Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Abstract
This section includes guidelines for planning and administering soil investigations;
information on foundation design, including shallow and piled foundations, foundations for high-temperature equipment and vibrating machinery; retaining walls;
deadman anchors and anchor bolts; concrete and grouting, and concrete repair.
Abstracts of the Companys computer programs for foundation design are also
given. A detailed design procedure, followed by a design example, is given for
spread footings, cantilever walls, cast-in-place anchor bolts, and deadman anchors.
The section also refers to Company specifications, standard drawings and engineering forms that relate to foundations and concrete work. See also ACI 301-96, in
the specifications section, as well as two design practices, Appendices A and B of
the manual.
The guidelines are written for entry-level engineers or experienced engineers
working outside their discipline or area of expertise.
For design of tank foundations, see the Companys Tank Manual.
Chevron Corporation
Contents
Page
210
Introduction
200-3
211
220
Soil Investigations
221
Introduction
222
223
224
230
Foundations
231
Foundation Types
232
Foundation Design
233
Shallow Foundations
234
235
200-4
200-11
200-1
June 1997
June 1997
236
237
Retaining Walls
238
Deadman Anchors
240
Anchor Bolts
241
242
Post-installed Anchors
250
251
252
Grouting
260
Concrete Repair
200-71
270
200-76
271
272
273
280
281
Specifications
282
Standard Drawings
283
Engineering Forms
290
References
200-52
200-65
200-78
200-79
200-2
Chevron Corporation
210 Introduction
Many engineering structures, such as road pavements, containment berms, embankments, and dams use soil as a construction material. Ultimately, all structures,
regardless of the material of which they are constructed, rest upon the soil. Therefore, the foundation design and settlement behavior of the completed structure
depend on the characteristics of the underlying soil.
Soil mechanics deal with the action of forces on soil masses and involve engineering study to obtain soil properties used in foundations design.
Foundation engineering deals with the application of soil mechanics and the
resulting soil-structure interaction. The foundation engineer must keep in mind that
any foundation must be designed to satisfy two essential requirements:
1.
The foundation must have an adequate factor of safety against ultimate failure.
2.
The foundation settlement under allowable soil bearing pressure must not
exceed the allowable settlement.
Proper design of an adequate but not wasteful foundation requires engineering judgments and evaluations of:
Chevron Corporation
200-3
June 1997
designs for Square Footings for Individual Columns, Pile Caps for Individual
Columns, Drilled Pier (Caisson) Foundations, and Cantilevered Retaining Walls.
Uniform Building Code (UBC). UBC is published by the International Conference
of Building Officials (ICBO) and is a comprehensive code on building construction. This code provides minimum standards for the design, construction, quality of
materials, use and occupancy, and location and maintenance of all buildings and
structures.
Local Governing Codes. Local governing codes supplement national codes. You
are responsible to ensure that your designs, drawings, specifications, and construction practices comply with local governing codes before final design.
Saving money by decreasing the overall cost of the project either in construction or in maintenance over the life of the project.
2.
Soil engineering provides a basis for comparative cost studies and behavior for
different types of foundations, and for other soil aspects of design and construction.
It is possible to effect cost savings through comprehensive analysis, but the costs of
soil engineering must be carefully weighed against the expected savings in the cost
of foundation construction. Use existing data for adding on buildings in existing
plants wherever possible.
June 1997
200-4
Chevron Corporation
outline the complete investigative program. However, good planning will produce a
more efficient program and more effective results.
Post-Construction Consultations
This phase includes observations of settlement and analyzing structure behavior
characteristics. Such studies may reduce costs or improve behavior of future additions to the project.
Chevron Corporation
1.
Site Exploration
2.
3.
200-5
June 1997
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
June 1997
b.
Permeability
c.
Consolidation
d.
e.
Compaction
b.
c.
Plate bearing
d.
Settlement Analysis
a.
b.
Total settlement
c.
Differential settlement
d.
e.
Allowable settlement
f.
g.
Stability Analysis
a.
Natural slopes
b.
Embankments
c.
Foundations
d.
Seepage analysis
b.
Seepage control
c.
Dewatering
200-6
Chevron Corporation
9.
Compaction
a.
Embankments
b.
Earth dikes
c.
d.
Slope protection
Spread foundations
b.
Mat foundations
c.
Caissons
d.
b.
c.
Sheet piles
d.
Braced cuts
Concrete pipes
b.
Steel pipes
c.
Culverts
d.
Tunnels
e.
Electrical conduits
b.
Chevron Corporation
200-7
June 1997
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Evaluation of criteria for control of pile-driving operations, with provisions for adapting to possible variations in subsurface condition
j.
k.
l.
June 1997
1.
2.
200-8
Chevron Corporation
3.
Review the Companys Construction Contracts and Services Manual for procedures
on bidding, negotiating, and authorizing professional services contracts.
For large projects in areas where little or no previous soil investigation work has
been performed, competitive bidding for the soil investigation and engineering is
recommended. In order to prepare a proposal for a soil investigation program, the
consultants will need to know the major facilities that are considered.
For work in areas where significant soil investigation work has been done, it is often
beneficial to retain the services of the consultant who performed the previous work.
This can frequently be done by negotiating a contract or supplementing an existing
contract with the consultant.
Contact the Civil/Structural team in CRTC for information on soil consultants with
whom the Company has had prior satisfactory experience.
Chevron Corporation
200-9
June 1997
2.
3.
4.
5.
A draft soil report should be reviewed with the consultant before issuing the final
report to ensure that all questions have been satisfactorily covered in the report.
During the course of all phases of a soil investigation program (field, lab, and
office), a continuing review between you and the soil consultant of results to date,
current status of work, outlook for completions, and preliminary conclusions will
help ensure that the results are adequate and timely.
June 1997
200-10
Chevron Corporation
Field Costs
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.
3.
4.
5.
During the course of the work, the soil consultant should keep you currently advised
of expenditures, preferably through weekly reports. Further authorization is usually
needed if the final expenditures exceed those previously authorized.
230 Foundations
This section of the manual presents design guidelines and discusses other considerations for commonly used foundations.
Shallow Foundations
Shallow foundations transfer superstructure loads to the soil directly underneath the
foundation. Shallow foundations are categorized as spread footings or wall footings. Spread footings are the most commonly used type of foundation because they
are usually more economical than other types. From a design point of view they are
classified as spread footings, combined footings and mat foundations. The choice
among these types depends primarily upon the relative cost.
Spread Footings. A spread footing supports one column or one piece of equipment. Spread footings can be square, rectangular, circular, or octagonal in shape. A
pedestal is often used with spread footings in order to reduce the thickness of the
footing and to develop the full strength of dowels or anchor bolts. Examples of
spread footings are shown in Figure 200-1. Design of spread footings is discussed
in Section 233 of this manual.
Combined Footings. Combined footings are used to support two or more column
loads in a row or when two or more spread footings would overlap. A combined
Chevron Corporation
200-11
June 1997
Fig. 200-1
Spread Footings
Deep Foundations
Pile Foundations are the most common deep foundations. Piles can be made of
timber, concrete, steel, and combinations of each to transmit surface loads to firm
strata at greater depths. Figure 200-4 shows the usual types of piles and the
June 1997
200-12
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 200-2
optimum load and length range. Further discussion of pile foundation types, materials, and design is continued in Section 234 of this manual.
Retaining Walls. Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability for earth or
other materials where conditions prevent the soil or material mass from assuming its
natural slope. The different types of retaining walls are shown in Figure 200-5.
Gravity Walls. Gravity walls are plain concrete walls with no tensile stresses on
any portion of the wall. The gravity wall depends upon its own weight for stability.
Because of the large volume of concrete required they are not very economical for
high walls.
Semigravity Walls. Semigravity walls use small amounts of reinforcing steel in
order to reduce the volume of concrete. Like gravity walls they are not very
economical for high walls.
Cantilever Walls. Cantilever walls are the most common type used. They are made
of reinforced concrete. They are suitable and economical for moderate heights (2025 feet). A key may sometimes be required to prevent sliding.
Chevron Corporation
200-13
June 1997
Fig. 200-3
Mat Foundations
Fig. 200-5
June 1997
Fig. 200-4
Pile Foundations
Retaining Walls
200-14
Chevron Corporation
Counterfort Walls. Counterfort walls are also made of reinforced concrete. Both
the base slab and wall span horizontally between vertical brackets known as counterforts. This type of wall is suitable for retaining high fills (greater than 20 feet).
Sheet Piling Walls. Sheet piling walls are commonly used for large and small
marine structures and also for slope stability and erosion control. The two common
types of sheetpiling walls are cantilevered sheetpiling and anchored sheetpiling.
Braced sheetpiling is also shown in Figure 200-6.
Fig. 200-6
Proprietary Walls. Proprietary walls can be very economical in certain applications. The most widely used are prefabricated steel crib walls and reinforced earth
walls. Reinforced earth walls have precast concrete wall panels with clips for
connecting steel ties which extend into the retained earth behind the wall. Reinforced earth walls have been used to retain fills as high as 50 feet. Crib walls are
suitable for fills to 20 feet high.
Chevron Corporation
200-15
June 1997
Assemble Design Aids. Assemble all pertinent reference materials that are needed
to assist you in the foundation design. These materials include:
Establish Design And Loading Criteria. That is, define the following:
Make Preliminary Calculations And Estimates. Make preliminary, but conservative calculations and estimates of structure or equipment weights, forces, and/or
moments that will act on the foundation. It is important to use the best available data
at this stage. If your estimates are more accurate, future revisions may be reduced or
not required.
Select Foundation Type. Using the design aids and loading criteria assembled,
select the type of foundation to be used. The soil report will commonly provide
recommendations on foundation types for large or special structures and foundations. The extent of these recommendations depends upon the scope of services
requested from the soil consultant.
Wherever possible, use a conventional spread footing, provided a reasonably sized
footing can adequately transfer the foundation loads to the soil without overloading
the soil or resulting in excessive settlement. Spread footings are commonly used and
are generally considered the most economical choice of foundation. If the loads
cannot be supported by a spread footing or expected settlements will exceed allowable values, then deep foundation such as piles should be considered to transfer the
loads to deeper soil.
At this stage, consideration should be given to the configuration and size of the
foundation. In many cases, it is advantageous to combine two spread footings in
order to reduce construction costs.
Establish Schedule. The schedule is often an important consideration in the design
of foundations or underground structures. For the majority of projects, the foundation construction follows closely after the site preparation work, and the foundation
design must be as complete as possible before all of the design information is available.
June 1997
200-16
Chevron Corporation
Design Considerations
Bearing Capacity. Allowable bearing capacity recommendations will be developed during the soil investigation. The soil report will include soil bearing capacity
values for the project site with appropriate factors of safety for the anticipated
loading conditions. Use old reports for existing plants.
In the absence of recommendations for allowable bearing capacities, 1991 Uniform
Building Code Table No. 29-B which gives allowable soil pressures for different
soil types may be used for preliminary design or final design for projects involving
only one or two small foundations supporting static loads.
Foundation Settlements. Settlement is often a controlling factor in the design of
any foundation, and particularly, spread footings. The soil report should discuss estimates of the expected settlement for different foundation types and major facilities
in the project area. Foundation recommendations to minimize settlement should also
be included.
Chevron Corporation
200-17
June 1997
Differential foundation settlements are usually more critical than the settlement of
individual foundations. Special consideration must be given to the settlement of critical structures or equipment which could impose excessive stresses on other structures, connections, and piping. Differential settlement should be limited to 0.5-0.75
inches whenever possible. For adjacent equipment, foundations should be combined
or tied together to avoid differential settlement.
Factors of Safety. The soil report will recommend appropriate factors of safety for
spread footing design. Following are recommended minimum factors of safety
against ultimate bearing capacity failure.
In some instances, lower factors of safety may be justified based on a thorough soil
investigation, sound engineering principles and type of soil.
Other Considerations
The depth of shallow foundations should be selected so that the bottom of the foundation is placed below:
Frost line
Topsoil or other organic material
Unconsolidated fill material
Footing Size
1.
Calculate the applied vertical load, P, shear, V, and moment, M, at the top of
footing or top of pedestal, whichever applies. The loads are due to one or a
combination of the following.
June 1997
Dead load
Live load
Wind load
200-18
Chevron Corporation
Thermal forces
Seismic forces
Equipment loads (operating, hydrotest) and associated piping
2.
Choose the minimum depth of footing, D, below grade and the height of the
pedestal, h, above grade. The bottom of footing should be below the frost line
and should bear on soil with adequate bearing capacity. The top of the pedestal
is normally six (6) to twelve (12) inches above grade to protect the anchor bolts
from moisture, dirt, or debris.
3.
Translate the loads from top of footing or pedestal to bottom of footing. Vertical
load, P, and shear, V, remain the same but the moment at the footing bottom,
Mb, increases by the product of shear, V, times distance (D+h). See
Figure 200-7.
Mb = M + V ( D + h )
(Eq. 200-1)
4.
Estimate the plan dimensions of footing (L,B) based on the allowable soil
bearing qa, vertical load P, and moment Mb, but first transform the load P and
moment Mb to a new location at an eccentricity, e = Mb/P, from footing centerline. The footing plan dimensions (L,B) are estimated with the aid of the soil
pressure distribution as shown in Figure 200-8. For equilibrium, the summation of forces in the vertical direction must equal zero. Use a trial and error
process in estimating footing plan dimensions (L,B). Select the larger initial
dimensions based on a) maximum vertical load and allowable soil bearing pressure, and b) maximum vertical load with overturning moment and maximum
soil bearing pressure allowed for wind and earthquake load conditions.
a.
b.
5.
Chevron Corporation
200-19
June 1997
Fig. 200-7
Fig. 200-8
V c = 2 f c ( 12t )
(Eq. 200-4)
June 1997
200-20
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 200-9
6.
L =
qa =
fc =
Compute the weight, Wt , of footing, pedestal, and of the soil over the footing.
The unit weight of normal weight reinforced concrete is 150 pcf. The unit
weight, , of soil will be given in the soils report. However, if not given, use
100 pcf. Be sure to use consistent units for the variables in the following equations and the submerged weights if the water table is above the bottom of the
footing (from Figure 200-7, Footing Force Translation.)
a.
Rectangular pedestal
W t = [ BLt + ( D + h t )ab ]150 + ( BL ab ) ( D t )
(Eq. 200-5)
b.
Round pedestal
W t = [ BLt + ( D + h t )r 2 ]150 + ( BL r 2 ) ( D t )
(Eq. 200-6)
7.
Chevron Corporation
Calculate the factor of safety against overturning. The applied load P plus the
footing, pedestal and soil weight, Wt, should provide a minimum factor of
safety (F.S.) against overturning of 1.5. The factor of safety is often called
stability ratio (S.R.). The stability ratio equals Resisting Moment (Mr) divided
200-21
June 1997
Mo = M b
S.R. = M r M o 1.5
For combined footings, the resisting and overturning moments are determined
by considering the loads from all columns.
8.
q min = ( P + W t ) A 6M o BL 2
(Eq. 200-10)
where:
A = plan area of footing = BL
I = moment of inertia of plan area of footing about the overturning
axis = BL3/12
P = applied vertical load
Wt = weight of footing plus pedestal plus weight of soil over the
footing
Case II
June 1997
200-22
Chevron Corporation
e>L6
q max = 2 ( P + W t ) [ 3B ( L 2 e ) ] q a
(Eq. 200-11)
q min = 0
(Eq. 200-12)
Figure 200-10 illustrates the soil bearing pressure distribution for the two ranges of
eccentricity e.
Fig. 200-10 Soil Bearing Pressure Distribution
In determining soil bearing pressure, first determine the gross soil pressure using the
full weight of the concrete and soil above the footing. Then determine the net soil
pressure by subtracting the weight of the soil above the base of the footing. The unit
weight of soil will be given in the soils report. However, if it is not given use 100
pcf.
9.
Chevron Corporation
When the plan dimensions of the footing have been established the footing
concrete design can proceed. The concrete design should be based on ACI 318.
200-23
June 1997
For this purpose the loads must be factored as prescribed in Section 9.2 of ACI
318-89.
Case I
D+L
Pu or Mu = 1.4D + 1.7L
Case II
D+L+W
Pu or Mu = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W)
Case III
D+W
Pu or Mu = 0.9D + 1.3W
Case IV
D+L+E
Pu or Mu = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.87E)
Case V
D+E
Pu or Mu = 0.9D + 1.43E
where:
Pu =
Mu =
D =
L =
W =
E =
Note Cases III and V are intended primarily for stability against overturning of
the super- structure. Do not use Case V where the live load, L, is a substantial part
of the total load used in computing seismic load, E.
June 1997
2.
Calculate the soil bearing pressures using the factored vertical loads and or
moments, and the equations in step 8 of Spread Footing Design Procedure,
Footing Size above. Sketch the factored soil bearing pressures in the manner
outlined in Figure 200-10.
3.
Determine the maximum factored applied vertical load, Pu, at top of footing
and the maximum footing shear and moment due to the factored soil pressure.
200-24
Chevron Corporation
The load, Pu, is used in the design of the footing for punching shear. The
footing must be designed to resist shear and bending at the critical sections
illustrated in Figure 200-11. Figure 200-12 shows the free body diagrams for
beam shear and moment.
Fig. 200-11 Critical Sections for Shear and Moment
That is, the shear, Vu, is obtained from trapezoidal soil bearing distribution.
Mu = qum(L/2 - a/2)2B/2 + (quo - qum)(L/2 - a/2)2 B/3
(Eq. 200-15)
Chevron Corporation
200-25
June 1997
That is, the moment, Mu, is composed of rectangular and triangular soil bearing
distributions.
June 1997
200-26
Chevron Corporation
4.
Check the preliminary footing thickness, t, to resist punching shear and beam
shear at the critical sections without shear reinforcement as shown in
Figure 200-11.
a.
s d
--------- + 2 f c b o d
bo
Pu
4 f c b o d V u = -----
(Eq. 200-17)
b.
where:
s = 40 for interior columns, 30 for edge columns, 20 for corner
columns, i.e., critical sections with 4, 3, or 2 sides respectively
c = ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction
area.
1) rectangular pedestal c = a/b
2) round pedestal c = 1
bo = perimeter of critical section for punching shear
1) rectangular pedestal
bo = 2 (a + b + 2d), in.
2) round pedestal bo = (2r + d), in.
bw = footing width for beam shear, in
fc = 28-day compressive concrete strength, psi
d = distance from edge of footing (compression fiber) to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in.
Vu = shear force at critical section due to factored soil pressure
Pu = factored applied vertical load at top of pedestal
= strength reduction factor for shear (0.85)
5.
Chevron Corporation
Design the footing to resist the bending moment due to the soil pressure
resulting from factored loads. Figure 200-13 lists reinforcing steel bar properties.
200-27
June 1997
Case I
Footing thickness known, amount of reinforcing steel to be determined.
Use minimum footing, d, required for punching shear or beam shear, whichever is greater. Footing thickness may also be limited by underground obstructions or other considerations.
f c M u
f c
f c 2
(Eq. 200-19)
where:
= ratio of tension reinforcement =As/bd
As = area of tension reinforcement, in.2
b = width of footing at critical section for moment, in.
fy = yield strength of reinforcing steel, 60,000 psi
Mu = moment due to soil pressure resulting from factored loads, lb-in.
= strength reduction factor for flexure (0.9)
min = 200/fy
optimum 0.015
Nominal Diameter, in
Weight lb/ft
#3
0.375
0.376
0.11
#4
0.500
0.668
0.20
#5
0.625
1.043
0.31
#6
0.75
1.502
0.44
#7
0.875
2.044
0.60
#8
1.000
2.670
0.79
#9
1.128
3.400
1.00
#10
1.270
4.303
1.27
#11
1.410
5.313
1.56
#14(1)
1.693
7.65
2.25
#18(1)
2.257
13.60
4.00
(1) #14 and #18 bars are used primarily as column reinforcement and are rarely used in beams.
June 1997
200-28
Chevron Corporation
Case II
Amount of reinforcing steel is given or assumed; footing thickness to be determined.
This situation may occur where footing thickness is not restricted but it is desirable to limit the amount of reinforcing steel by limiting the reinforcement ratio
r to a value near the minimum. The minimum footing thickness should be 10
inches.
d =
Mu
f
f c
(Eq. 200-20)
6.
A ts,
50 k
Operating
75 k
Seismic
5k
Horizontal (shear), V
Dead
3k
Operating
2k
Seismic
25 k
Moment, M
Dead
15 k-ft
Operating
10 k-ft
Seismic
Chevron Corporation
250 k-ft
200-29
June 1997
b.
Material
Concrete, fc = 3,000 psi
Reinf. steel, fy = 60,000 psi
Soil - firm sand
Unit weight, = 110 lb/ft3
Gross allowable bearing, qga = 4500 psf.
With 1/3 increase for wind or earthquake
loading, qga = 6000 psf.
Net allowable bearing, qna , equals 4500 minus 110D. With 1/3
increase for wind or earthquake loading, qna = 6,000 - 146.67D.
c.
2.
Water table
10 ft. below grade
3.
June 1997
Translate loads to bottom of footing using Figure 200-15 and the values below:
P
= 3D + 2op + 25E = 30 k
200-30
Chevron Corporation
Mb
b.
= (14.45/B + 3.27) 2
= 28.9/B + 6.54
Chevron Corporation
200-31
June 1997
6.
7.
8.
Calculate gross and net soil pressures using the values above and
Figure 200-16.
a.
Gross pressure
e
Net pressure
qna
Wnet = Wt - LBD
= 34,432 - 11 x 6 x 4 x 110
= 5,392 lb
e
= 425/(130 + 5.39)
= 3.14 ft. > L/6 = 1.83 ft.
June 1997
200-32
Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation
200-33
June 1997
Factored loads
By inspection it is obvious that loading Case IV controls, i.e. D + L + E
Pu or Mu = 0.75 (1.4D + 1.7L + 1.87E)
Pu = 0.75 [1.4(D + Wt) + 1.7L + 1.87E]
= 0.75 [1.4(50 + 37.5) + 1.7 x 75 + 1.87 x 5]
= 194.5 k
Mu = 0.75(1.4 x 30 + 1.7 x 20 + 1.87 x 375)
= 582.9 k-ft
2.
= Mu/Pu = 582.9/194.5
= 3 ft. > L/6 = 12/6 = 2 ft.
FTG
3.0
3.0
GRADE
194.5
7.2 ksf
3x3.0= 9.0
3.0
12
3.
June 1997
Determine maximum factored applied vertical load, Pu, at the top of the footing
and maximum footing shear and moment (see Figures 200-18 and 200-19).
200-34
Chevron Corporation
FTG
1.542
a/2
3.58
GRADE
7.2 ksf
q
uv
5.42
9.0
At top of pedestal
Pu
a/2
= (5.42/9.0)7.2
= 4.34 ksf
Vu
a/2
= 0.875 ft.
= (3.875/9.0)7.2
= 3.1 ksf
Mu
Chevron Corporation
200-35
June 1997
4.
Check preliminary footing thickness for punching and beam shear without
shear reinforcement.
a.
Punching Shear
Pu = 155.1 k
c = a/b = 1.75/1.33 = 1.32 < 2
s d
( 40 ) ( 18.5 )
--------- = --------------------------------------------------- = 5>2
bo
2 ( 21 + 16 + 2 18.5 )
V c = 4 f c b o d
= 4 3000 ( 18.5 ) ( b o = 2 [ 21 + 16 + 2 ( 18.5 ) ] )
= 4 3000 ( 18.5 ) ( 148 in. ) = 599 ,900 lb
Pu
155.1
V u = ------ = ------------
0.85
= 182.5k < V c = 599.9k
The result is okay.
b.
Beam shear
V c = 2 f c b w d
= 2 3 ,000 6 12 18.5
= 145 ,900 lb
V u = 123.9 0.85
= 145.8 k < 145.9 k
June 1997
200-36
Chevron Corporation
Mu = 459.7 k-ft
Case I - (t = 22"), d =
18.5"
1
f c
f c 2 1.7f c M u --2 = 0.85 ------ 0.85 ------ ---------------------2
fy
fy
f y bd 2
1--2
(
1.7
)
(
3
)
(
459.7
)
(
12
)
3
3
200
= 0.00437 > min = --------------- = 0.0033
60000
Area of steel, As = bd
= 0.00437 x 12 x 18.5
= 0.97 in2/ft
Choose #8 bars
Cross-sectional area = 0.79 in2 from Figure 200-13
Space bars at 0.79 x 12/0.97 = 9.77 in., say 10 inches o.c.
Therefore, a 22-inch thick footing is okay.
6.
Types of Piles
Load-bearing piles generally can be grouped into two categories; end-bearing piles
and friction piles.
End-bearing piles are those where loads are transmitted to the soil through the
surface area at the pile tip. Piles that are driven to bedrock are included in this category.
Friction piles transfer the foundation loads to the soil through shear on the surface
area along the length of the pile.
Chevron Corporation
200-37
June 1997
Depending upon the soil conditions at the site, end-bearing piles can develop additional capacity from friction and friction piles can develop added capacity from endbearing.
Pile Materials
Piles are available in different materials. Figure 200-4 illustrates the different types
and configurations of piles. The most common are:
Timber. Timber piles are cut from tree trunks and driven with the small end
down.
Concrete. Concrete piles are generally available in two types, (1) precast,
prestressed or nonprestressed and (2) cast-in-place.
Steel. Steel piles can come in a variety of shapes. The most common are pipe,
pipe filled with concrete, and steel HP-shapes.
Timber Piles
Advantages. Timber piles are generally readily available on short notice, are
economical and easy to handle, and their lengths can be easily altered or cut, and
permanently submerged piles are resistant to decay.
Disadvantages. Timber piles are difficult to obtain in long lengths: typical
maximum economic lengths are 60 feet. They are difficult if not impossible to
splice satisfactorily and hard to drive into or through hard formations because of
brooming of the fibers at the pile tip. Consequently, they are not suitable for end
bearing under heavy loads. Timber piles have shorter life than other materials unless
they are treated with wood preservative.
June 1997
200-38
Chevron Corporation
bled at the job site. Excess reinforcement to resist the handling and driving stresses
encountered with precast piles is eliminated and it is relatively easy and inexpensive to install additional piles.
Disadvantages. Very low tensile strength. If concrete not reinforced or under-reinforced, slight movement of the earth or uplift on the pile may cause breakage or
failure.
Steel Piles
Advantages. Non-displacement (open-ended pipe or HP-piles) steel piles are generally considered best for driving through debris or boulder fields. Steel piles are
easily spliced due to their weldability. Large diameter pipe and HP-piles, because of
their high strength, can be driven to depths in excess of 200 feet.
Disadvantages. Susceptible to corrosion unless protected by protective coating or
cathodic protection where oxygen or acids are present in the ground.
The bearing capacity of the near-surface soils for the anticipated loads is inadequate.
2.
The soils report should provide recommendations of the foundation type for specific
items or pieces of equipment.
Chevron Corporation
200-39
June 1997
Possible variations in depth to the supporting soil (soil borings will help determine this). Concrete piles could be expensive if different lengths are required.
Durability required
It is not practical to make specific rules for the selection of pile type as the above
factors may occur in many combinations.
Pile Capacity
The geotechnical consultants soils report will provide recommendations for type of
pile, pile length, and pile capacity for both single pile and pile group.
The soils report will provide pile capacity curves for recommended types and sizes
of piles for the given site soil conditions. Capacity curves can be prepared for
compressive, tensile (uplift), and lateral loads on the piles. Typical pile capacity
curves are shown in Figure 200-21.
Compression. Compression capacity for friction piles increases with depth and
outer surface area of piles. Maximum capacity is not developed until a certain depth
is reached. Cohesive soils can create downdrag, or negative friction, which throws
additional load on the pile thus decreasing pile capacity.
Tension (Uplift). Uplift capacity for friction piles increases with increasing depth
and with outer surface area.
Lateral. Lateral capacity is limited by pile stresses or deflection of pile top which in
turn depend on the section modulus of the pile section. Deflection of pile top
depends on whether the pile is free to rotate (hinged) at the pile cap or restrained
(fixed).
Factors of Safety
Pile capacity curves are usually prepared with built-in factors of safety recommended by the soils consultant. In the absence of recommendations the following
factors of safety against the ultimate pile capacity are recommended for different
loading conditions.
Axial compression loads:
Minimum factor of safety of 2.0 (dead load plus operating load)
Axial tension (uplift) loads:
Minimum factor of safety of 3.0 (static loads)
Minimum factor of safety of 1.5 (short duration loads)
June 1997
200-40
Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation
200-41
June 1997
Concrete Slabs
Concrete shows a considerable loss in strength at high temperatures. It will lose
40% of its modulus of elasticity when heated to 500F. Therefore, floors of furnaces
at grade and slabs supporting hot tanks or stacks must be insulated or ventilated to
prevent excessively high temperatures in concrete foundations. For temperatures up
to about 400F, high quality ordinary concrete should be adequate. If the concrete is
exposed to higher temperatures, the above special design considerations are
required.
Timber Piles
If the foundation slab must be pile-supported, as is common at many refinery locations, the additional problem of overheating wood piles must be considered. Wood
will char if exposed to temperatures above 150F for prolonged periods. The
resulting damage to the timber piles may cause failure of the foundation.
Examples
June 1997
Piling under crude unit furnaces F-1 and F-2 at Salt Lake showed severe charring and reduction of cross-section at the butts as well as signs of delignification. This caused loads from the slab to be transmitted directly to the ground
and resulted in soil settlements up to 4-1/2 inches.
A similar problem developed with a pile-supported stack foundation at Richmond after several years, resulting in settling and tipping of the stack.
200-42
Chevron Corporation
Design Recommendations
Special consideration must be given to all pile supported furnaces, stacks and tanks
where the foundations may be subjected to temperatures above 150F. The
following alternatives should be considered:
Where soil conditions permit, use a mat foundation to avoid the use of piles.
a.
For small diameter tanks (i.e., diameters less than 30 feet) or stacks and
furnaces with similar areas, composite piles with 10 to 12 foot followers
may be used. The limiting area may be increased if it can be demonstrated
(through soil studies, heat transfer calculations, field measurements, experience, etc.) that timber piles will not be subjected to temperatures above
150F.
b.
For hot foundations with large areas, use only steel or concrete piles.
Timber piles should not be used under large hot tanks.
Avoid direct contact of piles with concrete when the temperature is greater than
400F.
Design Considerations
Several special design considerations should be given to the design of foundations
for vibrating machinery to improve the dynamic behavior of the foundation. Some
of the more important factors are:
Chevron Corporation
Use as large a foundation-soil contact area as practical, but the soil bearing
pressure should not exceed 50 percent of the allowable soil bearing for static
loads. For piled foundations, no reduction in allowable pile capacity is required.
200-43
June 1997
Size the foundation block to minimize the mass moment of inertia of the
machine-foundation system about a horizontal axis through the centroid of the
soil contact area. This can be accomplished by using minimum pedestal height.
Foundations for vibrating machinery should be independent of adjacent foundations and buildings.
June 1997
a.
b.
c.
Compute the dynamic parameters for each pedestal as if they were not
connected by a common mat.
200-44
Chevron Corporation
Proportion the foundation to limit the allowable amplitude of vibration for any
point on the foundation to the smaller of the maximum value specified by the
machine manufacturer or that allowed by Appendix A of the manual.
For smaller machinery not subject to severe vibration, the following guidelines can
be used to select the foundation size:
Width of the foundation should exceed the width of the machine base by 12
inches.
Length of the foundation should exceed the length of the machine base by 12
inches.
Foundation depth should be selected to provide foundation weight not less than
4 times the machine weight including machine skid.
For detailed design, please refer to Appendix A of this manual, Design of Foundations for Vibrating Machinery.
Gravity
Semigravity
Cantilever
Counterfort
Proprietary
(not illustrated)
Chevron Corporation
200-45
June 1997
June 1997
200-46
Cohesive Soils
Cohesionless Soils
100 - 115
115 - 135
0 - 20
28 - 34
200 - 2000
Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Calculate moments about the toe of the retaining wall of the vertical forces and
the active soil pressure.
6.
Calculate the location and eccentricity of the vertical force resultant on the
base. If the eccentricity, e, of the vertical force is less than B/6, the pressure
distribution is trapezoidal. If e is greater than B/6, the pressure distribution is
triangular.
7.
Calculate the maximum (at the toe) and minimum (at the heel) soil pressures
acting on the base of the foundation. To calculate these pressures take moments
of the vertical forces and active soil pressure about the toe of the retaining wall.
The maximum pressure should not exceed the allowable soil bearing pressure.
200-47
June 1997
8.
Check stability of the retaining wall about the toe against overturning. The
factor of safety against overturning should be a minimum of 1.5 for cohesionless soils and 2.0 for cohesive soils.
9.
b.
Coefficient of friction between the base and the soil. The coefficient can be
taken as 0.55 for sands and gravels, 0.45 for silty sands and gravels, and
0.35 for silt.
c.
The factor of safety against sliding should also be a minimum of 1.5 for cohesionless soils and 2.0 for cohesive soils.
References 3, 4, and 10 provide detailed design procedures for retaining walls.
Concrete deadman anchors should be designed with a factor of safety of not less
than 2.0 against the working anchorage load.
Figure 200-27 shows a typical cross-section of a concrete deadman anchor.
June 1997
200-48
Chevron Corporation
mine the capacity of the tentative design. Refer to Figures 200-23 and 200-28 for
identification of the following terms used in the deadman anchor design.
P
Pv
Ph
Wc =
Ws =
Wt =
W c + Ws
Pp
Pa
cohesion, psf
hwt =
Chevron Corporation
200-49
June 1997
The resistance to vertical force is provided by the weight of the anchor block and
the weight of soil above the anchor block. Be sure to use total unit weights of the
soil and concrete above the water table and buoyant unit weights below the water
table.
The resistance to horizontal force is the net passive soil pressure acting on the face
of the concrete block. Determination of the net passive pressure acting on the
anchor should be done as shown earlier in Figure 200-23.
As in the design of retaining walls, the design and capacity of the deadman anchor
is heavily influenced by the properties of the backfill material surrounding the
anchor. Refer to Figure 200-24 for soil property values to be used in case actual
values are not available.
Given:
Soil Conditions:
= 30
C = 0 psf
= 110 pcf
Water table at 6 ft. depth (hwt = 6 ft)
June 1997
200-50
Chevron Corporation
Loads:
P = 65 k
Pv = 43 k
Ph = 48 k
Solution:
Try block with dimensions:
x = 8 ft
y = 7 ft
L = 10 ft
h = 2 ft
1.
2.
3.
If L = 10,
Pp = 118,600 lb or 119 k
4.
Chevron Corporation
200-51
June 1997
Introduction
Anchor bolts embedded in concrete foundations should be placed and sized so that
the tension and shear capacities of an anchorage system are governed by the
June 1997
200-52
Chevron Corporation
strength of the anchor bolts rather than by the strength of the concrete foundation.
This approach results in a ductile connection that prevents sudden failure by
allowing the anchor bolts to yield and gradually deform plastically before the
concrete approaches its tensile capacity and fails suddenly. Ductile behavior is
particularly important for connections designed to resist earthquake or other
dynamic loads.
12d
6d
The bolt embedment length of twelve times the bolt diameter was used because
(with the edge distance and bolt spacing shown on the standard drawing) the resistance to concrete failure increases very little with embedment depths beyond twelve
bolt diameters. The edge distance of six times the bolt diameter is from the Uniform
Building Code and will also meet the minimum edge distance needed to prevent
lateral bursting failure (blowout) at the bolt head. The bolt spacing used is that
needed to meet the required safety factors listed in Appendix B, given the edge
distance and embedment lengths shown on the standard drawing.
The tension capacities with parallel reinforcing and the allowable shear loads were
determined according to the AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (1989
Edition), using the tensile stress area for tension and the root area for shear instead
of the nominal area.
Chevron Corporation
200-53
June 1997
The allowable shear loads for bolts larger than 1" diameter were limited by the
concrete properties and were determined using the safety factor listed in
Appendix B and the edge distance and bolt spacing listed on the standard drawing.
The tension capacities for corner bolts and bolts without parallel reinforcing were
based on concrete failure using the embedment depth, edge distance, and bolt
spacing listed on the standard drawing. The factor of safety against concrete failure
is that required for a ductile connection as listed in Appendix B.
There are two graphs shown on the standard drawing:
1.
2.
A concrete strength adjustment graph (Figure 2) is given for concrete compressive strengths other than 3,000 psi. For the corner, and tension with Case B
reinforcement values, this scaling graph is used by simply multiplying the
allowable load values by the factor corresponding to the specified design
concrete compressive strength. Since the allowable loads for the tension with
parallel reinforcing and most of the shear values are based upon the steel
strength of the bolt, these values cannot be increased beyond those shown on
the standard drawing. They can, however, be decreased for concrete strengths
below 3000 psi.
The required reinforcement for the tension capacity with parallel reinforcing and the
corner bolt values can be omitted by increasing PCR, the strength of the tension
failure cone. The easiest way to satisfy this is to increase the edge distance. Therefore, if the edge distance used is 1/3 greater than that listed on the standard drawing,
parallel reinforcing is not needed when using the tension capacity with parallel
reinforcing and the corner bolt values. For example, with a 1" diameter bolt, if the
edge distance (E) is greater than 8", then the allowable loads of 12,100 lbs and
8,400 lbs may be used without the parallel reinforcing typically required for the
tension with parallel reinforcing and the corner bolt values.
Anchor bolt sleeves may be used for anchor bolts greater than 5/8 inch diameter to
allow for minor adjustment by bending. After installation, the sleeves are filled with
grout, except in the case of vibrating equipment. The sleeves for vibrating equipment are filled with a pliable material other than grout. See Specification MAC-MS3907, Grouting of Machinery, for specific recommendations about fill material.
0.7854 (d-0.9743/N)2
where:
June 1997
200-54
Chevron Corporation
ASR
distance between two bolts measured from center of the bolts (in)
distance to concrete edge measured from the center of the bolt (in)
PA
PB
PBY
PCR =
tensile capacity of the concrete cone reduced for spacing and edge
interference (lbs)
PE
VA
VB
allowable bolt capacity in shear based upon the steel properties of the
bolt (lbs)
VCR =
shear capacity of the concrete reduced for spacing and edge interference (lbs)
db
fc
short dimension of the hexagonal head or bottom plate of the bolt (in)
ld
development length required for the anchor bolt reinforcing steel (in)
distance from the parallel reinforcing steel to the bolt center (in)
Chevron Corporation
200-55
June 1997
For anchor bolts, five basic design steps must be followed: 1) determine the loads;
2) select anchor bolt size; 3) check shear and tension interaction; 4) check bolt
spacing, edge distance and embedment length; and 5) select final reinforcement.
These steps follow.
1.
2.
3.
(Eq. 200-21)
June 1997
200-56
Chevron Corporation
Edge Distance. For the selected bolt diameter, the edge distance given by the
foundation design should be compared to the minimum edge distance allowed
by the standard drawing.
Embedment Length. The available embedment length allowed by the foundation design should be determined and compared to the required embedment
length for the selected anchor bolt. Anchor bolt embedment cannot be reduced
where the full capacity of the anchor bolt is required.
If the foundation size cannot be increased to meet the spacing, edge distance, or
embedment requirements, additional design steps are required. See Appendix B
for these design concepts.
5.
Chevron Corporation
200-57
June 1997
Anchor bolts which are subjected to high thermal variance should not be pretensioned since they are susceptible to failure due to fatigue.
Method of pretensioning. The following methods of bolt pretensioning may be
utilized:
Hydraulic Jacking. This is the most accurate method and is recommended if field
condition permit its use.
Turn-of-nut. This method is the easiest to perform and provides reasonable accuracy.
Calibrated Torque Wrench. This method provides only a rough measure of the
actual pretension load.
June 1997
200-58
Chevron Corporation
= 3,670 lbs
Tension/Bolt (P)
= 0 lbs
= 1,840 lbs
Tension/Bolt (P)
= 10,400 lbs
Step 2
Since the loads are seismic, the values on the standard anchor bolt drawing may be
increased by one third. Try 1" diameter bolt.
10,400 lbs < 1.33 PA = 1.33 x 8,400 = 11,170 lbs
3,670 lbs < 1.33 VA = 1.33 x 5,500 = 7,320 lbs
OK
Step 3
The E-W loads are simultaneous and must be checked for combined loading.
Chevron Corporation
200-59
June 1997
10 ,400
P
----------------- = ---------------- = 0.93
11 ,170
1.33P A
1 ,840
V
------------------ = ------------- = 0.25
7 ,320
1.33V A
Locating this point on the interaction graph (Figure 1) reveals that it is on the curve.
Therefore, verify interaction numerically
(0.93)5/3 + (0.25)5/3 = 0.99 < 1.0 OK
Step 4
E given =
7"
6"
B given =
18"
16"
OK
It is assumed here that the pedestals height and foundation thickness are more than
adequate for a 12" bolt embedment.
Step 5
Reinforcement:
The standard drawing requires parallel reinforcing for corner bolts. However, as
stated earlier in this chapter, the reinforcement can be omitted if the edge distance
used is one third greater than that listed on the standard drawing. The edge distance
needed for omitting parallel reinforcement is 8". For this example problem, the edge
distance will not be increased and reinforcing steel will be added. However, in most
situations, increasing the edge distance will be preferred.
a.
Parallel
Area of bolt = 0.606 in2
The pedestals reinforcing bars (seven #5s) are not within five bolt diameters of the bolt; therefore, they cannot be counted in providing reinforcement for the bolt.
June 1997
200-60
Chevron Corporation
From the standard drawing, the development length needed is 17" for a
straight bar. The reinforcing bar needs to be developed on both sides of the
failure surface. From geometry, this works out to be:
ld + (r-h/2) = 20.3" above the bolt head
and
ld - (r-h/2) = 13.7" below the bolt head
Values for h used in the above equations can be found in Appendix B of
this manual. Since 20.3" is greater than the 12" bolt embedment length
minus the 2" cover (L - Cover = 10"), try a hooked #4 bar.
From the standard drawing, the development length needed for a hooked
#4 bar is 8". The distance above the bolt head using a hooked bar needs to
be:
8 + (4 - 1.5/2) = 11.3"
Since 11.3" is still greater than 10", increase the bolt embedment length by
2" to 14" total.
Therefore, the parallel reinforcing should be extended at least 12 inches
above and 14 inches below the bolt head.
b.
Perpendicular
The perpendicular reinforcement used must satisfy both that shown for
case A on the standard drawing and that shown on CIV-EF-518, Foundations for Horizontal Equipment.
Therefore, use #4 bar ties in closed hoops with a spacing of three inches
for the first space and six inches for other spaces up to just past the bolt
embedment. The final design is shown in Figure 200-32.
Chevron Corporation
200-61
June 1997
2.
3.
Bolt breakage.
4.
Failure modes 1-3 above are similar to cast-in-place anchor bolt failure modes. For
additional information about them, see Appendix B.
Since expansion anchors are made of high-strength steel, bolt breakage is not typical
and the resulting failure mode is brittle with little ductility. Seismic loading, therefore, should be limited to primarily shear loads by requiring the tension load to
allowable load ratio be less than 25% of the total tension and shear interaction ratio.
Usage. In new work, cast-in-place anchor bolts should be specified. An exception
might be made for floor slabs requiring a large number of anchors for equipment. In
this case, loads are usually nominal, mostly in shear; and the advantage of placing
and finishing the floor slab without anchor bolts may outweigh the disadvantages of
using expansion anchors.
If expansion anchors must be used, mounting should be designed wherever feasible
to accommodate shear rather than tension.
Expansion anchors are not recommended for brick or concrete building blocks.
Wherever possible, such anchorages should be through-drilled with a large washer
or metal plate on the back face. If expansion anchors must be used, 20% of the
allowable loads shown for concrete should be taken as the design basis.
As mentioned previously, expansion anchors may be used only in special cases to
resist seismic loads.
Installation. Expansion anchors must be specified and installed with discretion
because their holding power depends upon the care with which the bolts are
installed. As shallow or oversized holes weaken the grip of the bolt, installation for
a specified holding power should be inspected carefully.
June 1997
200-62
Chevron Corporation
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Allowable loads in concrete for all seven types of expansion anchor bolts are shown
on Standard Drawing GD-Q99998. They are based upon ICBO test reports. Other
manufactures may be used if they have been evaluated by ICBO.
The recommended edge distance of six bolt diameters may be insufficient for bolts
loaded in shear towards an edge. For this loading case, therefore, the edge distance
should be increased to 8 bolt diameters for the loads shown on Standard Drawing
GD-Q99998.
If loads higher than those shown on the standard drawing are used, per the applicable ICBO report, the allowable shear should be checked with the methodology of
Appendix B.
Chevron Corporation
1.
Bond breakage: Occurs in bolts with deep embedments, at elevated temperatures, or in conjunction with a concrete cone failure.
2.
Concrete cone failure: Concrete fails suddenly in the shape of a cone. Unlike
cast-in-place anchor bolts or expansion anchor bolts, however, the failure cone
may start somewhere along the anchors length and can be a combination
concrete-cone-and-bond failure.
200-63
June 1997
3.
Concrete splitting: Occurs more frequently when bolts are spaced closer
together, or near an edge.
4.
Bolt breakage: Occurs typically with low-strength bolts which have deep
embedment.
When using standard steel rods and deeper embedments, epoxy anchors may have
sufficient reserve strength to develop the ductility required for seismic loading. For
bolts to resist seismic tension loads, the anchors must meet a required safety factor
of
PE
--------- 2.3
P BY
(Eq. 200-22)
PE is the ultimate load resisted by the epoxy bond. PBY is the bolt yield strength.
For A307 bolts, PBY = 33,000 ABT (lbs).
Usage. An acceptable alternative to expansion concrete anchors, adhesive capsule
and cartridge system anchors are non-expanding chemical anchors that have demonstrated greater load-carrying capacity than the more conventional mechanical
fasteners.
Capsule anchors should neither support fire-resistant construction nor resist pullout
(tensile) forces in walls or overhead installations. The capsule anchors temperaturesensitive epoxy could fail during fires when temperatures reach 170F.
As described earlier, adhesive anchors may be used to resist seismic tension loads if
the required safety factors are met.
Hilti, Inc. and Emhart Fastening Systems Group both manufacture adhesive
cartridge systems which are more economical when installing a large number of
anchors at once. Note that, with these systems, the allowable tension values shown
on Standard Drawing GD-Q99998 should be reduced by 1/3. If these systems are to
be used to resist seismic tension loads, they must satisfy Equation 200-22 using a
safety factor of 3.6 instead of 2.3. The increased factor of safety is a result of the
decreased reliability of these systems.
Installation. To install these systems, a drill bit sized for the capsules diameter
is selected and a hole drilled in the concrete to a depth equal to the length of the
capsule. Any concrete dust and fragments are removed by using compressed air and
a nylon brush. A capsule of appropriate diameter is inserted into the hole. The
pointed end of the threaded rod is rotary-hammer drilled into the capsule, breaking
it and mixing the adhesive resin and hardener.
Standard Drawing: Epoxy Capsule Anchors. Allowable loads for the epoxy
capsule anchors are shown on Standard Drawing GD-Q99998. They are based upon
ICBO reports.
As with expansion bolts, the edge distance should be increased to 8 bolt diameters
for bolts loaded in shear towards an edge.
June 1997
200-64
Chevron Corporation
Cement Types
There are eight types of cement available to mix concrete. Each type, defined by
ASTM, meets different physical and chemical requirements for specific purposes:
Type I
Normal
Type IA
Normal, air-entraining
Type II
Type IV
Type V
Sulfate-resisting
Type I cement is used for general concrete construction where no special properties
are required. Type I cement is often not available. Type II cement is usually
provided in lieu of Type I.
Type II cement should be used for general concrete construction, exposed to
moderate sulfate attack from contact with groundwater or flowing water. Type II is
often used in drainage structures such as separators, sumps, and drainage channels.
It has a moderate heat of hydration and, therefore, can be used in moderately large
structures such as piers or heavy retaining walls. Also, the moderate heat of hydration reduces the internal temperature rise of the concrete during placing, which is an
important consideration in warm weather.
Chevron Corporation
200-65
June 1997
Type III cement is used for concrete construction when high early strength is
desired. Concrete mixed with Type III cement gains high strength within a week or
less. High early strength concrete is commonly used when the formwork must be
removed as soon as possible or when a structure must be put into service quickly.
Because it cures rapidly, care must be exercised when mixing and placing this type
of concrete.
Type IV cement gains strength more slowly than Type I and is characterized by a
low heat of hydration, making concrete mixed with this cement especially suitable
for massive structures such as dams.
Type V is a sulfate-resisting cement restricted to concrete that will be exposed to
severe sulfate attack, such as is found when the soil groundwater has high sulfate
concentrations.
Other cement types are also available for special purposes.
Aggregate Materials
Coarse and fine aggregates comprise approximately 60 to 80 percent of concrete
volume. Gravel and crushed stones account for nearly all coarse aggregate materials. Minerals, which are products of weathered rocks (such as sand, silt, and clay),
are the compositions of most fine aggregates. The quality of aggregates should
conform to ACI and ASTM requirements.
The location and size of the job and the availability of aggregate materials will
determine the aggregates selected for concrete mixes.
Mixing Water
Nearly any natural water that is drinkable and has no pronounced taste or odor can
be the mixing water for making concrete.
Admixtures
Admixtures are ingredients in concrete added to improve the inherent properties of
the concrete or to impart particular properties. They are other than cement, water,
and aggregates and are added to the mixture just before or during mixing. Admixtures can be classified by function as follows:
Air-entraining admixtures
Water-reducing admixtures
Retarding admixtures
Accelerating admixtures
Pozzolans
Workability agents
Miscellaneous agents, such as bonding, damp-proofing, permeability-reducing,
and gas-forming
Concrete can exhibit the qualities specified above more easily and economically by
adding suitable materials rather than relying on admixtures, except for air-entraining
admixtures.
June 1997
200-66
Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation
200-67
June 1997
Model Specification CIV-MS-850 specifies Company requirements for proportioning, mixing, placing, and testing concrete. References 1 and 2 provide comprehensive procedures for determining concrete mix proportions.
Concrete proportions must be selected to provide necessary workability, consistency, strength, durability, and density for the anticipated service use of the finished
concrete.
Workability is the property that determines the ease with which fresh concrete mix
can be placed, consolidated, and finished without segregation.
Consistency is the wetness of the concrete mixture. Consistency is measured in
terms of the concrete slump.
Concrete compressive strength is the universal measure of concrete quality. Durability and impermeability may, however, be equally important. Concrete strength
depends upon the water-cement ratio of the mix.
The durability of concrete is its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack,
or any other exposure that may adversely affect its serviceability. Five common
causes of concrete deterioration are
June 1997
200-68
Chevron Corporation
Concrete Testing
Concrete testing is an indispensable part of the construction process for concrete
placement.
The number and frequency of tests depends upon the job specifications and the
occurrence of variations in the test results. The following types of quality control
tests are commonly made at the job site for all fresh concrete:
Consistency
Air content
Strength
The Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI-318) specifies that
samples for strength tests of each class of concrete placed should be taken:
Concrete compressive strength tests are made on standard test cylinder specimens,
measuring 6 inches in diameter by 12 inches high. Usually three or more specimens
are tested for each test age. Compressive strength tests are usually tested after 7 and
28 days of curing. High early strength concrete specimens are often tested after 1, 3,
7, and 28 days. ASTM Specifications C31 and C192 give requirements for making
and curing concrete test specimens in the field and in the laboratory.
Consistency tests are performed on mix samples from which strength test cylinders
are made. The air content and temperature of the concrete should be measured and
recorded for each sample.
Chevron Corporation
200-69
June 1997
The slump test and ball-penetration test are the two most common tests for the
consistency of concrete. The slump test is made by measuring the subsidence, in
inches, of a concrete pile 12 inches high, formed in a mold that has the shape of the
frustum of a cone. The ball penetration test is made by measuring the settlement of a
six-inch steel ball, weighing 30 pounds, into the concrete surface. The results of the
ball penetration test can be calibrated to relate directly to slump.
Refer to Model Specification CIV-MS-850 for further testing requirements.
Conventional shotcrete uses cement, aggregates, and ordinary admixtures for applications in new structures, linings and coatings, and concrete repair.
Refractory shotcrete uses high-temperature binders and refractory aggregates for
new installations, repair, and maintenance of all types of linings.
Special shotcretes use proprietary combinations of binder and aggregate for corrosion- and chemical-resistant applications. See Section 700 for more information on
shotcrete applications.
252 Grouting
The purpose of this section is to identify and describe the different types of grouting
materials and their common uses. Grouting of structural column and beam base
plates is the primary focus of this section. Model Specification, CIV-MS-985
June 1997
200-70
Chevron Corporation
Types of Grout
Sand-cement dry pack, susceptible to shrinkage is not as desirable as cementbased grouts, but is still commonly used.
Epoxy grout is expensive but very good where minimum shrinkage is desired.
Uses of Grout
The primary use of grout from a structural standpoint is to mortar base plates for
structural steel columns and beams. When a structure is erected, an allowance is
required for adjusting the level of the columns or beams. This is accomplished by
allowing approximately a one-inch gap between the top of a foundation and the
bottom of the base plate. Once the structure is leveled, the remaining air gap is filled
with grout. Filling this gap with grout ensures that there is a uniform bearing of the
column loads to the foundation.
Pressure Grouting
Pressure grouting is the process by which liquid grout is pumped into the voids of
soils and then hardens. Pressure grouting is used most often for one or both of the
following to:
1.
2.
Chevron Corporation
Mechanical damage
Acid attack
200-71
June 1997
Excessive heat
Corrosion of reinforcement
Thermal expansion or contraction
Sulfate disintegration
The deterioration effects of these actions upon concrete are evident in these ways:
Popouts, which are caused by unsound coarse aggregate particles near the concrete
surface. Aggregate absorbs water, and the subsequent freeze-thaw cycles cause
pieces of concrete to break away from the surface. Rebar corrosion can also cause
popouts as the rust by-product has four times the volume of the original steel.
Honeycombing, which is a consequence of a cement mix with excessively coarse
aggregate, mortar leaking through the forms, very low slump concrete, and poor
vibration of concrete during placement. A honeycombed surface appears pitted or
full of cavities.
Abrasion, which results from water flowing over or against concrete surfaces.
Appearance is similar to honeycombing.
Cold joints defects, which are due to improper preparation of the concrete surface
before placing new concrete.
Concrete cracking, which is caused by a number of factors, such as drying
shrinkage cracks, resulting from:
Hairline cracks are to be expected in concrete to allow the reinforcing steel to work;
and, unless they are large, they need not be repaired.
June 1997
200-72
Chevron Corporation
Internal cracks can be located by tapping the concrete surface with a hammer or
dragging a steel chain along the surface. A hollow sound indicates unsound
concrete.
Reinforcing steel locators are available to determine the presence and/or location of any reinforcing steel.
Concrete Core Tests. These can be used to conduct macroscopic analysis of causes
of deterioration or to determine approximate concrete strength. Petrography can be
used to conduct microscopic examination (ASTM C-856).
Review of construction drawings, concrete placement, and test data should also be
included in the evaluation process to identify possible deficiencies in the original
design. These deficiencies might be insufficient steel cover, inadequate concrete
strength, nonconventional construction details, and load underdesign.
Repair Materials
The materials for the repair must be selected in conjunction with choosing the repair
method. Four major factors dictate product selection:
Chevron Corporation
1.
Chemical exposure
2.
3.
Application condition
4.
Type of exposure
200-73
June 1997
Sand-cement mortar
Cement paste
Epoxy resins
Latexes
Polyvinyl acetate
Acrylics
June 1997
200-74
Chevron Corporation
deep, with its sides perpendicular to the concrete face, i.e., no feather edges
where possible. Care must be taken not to propagate cracks.
Repair areas must be cleaned of existing coatings, oil, acid, grease, or wax solutions. Chemical surface-cleaning agents are acceptable provided they are
washed with soap and rinsed thoroughly with water.
Surface area must be allowed to dry then be rechecked to ensure all unsound
material has been removed. For concrete, mortar, or grout repairs, the repair
surface should be saturated with water but free of standing water. For epoxy
repairs, the surface should be dry and heated to 65-105F at the time of repair.
Concrete surface should be prepared with bonding agent. Certain repair procedures require application of a bonding agent to the repair surface. The surface
should be coated with 1/8-inch of mortar or bonding agent. Bonding coat
should never be allowed to set prior to the placement of concrete, mortar, or
other repair material.
Dormant
Active
Dormant cracks, such as drying shrinkage cracks, are not likely to increase in size
nor affect the structural integrity. These cracks are often sealed with quick-setting
hydraulic cements.
As they can reduce the structural capacity, active cracks (those that propagate under
loads) should be repaired as soon as possible. The most common repair method for
these cracks is pressure and vacuum injection of low-viscosity epoxies and other
monomers which polymerize in place and rebond the parent concrete.
Working cracks, those that show movement under stress, usually must be sealed
with a flexible joint material.
Prior to repairing or resealing cracks, cleaning the cracks is essential, as described
earlier in this section. Common cleaning methods include: compressed air, wire
brushing, sandblasting, routing, and use of picks or similar tools.
Chevron Corporation
200-75
June 1997
Some of the common concrete repair methods are listed below. The method of
repair is dependent upon the size and nature of the repair to be made:
Dry-pack mortar
Concrete replacement
Mortar replacement
Preplaced concrete aggregate
Shotcrete
Epoxy injection
Dry Packing. This method involves ramming a thin layer of very stiff cement-sand
mix into place. The repair surface is covered with a thinly layered bond coat of
grout or mortar prior to placing the dry pack. Most commonly used to fill tie-rod
holes, narrow slots, or other cavities with high depth-to-area ratios, this method is
characterized by high strength and minimal shrinkage.
Concrete Replacement. This is the most common method of repairing defective or
damaged concrete, particularly honeycombed new concrete or concrete that has
deteriorated through the wall or the reinforcement. After surface preparation, new
concrete similar to old in terms of aggregate size and water-cement ratio is
placed into the area. Always place low-slump concrete. Excess water results in
drying shrinkage and bond breakage at the interface.
Mortar Replacement. This repair method is similar to concrete replacement,
except that the mix consists of a fine aggregate and cement only and is used for
smaller repair areas. Best results are obtained when the mortar is applied pneumatically.
Preplaced Concrete Aggregate. This method is especially adaptable to underwater
repairs particularly for large ones where conventional concrete placement is difficult or low-volume change is required. This method involves forcing grout into a
compacted mass of clean coarse aggregate. The grout displaces the water and fills
the voids. Forms must be designed to resist the pumping pressure.
Shotcrete. This repair method is a process of applying concrete mix pneumatically
for shallow repairs on overhead and vertical surfaces without forms. This is usually
an economical method of making large concrete repairs.
Epoxy Injection. This is the common method for sealing or repairing cracks. For
those cracks greater than 1/4 inch, epoxy resin mortar is usually placed into the
cracks. For those less than 1/4 inch, epoxy resin compounds are injected into cracks
under pressure at regular intervals. This type of repair should be carried out by qualified personnel.
June 1997
200-76
Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation
200-77
June 1997
program is based on the Ultimate Strength Design of the ACI Building Code (ACI
318-77 including the 1980 Supplement), the 1982 edition of the Uniform Building
Code, and on Section 100 of this manual.
The program designs the following types of vessel supports:
281 Specifications
The following specifications related to this section are included in the Specifications section of the manual or are available in other manuals as indicated.
ACI 301-96
CIV-MS-850
CIV-MS-985
Grouting of Structures
CIV-MS-4841
Piling Installation
June 1997
GF-S1121
GD-Q68922
Anchor Bolts
GB-Q99967
GD-Q99998
Expansion Bolts
200-78
Chevron Corporation
CIV-EF-515
CIV-EF-516
CIV-EF-517
CIV-EF-518
CIV-EF-519
CIV-EF-627
CIV-EF-629
CIV-EF-725
TAM-EF-364
TAM-EF-421
290 References
The following references are available through the Corporation Library or other
technical libraries.
Chevron Corporation
1.
2.
3.
4.
Foundation Analysis and Design, Bowles, Joseph E., Second edition, McGraw
Hill, Inc., 1977.
5.
6.
7.
Soil Engineering, Spangler, Merlin G. and Handy, Richard L., Harper and Row,
Publishers, Inc., Third edition, 1973.
8.
Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers, Merritt, Frederick S., McGraw Hill,
Inc., Third edition, 1983.
9.
200-79
June 1997
10. Structural Engineering Handbook, Gaylord, Edwin H. and Gaylord, Charles N.,
McGraw Hill, Inc., Second edition, 1979.
11. Concrete Manual, US Department of the Interior, US Government Printing
Office, Eighth edition, 1981.
12. Pipe Support Design Manual, D. Russell and Associates, July, 1987. Prepared
for the Richmond Refinery.
June 1997
200-80
Chevron Corporation