Caranfil Crina-Mihaela

Floristeanu Mihaela-Roxana
Macovei Alexandra-Raphaela

Content

Taxonomy and evolution

Distribution and habitat
Jaguar reproduction and life cycles
Jaguar diet and prey
Jaguar predators and threats
Jaguar conservation and status life
Jaguar behaviour and lifestyle
Jaguar relationships with humans
Bibliography

Jaguar

The jaguar is
a big
cat,
a feline in
the Panthera genus,
and
is
the
only extant Panthera species native to the Americas.
The jaguar is the third-largest feline after
the tiger and the lion, and the largest in the Western
Hemisphere. The jaguar's present range extends
from Southwestern United States and Mexico across
much of Central America and south to Paraguay and
northern Argentina. Apart from a known and possibly
breeding population in Arizona (southeast of Tucson),
the cat has largely been extirpated from the United
States since the early 20th century.
This spotted cat most closely resembles
the leopard physically, although it is usually larger and
of
sturdier
build
and
its
behavioral
andhabitat characteristics are closer to those of the
tiger. While dense rainforest is its preferred habitat,
the jaguar will range across a variety of forested and
open terrains. It is strongly associated with the
presence of water and is notable, along with the tiger,
as a feline that enjoys swimming. The jaguar is largely
a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush predator at

the top of the food chain (an apex predator). It is

a keystone species, playing an important role in
stabilizing ecosystems and regulating the populations
of the animals it hunts. The jaguar has an exceptionally
powerful bite, even relative to the other big cats. This
allows it to pierce the shells of armored reptiles and to
employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly
through the skull of prey between the ears to deliver a
fatal bite to the brain.
The jaguar is a near threatened species and its
numbers are declining. Threats include loss
and fragmentation of habitat. While international
trade in jaguars or their parts is prohibited, the cat is
still frequently killed by humans, particularly in
conflicts with ranchers and farmers in South America.
Although reduced, its range remains large. Given its
historical distribution, the jaguar has featured
prominently in the mythology of numerous indigenous
American
cultures,
including
those
of
the Maya and Aztec.
Taxonomy and Evolution
The jaguar, Panthera onca, is the only extant New
World member of the Panthera genus. DNA evidence
shows the lion, tiger, leopard, jaguar, snow leopard,

and clouded leopardshare a common ancestor, and that

this group is between six and ten million years old; the
fossil record points to the emergence of Panthera just
two to 3.8 million years ago. Phylogenetic studies
generally have shown the clouded leopard (Neofelis
nebulosa) is basal to this group. The position of the
remaining species varies between studies and is
effectively unresolved.
Based
on
morphological
evidence,
British zoologist Reginald Pocock concluded the jaguar
is most closely related to the leopard. However, DNA
evidence is inconclusive and the position of the jaguar
relative to the other species varies between
studies. Fossils of extinct Panthera species, such as
the European jaguar (Panthera gombaszoegensis) and
the American
lion (Panthera
atrox),
show
characteristics
of
both
the
lion
and
the
jaguar. Analysis of jaguar mitochondrial DNA has dated
the species' lineage to between 280,000 and 510,000
years ago, later than suggested by fossil records.
Asian ancestry
While jaguars now live only in the Americas, they
are descended from Old World cats. Two million years
ago, scientists believe, the jaguar and its closest
relative, the similarly spotted leopard, shared a

common ancestor in Asia.[20] In the early Pleistocene,

the forerunners of modern jaguars crossed Beringia,
the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait
and connected Asia and North America. These jaguar
ancestors then moved south into Central and South
America, feeding on the deer and other grazing animals
that once covered the landscape in huge herds.
Geographical variation
The
last
taxonomic
delineation
of
the
jaguar subspecies was performed by Pocock in 1939.
Based on geographic origins and skullmorphology, he
recognized eight subspecies. However, he did not have
access to sufficient specimens to critically evaluate all
subspecies, and he expressed doubt about the status
of several. Later consideration of his work suggested
only three subspecies should be recognized.
Recent studies have also failed to find evidence
for well-defined subspecies, which are no longer
recognized. Larson (1997) studied the morphological
variation in the jaguar and showed there is clinal north
south variation, but also the differentiation within the
supposed subspecies is larger than that between them,
and thus does not warrant subspecies subdivision. A
genetic study by Eizirik and coworkers in 2001
confirmed the absence of a clear geographical

subspecies structure, although they found that major

geographical barriers, such as the Amazon River,
limited the exchange of genes between the different
populations. A subsequent, more detailed study
confirmed the predicted population structure within
the Colombian jaguars.
Pocock's subspecies divisions are still regularly listed in
general descriptions of the cat.] Seymour grouped
these in three subspecies.
1. Panthera
onca
the Amazon, including

onca: Venezuela through

P. o. peruviana (Peruvian jaguar): Coastal Peru

2.P. o. hernandesii (Mexican

Mexico including

jaguar'):

Western

P. o. centralis (Central American jaguar): El

Salvador to Colombia

P.
o.
arizonensis (Arizonan
Southern Arizona to Sonora, Mexico

P. o. veraecrucis:
southeastern Mexico

Central

jaguar):
Texas

to

P.o.goldmani (Goldman'sjaguar): Yucatn

Peninsula to Belize and Guatemala

3.P. o. palustris (the largest subspecies, weighing

more than 135 kg or 300 lb): The Pantanal regions
of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil,
along
the Paraguay
River into Paraguay and
northeastern Argentina.
The Mammal Species of the World continues to
recognize nine subspecies, the eight subspecies above
and additionally P. o. paraguensis.
Distribution and habitat
The jaguar has been an American cat since
crossing
the Bering
Land
Bridge during
the Pleistocene epoch; the immediate ancestor of
modern animals is Panthera onca augusta, which was

larger than the contemporary cat. Its present range

extends from Mexico, through Central America

and into South America, including much of
Amazonian Brazil.The countries included in this
range
are Argentina,
Belize, Bolivia,
Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica (particularly on
the Osa
Peninsula), Ecuador, French
Guiana,

Guatemala,Guyana,
Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname,
the United States and Venezuela. The jaguar is
now extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay. It occurs
in the 400 km Cockscomb Basin Wildlife
Sanctuary in
Belize,
the
5,300 km Sian
Ka'an Biosphere Reserve in M exico, the
approximately 15,000 km2 Man National Park in
Peru,
the
approximately
26,000 km2 Xingu
National Park in Brazil, and numerous other
reserves throughout its range.
The inclusion of the United States in the list
is based on occasional sightings in the southwest,
particularly in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. In
the early 20th century, the jaguar's range
extended as far north as the Grand Canyon, and
as far west as Southern California. The jaguar is
a protected species in the United States under
the Endangered Species Act, which has stopped
the shooting of the animal for its pelt.
The habitat of the cat includes the rain
forests of South and Central
America,
open,

seasonally flooded wetlands, and dry grassland

terrain. Of these habitats, the jaguar much
prefers dense forest; the cat has lost range most
rapidly in regions of drier habitat, such as the
Argentinian pampas, the arid grasslands of
Mexico, and the southwestern United States. The
cat will range across tropical, subtropical, and dry
deciduous forests (including, historically, oak
forests in the United States). The jaguar is
strongly associated with water, and it often
prefers to live by rivers, swamps, and in dense
rainforest with thick cover for stalking prey.
Jaguars have been found at elevations as high as
3,800 m, but they typically avoid montane forest
and are not found in the high plateau of central
Mexico or in the Andes.
Substantial evidence exists for a colony of
nonnative, melanistic leopards or jaguars
inhabiting the rainforests around Sydney,
Australia. A local report compiled statements
from over 450 individuals recounting their stories
of sighting large black cats in the area, and

confidential NSW
Government documents
regarding the matter proved wildlife authorities
were so concerned about the big cats and the
danger to humans, they commissioned an expert
to catch one. The three-day hunt later failed, but
ecologist Johannes J. Bauer warned: "Difficult as
it seems to accept, the most likely explanation is
the presence of a large, feline predator. In this
area, [it is] most likely a leopard, less likely a
jaguar.

Reproduction and life cycle

Jaguar females reach sexual maturity at
about two years of age, and males at three or
four. The cat is believed to mate throughout the
year in the wild, although births may increase
when prey is plentiful. Research on captive male
jaguars
supports
the
year-round mating
hypothesis, with no seasonal variation in semen

traits and ejaculatory quality; low reproductive

success
has
also
been
observed
in
captivity. Female estrus is 617 days out of a full
37-day cycle, and females will advertise fertility
with urinary
scent
marks and
increased
vocalization. Both sexes will range more widely
than usual during courtship.
Pairs separate after mating, and females
provide all parenting. The gestation period lasts
93105 days; females give birth to up to four
cubs, and most commonly to two. The mother will
not tolerate the presence of males after the
birth of cubs, given a risk of infanticide; this
behavior is also found in the tiger.
The young are born blind, gaining sight after
two weeks. Cubs are weaned at three months, but
remain in the birth den for six months before
leaving to accompany their mother on hunts. They
will continue in their mother's company for one to
two
years
before
leaving
to
establish
a territory for themselves. Young males are at
first nomadic, jostling with their older

counterparts until they succeed in claiming a

territory. Typical lifespan in the wild is estimated
at around 1215 years; in captivity, the jaguar
lives up to 23 years, placing it among the longestlived cats
Jaguar Diet and Prey
Like
all
cats,
the
jaguar
is
an
obligate carnivore, feeding only on meat. It is an
opportunistic hunter and its diet encompasses at
least 87 species. The jaguar can take virtually
any terrestrial or riparian vertebrate found
in
Central or South America, with a preference for
large prey. The jaguar is more of a dietary
generalist than its Old World cousins: the
American tropics have a high diversity of small
animals but relatively low populations and
diversity of the large ungulates which this genus
favors. They
regularly
take
adult
caimans, deer, capybaras, tapirs, peccaries,
dogs, zorros, and sometimes even anacondas.

However, the cat will eat any small species that

can be caught, including frogs, mice, birds (mainly
ground-based
species
such
as cracids), fish, sloths, monkeys, and turtles; a
study conducted in Cockscomb Basin Wildlife
Sanctuary in Belize, for example, revealed that
the diets of jaguars there consisted primarily
of armadillos and pacas. Some jaguars will also
take
domestic
livestock,
including
adult cattle and horses.
While the jaguar often employs the deep
throat-bite and suffocation technique typical
among Panthera, it sometimes uses a killing
method unique amongst cats: it pierces directly
through the temporal bones of the skull between
the ears of prey (especially the capybara) with its
canine teeth, piercing the brain. This may be an
adaptation to "cracking open" turtle shells;
following the late Pleistocene extinctions,
armored reptiles such as turtles would have
formed an abundant prey base for the
jaguar. The skull bite is employed with mammals
in particular; with reptiles such as the caiman, the

jaguar may leap onto the back of the prey and

sever the cervical vertebrae, immobilizing the
target. While capable of cracking turtle shells, the
jaguar may simply smash into the shell with its paw and
scoop out the flesh. When attacking sea turtles,
including the huge Leatherback sea turtle which weighs
about 385 kg (849 lb) on average, as they try to nest
on beaches, the jaguar will bite at the head, often
beheading the prey, before dragging it off to
eat. Reportedly, while hunting horses, a jaguar may leap
onto their back, place one paw on the muzzle and
another on the nape and then twist, dislocating the
neck. Local people have anecdotally reported that when
hunting a pair of horses bound together, the jaguar will
kill one horse and then drag it while the other horse,
still living, is dragged in their wake. With prey such as
smaller dogs, a paw swipe to the skull may be sufficient
to kill it.
The jaguar is a stalk-and-ambush rather than a
chase predator. The cat will walk slowly down forest
paths, listening for and stalking prey before rushing or
ambushing. The jaguar attacks from cover and usually
from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the
species' ambushing abilities are considered nearly
peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous

people and field researchers, and are probably a

product of its role as an apex predator in several
different environments. The ambush may include
leaping into water after prey, as a jaguar is quite
capable of carrying a large kill while swimming; its
strength is such that carcasses as large as a heifer can
be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels.
Jaguar Predators and Threats
Habitat loss and overhunting have these rare cats
on the run and listed as threatened or endangered
nearly everywhere they call home. The situation is most
dire in the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, where theyve
been virtually wiped out in the United States, and only
70-100 animals are thought to survive in Sonora,
Mexico.
Habitat Loss - Farms, ranches, mines, roads,
towns,
residential
subdivisions
and
border
infrastructure are increasingly being built in areas
important
to
jaguar
survival,
destroying
jaguar habitat and blocking migration routes.
Human Intolerance - As humans continue to
encroach on the jaguars home, these opportunistic
eaters will occasionally prey on livestock, making them

unpopular with ranchers. As a result, tolerance for

these endangered cats is low, which can lead to
additional killings.
Poaching - Jaguars are also frequently killed by
poachers, who prize them for their unique rosettespotted coats. In 1997, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service added jaguars to the list of endangered
species but didnt think the small, elusive population
warranted critical habitat protections or a recovery
plan. In 2003, Defenders of Wildlife filed its first of
several lawsuits against the FWS, urging officials to
reopen the jaguars case and reconsider a recovery plan
to help increase numbers in the region. Despite the
recurring presence of jaguars in Arizona and plenty of
available habitat, the George W. Bush administration
took the position that jaguars were a foreign species
and never agreed to a recovery plan or habitat
protections. It was not until 2010 that the Obama
administration finally agreed to draw up a recovery plan
and to consider designating critical habitat.
Jaguar Conservation Status and Life Today

Jaguar populations are rapidly declining. The animal

is considered Near Threatened by the International
Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN), meaning it
may be threatened with extinction in the near future.
The loss of parts of its range, including its virtual
elimination from its historic northern areas and the
increasing fragmentation of the remaining range, have
contributed to this status. The 1960s had particularly
significant declines, with more than 15,000 jaguar skins
brought
out
of
the Brazilian
Amazon yearly;
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of 1973 brought about a sharp decline in the
pelt trade. Detailed work performed under the
auspices of the Wildlife Conservation Society revealed
the animal has lost 37% of its historic range, with its
status unknown in an additional 18%. More
encouragingly, the probability of long-term survival was
considered high in 70% of its remaining range,
particularly in the Amazon basin and the adjoining Gran
Chaco and Pantal. In
1990
Belize
created
the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary as the world's
first wilderness reserve for jaguar protection and
study.
The
major
risks
to
the
jaguar
include deforestation across its habitat, increasing

competition
for
food
with
human
beings, poaching, hurricanes in northern parts of its
range, and the behavior of ranchers who will often kill
the cat where it preys on livestock. When adapted to
the prey, the jaguar has been shown to take cattle as a
large portion of its diet; while land clearance for
grazing is a problem for the species, the jaguar
population may have increased when cattle were first
introduced to South America, as the animals took
advantage of the new prey base. This willingness to
take livestock has induced ranch owners to hire fulltime jaguar hunters, and the cat is often shot on sight.
Current conservation efforts often focus on
educating ranch owners and promoting ecotourism. The
jaguar is generally defined as anumbrella species its
home range and habitat requirements are sufficiently
broad that, if protected, numerous other species of
smaller range will also be protected. Umbrella species
serve as "mobile links" at the landscape scale, in the
jaguar's case through predation. Conservation
organizations may thus focus on providing viable,
connected habitat for the jaguar, with the knowledge
other species will also benefit.
In the past, conservation of jaguars sometimes
occurred through the protection of jaguar "hotspots".

These hotspots, described as jaguar conservation

units, were large areas populated by about 50 jaguars.
However, some researchers recently determined, to
maintain a robust sharing of the jaguar gene pool
necessary for maintaining the species, it is important
that the jaguars are interconnected. To facilitate this,
a new project, the Paseo del Jaguar, has been
established to connect several jaguar hotspots.
Jaguar Behaviour and Lifestyle
Jaguars are territorial. Like most cats, the jaguar
is solitary outside mother-cub groups. Adults generally
meet only to court and mate and carve out large
territories for themselves. Female territories, from 25
to 40 square kilometres in size, may overlap, but the
animals generally avoid one another. Male ranges cover
roughly twice as much area, varying in size with the
availability of game and space and do not overlap.
Scrape marks, urine and faeces are used to mark
territory.
Like the other big cats, the jaguar is capable of
roaring (the male more powerfully) and does so to warn
territorial and mating competitors away. Intensive

bouts of counter-calling between individuals have been

observed in the wild. Their roar often resembles a
repetitive cough and they may also vocalize mews and
grunts. Mating fights between males occur, but are
rare. Conflict is typically over territory. A males range
may include that of two or three females however he
will not tolerate intrusions by other adult males.
Jaguar Relationship with Humans
Are they a problem for us ?
Contrary to the rare, but well-documented, cases
that have happened with lions, tigers, and leopards,
jaguars don't eat people. There are cases of jaguars
attacking people, but the majority has happened in
hunting situations, in which the jaguar was cornered or
shot at. Jaguars can also attack to defend their cubs
or their prey.
Inadequate ecotourism practices also can increase
jaguar attack risks. The use of baits to attract jaguars
to river mouths or beaches, and other open areas
where they can be more easily observed by tourists,
can habituate jaguars to human presence. That means
that they lose their natural fear for humans. And

worse, this practice can lead jaguars to associate the

presence of people with food. This combination of loss
of fear and association of people with food can provoke
an attack on human spectators. Even when the
encounter with a jaguar in the wild can be the best
award for an eco-tourist, and the use of baits can
increase the (typically remote) possibility of an
encounter, this practice can result in disastrous
consequences (for both parties), and has to be
rejected and strongly prohibited.
Before getting worried about a jaguar attack,
consider the danger represented by some other
species. Consider first that one of the animals that
kills more people in the world is the apparently
inoffensive mosquito. Even domestic dogs, deserve
more worry than jaguars, since each year dozens of
people are killed by them. Documented cases of humans
killed by jaguars in Brazil in particular and in Latin
America in general are very rare.
There are more registered human attacks by pumas
than by jaguars. There are more than 100 confirmed
attacks on humans in North America since 1890. Fifty
of those incidents happened since 1991. Twenty of
those resulted in death of the victim. Of the twenty
mortal victims, twelve were children 13 years of age or

less. In Brazil, the only fatal attack registered,

happened in Amazonia in 1992, and the victim was a
child. Nevertheless, if we do the comparisons, even
pumas represent an insignificant danger for man.
Jaguars kill domestic animals. And where they do
especially where there are chronic problems these
areas are strongly associated with areas where natural
prey has been diminished by deforestation, hunting and
the advance of agriculture and introduced pastures.
These activities increase the proximity between
jaguars and domestic animals and decrease the
potential for jaguars to encounter natural prey.
Again, it is important to see things in their proper
context. For a herd owner of 100 cattle, though the
loss of one calf looks large, there are other general
causes of mortality such as diseases, calving problems,
snake bites, drowning, malnutrition (and in many
countries we also have to include cattle rustling or
theft), that cause much greater losses to cattle
producers than jaguar predation. So, to enhance cattle
productivity in general, it makes more sense to invest in
improving management practices than to invest in
eliminating jaguars
We are the problem !

Jaguars are disappearing. They already have been

eliminated in large areas of many countries, and their
distribution and abundance continues to diminish
rapidly.
One of the principal threats for jaguars is habitat loss;
jaguars are losing the environment in which they prefer
to live. The principal habitat of the jaguar is the
forest. Latin American countries lose immense areas of
tropical forests each year because of deforestation
for agriculture and mining. Some countries, like El
Salvador, have eliminated so much jaguar habitat that
they have no significant populations left. Brazil, as
another example, loses a larger area of tropical forests
per year than any other country in the world. The
largest portion of that loss occurs in the so called Arc
of Deforestation, stretching from the state of Par
to the state of Acre, passing through northern Mato
Grosso and Rondonia. Regulating deforestation is an
important factor in conserving jaguar populations, but
the loss of habitat continues, as does the loss of
jaguars with it.
Another important threat for
jaguars is the disappearance of their natural prey, by
loss or modification of habitat, and also through over
hunting. In many regions where jaguars still exist,
people hunt peccaries, tapir, and deer, the preferred

prey of jaguars. In some cases, because of the lack of

natural prey, jaguars turn more commonly to cattle as a
feeding alternative.
The indiscriminate, direct killing of jaguars also
hastens the disappearance of this felid. The
persecution of jaguars is usually associated with the
predation of domestic stock. Ranchers will kill or
mandate the killing of jaguars that simply show up on
their properties or are directly associated with losses
in their cattle herds. However, the decision between
killing the problem jaguar, taking management actions
with the herd to solve the problem (see them in How
can we live with jaguars), or simply tolerating the loss,
depends on a series of socioeconomic and cultural
reasons. In addition, jaguars are also killed even when
they do not threaten cattle. The fear of these cats,
the sport and entertainment of the hunt, and/or the
demonstration of bravery by confronting a powerful
animal, are also reasons why some people kill jaguars.
Reasons to coexist with jaguars
Ecological reasons. The jaguar is the largest
terrestrial predator of Latin America and feeds on a
diversity of other animals, including species that feed
on leaves and seeds like deer, tapir, pacas and agoutis,
and carnivores like foxes and coatis. Feeding on these

species, jaguars control their populations; that is,

they impede prey population increases to over
abundance. Foxes and coatis in turn, control their prey
populations, rats, crabs, and snails; in the same way,
leave and seed eaters control the plant populations on
which they feed on. Thus, through a cascade effect,
jaguars have an ample influence over the forests where
they live, imparting affects on natural communities,
from the insects to the trees. Also, even when it has
not been scientifically proven yet, it is possible that
jaguars help to diminish the transmission of diseases
between different animal species and also from these
species to man, since they prey more easily on ill or
weak individuals.
Economical Reasons. The jaguar is one of the more
beautiful and fascinating species of the Latin American
wildlife. For this reason, its image is used for
commercial purposes, especially by the tourism
industry. For example, in the state of Mato Grosso
(Brazil), in the posters and booklets of tourism
advertisement, produced by the State Tourism Office
and by tourism agencies, the jaguar is the animal most
often shown (with the probable exception of the jabiru
stork). In fact, jaguars can contribute to tourism, even
when the chance of seeing them is remote. Commonly, a

larger number of tourists is likely to pay more for the

occasion of observing or hearing a jaguar, or simply for
the experience of being in jaguar territory, or even for
the opportunity of contributing to the conservation of
this species through tourism. Some cattle ranches in
the Pantanal (Brazil) are now receiving larger revenues
from eco-tourism (with the jaguar as flagship species)
than from their cattle operations.
Legal Reasons. Killing jaguars is illegal, and killing a
jaguar is a crime in jaguar range countries, as defined
by their environmental laws (with the exception of
Belize, if you are protecting your life or livelihood). For
example, in Brazil, article 29 of the Brazilian Law for
Environmental Crimes states, it is illegal to kill,
persecute, hunt, capture, utilize native or migrating
specimens of wildlife, without the proper licenses,
permits or authorizations given by the competent
authority or in disagreement to the one obtained:
penalty of detention of six months to one year and
fine.
Cultural Reasons. The jaguar is an icon of Latin
American culture. In practically all the indigenous Latin
American cultures, the jaguar occupies a special
position as another powerful human or as a messenger
to the gods. Being a predator of extremely good

hunting skills, like humans, he possesses a peculiarly

human cunning and shows up in the myths of almost all
of these cultures as the living symbol of the Gods and
of their power and their strength. The jaguar
symbolizes cunning, vigor, speed, and above all, this
felid is used to express the power of nature. For the
modern man, the jaguar contributes to cultural
manifestations in their most varied forms, from local
crafts to children tales; from paintings that portray
the history of the country to the 50 Reais bank notes
in Brazil. For capturing the attention and interest of
children and grow-ups, the jaguar is the starting point
of educational and communication activities for the
conservation of nature.
Emotional Reasons. Felids always have ignited a
great fascination in people. Being the largest felid in
the Western Hemisphere, and also because of their
exceptional beauty, jaguars awaken emotions ranging
from admiration to fear, from fascination to rage. No
other wildlife species elicits such strong and
contrasting feelings. In addition, it is a part of human
nature to give value to diversity in all its dimensions, be
it material, cultural, or natural. We are affectively
attached to jaguars and, for the same reasons we
restore our historical buildings and safeguard art

pieces in museums, we want jaguars to continue to

exist.
Ethical Reasons. Killing jaguars is wrong. Push a
species to extinction is immoral. More and more people
are supporting these beliefs. Understanding the idea
that it is not jaguars that are invading human space,
but humans invading jaguar space, and understanding
that jaguars don't cause damage on purpose or through
malice, but they are simply following their predatory
instincts, has helped bring about acceptance of the
perception that killing jaguars is something wrong. In
addition, and above all, the view that jaguars like
people have an inalienable right to exist and persist in
their natural ways would render immoral actions that
counter that right and seek to drive jaguars toward
extinction.
How to coexist with jaguars
Perhaps the most effective way to stem habitat
loss is through the creation of protected areas. The
creation
of
protected
areas
(where
human
development, use, and impact is minimized) has
traditionally been the role of the state or federal
government, but rural landowners also can play a very

important role. For example, in the case of Brazil, rural

landowners must follow Environmental Legislation that
mandates Permanent Preservation Areas and Legal
Reserves be established in any farm or rural property;
this also applies in establishing Private Natural
Heritage Reserves.
The following strategies can be applied for the
prevention of jaguar (and puma) attacks on cattle and
other domestic stock: Don't hunt and don't allow any
hunting of the jaguar's natural prey.
Don't hunt jaguars and don't allow the hunting of
jaguars. Jaguar hunting produces individuals with
physical limitations (such as broken teeth or mobility
issues) that will diminish their capacity for capturing
their natural prey, leading them to attack cattle.
Build and locate fences to prevent cattle from
forested areas.
Create water sources (wells or lagoons) away from
forested areas, if possible.
Don't hold late-term cows or cows with young
calves near forested areas. These animals should be
grazing in open areas, preferably near farm buildings
and human activity.

Use electrical
paddocks .

fences

around

the

maternity

For the purpose of repelling felid attacks, the

electrical fence final voltage has to stay over 4,500 to
5,000 volts, and the fence should have 3 strands of
electrical wire at 20, 40 and 60 cm off the ground and
one upper negative strand at 85 cm. This installation is
easier to use in small paddocks or night enclosures
(where the herds are penned at night). Large paddocks
suffer problems of electricity supply. This is a
technified system that functions well and is very
effective, but requires attentive monitoring so
maintenance issues can be resolved quickly.
Maintain
some
horned, older, and experienced cows or steers in the
herd; these older animals help instill grouping behavior
in the herd that is effective in avoiding jaguar attacks.
Bells can be hung from the necks of some tame animals
as another helpful deterrent device.
In extensive forested areas with high
predation incidence, reunite the herds and pen them at
night in a corral or enclosure near human habitations, in
small paddocks, well fenced, or with an electrical fence
(as described above). Despite a small increase in
operation costs, this simple strategy is very helpful in

reducing the impacts of predation (and, in addition,

rustling, or cattle theft), and the animals easily adapt
to this management; installation of lights in the night
enclosures or corrals is also useful, as is the burning
of some dry dung to keep away mosquitoes and biting
insects, which tames and tranquilizes the enclosed
herds.
In properties with high predation incidence,
replace cattle breeding operations with rearing or
fattening operations. In this way, these areas will be
utilized with animals above 1 to 2 years of age.
Establish short breeding seasons of 3-4 months of
length, instead of having breeding and calving year
round. During the reduced calving season, it is very
important to maintain intensive surveillance of the
calving process and of the newborn calves. This
managerial decision, will not only help manage and
organize a productive cattle herd in an organized and
predictable manner, but assist in predicting and
managing all the important annual events (weaning,
palpation, vaccinations, culling, sales, cattle selection,
replacement quality, etc.) in a much more efficient way,
enhancing the farm productivity. This action, combined
with the calving paddocks with electrical fences and

the night penning up of the herds, provide a very

efficient strategy to reduce calf predation.
During wet season, move cattle from low, floodprone areas, to higher grounds so they don't stay
isolated and weakened by the flooding, making them
more vulnerable to jaguar attacks (This is especially
important in floodplain areas, such as the Llanos,
Pantanal, and Beni).
Dispose
of the carcasses of domestic animals that died due to
other causes (such as snake bites, calving problems and
diseases) so they cannot be devoured by cats and
promote the tendency to consume cattle.
In flooded areas with high incidence of predation
problems, the introduction of small and well managed
herds of milking water buffalo (of the Murrah breed),
managed alone or in combination with cattle herds, has
demonstrated to be an efficient way to reduce
predation 3problems in many Venezuelan cattle farms .
It is important to note that buffalo need constant and
intensive human handling, to prevent them from
becoming feral, and creating an environmental problem.
This is easily solved with good management; it is not a
species problem. Also, buffalo in flooded environments
have demonstrated higher productivity than cattle.

Be familiar
domestic animals
to differentiate
packs of wild or
thieves.

with the appearance and signs of

depredated by felines, and know how
these from those losses caused by
feral dogs, and by rustlers or cattle

Keep detailed records on mortality and its causes

in the ranch's cattle registries and check the real
losses and their causes, and compare the information
from each year in terms of the percentages or
mortality and its causes.

Bibliography

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar#Reproduc
tion_and_life_cycle
http://a-z-animals.com/animals/jaguar/
http://giphy.com/search/jaguar/3
http://www.animalcorner.co.uk/rainforests/ja
guar.html
http://www.livescience.com/27301jaguars.html
http://www.animallearningzone.com/jaguar/j
aguar_behavior.php