Quantised Singularities in the Electromagnetic Field

Author(s): P. A. M. Dirac
Source: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a
Mathematical and Physical Character, Vol. 133, No. 821 (Sep. 1, 1931), pp. 60-72
Published by: The Royal Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/95639
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60

Field.
in theElectromagnetic
QuantisedSingularities
By P. A. M. DIRAC,F.R.S., St. John'sCollege,Cambridge.
(ReceivedMay 29, 1931.)
? 1. Introduction.
The steady progressof physicsrequiresfor its theoreticalformulationa
mathematicsthat gets continuallymoreadvanced. This is only naturaland
to be expected. What, however,was not expectedby the scientificworkers
of the last centurywas the particularformthat the line of advancementof
the mathematicswould take, inamely,it was expectedthat the mathematics
would get moreand more complicated,but would rest on a permanentbasis
of axioms and definitions,
while actually the modernphysicaldevelopments
have requireda mathematicsthat continuallyshiftsits foundationsand gets
algebra,which
moreabstract. Non-euclideangeometryand non-coinmutative
wereat one timeconsideredto be purelyfictionsof the mindand pastimesfor
of
have nowbeen foundto be verynecessaryforthedescription
logicalthinkers,
general facts of the physical world. It seems likely that this process of
increasingabstractionwill continuein the futureand that advance in physics
is to be associated with a continualmodificationand generalisationof the
axiomsat the base of the mathematicsratherthan witha logicaldevelopment
of any one mathematicalschemeon a fixedfoundation.
There are at presentfundamentalproblemsin theoreticalphysicsawaiting
ofquantummechanicsand the nature
solution,e.g.,the relativisticformulation
ones such as the problemof
of atomicnuclei(to be followedby moredifficult
life),the solutionof whichproblemswill presumablyrequirea more drastic
revisionof our fundamentalconceptsthan any that have gone before. Quite
likelythesechangeswillbe so greatthat it willbe beyondthe powerofhuman
intelligenceto get the necessarynew ideas by directattemptsto formulate
the experimentaldata in mathematicalterms. The theoreticalworkerin
have to proceedin a moreindirectway. The most
the futurewill therefore
powerfulmethodof advance that can be suggestedat presentis to employall
the resourcesof pure mathematicsin attemptsto perfectand generalisethe
mathematicalformalismthat formsthe existingbasis of theoreticalphysics,
to tryto interpret
thenewmathematical
and aftereach successin thisdirection,
featuresin termsof physicalentities(by a processlike Eddington'sPrinciple
of Identification).
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QuantisedSingsularities
in Electromagnetic
Field.

61

A recentpaper by the author*may possiblybe regardedas a small step

accordingto this generalscheme of advance. The mathematicalformalism
at that time involved a seriousdifficulty
throughits predictionof negative
an
electron.
It
was proposed to get over this
values
for
kinetic energy
difficulty,
makinguse ofPauli's ExclusionPrinciplewhichdoes not allow more
than one electronin any state, by sayingthat in the physicalworldalmost
states are already occupied, so that our ordinary
all the negative-energy
electronsof positiveenergycannotfall into them. The questionthen arises
of the negative-energy
as to the physicalinterpretation
states,whichon this
view really exist. We should expect the uniformlyfilled distributionof
statesto be completelyunobservableto us, but an unoccupied
negative-energy
one of thesestates,beingsomethingexceptional,shouldmake its presencefelt
as a kindofhole. It was shownthat one oftheseholes wouldappear to us as
a particlewith a positiveenergyand a positivechargeand it was suggested
witha proton. Subsequentinvestigations,
thatthisparticleshouldbe identified
however,have shownthat this particlenecessarilyhas the same mass as an
the twowillhave a chance
electrontand also that,ifit collideswithan electron,
of annihilatingone anothermuchtoo greatto be consistentwith the known
stabilityof matter.t
of the holes with
It thus appears that we must abandon the identification
forthem. FollowingOppenprotonsand mustfindsome otherinterpretation
heimer,?we can assume that in the worldas we knowit, all, and not merely
states for electronsare occupied. A hole,
nearlyall, of the negative-energy
if therewere one, would be a new kind of particle,unknownto experimental
physics,havingthe same mass and oppositechargeto an electron. We may
call such a particlean anti-electron. We should not expect to findany of
themin nature,on accountoftheirrapidrate ofrecombination
withelectrons,
in highvacuum they would be
but if they could be producedexperimentally
quite stable and amenableto observation. An encounterbetweentwo hard
y-rays(of energyat least halfa millionvolts) could lead to the creationsimulthe probabilityof occurrenceofthis
taneouslyofan electronand anti-electron,
processbeingofthe same orderofmagnitudeas that ofthe collisionofthe two
y-rayson the assumptionthat theyare spheresof the same size as classical
* ' ProC.Roy. Soc.,' A, vol. 126,p. 360 (1930).

2nd ed. p. 234 (1931).

und Quantenmechanik,'
t H. Weyl,'Gruppentheorie
' Phys. Rev.,'
J.
R. Oppenheimer,
545
(1930);
'
62,
Z.
vol.
I.
Tamm,
p.
Physik,'
1
vol. 35, p. 939 (1930); P. Dirac, 'ProC. Camb.Philos.Soc.,' vol. 26, p. 361 (1930).
' Phys. Rev.,' vol. 35, p. 562 (1930).
? J. R. Oppenheimer,

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P. A. M. Dirac.

62

of
however,withthe intensities
is negligible,
electrons.This probability
at
available.
y-rays present
with electrons.
The protonson the above view are quite unconnected
will
have
their
states,all of
the
own negative-energy
Presumably protons
as an anti-proton.
are occupied,
an unoccupied
oneappearing
whichnormally
a reasonwhythereshouldbe any
is quiteunableto suggest
Theoryat present
and protons.
betweenelectrons
differences
a newidea whichis in
The objectof the presentpaperis to putforward
withthisone aboutnegativeenergies.It willbe
manyrespectscomparable
and protonsbutwiththereasonfor
concerned
notwithelectrons
essentially,
ofa smallestelectriccharge. Thissmallestchargeis knownto
the existence
and to havethevaluee givenapproximately
by*
existexperimentally
hc/e2

137.

(1)

it willgivea theoretical
ofthispaper,whileit looksat first
as though
Thetheory
thesmallest
outto givea connection
between
valuefore,is foundwhenworked
pole. It shows,in fact,a symmetry
electric
chargeand thesmallestmagnetic
and;magnetism
to current
views. It doesnot,
quiteforeign
electricity
between
to thefactthatthesymmetry
forcea complete
analogous
symmetry,
however,
is
not
when
and
forced
we adopt Oppenheimer's
electrons
between
protons
thissymmetry,
theratioon theleft-hand
sideof(1)
Without
interpretation.
theoretical
and if
undetermined
completely
standpoint,
remains,fromthe
it introduces
value137in ourtheory,
quantitative
we inserttheexperimental
so largethatonecanunderstand
andmagnetism
between
differences
electricity
have not been discovered
experimentally
whytheirqualitativesimilaritiesup to thepresent.
PhasesforWaveFunctions.
? 2. Non-integrable
t,
a particlewhosemotionis represented
by a wavefunction
We consider
ofx, y, z and t. The preciseformofthewaveequation
whichis a function
or not,arenotimportant
forthepresent
theory.
and whether
it is relativistic
We express4intheform
(2)
4 Aeiy,
-

ofx, y,z and t,denoting

theamplitude
and
whereA and y are realfunctions
of
state
of
motion
For
a
of
wave
function.
the particle,t
given
phase the
numerical
constant
which
coefficient,
willbe deternined
exceptforan arbitrary
that
4
shall
be
if
we
the
condition
normalised.
mustbe ofmodulus
impose
unity
*

h meansPlanek'sconstantdividedby 27r.

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QuantisedSingularittes
in Electromagnetic
Fteld.

63

in 4 then consistsin the possibleadditionof an arbitrary

The indeterminacy
constantto the phase y. Thus the value of y at a particularpoint has no
between the values of y at two
physical meaningand only the difference
different
pointsis ofany importance.
Thisimmediately
oftheformalism. We mayassume
suggestsa generalisation
that y has no definitevalue at a particularpoint,but onlya definitedifference
in values for any two points. We may go furtherand assume that this
is not definiteunless the two points are neighbouring.For two
difference
distant points there will then be a definitephase difference
only relativeto
some curve joining them and different
curves will in generalgive different
phase differences.The total change in phase when one goes round a closed
curveneed not vanish.
Let us examinethe conditionsnecessaryforthis non-integrability
of phase
not to giveriseto ambiguityin the applicationsofthe theory. If we multiply
4 by its conjugatecomplex f we get the densityfunction,whichhas a direct
physical meaning. This density is independentof the phase of the wave
function,so that no troublewill be caused in this connectionby any indeterminacyofphase. Thereare othermoregeneralkindsofapplications,however,
whichmust also be considered. If we take two different
wave functions4
and s, we may have to make use of the productfbm4n
The integral

JmXnn
dx dy dz

is a number,the square of whosemodulushas a physicalmeaning,namely,the

probabilityof agreementof the two states. In orderthat the integralmay
have a definitemodulus the integrand,althoughit need not have a definite
phase at each point, must have a definitephase differencebetweenany
two points, whetherneighbouringor not. Thus the change in phase in
imn4n round a closed curve must vanish. This requires that the change
in phase in + round a closed curve shall be eq-aal and opposite to that
in
and hencethe same as that in TmWe thus get the generalresult:
The changetn phase of a wavefunetionroundany closedcurvemustbe thesame
forall thewavefunctions.
It can easily be seen that this condition,when extendedso as to give the
same uncertaintyof phase fortransformation
functionsand matricesrepresentingobservables(referringto representationsin which x, y and z are
diagonal) as for wave functions,is sufficientto insure that the nonintegrabilityof phase gives rise to no ambiguityiu all applicationsof the
theory. Whenevera
appears,if it is not multipliedinto a 0km,
it will at

?m

4n

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P. A. M. Dirac.

64

of a similarnatureto a h"m,whichwill
intosomething
anyratebe multiplied
which
out,exceptfora constant
ofphasecancelling
resultin theuncertainty
to anotherrepredoesnotmatter. For example,if QJn is to be transformed
it mustbe multiplied
i are diagonal,
in which,say,theobservables
sentation
withrespectto x, y
function
(4 Ixyzt)and integrated
by the transformation
ofphase
willhavethesameuncertainty
function
and z. Thistransformation
willhaveitsphasedeterminate,
wavefunction
as a i, so thatthetransformed
% bya matrix
of
i.;
Again,
ifwemultiply
independent
exceptfora constant
an observable
in thephase
c,theuncertainty
(xIy'z'tIc x"y"z"t),representing
thecolumn[specified
by x", y",z", t] willcanceltheuncertainty
as concerns
the row will surviveand give the
as concernis
in 4+ and the uncertainty
in the new wave function
The superpositionl
(x+;qZ
necessaryuncertainty
a littlelaterandwhenthispoint
willbe discussed
forwavefunctions
principle
theproofthatall thegeneraloperations
ofquantum
is settledit willcomplete
canbe carriedthrough
exactlyas thoughtherewereno uncertainty
mechanics
in the phaseat all.
Theaboveresultthatthechangein phaserounda closedcurvemustbe the
meansthatthischangeinphasemustbe something
sameforall wavefunctions
determined
systemitself(and perhapsalso partlyby the
by the dynamical
of whichstate of the systemis
and mustbe independent
representation)
it appears
is
our
considered.As
system merelya simpleparticle,
dynamical
withthefieldof force
ofphasemustbe connected
thatthenon-integrability
moves.
in whichtheparticle
weexpress+, moregenerally
ofthequestion
treatment
Forthemathematical
than(2), as a product
(3)
4-=l e~,
wavefuniction
phaseat each
wherei1 is aniyordinary
(i.e.,onewitha definite
equal to the modulusof 4. The unpoint)whosemodulusis everywhere
thatP shallnot
ei. Thisrequires
in
the
factor
is
thus
of
put
certainty phase
valueat eachpoint,but P musthave
ofx,y,z,t havinga definite
be a function
derivatives
definite
Kx =

^I)

K-

a,

Kz

-- a

ofintegrability
at eachpoint,whichdo notin generalsatisfythe conditions
=
aKxlay aK,/aX, etc. Thechangein phaserounda closedcurvewillnowbe,
by Stokes'theorem,
(curlK, dS),
(K, ds) =
(4)

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QuantisedSingularities
in Electromagnetic
Field.

65

whereds (a 4-vector)is an elementofarc oftheclosedcurveand dS (a 6-vector)

is an elementof a two-dimensional
surfacewhoseboundaryis theclosed curve.
The factor4, does not enterat all intothischangein phase.
It now becomesclear that the non-integrability
of phase is quite consistent
withthe principleof superposition,
or, stated moreexplicitly,that if we take
two wave functionstPmand 4 both havingthe same changein phase round
any closed curve, any linear combinationof them cmPm + c.
must also
have this same change in phase round every closed curve. This is because
tPmand t. will both be expressiblein the form(3) with the same factorei0
(i.e., the same K's) but different
+1's, so that the linear combinationwill be
expressiblein this formwith the same ei again, and this et determinesthe
change in phase roundany closed curve. We may use the same factorei
in (3) fordealingwith all the wave functionsof the system,but we are not
obligedto do so, sinceonlycurlK is fixedand we may use K'S differing
fromone
anotherby the gradientof a scalar fortreatingthe different
wave functions.
From (3) we obtain

-ihaa-<

eig iih

aa

+hKX)

f1,

(5)

with similarrelationsfor the y, z and t derivatives. It followsthat if +

satisfiesany wave equation, involvingthe momentumand energyoperators
p and W, +, will satisfythe corresponding
wave equation in whichp and W
have been replacedby p + hKand W hKo respectively.
Let us assumethat + satisfiesthe usual wave equation fora freeparticlein
the absence of any field. Then +, will satisfythe usual wave equation fora
particlewith charge -e movingin an electromagnetic
fieldwhose potentials
are
A he/e.K,
AO
h/e.Ko.
(6)
Thus, since +, is just an ordinarywave functionwith a definitephase, our
theoryrevertsto the usual one forthe motionof an electronin an electromagneticfield. This gives a physical meaning to our non-integrability
of
phase. We see that we musthave the wave function+ always satisfying
the
same wave equation, whetherthereis a fieldor not, and the whole effectof
the fieldwhenthereis one is in makingthe phase non-integrable.
The componentsof the 6-vectorcurl K appearingin (4) are, apart from
numericalcoefficients,
equal to the componentsof the electricand magnetic
fieldsE and H. They are, writtenin three-dimensional
vector-notation,
curlK -h-H,
VOL. CXXXIII.-A.

gradKi

aK -h

E.

(7)
F

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66

P. A. M. Dirac.

of phase and the electromagnetic

The connectionbetweennon-integrability
fieldgiven in this sectionis not new, being essentiallyjust Weyl's Principle
of Gauge Invariancein its modernform.* It is also containedin the workof
Iwanenkoand Fock,t who considera more generalkind of non-integrability
based on a general theory of parallel displacementof half-vectors.The
phases
presenttreatmentis given in orderto emphasisethat non-integrable
compatiblewithall the generalprinciplesof quantummechanics
are perfectly
and do not in any way restricttheirphysicalinterpretation.
? 3. Nodal Singularities.
derivativesic
We have seen in the precedingsectionhow the non-integrable
in termsof
interpretation
receive
a
natural
wave
function
of
the
the
phase
of
field,as the resultof whichour theory
the potentialsof the electromagnetic
becomes mathematicallyequivalentto the usual one for the motion of an
electronin an electromagneticfield and gives us nothingnew. There is,
however,one furtherfact whichmust now be taken into account, namely,
to the extent of an arbitraryintegral
that a phase is always undetermined
of the connectionbetweenthe
multipleof 2rt. This requiresa reconsideration
K'S and the potentialsand leads to a new physicalphenomenon.
ofthe theorywas
The conditionforan unambiguousphysicalinterpretation
that the changein phase rounda closedcurveshouldbe the same forall wave
by equations (4) and (7), as
functions. This change was then interpreted,
equal to (apart fromnumericalfactors)the total flux throughthe closed
field. Evidently
curve of the 6-vectorE, H describingthe electromagnetic
these conditionsmust now be relaxed. The changein phase round a closed
wave functionsby arbitrarymultiplesof
fordifferent
curvemay be different
definiteto be interpreted
immediatelyin terms
27tand is thus not sufficiently
field.
ofthe electromagnetic
To examinethis question,let us considerfirsta very small closed curve.
Now the wave equation requiresthe wave functionto be continuous(except
in very special circumstanceswhichcan be disregardedhere) and hence the
changein phase rounda small closedcurvemustbe small. Thus this change
wave functions. It
cannotnow be different
by multiplesof 27rfordifferent
must have one definitevalue and may thereforebe interpretedwithout
* H. Weyl,' Z. Physik,'vol. 56, p. 330 (1929).
t D. Iwanenkoand V. Fock, 'C. R.,' vol. 188, p. 1470 (1929); V. Pock, 'Z. Physik,'
consideredby these
vol. 57, p. 261 (1929). The moregeneralkind of non-integrability
authorsdoesnotseemto have anyphysicalapplication.

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in Electromagnetic
Quanttsed
Singularities
Field.

67

in termsofthefluxofthe6-vector
ambiguity
E, H through
thesmallclosed
curve,whichfluxmustalso be small.
Thereis an exceptional
case,however,
occurring
whenthe wave function
vanishes,
sincethenitsphasedoesnothavea meaning.As thewavefunction
its vanishing
willrequiretwoconditions,
is complex,
so that in generalthe
pointsat whichit vanisheswilllie alonga line.* We call sucha linea nodal
ltine.If wenowtakea wavefunction
our
havinga nodallinepassingthrough
of continuity
smallclosedcurve,considerations
willno longerenableus to
inferthatthe changein phaseroundthe smallclosedcurvemustbe small.
All we shallbe able to say is thatthe changein phasewillbe closeto 27rn
wheren is someinteger,
willbeea characterpositiveornegative. Thisinteger
isticofthenodalline. Its signwillbe associated
witha direction
the
encircling
nodalline,whichinturnmaybe associated
witha direction
alongthenodalline.
between
Thedifference
thechangeinphaseroundthesmallclosedcurveand
thenearest2irnmustnowbe thesameas thechangeinphaseroundtheclosed
curvefora wavefunction
withno nodallinethrough
it. It is therefore
this
in
be
terms
of
the
flux
of
difference
thatmust interpreted
the 6-vector
E, H
theclosedcurve. For a closedcurvein three-dimensional
through
space,only
we
fluxwillcomeintoplayand hence obtainforthechangein phase
magnetic
roundthe smallclosedcurve
2itn+ elkc. (H, dS).

it up intoa network
We can nowtreata largeclosedcurveby dividing
of
is thelargeclosedcurve.
whoseboundary
smallclosedcurvesi
lyingin a surface
Thetotalchangeinphaseroundthelargeclosedcurvewillequalthesumofall
the changesroundthesmallclosedcurvesand willtherefore
be
2rZn + e/hc. (H,,dS),

(8)

over all
the integration
beingtakenoverthe surfaceand the summation
nodal linesthatpass through
it,the propersignbeinggivento each term
consistsof two parts,a part e/he. (H, dS)
in the sum. This expression
and a part 2-x:n which
whichmust be the same forall wave functions
wave
functions.
fordifferent
maybe different
* We are hereconsidering,
forsimplicityin explanation,that the wave functionis in
makesno essentialchangein thetheory.
threedimensions. Thepassageto fourdimensions
nodal surfaces,whichcan be encircledby
The nodal lines thenbecometwo-dimensional
curvesin thesamewayas linesare in threedimensions.

F 2
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68

P. A. M. Dirac.

is equalto thechangein phaseround

Expression
(8) appliedto anysurface
(8) appliedto a closedsurface
theboundary
ofthesurface.Henceexpression
thatIn, summed
mustvanish. It follows
a closed
forall nodallinescrossing
mustbe the sameforall wave functions
and mustequal - e/2xhc
surface,
fluxcrossing
the surface.
timesthe totalmagnetic
If En does not vanish,somenodallinesmusthave end pointsinsidethe
sincea nodallinewithout
suchendpointmustcrossthesurface
closedsurface,
equal and oppositeamountsto En at the
twice(at least)and willcontribute
willthusequal
twopointsofcrossing.ThevalueofEn fortheclosedsurface
the sum of the valuesof n forall nodallineshavingend pointsinsidethe
surface.Thissummustbe thesameforall wavefunctions.Sincethisresult
it follows
thattheendpointsofnodallinesmust
appliesto anyclosedsurface,
pointsofsingularity
bethesamefor
Theseendpointsarethen
all wavefunctions.
a small
fieldcrossing
in theelectromagnetic
field. The totalfluxofmagnetic
oneofthesepointsis
closedsurface
surrounding
47=

27nhc/e,

ofthenodallinethatendsthere,orthesumofthe
wheren is thecharacteristic
of all nodallinesendingtherewhenthereis morethanone.
characteristics
poleofstrength
Thusat theendpointtherewillbe a magnetic
2,u=

nhc/e.

ofsuchpoles
thusallowsisolatedmagnetic
Ourtheory
poles,butthestrength
withtheelectronic
charge
thequantumV beingconnected
mustbe quantised,
e by
_ 2.
hc/e,uo
(9)
with(1). Thetheoryalsorequires
a quantiThisequationis to be compared
sationof electriccharge,sinceany chargedparticlemovingin thefieldof a
multiple(positive
pole ofstrengthtomusthaveforits chargesomeintegral
or negative)of e, in orderthat wave functions
the motionmay
describing
exist.
Pole.
in FieldofOne-Quantum
? 4. Electron
discussedin the preceding
The wavefunctions
section,havingnodallines
to analytic
treatment
endingonmagnetic
poles,arequiteproperandamenable
bymethods
parallelto theusualonesofquantummechanics.It willperhaps
moreexplicitly.
helpthereaderto realisethisifa simpleexampleis discussed
fieldof a onethe motionof an electron
in the magnetic
Let us consider

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in Electromagnetic
Field.
QuantisedSingularities

69

quantum pole when there is no electric field present. We take polar

co-ordinatesr, 0, b with the magneticpole as origin. Every wave function
mustnow have a nodal line radiatingout fromthe origin.
We express our wave function4 in the form(3), where ( is some nonintegrablephase having derivativesK that are connectedwith the known
electromagnetic
fieldby equations (6). It will not, however,be possibleto
obtain KS satisfyingthese equations all round the magneticpole. There
must be some singularline radiatingout fromthe pole along which these
but this line may be chosenarbitrarily. We may
equationsare not sati4fied,
choose it to be the same as the nodal line forthe wave functionunderconsideration,whichwouldresultin 4j beingcontinuous. This choice,however,
wave functions(the difference
would mean different
K'S fordifferent
between
gradientof a scalar, except
any two being, of course,the four-dimensional
on the singularlines). This would perhapsbe inconvenientand is not really
necessary. We may expressall our wave functionsin the form(3) with the
same ei, and then those wave functionswhose nodal lines do not coincide
withthe singularline forthe K's will correspondto 41's havinga certainkind
on this singularline,namely,a discontinuity
just cancelling
of discontinuity
in e'1 here to give a continuousproduct.
with the discontinuity
The magneticfieldH, lies along the radial directionand is of magnitude
whichby (9) equals -hcler2. Hence, fromequations(7), curlK is radial
,.0/r2,
and of magnitude1/2r2. It may now easilybe verifiedthat a solutionof the
wholeof equations(7) is
K

-O

Kr
K

KS =

K)=

1/2r.-tanf3

(10)

whereKr, Ko, Kq are the componentsof K referredto the polar co-ordinates.

0
whereK, becomes
Thissolutionis valid at all pointsexceptalong theline =O-,
infinitein such a way that

(K,ds) rounda small curve encirclingthis line

is 27t. We may referall our wave functionsto this set ofK'S.

Let us considera stationarystate of the electronwithenergyW. Written
the wave equationis
non-relativistically,
-h2/2m. V24 =W4.':

If we apply the rule expressedby equation (5), we get as the wave equation

forij

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P. A. M. Dirac.

70

The values (10) forthe KS give

= K4

(K, V)=(VK)
Kc2

1rsin

2
-sec2

12

A'tan2

1O,

K02

so that equation(II) becomes

tan2 10}
sec10 a-1
e2
-22mV2+ 2t
Tr2
~~~~~~4r22

1=W1
W1

f of r onlymultipliedby a
We now suppose +j to be of the formof a function
b
only,
0
and
i.e.,
S
of
function
This requires

fi -sin

0 sin?
sin
0
aO 5o

j -f(r) S (00).

fd

2mW

t_dr2r dr

i1

S12

h2

210 ?a
0s

+ 1i seC2

05+0ise

(12)

tan2 O'I
4

=-xS,

(13)

whereXis a number.
From equation(12) it is evidentthat therecan be no stable statesforwhich
the electronis bound to the magneticpole, because the operatoron the lefthand side containsno constantwiththe dimensionsof a length. This result
is what one would expect fromanalogywith the classical theory. Equation
the dependenceof the wave functionon angle. It may be
(13) determi:nes
ofthe ordinaryequationforsphericalharmomes.
consideredas a generalisation
to whichthere are
The lowest eigenvalueof (13) is X- , corresponding
two independentwave functions

Sa cos 20, Sb sin - 0 ei+'

as may easily be verifiedby direct substitution. The nodal line for Sa is

6 = 7r, that for Sb is 0 = 0. It should be observedthat Sa is continuous
while Sb is discontinuousfor 0 7t, its phase changingby 27r
everywhere,
when one goes round a small curve encirclingthe line 0 = 7r. This is just
what is necessaryin orderthat both Sa and Sb, when multipliedby the ei
factor,may give continuouswave functions4. The two i's that we get in
in behaviourof Sa
this way are both on the same footingand the difference
and Sb is due to our havingchosenKS witha singularityat 0 7.
The generaleigenvalueof (13) is X - n2 + 2n + 1. The generalsolution
of this wave equationhas been workedout by I. Tamm.*
* Appearingprobablyin 'Z. Physik.'

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in Electromagnetic
Field.
QuantisedSingularities

71

? 5. Conclusion.
Elementaryclassicaltheoryallows us to formulateequationsof motionfor
ofelectriccharges
an electronin the fieldproducedby an arbitrarydistribution
and magneticpoles. If we wish to put the equations of motion in the
we have to introducetheelectromagnetic
Hamiltonianform,
however,
potentials,
and thisis possibleonlywhenthereare no isolatedmagneticpoles. Quantum
mechanics,as it is usually established,is derivedfromthe Hamiltonianform
of the classical theoryand thereforeis applicable only when there are no
isolatedmagneticpoles.
The object ofthe presentpaper is to showthat quantummechanicsdoes not
really precludethe existenceof isolated magneticpoles. On the contrary,
the present formalismof quantum mechanics,when developed naturally
without the impositionof arbitraryrestrictions,
leads inevitablyto wave
equationswhoseonlyphysicalinterpretation
is themotionof an electronin the
in
fieldof a singlepole. This new developmentrequiresno changewhatever
the formalismwhen expressedin termsof abstract symbolsdenotingstates
ofthepossibilitiesofrepresentaand observables,but is merelya generalisation
tion of these abstractsymbolsby wave functionsand matrices. Under these
one would be surprisedif Nature had made no use of it.
circumstances
The theoryleads to a connection,
namely,equation(9), betweenthequantum
of magneticpole and the electroniccharge. It is ratherdisappointing
to find
this reciprocitybetween electricityand magnetism,instead of a purely
electronicquantumcondition,such as (1). However,thereappears to be no
possibilityof modifyingthe theory,as it containsno arbitraryfeatures,so
presumablythe explanationof (1) will requiresome entirelynew idea.
The theoreticalreciprocitybetween electricityand magnetismis perfect.
Instead of discussingthe motionof an electronin the fieldof a fixedmagnetic
pole, as we did in ? 4, we could equally well considerthe motionof a pole in
of the electrothe fieldof fixedcharge. This would requirethe introduction
magneticpotentialsB satisfying
E = curlB, H

+ gradBo,

to be used insteadofthe A's in equations(6). The theorywouldnowrunquite

parallel and would lead to the same condition(9) connectingthe smallest
pole withthe smallestcharge.
There remainsto be discussedthe questionof why isolated magneticpoles
are not observed. The experimentalresult(1) showsthat theremustbe some

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72

F. Twymanand C. S. Hitchen.

cause of dissimilarity
betweenelectricityand magnetism(possiblyconnected
withthe cause of dissimilarity
betweenelectronsand protons)as the resultof
whichwe have,not 0 = e, but V-0 137/2. e. Thismeansthatthe attractive
forcebetween two one-quantumpoles of opposite sign is (137/2)2= 46921
timesthat betweenelectronand proton. This verylarge forcemay perhaps
accountforwhy poles of oppositesign have neveryet been separated.

Edsttimation
ofMetalsin SolutionbyMeans oftheirSparkSpectra.
F.Inst.P.,F.R.S., and C. STANSFIELD HITCHEN, A.R.C.S.,
By F. TWYMAN,
Ph.D.
(ReceivedMay 29, 1931.-Revised August5, 1931.)
[PLATES 5, 6.]

Introduetion.
Thispaperrecords
experiments
to extendto liquidstheaccuracy
undertaken

of quantitativeanalysis recentlyattained by the spectrography

of alloys.
How to producefroma solutiona spectrumwhichshall trulyrepresentthe
solution,and what effectmay be expectedfromthe presenceof othermetals
than the one under determination,
are among the questionsdealt with,for
they must come into considerationin applyingany methodof quantitative
of solutions.
spectrography

TheProduction
oftheSpark.
(a) TheSparkingVesselforLiquids.-At the outset of the investigationit
becameapparentthat the olderformsofsparkingapparatus,used by Hartley,
Pollok and Leonard, and others,were unsuitablefor quantitativework,for
it was foundthat,owingto incrustation
ofthe electrodesand to decomposition
of the solutionaroundthem,the spark soon became unrepresentative
of the
bulk of the solution.
The apparatus finallydevised embodiestwo principleswhicha numberof
trialsshowedto be necessary
(i) The sparktakes place fromliquid to liquid.
(ii) There is a steady feed of freshliquid, any scum being carriedaway.

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