Pressure Force
Centrifugal Force

Ug2

dp

+ aUg f + a
dn
r

Ug
Coriolis Force
High Pressure

=0

r : Radius of Curvature

Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Gradient Height Zg

Outer Layer

A.B.L.
< Zg / 10

Ug Friction Free Wind

200m
Surface Layer
( : constant)
Interfacial Layer

d : ZeroZero-plane displacement Average building height

 Gradient Wind (Z >Zg)

Pressure Gradient Force
Coriolis Force + Centrifugal Force

Outer Layer (Zg/10 < Z < Zg)

- Momentum transfer from Gradient Wind
- Momentum delivered to lower altitude due to
Friction Effects
(Reynolds Stress : Turbulent Transfer)

Strong Wind Condition

- Sufficient mixing of air
- Thermally neutral condition
(/Z 0, :Temperature)
- Effects of ground roughness are predominant.
- Shear force (Reynolds stress: = auw )
increases from zero at the gradient height Zg to
a maximum at the zero-plane displacement.
- Surface shear stress:
Boussinesq: Kinetic Eddy Viscosity
0 = auwmax = au*2 cf. Boussinesq:
dU
u*: Friction velocity a uw = a
dz

Ekman Layer
Geostrophic Balance With Friction
Low Pressure
Pressure Force Isobars
U
Friction Force

Coriolis Force

Lower Altitude

High Pressure
UG
Ekman Spiral

Wind Speed Fluctuation

U(t ) = U + u(t )
Fluctuating
Component u(t)

Mean Wind Speed U

Power Spectrum of Wind Speed

(f)) (m
(m//s)2
Power Spectral Density fS U(f

(van der Hoven for Brookhaven, 1957)

4days 1day

1hour 10min

1min

5s

Spectral Gap
Macrometeorological
peak

0.001

0.01

Micrometeorological
peak

0.1
1
10
100
Frequency f (cycle/hour)

1000

Long Term and Short Term

Fluctuations
Averaging Time of Wind Speed
T = 10min (Japan, ISO4354, etc.) 1hour

Long Term Fluctuation T > 10min 1hour

--- Variation of Mean Wind Speed
(Design Wind Speed)
--- Static Effects on Buildings

Short Term Fluctuation T < 10min 1hour

--- Turbulence or Gust
--- Dynamic Effects on Buildings

Mean Wind Speed Structure

Geographical Location
Ground Roughness and Height
Topographic Effects
Direction
Seasonal Variation
Return Period
etc.

Wind Speed Profile

Ug
Ug
Ug

10

Wind Speed Profile

(Theoretical Approach)

Surface Layer
Zd
u
U = * { ln() + A }
k
z0

Law of Wall (Prandtl, 1932)

Near Gradient Height

u*
u
Ug = * { ln(
)B}
k
f z0

Velocity Defect Law (Karman, 1930)

u*: Friction velocity
z0 : Roughness length,
k : Karman constant ( 0.4)
f : Coriolis parameter, A, B : Empirical constants

Wind Speed Profile in Codes

Log Law
Zd
u
U = * ln()
k
z0
- Uniform roughness & Constant

Power Law (fully empirical)

Zd
U = Ur ()
Zr
z0 : Roughness length,
u*: Friction velocity
k : Karman constant ( 0.4)
d : Zero-plane displacement (0 0.75H)
Ur: Wind speed at reference height Zr
Zr: Reference height,
: Power-law index
Deaves & Harris Model (log + polynomial)

11

Wind Speed Profile

(Field Data)
Terrain

z0

0.0005m
sea, mudflats, snow covered flat
land, etc.
- 0.003m
flat open countryside, fields with
0.003m
crops, fences and few trees, etc.
- 0.2m
(Meteorological Standard)
dense woodland, domestic housing, 0.2m -1m
suburban area
city
1m -2m

0.1 - 0.13

large city center

0.3 - 0.5

0.14 - 0.2

0.2 - 0.25
0.25 - 0.3

2m - 4m

Wind speed difference between two sites

with different roughnesses

Site A

Site B

12

Wind Speed Profiles at Two Sites

with Different Roughnesses
m
500

SeasideUrban 2
z
z

12k
12k
Urban
1

Urban Seaside
2

(49)

(45)

(49)

(46)

200
100

Urban 2

50

Seaside

20

Tokyo Bay

10

10
U (z) [m/s]

20

Wind Speed Profile

(AIJ Rec.1993)

Large City
Center

Seaside
AIJ 1993

13

Yearly Variation of Annual Maximum Wind

Speed and Building Volume in Japan

Return Period : R
V Maximum Wind Speed
Annual
U

U
VrR

1 N
R
r = lim ti
N N i = 1

t1

t2

t3

t4

t
t (year)
t
5

Return Period R = Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF)

14

Wind Speed UR and Return Period R

Wind
Speed
UR (m/s)
Return
Period R
(years)

26

28

34

37

42

52

10

50

100

500

1000
Tokyo

Annual probability of exceedence of wind speed UR:

1
Q (UR) =
R
Probability of non-exceedence (CDF) of wind speed UR :
1
P(UR) = 1
R

R-year Recurrence Wind Speed UR

Probability of exceedence of UR during Buildings
Life Time, e.g. TL = 50 years
1
Q(UR: TL) = 1 P(UR)TL = 1 (1 )TL
R
R (years)
Q(UR:
50)

50

100

500

1000

63.6%

39.5%

9.5%

4.9%

(TL = 50 years)

15

Extreme Value Analysis

(Asymptotic Form: Cumulative Distribution Function)

Fisher-Tippett Type I (Gumbel Distribution)

CDF: P(U) = exp[ exp{ a(U b)}]
1/a : dispersion, b : mode
Fisher-Tippett Type II (Frechet Distribution)

CDF: P(U) = exp{ () }

U
- having lower limit :
Fisher-Tippett Type III (Weibull Distribution)
Uw
CDF: P(U) = exp{ () }
vw
- having upper limit : w

Gumbel Distribution
CDF: P(UR) = exp[ exp{ a(UR b)}]
1/a : dispersion, b : mode
Cumulative Distribution Function of R-year
Recurrence Wind Speed UR
1
P(UR) = 1
R

R-year Recurrence Wind Speed Based on

Gumbel Distribution
1
1
UR =
ln{ ln ( 1 ) } + b
a

Modified Jensen-Franck Method (Cook, 1982)

(Individual Storms, Gumbel, Threshold)

16

Basic Design Wind Speed in Japan

(AIJ Rec.1993)
40

30
(m/s)

40
30

100100-year Recurrence
1010-min Mean
Z =10m, = 0.15 (Category II)

40

30
30
30
40
48

40
40

40
48

40

30

Okinawa: 50m/s

Topographic Effects

Escarpments
Cliffs
Ridges
Hills
Valleys
- Speed-up Ratio (Mean Wind Speed)
- Turbulence

Speed-up Ratio : AIJ Rec.1993

17

Topographic Effects

Fluctuating Wind Speed Structure

Gust Factor / Peak Factor
Power Spectrum
Spatial- / Temporal- Correlation
Taylors Hypothesis of Frozen Turbulence

Turbulence Intensity
Turbulence Scale

18

Wind Speed Components

z

y
w
v

Me
Meaan Win
n W d Sp
e
ind
Direed
ctio
n

u
x

Temporal Variation of Wind Speed

U(t ) = U + u(t )

Umax = U + umax

Wind Speed

Mean Wind Speed U

3
Time (min)

Turbulence Intensity Iu
Iu =

u
u

Fluctuating
Component u(t)

u
U

u2

= Su(f)df

19

Gust Factor and Peak factor

Gust Factor: GU
Umax
U + umax
GU = =
U
U
Peak Factor: gU
umax
gU =

umax
u
GU = 1 + = 1 + gU = 1 + gU IU
U
U

Turbulence Intensity (AIJ Rec.1993)

400

Height Z (m)

200
100
50

IV

20

III

10
Terrain Category I II

0.1

0.2 I 0.5
u

20

Wind Speed Measurement

Height Z (m)

Spatial & Temporal Variations of

Wind Speed

150
115
80
45

500

Horizontal Distance tU (m)

21

Peak Factor gU

Peak Factor of Wind Speed

Ave. 3.50

Mean Wind Speed U (m/s)

(f)) / u2
Power Spectral Density fSU(f

Power Spectrum of Wind Speed

Typhoon

Frontal Depression

22

Schematic view of turbulence

Turbulence Spectrum

f Su(f)

Inertial Range
(Energy cascade)

Production
(Instability
of mean
flow)

Large Eddies

Dissipation
(Viscosity)

log f

Small Eddies

Cook, 1983

23

Power Spectrum of Wind Speed

(Fichtl-McVehill Model)

f Su(f)

u2

4 f*
5

(1 + a f* ) 3

Gamma Function

f Lux
4
1.5(1/) (5/3)
f* =
, a = 1.5 , b =
U
b
(1/) (2/3)

=1
= 5/3
=2

(Kaimal Spectrum)
(Panofsky Spectrum)
(Karman Spectrum) 5

Su(f) f

(Kolmogorovs Hypothesis of Local Isotropy,

Power of 5/3 Law in Inertial Subrange)

(f)) / u2
Power Spectral Density fSU(f

Power Spectrum of Wind Speed

24

log{ f Su(f) /u2}

Power Spectrum of Wind Speed

(TTU)

log f
(Tieleman, 1995)

Power Spectrum of Wind Speed

(Tieleman,1995)

f Su(f)
u*2
f* =

A f *
(C + B f* )

fZ
U

Z = Height

= 1, = 5/3, = 1
= 5/3, =1, = 1

(Blunt Model)
(Pointed Model)

25

(f)) / u2
Power Spectral Density fSU(f

Power Spectrum of Wind Speed

(Typhoon 9119)

Before eye passing over : 90min

After eye passing over : 110min

Turbulence Scale
Taylors Hypothesis
of Frozen Turbulence

Average Scale of Fluctuation

Lux 0 Ruu(x)dx

= U Ruu( )d
0

} u(r, t )

u(r + x, t )
x

Ruu(x) : Spatial Correlation Coefficient of u(t)

= u(r,t )u(r + x,t ) /u2
Ruu( ) : Auto-correlation Coefficient of u(t)
= u(r,t )u(r,t + ) /u2

26

Turbulence Scale
Average Scale of Fluctuation
Spatial Correlation Coefficient

Ruu(x)

u(r,t )
x

u(r + x,
t)

Lux = Ruu(x)dx
0

Lux

Turbulence Scale

Wiener-Khintchine
Relation

Su(f) /u2 = Ruu( )exp( i 2 f )d

2
Su(0) /u = 2 Ruu( )d = 2Lux / U
0
Turbulence Scale
Lux = USu(0) / 2u2
Isotropic Turbulence Field
Lux = 2Luy = 2Luz
(Near Ground: Lux 3Luz )

27

Turbulence Scale
(TTU)

Garg,
Garg, et al., 1995

Turbulence Scale (AIJ Rec.1993)

200

Height

Z (m)

100
50

20
10

Z
Lux = 100( )
)
30
20

50

100

200

500

Lux (m)

28

Coherence

Correlation of Wind Speed

(Root Coherence)

f Z
Reduced Frequency
U

missing !
!

Correlation of Wind Speed

(Root Coherence)
Coherence exp (

ky2y2+kz2z2
U1 U2

f)

U1(t) = U1+u1(t)
z
y U (t) = U +u (t)
2
2
2

29