Basic Control System Concepts

To understand how PID controllers are used, it is important to first understand some
basic control system principles. The image below illustrates the 2 basic types of control
system.

The open loop system can clearly be seen to have no feedback, therefore if the load
changes on the motor, the motor speed will change. The control unit cannot command
the driver to increase or decrease the power to the motor, as it has no knowledge of the
speed change induced in the motor, by the change in load.
The closed loop system however has feedback from the motor. So if the motors
speed were to decrease due to an increase in load, the control unit could command the
driver to increase the power to the motor, keeping a constant speed. Common direct
current motor control is achieved via PWM, and simply increasing or decreasing the duty
cycle will increase or decrease the motor speed.

Before I introduce you about various controllers in detail, it is very essential

to know the uses of controllers in the theory of control systems. The
important uses of the controllers are written below:

Controllers improve steady state accuracy by decreasing the steady state

errors.
1.

As the steady state accuracy improves, the stability also improves.

2.

They also help in reducing the offsets produced in the system.

3.

4.
5.

Maximum overshoot of the system can be controlled using these

controllers.
They also help in reducing the noise signals produced in the system.
Slow response of the over damped system can be made faster with the
help of these controllers.
Now what are controllers? A controller is one which compares controlled
values with the desired values and has a function to correct the deviation
produced.
Types of Controllers

Let us classify the controllers. There are mainly two types of controllers and they are
written below:
Continuous Controllers: The main feature of continuous controllers is that the
controlled variable (also known as the manipulated variable) can have any value within
the range of controllers output. Now in the continuous controllers theory, there are
three basic modes on which the whole control action takes place and these modes are
written below. We will use the combination of these modes in order to have a desired
and accurate output.
1.

Proportional controllers.

2.

Integral controllers.

3.

Derivative controllers.

Combinations of these three controllers are written below:

4.

Proportional and integral controllers.

5.

Proportional and derivative controllers.

Now we will discuss each of these modes in detail.

Proportional Controllers
We cannot use types of controllers at anywhere, with each type controller, there are
certain conditions that must be fulfilled. With proportional controllers there are two
conditions and these are written below:
1.

Deviation should not be large, it means there should be less deviation between the input
and output.

2.

Deviation should not be sudden.

Now we are in a condition to discuss proportional controllers, as the name suggests in a

proportional controller the output (also called the actuating signal) is directly proportional
to the error signal. Now let us analyze proportional controller mathematically. As we
know in proportional controller output is directly proportional to error signal, writing this
mathematically we have,

Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

Where Kp is proportional constant also known as controller gain.

It is recommended that Kp should be kept greater than unity. If the value of K p is greater
than unity, then it will amplify the error signal and thus the amplified error signal can be
detected easily.

Advantages of Proportional Controller

Now let us discuss some advantages of proportional controller.
1.

Proportional controller helps in reducing the steady state error, thus makes the system
more stable.

2.

Slow response of the over damped system can be made faster with the help of these
controllers.

Disadvantages of Proportional Controller

Now there are some serious disadvantages of these controllers and these are written as
follows:
1.

Due to presence of these controllers we some offsets in the system.

2.

Proportional controllers also increase the maximum overshoot of the system.

Integral Controllers
As the name suggests in integral controllers the output (also called the actuating
signal) is directly proportional to the integral of the error signal. Now let us analyze
integral controller mathematically. As we know in an integral controller output is directly
proportional to the integration of the error signal, writing this mathematically we have,

Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

Where Ki is integral constant also known as controller gain. Integral controller is also known as
reset controller.

Advantages of Integral Controller

Due to their unique ability they can return the controlled variable back to the exact set
point following a disturbance thats why these are known as reset controllers.

Disadvantages of Integral Controller

It tends to make the system unstable because it responds slowly towards the produced
error.

Derivative Controllers
We never use derivative controllers alone. It should be used in combinations with
other modes of controllers because of its few disadvantages which are written below:
1.

It never improves the steady state error.

2.

It produces saturation effects and also amplifies the noise signals produced in the
system.

Now, as the name suggests in a derivative controller the output (also called the
actuating signal) is directly proportional to the derivative of the error signal. Now let us
analyze derivative controller mathematically. As we know in a derivative controller output
is directly proportional to the derivative of the error signal, writing this mathematically we
have,

Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

Where Kd is proportional constant also known as controller gain. Derivative controller is also
known as rate controller.

Advantages of Derivative Controller

The major advantage of derivative controller is that it improves the transient response of
the system.

Proportional and Integral Controller

As the name suggests it is a combination of proportional and an integral controller the
output (also called the actuating signal) is equal to the summation of proportional and
integral of the error signal. Now let us analyze proportional and integral controller
mathematically. As we know in a proportional and integral controller output is directly
proportional to the summation of proportional of error and integration of the error signal,
writing this mathematically we have,

Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

Where Ki and kp proportional constant and integral constant respectively.

Advantages and disadvantages are the combinations of the advantages and

disadvantages of proportional and integral controllers.

Proportional and Derivative Controller

As the name suggests it is a combination of proportional and a derivative controller the
output (also called the actuating signal) is equals to the summation of proportional and
derivative of the error signal. Now let us analyze proportional and derivative controller
mathematically. As we know in a proportional and derivative controller output is directly
proportional to summation of proportional of error and differentiation of the error signal,
writing this mathematically we have,

Removing the sign of proportionality we have,

Where Kd and kp proportional constant and derivative constant respectively.

Advantages and disadvantages are the combinations of advantages and disadvantages

of proportional and derivative controllers

Sometimes, the control element has only two position either it is fully closed or fully
open. This control element does not operate at any intermediate position, i.e. partly
open or partly closed position. The control system made for controlling such elements,
is known as on off control theory. In this control system, when process variable
changes and crosses certain preset level, the output valve of the system is suddenly
fully opened and gives 100% output.

Generally in on off control system, the output causes change in process variable. Hence
due to effect of output, the process variable again starts changing but in reverse
direction. During this change, when process variable crosses certain predetermined
level, the output valve of the system is immediately closed and output is suddenly
reduced to 0%.
As there is no output, the process variable again starts changing in its normal direction.
When it crosses the preset level, the output valve of the system is again fully open to
give 100% output. This cycle of closing and opening of output valve continues till the
said on-off control system is in operation.
A very common example of on-off control theory is fan controlling scheme of
transformer cooling system.
When transformer runs with such a load, the temperature of the electrical power
transformer rises beyond the preset value at which the cooling fans start rotating with
their full capacity.
As the cooling fans run, the forced air (output of the cooling system) decreases the
temperature of the transformer.
When the temperature (process variable) comes down below a preset value, the control
switch of fans trip and fans stop supplying forced air to the transformer. After that, as
there is no cooling effect of fans, the temperature of the transformer again starts rising
due to load.
Again when during rising, the temperature crosses the preset value, the fans again start
rotating to cool down the transformer.
Theoretically, we assume that there is no lag in the control equipment. That means,
there is no time day for on and off operation of control equipment. With this assumption
if we draw series of operations of an ideal on off control system, we will get the graph
given below.

But in practical on off control, there is always a non zero time delay for closing and
opening action of controller elements.
This time delay is known as dead time. Because of this time delay the actual response
curve differs from the above shown ideal response curve.
Let us try to draw actual response curve of an on off control system.

Say at time T O the temperature of the transformer starts rising. The measuring
instrument of the temperature does not response instantly, as it requires some time
delay for heating up and expansion of mercury in temperature sensor bulb say from
instant T1 the pointer of the temperature indicator starts rising. This rising is exponential
in nature. Let us at point A, the controller system starts actuating for switching on
cooling fans and finally after period of T2 the fans starts delivering force air with its full

capacity. Then the temperature of the transformer starts decreasing in exponential

manner.

Definition of Control System

As the human civilization is being modernized day by day the demand of automation is
increasing accordingly. Automation highly requires control of devices.

A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages, commands,

directs or regulates the behavior of other device(s) or system(s) to achieve desire
results. In other words the definition of control system can be rewritten as A control
system is a system, which controls other system.
In recent years, control systems plays main role in the development and advancement
of modern technology and civilization. Practically every aspects of our day-to-day life is
affected less or more by some control system. A bathroom toilet tank, a refrigerator, an
air conditioner, a geezer, an automatic iron, an automobile all are control system. These
systems are also used in industrial process for more output. We find control system in
quality control of products, weapons system, transportation systems, power system,
space technology, robotics and many more. The principles of control theory is
applicable to engineering and non engineering field both.

Requirement Of Good Control System

Accuracy: Accuracy is the measurement tolerance of the instrument and defines the
limits of the errors made when the instrument is used in normal operating conditions.
Accuracy can be improved by using feedback elements. To increase accuracy of any
control system error detector should be present in control system.

Sensitivity: The parameters of control system are always changing with change in
surrounding conditions, internal disturbance or any other parameters. This change can
be expressed in terms of sensitivity. Any control system should be insensitive to such
parameters but sensitive to input signals only.
Noise: An undesired input signal is known as noise. A good control system should be
able to reduce the noise effect for better performance.
Stability: It is an important characteristic of control system. For the bounded input
signal, the output must be bounded and if input is zero then output must be zero then
such a control system is said to be stable system.

Bandwidth: An operating frequency range decides the bandwidth of control system.

Bandwidth should be large as possible for frequency response of good control system.
Speed: It is the time taken by control system to achieve its stable output. A good control
system possesses high speed. The transient period for such system is very small.
Oscillation: A small numbers of oscillation or constant oscillation of output tend to
system to be stable.
Types Of Control Systems

There are two main types of control system. They are as follow
1.

Open loop control system

2.

Closed loop control system

Open Loop Control System

A control system in which the control action is totally independent of output of the
system then it is called open loop control system. Open loop system is also called as

Manual control system. Fig 1 shows the block diagram of open loop control system in
which process output is totally independent of controller action.

Practical Examples Of Open Loop Control System

1.

Electric Hand Drier Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your hand under
the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.

2.

Automatic Washing Machine This machine runs according to the pre-set time
irrespective of washing is completed or not.

3.

Bread Toaster This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.

4.

Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker These machines also function for pre adjusted time
only.

5.

Timer Based Clothes Drier This machine dries wet clothes for pre adjusted time, it
does not matter how much the clothes are dried.

6.

Light Switch lamps glow whenever light switch is on irrespective of light is required or
not.

7.

Volume on Stereo System Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of output volume

level.

Advantages Of Open Loop Control System

1.

Simple in construction and design.

2.

Economical.

3.

Easy to maintain.

4.

Generally stable.

5.

Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages Of Open Loop Control System

1.

They are inaccurate.

2.

They are unreliable.

3.

Any change in output cannot be corrected automatically.

Closed Loop Control System

Control system in which the output has an effect on the input quantity in such a manner
that the input quantity will adjust itself based on the output generated is called closed
loop control system. Open loop control system can be converted in to closed loop
control system by providing a feedback. This feedback automatically makes the suitable
changes in the output due to external disturbance. In this way closed loop control
system is called automatic control system. Figure below shows the block diagram of
closed loop control system in which feedback is taken from output and fed in to input.

Practical Examples Of Closed Loop Control System

1.

Automatic Electric Iron Heating elements are controlled by output

temperature of the iron.

2.

Servo Voltage Stabilizer Voltage controller operates depending upon

output voltage of the system.

3.

Water Level Controller Input water is controlled by water level of the reservoir.

4.

Missile Launched & Auto Tracked by Radar The direction of missile is

controlled by comparing the target and position of the missile.

5.

An Air Conditioner An air conditioner functions depending upon the

temperature of the room.

6.

Cooling System in Car It operates depending upon the temperature which it

controls.

Advantages OF Closed Loop Control System

1.

Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of
non-linearity.

2.

Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of

feedback signal.

3.

Bandwidth range is large.

4.

Facilitates automation.

5.

The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more

stable.

6.

This system is less affected by noise.

Disadvantages Of Closed Loop Control System

1.

They are costlier.

2.

They are complicated to design.

3.

Required more maintenance.

4.

Feedback leads to oscillatory response.

5.

Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.

6.

Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a stable
closed loop system.

Comparison of Closed Loop And Open Loop Control System

SR. NO. OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
1

The feedback element is absent.

The feedback element is always present.

An error detector is not present.

An error detector is always present.

It is stable one.

It may become unstable.

Easy to construct.

Complicated construction.

It is an economical.

It is costly.

Having small bandwidth.

Having large bandwidth.

It is inaccurate.

It is accurate.

Less maintenance.

More maintenance.

It is unreliable.

It is reliable.

10

Examples: Hand drier, tea maker

Examples: Servo voltage stabilizer, perspiration

Feedback Loop Of Control System

A feedback is a common and powerful tool when designing a control system. Feedback
loop is the tool which take the system output into consideration and enables the system
to adjust its performance to meet a desired result of system.
In any control system, output is affected due to change in environmental condition or
any kind of disturbance. So one signal is taken from output and is fed back to the input.
This signal is compared with reference input and then error signal is generated. This
error signal is applied to controller and output is corrected. Such a system is called
feedback system. Figure below shows the block diagram of feedback system.

When feedback signal is positive then system called positive feedback system. For
positive feedback system, the error signal is the addition of reference input signal and
feedback signal. When feedback signal is negative then system is called negative
feedback system. For negative feedback system, the error signal is given by difference
of reference input signal and feedback signal.

Effect Of Feedback
Refer figure beside, which represents feedback system where
R = Input signal
E = Error signal
G = forward path gain
H = Feedback

C = Output signal
B = Feedback signal

1.

Error between system input and system output is reduced.

2.

System gain is reduced by a factor 1/(1GH).

3.

Improvement in sensitivity.

4.

Stability may be affected.

5.

Improve the speed of response

At point B, the controller system starts actuating for switching off the cooling fans and
finally after a period of T3 the fans stop delivering force air. Then the temperature of the
transformer again starts rising in same exponential manner.
N.B.: Here during this operation we have assumed that, loading condition of
theelectrical power transformer, ambient temperature and all other conditions of
surrounding are fixed and constant.

Linear Control Systems

In order to understand the linear control system, we should know the principle of
superposition. The principle of superposition theorem includes two the important
properties and they are explained below:
Homogeneity: A system is said to be homogeneous, if we multiply input with some
constant A then output will also be multiplied by the same value of constant (i.e. A).
Additivity: Suppose we have a system S and we are giving the input to this system as
a1 for the first time and we are getting output as b 1 corresponding to input a1. On
second time we are giving input a2 and correspond to this we are getting output as b 2.
Now suppose this time we giving input as summation of the previous inputs ( i.e. a 1 +
a2 ) and corresponding to this input suppose we are getting output as (b 1 + b2) then we
can say that system S is following the property of additivity. Now we are able to define
the linear control systems as those types of control systems which follow the
principle of homogeneity and additivity.

Examples of Linear Control System

Consider a purely resistive network with a constant dc source. This circuit follows the
principle of homogeneity and additivity. All the undesired effects are neglected and
assuming ideal behavior of each element in the network, we say that we will get
linearvoltage and current characteristic. This is the example of linear control system.

Non-linear Systems
We can simply define non linear control system as all those system which do not
follow the principle of homogeneity. In practical life all the systems are non-linear
system.

Examples of Non-linear System

A well known example of non-linear system is magnetization curve or no load curve of a
dc machine. We will discuss briefly no load curve of dc machines here: No load curve
gives us the relationship between the air gap flux and the field winding mmf. It is very

clear from the curve given below that in the beginning there is a linear relationship
between winding mmf and the air gap flux but after this, saturation has come which
shows the non linear behavior of the curve or characteristics of the non linear control
system.

Analog or Continuous System

In these types of control system we have continuous signal as the input to the system.
These signals are the continuous function of time. We may have various sources of
continuous input signal like sinusoidal type signal input source, square type of signal
input source, signal may be in the form of continuous triangle etc.

Digital or Discrete System

In these types of control system we have discrete signal (or signal may be in the form of
pulse) as the input to the system. These signals have the discrete interval of time. We

can convert various sources of continuous input signal like sinusoidal type signal input
source, square type of signal input source etc into discrete form using the switch.
Now there are various advantages of discrete or digital system over the analog system
and these advantages are written below:
1.

Digital systems can handle non linear control systems more effectively than the analog
type of systems.

2.

Power requirement in case of discrete or digital system is less as compared to analog

systems.

3.

Digital system has higher rate of accuracy and can perform various complex
computations easily as compared to analog systems.

4.

Reliability of digital system is more as compared to analog system. They also have small
and compact size.

5.

Digital system works on the logical operations which increases their accuracy many
times.

6.

Losses in case of discrete systems are less as compared to analog systems in general.

Single Input Single Output Systems

These are also known as SISO type of system. In this the system has single input for
single output. Various example of this kind of system may include temperature control,
position control system etc.

Multiple Input Multiple Output Systems

These are also known as MIMO type of system. In this the system has multiple outputs
for multiple inputs. Various example of this kind of system may include PLC type system
etc.

Lumped Parameter System

In these types of control systems the various active (resistor) and passive parameters
(likeinductor and capacitor) are assumed to be concentrated at a point and thats why
these are called lumped parameter type of system. Analysis of such type of system is
very easy which includes differential equations.

Distributed Parameter System

In these types of control systems the various active (resistor) and passive parameters
(like inductor and capacitor) are assumed to be distributed uniformly along the length
and thats why these are called distributed parameter type of system. Analysis of such
type of system is slightly difficult which includes partial differential equations.
Mathematical Modelling of Control System

There are various types of physical systems namely we have

1.

Mechanical system.

2.

Electrical system.

3.

Electronic system.

4.

Thermal system.

5.

Hydraulic system.

6.

Chemical system etc.

Before I describe these systems in detail let us know, what is the meaning of modeling
of the system? Mathematical modelling of control system is the process of drawing
the block diagram for these types of systems in order to determine the performance and

the transfer functions. Now let us describe mechanical and electrical type of systems in
detail. We will derive analogies between mechanical and electrical system only which
are most important in understanding the theory of control system.

Mathematical Modelling of Mechanical Systems

We have two types of mechanical systems. Mechanical system may be a linear
mechanical system or it may be a rotational mechanical type of system.
In linear mechanical type of systems we have three variables
1.

Force which is represented by F.

2.

Velocity which is represented by V.

3.

Linear displacement represented by X

And also we have three parameters1.

Mass which is represented by M.

2.

Coefficient of viscous friction which is represented by B.

3.

Spring constant which is represented by K.

In rotational mechanical type of systems we have three variables1.

Torque which is represented by T.

2.

Angular velocity which is represented by

3.

Angular displacement represented by

And also we have two parameters

1.

Moment of inertia which is represented by J.

2.

Coefficient of viscous friction which is represented by B.

Now let us consider the linear displacement mechanical system which is shown below-

We have already marked various variables in the diagram itself. We have x is the
displacement as shown in the diagram. From the Newtons second law of motion, we
can write force as-

From the diagram we can see that the,

On substituting the values of F1, F2 and F3 in the above equation and taking the Laplace
transform we have the transfer function as,

This equation is mathematical modelling of mechanical control system.

Mathematical Modelling of Electrical System

In electrical type of systems we have three variables

1.

Voltage which is represented by V.

2.

Current which is represented by I.

3.

Charge which is represented by Q.

And also we have three parameters which are active and passive elements
1.

Resistance which is represented by R.

2.

Capacitance which is represented by C.

3.

Inductance which is represented by L.

Now we are in condition to derive analogy between electrical and mechanical types of
systems. There are two types of analogies and they are written below:
Force Voltage Analogy : In order to understand this type of analogy, let us consider a
circuit which consists of series combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor.

A voltage V is connected in series with these elements as shown in the circuit diagram.
Now from the circuit diagram and with the help of KVL equation we write the expression
for voltage in terms of charge, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the mechanical system we find that-

1.

Mass (M) is analogous to inductance (L).

2.

Force is analogous to voltage V.

3.

Displacement (x) is analogous to charge (Q).

4.

Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance R and

5.

Spring constant is analogous to inverse of the capacitor (C).

This analogy is known as force voltage analogy.

Force Current Analogy : In order to understand this type of analogy, let us consider a
circuit which consists of parallel combination of resistor, inductor and capacitor.

A voltage E is connected in parallel with these elements as shown in the circuit diagram.
Now from the circuit diagram and with the help of KCL equation we write the expression
for current in terms of flux, resistance, capacitor and inductor as,

Now comparing the above with that we have derived for the mechanical system we find that,

1.

Mass (M) is analogous to Capacitor (C).

2.

Force is analogous to current I.

3.

Displacement (x) is analogous to flux ().

4.

Coefficient of friction (B) is analogous to resistance 1/ R and

5.

Spring constant K is analogous to inverse of the inductor (L).

This analogy is known as force current analogy.

Now let us consider the rotational mechanical type of system which is shown below we
have already marked various variables in the diagram itself. We have is the angular
displacement as shown in the diagram. From the mechanical system, we can write
equation for torque (which is analogous to force) as torque as,

From the diagram we can see that the,

On substituting the values of T1, T2 and T3 in the above equation and taking the Laplace
transform we have the transfer function as,

This equation is mathematical modelling of electrical control system.

When we study the analysis of the transient state and steady state response of
control system it is very essential to know a few basic terms and these are described
below.

Standard Input Signals : These are also known as test input signals. The input signal
is very complex in nature, it is complex because it may be a combination of various
other signals. Thus it is very difficult to analyze characteristic performance of any
system by applying these signals. So we use test signals or standard input signals
which are very easy to deal with. We can easily analyze the characteristic performance
of any system more easily as compared to non standard input signals. Now there are
various types of standard input signals and they are written below:
Unit Impulse Signal : In the time domain it is represented by (t). The Laplace
transformation of unit impulse function is 1 and the corresponding waveform associated
with the unit impulse function is shown below.

Unit Step Signal : In the time domain it is represented by u (t). The Laplace

transformation of unit step function is 1/s and the corresponding waveform associated
with the unit step function is shown below.

Unit Ramp signal : In the time domain it is represented by r (t). The Laplace
transformation of unit ramp function is 1/s2 and the corresponding waveform associated
with the unit ramp function is shown below.

Unit Ramp Signal

Parabolic Type Signal : In the time domain it is represented by t2 / 2. The Laplace
transformation of parabolic type of the function is 1 / s3 and the corresponding waveform
associated with the parabolic type of the function is shown below.

Sinusoidal Type Signal : In the time domain it is represented by sin (t).The Laplace
transformation of sinusoidal type of the function is / (s2 + 2) and the corresponding waveform
associated with the sinusoidal type of the function is shown below.

Cosine Type of Signal : In the time domain it is represented by cos (t). The Laplace
transformation of the cosine type of the function is / (s2 + 2) and the corresponding waveform

associated with the cosine type of the function is shown below,

Now are in a position to describe the two types of responses which are a function of
time.

Transient Response of Control System

As the name suggests transient response of control system means changing so, this
occurs mainly after two conditions and these two conditions are written as follows Condition one : Just after switching on the system that means at the time of
application of an input signal to the system.
Condition second : Just after any abnormal conditions. Abnormal conditions
may include sudden change in the load, short circuiting etc.

Steady State Response of Control System

Steady state occurs after the system becomes settled and at the steady system starts
working normally. Steady state response of control system is a function of input
signal and it is also called as forced response.

Now the transient state response of control system gives a clear description of how the
system functions during transient state and steady state response of control
systemgives a clear description of how the system functions during steady state.
Therefore the time analysis of both states is very essential. We will separately analyze
both the types of responses. Let us first analyze the transient response. In order to
analyze the transient response, we have some time specifications and they are written
as follows:
Delay Time : This time is represented by td. The time required by the response to reach
fifty percent of the final value for the first time, this time is known as delay time. Delay
time is clearly shown in the time response specification curve.
Rise Time : This time is represented by tr. We define rise time in two cases:
1.

In case of under damped systems where the value of is less than one, in this case rise
time is defined as the time required by the response to reach from zero value to hundred
percent value of final value.

2.

In case of over damped systems where the value of is greater than one, in this case
rise time is defined as the time required by the response to reach from ten percent value to
ninety percent value of final value.

Peak Time : This time is represented by tp. The time required by the response to reach
the peak value for the first time, this time is known as peak time. Peak time is clearly
shown in the time response specification curve.
Settling Time : This time is represented by ts. The time required by the response to
reach and within the specified range of about (two percent to five percent) of its final
value for the first time, this time is known as settling time. Settling time is clearly shown
in the time response specification curve.
Maximum Overshoot : It is expressed (in general) in percentage of the steady state
value and it is defined as the maximum positive deviation of the response from its
desired value. Here desired value is steady state value.
Steady State Error : It can be defined as the difference between the actual output and
the desired output as time tends to infinity.

Now we are in position we to do a time response analysis of a first order system.

Transient State and Steady State Response of First

Order Control System
Let us consider the block diagram of the first order system.

From this block diagram we can find overall transfer function which is linear in nature.
The transfer function of the first order system is 1/((sT+1)). We are going to analyze the
steady state and transient response of control system for the following standard signal.
1.

Unit impulse.

2.

Unit step.

3.

Unit ramp.

Unit impulse response : We have Laplace transform of the unit impulse is 1. Now let
us give this standard input to a first order system, we have

Now taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation, we have

It is clear that the steady state response of control system depends only on the time constant

T and it is decaying in nature.

Unit step response : We have Laplace transform of the unit impulse is 1/s. Now let us
give this standard input to first order system, we have

With the help of partial fraction, taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation, we
have

It is clear that the time response depends only on the time constant T. In this case the steady
state error is zero by putting the limit t is tending to zero.

Unit ramp response : We have Laplace transform of the unit impulse is 1/s 2. Now let us
give this standard input to first order system, we have

With the help of partial fraction, taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation we
have

On plotting the exponential function of time we have T by putting the limit t is tending to zero.

Transient State and Steady State Response of Second

Order Control System
Let us consider the block diagram of the second order system.

From this block diagram we can find overall transfer function which is nonlinear in
nature. The transfer function of the second order system is ( 2) / ( s ( s + 2 )). We are
going to analyze the transient state response of control system for the following
standard signal.
Unit impulse response : We have Laplace transform of the unit impulse is 1. Now let
us give this standard input to second order system, we have

Where is natural frequency in rad/sec and is damping ratio.

Unit step response : We have Laplace transform of the unit impulse is 1/s. Now let us
give this standard input to first order system, we have

With the help of partial fraction, taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation we

have

Now we will see the effect of different values of on the response. We have three types of
systems on the basis of different values of .

1.

Under damped system : A system is said to be under damped system when the value
of is less than one. In this case roots are complex in nature and the real parts are always
negative. System is asymptotically stable. Rise time is lesser than the other system with the
presence of finite overshoot.

2.

Critically damped system : A system is said to be critically damped system when the
value of is one. In this case roots are real in nature and the real parts are always repetitive in
nature. System is asymptotically stable. Rise time is less in this system and there is no presence
of finite overshoot.

3.

Over damped system : A system is said to be over damped system when the value of
is greater than one. In this case roots are real and distinct in nature and the real parts are
always negative. System is asymptotically stable. Rise time is greater than the other system and
there is no presence of finite overshoot.

4.

Sustained Oscillations : A system is said to be sustain damped system when the value
of zeta is zero. No damping occurs in this case.

Now let us derive the expressions for rise time, peak time, maximum overshoot, settling
time and steady state error with a unit step input for second order system.
Rise time : In order to derive the expression for the rise time we have to equate the
expression for c(t) = 1. From the above we have

On solving above equation we have expression for rise time equal to

Peak Time : On differentiating the expression of c(t) we can obtain the expression for peak time.
dc(t)/ dt = 0 we have expression for peak time,

Maximum overshoot : Now it is clear from the figure that the maximum overshoot will occur at
peak time tp hence on putting the valye of peak time we will get maximum overshoot as

Settling Time : Settling time is given by the expression

Steady state error : The steady state error is diffrerence between the actual output and the
desired output hence at time tending to infinity the steady state error is zero.

For any control system there exists a reference input termed as excitation or cause
which operates through a transfer operation termed as transfer function and produces
an effect resulting in controlled output or response. Thus the cause and effect
relationship between the output and input is related to each other through a transfer
function.

It is not necessary that the output will be of same category as that of the input. For
example in case of an electrical motor, the input is an electrical quantity and output is
a mechanical one. In control system all mathematical functions are converted to their
corresponding Laplace transforms. So the transfer function is expressed as a ratio of
Laplace transform of input function to Laplace transform of output function.

The transfer function can be expressed as,

While doing Laplace transform, while determining transfer function we assume all initial
conditions to be zero.

The transfer function of a control system is defined as the ration of the Laplace
transform of the output variable to Laplace transform of the input variable
assuming all initial conditions to be zero.
Procedure for determining the transfer function of a control system are as follows :
1. We form the equations for the system
2. Now we take Laplace transform of the system equations, assuming initial conditions
as zero.
3. Specify system output and input
4. Lastly we take the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output and the Laplace
transform of the input which is the required transfer function

Methods of obtaining a Transfer function: There are major two ways of obtaining a
transfer function for the control system .The ways are
Block diagram method : It is not convenient to derive a complete transfer function for a
complex control system. Therefore the transfer function of each element of a control
system is represented by a block diagram. Block diagram reduction techniques are
applied to obtain the desired transfer function.
Signal Flow graphs : The modified form of a block diagram is a signal flow graph.
Block diagram gives a pictorial representation of a control system . Signal flow graph
further shortens the representation of a control system.
The transfer function of a system is completely specified in terms of its poles and zeroes
and the gain factor. Let us know about the poles and zeroes of a transfer function in
brief.

Where, K = system gain,

z1 , z2 , zm = zeros of the transfer function
p1 , p2 , pn = poles of the transfer function
Putting the denominator of equation (i) equal to zero we get the poles value of the
transfer function. For this the T.F is infinity.

Putting the numerator of equation (ii) equal to zero we get the value of zero of the
transfer function. For this T.F is equal to zero.

There are two types of transfer functions :i) Open loop transfer function( O.L.T.F) : Transfer function of the system without
feedback path or loop.
ii) Closed loop transfer function (C.L.T.F) : Transfer function of the system with feedback
path or loop.

The root locus technique in control system was first introduced in the year 1948 by
Evans. Any physical system is represented by a transfer function in the form of

We can find poles and zeros from G(s). The location of poles and zeros are crucial
keeping view stability, relative stability, transient response and error analysis. When the
system put to service stray inductance and capacitance get into the system, thus
changes the location of poles and zeros. In root locus technique in control
system we will evaluate the position of the roots, their locus of movement and
associated information. These information will be used to comment upon the system
performance.

Now before I introduce what is a root locus technique, it is very essential here to discuss
a few of the advantages of this technique over other stability criteria. Some of the
advantages of root locus technique are written below.

Advantages of Root Locus Technique

1.

Root locus technique in control system is easy to implement as compared to other

methods.

2.

With the help of root locus we can easily predict the performance of the whole system.

3.

Root locus provides the better way to indicate the parameters.

Now there are various terms related to root locus technique that we will use frequently in
this article.
1.

Characteristic Equation Related to Root Locus Technique : 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0 is

known as characteristic equation. Now on differentiating the characteristic equation and on
equating dk/ds equals to zero, we can get break away points.

2.

Break away Points : Suppose two root loci which start from pole and moves in opposite
direction collide with each other such that after collision they start moving in different directions

in the symmetrical way. Or the break away points at which multiple roots of the characteristic
equation 1 + G(s)H(s)= 0 occur. The value of K is maximum at the points where the branches of
root loci break away. Break away points may be real, imaginary or complex.
3.

Break in Point : Condition of break in to be there on the plot is written below : Root
locus must be present between two adjacent zeros on the real axis.

4.

Centre of Gravity : It is also known centroid and is defined as the point on the plot from
where all the asymptotes start. Mathematically, it is calculated by the difference of summation of
poles and zeros in the transfer function when divided by the difference of total number of poles
and total number of zeros. Centre of gravity is always real & it is denoted by A.

Where N is number of poles & M is number of zeros.

5.

Asymptotes of Root Loci : Asymptote originates from the centre of gravity or centroid
and goes to infinity at definite some angle. Asymptotes provide direction to the root locus when
they depart break away points.

6.

Angle of Asymptotes : Asymptotes makes some angle with the real axis and this angle
can be calculated from the given formula,

Where p = 0, 1, 2 . (N-M-1)
N is the total number of poles
M is the total number of zeros.

7.

Angle of Arrival or Departure : We calculate angle of departure when there exists

complex poles in the system. Angle of departure can be calculated as 180-{(sum of angles to a
complex pole from the other poles)-(sum of angle to a complex pole from the zeros)}.

8.

Intersection of Root Locus with the Imaginary Axis : In order to find out the point of
intersection root locus with imaginary axis, we have to use Routh Hurwitz criterion. First, we find
the auxiliary equation then the corresponding value of K will give the value of the point of
intersection.

9.

Gain Margin : We define gain margin as a by which the design value of the gain factor
can be multiplied before the system becomes unstable. Mathematically it is given by the formula

10.

Phase Margin : Phase margin can be calculated from the given formula:

11.

Symmetry of Root Locus : Root locus is symmetric about the x axis or the real axis.

How to determine the value of K at any point on the root loci ? Now there are two ways
of determining the value of K, each way is described below.

1.

Magnitude Criteria : At any points on the root locus we can apply magnitude criteria as,

Using this formula we can calculate the value of K at any desired point.
2.

Using Root Locus Plot : The value of K at any s on the root locus is given by

Root Locus Plot

This is also known as root locus technique in control system and is used for determining
the stability of the given system. Now in order to determine the stability of the system
using the root locus technique we find the range of values of K for which the complete
performance of the system will be satisfactory and the operation is stable.
Now there are some results that one should remember in order to plot the root locus.
These results are written below:
1.

Region where root locus exists : After plotting all the poles and zeros on the plane, we
can easily find out the region of existence of the root locus by using one simple rule which is
written below,

Only that segment will be considered in making root locus if the total number of poles
and zeros at the right hand side of the segment is odd.
2.

How to calculate the number of separate root loci ? : A number of separate root loci
are equal to the total number of roots if number of roots are greater than the number of poles
otherwise number of separate root loci is equal to the total number of poles if number of roots
are greater than the number of zeros.

Procedure to Plot Root Locus

Keeping all these points in mind we are able to draw the root locus plot for any kind of
system. Now let us discuss the procedure of making a root locus.

1.

Find out all the roots and poles from the open loop transfer function and then plot them
on the complex plane.

2.

All the root loci starts from the poles where k = 0 and terminates at the zeros where K
tends to infinity. The number of branches terminating at infinity equals to the difference between
the number of poles & number of zeros of G(s)H(s).

3.

Find the region of existence of the root loci from the method described above after
finding the values of M and N.

4.

Calculate break away points and break in points if any.

5.

Plot the asymptotes and centroid point on the complex plane for the root loci by
calculating the slope of the asymptotes.

6.

Now calculate angle of departure and the intersection of root loci with imaginary axis.

7.

Now determine the value of K by using any one method that I have described above.

By following above procedure you can easily draw the root locus plot for any open loop
transfer function.
8.

Calculate the gain margin.

9.

Calculate the phase margin.

10.

You can easily comment on the stability of the system by using Routh array.

Bode plots were first introduced by H.W. Bode, when he was working at Bell labs in the
United States. Now before I describe what are this plots it is very essential here to
discuss a few advantages over other stability criteria. Some of the advantages of this
plot are written below:

Advantages of Bode Plot

1.

It is based on the asymptotic approximation, which provides a simple method to plot the
logarithmic magnitude curve.

2.

The multiplication of various magnitude appears in the transfer function can be treated
as an addition, while division can be treated as subtraction as we are using a logarithmic scale.

3.

With the help of this plot only we can directly comment on the stability of the system
without doing any calculations.

4.

Bode plots provides relative stability in terms of gain margin and phase margin.

5.

It also covers from low frequency to high frequency range.

Now there are various terms related to this plot that we will use frequently in this article.
1.

Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the stability of the system. It
refers to the amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased without making the system
unstable. It is usually expressed in dB.

2.

Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the stability of the system.
It refers to the phase which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable.
It is usually expressed in phase.

3.

Gain Cross Over Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which magnitude curve cuts
the zero dB axis in the bode plot.

4.

Phase Cross Over Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which phase curve cuts the
negative times the 180 degree axis in this plot.

5.

Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes cuts or meet each other
is known as break frequency or corner frequency.

6.

Resonant Frequency: The value of frequency at which the modulus of G (j) has a
peak value is known as resonant frequency.

7.

Factors: Every loop transfer function (i.e. G(s) H(s)) product of various factors like
constant term K, Integral factors (j), first order factors ( 1 + jT)( n) where n is an integer,
second order or quadratic factors.

8.

Slope: There is a slope corresponding to each factor and slope for each factor is
expressed in the dB per decade.

9.

Angle: There is an angle corresponding to each factor and angle for each factor is
expressed in the degrees.
Bode Plot

These are also known as logarithmic plot (because we draw these plots on semi-log
papers) and are used for determining the relative stabilities of the given system. Now in
order to determine the stability of the system using bode plot we draw two curves, one is
for magnitude called magnitude curve another for phase called Bode phase plot.
Now there are some results that one should remember in order to plot the Bode curve.
These results are written below:
Constant term K: This factor has a slope of zero dB per decade. There is no
corner frequency corresponding to this constant term. The phase angle associated
with this constant term is also zero.
Integral factor 1/(j)n: This factor has a slope of -20 n (where n is any
integer)dB per decade. There is no corner frequency corresponding to this integral
factor. The phase angle associated with this integral factor is -90 n here n is also
an integer.
First order factor 1/ (1+jT): This factor has a slope of -20 dB per decade.
The corner frequency corresponding to this factor is 1/T radian per second. The
phase angle associated with this first factor is -tan - 1(T).
First order factor (1+jT): This factor has a slope of 20 dB per decade. The
corner frequency corresponding to this factor is 1/T radian per second. The phase
angle associated with this first factor is tan - 1(T) .
Second order or quadratic factor : [{1/(1+(2/)} (j) + {(1/2)}
(j)2)]: This factor has a slope of -40 dB per decade. The corner frequency
corresponding to this factor is n radian per second. The phase angle associated
with this first factor is tan-1{ (2 / n) / (1-( / n)2)} .

Keeping all these points in mind we are able to draw the plot for any kind of system.
Now let us discuss the procedure of making a bode plot:

1.

Substitute the s = j in the open loop transfer function G(s) H(s).

2.

Find the corresponding corner frequencies and tabulate them.

3.

Now we are required one semi-log graph chooses a frequency range such that the plot
should start with the frequency which is lower than the lowest corner frequency. Mark angular
frequencies on the x-axis, mark slopes on the left hand side of the y-axis by marking a zero
slope in the middle and on the right hand side mark phase angle by taking -180 degrees in the
middle.

4.

Calculate the gain factor and the type or order of the system.

5.

Now calculate slope corresponding to each factor.

For drawing the Magnitude curve :

(a) Mark the corner frequency on the semi log graph paper.
(b)Tabulate these factors moving from top to bottom in the given sequence.
1.

Constant term K.

2.

Integral factor 1/(j)n.

3.

First order factor 1/ (1+jT).

4.

First order factor (1+jT).

5.

Second order or quadratic factor : [{1/(1+(2/)} (j) + {(1/2)} (j)2)]

(c) Now sketch the line with the help of corresponding slope of the given factor. Change
the slope at every corner frequency by adding the slope of the next factor. You will get
magnitude plot.
(d) Calculate the gain margin.
For drawing the Bode phase plot :
1.

Calculate the phase function adding all the phases of factors.

2.

Substitute various values to above function in order to find out the phase at different
points and plot a curve. You will get a phase curve.

3.

Calculate the phase margin.

Stability Conditions of Bode Plots

Stability conditions are given below :
1.

For Stable System : Both the margins should be positive. Or phase margin should be
greater than the gain margin.

2.

For Marginal Stable System : Both the margins should be zero. Or phase margin
should be equal to the gain margin.

3.

For Unstable System : If any of them is negative. Or phase margin should be less than
the gain margin.