SUGAR BOILING

Name: T.L.V.Peiris

Index No: GS/MSc/Food/3630/08

PRACTICAL NO ; 1

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST

INTRODUCTION

Bread dough is prepared by mixing water and flour (70:30 w/w). Water uptake, which
depends on flour type, predetermines most of the subsequent reactions. A high water
uptake favors the mobility of all the constituents involved in reactions, e. g., enzymatic
degradation of starch into reducing sugars.
Dough consisting only of flour and water gives a dense flat cake. Baked products with a
porous crumb, such as bread, are obtained only after the dough is leavened. This is
achieved for wheat dough by addition of yeast while, for fine baked products, baking
powders are used.

Yeast
More oftenly surface fermenting yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is used. While normal
yeasts preferentially degrade sucrose rather than maltose, special rapidly fermenting
yeasts are used which metabolize both disaccharides at the same rate, shortening the
fermentation time. Yeasts differ in their growth temperature optima (24–26 ◦C) and their
fermentation temperature optima (28–32 ◦C). The optimum pH for growth is 4.0–5.0. In
addition to CO2 and ethanol, which raise the dough, the yeast forms a variety of aroma
compounds. Whether other compounds released by the growth of yeast would affect the
dough rheology is unclear; there appears to be no effect of yeast proteinase and GSH.

Fermentation
Dough passes through several stages of fermentation in the presence of growing yeast, a
biological leavening agent. After initial fermentation, the dough is divided and scaled,
then the dough pieces are rounded-off. A short fermentation is followed by sheeting and
moulded dough fermentation. The dough acquires its enlarged final volume in the oven.
The yeast produces CO2 and ethanol which, as long as they do not dissolve in the aqueous
phase of the dough, expand the air bubbles (102–105 /mm3) that arise in the dough during
kneading. The volume of a square white loaf increases 4 to 5 fold and more during initial,
intermediate, and moulded dough fermentation and 5 to 7 fold during oven fermentation.
The length of time of the fermentation varies. It depends on flour type, seasonings
incorporated, the amount of yeast and oven temperature. The flour character determines
the fermentation tolerance, i. e. the minimum or maximum time after which the
fermentation has to be stopped and the dough loaded into the oven. Dough fermentation
of a weak gluten flour is rapid, but its fermentation tolerance is low.

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 2

MATERIALS

Measuring cylinders [500 ml]

Graduated pipettes
Conical flasks [500 ml]
Stoppers for conical flasks
Rubber tubing
Water bath [40 0 C]
Perforated plungers
Mixing bowls
Spoons
Weighing scale

INGREDIENTS

Wheat flour 1500 g

Rice flour 150 g
Corn starch 150 g
Malt 6. 75 g
20 % sodium chloride 135 ml
Potassium bromide
Sodium meta bisulphite [S M S]
YEAST - yeast Mauripan [instant dry yeast ]

PROCEDURE

THE EFFECT OF YEAST CONCENTRATION ON GAS PRODUCTION

The wheat flour was taken and three doughs [A, B, C ] were made based on
the following formulae by changing only the yeast concentration.
Water was added in such a way to make the total volume constant

.
DOUGH
A B C
flour 50 g 50 g 50g

Malt 0.25g 0.25 g 0.25g

20 % salt solution 5 ml 5 ml 5 ml

20 % YEAST suspension 5 ml 10 ml 15 ml

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 3

Water 22 ml 17 ml 12 ml

All above ingredients were measured accurately and mixed using separate spoons in
mixing bowls kneading with fingers to make the doughs with properly mixed
ingredients. Those three doughs were put into 500ml conical flasks.
A large plastic container and filled with water was taken.
Three 500ml measuring cylinders were filled with water and were inverted in
that water container without trapping of air bubbles .
The three conical flasks which were prepared previously were connected to the
measuring cylinders using rubber tubes , and wax was applied to the connecting ends
to prevent escape of gas.

The volume of accumulated gas in the measuring cylinders were recorded every 15
minutes until no more gas production was observed.
A graph was plotted with the results obtained.

RESULTS

Time /min Accumulated gas volume/cm3

A B C
15 - - 25
30 - 20 85
45 - 35 165
60 - 45 230
75 15 60 275
90 20 70 305
105 25 70 320
120 30 70 320
135 40 70 320
150 40 70 320
165 40 70 320
180 40 70 320

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 4

 Effect of Yeast Concentration on Gas Production

350

300
Gas Accumulation (ml)

250

200 A
B
150 C

100

50

0
)

15

30

45

60

90
75

5
in

10

12

13

15

16
(m
e
m
Ti

Time (min)

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON GAS PRODUCTION

PROCEDURE

A mixture was prepared and dough was made according to the formula B
;ie; Flour 50g
Malt 0.25 g
20 % salt solution 5 ml
20 % yeast suspension 10 ml
Water 17 ml

This dough was put into a 500 ml conical flask and connected to a 500ml measuring
cylinder that was immersed in water , using rubber tubing and the connecting ends
were sealed with wax.
The conical flask which contained the dough was put into a 40 o C water bath.
The temperature was kept constant at 40 0 C in the water bath throughout the
process and was conformed it using a thermometer .

The gas production of the dough was measured every 15 minutes until there was
no more gas production.

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 5

Time /min Accumulated gas volume/cm3
B (Room B1(at 40oC)
temperature)
15 - 25
30 20 40
45 35 85
60 45 100
75 60 110
90 70 140
105 70 195
120 70 220
135 70 220
150 70 220
165 70 220
180 70 220

E ffect o f T em p era tu re o n Ga s P ro d u ctio n

250

200
Gas Acumulation (ml)

150
B @ 30 C
B 1 @ 40 C
100

50

0
15

30

45

60

75

90

5
in)

10

12

13

15

16
e(m
Tim

Tim e (m im )

EFFECT OF MALT EXTRACT

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 6

PROCEDURE

A dough was prepared using the ingredients in formula B but instead of malt
extract corn flour was used, so that the formula was as below,

Wheat flour 50g

CORN FLOUR 0.25g
20 –salt solution 5 ml
20 yeast suspension 10ml
Water 17 ml

The dough was kept in 500 ml conical flask and the apparatus was connected as
before and kept for gas accumulation.
The collection of gas was measured every 15 minutes until it reached a constant
value .

RESULTS

Time/min Accumulated gas volume/cm3

B (with corn) B11(with malt)
15 - -
30 20 -
45 35 10
160 45 20
75 60 25
90 70 25
105 70 25
120 70 25
135 70 25
150 70 25
165 70 25
180 70 25

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 7

 Effect of Malt Extract

80

70
Gas Accumulation (ml)

60

50
B with malt
40
B II without malt
30

20

10

0
)

5
15

30

45

60

75

90
in

10

12

13

15

16
(m
e
m
Ti

Time (min)

EFFECTS OF SALT CONCENTRATION ON GAS PRODUCTION

PROCEDURE

Three doughs were prepared using following formulas and was put into 500
ml conical flasks.

A B C

Flour 50g 50g 50g

Malt 0.25g 0.25g 0.25g
20—SALT SOLUTION 0 5ml 10 ml
20—yeast suspension 10 ml 10ml 10ml
Water 22ml 17ml 12ml

The water was added to have a same volume in all three doughs.

Those three flasks were connected to 500ml measuring cylinders and gas was
allowed to collect .
The gas that was released was measured until there was no more accumulation
noted and a graph was plotted using the results.

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 8

RESULTS

Time /min Accumulated gas volume/cm3

A B C
15 10 130 05
30 25 190 15
45 35 250 25
60 50 300 40
75 75 330 50
90 100 340 50
105 130 350 50
120 130 350 50
135 130 350 50
150 130 350 50

Effect of Salt Concentration

400

350
Gas Accumulation (ml)

300

250
A with No Salt
200 B with 5ml salt

150 C with 10ml salt

100

50

0
)

5
5

5
15

30

45

60

75

90
in

10

12

13

15

16
(m
e
m
Ti

Time (min)

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 9

GAS RETENTION

EFFECT OF PROTEIN CONTENT AND FLOUR TYPE

The following doughs were made using the following formulas and were put in to
500ml measuring cylinders .

D1 D2 D3

Wheat flour 50g ---- -----

Glutan + wheat flour --- 50g -----
Rice flour --- ----- 50g
Malt 0.25g 0.25g 0.25g
20 % salt solution 5ml 5ml 5ml
20% yeast suspension 15 ml 15 ml 15 ml
Water 12 ml 12ml 12ml

The doughs were covered with paraffin oil and perforated plungers were put
on top of the dough after making doughs to immerse in oil.
The initial oil levels above the each dough was measured.
The doughs were kept at room temperature and the oil levels were measured in
every 15 minutes until a constant level was achieved.
A graph was plotted using the results.

RESULTS

The oil levels in each dough

D1 D2 D3

Initial oil levels 150 ml 150 ml 250 ml

Time [minutes ]
15 250 ml 250ml 250 ml
30 275 ml 270 ml 250ml
45 275 ml 280 ml 250ml
60 275 ml 290 ml 250 ml
75 280 ml 290 ml 250 ml
90 280 ml 300 ml 250 ml
105 280 ml 300 ml 250 ml
120 280 ml 300 ml 250 ml
135 280 ml 300 ml 250 ml
150 280 ml 300 ml 250 ml

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 10

CALCULATION

The gas retention [ml] in each dough was ,

D1 D2 D3
Time [minutes]
15 100 100 0
30 125 120 0
45 125 130 0
60 125 140 0
75 130 140 0
90 130 150 0
105 130 150 0
120 130 150 0
135 130 150 0
150 130 150 0

Gas Retention - Effect of Protein Contect and Flour type

160

140

120
Gas Retention (ml)

100
D1(With Wheat)
80 D2 (Gluten +Wheat)

60 D3 ( Wth Rice Flour)

40

20

0
)

5
0
15

30

45

60

75

90
in

10

12

13
(m
e
m
Ti

Time (min)

As the gas that formed cannot escape through the oil layer , it get trapped inside
the dough causing the oil level to move up. So the oil level indicates the
gas retention ability of the dough with time.

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 11

EFFECT OF ADDITIVES ON GAS RETENTION

PROCEDURE

The following ingredients were measured accurately .

A B
Wheat flour 50 g 50g
Malt 0.25g 0.25 g
20 % yeast suspension 10 ml 10 ml
Water 17 ml 17 ml

0.05 g potassium bromide was taken and dissolved in 5 ml of 20 % salt

solution and was added to the mixture A .
0.05 g sodium metabisulphite [S M S ] was measured and dissolved in 5 ml of
20% salt solution and was added to the mixture B.
Two doughs were made using the above A and B mixtures and were put into
500 ml measuring cylinders as before .
The doughs were covered using paraffin oil placing the perforated plunger on top of
the dough. The initial oil levels were measured.
The doughs were kept at room temperature , and the oil levels were measured in
every 15 minutes until there was no more change observed.
A graph was plotted using the results.

RESULTS
Oil levels [ml]
A [KBr] B [S M S]

Initial oil level 200 150

Time [minutes ]
15 200 150
30 230 200
45 260 205
60 275 210
75 285 215
90 285 215
105 285 215
120 285 215
135 285 215
150 285 215

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 12

CALCULATIONS

The gas retention [ml] in doughs were,

Time [ minutes] dough A [KBr] dough B [S M S]

15 0 0
30 30 50
45 60 55
60 75 60
75 85 65
90 85 65
105 85 65
120 85 65
135 85 65
150 85 65

Gas retention - Effect of Additives

90
80
70
Gas Retention (ml)

60
50 A With KBr
40 B With Na 2 S 2O 5
30
20
10
0
)

5
15

30

45

60

75

90
in

10

12

13
(m
e
m
Ti

Time (mim)

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 13

DISCUSSION

Not only the formation but also the retention of gas is important in bakery industry.
This character is mainly determined by the quantity and the quality of the glutan
present in the dough. The glutan proteins namely glidin and glutenin are present
separately in the flour and interact to form glutan with hydration and physical
manipulation during dough formation .
In this practical more gas retention was obtained with wheat flour , which contain
more glutan than rice flour and even more gas retention in gluten added wheat
flour.
Out of the additives the KBr is a dough improver and SMS is a preservative.
The bromide added is converted to bromine and act as an oxidizer and made the
dough with high air retention capacity. SMS protect the dough from staling hence
exert a preservative action .So higher air retention capacity was observed in KBr.

Chemical Leavening Agents

The interaction of water, acid, heat and chemical leavening agents (baking powders)
releases CO2. The release of gas may occur in the dough prior to or during oven baking.
The agents consist of a CO2-generating source, as a rule sodium bicarbonate,
and an acid carrier, usually disodium dihydrogendiphosphate, sometimes monocalcium
phosphate [Ca(H2PO4)2]. Glucono-δ-lactone or tartar (acidic potassium tartrate) are used
as acid carrier for phosphate-free baking powder. The phosphate-free leavening mixtures
produced on an industrial scale contain citric acid or its acidic sodium salt. In baking
powder, the two reactive constituents are blended with a filler which consists of corn,
rice, wheat or tapioca starch or sometimes dried wheat flour. The filler content in
the powder is up to 30%. The role of the filler is to prevent premature release of CO2.
The market also offers baking powders flavored with vanillin or ethyl vanillin.
For every 500 g of flour, baking powder should develop 2.35–2.85 gCO2, equivalent to
about 1.25 liters. In individual cases, NaHCO3 alone is used for some flat shelf-stable
cookies and ammonium hydrogencarbonate (NH4HCO3) for many others. Ginger and
honey cookies are leavened by NH4HCO3, mostly together with potash (K2CO3). To a
small extent, a 1:1 mixture of ammonium hydrogencarbonate and ammonium carbamate
(H2NCOONH4) is used in some countries.Both decompose above 60 ◦C to NH3,CO2
and water.

References
1. Food processing technology Principles and Practice Second Edition P. Fellows
Director, Midway Technology and Visiting Fellow in Food Technology at Oxford
Brookes University
2. Food Chemistry H.-D. Belitz · W. Grosch · P. Schieberle 4th revised and extended
ed.

AERATION OF CEREAL DOUGH BY YEAST Page 14