Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations/l975

Selected Geologic Factors Affecting

Mining of the Pittsburgh Coalbed

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF T H E INTERIOR

Report of Investigations 8093

Selected Geologic Factors Affecting

Mining of the Pittsburgh Coalbed
By C. M. McCulloch, W. P. Diamond, B. M. Bench,
and Maurice Deul
Pittsburgh Mining and Safety Research Center,
Pittsburgh, Pa.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Thomas S. Kleppe, Secretary

Jack W. Carlson, Assistant Secretary-Energy and Minerals

BUREAU OF MINES
Thomas V. Falkie, Director

T h i s publication has been cataloged as follows:

McCulloch, Charles M
Selected geologic factors affecting mining of the Pittsburgh coalbed, by C. M. McCulloch [and others. Washington] U.S. Bureau of Mines [1975]
72 p. illus., t a b l e s .
g a t i o n s 8093)

(U.S. B u r e a u of Mines.

I n c l u d e s bibliography.

Report of investi-

1. C o a l mines and mining-Pennsylvania

2. C o a l m i n e s and
3. Methane. I. U.S. B u r e a u of Mines.
mining-West Virginia.
11.
Title.
111. T i t l e :
P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d , P e n n s y l v a n i a and
West Virginia. ( S e r i e s )

TN23.U7

no. 8093

622.06173

U.S. Dept. of the Int. Library

CONTENTS
Page

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Abstract
Introduction
Acknowledgments
H i s t o r i c a l background
S t r u c t u r e and s t r a t i g r a p h y of t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed
Regional s t r u c t u r e and paleogeography
Thickness and r a t e of accumulation
G e n e r a l i z e d s t r a t i g r a p h y of t h e P i t t s b u r g h Formation
Overburden t h i c k n e s s above t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d
Geologic f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o mining problems
S t r a t a above t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d
Sandstone c h a n n e l s
Clay v e i n s
C l e a t w i t h i n mines
Determination and a n a l y s i s of c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n
Relationship of l o c a l s t r u c t u r e t o c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n
Geologic f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g methane e m i s s i o n
Example of g e o l o g y - r e l a t e d problems i n a working mine
Determination and a n a l y s i s of j o i n t s and p h o t o l i n e a r s ...................
Surface j o i n t determination
Surface j o i n t analysis
P h o t o l i n e a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n from i n f r a r e d photographs
Photolinear analysis
Ronchi i n s p e c t i o n o f photoindex s h e e t s and a n a l y s i s of t r e n d s
C r i t e r i a for c l e a t estimation
R e l a t i o n s h i p of c l e a t t o s u r f a c e j o i n t s and p h o t o l i n e a r s
o v e r l y i n g i n d i v i d u a l mines
Summary of d i r e c t i o n a l d a t a a n a l y s i s
R e l a t i v e c o s t s of c l e a t e s t i m a t i o n by t h e t h r e e methods of
a n a l y s i s of s u r f a c e d i r e c t i o n a l d a t a
F i e l d mapping
I n f r a r e d photography a n a l y s i s
Ronchi i n s p e c t i o n o f p h o t o l i n e a r s h e e t s
Sunanary
B i b l i o g r a p h y of p r e v i o u s work i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed
Appendix A.--Glossary of terms
Appendix B.--Surface j o i n t r e a d i n g s of i n d i v i d u a l quadrangles
Appendix C . - - P h o t o l i n e a r r e a d i n g s of i n d i v i d u a l quadrangles
Appendix D . - - P r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n f o r i n d i v i d u a l photoindex s h e e t s
of t h e s t u d y a r e a

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ILLUSTRATIONS

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Map of t h e s t u d y a r e a and t h e p o r t i o n u n d e r l a i n by t h e
P i t t s b u r g h coalbed
S t r u c t u r e map drawn on t h e b a s e o f t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d
Basin of d e p o s i t i o n p r e s e n t i n t h e s t u d y a r e a d u r i n g l a t e
Pennsylvanian t i m e

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ILLUSTRATIONS..Continued
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I s o p a c h of t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d
L o c a t i o n of d a t a p o i n t s f o r t h e s t u d y a r e a
Areas o f t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d t h a t have been mined o u t
Overburden i s o p a c h of t h e s t r a t a above t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d
G e n e r a l i z e d s t r a t i g r a p h i c column of t h e P i t t s b u r g h Formation
Fence diagram of t h e s t r a t a d i r e c t l y above t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d
f o r the study area
Map o f t h e known s a n d s t o n e c h a n n e l s c u t t i n g i n t o t h e P i t t s b u r g h
coalbed
I s o p a c h of t h e P i t t s b u r g h s a n d s t o n e
Map of t h e Shannopin and Robena mines w i t h s a n d s t o n e c u t o u t s .
Fence diagram of t h e s t r a t a above t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d a t
t h e Shannopin mine
Generalized c r o s s s e c t i o n of c l a y v e i n s i n t e r s e c t i n g coalbeds
Mines o p e r a t i n g i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d w i t h abundant c l a y v e i n s
L o c a t i o n and s t r u c t u r e around t h e Marianna No 58 mine
C l a y v e i n s i n s y n c l i n a l t r o u g h a t t h e Marianna No 58 mine
X-ray d i f f r a c t i o n c h a r t s of t h e c l a y v e i n , t h e r o o f r o c k , and
the f l o o r rock l i t h o l o g i e s
C l e a t systems i n mines o p e r a t i n g i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d
Composite r o s e diagram of c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n i n 18 mines surveyed
R e l a t i o n s h i p between l o c a l s t r u c t u r e and c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n
i n t h e P u r s g l o v e No 15 mine, Monongalia County, W Va
Map of F e d e r a l No 2 mine showing h o r i z o n t a l l y d r i l l e d h o l e s
and c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s
S t r u c t u r e map drawn on t h e b a s e o f t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d f o r t h e
a r e a a d j a c e n t t o t h e a c t i v e workings o f t h e Somerset No 60 mine
Fence diagram of t h e s t r a t a d i r e c t l y a b w e t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d
a d j a c e n t t o t h e a c t i v e workings o f t h e Somerset No 60 mine
Sandstone c h a n n e l p r o b a b i l i t y map of t h e a r e a a d j a c e n t t o
t h e a c t i v e workings o f t h e Somerset No 60 mine
Rapid l a t e r a l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e s t r a t a d i r e c t l y above t h e
P i t t s b u r g h coalbed
I s o p a c h o f "draw s l a t e " above t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d i n t h e a r e a
a d j a c e n t t o t h e a c t i v e workings o f t h e Somerset No 60 mine
Rose diagram o f s u r f a c e j o i n t t r e n d s from t h e New F r e e p o r t
quadrangle, Pennsylvania
Composite r o s e diagram of p r i n c i p a l s u r f a c e j o i n t t r e n d s
Rose diagrams of s u r f a c e j o i n t s f o r 3 9 q u a d r a n g l e s
Rose diagram of p h o t o l i n e a r s f o r 39 q u a d r a n g l e s
Composite r o s e diagram of p r i n c i p a l p h o t o l i n e a r t r e n d s
for e n t i r e area
Composite r o s e diagram of p r i n c i p a l Ronchi t r e n d s f o r e n t i r e a r e a
TABLES

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C l e a t systems o f 18 mines surveyed

Composition of g a s from t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d

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TABLES --Continued
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Average s u r f a c e j o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n s , by county
P r i n c i p a l s u r f a c e j o i n t t r e n d s i n o r d e r of dominance.
Average p h o t o l i n e a r o r i e n t a t i o n s , by county
P r i n c i p a l p h o t o l i n e a r t r e n d s i n o r d e r of dominance
Average photoindex s h e e t l i n e a r o r i e n t a t i o n s , by county
P r i n c i p a l Ronchi photoindex t r e n d s i n order of dominance
Fundamental systems from d i r e c t i o n a l d a t a .
Coal c l e a t , dominant s u r f a c e j o i n t , and p h o t o l i n e a r o r i e n t a t i o n s
of t h e study area.................................................
Time and c o s t requirements f o r measuring j o i n t s and p h o t o l i n e a r s
f o r t h e study a r e a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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SELECTED GEOLOGIC FACTORS AFFECTING MINING

OF THE PITTSBURGH COALBED

C.

M. McCulloch. WmP mDiamondl' B. MmBench.

and Maurice Deul

ABSTRACT

A s p a r t of t h e Bureau of Mines methane c o n t r o l program, t h e P i t t s b u r g h

coalbed
was s t u d i e d i n Washington and Green C o u n t i e s , Pa. , and i n Marion and
1
Monongalia Counties, W. Va., where t h i s coalbed i s now being mined a t i t s
I g r e a t e s t depth. The coalbed t h i c k n e s s appeared t o be s t r u c t u r a l l y c o n t r o l l e d ;
t h e bed was g e n e r a l l y t h i n n e r n e a r t h e axes of a n t i c l i n e s and t h i c k e r near t h e
axes of s y n c l i n e s . The overburden isopach shows a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p . Most
of t h e c l a y v e i n s i n c o a l occur i n t h e s y n c l i n a l t r o u g h s , g e n e r a l l y under
sandstone r o o f .

C l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s measured i n 18 underground mines showed t h a t f a c e

c l e a t s a r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a x i a l t r e n d s of t h e f o l d s , and t h e b u t t c l e a t s
a r e p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i a l t r e n d s , i n d i c a t i n g s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l of t h e c l e a t .
Measurement and a n a l y s i s of s u r f a c e j o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n s provide a method
f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s of t h e coalbed, b u t l i n e a r s measured
from i n f r a r e d photographs and photoindex s h e e t s helped o n l y t o determine
regional trends.
The r e s u l t s of t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s provide a geologic framework f o r
r a t i o n a l planning f o r underground mine development t o use t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e
technology t o cope w i t h methane emissions, coalbed d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , and
r e l a t e d ground support problems.

INTRODUC TION
The P i t t s b u r g h coalbed i s one of t h e l a r g e s t and most v a l u a b l e mineral
d e p o s i t s i n t h e world. It extends from t h e western t i p of Maryland, west t o
Belmont County, Ohio, and from Allegheny County, Pa. , southwest t o Putnam
County, W. Va. This r e p o r t i s focused on Washington and Greene Counties, Pa.,
and Monongalia and Marion C o u n t i e s , W. Va., because t h i s i s t h e a r e a of
g r e a t e s t a c t i v e mining. Within t h i s a r e a ( f i g . 1 ) t h e coalbed c r o p s out only

l~eologist.
2 ~ e s e a r c hs u p e r v i s o r .

i n n o r t h e r n Washington
County and along t h e
Monongahela River, n e c e s s i
t a t i n g underground mining
almost e x c l u s i v e l y .

LEGEND

aStudy
area underlain
Pittsburgh coalbed
Scale, miles

by

The P i t t s b u r g h coalbed
l i e s i n an a r e a known p h y s i ographically as the
Allegheny P l a t e a u and c h a r ac t e r i z e d by a n t i c l i n e s and
s y n c l i n e s t h a t normally d i p
l e s s than 100 f e e t p e r m i l e .
The s t r a t a above t h e P i t t s burgh coalbed a r e composed
predominantly of interbedded
s h a l e s , sandstones, s i l t s t o n e s , and limestones with
i n t e r m i t t e n t coalbeds. The
c r i t i c a l v e r t i c a l sequence
above t h e c o a l i s normally
l e s s than 50 f e e t .

I n 1964, t h e U. S.
Geological Survey (=l3
determined from an e x t r a p o l a
t i o n of d a t a assembled by
Latimer ( 7 l ) t h a t t h e ~ G t s
burgh coalbed had yielded
about 8 b i l l i o n t o n s of c o a l
from t h e beginning of mining
i n t h e e a r l y 1900's t o
January 1, 1965. This t o t a l
FIGURE 1. Map of the study area and the portion under- was about 35 p e r c e n t of t h e
lain by the Pittsburgh coalbed.
cumulative production of t h e
Appalachian bituminous c o a l
b a s i n and 2 1 p e r c e n t of t h e cumulative production of t h e United S t a t e s . The
c o a l r e s e r v e s i n western Washington and Greene Counties, Pa., and Marion and
Monongalia Counties, W. Va., r e p r e s e n t a n important f u t u r e source of c o a l .
The c o a l h e r e i s deeper (up t o 1,500 f e e t ) t h a n t h a t p r e v i o u s l y mined i n t h e
P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b a s i n . Methane gas has been a continuing source of problems
i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed, and such problems w i l l probably i n c r e a s e w i t h
g r e a t e r depth of mining. Roof i n s t a b i l i t y and t h e occurrence of c l a y v e i n s
and sandstone channels a r e a l s o p o s s i b l e .

This r e p o r t d e a l s w i t h s e l e c t e d geologic f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t t h e mining

of t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed. S e l e c t e d f a c t o r s examined i n c l u d e s t r u c t u r e ,
3Underlined numbers i n parentheses r e p r e s e n t items i n t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y p r e ceding t h e appendixes.

o v e r b u r d e n , immediate r o o f s t r a t a , r e l a t i o n t o j o i n t s and l i n e a r s , and c l e a t

orientations.
Much of t h e Bureau of Mines methane c o n t r o l r e s e a r c h h a s been conducted
64, 75). The p r e s e n t r e p o r t g i v e s r e s u l t s of
i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d (3,
one phase of t h i s r e s e a r c h , which i s s e e k i n g t o i d e n t i f y t h e g e o l o g i c f a c t o r s
t h a t i n l u e n c e methane accumulations and e m i s s i o n s i n c o a l b e d s and which may
be used i n p l a n n i n g t h e d e g a s i f i c a t i o n and v e n t i l a t i o n of c o a l mines and t h e
r e c o v e r y of mine g a s . S i m i l a r s t u d i e s c a n be conducted on o t h e r c o a l b e d s .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h i s p r o j e c t c o u l d n o t have been completed w i t h o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f many
p e o p l e and companies. We t h a n k C o n s o l i d a t i o n Coal Co., Bethlehem Mines Corp. ,
E a s t e r n A s s o c i a t e d Coal C o r p . , and J o n e s & L a u g h l i n S t e e l C o r p . , who p r o v i d e d
p e r s o n n e l t o e s c o r t u s i n our underground s t u d i e s and s u p p l i e d c o r e l o g s , mine
maps, and o t h e r n e c e s s a r y d a t a .
We e s p e c i a l l y thank James Marshalek, s u p e r v i s o r y mining i n s p e c t o r f o r t h e
Mining Enforcement and S a f e t y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (MESA); S. M. L i n g e r , W. C . Doran,
J r . , J . G . T i l t o n , and J . C . P a t t o n of t h e E q u i t a b l e Gas Co.; James Barlow o f
t h e West V i r g i n i a Economic and Geologic Survey; Herb Steinman o f J o n e s &
L a u g h l i n S t e e l Corp. ; and W . Edmonds of t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a G e o l o g i c a l Survey
f o r s u p p l y i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and r e v i e w i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t .
The c o n t r i b u t i o n s of C . H. E l d e r and P. W. J e r a n , Bureau g e o l o g i s t s a r e
acknowledged. They have s p e n t c o n s i d e r a b l e time on i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e
P i t t s b u r g h coalbed and were most h e l p f u l w i t h s u g g e s t i o n s and s u p p l y i n g d a t a
f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f maps.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d d a t e s back t o 1759 when
Kenny (52) r e f e r r e d t o a c o a l b e i n g mined on t h e h i l l s around P i t t s b u r g h .
S i n c e t h a t t i m e , numerous i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have r e s u l t e d i n more t h a n 100 p u b l i c a t i o n s . See B i b l i o g r a p h y .
N i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n v e s t i g a t o r s were concerned p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y o f t h e a r e a and t h e problems i n working o u t s t r a t i g r a p h i c b o u n d a r i e s
(72, 8 5 , 98-100, 107, 1 1 5 ) . Rogers (100) i n 1884 was one o f t h e f i r s t t o
r e a l i z e t h e importance of t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d i n t h e mining i n d u s t r y .
The most comprehensive s i n g l e work on t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d i s t h a t publ i s h e d i n 1954 by Cross (=),
who s t u d i e d t h e s t r a t i g r a p h y , p e t r o l o g y , o r i g i n ,
c o m p o s i t i o n , and mining problems of t h e bed. Much of C r o s s ' work i s p e r t i n e n t
t o d a y , and h i s p a p e r h a s s e r v e d a s a model f o r t h e p r e s e n t r e p o r t .
As would b e e x p e c t e d f o r s o i m p o r t a n t a d e p o s i t , mapping h a s been e x t e n s i v e . The e a r l y 1 9 0 0 ' s saw a f l u r r y of a c t i v i t y , w i t h t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d
b e i n g mapped i n p a r t s of a l l f o u r c o u n t i e s of t h e s t u d y a r e a by Clapp (18)
,
Munn
Hennen (g),
and Hennen and Reger ( 4 6 ) . The f i r s t d e t a i l e d map
showing t h e a r e a u n d e r l a i n by t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d i n West V i r g i n i a , Ohio,

(B),

and Pennsylvania was published by Burrough (16)i n 1914 and was a f a i r l y accur a t e map f o r t h e s m a l l amount of d a t a a v a i l a b l e .
The c o a l - b e a r i n g Upper Pennsylvanian and Lower Permian rocks of t h e Washi n g t o n , P a . , a r e a have been s t u d i e d by B e r r y h i l l , Schweinfurth, and Kent (=),
who prepared a number of i s o p a c h and l i t h o f a c i e s maps of t h e a r e a .
I n 1972 Roen and F a r r e l (96) published a s t r u c t u r e map drawn on t h e b a s e
of t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed u s i n g published g e o l o g i c maps of Pennsylvania,
county r e p o r t s from West V i r g i n i a and Pennsylvania, and c o a l company d a t a .
The 7-112-minute g e o l o g i c quadrangles of Amity, C a l i f o r n i a , E l l s w o r t h ,
H a c k e t t , Mather, Monongahela, P r o s p e r i t y , Washington E a s t , Washington West,
and Waynesburg have been mapped by t h e U.S. Geological Survey. TheCarmichaels,
Oak F o r e s t , and Midway quadrangles have been covered i n o t h e r s t u d i e s . Geol o g i c a l maps of t h e B l a c k s v i l l e , Fairmont E a s t and West, Grant Town, Morgantown North, Osage, and R i v e s v i l l e 7-112 -minute quadrangles have been prepared
by g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a t West V i r g i n i a U n i v e r s i t y .
The s t r a t i g r a p h y of t h e Monongahela Group i n West V i r g i n i a , Ohio, and
Pennsylvania h a s been s t u d i e d by Hoover
who prepared a s e r i e s of i s o pachs on a l l major u n i t s from t h e Redstone t o t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed. The
Pittsburgh-Redstone c o a l i n t e r v a l i n West V i r g i n i a has a l s o been s t u d i e d by
C o n t i (20).

(a),

I n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e p r e s e n t r e p o r t , underground g e o l o g i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were conducted i n 18 mines o p e r a t i n g i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed. Coal

c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s were measured, and t h e l o c a t i o n and t r e n d of sand channels
and c l a y v e i n s were o b t a i n e d . S u r f a c e j o i n t s were measured t o e v a l u a t e t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s underground. An a e r i a l p h o t o a n a l y s i s was
conducted t o l o c a t e lineaments and e v a l u a t e t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o s u r f a c e
j o i n t s . Geologic f a c t o r s i n luencing roof c o n t r o l were a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d .
STRUCTURE AND STRATIGRAPHY OF THE PITTSBURGH COALBED
Regional S t r u c t u r e and Paleogeography
Most of t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed l i e s i n a broad, g e n t l y dipping b a s i n .
The b a s i n i s a h i g h l y d i s s e c t e d r e g i o n o f g e n t l y f o l d e d a n t i c l i n e s and sync l i n e s t h a t d e c r e a s e i n i n t e n s i t y westward from t h e Allegheny s t r u c t u r a l f r o n t
( f i g . 2 ) . The a r e a i s known p h y s i o g r a p h i c a l l y a s t h e Allegheny P l a t e a u . The
f o l d axes g e n e r a l l y p a r a l l e l t h e axes of t h e b a s i n . The d i p of t h e rocks i s
g e n e r a l l y l e s s t h a n l o . The f o r c e s t h a t produced t h e f o l d i n g and subsequent
e r o s i o n exposed, o r brought n e a r t h e s u r f a c e , numerous coalbeds t h a t o t h e r w i s e
would s t i l l l i e deeply b u r i e d .
F i g u r e 2 i s a s t r u c t u r a l c o n t o u r map of t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed by Roen
and F a r r e l (96). The Bureau has d r i l l e d approximately 20 h o l e s t o t h e P i t t s burgh coalbed w i t h i n t h e s t u d y a r e a , b u t t h e a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n obtained
d i d l i t t l e t o a l t e r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of- t h e s t r u c t u r a l t r e n d s .

FIGURE 2.

HARRISON COUNTY

Structure map drawn on the base of the Pittsburgh coalbed

(me

LEGEND

aSandstone foc~es
IZZ Mudstone focies
Ltmy mudstone focies

&
FIGURE 3. - Basin of deposition preesent in the study

The b a s i n of d e p o s i t i o n
of the P i t t s b u r g h coalbed
during l a t e Pennsylvanian
time ( f i g . 3) occupied a
l a r g e p o r t i o n of Pennsylv a n i a and a d j a c e n t a r e a s of
Ohio and West V i r g i n i a . The
b a s i n a x i s was defined by a
bay which, according t o
Donaldson (26) , expanded and
c o n t r a c t e d during Pennsylvanian time i n response t o
t h e balance between t e c t o n i c
subsidence, d e t r i t a l supply,
and e u s t a t i c changes i n s e a
level.

area during late Pennsylvanian time

[taken from (12)l.

Hoover (47) p o s t u l a t e s
a flood p l a i n and i n t e r d i s t r i b u t a r y bay environment i n
t h e n o r t h and northwest p a r t of t h e b a s i n and a h i g h e r a l l u v i a l p l a i n region
along t h e s o u t h , s o u t h e a s t , and e a s t s i d e of t h e b a s i n . P l a n t m a t e r i a l , which
e v e n t u a l l y became t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed, accumulated i n a swamp environment
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the d e l t a i c sedimentation systems extending i n t o t h e shallow
bay. Darrah (23) notes t h a t t h e c l i m a t e of t h e a r e a was probably moderate i n
temperature, r a t h e r than t r o p i c a l a s was once thought. Ferm and Cavaroc (32)
and C o n t i (20) have made o t h e r paleogeographic i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
7

Thickness and Rate of Accumulation

A c o a l isopach ( f i g . 4 ) was prepared t o g i v e an i d e a of o r i g i n a l minable
c o a l i n place. The i n t e r v a l measured included p a r t i n g s i n t h e c o a l . I t a l s o
included roof c o a l when n o t separated by more than 6 inches of s h a l e or sandstone. I t was constructed from more than 3,000 d a t a p o i n t s ( f i g . 5) derived
from two sources, d r i l l e r ' s logs of o i l and gas w e l l s and core l o g s from c o a l
companies. The t h i c k n e s s d a t a from t h e d r i l l e r ' s logs, somewhat l e s s r e l i a b l e
(probably '2 f e e t ) than those obtained from t h e d e t a i l e d c o r e d e s c r i p t i o n s ,
were mapped a s reported.
The r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e d r i l l e r ' s logs depends i n
p a r t on how long ago t h e w e l l s were d r i l l e d , t h e type of equipment used, and
t h e e x a c t i t u d e of t h e d r i l l e r . Core d a t a d e s c r i p t i o n g e n e r a l l y c o r r e l a t e d
w e l l with o i l and gas w e l l d r i l l e r ' s l o g s . Mined-out a r e a s a r e d e p i c t e d on a
s e p a r a t e map ( f i g . 6) . S t r i p -mined a r e a s , determined from t h e most r e c e n t
topographic maps, a r e shown on t h e overburden isopach ( f i g . 7) .*

4Both t h e isopach of t h e coalbed and t h e overburden isopach a r e a v a i l a b l e from

t h e authors ' a t s c a l e s of 1:24000 (one inch equals 2,000 f e e t ) . The isopach
has a 100-foot contour i n t e r v a l on t h e 1:24000 maps. Also a l l o t h e r maps
of t h e a r e a a r e a v a i l a b l e on a s c a l e of 1 : 96000.

LEGEND

I
Oft
0-4ft
4-8ft
8-12ft
12-16ft
I6ft

Scale, miles

FIGURE 4.

lsopach of the Pittsburgh coalbed. (Sandstone cutouts are not

included.)

The a r e a s of t h i c k e r
coal (greater than 8 f e e t )
do n o t d i r e c t l y o v e r l i e t h e
r e g i o n a l s y n c l i n a l troughs
b u t a r e located g e n e r a l l y on
t h e i r f l a n k s . It i s suggested t h a t t h e deposition
of the P i t t s b u r g h c o a l i s i n
part structurally controlled,
and t h a t t h e axes of the
p r i n c i p a l s t r u c t u r e s have
changed only s l i g h t l y s i n c e
deposition.
The dominant isopach
trend ( g r e a t e r than 8 f e e t )
c o a l begins i n northern
Harrison County, W. Va..,
runs through c e n t r a l Marion
and Monongalia Counties, and
extends i n t o e a s t e r n Greene
County, P a . I t i s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e Shinnston and
Greensburg s y n c l i n e s
( f i g . 2 ) . Another t r e n d ,
less d i s t i n c t , about 10
miles t o t h e west, begins i n
western Marion County,
W . Va., and r u n s through
c e n t r a l Greene County, Pa. ,
i n t o Washington County.
This trend g e n e r a l l y l i e s on
t h e e a s t e r n f l a n k of t h e
Robinson and Waynesburg
s y n c l i n e s . A t h i r d trend
o v e r l i e s t h e Nineveh sync l i n e of western Greene and
c e n t r a l Washington Counties,
Pa.

LEGEND
:::.'. Data points

6
Scale, miles

FIGURE 5.

12

- Location of data points for the study area.

The t h i c k e s t c o a l measured was 16 f e e t i n a c o r e

h o l e i n n o r t h e r n Monongalia
County, W. Va. ( f i g . 4 ) , near
t h e Pennsylvania border.
Several thicknesses of 15
f e e t were a l s o obtained from
core descriptions in the
same v i c i n i t y .

LEGEND
I Montour No. 4
2 Mathies
3 Maple Creek
4 Westland
5 Somerset No. 60
6 Vesta No. 4
7 Vesta No. 5
8 Marianna No. 58
9 Gateway
10 Mather colleries
I / Humphrey No. 7
12 Shannopin
13 Blacksville No. 2
I4 Blacksville No. I
15 Pursglove
16 Osage No. 3
17 Federal No. 2
18 Arkwright
19 Loveridge
20 Federal No. I
21 Consol No.93
22 Consol No.9
23 Joanne
24 Bethlehem No. 4 1
25 Bethlehem No.44
26 Consol No. 2 0
27 Robena
28 Nemacolin
29 Crucible
30 Bethlehem No. 51

f
JMined-out area
(as of 1973)

6
Scale, miles

12

FIGURE 6, Areas of the Pittsburgh coalbed that have been mined out.

,
I

LEGEND
Stripmine
0-400ft
400-800ft
800-~200ft
h m f t phis

FIGURE 7.

Overburdbn isopoch of the strata above the Pittsburgh coalbed.

Arkle (1)and Kent and Gomez (58) b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e s may have

been "growing" d u r i n g d e p o s i t i o n , which could p o s s i b l y e x p l a i n t h e t h i n n e r
c o a l s n e a r t h e axes of a n t i c l i n e s and t h e t h i c k e r c o a l d e p o s i t s n e a r t h e sync l i n a l trough. Areas of low c o a l ( l e s s t h a n 4 f e e t ) a r e s c a t t e r e d throughout
t h e a r e a . Many have a p r e f e r r e d o r i e n t a t i o n , p a r a l l e l t o t h a t o f t h e r e g i o n a l
s t r u c t u r e . Some a r e c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a n t i c l i n a l t r e n d s of t h e
p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r e . These t h i n a r e a s may r e p r e s e n t lower accumulation of p l a n t
m a t e r i a l , g r e a t e r e r o s i o n , o r i r r e g u l a r s u r f a c e of d e p o s i t i o n . S e v e r a l of t h e
t h i n c o a l a r e a s have a s i n u o u s p a t t e r n s u g g e s t i v e of meandering streams and
a r e probably t h e r e s u l t of s t r e a m e r o s i o n .
Hoover (47) a t t r i b u t e d t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n t h i c k n e s s of t h e P i t t s b u r g h
coalbed t o four p o s s i b l e causes:
(1) G r e a t e r abundance of p l a n t growth i n
some p a r t s of t h e coalbed r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r s , (2) b e t t e r p r e s e r v a t i o n of
accumulated p l a n t d e b r i s i n some a r e a s , (3) i n f l u x o f c o a r s e r d e t r i t a l mater i a l s t h a t may have d i l u t e d p a r t of t h e p e a t a l r e a d y formed o r t e r m i n a t e d
p l a n t growth, and (4) t h e p r e s e n c e of deeper w a t e r , which prevented t e r r e s t r i a l v e g e t a t i o n from becoming e s t a b l i s h e d .
There were a t l e a s t t h r e e o t h e r p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n i n
thickness:
(1) Some p a r t s o f t h e swamp e x i s t e d l o n g e r t h a n o t h e r s , ( 2 ) some
a r e a s may have been t o o h i g h and d r y t o a l l o w s u b s t a n t i a l p l a n t growth, and
(3) p o s t d e p o s i t i o n a l e r o s i o n .
The time r e q u i r e d f o r f o r m a t i o n of t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed can be e s t i mated from t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r a t e of accumulation f o r an i d e a l coalbed a s d e t e r mined by Ashley (2). Approximately 10 y e a r s would be r e q u i r e d f o r 1 f o o t o f
p e a t t o form from accumulated p l a n t m a t e r i a l . S i n c e compaction and dewatering
due t o b u r i a l would r e d u c e 1 f o o t of p e a t t o 1-118 i n c h e s , approximately 100
y e a r s i s r e q u i r e d t o produce 1 f o o t of compressed p e a t . The f o r m a t i o n o f
1 f o o t of c o a l r e q u i r e s between 3 and 3-112 f e e t of compressed p e a t , e q u i v a l e n t t o a t l e a s t 300 y e a r s . Thus, a 6 - f o o t t h i c k n e s s of P i t t s b u r g h c o a l would
t h e o r e t i c a l l y r e q u i r e 1,800 y e a r s of accumulation of p l a n t m a t e r i a l . This i s
o n l y a r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e and cannot b e c o n s i d e r e d a f i r m r u l e because t h e
maximum t h i c k n e s s of 16 f e e t , which would r e q u i r e 4,800 y e a r s f o r d e p o s i t i o n ,
i s immediately a d j a c e n t t o t h i n n e r c o a l s . This maximum t h i c k n e s s may be due
t o g r e a t e r accumulation o f p l a n t m a t e r i a l i n low a r e a s a s i t was washed down
from surrounding h e i g h t s .
G e n e r a l i z e d S t r a t i g r a p h y of t h e P i t t s b u r g h Formation
The Monongahela Formation i n w e s t e r n Pennsylvania was r a i s e d t o group
who d i v i d e d i t i n t o two f o r m a t i o n s , t h e
r a n k by B e r r y h i l l and Swanson (2)
P i t t s b u r g h , which i n c l u d e s dominantly c a l c a r e o u s r o c k s w i t h t h e P i t t s b u r g h
c o a l b e d a s i t s b a s a l member and e x t e n d s t o t h e base o f t h e Uniontown c o a l b e d ;
and t h e Uniontown, which i n c l u d e s t h e Uniontown coalbed and t h e o v e r l y i n g p r e dominantly sandy r o c k s t o t h e b a s e o f t h e Waynesburg coalbed.
The P i t t s b u r g h Formation ( f i g . 8) h a s f i v e members: Lower, Redstone,
F i s h p o t , Sewickley, and Upper. The Lower member i n c l u d e s t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l bed a t t h e b a s e of t h e o v e r l y i n g P i t t s b u r g h s a n d s t o n e (when p r e s e n t ) . T h i s

sandstone i s the t h i c k e s t
and most e x t e n s i v e s a n d s t o n e
i n t h e Monongahela Group.

LEGEND

Limestone

Sandstone

Limyshale

Coal

The Redstone member i s

t y p i c a l l y s i l t s t o n e and muds t o n e w e r l a i n by a r e l a Limestone bed D
----t i v e l y p e r s i s t e n t limestone.
---I t s b a s a l member i s t h e
Limestone bed C
Redstone c o a l b e d . The
Upper
F i s h p o t member i s composed
member
-L
mainly o f s i l t s t o n e and mudLimestone bed B
s t o n e . The Sewickley member
h a s t h e t h i c k e s t limestone
Limestone bed A
sequence, and t h e Sewickley
coalbed i s a t i t s base. The
Upper member h a s f o u r limes t o n e u n i t s and no u n d e r l y i n g c o a l s ; i t s top is t h e
Sewickley b a s e of t h e Uniontown c o a l member
bed. According t o Hoover
(47), t h e Monongahela Group
Benwood limestone bed
i n c l u d e s t h e s t r a t a from t h e
base o f t h e Pittsburgh c o a l Sewickley coal bed
bed t o t h e top of t h e
Fishpot
-. - . - . . .
Waynesburg coalbed. The
member
t h i c k n e s s r a n g e s from 220 t o
450 f e e t and c o n s i s t s mainly
Redstone
of i n t e r b e d d e d sandstone,
member
s i l t s t o n e , l i m e s t o n e , and
Redstone coalbed
s h a l e w i t h l e s s e r amounts of
c o a l and c l a y . I n g e n e r a l ,
throughout t h e s e c t i o n t h e
Lower
c o a l s o v e r l i e t h e calcareous
member
u n i t s b u t a r e s e p a r a t e d from
Pittsburgh rider coal
them by underc l a y s . The
P i t t s b u r g h coalbed i s t h e
Pittsburah coal bed
most e x t e n s i v e and economic a l l y i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e
FIGURE 8. Generalized stratigraphic column of the
Monongahela Group.
Pittsburgh Formation.
Sandy shale

1-1

1-1

Overburden Thickness Above t h e P i t t s b u r g h Coalbed

An isopach ( f i g . 7) was prepared t o d i s p l a y t h e t h i c k n e s s of r o c k o v e r l y i n g t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed i n t h e s t u d y a r e a . The map w a s c o n s t r u c t e d by subt r a c t i n g t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e s t r u c t u r e , drawn on t h e b a s e of t h e c o a l from
t h e topographic e l e v a t i o n . Overburden t h i c k n e s s ranged from z e r o , where t h e
P i t t s b u r g h coalbed c r o p s o u t , t o more than 1,500 f e e t . G e n e r a l l y , t h e c o a l i s
s h a l l o w on t h e axes of a n t i c l i n e s and deeper i n t h e t r o u g h s of s y n c l i n e s . The
d e e p e s t cover i n t h e s t u d y a r e a i s i n southwestern Greene County and w e s t e r n

Monongalia and Marion Counties, where i t averaged 1,200 f e e t with a maximum

t h i c k n e s s of s l i g h t l y over 1,500 f e e t .
As mining p r o g r e s s e s under deeper c o v e r , methane c o n t r o l and o t h e r mining
problems w i l l undoubtedly i n t e n s i f y . A s gas emission r a t e s a r e measured by
t h e Bureau f o r i n c r e a s i n g depths, attempted c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h overburden t h i c k n e s s w i l l be made t o develop a t h e o r e t i c a l model of depth v e r s u s gas emission
f o r t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed.
I n Washington County t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed crops o u t and i s strip-mined
i n t h r e e l o c a l i t i e s ( f i g . 7 ) . One outcrop i n t h e western p a r t of t h e county
has no s t r u c t u r a l dependence. The o t h e r two occur on t h e axes of t h e Amity
a n t i c l i n e and t h e top of the Westland dome. Maximum overburden t h i c k n e s s i s
s l i g h t l y over 800 f e e t i n t h e southwestern p a r t of t h e county. Average t h i c k ness i s approximately 400 f e e t .
I n Greene County t h e coalbed crops out and i s strip-mined along t h e
Monongahela River. The overburden reaches a maximum t h i c k n e s s of 1,400 f e e t
i n southwestern Greene County and averages approximately 800 f e e t . The a r e a
where t h e overburden i s r e l a t i v e l y shallow i s roughly p a r a l l e l t o t h e axes of
a n t i c l i n e s , and t h e a r e a s of t h e g r e a t e s t overburden a r e i n t h e s y n c l i n a l
troughs. For example, t h e Nineveh s y n c l i n e i n t h e southwestern p a r t of t h e
county has an overburden of between 800 and 1,200 f e e t . Along t h e Washington
a n t i c l i n e t o t h e west, t h e overburden ranges between 400 and 800 f e e t .
I n Monongalia County t h e r e i s s t r i p p i n g along t h e e a s t e r n edge of t h e
P i t t s b u r g h coalbed where i t c r o p s o u t . Of t h e f o u r c o u n t i e s , Monongalia'has
t h e most e x t e n s i v e s t r i p p i n g of t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed. The coalbed r a p i d l y
i n c r e a s e s i n depth t o a maximum of 1,500 f e e t of overburden i n t h e western
p a r t of t h e county.
I n Marion County t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed crops out along t h e e a s t e r n p a r t
of t h e county. The c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e county has an average of 400 f e e t of
overburden, whereas t h e western p a r t has between 800 and 1,200 f e e t of cover.
Only small s e c t i o n s of Harrison and Wetzel Counties a r e covered i n t h i s
study. I n Wetzel County, t h e e a s t e r n p a r t of which i s included i n t h i s s t u d y ,
t h e overburden averages between 800 and 1,200 f e e t . I n Harrison County, t h e r e
i s some outcrop and s t r i p mining. The overburden averages approximately 400
f e e t w i t h a high of 1,300 f e e t along t h e border between Harrison County and
Marion and Wetzel Counties.
GEOLOGIC FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO M I N I N G PROBLEMS

Geological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s can i d e n t i f y many underground mining problems.

Sand channels t h a t may i n t e r s e c t and c u t o u t t h e c o a l can be l o c a t e d i n
advance of mining by a n a l y s i s of c o r e h o l e l o g s , and t h e i r probable course and
i n f l u e n c e on f u t u r e mining o p e r a t i o n s can be p r e d i c t e d (76). Clay v e i n s can
be l o c a t e d and t h e i r t r e n d s can sometimes be e s t a b l i s h e d s o t h a t high g a s conc e n t r a t i o n s , f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c l a y v e i n s , c a n be a n t i c i p a t e d .

A d e t a i l e d map of t h e r o c k above t h e c o a l b e d c a n b e used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

l e n g t h o f b o l t s needed t o anchor i n t o competent s t r a t a f o r proper r o o f s u p p o r t .
Such a map c a n a l s o h e l p t o l o c a t e r o c k known t o d e t e r i o r a t e r a p i d l y when
exposed t o a i r s o t h a t r e s i n b o l t s c a n b e used.

Abnormal accumulations o f w a t e r c a n b e e v a l u a t e d and perhaps r e l a t e d t o

f r a c t u r i n g of t h e r o o f r o c k o r t o a f a u l t zone. These zones of weakness may
a l s o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i g h g a s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .
A d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of s u r f a c e j o i n t s above a mine a r e a c a n be p r e p a r e d
and examined f o r a p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e c o a l c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s and r o o f
joints.
Local d e v i a t i o n s i n j o i n t and c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s s e r v e a s a b a s i s f o r
modifying mine p r o j e c t i o n s .
The c l e a t and j o i n t a n a l y s e s a l s o s u p p l y i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t e d t o r o o f s t a b i l i t y . For example, e x c e s s i v e s p a l l i n g of r i b s when
mining p a r a l l e l t o c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s c a n sometimes b e c o r r e c t e d by r o t a t i n g t h e
d i r e c t i o n of mining 45".

S t r a t a Above t h e P i t t s b u r g h Coalbed
The s t r a t a o v e r l y i n g t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d v a r y l o c a l l y and r e g i o n a l l y
a s shown i n t h e f e n c e diagram ( f i g . 9 ) . T h i s f i g u r e was p r e p a r e d u s i n g 77
c o r e l o g s , e l e c t r i c l o g s , and o t h e r d a t a s e l e c t e d from more t h a n 500 l o g s t o
b e s t r e p r e s e n t t h e r e g i o n a l s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r e n d s . The most common r o c k t y p e
d i r e c t l y o v e r l y i n g t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d i s t h e "draw s l a t e " o r "roof s l a t e "
( m i n e r s ' t e r m i n o l o g y ) , c o n s i s t i n g o f a l t e r n a t i n g t h i n l y bedded, d a r k g r a y t o
b l a c k , f i s s i l e carbonaceous s h a l e , c o a l s t r i n g e r s , and s a n d s t o n e l e n s e s . T h i s
draw s l a t e u n i t i s g e n e r a l l y l e s s t h a n 4 f e e t t h i c k , b u t t h i c k n e s s e s up t o 12
f e e t have been observed.
I n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e s t u d y a r e a , t h e most common r o c k t y p e s above
t h e draw s l a t e a r e l i m e s t o n e and c a l c a r e o u s and s i l t y s h a l e s . Surrounding t h e
c e n t r a l a r e a i s a sequence of s h a l e s and massive s a n d s . O t h e r a r e a s of mass i v e sand development a r e shown on t h e s a n d s t o n e c h a n n e l map ( f i g . 1 0 ) .
I n Monongalia and Marion C o u n t i e s , W . Va., t h e r o c k s above t h e c o a l and
draw s l a t e a r e predominantly l i m e s t o n e and s h a l e , a l t h o u g h t h e "limestone" o f
o l d e r c o r e l o g s i s more l i k e l y i n t e r b e d d e d l i m e s t o n e , s h a l e , and s i l t s t o n e ; i n
e a r l i e r y e a r s t h e s e r o c k t y p e s were n o t u s u a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . The o n l y sand
d e p o s i t s i n t h e s e two c o u n t i e s a r e a l o n g t h e e a s t e r n margin o f t h e a r e a .
The r o o f r o c k i n Greene County, P a . , i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n Monongalia and
Marion C o u n t i e s , W . Va. Limestone i s s t i l l dominant i n t h e s o u t h b u t
d e c r e a s e s i n importance toward t h e n o r t h e r n b o r d e r where l a r g e sand b o d i e s
become more prominent. The P i t t s b u r g h s a n d s t o n e u n i t may b e up t o 80 f e e t
thick.
I n Washington County, P a . , l i m e s t o n e dominates t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n p o r t i o n ,
s a n d s t o n e t h e s o u t h e r n and c e n t r a l a r e a , and s h a l e t h e n o r t h e r n p o r t i o n .
Throughout t h e a r e a , a few c o a l s a r e d e t e c t e d , b u t t h e r e a p p e a r s t o be no
p a t t e r n t o t h e i r occurrence.

FIGURE 9,

Fence diagram of the strata directly above the Pittsburgh coalbed for the study area.

LEGEND
4

Sandstone cutouts

Scale, miles

FIGURE 10.

Map of the known sandstone channels cutting into the Pittsburgh

coal bed,

An i s o p a c h of t h e P i t t s b u r g h s a n d s t o n e p r e p a r e d by Hoover (47) c o v e r s t h e
known e x t e n t of t h e P i t t s b u r g h s a n d s t o n e i n Monongalia and Marion C o u n t i e s ,
Greene County, Pa. , and p a r t of Washington County, Pa. ( f i g . 1 1 ) . The
b o d i e s t r e n d predominantly e i t h e r t o t h e n o r t h e a s t o r n o r t h w e s t .
p o r t i o n s of t h e s a n d s t o n e e s p e c i a l l y seem t o be o r i e n t e d t o t h e
n o r t h e a s t , a s a r e t h e axes of t h e f o l d s , which a g a i n s u g g e s t s some s t r u c t u r a l
c o n t r o l . There i s a l s o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s a r e s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d , a s suggested by W. Edmonds of t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a
G e o l o g i c a l Survey ( p e r s o n a l c o m n i c a t i o n , a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n s u l t a t i o n a t
Bureau of Mines P i t t s b u r g h Mining and S a f e t y Research C e n t e r , P i t t s b u r g h , P a . ) .
The n o r t h e a s t - o r i e n t e d b o d i e s c o u l d be r e l a t e d t o t h e s t r i k e of t h e s t r a n d l i n e
and c o u l d have formed a s longshore b'ars. The n o r t h w e s t - o r i e n t e d b o d i e s could
be down-paleoslope f e a t u r e s such a s a l l u v i a l v a l l e y s . A c o r r e l a t i o n may a l s o
e x i s t between t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e s a n d s t o n e and a r e a s of s a n d s t o n e c u t o u t s i n
the coal.

Sandstone Channels
Sandstone c h a n n e l s a r e l e n t i c u l a r , sometimes s i n u o u s b o d i e s o f s a n d s t o n e
e x t e n d i n g i n t o , and sometimes c o m p l e t l y through, a c o a l b e d . F i g u r e 10 i s a
map o f known s a n d s t o n e c h a n n e l s i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d , encountered i n
underground mining o p e r a t i o n s . C r o s s (2)
a l s o r e p o r t s a channel extending
from s o u t h w e s t e r n P e n n s y l v a n i a t o Monongalia County, W. Va., g e n e r a l l y p a r a l l e l i n g t h e Monongahela River. The c h a n n e l t h e n t u r n s westward a t t h e
Monongalia-Marion County b o r d e r .
Most o f t h e known c h a n n e l s a r e w i t h i n t h e p r e s e n t mine workings. Chann e l s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e c t i n advance of mining because e x p l o r a t o r y d r i l l i n g
of a mine p r o p e r t y i s f r e q u e n t l y on 1 - m i l e c e n t e r s o r more, whereas t h e chann e l s a r e u s u a l l y l e s s t h a n 2,000 f e e t wide. A much c l o s e r s p a c i n g , p r e f e r a b l y
2,000 o r 3,000 f e e t , w i l l e n a b l e more d e t a i l e d mapping and p r e d i c t i n g of sands t o n e c h a n n e l t r e n d s i n advance of mining.

Even when a s a n d s t o n e c h a n n e l i s n o t d i r e c t l y encountered i n t h e c o r e

d r i l l i n g , o t h e r e v i d e n c e may s u g g e s t t h e p r o x i m i t y of one. The c o a l may
become abnormally t h i c k , sometimes even doubling i n t h i c k n e s s n e a r a sandstone
c h a n n e l by p o s s i b l y washing t o t h e s i d e o r by d i f f e r e n t i a l compaction. The
s u l f u r c o n t e n t m a y i n c r e a s e toward c h a n n e l a r e a s . Channels c a n a l s o p o s s i b l y
be d e t e c t e d by a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e l a t e d sediments u s i n g s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l and
p a l e o d e p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s , b u t t h i s would be beyond t h e scope of t h i s
paper. Donaldson and Morton (27) l i s t e d f i v e c r i t e r i a t h a t may b e h e l p f u l i n
p r e d i c t i n g c h a n n e l s : ( 1 ) Presence of c l a y v e i n s , ( 2 ) change i n c o a l t y p e ,
(3) i n c r e a s e i n t h e number and t h i c k n e s s of p a r t i n g s , ( 4 ) i n c r e a s e i n d e t r i t a l s i n t h e c o a l , and ( 5 ) a down-bowed p a r t i n g .

FIGURE 11.

10

Scale, mlles

lsopach of the Pittsburgh sandstone (48).

A t the Shannopin and

Robena mines i n Greene
County, a number of channels
i n t e r s e c t the coalbed
( f i g . 12). A fence diagram
( f i g . 13) of t h e a r e a around
the Shannopin mine shows a
l a r g e l e n t i c u l a r sands tone
body ( P i t t s b u r g h sandstone)
overlying the c o a l . When
LEGEND
t h e l o c a t i o n of the sand.-::Sandstone cutout
s tone ch anne 1s t h a t i n t e r s e c t the Shannopin and
Robena mines a r e p l o t t e d on
Scale, miles
f i g u r e 11, these washouts
a r e seen t o occur i n an a r e a
where the sandstone i s 40 t o
60 f e e t thick. Bureau g e o l GREENE COUNTY
~ g i s t shave found t h a t when
- - --w. va.
MONONGALIA C ~ U N T Y
core logs i n d i c a t e t h a t such
a sandstone body i s approachFIGURE 12. Map of the Shannopin and Robena mines
ing the coal, the
is
with sandstone cutouts.
very l i k e l y t o be c u t out.
Where the s t r a t a f o r approximately 40 f e e t above t h e Pittsburgh coalbed c o n s i s t of limestone and s h a l e ,
t h e r e i s l i t t l e chance of encountering a sandstone channel during mining.
Figure 10 a l s o shows other mines where sandstone channels have occurred.

5-

Clay Veins
Clay v e i n s a r e wedges of indurated c l a y s and s i l t s t h a t p e n e t r a t e the
coalbed from e i t h e r above o r below. They can be v e r t i c a l ( p a r a l l e l t o the
c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s ) or form an angle of about 45" with the v e r t i c a l ( p a r a l l e l t o
shear directions ) (fig. 14).
Clay v e i n s encountered i n mines a r e u s u a l l y crooked, a r e f r e q u e n t l y
angular, and i n t e r f i n g e r with the c o a l r a t h e r than forming smooth c o n t a c t s u r faces. They may be hard enough t o damage mining equipment. Thickness normally ranges from 1 inch t o s e v e r a l f e e t but may be up t o 15 f e e t . A t o t a l
l e n g t h of more than 1,000 f e e t has been observed underground.
There a r e two p h y s i c a l types of c l a y v e i n s . The f i r s t occurs as i n c l u s i o n s w i t h i n a c l a y - s i l t m a t r i x and has a conglomeratic o r brecciated appearance. The second type i s composed of small i n t e r l o c k i n g l e n s l i k e masses of
s h a l e fragments w i t h convoluted, slickensided surfaces.

/
/

Mine

\ ------I

LEGEND
Limy shale

U
.+
-

/-

Scale, feet

50

Limestone

0Shale
0
FIGURE 13.

4,000
Horizontal

8,000

a Sandstone
Coal

Fence diagram of the strata above the Pittsburgh coalbed at the Shannopin
mine.

Bottom

Scale, feet

LEGEND

0
Sandstone Cloy vein

Rl
Coal

Horizontal

FIGURE 14.

- Generalized cross section o f clay veins intersecting coalbeds.

Clay v e i n s were found i n t h e following mines operating i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h

coalbed ( f i g . 15): Mathies, Bethlehem Nos. 41 and 44, Marianna No. 58,
Gateway, Shannopin, and Vesta No. 5 ; a l l these mines have a predominance of
sandstone i n t h e immediate r o o f . Two o t h e r a d j a c e n t mines, Loveridge and
Federal No. 2 , show no c l a y v e i n s , and t h e i r roof s t r a t a a r e predominantly
s h a l e :and limestone.
The presence of c l a y v e i n s can g r e a t l y a f f e c t mining conditions. They
o f t e n form c e l l s w i t h i n which l a r g e volumes of g a s a r e i s o l a t e d under high
p r e s s u r e . A t e s t hole d r i l l e d i n t o a c e l l enclosed by such a c l a y v e i n meaThe gas flow from a 2-inch hole
sured a confined p r e s s u r e of 263 l b / i n 2
d r i l l e d h o r i z o n t a l l y i n t o t h e coalbed through t h e c l a y v e i n a t t h i s p o i n t produced an average of 78,000 f t 3 / d of gas f o r a s h o r t time. When mining encounters such a c e l l , l a r g e volumes of gas a r e r e l e a s e d r a p i d l y i n t o t h e mine
c r e a t i n g an explosion hazard. Also the chance of an explosion i s increased by
t h e s p a r k s t h a t are generated when mining i n t o c l a y v e i n s with both continuous
miners and lognwall systems.

(a).

LEGEND
Clay vein area

12

Scale, miles

FIGURE 15.

Mines operating i n the Pittsburgh coalbed with abundant clay

veins.

-300-

Structure contour, 50+t interval

Drawn on base of Pittsburgh coalbed
Datum is mean sed level
Mined-out area
0

2
Scale, miles

FIGURE 16.

- Location and structure around the Marianna No. 58 mine.

Clay v e i n s g e n e r a l l y extend i n t o s t r a t a immediately o v e r l y i n g t h e c o a l b e d ,

sometimes f o r a s much a s 10 f e e t v e r t i c a l l y . T h i s b r e a k s up t h e l a t e r a l cont i n u i t y of t h e l a y e r e d roof s t r a t a , causing roof i n s t a b i l i t y . Roof f a i l u r e s
tend t o be more f r e q u e n t when c l a y v e i n s a r e almost p a r a l l e l t o t h e e n t r y t h a n
when t h e y a r e a t r i g h t a n g l e s . Mining of c l a y v e i n s a l s o produces a marked
i n c r e a s e i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e of r e j e c t s i n t h e c o a l p r e p a r a t i o n p l a n t .
The Marianna No. 58 mine is an example of a mine w i t h c l a y v e i n occurr e n c e s . I t i s l o c a t e d i n t h e trough of t h e Waynesburg s y n c l i n e ( f i g . 16).
The g r e a t e s t frequency of c l a y v e i n s occurred i n a s e c t i o n of t h e mine l o c a t e d
w i t h i n t h e s y n c l i n a l t r o u g h ( f i g . 1 7 ) . The c l a y v e i n s formed c e l l s w i t h s i d e s
o r i e n t e d s u b p a r a l l e l and s u b p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a x i a l t r e n d of t h e trough.
Clay samples from t h e Marianna No. 58 mine were analyzed by X:ray d i f f r a c t i o n t o determine t h e i r m i n e r a l o g i c a l composition. Comparison o f m i n e r a l comp o s i t i o n s showed a n e a r - p e r f e c t match between c l a y v e i n s ( f i g . 18A) and t h e
draw s l a t e o r r o o f r o c k s ( f i g . 18g) above. The major m i n e r a l peaKs ( q u a r t z ,
k a o l i n i t e , and i l l i t e ) a l l matched i n i n t e n s i t y and s l o p e . The f l o o r r o c k
samples ( f i g . 1 8 s ) showed a d i f f e r e n t composition, w i t h c a l c i t e and q u a r t z
predominating, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i n t h i s c a s e t h e c l a y v e i n was i n j e c t e d from
t h e r o o f r o c k , n o t from t h e f l o o r r o c k . I n some c a s e s , c l a y v e i n s a r e
i n j e c t e d from u n d e r c l a y s o r s h a l e l y i n g below t h e coalbed up i n t o it.
Examples occur i n t h e Redstone coalbed and i n s e v e r a l c o a l b e d s i n w e s t e r n
Kentucky.

\
LEGEND
Structure contour, 5 f t Interval
Drawn on base of Pittsburgh coalbed
Datum a mean sea level

-410-

Syncllne axis

> Cloy

vetns

2,000

Scale, ft

FIGURE 17.

Clay veins in synclinal trough at the

Marianna No. 58 mine.

Based on Bureau
r e s e a r c h , i t has been p o s t u lated that the clay veins
intruded the coal a f t e r
c o a l i f i c a t i o n had t a k e n
place. This conclusion is
supported by t h e presence of
c o a l fragments w i t h good
c l e a t development i n c l a y
veins. As the c o a l fragments were layered and t h e
l a y e r s were p a r a l l e l t o t h e
d i p of t h e c l a y v e i n
( f i g . 1 4 ) , it would appear
t h a t c l a y was n o t i n j e c t e d
i n t o c r a c k s i n p e a t a s sugg e s t e d by R a i s t r i c h and
Marshall ( 9 0 ) , b u t was
f o r c e d i n t o t h e coalbed
after coalification.
I t appears t h a t t h e
clay veins i n the Pittsburgh
c o a l bed a r e probably t h e
r e s u l t of t e c t o n i s m , as i n
t h e Marianna No. 58 and

I I

a,

5-

V)

Sarnple,roofrock

~
-

Quartz

s 48 30

Kool inite

v,

+
2

2-

I-

Sample, clay vein

0 5

Quartz

C
\
V)

E
4C

'
1
1
'
Sample, floor rock

FIGURE 18.

Colci te

3-

64 60

'

56

52 48

44 40

36

32 28
SCAN, deg

.Quartz

24

20

16

12

X-ray diffraction charts of (A) the clay vein, ( B ) the roof rock, and (C) the
floor rock lithologies.

LEGEND
/ Montour 4
2 Mathies
3 Westland
4 Somerset GO
5 Vesta 5
6 Marianna 58
7 Gateway
8 Shannopin
9 Humphrey 7
/O Pursglove 15
/ / Blacksville I
/2 Blacksville 2
13 Osage 3
14 Arkwright
/5 Federal 2
/6 Consol 93
/7 Loveridge
/8Consol 2 0
,A ~ u tcleat
t

\Face

cleat

c o a l bed,

Shannopin mines, a l t h o u g h they may a l s o be r e l a t e d t o d i f f e r e n t i a l compaction

i n a d e p o s i t i o n a l environment such a s d e s c r i b e d by Wilson (124) i n t h e c e n t r a l
M i s s o u r i c o a l s . T h i s would e x p l a i n t h e t h i c k s a n d s t o n e u n i t s found above them,
whereas mines w i t h l i m e s t o n e and s h a l e r o o f s have no c l a y v e i n s . The o n l y
known evidence of igneous a c t i v i t y w i t h i n t h e s t u d y a r e a i s a p e r i d o t i t e d i k e
found i n F a y e t t e and Greene C o u n t i e s , Pa. The d i k e h a s been noted by Cross
and o t h e r s , and i t s p r e s e n c e has been confirmed by exposure i n mine workings.
The d i k e , which h a s been t r a c e d on t h e s u r f a c e f o r approximately 15 m i l e s ,
r a n g e s i n w i d t h from a few i n c h e s t o s e v e r a l f e e t and t e n d s t o be perpendicul a r t o t h e a x i a l f o l d s . The c o a l around t h e d i k e h a s been n a t u r a l l y "coked. "
C l e a t Within Mines
C l e a t i s t h e n a t u r a l v e r t i c a l f r a c t u r e system i n bituminous c-oalbeds. I t
i s u s u a l l y composed of a fundamental system of two components ( s e t s ) a t 90" t o
each o t h e r . The more dominant f r a c t u r e p l a n e i s t h e f a c e c l e a t ; t h e minor
f r a c t u r e p l a n e i s t h e b u t t c l e a t . The f a c e c l e a t i s more c o n t i n u o u s , c r o s s i n g
bedding p l a n e s i n t h e c o a l and e x t e n d i n g f o r many f e e t , and t e n d s t o be p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f o l d axes. The b u t t c l e a t i s s h o r t , i s o f t e n c u r v e d , and i s
a discontinuous feature t h a t frequently terminates against t h e face c l e a t .
I n t h e p a s t , t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e c l e a t i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d cont r o l l e d t h e d i r e c t i o n of mining. As c o a l t e n d s t o b r e a k a l o n g t h e c l e a t s , i t
was e a s i e r t o mine p a r a l l e l to t h e c l e a t t h a n a t an a n g l e t o i t . T h i s h a s
changed w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of continuous m i n e r s , which mine a s f a s t a t an
a n g l e t o t h e c l e a t a s p a r a l l e l t o i t . However, c l e a t i s s t i l l v e r y i m p o r t a n t
because i t s o r i e n t a t i o n determines d i r e c t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y which, i n t u r n ,
d e t e r m i n e s t h e flow o f methane and w a t e r i n t o t h e mine workings ( 6 4 , 75).
When mining advances p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f a c e c l e a t s , much more gas and w a t e r
a r e e m i t t e d i n t o mine workings t h a n when t h e advance i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e f a c e
cleat.
Determination and Analys i s of C l e a t O r i e n t a t i o n
C l e a t s u r v e y s were conducted i n 18 mines o p e r a t i n g i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h
c o a l b e d . The a v e r a g e c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s were measured f o r each mine ( t a b l e 1 )
and p l o t t e d a c c o r d i n g t o geographic l o c a t i o n ( f i g . 1 9 ) . A composite r o s e d i a gram ( f i g . 20) was c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g t h e v a l u e s from t a b l e l . Two d i s t i n c t
peaks a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e f a c e and b u t t c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s . Two e q u a l l y dominant
fundametal c l e a t systems w i t h d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s approximately p e r p e n d i c u l a r
a r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e s t u d y a r e a . These two systems a r e N 76" W - N 17" E ,
w i t h a 93" s e p a r a t i o n ; and N 67" W
N 28" E , w i t h a 95" s e p a r a t i o n .

I n s o u t h w e s t e r n Pennsylvania and n o r t h e r n West V i r g i n i a , t h e c l e a t s y s

term r o t a t e c l o c k w i s e from s o u t h t o n o r t h . I n f i g u r e 20, t h e dominant
N 17' E d i r e c t i o n i s composed of t h e measurements from mines i n t h e s o u t h e r n
p o r t i o n of t h e a r e a (Nos. 8 t o 18 w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f No. 9 ) , and t h e
dominant N 28' E d i r e c t i o n i s composed o f t h e measurements from mines i n t h e
n o r t h e r n p o r t i o n o f t h e a r e a (Nos. 1 t o 7 p l u s 9 ) . The geographic p l o t o f t h e
c l e a t systems ( f i g . 19) g i v e s a more d e t a i l e d p i c t u r e of t h e c l e a t r o t a t i o n on
a mine-to-mine b a s i s .

28

TABLE 1.
No.
North :

C l e a t systems o f 18 mines surveyed

Mine name

....
......

I........

Z......
3............

4............

s............

6............
7.
8.
g............
10
11
12..
13
14..
15
16
17
South: 18

...........
...........
............
............
..........
............
..........
............
............
............
......

Montour 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mathies.......
Westland
Somerset No. 60
Vesta No. 5.
Marianna No. 58
Gateway
Shannopin.
Humphrey No. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pursglove No. 15
B l a c k s v i l l e No. 1
B l a c k s v i l l e No. 2..
Osage No. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arkwright..
F e d e r a l No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consol No. 93
Loveridge
Consol No. 20

............

..................
...........
..............
...........
...................
................
..........
.........
.......
...............
.............
.................
.............

1 Face

cleat

N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N

W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W

65"
65"
70"
62"
66"
68"
68"
73"
70"
72"
75"
77"
75"
79"
77"
N 73"
N 80"
N 78"

W
W
W
W
W
W
W

Butt c l e a t
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N

25"
27"
25"
30"
30"
28"
28"
18"
27"
19"
20"
17"
17"
12"
17"
18"
15"
12"

E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
E

A s l i g h t counterclockwise r o t a t i o n of t h e c l e a t from e a s t t o west was

a l s o noted.
S t a r t i n g i n t h e e a s t e r n p a r t of t h e s t u d y a r e a w i t h Humphrey
No. 7 (N 70" W), and c o n t i n u i n g westward t o B l a c k s v i l l e No. 1 (N 75" W) and
B l a c k s v i l l e No. 2 (N 77" W) mines, t h e f a c e c l e a t r o t a t e s 7". A s i m i l a r
r o t a t i o n was d e t e c t e d between Consol No. 93 mine (N 73" W) and t h e Loveridge
mine (N 80" W) t o t h e w e s t , and i n t h e northernmost p a r t of t h e s t u d y a r e a
between t h e Mathies mine
(N 65" W) i n t h e e a s t and
N
the West land mine (N 70" W)
i n t h e west.

R e l a t i o n s h i p of Local
Structure t o Cleat
Orientation
C l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n and
local structure are closely
related.
The b u t t c l e a t s
tend t o be p a r a l l e l t o t h e
a x i a l t r e n d s of f o l d s ,
whereas t h e f a c e c l e a t s a r e
perpendicular t o the a x i a l

36 readings total

scaleof readings

FIGURE 20.

- Composite rose diagram of c l e a t orientation

in

18 mines

surveyed.

t r e n d s . This has been noted

not only i n the Pittsburgh
coalbed b u t a l s o i n t h e
Pocahontas No. 3 ( V i r g i n i a ) ,

t h e Lower K i t t a n n i n g (Pennsylvania)

and t h e Har t s h o r n e (Oklahoma) c o a l b e d s

(75)
A good example of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between l o c a l s t r u c t u r e and c l e a t
o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed c a n b e observed i n t h e Pursglove No. 15
mine, l o c a t e d i n Monongalia County, W. Va. , between t h e a r e a ' s two dominant
s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s - - t h e F a y e t t e a n t i c l i n e and t h e Lambert s y n c l i n e ( f i g . 2 1 ) .
C l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s measured i n t h e mine d e f i n e a M 72" W - N 19" E fundamental
system. The s t r u c t u r a l s t r i k e w i t h i n t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e mine averages
N 24" E , c l o s e t o t h e N 19" E s t r i k e of t h e b u t t c l e a t .
The s t r u c t u r a l d i p i s
N 76" W , s i m i l a r t o t h e N 72" W t r e n d of t h e f a c e c l e a t . S i m i l a r (210") r e l a t i o n s h i p s between c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n and l o c a l s t r u c t u r a l t r e n d s a r e observed
f o r t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e mines surveyed.

FIGURE 21.

Scale, f t
Relotionship between local structure and cleat orientation i n the Pursglove
No. 15 mine, Monongalio County, W. Va.

Geologic F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g Methane Emission

The P i t t s b u r g h coalbed i s a g a s s y coalbed. According t o I r a n i (50-51)
t h e f i v e c o u n t i e s i n t h e United S t a t e s producing t h e most c o a l g a s a r e - -

.............
..................
..............
.....................

Monongalia County, W. Va..

Marion County, W. V a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Buchanan County, Va..
Washington County, P a . . . .
Greene County, Pa.

40.7
23.1
22.1
12.4
11.7

Four of t h e s e c o u n t i e s a r e w i t h i n t h e s t u d y a r e a . They have a t o t a l g a s p r o d u c t i o n of 87.9 MM f t 3 / d ; approximately 95 p e r c e n t i s from mining i n t h e

P i t t s b u r g h coalbed. Also K i m (60-61) h a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l bed i n s o u t h w e s t e r n Pennsylvania (over an a r e a o f 575 s q u a r e m i l e s ) c o n t a i n s
over 500 b i l l i o n f t 3 of methane i n t h e v i r g i n c o a l .
A n a l y s i s of a number of g a s samples c o l l e c t e d from h o r i z o n t a l h o l e s
d r i l l e d from a c t i v e f a c e s i n t o v i r g i n c o a l (2)
showed t h a t t h e i r methane cont e n t s ranged from 84 t o 96 p e r c e n t ( t a b l e 2 ) .
TABLE 2 .

Composition of g a s from t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d , p e r c e n t
Gas

.........................
....................
..........................

CH,
C2H6....
CO

O,...........................

N2..........................

Sample 1 Sample 2
88.91
95.86
1.08
.04
2.54
10.97
.06
.04
.05
.46

Sample 3
93.85
.04
4.75
.05
1.20

Sample 4
84.4

14.75
.02
-65

Although t h e t o t a l e f f e c t of t h e geology of a coalbed on i t s methane emiss i o n i s s t i l l n o t completely u n d e r s t o o d , c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s h a s been made

i n i d e n t i f y i n g c e r t a i n c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r s . K i s s e l l and B i e l i c k i ( 6 4 ) have
found t h a t an u n f r a c t u r e d " s o l i d " b l o c k o f c o a l h a s a v e r y low p e r m e a b i l i t y ,
i n c o n t r a s t t o high p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e coalbed where f r a c t u r i n g i s e x t e n s i v e .
The d e n s i t y of t h e f r a c t u r e s and t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e coalbed depend on t h e
c o a l r a n k . The l o w - v o l a t i l e c o a l s tend t o be t h e most h i g h l y f r a c t u r e d . I n a
g i v e n c o a l b e d , f r a c t u r e s a r e n o t uniform i n s i z e o r s p a c i n g . This could be
due t o such f a c t o r s a s t h e degree of f o l d i n g and f a u l t i n g , proximity t o f o l d
a x e s , and t h e t h i c k n e s s of overburden. The i n s i t u f r a c t u r e s p a c i n g c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed i s 8 cm, a s compared w i t h 4.5 cm f o r t h e
Pocahontas No. 3 c o a l b e d , although observed f r a c t u r e s p a c i n g s may v a r y w i d e l y
from t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s .
P e r m e a b i l i t y should be g r e a t e s t i n t h e f a c e c l e a t d i r e c t i o n . I n one a r e a
of a mine o p e r a t i n g i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d , t h e methane emission from t h e
s o l i d r i b s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e e m i s s i o n from t h e working f a c e .
I t was observed t h a t t h e r i b i n t e r s e c t e d t h e f a c e c l e a t s and t h a t t h e working
f a c e was d r a i n i n g t h e l e s s permeable b u t t c l e a t s (64).

Measurements by Parsons and Dahl (82) of t h e l a t e r a l compressive s t r e s s e s

i n s t r a t a adjacent t o t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed showed t h a t t h e major l a t e r a l
s t r e s s i s i n an east-west d i r e c t i o n , n e a r l y perpendicular t o t h e b u t t c l e a t
d i r e c t i o n . They concluded t h a t t h e b u t t c l e a t s a r e squeezed more t i g h t l y ,
reducing t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y even more.
These o b s e r v a t i o n s show t h e importance t h a t c l e a t p l a y s i n determining
" d i r e c t i o n a l p e r m e a b i l i t y . " Any h o r i z o n t a l d r i l l i n g i n mines t o d e g a s i f y an
a r e a must take i n t o account t h e p r e f e r r e d flow due t o d i r e c t i o n a l permeability.
Bureau r e s e a r c h has shown t h a t a hole d r i l l e d i n t o t h e coalbed perpendicular
t o t h e f a c e c l e a t could y i e l d from 2.5 t o 10 times a s much gas a s a h o l e
d r i l l e d perpendicular t o t h e b u t t c l e a t . A t t h e Federal No. 2 mine i n
Monongalia County, t h r e e h o l e s were d r i l l e d perpendicular t o t h e f a c e c l e a t
and a f o u r t h was d r i l l e d p a r a l l e l t o i t ( f i g . 22). The hole d r i l l e d p a r a l l e l
had t h e lowest gas p r e s s u r e , whereas t h e h o l e s d r i l l e d perpendicular t o t h e
f a c e c l e a t maintained t h e i r s u s t a i n e d h i g h e r gas p r e s s u r e s even a f t e r produc ing gas f o r a s much as 45 days. This d i f f e r e n c e i n emission i s undoubtedly
due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e f a c e c l e a t s , which a r e much longer and more
continuous f r a c t u r e s exposing l a r g e r s u r f a c e a r e a s , and t h e s h o r t e r b u t t
c l e a t s , which f r e q u e n t l y terminate a g a i n s t t h e f a c e c l e a t .
Other geologic f a c t o r s a l s o i n f l u e n c e gas emission from t h e coalbed. The
amount of overburden i s known t o be important, b u t no s p e c i f i c r e l a t i o n s h i p
c a n be e s t a b l i s h e d u n t i l
N
more a c c u r a t e gas emission
d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e from
o p e r a t i n g mines. G r e a t e r
werburden pressures t h a t
may tend t o c l o s e f r a c t u r e s
and reduce p e r m e a b i l i t y may
be compensated f o r by a
4g r e a t e r gas c o n t e n t of t h e
deeper c o a l s .

MAP

LEGEND
I- 4 Measurement holes

Scole, ft

FIGURE 22.

- Map of Federal No. 2 mine showing horizontally drilled

directions,

holes

and

cleat

F r i a b i l i t y of t h e c o a l
a l s o a f f e c t s methane emiss i o n . A c o r e from t h e
Beckley o r Pocahontas No. 3
coalbed (both of which a r e
f r i a b l e ) , when allowed t o
d e g a s i f y i n a s e a l e d cont a i n e r , g i v e s o f f approximately 94 p e r c e n t of i t s
t o t a l gas c o n t e n t , whereas
t h e same amount of P i t t s burgh c o a l (which i s blocky)
under t h e same c o n d i t i o n s
g i v e s o f f only 60 t o 65 p e r c e n t of i t s t o t a l gas. This
a l s o may be due t o t h e
c l o s e r c l e a t spacing i n t h e

Beckley and Pocahontas No. 3 (114 i n c h ) c o a l b e d s , a s compared w i t h t h e P i t t s burgh coalbed ( 1 i n c h ) .

Geologic s t r u c t u r e can a l s o a f f e c t g a s emission through i t s e f f e c t on
waterflow. Even a d i p of l e s s than 1" can d e c r e a s e t h e flow of g a s because
any water i n t h e c o a l must be d i s p l a c e d u p h i l l b e f o r e g a s can flow f r e e l y .
Example of Geology-Related Problems i n a Working Mine
T y p i c a l s t r u c t u r e - r e l a t e d problems were s t u d i e d a t Somerset No. 60 mine
being developed down t h e northwest f l a n k of t h e Amity a n t i c l i n e towards a s y n c l i n e ( f i g . 23). Water h a s been accumulating a t t h e f a c e
of e n t r i e s being d r i v e n t o t h e n o r t h w e s t , which d i p i n t o t h e working f a c e .
Once t h e a x i s of t h e s y n c l i n e i s c r o s s e d , t h e f l o o r w i l l d i p away from t h e
f a c e , allowing t h e water t o r u n o f f .

(s),
which was

The N 62" W ( f a c e ) and N 30" E ( b u t t ) c l e a t system i s n e a r l y o r t h o g o n a l .

The measured r o c k j o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n s a r e between N 57" W and N 75" W , c o r r e sponding roughly t o t h e f a c e c l e a t . Mining was o r i g i n a l l y p a r a l l e l t o the
c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s b u t a t p r e s e n t i s 45" t o t h e p r e v i o u s working. According
t o t h e o p e r a t o r s , t h i s g i v e s more s t a b l e r i b s and r o o f .
The immediate roof i s g e n e r a l l y c o a l . A weak s l i c k e n s i d e d c l a y s t o n e ,
g e n e r a l l y up t o 12 i n c h e s t h i c k and o v e r l y i n g t h e c o a l , i s removed during mini n g , l e a v i n g t h e " s t a b l e " r i d e r c o a l . Study of roof f a l l s shows t h e weak
s t r a t a t o be e i t h e r micaceous sandstone w i t h t h i n l y interbedded s h a l e , o r
a l t e r n a t i n g c o a l s and s l i c k e n s i d e d c l a y s t o n e s .
I n t h e w e s t e r n p a r t of t h e mine workings t h e r e a r e sand channels t h a t
completely c u t out t h e c o a l . To i n v e s t i g a t e roof c o n d i t i o n s and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of sandstone channels i n t h e a r e a of f u t u r e advancement a d j a c e n t t o t h e
a c t i v e mine workings, a fence diagram ( f i g . 24) was c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g d a t a on
t h e 40 f e e t of s t r a t a immediately above t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed. The p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e c o a l being c u t o u t i n c r e a s e s i n a r e a s where t h e rock type d i r e c t l y
above t h e c o a l i s predominantly sandstone and where t h e base of t h e sandstone
approaches t h e top of t h e c o a l . Based on t h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n and on c o r e d a t a ,
a sandstone c u t o u t p r o b a b i l i t y map ( f i g . 25) was c o n s t r u c t e d .

KEY MAP

-700-

LEGEND
Data points
Mined-out area
Structure contour, 25-f t interval
Drawn on base of Pittsburgh coalbed
Datum is mean sea level

Scale, ft

FIGURE 23.

- Structure map drawn on the base of the P i t t s b u r g h coalbed for the area
adjacent t o the a c t i v e workings o f the Somerset No.

60

mine.

<>Mine

outline

LEGEND
Sondstone
Wild cool intervol

LEGEND
Data points
Known sandstone cutout

Probabil~tyof sandstone cutout

Pittsburgh coalbed'

- Fence diagram of the strata

directly above the Pittsburgh coalbed adjacent to
the active workings of the
Somerset No. 60 mine.

4,000

8,000
A

Scale, ft

Scole, mi

FIGURE 24.

--

FIGURE 25.

- Sandstone channel probability

map of the area adiacent to
the active workings of the
Somerset No. 60 mine.

Zones of abrupt l i t h o l o g i c change o f t e n coincide with a r e a s of u n s t a b l e

The s i g n i f i c a n t l i t h o l o g i c
roof and high gas emission (53, 5 8 , 75-76).
changes t h a t can occur w i t h i n a very s h o r t h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e above the P i t t s burgh coalbed a r e exemplified i n f i g u r e 26 by two c o r e holes (TH1 and TH2) 620
f e e t a p a r t and on opposite s i d e s of t h e boundary between t h e zones of low and
high p r o b a b i l i t y shown i n f i g u r e 25. The r a p i d change i n l i t h o l o g y i s due t o
t h e removal of stream e r o s i o n of approximately 20 f e e t of o r i g i n a l sediments
a t t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e TH2 hole along a stream channel t h a t was subsequently
f i l l e d w i t h sand. More c o r e d r i l l i n g i n t h e a r e a a d j a c e n t t o t h e a c t i v e worki n g s of t h e Somerset No. 60 mine could provide a d d i t i o n a l d a t a t o substant i a l l y r e f i n e t h e p r e d i c t i o n of s p e c i f i c problem a r e a s . The p r a c t i c e of spaci n g c o r e h o l e s 3,000 f e e t o r more a p a r t makes c o r r e l a t i o n s and p r e d i c t i o n s
d i f f i c u l t , e s p e c i a l l y where t h e r e a r e r a p i d changes i n l i t h o l o g y and sedimentation patterns.

LEGEND
Shale
Sandy shale
Sandstone

Coal and Bone

Cool

FIGURE 26.

Rapid lateral variation in the strata directly above the Pittsburgh coalbed.

D i r e c t l y overlying t h e main bench (mined p o r t i o n ) of t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l bed i s an i n t e r v a l of v a r i a b l e thickness known a s "draw s l a t e " ( f i g . 27).
This r o c k i n t e r v a l has v e r y l i t t l e s t r e n g t h and commonly f a i l s , r e s u l t i n g i n
sudden gas emissions and r o c k haulage problems. Most miners p r e f e r t o anchor
roof b o l t s i n t h e more competent rock above t h e draw s l a t e . The minimum b o l t
length t h a t would be necessary t o anchor i n t o competent rock a b w e t h e "draw
s l a t e " u n i t i n any a r e a can be determined from isopach maps l i k e f i g u r e 27.

DETERMINATION AND ANALYSIS

OF JOINTS AND PHOTOLINEARS

LEGEND

-6 -

Mined-out area
Contour interval, 3 ft

The frequency, c h a r a c
t e r , and prominence of
jointing i n surface rock
exposures v a r y g r e a t l y ,
depending on b r i t t l e n e s s and
on t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f
each r o c k t y p e t o t h e comp r e s s i o n a l and t e n s i o n a l
f o r c e s e x e r t e d on t h e
e a r t h ' s c r u s t . According t o
Nickelsen and Hough (E),
j o i n t i n g due t o i n c r e a s i n g
tectonic forces affects coal
f i r s t , t h e n s h a l e and limes t o n e , and l a s t l y sandstone.
This i s e v i d e n t from t h e
r e l a t i v e s p a c i n g of j o i n t s
i n the various rock types.
Coal c l e a t s g e n e r a l l y have
t h e c l o s e s t spacing, f o l lowed by s h a l e , l i m e s t o n e ,
and then s a n d s t o n e i n which
t h e j o i n t s a r e t h e most
w i d e l y spaced and most prom-.
i n e n t . I n s p e c t i o n of t h e
j o i n t measurements f o r each
r o c k type g i v e s an o v e r a l l
view of t h e p r i n c i p a l
trends.

P h o t o l i n e a r s a r e zones
of weakness t h a t g e n e r a l l y
FIGURE 27. lsopach of "draw slate" above the Pitts- c o r r e l a t e w i t h measured
j o i n t t r e n d s and may or may
burgh coalbed in the area adjacent to the
not be actual fractures
active workings of the Somerset No. 60
observed in the field.
In
mine.
a r e a s of heavy v e g e t a t i o n o r
few o u t c r o p s , o r d u r i n g p e r i o d s of bad weather f o r f i e l d w o r k , p h o t o l i n e a r
a n a l y s i s i s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e measurement of s u r f a c e j o i n t s .

The d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e v a r i o u s techniques i n d i c a t e
d i r e c t i o n s of i n h e r e n t weakness i n a coalbed and t h e r o c k surrounding it. An
a n a l y s i s of t h e fundamental d i r e c t i o n a l systems i n a v i r g i n a r e a p r i o r t o mine
development c a n p r o v i d e an e s t i m a t e of t h e c l e a t system i n a coalbed underground. This i n t u r n determines t h e most e f f i c i e n t s p a c i n g o f d e g a s i f i c a t i o n
h o l e s f o r maximum g a s flow, and t o some e x t e n t , determines t h e most e f f i c i e n t
mine development i n d i r e c t i o n s t h a t c a n minimize problems such a s r i b s p a l l i n g
and w a t e r and g a s i n f l u x .

137 readings total

10
Scale of readings

FIGURE 28,

Rose diagram of surface i o i n t trends

from the New Freeport quadrangle,
Pennsylvania,

Coal i s t h e rock type

most s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e t e c t o n i c f o r c e s t h a t produce
directional trends t h a t
r e f l e c t s t r u c t u r a l weakness.
The f a c e and b u t t c l e a t s meas u r e d i n c o a l underground a r e
t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h e s e
t e c t o n i c f o r c e s and a r e
d i r e c t l y related t o the
regional s t r u c t u r a l trends.
Because of t h e need to e s t i mate t h e d i r e c t i o n a l trend of
c l e a t underground and t h e
e s tab l i s h e d - r e l a t i o n s h i p of
c l e a t t o s t r u c t u r e , the c l e a t
d a t a a r e used a s a standard
a g a i n s t which t o judge t h e
r e l i a b i l i t y of d a t a obtained
by o t h e r methods.

Surface J o i n t Determination
Surface j o i n t s were measured over t h e t h i r t y - n i n e 7-1/2-minute quadrangle
s tudy a r e a i n southwestern Pennsylvania and n o r t h e r n West V i r g i n i a . An aver
age of 120 j o i n t r e a d i n g s were taken p e r quadrangle with a minimum of 100
r e a d i n g s p e r quadrangle and no more than 10 readings a t a s i n g l e outcrop.
Rock t y p e s and q u a l i t y of j o i n t s were noted a t each outcrop. The d i r e c t i o n s
were read a s azimuths u s i n g damped Brunton compasses c o r r e c t e d f o r magnetic
d e c l i n a t i o n . To e v a l u a t e t h e p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s , t h e d a t a from each
quadrangle were p l o t t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y on r o s e diagrams ( f i g . 2 8 ) . By p l o t t i n g
only t h e dominant t r e n d s from each i n d i v i d u a l quadrangle on a s i n g l e r o s e
p l o t , a composite r o s e diagram ( f i g . 29) of s u r f a c e j o i n t t r e n d s f o r t h e s t u d y
a r e a was c o n s t r u c t e d . J o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n s by t i e r ( f i g . 30) and corresponding
c o u n t i e s from n o r t h t o south a r e given i n t a b l e 3 .

Surface J o i n t Analysis
I t was determined from t h e d a t a shown i n f i g u r e 29 t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e
major d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s t o t h e west and four t o t h e e a s t ( t a b l e 4 ) . The
number d i r e c t l y above t h e d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s i n t a b l e 4 g i v e s t h e order of
dominance w i t h i n t h e group, based on t h e number of r e a d i n g s comprising t h e
peaks on f i g u r e 29. The a s s i g n i n g of t h e same order of dominance t o two
r e a d i n g s i n t h e same group i n d i c a t e s e q u a l l y s t r o n g d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s .

. . . .. . . ..
. ... .. . . . . ..

County

Wetzel and Monongalia

Marion and Monongalia
Marion and Harrison..

.
Washington ...........
Greene. ..............

N
N
N
N
N

7"
2'
5"
2"
5"
E
E'N
E N
E N
E N

14"
13"
15"
14"

E
E
E
E

N 5" W N 20" W
N 7" W

WI

3
WEST
N 33"

1
-

I
5

I
6

Average s u r f a c e j o i n t o r i e n t a t i o n s , by county

N 6" W N-21" w
N 19" W

I
8 (
9

West
I
111
N 57" W N 34" W
N 76" W

TABLE 4.

I
N 15" E

East
I1
111
N 27" E N 37" E

IV

N 47" E

Principal surface joint trends

i n o r d e r of dominance

NOTE.--Numbered t r e n d s a r e arranged w i t h i n t h e 2 d i r e c t i o n a l groups ( e a s t and west) by i n c r e a s i n g

divergence from n o r t h and n o t by t h e i r o r d e r of dominance. Trends w i t h i n t h e same v e r t i c a l
column of a group a r e assumed c o r r e l a t i v e . D i r e c t i o n a l d a t a from t h e i n d i v i d u a l quadrangles
a r e t a b u l a t e d i n appendix B.

6
7

1, 2, 3
4, 5

4, 5

Greene...
Wetzel and Monongalia
Marion and Monongalia
Mar i o n and Harrison.

1, 2, 3 Washington..

Tier

TABLE 3.

of readings
al (5.8)

207 readinas
- total
FIGURE

29.

Scale of readings

Composite rose diagram of principal surface joint trends.

The p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n a l trends l i s t e d i n t a b l e 4 can be paired t o form

s i x fundamental j o i n t systems:

1.

*N 57" W'

and N 27" E l ' with an 84" s e p a r a t i o n .

2.

*N 57" W'

and N 15" E ' with a 72" s e p a r a t i o n .

3.

*N 57" W '

and N 37" E '

4.

*N 76" W'

and N 15" E ' with a 91" separation.

5.

*N 76" W '

and N 27" E '

'

6.

*N 34" W"

'

ElV

and N 47"

''

with a 94" s e p a r a t i o n .

with a 103" s e p a r a t i o n .
with an 81" separation.

The s u p e r s c r i p t s i n Roman numerals i n d i c a t e t h e order of dominance, and

t h e a s t e r i s k s i n d i c a t e the most dominant trend of each system. Two surface
j o i n t systems (Nos. 2 and 4 ) are composed of j o i n t s e t s of the f i r s t order of
dominance. Both systems a r e composed of the N 15" E ' s e t . System 4 , with a
91" s e p a r a t i o n , more c l o s e l y approaches the i d e a l fundamental system's 90"
s e p a r a t i o n than does system 2 with a 72" separation. System 4 (*N 76" W ' N 15" E ' ) i s q u i t e s i m i l a r i n o r i e n t a t i o n t o the *N 76" W' - N 17" E ' c l e a t
system e s t a b l i s h e d underground. The *N 76" W' s e t of system 4 i s the most
dominant s e t of system 4 and p a r a l l e l s the face c l e a t . The N 76' W' s e t could
a l s o be paired with the N 27" E"
s e t (system 5 ) , but the s e p a r a t i o n of 103"

i s g r e a t e r and t h e N 27" E l '

s e t i s l e s s dominant than
t h e N 15" E' s e t .
The N 57" W t s e t , i f
n o t p a i r e d with N 15" E' ,
can be p a i r e d with N 27" E l I
(system 1 ) f o r an 84"
r a t i o n o r with N 37" E f t
(system 3) f o r a 94" s e p a r a t i o n . S stem 1 (*N 57" W' N 27" E f ) i s reasonably
s i m i l a r t o t h e *N 67" W' N 28" E ' c l e a t system e s t a b l i s h e d underground. System 3 (W 57" W I N 37" E' I ) , while not subs t a n t i a l l y d i s s i m i l a r from
t h e *N 67" W' - N 28" E'
c l e a t system, i s , however,
composed of one s e t of t h e
t h i r d order of dominance.
The *N 57" W' s e t of s y s tems 1 and 3 i s t h e most
dominant s e t of t h e systems
and i s reasonably s i m i l a r t o
the face c l e a t orientation.

seYa-

'

/09
#

GREENE COUNTY

,d'

New Freeport

/37

Hoibrook

Oak Forest

Gorords Fort

Mosontown

/30

109

99

126

The most dominant e a s t

e r n corn onents (N 15" E' and
N 27" E ) c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l
t h e s t r i k e of t h e major
s t r u c t u r a l axes of t h e a r e a ,
and t h e western trend i s
n e a r l y perpendicular t o t h e
axes. Therefore, t h e s y s t e m s a r e probably d i r e c t l y
related t o the regional
s t r u c t u r a l deformation. The
s i x t h s u r f a c e j o i n t system
(*N 34" W"
- N 47" E l V )
may a l s o be r e l a t e d t o t h e
r e g i o n a l s t r u c t u r e , although
i t i s composed of s e t s of
t h e t h i r d and f o u r t h order
of dominance and not o r i ented p a r a l l e l t o t h e c l e a t
d i r e c t i o n s . This system i s
o r i e n t e d a t approximately

P'

Hundred"

WETZEL
COUNTY

Wadestown

//7

156

Glover Gap

Monnlngton

//5

187

Blocksv~lle

143

----

--

Gront Town

/2/
MONONGALIA
COUNTY

108

~!ves;llle

South

/44\

300

128
L

Eos

Glodesville

HARRISON COUNTY

'

Scale, miles

total readings

FIGURE 30.

65

143 -Indicates

1%

MARION COUNTY

r'

Fjorth

Osoqe

- Rose diagrams of surface ioints for 39

quadrangles.

N 15" E' system, which i s w i t h i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l angle

45" t o t h e *N 76" W'
of s h e a r s t o t h e dominant t r e n d s .

Wol l o c e

Sh~nnston

724

423
H A R R I S O N COUNTY

495 -Indicates total readings

FIGURE 31.

- ~ o i r r n o n West
t
- F o ~ r m o n t ~o;t

'408--

Glodesville

\39//

384

Scale, miles

- Rose diagram of photolinears for 39 quadrangles.

A d d i t i o n a l evidence f o r t h e c o r r e l a t i o n of j o i n t i n g w i t h r e g i o n a l s t r u c t u r e i s t h e clockwise r o t a t i o n of t h e j o i n t t r e n d s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a ; t h i s i s
a l s o observed f o r t h e t r e n d s o f t h e major s t r u c t u r a l a x e s . The r o s e diagrams
o f t h e j o i n t measurements from t h e i n d i v i d u a l quadrangles assembled i n f i g u r e 30 i l l u s t r a t e t h e s h i f t of t h e j o i n t t r e n d s throughout t h e a r e a .
P h o t o l i n e a r I n t e r p r e t a t i o n From I n f r a r e d Photographs
A e r i a l photographs c o v e r i n g t h e 39 q u a d r a n g l e s of t h e s t u d y a r e a were
examined s t e r e o s c o p i c a l l y f o r p h o t o l i n e a r s . P h o t o l i n e a r s a r e combinations of
a g r e a t number of i n d i v i d u a l s u r f a c e f r a c t u r e s t h a t form d i s t i n c t i v e a l i n e ments d i s c e r n i b l e on t h e photographs. They a r e zones o f weakness t h a t g e n e r a l l y c o r r e l a t e w i t h measured j o i n t t r e n d s . An e x c e l l e n t p h o t o l i n e a r s t u d y of
a s m a l l p o r t i o n of t h e s t u d y a r e a was done by Hough (48) i n 1960.
I n theory, photolinears t h a t a r e a d i r e c t r e s u l t of f r a c t u r i n g can be
r e c o g n i z e d a s s t r a i g h t l i n e s s e p a r a t i n g a r e a s o f t o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n open
ground, l i n e a r t o p o g r a p h i c d e p r e s s i o n s , a l i n e m e n t s of v e g e t a t i o n o r t a l l e r
t h a n average t r e e s , and shadow l i n e s from c l i f f edges. I n p r a c t i c e , f a r m i n g ,
m i n i n g , and o t h e r manmade changes o b s c u r e most f e a t u r e s t h a t o t h e r w i s e would
be o b s e r v a b l e . Theref o r e t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of p h o t o l i n e a r s depends l a r g e l y
on s t r a i g h t segments of v a l l e y s and s t r e a m c o u r s e s and on a b r u p t r i g h t - a n g l e
t u r n s i n s t r e a m s and r i v e r s .
Photolinear Analysis
The d a t a from t h e i n f r a r e d ~ h o t o g r a p h swere used t o p r e p a r e r o s e diagrams
f o r each of t h e 39 quadrangles ( f i g . 31). The dominant p h o t o l i n e a r d i r e c t i o n s
f o r each quadrangle were determined from t h e r o s e diagrams (appendix C ) and
p l o t t e d on a s i n g l e composite r o s e diagram ( f i g . 3 2 ) . D i r e c t i o n a l d a t a by
t i e r and c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o u n t i e s from n o r t h t o s o u t h a r e g i v e n i n t a b l e 5.
F i g u r e 32 shows f i v e p r i n c i p a l p h o t o l i n e a r t r e n d s t o t h e west and t h r e e
t o t h e e a s t . T h e i r o r d e r of dominance i s g i v e n i n t a b l e 6 .
The i n d i v i d u a l photo l i n e a r t r e n d s c a n b e p a i r e d i n t o s i x fundamental
p h o t o l i n e a r systems, w i t h an a s t e r i s k i n d i c a t i n g t h e dominant t r e n d of each
system:

1.

*N 65" W' and N 20" E ' w i t h an 85" s e p a r a t i o n .

2.

N 79" W"

'

and *N 20" E ' w i t h a 99" s e p a r a t i o n .

3.

N 79" W'

'

and *N 1" E '

4.

N 40"

5.

*N 25" W'

6.

N 13" W" and

w"'

'

w i t h a n 80" s e p a r a t i o n .

and *N 20" E' w i t h a 60" s e p a r a t i o n .

and N 75" El1

*N 75" E'

'

w i t h a 100" s e p a r a t i o n .
w i t h an 88" s e p a r a t i o n .

Wetzel and Monongalia.

Marion and Monongalia.
Marion and Harrison..

.
Washington.. ..........
Greene.. ..............

................

Washington..
Greene
Wetzel and Monongalia.
Marion and Monongalia.
Marion and H a r r i s o n . .

..........

County

1
1

N
N
N
N

4"
5"
2"
3"
E
E
E
E

N 15" E
N 15" E
N 16" E

N 13" E

N 11" W
N 13" W

N 12" W
N14"W

N
N
N
N
N

19"
20"
24"
25"
24"

EAST
-

E
E
E
E
E

N 23" W

N 21" W
N24"W
N 18" W

TW. rLn I UCJT.

N
N
N
N
N

37"
31"
32"
37"
38"
E
E
E
E
E

N 29" W
N 30" W
N 35" W

N 30" W

I
W
W
W
W
W

N 50" E

39"
41"
44"
43"
43"

N 51" E
N 44" E
N 54" E

N
N
N
N
N

N 63" E

N 63" E
N 62" E

N 52" W

6
N 52" W
N 54" W
N 51" W

Average p h o t o l i n e a r o r i e n t a t i o n s , by county

N 3" W
N3"W
N 4" W
N 4" W
N 3" W

N
N
N
N

N
N
N
N
N

78"
75"
72"
69"

66"
65"
65"
61"
69"

E
E
E
E

W
W
W
W
W

N 25" W

N 65" W

N 13" W

v
-

N 20" E

N 1" E

I1

East

Principal photolinear trends

i n order of dominance

111
N 79" W
N 40" W

West

I1

TABLE 6.

N 75" E

I1 I

85"
76"
74"
80"
79"

W
W
W
W
W

N 84" E

N 89" E
N 88" E

N
N
N
N
N

NOTE. --Numbered t r e n d s a r e arranged w i t h i n t h e 2 d i r e c t i o n a l groups ( e a s t and west) by i n c r e a s i n g

divergence from n o r t h and n o t by t h e i r o r d e r of dominance.
Trends w i t h i n t h e same v e r t i c a l
column of a group a r e assumed c o r r e l a t i v e .

4, 5
6
7
8

1, 2, 3

1, 2 , 3
4,5
6
7
8

Tier

TABLE 5.

FIGURE 32.

Composite rose diagram of principal photolinear trends for entire area.

The f i r s t i n f r a r e d p h o t o l i n e a r system (*N 65" W'

N 20" El) i s composed
of t h e most dominant w e s t e r l y s e t and t h e most dominant e a s t e r l y s e t . This
system b e s t e s t i m a t e s t h e e s t a b l i s h e d *N 67" W'
N 28" E r c o a l c l e a t system.
The *N 65" W' s e t i s t h e most dominant of t h e system and i t n e a r l y p a r a l l e l s
t h e f a c e c l e a t . The N 20" E! s e t , i f n o t p a i r e d w i t h N 65" w', could b e
(system 2) which i s s i m i l a r t o t h e *N 76" W'
p a i r e d w i t h an N 79" w"[
N 17" E' c l e a t system. P h o t o l i n e a r system 2 , however, c o n t a i n s one s e t of t h e
t h i r d o r d e r and has a l a r g e r d i v e r g e n c e from 90" t h a n system 1. The
N 79" W" I s e t c a n a l s o b e p a i r e d w i t h N 1"
s stem 3 ) f o r an 80" s e p a r a t i o n . T h i s system, w h i l e having one s e t (*N 1" E' ) which d i v e r g e s 16" from
N 17" E' c l e a t system, h a s one s e t
t h e b u t t c l e a t o f t h e *N 76" W'
(N 79" W' " ) which d i v e r g e s o n l y 3" from t h e f a c e c l e a t . System 3 , however,
i s composed of one s e t of t h i r d o r d e r dominance, and more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e
most dominant s e t of t h e system (*N 1" E l * ) i s i n t h e b u t t c l e a t d i r e c t i o n .
The f o u r t h , f i f t h , and s i x t h p h o t o l i n e a r systems a r e each composed o f one
component of t h i r d o r lower o r d e r of dominance and have no s i m i l a r i t y t o t h e
e s t a b l i s h e d c l e a t systems.

'

'Y

Ronchi I n s p e c t i o n of Photoindex S h e e t s and A n a l y s i s of Trends

T h i r t e e n photoindex s h e e t s c o v e r i n g t h e s t u d y a r e a were i n s p e c t e d f o r
p h o t o l i n e a r s u s i n g a Ronchi-type d e f r a c t i o n g r a t i n g . The s c a l e of t h e i n d e x
s h e e t s i s 1 inch t o 1 m i l e ; hence only g e n e r a l t r e n d s c a n b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ,
n o t s p e c i f i c l i n e a r s . This method was i n v e s t i g a t e d t o determine i t s

r e l i a b i l i t y a s a r e l a t i v e l y i n e x p e n s i v e , r a p i d r e c o n n a i s s a n c e procedure f o r
d e l i n e a t i n g s t r u c t u r a l weakness.
P r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s a s i n t e r p r e t e d from t h e 1 3 i n d i v i d u a l i n d e x
s h e e t s of t h e a r e a were p l o t t e d on a composite r o s e diagram ( f i g . 3 3 ) . The
i n d i v i d u a l t r e n d s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r each of t h e 13 s h e e t s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
appendix D.
D i r e c t i o n a l d a t a by county from n o r t h t o s o u t h a r e g i v e n i n
t a b l e 7.

TABLE 7.

Average photoindex s h e e t l i n e a r o r i e n t a t i o n s ,
by county

County
Washington..
Greene
Monongalia..
Marion..

..........

N
N
N
N

................
..........
..............
Washington. ...........
Greene ................
Monongalia. ...........
Marion

................

N
N
N
N

WEST
10" W
8" W
8" W
8" W
EAST
19" E
11" E
8" E
6" E

N
N
N
N

24"
23"
22"
24"

W
W
W
W

N
N
N
N

45"
42"
43"
43"

W
W
W
W

N
N
N
N

70"
69"
70"
73"

W
W
W
W

N
N
N
N

30"
25"
23"
20"

E
E
E
E

N
N
N
N

51"
56"
58"
58"

E
E
E
E

N
N
N
N

73"
79"
80"
78"

E
E
E
E

NOTE.--Numbered t r e n d s a r e arranged w i t h i n t h e 2 d i r e c t i o n a l groups ( e a s t and w e s t ) by i n c r e a s i n g d i v e r gence from n o r t h , n o t by o r d e r of dominance.

Trends w i t h i n t h e same v e r t i c a l column of a group
a r e assumed t o be c o r r e l a t i v e .
The r o s e diagram ( f i g . 33) shows f o u r d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s t o t h e west and
f o u r t o t h e e a s t . Although t h e o r d e r of dominance of t h e d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s
does n o t s t a n d o u t c l e a r l y i n f i g u r e 33, i t was e s t a b l i s h e d ( t a b l e 8 ) f o r t h e
d a t a based on t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e image of t h e d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s viewed
t h r o u g h t h e Ronchi g r a t i n g .
TABLE 8 .

I
N 70" W

P r i n c i p a l photoindex t r e n d s i n o r d e r of dominance

West
I1
I11
N 44" W N 23" W

IV
N 9" W

I
N 77" E

East
I1
I11
N 77" E N 12" E

IV
N 55" E

The p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s d e l i n e a t e d by t h e Ronchi g r a t i n g c a n be
p a i r e d i n t o f i v e fundamental systems, w i t h t h e s u p e r s c r i p t s a g a i n i n d i c a t i n g
t h e o r d e r of dominance and an a s t e r i s k t h e most dominant t r e n d of each system.

w1

1.

*N 70"

2.

*N 70" W'

3.

N 23" W"

and N 27" E' w i t h a 97" s e p a r a t i o n .

and N 12" E~

'

'

and *N 77" E I

w i t h an 82" s e p a r a t i o n .
w i t h a 100" s e p a r a t i o n .

104 readings total

FIGURE 33.

Scale of readings

- Composite rose diagram o f p r i n c i p a l Ronchi trends for entire area.

4.

*N 44" W"

5.

N 9"

wiV

and N 55" E f V w i t h a 99" s e p a r a t i o n .

and *N 77" E"

w i t h a n 86" s e p a r a t i o n .

The p a i r i n g o f t h e most dominant w e s t e r l y t r e n d , *N 70" W' w i t h e i t h e r

N 27" E ' , t h e most dominant e a s t e r l y t r e n d , o r N 12" E"'
c l o s e l y approximates
t h e dominant t r e n d of s t r u c t u r a l weakness a s p r e v i o u s l y i n d i c a t e d from t h e
a n a l y s i s o f c l e a t , s u r f a c e j o i n t , and p h o t o l i n e a r o r i e n t a t i o n s . The *N 70" W'
i s t h e most dominant t r e n d of t h e f i r s t system and c o r r e l a t e s w i t h t h e f a c e
c l e a t . The components o f t h e l e s s dominant systems 3 , 4 , and 5 appear t o be
r e l a t e d t o s h e a r s t o t h e p r i n c i p a l direcLiuzia1 trer~ds.
A r o t a t i o n o f d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s , s i m i l a r t o t h a t observed f o r t h e c l e a t
and s u r f a c e j o i n t t r e n d s , i s a p p a r e n t i n a p o r t i o n of t h e Ronchi d e r i v e d d a t a .
on t h e composite r o s e diagram
The two t r e n d s a t N 27" E1 and N 12" E"'
A review of t h e a c t u a l
( f i g . 33) appear t o be p a r t s of a weak bimodal peak.
d a t a f o r t h e s e two t r e n d s (appendix D , Nos. 1 and 3 e a s t ) shows t h a t t h e y a r e
indeed two d i s t i n c t t r e n d s w i t h a n e a s t e r l y s h i f t of t h e county d i r e c t i o n a l
means o f 10" and 13O, r e s p e c t i v e l y , from s o u t h t o n o r t h .

C r i t e r i a f o r Cleat Estimation
The a n a l y s i s of d i r e c t i o n a l d a t a y i e l d e d t r e n d s t h a t c o u l d be p a i r e d i n t o
v a r i o u s combinations of fundamental s y s t e m s ( t a b l e 9 ) . Two s u r f a c e j o i n t s y s tems ( 1 and 4 ) c o r r e l a t e d b e s t w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c l e a t systems. These two
systems a r e composed of t r e n d s of t h e f i r s t and second o r d e r of dominance.
Systems 2 , 3 , and 5 a r e composed of s e t s a l r e a d y p a i r e d i n systems 1 and 4 ,
and s y s t e m 6 i s composed of t r e n d s of t h i r d and f o u r t h o r d e r s of dominance and
i s n o t s i m i l a r t o t h e c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s . One i n f r a r e d p h o t o l i n e a r s y s t e m (1)
c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a c l e a t s y s t e m and was composed o f t r e n d s o f t h e f i r s t o r d e r
of dominance. An a d d i t i o n a l s y s t e m (3) was r e a s o n a b l y c o r r e l a t i v e w i t h t h e
r e m a i n i n g c l e a t system, b u t was composed of second- and t h i r d - o r d e r t r e n d s .
The second p h o t o l i n e a r s y s t e m i s composed o f t r e n d s a l r e a d y used i n systems 1
and 3. Systems 4-6 a r e n o t c o r r e l a t i v e w i t h a c l e a t s y s t e m and a r e composed
of a t l e a s t one t r e n d o f t h i r d o r lower o r d e r of dominance. One p h o t o i n d e x
p h o t o l i n e a r system (1) c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a c l e a t system and was composed of
t r e n d s of t h e f i r s t o r d e r of dominance, Even though s y s t e m 2 would c o r r e l a t e
w i t h a c l e a t s y s t e m , i t i s composed of one t r e n d a l r e a d y used i n s y s t e m 1 and
one t r e n d of t h e t h i r d o r d e r of dominance. Systems 3-5 a r e n o t c o r r e l a t i v e
w i t h a c l e a t s y s t e m and a r e composed of a t l e a s t one t r e n d of t h i r d o r lower
o r d e r of dominance. I n each c a s e where a d i r e c t i o n a l d a t a s y s t e m c o r r e l a t e d
w i t h a c l e a t s y s t e m and was composed of t r e n d s o f t h e f i r s t o r second o r d e r o f
dominance, t h e most dominant t r e n d c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e f a c e c l e a t ,
TABLE 9.

Fundamental s y s t e m s from d i r e c t i o n a l d a t a

Data source

...........................
S u r f a c e j o i n t s ..................

Cleat

Photolinears (infrared
photographs).

P h o t o l i n e a r s (photoindex s h e e t s )

System
System
Degrees o f
separation
No.
1
*N 67" W'
N 28" E l
95
J:N 76" W'
N 17" El
2
93
1
*N57"W1
N 27" E E t
84
*N57"Wr
N 15" E '
2
72
*N57"W1
N 37" E n '
3
94
>kN 76" W'
N 15" E1
4
91
5
N 27" E"
*N 76" W E
103
6
*N34"WrE'
N47"E"
81
1
*N65"WB
N 20" El
85
2
N 79" W'
*N 20" E'
99
3
N 790
i ' : ~ 10
80
N 40" W* I '
*N 20" E f
4
60
5
qq25"wtf
~ 7 5 " ~ " " 100
N 13" WV
i ' : ~ 750 E! 1 "
6
88
1
*N 70" W'
N 27" EB
97
2
*N 70" W'
N 12" E E D D
82
*N 77" E"
N 23" w"'
3
100
*N 44" w"
N 55" E r V
4
99
N go w i V
+CN 770 E"
5
86

'

NOTE. - - S u p e r s c r i p t s i n d i c a t e t h e o r d e r of dominance w i t h i n t h e d i r e c t i o n a l
group ( e a s t o r w e s t ) f o r e a c h d a t a s o u r c e , and an a s t e r i s k i n d i c a t e s
t h e dominant t r e n d o f each system.

The procedure proposed f o r t h e e s t i m a t i o n of c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n i s based

on t h e r e s u l t s of t h e d i r e c t i o n a l d a t a a n a l y s i s summarized above. The p a i r i n g
of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s e t s i n t o a l l r e a s o n a b l e combinations of fundamental s y s tems i s of primary importance i n a n a l y s i s of each type of d i r e c t i o n a l d a t a .
Which system o r systems a r e t o be used t o e s t i m a t e t h e c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n i s
based on t h e r e l a t i v e dominance of t h e s e t s of each system a s determined by
t h e number of r e a d i n g s comprising t h e corresponding peaks on r o s e diagrams. A
system composed of t h e most dominant s e t and a p e r p e n d i c u l a r s e t of t h e f i r s t
o r second o r d e r of dominance w i l l most l i k e l y g i v e t h e b e s t e s t i m a t i o n of
c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n . The most dominant s e t of t h e s e l e c t e d system i s most
likely the face c l e a t direction.
C l e a t systems of s i m i l a r , b u t d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n may be p r e s e n t . Here,
two r e g i o n a l fundamental j o i n t systems were i n f a c t composed of s e t s of t h e
r e q u i r e d o r d e r s of dominance, and c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e observed c l e a t systems.
I n t h e a n a l y s i s of l i n e a r s from i n f r a r e d photographs and l i n e a r s on photoindex
s h e e t s , one system s a t i s f i e d t h e dominancy requirements and was c o r r e l a t i v e
w i t h one c l e a t system, and o t h e r systems were reasonably c o r r e l a t i v e w i t h t h e
remaining c l e a t system. But t h e s e o t h e r systems would be r e j e c t e d because one
component l a c k s t h e n e c e s s a r y r e l a t i v e dominance. The r e j e c t i o n of an e s t i mator f o r t h e second c l e a t system i s n o t d e t r i m e n t a l a s t h e two c l e a t systems
a r e s e p a r a t e d by only about 10". I n a l l c a s e s t h e d i r e c t i o n a l systems n o t
c o r r e l a t i v e w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d c l e a t systems were r e j e c t e d because they d i d n o t
meet t h e dominance requirements,
Rela t i o n s h i p of C l e a t t o S u r f a c e J o i n t s and P h o t o l i n e a r s
Overlying I n d i v i d u a l Mines
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o a l c l e a t s measured i n i n d i v i d u a l mines and t h e
d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s e s t a b l i s h e d by measuring j o i n t s and p h o t o l i n e a r s d i r e c t l y
o v e r l y i n g t h e mines was i n v e s t i g a t e d u t i l i z i n g t h e c r i t e r i a e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e
r e g i o n a l a n a l y s i s . The most dominant d i r e c t i o n a l systems measured w i t h t h e
degrees of d e v i a t i o n from t h e c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s a r e l i s t e d i n t a b l e 10. An
a s t e r i s k i n d i c a t e s t h e most dominant t r e n d of each system. A s with t h e
r e g i o n a l d a t a , s u r f a c e j o i n t s provided t h e b e s t e s t i m a t i o n of c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n . The most dominant s u r f a c e j o i n t system averaged w i t h i n '7.4" of t h e
f a c e c l e a t and '6.6" of t h e b u t t c l e a t . I t was p o s s i b l e t o c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t
t h e f a c e c l e a t d i r e c t i o n f o r 14 of t h e 18 mines u s i n g t h e s u r f a c e j o i n t d a t a .
The p h o t o l i n e a r d a t a were c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s r e l i a b l e , w i t h averages of '23,7"
f o r t h e f a c e c l e a t and k19.4" f o r t h e b u t t c l e a t . The f a c e c l e a t d i r e c t i o n
was c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t e d i n only 7 of t h e 18 mines.
The h i g h degree of divergence observed f o r t h e p h o t o l i n e a r a n a l y s i s i s
p r i m a r i l y t h e r e s u l t of a dominant w e s t e r l y p h o t o l i n e a r t r e n d i n t h e v i c i n i t y
This i s s i m i l a r t o t h e second most dominant *N 25" W"
trend
of N 15"-30" W.
observed on t h e p h o t o l i n e a r composite r o s e diagram ( f i g . 3 2 ) , and t h e
N 34"
t r e n d on t h e s u r f a c e j o i n t composite r o s e diagram ( f i g . 31). I n
s e v e r a l c a s e s t h e second most dominant l o c a l p h o t o l i n e a r system above t h e mine
had an o r i e n t a t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e c l e a t .

w"'

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

No

..............
. ..........
.....

*N 65"
*N 65"
*N 70"
~'cN 62"
*N 66"
*N 68"
*N 68"

Face
cleat

7'cN

73"
70"
7kN 72"
7kN 75"
77"
75"
79"
77"
73"
fcN 80"
*N 78"

...............
.
............
. ........
..............
......... YcN
.......
. ......
.
;kN
............ ;kN
.............. *N
. .......... ;'cN
. .......... *N

Montour 4 ..............
Mathies ................
Westland
Somerset No 60 ........
V e s t a No . 5
Marianna No 58
Gateway ................
Shannopin
Humphrey No . 7
Pursglove No . 15
B l a c k s v i l l e No 1
B l a c k s v i l l e No 2 ......
Osage No . 3
Arkwright
F e d e r a l No 2
Consol No 93
Loveridge
Consol No 20
Average d i v e r g e n c e

Mine

W N 25" E
W N 27" E
W N 25" E
W N 30" E
W N 30" E
W N 28" E
W N 28" E
w N 18O E
W N 27" E
W N 19" E
W N 20" E
W N 17" E
W N 17" E
W N 12" E
W N 17" E
W N 18" E
W N 15" E
W N 12" E

Butt
cleat

N 55" W *N 37" E
*N 60" W N 27" E
fcN 73" W N 23" E
>kN 65" W
N 27" E
fcN 76" W
N 14" E
N 12" E
9cN 72" W
fcN 78" W
N 13" E
i'cN 80" W
N 23" E
N 20" E
7kN 80" W
N 17" E
7kN 78" W
~ c N66" W N 27" E
N 65O W *N 13" E
N 82" W N 17" E
;kN 76" W
N 19" E
;'cN 68" W N 28" E
N 80" W ;'cN 17" E
N 17" E
;kN 75" W
;?N 91" W N 3" E

Surface j o i n t s

Degrees of
Degrees of
divergence. Photolinears
diverpence
West E a s t
West E a s t
12
10
Insufficient data
1
0
fcN 66" W I N 17" E
5
10
Indeterminate
2
3
N
8
2
O
E
5
6
3
N
6
"
W
52
3
16
10
N 53" W *N 27" E 13
3
16
6
N 70" W *N 22" E 2
4
10
N 18" W N 75" E 50
15
47
N 26" W N 71" E 47
5
7
53
10
28
N 27" W N 55" E 43
7
2
N28"W N54OE44
6
35
YcN68" W N 2 4 " E 7
7
4
9
N 17" E 11
YcN 66" W
0
12
4
0
N 51" W N 34" E 24
7
19
3
N59"W*N27"E20
15
7
11 f:N 66" W N 25" E 11
8
9
1
N
21"
E
2
fcN
75"
W
7
3
2
*N57"W N 2 2 O E 2 3
5
7
*N 53" W N 32" E 25
20
9
13
23.7 19.4
6.6
7.4

TABLE 10 . .Coal c l e a t . dominant s u r f a c e j o i n t . and p h o t o l i n e a r

o r i e n t a t i o n s of t h e s t u d y a r e a

Analysis of d i r e c t i o n a l d a t a f o r a l i m i t e d a r e a i s hampered by problems

n o t normally encountered i n a r e g i o n a l approach. S u r f a c e j o i n t measurements
a r e l i m i t e d by t h e number and l o c a t i o n of o u t c r o p s i n t h e a r e a of i n t e r e s t and
a t times by weather c o n d i t i o n s . A s o u t c r o p s become l e s s numerous and f a r t h e r
from t h e a r e a , t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e a n a l y s i s d e c r e a s e s . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ,
p h o t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would perhaps be of b e n e f i t s i n c e i t does n o t r e l y on o u t c r o p s f o r d a t a , nor does i t depend on t h e weather. However, p h o t o a n a l y s i s ,
which depends on t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of q u a l i t y photographs and an experienced
p h o t o i n t e r p r e t e r , i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s r e l i a b l e t h a n f i e l d measurements o f
joints.
Both methods a r e l i m i t e d by t h e small number of d i r e c t i o n a l measurements u s u a l l y o b t a i n a b l e f o r a small a r e a . The fewer t h e d a t a , t h e l e s s
l i k e l y a r e i n d i v i d u a l t r e n d s t o s t a n d out c l e a r l y , and t h i s makes a n a l y s i s
difficult.
Summary of D i r e c t i o n a l Data Analysis
The e s t i m a t i o n of r e g i o n a l underground c l e a t systems i n c o a l by s u r f a c e
j o i n t and p h o t o l i n e a r a n a l y s i s and Ronchi i n s p e c t i o n i s r e l i a b l e w i t h i n t h e
The confidence l e v e l i s l e a s t f o r Ronchi i n s p e c t i o n
established l i m i t s .
r e s u l t s because t h e o r d e r of dominance of Ronchi t r e n d s i s based l a r g e l y on a
v i s u a l impression of image " s t r e n g t h . " S u r f a c e j o i n t a n a l y s i s i s t h e o n l y
technique considered s u f f i c i e n t l y r e l i a b l e t o be used on a l o c a l b a s i s .
RELATIVE COSTS OF CLEAT ESTIMATION BY THE THREE METHODS
OF ANALYSIS OF SURFACE DIRECTIONAL DATA
The r e l a t i v e c o s t s and time requirements f o r t h e t h r e e a n a l y t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s a r e d i s c u s s e d below.
F i e l d Mapping
The mapping of s u r f a c e j o i n t s r e q u i r e s approximately 2 days of f i e l d w o r k
per 7 -112 -minute quadrangle by an experienced two-man team. An a d d i t i o n a l day
i s r e q u i r e d f o r t a b u l a t i o n and a n a l y s i s of d a t a . S a l a r y o r c o n s u l t i n g f e e and
f i e l d expenses f o r such a two-man team would amount t o approximately $650 p e r
7-112 -minute quadrangle. An a r e a of 39 quadrangles, l i k e t h e one i n v e s t i g a t e d
i n t h i s r e p o r t , would r e q u i r e 33 weeks t o e v a l u a t e ( t a b l e 11) f o r a t o t a l c o s t
of $25,350.
TABLE 11.

Time and c o s t requirements f o r measuring j o i n t s

and p h o t o l i n e a r s f o r t h e study a r e a

Me t h od
F i e l d measurement of s u r f a c e j o i n t s
Measuring l i n e a r s from i n f r a r e d
photographs
Measuring l i n e a r s from photoindex
sheets..

...

..........................
.............................

Cost
$25,350

Time, weeks
33

25,460

39

625

I n f r a r e d Photography Analysis
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of i n f r a r e d photographs r e q u i r e s approximately 1 week p e r
7-112-minute quadrangle f o r d e l i n e a t i o n and a n a l y s i s of d i r e c t i o n a l t r e n d s .
Cost i n t h i s c a s e would i n c l u d e $110 f o r i n f r a r e d photo coverage and t h e s a l a r y o r c o n s u l t i n g f e e of an experienced p h o t o i n t e r p r e t e r and would t o t a l
approximately $650 p e r quadrangle. P h o t o l i n e a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a 39quadrangle a r e a would t a k e 39 weeks and would c o s t $25,460.
Ronchi Inspec t i o n of Photo l i n e a r S h e e t s
A s a l r e a d y n o t e d , c l e a t e s t i m a t i o n by Ronchi i n s p e c t i o n of photoindex
s h e e t s i s somewhat l e s s r e l i a b l e t h a n t h e two o t h e r methods, b u t i t i s f a r
l e s s expensive and time consuming. The t o t a l c o s t per 7 -112 -minute quadrangle
i s about $15. This i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a l a r y o r c o n s u l t i n g f e e of a g e o l o g i s t ,
s i n c e c o s t of t h e photoindex s h e e t coverage f o r t h e whole 39-quadrangle a r e a
was o n l y $40. An 8-quadrangle a r e a could be e v a l u a t e d i n 1 day and t h e e n t i r e
39 quadrangles i n 1 week. Cost of t h e 1-week e v a l u a t i o n would be o n l y $625.
Ronchi i n s p e c t i o n i s e s p e c i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e because t h i s r a p i d and i n e x p e n s i v e reconnaissance technique can provide a good i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e of t h e
c l e a t underground f o r subsequent checking by one of t h e two o t h e r methods. I n
a n a r e a of unknown c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n , a combination of two o r perhaps a l l
t h r e e of t h e methods would be advantageous i n t h a t i t would g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e
t h e confidence l e v e l of t h e r e s u l t s .
SUMMARY
The P i t t s b u r g h coalbed i s one of t h e l a r g e s t p o t e n t i a l f u e l r e s o u r c e s i n
t h e world w i t h r e s p e c t t o t o t a l tonnage o f c o a l and t h e a s s o c i a t e d g a s
r e s e r v e s . To a i d i n t h e e f f i c i e n t u t i l i z a t i o n of t h i s d e p o s i t , a s t u d y was
made of t h e southwestern Pennsylvania and n o r t h e r West V i r g i n i a a r e a which i t
u n d e r l i e s . The primary o b j e c t i v e was t o i d e n t i f y g e o l o g i c f a c t o r s t h a t i n t e r f e r e w i t h e f f i c i e n t mining and e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t i n luence g a s
m i g r a t i o n i n t h e coalbed.
For t h i s purpose, a map was prepared of a l l known sandstone bodies t h a t
i n t e r s e c t t h e coalbed. A c o r r e l a t i o n was found between a r e a s of t h i c k e r sands t o n e and t h e occurrence o f sandstone channels c u t t i n g i n t o t h e c o a l . P r e d i c t i o n of sandstone channel t r e n d s i s commonly hindered by t h e l a c k of s u f f i c i e n t s u b s u r f a c e d a t a . Core d r i l l i n g on t h e u s u a l m i l e c e n t e r s may e n t i r e l y
m i s s some of t h e s i n u o u s , narrow sandstone c h a n n e l s .
Clay v e i n s were found and mapped i n e i g h t of t h e mines surveyed and tend
t o be c l u s t e r e d along t h e axes of s y n c l i n e s . Clay v e i n s have been observed
more f r e q u e n t l y n e a r channel sandstone b o d i e s . Clay v e i n s tend t o i n t e r s e c t ,
forming b o x l i k e c e l l s t h a t p r e v e n t g a s m i g r a t i o n . A h o l e d r i l l e d through two
c l a y v e i n s had p r e s s u r e s of 220 and 263 l b / i n ? on t h e v i r g i n s i d e and 0 l b / i n a
on t h e mined s i d e (41). X-ray d i f f r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s of c l a y v e i n m a t e r i a l and
r o o f and f l o o r r o c k i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n t h e mines i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e c l a y m a t e r i a l
was i n j e c t e d a f t e r c o a l i f i c a t i o n from t h e r o o f and n o t from t h e f l o o r .

An i s o p a c h map of t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed was c o n s t r u c t e d from more t h a n

3,000 d a t a p o i n t s . Wherever p o s s i b l e , s t r i p mines were l o c a t e d and mapped.
The coalbed t h i c k n e s s t r e n d s were o r i e n t e d n o r t h e a s t t o southwest, c l o s e l y
p a r a l l e l i n g t h e r e g i o n a l s t r u c t u r e . Areas of t h i c k c o a l (8 f e e t p l u s ) g e n e r a l l y were l o c a t e d near s y n c l i n a l troughs. Some a r e a s of t h i n c o a l ( l e s s t h a n
4 f e e t ) were l o c a t e d near t h e axes of t h e a n t i c l i n e s . S e v e r a l o t h e r a r e a s of
low o r t h i n c o a l had a sinuous p a t t e r n , s u g g e s t i n g a p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n t o
a n c i e n t s t r e a m systems.
A f e n c e diagram was prepared of t h e s t r a t a above t h e P i t t s b u r g h coalbed.
The predominant r o c k t y p e d i r e c t l y above t h e coalbed i s a "draw s l a t e " composed o f t h i n l y bedded, d a r k g r a y t o b l a c k , f i s s i l e carbonaceous s h a l e , c o a l ,
and sandstone, This u n s t a b l e u n i t i s g e n e r a l l y l e s s t h a n 4 f e e t t h i c k b u t may
be a s much a s 12 f e e t t h i c k . I n Monongalia and Marion C o u n t i e s , t h e rock
above t h e draw s l a t e i s u s u a l l y limestone and s h a l e . I n Greene County, limes t o n e predominates i n t h e s o u t h and sandstone i n t h e n o r t h , r e a c h i n g a maximum
t h i c k n e s s of 80 f e e t . I n Washington County t h e r e i s a preponderance of limes t o n e i n t h e southwest, s a n d s t o n e i n t h e south and c e n t e r , and s h a l e i n t h e
north.

A c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between overburden t h i c k n e s s and s t r u c t u r e was

e s t a b l i s h e d i n Pennsylvania.
I n g e n e r a l , t h e coalbed was n e a r e r t o the s u r f a c e along t h e axes of a n t i c l i n e s and deeper along t h e troughs of s y n c l i n e s ,
The overburden t h i c k n e s s ranged from z e r o a t outcrop along t h e e a s t e r n edge of
t h e s t u d y a r e a t o a maximum of 1,500 f e e t i n w e s t e r n Greene and Monongalia
Counties, The r e l a t i o n s h i p was l e s s w e l l developed i n West V i r g i n i a .
C l e a t surveys were completed i n 18 mines o p e r a t i n g i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h
c o a l b e d . Two s i m i l a r , b u t s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t c l e a t system (&N 76" W and
N 17" E , *N 67" W and N 28" E) were e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e a r e a , amounting t o
approximately a 10" clockwise r o t a t i o n from s o u t h t o n o r t h . A s l i g h t c o u n t e r clockwise r o t a t i o n of 4" t o 7" was d e t e c t e d from e a s t t o west. A s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p was apparent between t h e c l e a t o r i e n t a t i o n s and t h e l o c a l and
r e g i o n a l s t r u c t u r e . Face c l e a t s tended t o be p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a x i a l
t r e n d s of f o l d s , and t h e b u t t c l e a t tended t o be p a r a l l e l t o the a x i a l t r e n d s .
The r o t a t i o n observed f o r t h e c l e a t d i r e c t i o n s i n g e n e r a l matches t h e r o t a t i o n
of t h e s t r u c t u r a l t r e n d s .
The need f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e c l e a t systems i n a r e a s of v i r g i n c o a l
prompted t h e measurement and a n a l y s i s of s u r f a c e j o i n t s and t h e a n a l y s i s o f
p h o t o l i n e a r s from i n f r a r e d photographs and photoindex s h e e t s . Although a l l
t h r e e techniques provide r e l i a b l e r e g i o n a l e s t i m a t e s of t h e c l e a t systems,
s u r f a c e j o i n t s provide t h e b e s t e s t i m a t e , e s p e c i a l l y on a l o c a l b a s i s . Ronchi
i n s p e c t i o n of photoindex s h e e t s i s t h e f a s t e s t and c h e a p e s t method, b u t t h e
l e v e l of confidence i s b e t t e r f o r t h e two o t h e r techniques.
T h i s r e p o r t i s a s t u d y of a l a r g e a r e a and t h e problems t h a t may be
encountered i n mining c o a l . The problems t h a t can occur were n o t e d , and pos s i b l e s o l u t i o n s and methods of d e t e c t i o n of t h e t r o u b l e a r e a s a r e o f f e r e d .
The p r o j e c t was implemented because a number of s t u d i e s had been conducted on
i n d i v i d u a l mines i n t h e a r e a and on i n d i v i d u a l quadrangles and s e l e c t e d a r e a s ,

b u t no o v e r a l l g e o l o g i c s t u d y of t h i s important coalbed had been a t t e m p t e d .

E i g h t e e n c o a l mines were s t u d i e d underground, 39 quadrangles were mapped f o r
s u r f a c e j o i n t s and p h o t o l i n e a r s , and more t h a n 3,000 c o r e l o g d e s c r i p t i o n s
were c o l l e c t e d .
I t i s hoped t h a t t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s r e p o r t c a n s e r v e a s a
framework f o r f u t u r e mine p l a n n i n g and o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e P i t t s b u r g h c o a l b e d .
More d e t a i l e d g e o l o g i c s t u d i e s d e a l i n g w i t h s p e c i f i c problems of i n d i v i d u a l
mines c a n be conducted a s o u t l i n e d by McCulloch and Deul (74). Because t h e
methodology developed i n t h i s s t u d y c a n be a p p l i e d t o o t h e r a r e a s , e s p e c i a l l y
where t h e r e w i l l b e more underground c o a l mining, t h i s approach i s recommended
f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n by t h e mining g e o l o g i s t s and e n g i n e e r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r mine
plaming.

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APPENDIX A. --GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Anticline.--A f o l d i n sedimentary r o c k s , convex upward w i t h t h e s i d e s
d i p p i n g away from a common l i n e , o r c r e s t .
Autochthonous.--Describing c o a l t h a t formed i n p l a c e , from t h e c o n s t i t u e n t
p l a n t s t h a t grew, accumulated, and degraded, w i t h o u t t r a n s p o r t .
A x i a l plane.--A p l a n e t h a t i n t e r s e c t s t h e c r e s t o r t h e t r o u g h of a f o l d
i n such a manner t h a t t h e limbs, o r t h e s i d e s of t h e f o l d , a r e more o r l e s s
symmetrically arranged w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o i t .

Axis.--The
plane.

i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e a x i a l plane w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r bedding

Basin of d e p o s i t i o n . --Depression i n which sediments accumulate.

Bedding plane. --A s u r f a c e t h a t v i s i b l y s e p a r a t e s s u c c e s s i v e l a y e r s of
s t r a t i f i e d rock (of t h e same o r d i f f e r e n t l i t h o l o g y ) .
B u t t c l e a t . --A s h o r t , p o o r l y d e f i n e d j o i n t o r c l e a v a g e p l a n e i n a c o a l b e d ,
u s u a l l y o r i e n t e d a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e f a c e c l e a t and t e r m i n a t i n g a g a i n s t i t .
Clay v e i n . --A
form, which f i l l s
following miner's
mud f i l l s , s p a r s ,

body of c l a y , u s u a l l y i n d u c t e d , t a b u l a r t o i r r e g u l a r i n
a f i s s u r e i n a coalbed. Clay v e i n s a r e a l s o known by t h e
terms: Clay d i k e s , c l a y s l i p s , c l a y seams, c l a y c u t o u t s ,
and horsebacks.

Coal c l e a t . --A j o i n t o r s e t of j o i n t s along which t h e c o a l i s f r a c t u r e d .

There a r e u s u a l l y two c l e a t s e t s developed p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o each o t h e r .
(See
b u t t c l e a t and f a c e c l e a t . )
D e t r i t a 1 . - - A p p l i e d t o m a t e r i a l s o c c u r r i n g i n sedimentary rock t h a t were
d e r i v e d from p r e e x i s t i n g igneous, sedimentary, o r metamorphic rocks and have
u s u a l l y been t r a n s p o r t e d from p l a c e of o r i g i n .
Dip.--The a n g l e a t which a s t r a t u m o r any p l a n a r f e a t u r e i s i n c l i n e d from
t h e h o r i z o n t a l . The d i p i s a t a r i g h t a n g l e t o t h e s t r i k e .
Draw s l a t e . - - S o f t s h a l e t h a t occurs above a coalbed and f a i l s r e a d i l y
a f t e r t h e removal of t h e c o a l ( a l s o c a l l e d roof s l a t e ) .
E u s t a t i c . - - A worldwide change i n s e a l e v e l a s opposed t o a r e l a t i v e
change i n s e a l e v e l r e s u l t i n g from l o c a l c o a s t a l subsidence o r e l e v a t i o n .
Extension f r a c t u r e . - - F r a c t u r e s t h a t form p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of a
compressive f o r c e . I n a sence t h e y a r e t e n s i o n f r a c t u r e s .
Face c l e a t . --A w e l l - d e f i n e d j o i n t o r c l e a v a g e p l a n e i n a coalbed.
major s e t of j o i n t s i n a coalbed.

The

Fundamental system ( j o i n t system). --Two s e t s of prominent j o i n t s o r i e n t e d

a t approximately 90" t o each o t h e r .
I n t e r d i s t r i b u t a r y bay. - - R e s t r i c t e d body of shallow, b r a c k i s h o r marine
water l o c a t e d between d i s t r i b u t a r y branches of a r i v e r i n a d e l t a i c d e p o s i t i o n a l system.
Isopach map. --A map t h a t shows t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e i n t e r v a l ( t h i c k n e s s )
between two d e s i g n a t e d s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t s o r horizons o r between any h o r i z o n
and t h e s u r f a c e ; f o r example, a map prepared d i r e c t l y from two s t r u c t u r e contour maps by s u b t r a c t i n g t h e e l e v a t i o n s of t h e lower s u r f a c e from t h o s e of
t h e upper s u r f a c e a t each c o n t r o l p o i n t and drawing new c o n t o u r s .
J o i n t s . - - F r a c t u r e s i n r o c k , g e n e r a l l y more o r l e s s v e r t i c a l o r perpendicu l a r t o bedding, along which no a p p r e c i a b l e movement h a s occurred.
Linear o r lineaments. - - S t r a i g h t o r g e n t l y curved mappable physiographic
f e a t u r e s on t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e .
L i t h o f a c i e s map. --A map based on l i t h o l o g i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s showing v a r i a t i o n i n t h e l i t h o l o g i c makeup of a s e l e c t e d s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t .
The map may
emphasize t h e dominant, average, o r s p e c i f i c l i t h o l o g i c a s p e c t of t h e u n i t ,
and p r o v i d e s information on t h e changing composition o f t h a t u n i t .
Paleos1ope.--The

d i r e c t i o n of i n i t i a l d i p of a former land s u r f a c e .

P e r i d o t i t e dike.--A v e r t i c a l o r n e a r l y v e r t i c a l igneous i n t r u s i o n composed of coarse-grained p l u t o n i c r o c k composed c h i e f l y of o l i v i n e .

Rank of c o a l . --A g e n e r a l i z e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of c o a l s according t o d e g r e e
of metamorphism, o r p r o g r e s s i v e a l t e r a t i o n , i n t h e n a t u r a l s e r i e s from l i g n i t e
t o anthracite.
Release f r a c t u r e s . - - F r a c t u r e s t h a t form p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e major s t r e s s
axes.
These f r a c t u r e s a r e assumed t o have formed when t h e load was removed,
hence t h e i r name.
Rib. --The
-

s i d e w a l l of an o u t s i d e e n t r y i n a c o a l mine.

Rider c o a l . --A t h i n unminable c o a l found c l o s e l y above a t h i c k e r minable

coalbed. Normally only a few inches t h i c k .
Rose diagram. - - C i r c u l a r o r s e m i c i r c u l a r diagram f o r p l o t t i n g t h e f r e quency of measured s t r i k e s ( o r d i p s ) of p l a n a r f e a t u r e s , such a s j o i n t s and
cleats.
Sandstone channel. --A body of sand d e p o s i t e d i n t h e channel of a s t r e a m
o r river.

S e t . --A group of e s s e n t i a l l y p a r a l l e l r e l a t e d p l a n a r f e a t u r e s , such a s

j o i n t s o r dikes or f a u l t s , o r c l a y veins.

Shear f r a c t u r e . --A f r a c t u r e t h a t r e s u l t s from opposed s t r e s s e s which d i s p l a c e one p a r t of a r o c k mass p a s t t h e a d j a c e n t p a r t .

S l i c k e n s i d e . --Polished and s t r i a t e d ( s c r a t c h e d o r grooved) s u r f a c e t h a t
r e s u l t s from f r i c t i o n along a p l a n e . The movement c a n be v e r y s l i g h t .
S p a l l i n g of r i b s o r p i l l a r s . - - T h e breaking o f f of l a y e r s of c o a l p a r a l l e l
t o t h e s u r f a c e of r i b s o r p i l l a r s i n underground mines.
S t r a n d l i n e . - - T h e l i n e o r l e v e l a t which a body of s t a n d i n g w a t e r , such a s
t h e s e a , meets t h e l a n d ; f o r example, t h e s h o r e l i n e .
Strike.--The c o u r s e o r b e a r i n g of t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of an i n c l i n e d bed o r
s t r u c t u r e w i t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l . It i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of d i p .
S t r u c t u r e contour map. --A map t h a t p o r t r a y s by means of l i n e s drawn
through p o i n t s of e q u a l e l e v a t i o n t h e s u b s u r f a c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a s t r a t u m
such a s a coalbed.
S y n c l i n e . --A f o l d i n sedimentary r o c k where t h e s t r a t a d i p inward from
b o t h s i d e s toward t h e a x i s .
Sync1inorium.--A
folds.

broad r e g i o n a l s y n c l i n e on which a r e superimposed minor

Tectonic f o r c e s . --The f o r c e s involved i n deformation of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t ,

r e s u l t i n g i n f o l d i n g and f a u l t i n g .
Washouts.--A channel c u t i n t o o r through a coalbed d u r i n g o r a f t e r i t s
d e p o s i t i o n and g e n e r a l l y f i l l e d w i t h sands tone.
Wild c o a l . - - B r i t t l e

s h a l e i n t e r s t r a t i f i e d with t h i n c o a l b e d s .

APPENDIX B

. - -SURFACE

Quadrangle
T i e r 1:
Avella....
Midway..
Cannonsburg
Bridgeville
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
Tier 2 :
West Middletown..
Washington West..
Washington E a s t . .
Hackett..
Monongahe la.
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
Tier 3 :
Claysville.
Prosperity
Amity
Ellsworth
California
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
County s e p a r a t i o n . .
County d i r e c t i o n a l
mean...............

........
..........
.......

N 7" W

.......

N 7" W
N 7" W

.........
......

N 8" W

.......
........
.............
.........
........

1
N 8" W

......
.....
......
........
.

..............

N 56" W
N 52" W N 74" W

- N
N 60" W
W
11
8
N 21 W N 32" W N 49" W N 56" W N 74" W N 87" W

57" W
53" W
59" W
52" W
N64"W
12
N 57" W

N 26" W

N 20" W N

38"
-

N31W
7
N 20" W N 35" W

N
N
N
N

70"
76"
72"
67"

W
W
W N 82" W
W

N 71" W N 82" W

N 60" W N
N
N
N
N 58" W N

76"
72"
75"
72"
71"
2
5
N 59" W N 73"
3"
3"

N
N
N
N

87"
-

N 49" W

N 32" W
N4"W
N23OWN33"W
N 1" W
N 32" W
3
0
1
N 3" W N 12" W N 23" W N 32" W
5"

W
W
W
W
W

5"

N 6" W N 12" W N 21"

30 W N 33"
30 W N 49" W N 57" W N 73" W N 85" W

T i e r 4:
Windridge
N
Rogersville.
Waynesburg
Mather.. .......... N
Carmichaels.
N
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean.. N
Tier 5 :
New Freeport
Ho lbrook. .........
Garards F o r t .
Oak F o r e s t . .
N
Masont own.
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean.. . N
County s e p a r a t i o n . .
County d i r e c t i o n a l
mean.
N

......

N 12" W
N 12" W

.........
......
........

N 37" W
N 21" W N 32" W

West

.
.
.

2
1 3 1 4
WASHINGTON COUNTY

J O I N T READINGS OF INDIVIDUAL QUADRANGLES

22" W

15" W
17" W
7
18" W

19"
-

26"
-

N 26" W

19" W

1"
19" W

32"
-

37"
-

N 37" W

N 54" W

N 75" W

4
N 30" W
4"

N 4-3" W

N 28" W

N 40" W

6"

61"
61"
64"
56"
8
N 61"
7"
N
N
N
N

W
W
W
W

N 77" W
N 77" W
N 70" W

N 49" W

N 43" W

4
N 51" W
N 58" W
N 57" W

N 28" W

West

2
I
3
GREENE COUNTY

N 74" W
N 77" W

N 81" W

N 75" W

81"
-

3
N 75" W
0"

N 58" W

N 75" W

N 81" W

Quadrangle

1
T i e r 6:
Hundred.
Wadestown..
Blacksville.
Osage
Morgantown North..
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..

..........
.......
......

.............

T i e r 7:
Glover Gap.
Manning t o n .
G r a n t Town..
Morgantown South..
Rivesville..
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..

.......
.......
......
......

Tier 8 :
Wallace
Shinnston..
Fairmont W e s t . . . . .
Fairmont E a s t . .
Gladesville
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..

...........
.......

.......
.......

N
N
N
N

50"
47"
52"
54"

N 12" W

2" W
10
N 7" W
N

N 35" W

N 35" W

N 51" W
East
2
I
3
I 4
I 5
WASHINGTON COUNTY

N
N 17" E N 28" E
N
N 27" E
N
N 19" E
N 37" E
2
1
N 18" E N 28" E N 37" E N

N 19" E
N 17" E

N29"E
N 27" E
N 27" E
2
2
N 18" E N 28" E
N 19" E

N 87" W

N 87" W

84" W
75" W
80" W
84" W

N 68" W

N 68" W

9
N 81" W

N 89" W

N 60" W
N 58" W
N 66" W
5
N 61" W

N 80" W
N 80" W

N 80" W

N 89" W

N
N
N
N

N 37" E N 47" E
N 37" E
N47"E
N 47" E
N 37" E
0
0
N 37" E N 47" E

N33"E
N 27" E N 37" E

6
N 67" W

N 77" W
N 76" W
9
N 80" W

46" E
44" E N 63"
45" E N 63"
N 57"
2
6
45" E N 61"

N 51" W

N81W
N 85" W

N64" W
N 70" W
N 66" W

W
W
W
W

7" W
6
4
7
5" W N 20" W
N 51" W
MARION AND HARRISON COUNTIES

.......
......
.............

N 23" W
N 17" W

3" W

T i e r 1:
Avella
Midway
Cannonsburg
B r idgeville.
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
Tier 2:
West Middletown..
Washington West.. .
Washington E a s t . . .
Hackett..
Monong ahe l a .
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
Tier 3:
Claysville.
N 7" E
Prosperity..
Amity
Ellsworth..
California.
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
N 7" E

.........
......

N 47" W
N 50" W
N 57" W

10
N 51" W
MAR I O N AND MONONGALIA COUNTIES

............
............
.......
......

...

.......

West
2
I 3 I
4
WETZEL AND MONONGALIA COUNTIES

E
E
E
E

N 70" E N 88" E

N 69" E N 89" E
N69"E
1
1
N 69" E N 89" E

N 63" E

N75"E
N 72" E N 89" E

N 47" E
N23"E
N45OEN62"E
6
2
4
3
N 21" E N 30" E N 37" E N 46" E N 63" E N 74" E N 89" E

East
2
I 3 I 4 I 5 I 6 1 7 I 8
WASHINGTON COUNTY --Cont inued
0"
2"
2"
2"
0"
5"
3"
N 7" E N 19" E N 29" E N 37" E N 46" E N 63" E , N 72" E N 89" E
East
1
1
2
1
3
1 4 1 5 I 6
I 7
GREENE COUNTY

Quadrangle

County s e p a r a t i o n . .
County mean..

.......

Tier 4 :
Windridge.
Rogersville
Waynesburg.
Mather.
Carmichaels
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
Tier 5 :
New F r e e p o r t
Garards F o r t . .
Oak F o r e s t . .
Masontown.
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
County s e p a r a t i o n . .
County mean..

........
.......
.......
...........
......
....
......
........

1
N 2" E

Tier 6:
Hundred.
Wadestown.
Blacksville..
Osage
Morgantown North.
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..

..........
........
.....
.............
.

.......

.
.......

Tier 8 :
Wallace.
Shinnston
Fairmont West..
Fairmont E a s t . . . . .
Gladesville.
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..

..........
.........
...
......

N 16" E

5"
N 14"
N 2" E
WETZEL AND

.......

......

N 23" E

N 16"

N 27" E
N 27" E

0
4
N 20" E N 27" E
E
3"
1"
E'
N 22" E N 28" E
MONONGALIA COUNTIES

N 3" E

N I O O E
N 14" E
N 15" E

N 29" E
3
N 28" E

N 18" E
N 22" E

N 7" E

4
N 11" E

N 26" E

N 2" E
N 1" E

N23"E

N I O O E
N 9" E
N 12" E
N 13" E

.......

Tier 7:
Glover Gap..
Manning ton.
Grant Town........
Morgantown South.
Rivesvi l l e .
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean.

N 25" E
N27"E
N 27" E

N 27" E
2
4
5
N 5" E
N 27" E
N 13" E
MARION AND MONONGALIA COUNTIES
I

N 28" E

N 10" E
N 17" E

N 22" E N 37" E
N 17" E
6
7
N 2" E
N 15" E
N 25" E N 37" E
MARION AND HARRISON COUNTIES
N 2" E

N 39" E

N 46" E
N 43" E

N 39" E

N44" E
3
N 44" E

N 37" E
N 37" E
N 37" E

N 80" E

N 82"
N 76"
N78"
6
N 79"

E
E
E
E

N 77" E
N 85" E

N 52" E

0
N 37" E
2"
N 38" E

1
N 53" E
8"
N 49" E

8
N 81" E
2"
N 80" E

N 57" E

N 74" E

N 54" E
N 49" E
8
N 53" E

N 70" E

4
N 72" E

APPENDIX C . --PHOTOLINEAR READINGS OF

INDIVIDUAL QUADRANGLES
Quadrangle

1
T i e r 1:
Avella.
Midway.
Cannonsburg
Bridgeville.
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
Tier 2 :
West Middletown..
Washington West..
Washington E a s t . .
Hackett
Monongahela..
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
Tier 3 :
Claysville.
Prosperity
Amity.
Ellsworth
California.
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
County s e p a r a t i o n . .
County mean..

...........

N 1" W

...........
.......
......

N 1" W

N 3" W

.......
........
............
.........
.......

Tier 4:
Windr i d g e
Roger s v i 1l e
Waynesburg
Mather.
Carmichae 1 s .
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
Tier 5 :
New F r e e p o r t
Holbrook.
Oak F o r e s t . .
Garards F o r t . .
Masontown
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
County s e p a r a t i o n . .
County mean..

.........
.......
........
...........

......

......
.........
......
....
.......
.
.......

2
I 3 I 4
WASHINGTON COUNTY

N
N
N
N

22"
22"
18"
19"
4
N 20"

West

W
W
W
W

38"
-

N 80" W
N 47" W N 64" W N 89" W
N
W
N 69" W
9
5
N 38" W N 47" W N 67" W N 85" W

N88"W
N 62" W
N 67" W N 90" W
N 8" W
N 69" W N 84" W
N 6" W
N 80" W
N 57" W
5
6
0
10
3
7
N 6" W N 10" W N 22" W N 29" W N 42" W N 57" W N 66" W N 86" W

.
.
...........
.....

.
.......

N 10" W N 24" W

N57"W

N 29" W N 43" W
N 23" W
N 40" W
N 18" W

N60W
N 53" W N 67" W
- N 30" W
N 14" W
N 69" W
- N 35" W N 53" W N 69" W N
N 2" W
N 20" W
- N 68" W N
N 20" W
1
0
2
0
9
N 2" W N 14" W N 20" W N 30" W N 36" W N 53" W N 67" W N
4"
2"
1"
5"
6"
10"
1"
N 12" W N 21" W N 30" W-N 39" W N 52" W N 66" W N
N 3"
West
1
1
2
I 3
I 4 I 5 I 6 1
GREENE COUNTY
N13"W

N 20" W

N37"W

--

N 12" W
N 17" W
N 13" W

5
N 14" W

N 2" W

N 4" W
2
N 3" W

N 3" W

N 13" W

N 14" W

N 43" W

N 29" W

N 29" W

N 35" W
N 42" W
N 34" W
9
N 39" W

N 37" W

28"
25"
23"
29"
6
N 26"
3"
N 24"
N
N
N
N

W
W
W
W
W
W

N 43" W
N 47" W

10
N 42" W
1"
N 41" W

53"
-

N 61" W
N 66" W
W

N 54" W
1
N 54" W

53"
-

N 53" W

1"
N 54" W

83"
84"
1
84"
2"
85"

W
W
W
W

N 73" W

N 67" W

6
N 65" W

N 77" W
4
N 75" W

N 77" W

N 60" W
N 62" W
N 69" W
9
N 64" W
1"
N 65" W

N 76" W

1
N 77" W
2"
N 76" W

Quadr ang l e

1
T i e r 6:
Hundred.
Wadestown.
B lacksville
Osage.
Morgantown North.
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..

......
.......

N 6" W

........
.......

Tier 8 :
Wallace.
Shinnston
Fairmont West..
Fairmont E a s t . . . . .
Gladesville..
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..

..........
.........
...
.....

--

--

Tier 1 :
Avella.
Midway
Cannonsburg
B r i d g e v i 1l e
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
Tier 2:
West Middleton
Washington West..
Washington E a s t . .
Hackett
Monongahe l a .
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
Tier 3:
C laysvil l e .
Prosperity.
Amity
Ellsworth.
California..

...........
............
.......
.......

....
.
.
...........
......

.......
.......
.............
........
......

N62"W
N66"W
N 68" W
N 51" W N 63" W N 76" W
N 29" W
- N 72" W
N 29" W
N 4" W
1
6
4
N 18" W N 29" W N 44" W N 51" W N 65" W N 74" W
N 4" W
MARION AND MONONGALIA COUNTIES

..........
........
.......
............
.

Tier 7:
G l w e r Gap..
Manning ton.
GrantTown
Rivesvi l l e .
Morgantown South..
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..

West
2
I 3 I 4 I 5
WETZEL AND MONONGALIA COUNTIES

N l O W

N 28" W

N44"W

N 32" W

N18"W

N 30" W
N 29" W N 43" W

N 11" W
3
5
N
30"
W
N
43"
W
N 4" W - N 11" W .
MARION AND HARRISON COUNTIES

N3"W

N 20" W N 36" W
N 33" W

61"
60"
59"
65"
6
N 61"
N
N
N
N

N 77" W
W
W N 75" W
W N 84" W
W N 85" W
10
W N 80" W

N 50" W
N 76" W
N 53" W N 68" W
N 82" W
N 43" W
N 69" W
N 69" W

N 14" W
N 14" W
N 12" W N 25" W
6
1
2
5
3
3
N 3" W N 13" W N 23" W N 35" W N 43" W N 52" W N 69" W N 79" W
I
East
-

WASHI 'GTON COUNTY

N 19" E
N 15" E

N 13" E

N 13" E

4
N 17" E

N 14" E

N 10" E

- -

--

Quadr ang l e

East
2
1
3
1
4
WASHINGTON COUNTY--Continued
3
4
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
4
N 6" E
N 20" E N 37" E
D i r e c t i o n mean..
1"
1"
County s e p a r a t i o n . .
3"
I N 4' E ( N 13" E 1 N 19" E 1 N 37" E
County mean..
GREEN COUNTY
Tier 4 :
N 50" E
Windridge..
N 3" E
N 24" E
R o g e r s v i l l e ....... N 3" E
N 22" E
Mather..
N 20" E
N 3" E
Carmichaels..
N 8" E
N 44" E
Waynesburg
N 18" E
N 48" E
6
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
6
5
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
N 4" E
N 21" E
N 47" E
Tier 5:
New F r e e p o r t
N 5" E
N 35" E
Holbrook..
N 5" E
N 17" E
N 33" E
Oak F o r e s t . . ......
N 17" E
N 27" E
Garards F o r t . .
N 23" E
N 41" E
Masontown.
N 30" E
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
0
6
8
D i r e c t i o n a l mean.. _ N 5" E
N 19" E
N 31" E N 41" E
1"
County s e p a r a t i o n . .
6"
2"
Countvmean
N5" E
N 20" E
N31 E N44" E
WETZEL AND MONONGALIA COUNTIES
Tier 6:
Hundred,
N 17" E
Wadestown.
N 13" E
Blacksville.
N 24" E
Osage..
N 2" E
N34" E
Morgantown North. .
N 15" E
N 30" E
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
4
4
D i r e c t i o n a l mean.,
N 2" E
N 15" E
N 24" E N 32" E
MARION AND MONONGALIA COUNTIES
T i e r 7:
Glover Gap.
N 17" E
Manning ton.
N 27" E
Grant Town..
N 26" E
Rivesville..
N 3" E
N 41" E
Morgantown S o u t h . .
N 12" E
N 22" E N 33" E
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
5
5
8
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
N 3" E
N 15" E
N 25" E N 37" E
MARION AND HARRISON COUNTIES
Tier 8 :
Wallace. ..........
N 18" E
N 33" E
S h i n n s t o n . . .......
N 26" E
Fairmont West..
N 23" E
Fairmont E a s t . . . . ,
N 22" E N 41" E
Gladesville..
N 13" E
N 40" E
Degrees s e p a r a t i o n
4
8
D i r e c t i o n a l mean..
N 16" E
N 24" E N 38" E

........

......
........
....
........

...
.
.......

.......
..........
.....

N 62" E
N 63" E

.
.........

..........
........
......
...........

.......
.......
......

......

...
.....

1N

4"
63" E

N 73" E

N 70" E

10
N 78" E
0"
N 78" E

N 63" E

N 78" E
N 79" E
6
N 77" E

N 48" E
5"
1 N 51" E

N 89" E

N 89" E

N 60" E
3"
N62" E

N 75" E
N 73" E
N 75" E
9
N 73" E
4"
N 75" E

N 88" E
1"
N89" E

N 58" E
N 49" E

N 68" E
N 74" E

N55" E

N 73" E

N 89" E

9
N 54" E

6
N 72" E

N 88" E

N 64" E

N 60" E

N 88" E

N 87" E

N 75" E
N 67" E

11
N 69" E

N 63" E

N 50" E

N 63" E

N 50" E

N 83" E
N 85" E
2
N 84" E

APPENDIX D. --PRINCIPAL DIRECTION FOR I N D I V I D U A L PHOTOINDEX

SHEETS OF THE STUDY AREA

1
Sheet :
1..
.
Z....
3..
4..
5..
Degrees
separation..
Direct ional
mean.
.

. .. .. . .
......
.. . . ... .
. .... . . .
. .......
.. . ...

West
2

N 7" W N 19"
N 10" W N 24"
N 13" W N 20"
N 9" W N 28"
N 10" W N 27"

.. .... .

. .. . .

Sheet:
1.

.. . ..... .

z*.........

Degrees
separation..
Directional
mean..

. .....

N
N
N
N
N

45"
43"
44"
45"
47"

W
W
W
W
W

N
N
N
N
N

67"
67"
68"
70"
77"

W
W
W
W
W

N
N
N
N
N

23"
23"
18"
17"
12"
11

10

1
E
E
E
E
E

2
N
N
N
N
N

30"
32"
27"
34"
27"

E
E
E
E
E

N 51"
N 52"
N 49"
N 50"
N 53"

E
E
E
E
E

4
N
N
N
N
N

72"
74"
70"
77"
73"

E
E
E
E
E

N 10" W N 24" W N 45" W N 70" W N 19" W N 30" E N 51" E N 73" E

GREENE COUNTY

... . .
. . . . . . ..
..... ... . .

.. .......
. .. .... .

W
W
W
W
W

Sheet:
I...
. . N 7" W N 25"
2..
N 12" W N 23"
3
N 9" W N 20"
4..........
N 5" W N 23"
Degrees
separation..
5
7
Directional
mean.
N 8" W N 23"
Sheet :
1.
2..
Degrees
separation..
Directional
mean.. .

I 3 I 4
WASHINGTON COUNTY

East

N
N

W
W
W
W

N
N
N
N

47"
43"
42"
44"

W
W
W
W

N
N
N
N

68"
70
70"
67"

W
W
W
W

N 14" E N 28"
N 10" E N 24"
N 7" E N 21"
N 12" E N 26"

E
E
E
E

N
N
N
N

58"
56"
57"
53"
5

E
E
E
E

N
N
N
N

81"
75"
77"
82"

E
E
E
E

W N 42" W N 69" W I N 11" E N 25" E I N 56" E N 79" E

MONONGALIA COUNTY

8" W N 20" W N 42" W N 69" W N 5" E N 19" E N 60" E N 79" E

7" W N 23" W N 43" W N 70" W N 10" E N 26" E N 56" E N 81" E
1

8" W N 22" W N 43" W N 70" W N

MARION COUNTY

8" E N 23" E N 58" E N 80" E

N
N

8" W N 28" W N 42" W N 72" W N

7" W N 20" W N 44" W N 73" W N

4" E N 19" E N 57" E N 78" E

7" E N 21" E N 59" E N 77" E

8" W N 24" W I N 43" W N 73" W N

6" E N 20" E N 58" E N 78" E

OVERALL

Degrees
separation
between
counties....
Directional
mean..
..

.. ..

2
N

13

10

9" W N 23" W N 44" W N 70" W N 12" E N 27" E N 55" E N 77" E

IN T.mBU.0 F M I N E S , PGH.%P A. 2 0 7 0 1