Ivy Bridge House: Greenergy International LTD Address

A Renewable Energy Guide for Devon
2004
CONTENTS
A Renewable Energy Guide for Devon 2004
Contents Authors
Dr Robin Cotton, Stewart Boyle and Jenny Carey-Wood.
Chapter Page Renewable Heat & Power Ltd.
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Published by
Chapter 1 - Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Devon County Council, Economy & Regeneration Service,
County Hall, Exeter. EX2 4QD
Chapter 2 - Energy from Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Tel: 01392 383543
Email: economy@devon.gov.uk
2.1 Wood Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Website: www.devon.gov.uk
2.2 Energy Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 This document is available on the above website.
February 2004.
2.3 Biomass Combined Heat and Power (CHP) . . . 35
2.4 Anaerobic Digestion (AD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Funded by
Chapter 3 - Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Devon County Council.
SWRDA.
Chapter 4 - Small-Scale Hydro Power . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Countryside Agency.
Chapter 5 - Solar Photovoltaics (PV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Acknowledgements
Chapter 6 - Community Based Renewable Initiatives 77 Renewable Heat & Power Ltd would like to thank the following
for their kind co-operation and assistance with this project:
Annexes Phil Davis and colleagues from Hydro-Generation Ltd, for input
to the chapter on Hydro; Greenergy and British Sugar staff for
1. Government grants and support programmes advice on the biofuels chapter; Andy Russell for input to the
for renewable energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Biomass CHP chapter; the Energy Savings Trust and Solar
Century Ltd for input to the solar PV chapter; DARE for input
2. Developers, contractors and suppliers of on the Community Renewables Initiative; Regen SW and
renewable energy equipment and services . . . . . . 83 countless individuals who reviewed earlier drafts of this Guide.
3. Useful contacts and websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

FOREWORD
Renewable Energy in Devon: The main reason is climate change. The burning of fossil
fuels to create energy is one of the main causes of
A Complete Guide to Renewable climate change. Renewable energy, which does not emit
Energy for Land-based Industries1 greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, is therefore seen
as a key element in combating climate change.
Secondly, international and national targets for the

reduction of CO2 emissions and development of
renewable energy have increased the importance of
renewables on the political agenda. Thirdly, renewable
energy, which is not imported from politically volatile
countries, provides a secure energy supply not affected
by price fluctuations.
A fourth reason is the benefits that local, clean energy

can bring to a local economy, especially in rural areas.
Foreword Renewable energy has the potential to play a part in

rural regeneration and the aim of this Guide is to
contribute towards rural recovery by providing a ‘one-
The UK Government has recently committed itself to a stop-shop’ of information on what is involved.
60% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by 2050. It contains essential and comprehensive information
This will require an enormous change in society across which is needed to recognise opportunities, implement
all sectors - an energy revolution. It will also be a huge projects and develop business and market potential.
opportunity for new, cleaner industries to emerge in the The various technologies are described and costs
UK. outlined wherever possible. Case studies demonstrate
working examples of the technologies and the
The County of Devon aims to be at the forefront of this
appendices include information on suppliers and
enormous change, utilising our significant natural
funding.
resources in a sensitive and economic way to the benefit
of the environment, our hard-pressed agricultural and We trust that this Guide will offer support and
forestry industries, and local people. We see the encouragement to those land-owners, foresters,
opportunity to generate good local jobs on the back of communities and companies interested in renewable
this energy revolution. energy and, in doing so, contribute towards the
development of a new vibrant rural industry.
Why aim a guide dealing with the production and
supply of energy at land-based industries? Because it is
the land that provides us with the resources needed to
produce renewable energy. Wind, water and wood
supplied mankind with energy long before the
beginning of the twentieth century and before the Councillor Derrick Spear
discovery of fossil fuels. Today these sources of Executive Member for Economic Regeneration
renewable energy are once more assuming importance Devon County Council
for a number of compelling reasons.
1
‘A Complete Guide to Renewable Energy for Land-based
Industries’ has been produced for Devon County Council by
Renewable Heat and Power Limited with funding from the
South West of England Regional Development and Countryside
Agencies.
A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 3

INTRODUCTION
This Guide shows the reader how to time is opportune to invest in

become part of the growing renewable renewables, with a range of grant,
revolution in the UK. It gives practical subsidy and investment programmes
guidance on both technologies and the now available for renewable energy
economics of these. It shows that the developers.

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1
Introduction
Highlights What is Renewable Energy?
◆ Climate change is forcing us to make changes in the Renewable energy will never run out as long as the Sun
way we run our societies in a long-term shift towards shines, unlike the so-called ‘conventional sources’ of
a fossil free energy system. energy which refer to fossil fuels (oil, coal and gas) and
◆ The UK Government has committed to a 60% cut in nuclear energy.
carbon dioxide emissions by 2050.
The use of the term ‘conventional’ when referring to
◆ Shifting to renewable energy is now backed by the
fossil fuels and nuclear power is perhaps surprising,
UK Government, the European Union and the Earth since before the industrial revolution renewable energy
Summit in Johannesburg, August 2002. was the only form of power available apart from labour
◆ Renewable energy comes from natural sources such from human and animals.
as wind, water, sunshine or plants and trees.
They are continually renewed by energy from the Therefore, renewable energy is nothing new. It was
Sun and hence will never run out, unlike fossil fuels overtaken for a century or more by fossil fuels, but
and nuclear power. recently a number of important factors have combined
◆ The global market for renewable energy is now to ensure that renewable energy is again likely to make
worth £50 billion a year and is growing faster than a very substantial contribution to our future energy
conventional fossil fuels. supply.
◆ The UK renewable energy market is currently

growing at a rapid rate in line with a Government The Drivers of Renewable Energy
target to get 10% of our electricity from renewables
by 2010 and to meet tough carbon dioxide 1. Climate Change: The need to reduce carbon
reductions. dioxide emissions
◆ As well as environmental benefits, renewable energy International concern over the environmental impacts
can offer alternatives to fossil fuels, the opportunity of the world’s uncontrolled use of coal, oil and gas has
for local manufacturing, development and grown in the second half of the twentieth century.
implementation, as well as providing much-needed During the mid-1980s, awareness began to increase of
income for the hard-pressed UK farming and yet another problem caused by fossil fuels - climate
forestry sectors. change, also known as global warming or the
greenhouse effect. The gases that cause warming
◆ The opportunities for capturing and benefiting from
(known as greenhouse gases) given off when fossil fuels
renewable energy in Devon and throughout the
are burnt are increasing in the atmosphere. Many
South West region are significant. Devon has
scientists say this is leading to rises in global
excellent resources for wind and wood energy, with
temperature and sea levels.
strong additional resources from small-scale hydro
The most important greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide
(water) power and organic wastes.
(CO2). Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the

INTRODUCTION
atmosphere today are already 30 per cent higher than Following on from the regional assessments and targets,
the levels which existed before the Industrial the Government Office for the South West (GOSW) and
Revolution. the Regional Development Agency (RDA) published a
‘Strategic Framework for the Development of Renewable
Global Climate Change is one of the most important and Energy in the South West’ in June 2002, with its strategy
largest threat facing our planet. It is already causing published in April 2003. This will spell out the
changes in weather patterns which are predicted to get mechanisms and support for implementing its targets.
substantially worse over the coming decades with
potentially catastrophic consequences. A growing Renewable energy is gaining in political importance in
number of reports on the impact of climate change on direct relationship to growing concern about Climate
the insurance industry suggest that weather related Change and its impacts. Government has set aside
damage costs could climb massively, leading to many funding for renewable energy projects and has
areas being excluded from insurance protection. Homes introduced mechanisms to encourage its market
in flood-plains are already facing both high premiums development. The first of these support mechanisms
and potential ‘red-lining’ by insurance companies. was the Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO) which
provided a premium price for up to 15 years for the
2. UK and European Legislation electricity generated from renewable sources. This has
In 1997 more than 160 nations met in Kyoto, Japan, to been discontinued and a new approach - the
negotiate binding limitations on greenhouse gases for Renewables Obligation (RO) - is now underway.
the developed nations. The outcome of the meeting was
the Kyoto Protocol, in which the developed nations The Renewables Obligation places an obligation on
agreed to limit their greenhouse gas emissions, relative electricity suppliers to acquire an increasing percentage
to the levels emitted in 1990. Over and above the Kyoto of their supplies from renewable sources and cover the
Protocol, the UK Government also has a commitment to additional costs. Where they are unable to fulfil their
reduce CO2 emissions by 20% of 1990 levels by 2010. In obligation, they may purchase ‘Renewable Obligation
February 2003 it committed the UK to a 60% cut in CO2 Certificates’, or ‘ROCs’ from other suppliers (these relate
emissions by 2050. As renewable energy contributes to metered units of renewable electricity), or buy out
little or no net carbon dioxide, it can play a central role their obligation by making a payment to OFGEM, the
in meeting these targets. industry regulator. It is anticipated that this new
approach will stimulate the development of renewable
The UK now has a target of getting 10% of its electricity electricity generation to replace existing provision. It is
from renewable energy by 2010. Currently the UK likely that the RO will mean a premium in excess of
obtains around 3% of its electricity supply from 3p/kWh for electricity produced from renewable sources
renewable energy, much from older hydro schemes in i.e. a supplier of renewable electricity may be able to
Scotland. For the Government, a strategic approach is obtain 3 pence above the normal wholesale price of
important for the development of renewable energy at electricity. Indeed, due to the shortage of ROCs at this
a regional level. In 1999 it commissioned reports1 on stage of the market, the estimated price is likely to be
the potential for renewable energy in each region. between 4.5-5p/kWh as far out as 2006.
These reports also set regional targets for renewable
energy generation. Devon has been identified as having
significant potential and the target set for the County is
15% generation from renewable sources by 2010.
1
Renewable Energy Assessment and Targets for the South
West’, Terence O’Rourke plc and ETSU - February 2001

INTRODUCTION
3. Technology Development Thirdly the environmental cost of bringing fuels from

Over the past two decades we have seen substantial across the world is substantial, but rarely questioned.
technological advances in all renewable energy Last, but not least, when imported fossil fuels are used,
technologies. We have seen wind turbines increase in for example in domestic oil heating, most of the
efficiency by a factor of 2 and achieve a substantial economic wealth goes immediately out of the local
improvement in reliability to the point where 99% economy and ends up with Multinationals and overseas
availability is the norm. We have seen automatic wood companies.
heating systems (using wood chips or wood pellet fuel)
Renewable energy does not need to be imported, it is
increase from a typical 55% efficiency in 1980 to now
all around us waiting to be captured by technology.
over 90% for most systems. We have also seen new
The economic benefits in capturing renewable energy,
materials being used for small-scale hydropower
installing equipment, providing fuel and maintaining
turbines to bring down costs and research of
systems will often be local, which is not the case with
photovoltaics continues to increase the efficiency at
imported fossil fuels. With Devon being badly affected
which sunlight can be directly converted to electricity.
by the downturn in farming and associated feed and
4. Local resources, local jobs machinery industries, plus difficult times for the forestry
industry, renewable energy provides an opportunity to
Most of the fossil fuels used for heating, electricity and
invest locally and bring local benefits.
transport come from either the North Sea, are imported
from, for example the Middle East, or dug from the
ground in the UK, Venezuela or South Africa. Over the Renewable Energy in Europe
next decade it is likely that the proportion of fossil fuels
that is imported will increase dramatically as reserves of There is currently a very strong drive within the
oil and gas in the North Sea are spent and UK coal European Union to increase the total amount of energy
mines continue to decline in competition with imported (heat, electricity and transport) from renewable energy
coal. Without a greater role for renewable energy the UK sources from its current level of 6% to 12% within the
could become over-dependent on imported natural gas. next 10 years. However, within the average level of 6%
This has a number of important consequences. there is a wide disparity between the different member
states. Figure 1.1 shows the percentage of total energy
Firstly, fossil fuels and particularly oil are subject to
usage that comes from renewable energy sources by
price fluctuations triggered by world events.
country in order.
Secondly, to be dependent on suppliers from abroad in
politically unstable regions is dangerous. While green At the top end of the list are Sweden and Austria who
power, and renewable heating via wood for example, both produce over a third and a quarter respectively of
may be more expensive today than mains natural gas, all the energy they consume from sustainable and
(though some biomass heating options can match gas indigenous sources of energy. The main renewable
on price), the prices are much more stable. A growing contributions to their energy supply come from hydro-
proportion of renewable energy can hence help bring electric power and from wood heating. The Austrian
price stability in the market by giving customers options Government have recently commissioned a strategy
which won’t be affected by wars in the Middle East. document which looks at achieving 100% of the
country’s energy needs (including heat, electricity and
transport) from renewable sources by 2075. This is open
for debate and discussion.

INTRODUCTION
At the moment the UK is firmly at the bottom left of the While this would cost more than current sources, there
league table (fig 1.1) with about 1% of our energy is a big potential to reduce costs over time. If renewable
(corresponding to about 3% of electricity) coming from energy was linked to reducing energy demand through
renewable sources. The majority of this comes from a serious energy efficiency effort, the overall energy
large-scale hydropower built in the last 40-70 years and costs to the consumer might in fact be similar or even
from traditional low efficiency log burning in open fires lower than today. This was a conclusion reached by the
or stoves. Government’s Performance and Innovation Unit (PIU) in
its report on Energy Policy in early 2002.
Yet the UK has a huge potential resource to exploit a
range of renewable technologies, the ones most Renewable energy technologies are now beginning to
relevant to land-based industries are covered in this compete economically with fossil fuels and there are a
guide. We concentrate on the main options of wind number of grant programmes available to help
power, small-scale hydro, biomass energy and liquid establish and expand the emerging renewable energy
biofuels. We will not cover offshore wind power and industries. These include:
cover only briefly solar photovoltaics (PV).
• subsidy support for renewable based electricity
• grant support for farmers establishing energy crops
The Potential Role of • capital grant support for a range of technologies
Renewable Energy • enhanced capital write-offs for many renewable
technologies
Renewable energy has the potential to supply the whole
• exemption from the Climate Change Levy
of the UK’s energy needs. It could do this with very low
or zero net carbon dioxide emissions and this would • grant support for community energy projects
enable the UK to be self reliant in energy, with energy A list of programmes is given in Annex 1.
sources being locally derived and locally owned.
Figure 1.1 35
The percentage of total energy 30

usage (heat, electricity and
25
transport) from each European
Percentage (%)
Country derived from renewable 20

sources
15
10
0
United Kingdom
Belgium
Luxembourg
Ireland
Netherlands
Germany
Greece
Spain
France
Italy
Denmark
Portugal
Austria
Finland
Sweden

INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy also has the potential to revitalise diversification and direct job creation such as the more
the rural economy. Local energy supply requires local isolated rural areas. In addition, money spent can stay
skills, creates local jobs and needs local resources. The in a local community with the multiplier effect of
development of a vibrant local rural renewable energy money being re-spent locally providing added benefit.
industry would bring many economic and social
benefits as well as environmental gains. Financial Benefits
While the capital costs are relatively high, renewable
Environmental Benefits energy systems tend to have very low running costs,
Fossil fuels are made up of carbon that was taken out of good reliability, a long lifetime for the equipment and
the atmosphere millions of years ago by a slow, steady low or zero annual fuel costs. Since it uses renewable
process that still goes on today. Burning fossil fuels puts sources of fuel, once a system is installed it is likely to
large amounts of additional carbon dioxide into today’s continue operating indefinitely because the fuel source
atmosphere, which is widely accepted to be changing will always be there. Where fuel costs are applicable,
our climate; we are already feeling the effects of more such as with wood where the fuel needs to be bought
flooding, drought and other extreme and unseasonable in, wood fuel remains very competitively priced
weather conditions. compared to fossil fuels.
Burning wood and other ‘biomass’ fuels does not add With Global Climate Change high on the political and
this extra CO2 to our atmosphere; they are ‘CO2-neutral’. environmental agenda and the need to reduce carbon
By burning wood fuel or using wind or water instead of dioxide emissions, a premium price is likely to continue
fossil fuels, we can avoid adding extra carbon dioxide to to be paid for electricity from renewable sources. This
our atmosphere and reduce our impact on the Global can provide a useful income for those generating
Climate. electricity surplus to their requirements.
As we move into the new millennium, the search for

cleaner, more sustainable, renewable sources of energy The Potential Resource in
as well as ways to revitalise rural economies seems the South-West
likely to bring people back to using wood, wind and
water as fuels. The local ownership, management and The South West of England has enormous potential in
supply of fuel for renewable energy systems additionally terms of renewable energy generation due to the
reduces the transport and pollution costs of traditional landscape, coastline and land-use patterns. A regional
fossil fuels. study identified over 100 potential renewable schemes
to generate between 200 and 550 MW of electrical
Economic Benefits power. This could provide between 11% and 15% of the
The small scale of much renewable energy activity can region’s electricity requirements if the right conditions
provide direct economic benefits at a very local level. were provided to support renewable energy
The majority of systems using wood, other biomass or developments. Heat production and liquid transport
hydro power are owned and managed at local level fuels would be in addition to this.
rather than by national or multi-national companies. As
a result, the profit and job creation to manage and Issues related to planning, regulations, politics,
maintain renewable energy systems benefits local institutional barriers and economics are however
people, often in areas looking for economic currently hindering these developments.

INTRODUCTION
At the local level, there is considerable potential for This is an exciting time for businesses, communities and
renewable energy production whilst taking into account individuals across the county to get involved in the
the protected landscapes and population distribution renewable revolution that is changing the way we use
within Devon. This guide aims to demonstrate how this energy in the UK. There are significant opportunities to
can be achieved at both the private level (producing provide energy services in new ways which don’t
heat/power to meet own requirements) and at the damage the environment. Many of these provide
commercial level (selling surplus electricity). Although business opportunities for landowners, farmers, and
domestic scale schemes will not count towards the other entrepreneurs and communities, to use local
regional target, they will make a contribution to resources. This Guide provides a step by step guide to
reducing global warming, especially if combined with using the range of renewable resources and
attempts to reduce overall energy consumption. technologies, as well as insights to successful projects,
the economics of renewables, and a wide range of
contacts and information.
The Current Situation in Devon
Devon currently receives about 1.8% of its energy needs
from renewables. Most of this has come from methane
gas from landfill sites (not really considered a renewable
source) and small hydro schemes. In 2002 the
Holsworthy Biogas Plant began energy production using
animal slurry as fuel. An agricultural co-operative, South
West Wood Fuels Limited, supplies wood fuel to a
growing number of wood heating installations in the
South West. Interest in renewables is growing and the
smattering of small-scale individual and community
projects is slowly increasing.
A community-led Devon Association for Renewable

Energy (DARE) was formed in 2001, and has teamed up
with Cornwall under the Countryside Agency’s
Community Renewables Initiative to provide
information, support and encouragement for
community schemes. Regen SW, the Regional
Renewable Energy Agency of the South West was set up
in Exeter in 2003. Devon also has a number of
companies dealing with renewable energy within the
County.

INTRODUCTION
What it Means
Terminology and Glossary
Units of Power
Kilowatt (kW) = 1000Watts
Megawatt (MW) = 1000kW
When ‘e’ is added (e.g. kWe) this means electrical power.

When ‘th’ is added (e.g. kWth) this means thermal power (heat).
Glossary
AD Anaerobic Digestion
CHP Combined Heat and Power
CO2 Carbon Dioxide - a gas given off when fossil and plant
material is burnt and absorbed by plants when they grow.
CRI Countryside Agency Community Renewables Initiative
DARE Devon Association of Renewable Energy
DEFRA Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
DTI Department of Trade and Industry
EA Environment Agency
EST Energy Savings Trust
EU European Union
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GOSW Government Office of the South West
LA Local Authority
NFFO Non Fossil Fuel Obligation
RE Renewable Energy
REGEN SW South West Renewable Energy Agency
R&D Research and Development
RO Renewables Obligation
SRC Short Rotation Coppicing
SWRDA South West of England Regional Development Agency

ENERGY FROM BIOMASS

ENERGY FROM BIOMASS
Chapter 2
Energy from Biomass
Highlights Biomass Technology
◆ Biomass in this Guide is sub-divided into wood fuel,
General
woodland residues for heat and power generation,
◆ Biomass energy is a term used to describe heat and crops used for liquid fuels in the transport sector,
power produced from wood, forest and agricultural energy crops for heat and power, and wastes
residues and wastes, and a wide range of organic digested to produce power and heat (see Chapter
wastes such as animal slurry and kitchen waste. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 respectively).
◆ Modern technology converts biomass to heat, power ◆ At present, wood fuel in the UK can be cheaper than
and liquid fuels efficiently and conveniently. most fossil fuels, and modern automatic wood
◆ Modern automatic wood heating is very common heating technology is reliable and readily available.
across Europe, particularly in Austria, Denmark, ◆ Power generation from biomass has been proved
Sweden and Finland. economical using straw and chicken litter as well as
◆ Wood and other biomass is a significant resource municipal waste. Some positive experience with
which, as long as re-growth or replanting takes biomass Combined Heat and Power (CHP) has also
place, emits no net carbon into the atmosphere as been gained, though most systems are currently
growing biomass absorbs carbon. uneconomic without a large subsidy.
◆ An integrated wood fuel and energy production ◆ Biomass power systems can gain subsidies through
system provides a sustainable and clean approach Renewables Obligation Certificates (ROC) and Climate
that has the added advantage of stimulating local Change Levy (CCL) exemption.
woodland management and local economic benefits ◆ Advanced biomass power systems which gasify
including jobs. special energy crops and pyrolysis, which turns
organic materials into oil, have not proved
The Biomass Resource
economical or fully commercial but may do so in
◆ The global biomass resource is massive. It provides the near future.
11% of global energy use and the potential is ◆ Liquid biofuels, in the form of bio-diesel for
estimated as 65-100% of current global energy use. example, using rapeseed oil, has not yet been
◆ In the UK wood is the biggest renewable energy produced commercially in the UK and is mainly
source at present, but much of this is used in imported from mainland Europe. Diesel with a 5%
relatively inefficient open fires and stoves. The ‘bio’ component is available for local authorities and
potential in the UK for all biomass resources is more other vehicle fleets in the UK, with guaranteed
than one-third of total energy demand. carbon reductions.
◆ Animal slurry and food waste has been digested to
produce heat and power, though only a few systems
exist in the UK.

ENERGY FROM BIOMASS
Devon and Biomass Energy

◆ Devon has a significant biomass resource in the
form of agricultural and forestry wastes, animal
slurry, and wood crops.
◆ Sources of wood chips for fuel are readily available
and a fuel infrastructure is being rapidly developed.
◆ Currently the majority of wood pellets are imported
into the UK but there is potential for small-scale
pellet production throughout Devon and the South-
West, with ample raw material such as sawdust.
◆ A range of biomass heating systems are now in use
commercially in the county. With capital grants and
other support mechanisms, the market is set to grow
rapidly.
◆ A project in Devon uses the most advanced and
efficient anaerobic digestion system in the UK.

WOOD FUEL
Chapter 2.1
Wood Fuel
An Introduction countries, Austria and North America. This revolution
has largely bypassed the UK, with a few notable
Wood was the first fuel mankind learned to use. exceptions. Now is the time to expand the wood
The first fires of primitive peoples burned wood for heating industry in the UK, using the latest technology.
warmth and cooking. It is also a natural resource,
which can be regenerated - unlike fossil fuels, which will As well as being able to compete on cost and
eventually run out. convenience with most other forms of heating, wood
fuel has a number of important benefits that should not
Up until 200 years ago, wood was the main fuel for be forgotten.
heating in the UK, and influenced much of woodland
management to meet this demand. However, with the
discovery of coal and then oil and gas, the use of wood The Benefits of Wood Energy
as a serious heating fuel in the UK, as opposed to log
Wood is a renewable and sustainable source of
burning for enjoyment, virtually ceased. However, with
energy. Trees grow every summer using the energy of
the development of high-efficiency, automatic heating
the sun to fix carbon from the atmosphere. Every
systems over the last two decades in mainland Europe a
woodland has a sustainable yield of timber, which can
major industry has grown up, with many hundreds of
be harvested indefinitely without depleting the resource
thousands of systems operational. The UK has been
in any way. Wood is carbon neutral and does not
slow to take up this technology, but over the last few
contribute to greenhouse gasses. Burning wood gives off
years it has become established in the UK and is now
carbon dioxide just like fossil fuels, but this is balanced
being supported by the UK Government.
by the carbon absorbed by the growing trees. Un-
harvested wood will give off the same amount of
It is also important to note that traditionally wood was
carbon dioxide when it eventually decomposes as it
used in open fires or primitive wood stoves, which
would have done if burnt in a boiler. Burning wood
burned very inefficiently. This not only made it
replaces the burning of fossil fuels.
expensive - with up to 85% of the useful heat going up
the chimney - but also polluting with smoky fires. This
Wood is a very clean and safe fuel. Wood chips and
is the image many people have of wood burning -
pellets present no risk if accidentally released into the
smoky, open fires which produce a lot of ash and which
environment, unlike oil which is a serious pollutant and
sometimes go out when most needed.
gas which can explode. There are no harmful by-
products. The flue gas is smoke-free and the ash
However, modern wood heating is clean, efficient,
content of between 0.5% and 3% by volume (depending
convenient and can compete on cost with most heating
on material), is minimal. Unlike coal ash, wood ash is
systems. This has been achieved through controlling
an excellent fertiliser and can be used in the garden or
airflow, using thick boiler insulation and re-burning flue
returned to the forest. Modern appliances burn very
gases. There have been huge advances in wood burning
cleanly with minimal smoke.
technologies in recent years, mainly driven by a number
of European countries, especially Scandinavian
Wood is an environmentally friendly renewable fuel which can make a substantial

contribution towards replacing fossil fuels and aiding the rural economy.

WOOD FUEL
Wood fuel benefits woodland management. It creates many different forms all of which will have different
a market for timber and wood residues which would combustion properties, behave differently in terms of
otherwise have no market or go to landfill. It can handling, and are suited to particular types of boilers.
provide financial support to woodland management
activity, and have a positive impact on flora and fauna if Wood fuels are divided into three main types:
managed appropriately. • Log Wood
• Densified fuels such as pellets (fig 2.1) and
Wood fuel benefits the local economy. Wood as a fuel
compressed logs (briquettes)
can now compete on cost with fuel oil, liquid petroleum
gas (LPG) and electrical heating, and in some cases • Wood Chips (fig 2.2)
mains gas. Supplying wood fuel and associated services
to these emerging markets is a major opportunity for
rural businesses. It can create local jobs and income, Figure 2.2
and can play a key role in diversifying the rural Wood chips from forestry residues.
economy. For example, labour comprises the biggest
element of the cost of wood pellet production.
Therefore, the main cost in fuel supply goes to local
people rather than to remote multinational companies.
Wood Fuels
Wood fuel needs to be refined like other fuel sources
such as coal and oil, but in different ways. It requires
drying to reduce moisture content, and reduced to a
size that makes handling easier. Wood fuel can come in
Figure 2.1
Wood pellets made from virgin sawdust.
Wood Fuel Characteristics
The critical elements in describing a particular wood
type are Moisture Content, Particle Size and Bulk
Density of Wood.
If wood fuel is sold by weight the critical parameter is

the moisture content. The energy density of 1 tonne of
well seasoned logs is considerably higher than 1 tonne
of green logs. For seasoned logs you are likely to be
buying about 3/4 tonne of dry wood and 1/4 tonne of
water. With green logs the figures are more likely to be
1/2 tonne of dry wood and 1/2 tonne of water. This has
very important implications for transporting fuel - there
The Carbon Cycle forest the amount of carbon being similar. On balance, wood is never
absorbed by growing trees is the same as removed faster than it is added by new
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is taken from the
the amount being given off by decaying growth. Therefore the CO2 released when
atmosphere and used by trees to grow.
dead trees, and by the animals, microbes the wood fuel is burned is never more
When these trees die and decay or are
etc. that live off the trees as they live and than the CO2 being taken up by new
burned, this CO2 is released back into the
die. For a sustainably managed growth. It is therefore termed ‘carbon
atmosphere. In a mature, unmanaged
woodland, or energy crops, the process is neutral’.

WOOD FUEL
Figure 2.3 6.0

5.5
Energy Value of 5.0
Wood as a Function 4.5
Calorific Value (MWh/tonne)

4.0
of Moisture Content 3.5
The available energy of wood 3.0
as function of moisture 2.5
content (taking into account 2.0
the energy required to remove 1.5
water prior to combustion). 1.0
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Moisture Content (%)
is a considerable cost associated with transporting Drying - the importance of low

quantities of water! There is also a considerable loss of
energy in evaporating the excess moisture when moisture content
burning the fuel, so using high moisture content fuels The efficiency of wood fuel is closely linked to the
will mean lower efficiency and greater cost and has moisture content of the wood when it is burnt in a
other negative effects. boiler or burner (fig 2.3). Therefore the key question
The right wood fuel for a particular situation will regarding using wood as a fuel is “how is the moisture
depend on a few key properties: content of the raw wood to be reduced?” There are
three main approaches to this problem.
• The physical size and shape of the material - logs
must be the right size to fit in the stove or boiler • Traditionally logs are ‘seasoned’ by being left out or
and wood-chips must pass through the fuel undercover for a summer and dry naturally.
handling machinery. Moisture contents of about 25% are typically
• The species of tree - hardwoods are generally achieved, less if the logs are well stacked and
denser than softwoods so a hardwood log will give covered.
off more heat than a softwood log of the same size. • An alternative approach is simply to burn the ‘green’
However, the heat output per weight (unit mass) is wood (i.e. freshly cut) directly. In this case the
roughly the same for all woods at the same moisture moisture is reduced in the boiler or fire. However,
content. So the volume of wood (but not the this greatly reduces the calorific value of the fuel,
weight) required for a particular power output will makes good combustion difficult (generally meaning
vary depending on the species. low combustion efficiency), leads to greater
• The moisture content of the wood - damp wood is accumulation of tar deposits in the flue/chimney,
heavier and gives off less heat than dry wood. and can mean transporting a high proportion of
Freshly felled wood may contain over 50% moisture water.
compared with ‘dry’ wood such as building timbers
that have a moisture content of 10 to 15%. Wood
chips for heating is usually supplied at 25-30%
moisture or less.
The Energy Density of Wood

It is important at this stage to be clear that the energy density e.g. 1kg of dry oak (a hard wood) has about the same energy
(e.g. the amount of energy per kilogram measured in kWh/kg) content as 1kg of dry willow (a soft wood). The volume will be
of dry wood (i.e. with zero moisture content) is almost quite different as oak is considerably denser than willow.
independent of species of wood.

WOOD FUEL
• The third approach is to reduce the moisture Transport of Wood Fuel

content close to where the wood is produced by
forced drying. This happens in a pelleting or The transport of low bulk density materials is a major
briquetting plant where the raw material is finely cost, which will affect the cost of fuel delivered into a
divided, force-dried and compressed. The end fuel store. A 20m3 agricultural trailer will contain about
product is a dense, low moisture content fuel 3.5 - 5 tonnes of wood chip at 25% moisture depending
(typically less than 10%), which is convenient to on the species of wood. Wood chip bought
transport and handle. The downside of this fuel commercially is likely to cost in the region of £40-45 per
processing is the cost involved both in terms of tonne, about half the current price of heating oil (at say
money and energy input. Despite this, pellet fuel is 20p/litre) for the same energy. Therefore a single 20m3
a fast growing sector in Europe and North America load of chip will have a commercial value of about
and wood pellets are now being made in the UK £150-200. To make this economic, the supply of wood
with pellet production planned in Devon by Spring chip should be as local as possible - ideally within a 10-
2004. mile radius. This is also desirable from an
environmental perspective, reducing the amount of
diesel used to deliver the wood fuel.
Technical Aspects of Wood Fuel ‘Density’ and ‘Bulk Density’ of Wood Fuel
The ‘bulk density’ of the wood fuel has very important
Calculation of ‘Moisture Content’ (MC)
implications for both storage and transport. This is one of the
There are two different ways of specifying the moisture
major advantages of wood pellets compared to wood chips.
content of wood; on a ‘wet basis’ or ‘dry basis’. The moisture
It is important here to make the distinction between density
content of a single piece of wood will be different using the
and bulk density. For example, good quality wood pellets
two methods and so care must be taken to be clear which
when put in water sink like a stone i.e. they have a Density
method is being used. Generally speaking the moisture
greater than that of water (i.e. >1000kg/m3).
content of wood should always be calculated and specified on
a Wet Basis. However, when put in a container you will find a volume of
1m3 will have a mass of somewhere between 600 to 700kg
The moisture content (on a ‘wet basis’) of a piece of wood is
depending on the density and size (diameter and length) i.e.
given by the mass of water contained in the wood divided by
wood pellets have a Bulk Density of about 600 to 700kg/m3.
the total mass of the piece of wood as found.
Seasoned wood Chips (at 25% moisture content) will have a
Example: A sample of wood chip has a mass of 10kg. It is bulk density of between 150 to 250kg/m3 depending on
dried to an oven-dried condition, and then it has a mass of species.
8kg. What is the moisture content of the wood chip?
Fuel Storage
The mass of ‘wet’ wood (10kg) - mass of oven dried wood Table 2.1 shows a comparison of the storage volumes
(8kg) = mass of water (2kg) between heating oil, wood pellets and wood chips. A typical
oil store for a house would typically be 1,000-1,500 litres,
Mass of Water (2kg) which would be filled perhaps twice a year. An equivalent
x 100 = 20% (MC)
Mass of Wet Wood (10kg) wood pellet store might be twice the volume say 2,000 to
3,000 litres and filled perhaps three times per year. A store
for wood chip would need to be considerably larger. This is a
major factor when considering a wood chip-fired heating
system.

WOOD FUEL
Table 2.1 Comparison of Storage Volumes for Oil, Wood Pellets and Wood Chips
Typical volume of fuel required per
year for various examples Heating Oil Wood Pellets Wood chips
4 bedroom house 2m3 6m3 20m3

Medium-sized public building 5m3 15m3 50m3
Large Secondary School 20m3 60m3 200m3
Note: 1m3 = 1,000 litres
Wood pellets improve the economics of biomass fuel Cost Comparisons of Fuel Types
transportation. A 20m3 trailer/lorry will contain about
12-13 tonnes of wood pellets with about three times as Wood chip fuel is generally the cheapest of all fuels
much energy as the same trailer with wood chips. The including mains gas in many circumstances and all
market value for wood pellets is likely to settle at other fossil fuels. Figure 2.4 shows the cost comparisons
around 80-90% of the price of heating oil for the same between the various wood and other fuels per unit
energy, perhaps £70-80/tonne. Therefore, the 20m3 energy. As is well known the cost of heating oil and LPG
trailer/lorry of wood pellets will have a commercial is subject to substantial fluctuations in price, unlike
value of say £900-£1,000. locally derived wood fuels which should be very price
Figure 2.4 3.0

2.8
Comparisons in Unit Cost (pence per 2.6
kilowatt hour) across a range of fuel 2.4
2.2
sources in 2002. 2.0
p/kWh
1.8
Key: 1.6
a Wood chips at £30/tonne at 1.4
25% moisture content 1.2
b Wood chips at £40/tonne at 1.0
0.6
c Wood chips at £50/tonne at
0.4
d Projected wood pellets at 0.0
£80/tonne
Oil (f)
Mains Gas (j)

Wood Chips (b)
Wood Pellets (d)

Wood Chips (c)
LPG (i)
Wood Chips (a)
Night Storage (k)

Oil (e)
LPG (h)
Oil (g)
e Heating oil at 15p/litre

f Heating oil at 20p/litre
g Heating oil at 25p/litre
h LPG at 25p/litre
i LPG at 30p/litre
j Average domestic gas tarriff
k Using off-peak electricity

WOOD FUEL
stable. It should also be noted that the efficiency of the

appliance will have a dramatic effect on the cost of the
Example of Wood Fuel Processing:
price per unit of energy. For example logs burnt in an Oak crown-wood to produce a wood
open fire at 10% efficiency will cost eight times more chip fuel - the Production Steps
per unit of useful heat compared to wood chips burnt at
• Primary Process into cordwood using a chainsaw.
80% efficiency, if the price of the wood was equal. • Forward to roadside to stack; Easy site - farm
forwarder; Difficult site - custom forwarder or cable
crane.
Wood Fuel Processing and Supply • Dry in round to MC25%; Usually - 1 summer;
Large oak - 2 years. Cover in winter to stop re-wetting.
Wood Chips
• Chip as required; Super or Fine chip - drum chipper
It is important to have an understanding of the with sieve; Fine or Coarse chip - various chippers.
practicalities of wood fuel supply, and where • Chip direct to store or to delivery vehicle or to
interactions between supply and utilisation occur. ‘big bag’, roll on-roll off ‘ro-ro bin’ or other delivery
The entire fuel supply chain will ultimately depend package.
upon the requirements of the market. Production

processes do not necessarily produce fuel of a
specification needed by the end user, either for particle Figure 2.5
size or moisture content. As a result, further well Wood Chips being stored undercover in a depot.
controlled processing at some kind of wood-fuel depot A tractor mounted disc chipper with a front loader can
may be required. Where wood chip is being supplied be seen in the background.
this will often mean that the wood is best air dried
before processing as drying chipped material can
present its own difficulties.
Choice of harvesting equipment will depend on terrain
and availability. Farm tractor based equipment will be
appropriate on less steep sites. More specialist forestry
equipment will be required on difficult sites with
bumpy terrain.
The main elements of any wood fuel supply chain are
as follows, but not necessarily in this order: Chipping Wood Residues
Chippers are used to reduce the size of wood residues
• Fell trees; if not already done. for ease of handling and to fit boiler feed systems. There
• Primary process (e.g. cross cut and branch removal). are 3 main types of chippers:
• Extract to processing point.
The disc chipper (see Figure 2.6) consists of a heavy
• Store & dry.
rotating disc with usually 2, 3 or 4 blades mounted on
• Process to logs or chips. the face of the disc. Material to be chipped is fed in,
• Transport to end user. towards the blades. The rotating knives cut woody
material into chips as they pass an anvil or fixed knife.
These elements need to be tied to the resource and
Blower paddles on the back of the disc accelerate the
product specification.
chips up a spout where they are discharged.

WOOD FUEL
The quality of chips varies between different makes of

chippers and it is important to select a machine that Figure 2.7
will make good chips from the material at hand. Drum chipper.
The drum chipper (see Figure 2.7) has a rotating drum

with 2-4 knives inserted on its circumference. Wood to
be chipped is fed in and cut against an anvil, chip size
can be adjusted. Separate blowing provision is
required.
The screw cone chipper consists of a conical screw with

a sharp edge. When rotated, the screw pulls the tree
into the chipper and cuts it into large chips or chunks.
This type of chipper is unsuitable for twiggy material.
To chip for fuel use it is essential to have a consistent

particle size. Chippers are available with a special
grading device to restrict chips to a suitable size at a truck or tipping farm trailer, particularly for larger loads.
small extra cost. ‘Big Bags’ similar to those used in the building and
agricultural trades would suit some systems with
Fuel Handling appropriate hoppers. Large bins delivered by ‘hook’
Wood chips do not flow and therefore cannot be lorries (called Ro-Ro Bins) can act as delivery container
pumped. Most systems propel the chips horizontally by and fuel feed hopper if fitted with a scraper or moving
means of a conveyor or auger. Wood chips can be floor out-feeder system.
delivered to customers using a number of different
systems depending on location, vehicle access and size The storage system for chipped wood fuel being fed into
of load. Most wood chip is delivered using a tipper the boiler for smaller systems is known as a hopper or
silo. For a larger system a fuel store room separated
from the boiler room by a fire-proof partition is used. A
Figure 2.6 screw auger conveyor system moves the fuel to the
Disc chipper. boiler. The size of hopper depends on the availability of
space adjacent to the boiler and the level of wood fuel
being consumed. A hopper containing 5m3 of wood
chips will provide 5-15 days of running for a farmhouse
sized unit if the chips are fairly dry (25% moisture
content). A careful estimate must be made of the
heating load of a particular site and the hopper sized to
reflect the life-style requirements of the site owners or
the building services available at larger commercial
sites.

WOOD FUEL
Wood Pellets development. There are now many hundreds of

thousands of heating systems operating in Europe, all
Producing Wood Pellets
using locally sourced residues from woodland.
Wood pellets are usually made from compressed
sawdust and wood shavings. However, they can be
Biomass-fired central heating systems are now very
made from most biomass material (e.g. straw, forestry
reliable, highly efficient and totally automated
residues, specially grown energy crops etc.) and hence
(automatic ignition, thermostatic control etc.) and offer
have the potential to be sourced from locally unused
a level of convenience close to that of oil fired heating
material, which can then give considerable benefit to
systems but with substantial environmental and local
the local economy.
economic benefits. The share of biomass heating is also
increasing steadily as countries try to reduce their
Pellets are typically 6mm - 10mm in diameter
dependence on imported fossil fuels.
(depending on the size of the heating system) and
resemble animal feed. In fact the manufacturing
Wood-fired boilers generally use standard radiators or
process is similar in many ways. A pellet production
underfloor heating identical to those used by fossil fuel
facility will traditionally be a large production facility
systems. Although wood heating is common in the
producing tens of thousands of tonnes per year.
domestic sector across Europe, it is best suited to larger
However, new technology is becoming available to
homes and commercial premises such as offices,
enable wood pellet production on a smaller scale
schools, colleges and factories. Boilers can sometimes
(hundreds to a few thousand tonnes per year).
be converted such as older coal fired units as well as
those that have subsequently been converted to oil.
Wood pellets are now a major fuel source used in many
The main issues to consider when considering wood
parts of Europe (Sweden, Austria, Norway, Germany,
heating will be location of fuel storage, delivery access
Denmark, France) as well as in the US and Canada.
and connection to existing heating system.
Wood pellets are made to a strict standard in terms of
size, moisture content and energy density. This is a
The costs: Although we have seen in figure 2.4 that
major advantage over the main biomass alternative,
wood fuel, and in particular wood chip, is a relatively
wood chips, which can vary significantly in size and
cheap source of fuel, the automatic appliances that use
moisture content between suppliers and from batch to
wood chip and wood pellet fuel are considerably more
batch. The low moisture content of wood pellets also
expensive than the equivalent oil or gas appliances.
reduces the relative cost of fuel transportation since less
water is present, and they are easier to transport and In terms of overall costs of a biomass boiler installation,
store than wood chips. The main disadvantage of wood as with any heating system, the cost will be site specific.
pellets is that, for the same energy content, they will However, as an indication the costs for the biomass
generally cost about twice as much as wood chips. boiler and silo/chip feeding system will range between
£4,000 to £5,000 + vat for a domestic pellet boiler (circa
Automatic Biomass Heating 12-20kW) and silo through to perhaps £8,000 +vat for a
Automatic wood heating using either wood chips or wood chip boiler and chip extraction system for a large
wood pellets is now an established and mature farm house (circa 40kW) for example.
technology across Northern Europe, displacing imported
fossil fuels, creating local jobs within communities and
playing a central role in creating sustainable

WOOD FUEL
However, capital grants are now available for both Wood Pellet Boilers
commercial and domestic systems which could be The principal advantage of wood pellets over wood
between 25% and 40% of the cost of the system chips are the uniform size, the ease of handling in that
depending on site location and status (e.g. community pellets will flow, and their uniformly low moisture
projects can receive higher grant funding). As the content. This combination makes pellets extremely
systems get larger, the variation of cost is largely convenient for the consumer. The only real
determined by the complexity of the fuel handling disadvantage is price, as there is a significant
system. As a basic rule of thumb, the boiler and fuel manufacturing cost for pellets. The cost per tonne of
handling equipment for systems in excess of 50kW pellets will generally be about twice that of chips,
would be in the region of £100 - £120 per installed kW, although the energy content per tonne of pellets is
i.e. a 100kW system would cost in the region of £10,000 about 20% higher than seasoned wood chip as the
- £12,000. This would not include the cost of moisture content is lower.
construction work (e.g. fuel bunker) or installation.
Wood pellet burners are highly automated and are well
Wood Chip Boilers suited to meet variable load demands such as for a
school, where heat is required perhaps only 10 hours
Figure 2.8 shows a picture of a commercial underfed
per day, 5 days per week during the heating season. All
wood chip heating system with fully automated
pellet appliances have thermostatic controls and can be
thermostatic control. The auger feed mechanism which
operated on a timer. The level of automation is
transports the woodchips into the combustion chamber
equivalent to oil fired heating systems, but wood pellets
can be seen. This mechanism allows a precise fuel feed
have added environmental and local economic benefits.
rate to the system. The air is supplied by the
Because the rate of fuel feed and amount of
combustion fan, which allows the amount of air to be
combustion air is controlled precisely, pellet appliances
precisely controlled, ensuring optimum air-fuel ratios to
achieve very high efficiencies (typically 85-90%),
be maintained over a wide range of output, ensuring
comparable to that of an oil system. They have lower
the system runs at high efficiencies. We can also see the
emissions, no tar build up in the chimney and less ash
control panel on the wall and the water jacket
deposition than wood chip boilers.
surrounding the combustion chamber.
The cost of wood pellets on an equivalent delivered
energy basis is generally less than that of oil, although
Figure 2.8 the price of oil fluctuates significantly. A wood pellet
A commercial underfed wood chip heating system. heating system itself will be more expensive than an
equivalent oil-fired heating system. Although wood
pellet fuel is fairly new to the UK, there are now a
number of UK suppliers, including one Devon based
manufacturer of wood pellets.
Automatic pellet stoves
Pellet stoves are fundamentally different from
traditional wood stoves in the fact that they are totally
automated - which means that they offer much more
convenience to the customer on the one hand, but are
far more complex in their operation and maintenance
on the other.

WOOD FUEL
As we have seen, pellets are of small uniform size and

shape and low moisture and so burn easily. They also Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10
flow freely and so in many ways wood pellet stoves are Modern style pellet More traditional style pellet
closer to oil-fired central heating appliances than to free stove. stove.
standing traditional wood burning stoves. Pellet stoves
have the following advantages over traditional wood
burning stoves:
• Automatic ignition.
• Thermostatic control.
• Clean, easy to use fuel.
• Very high efficiency 85-90%.
• The main heat transfer mechanism is by convection
(from an air fan) rather than radiation, which is the The Five Steps Towards Evaluating
usual mechanism for a wood stove where the outer
casing becomes very hot and radiates heat.
a Viable Wood Energy System or
Business
There are now a variety of brands of appliance on the
market in many parts of Europe and North America, • Assessing the heat load and current fuels
and some models are now being imported to the UK. • Estimating the potential wood resource
The style of stoves vary from modern, almost futuristic • Calculating costs
appliances to more traditional looking models. Two
• Environmental requirements
different models are shown in Figures 2.9 and 2.10.
However, all pellet stoves operate on similar principles. • Planning and local issues
The cost of a pellet stove will typically be from £1400 to Step 1 - Assessing the heat load and usage
well over £2,000 depending on model, which is of current fuels
generally more expensive than the majority of log It is important when evaluating the potential for either
stoves. However, capital grants of £600 are currently installing a biomass heating system or assessing
available under the Government’s ‘Clear Skies’ whether you have wood and other biomass resources
programme. In addition, this cost may be off-set by the suitable for fuel, that you make an accurate estimate of
fact that the appliance will generally be operating at the current heating system. If your building is heated by
about 90% efficiency, and hence fuel will be used very mains natural gas and the boiler is less than five years
economically. Additionally, the pellet stove offers a old, it will be much more difficult for the economics to
much higher level of convenience and ease of operation work in favour of biomass. If however you are not on
not found with a conventional log stove. mains gas and are using coal, oil, electricity or LPG as a
fuel and the boiler is more than 5 years old, then the
economics are likely to be more favourable.
The following questions will help when talking with
potential biomass heating companies about a potential
scheme.

WOOD FUEL
Key Questions for Biomass Heating Systems Step 2 - Potential Wood Fuel Suppliers or
wood for own use. How to estimate the
1. Is the heating system for a purely domestic load or
will there also be office, industrial or leisure sector
potential
heat demand as well? If the heating load is spread In Devon and throughout the South-West there is plenty
throughout the day then biomass heating can be an of fuel available to supply both current and likely future
attractive option. demand for many years. This includes the assumption
that many woodlands are not managed due to the low
2. What is the current energy expenditure for fuel? price of timber. Obviously if prices were to rise, and an
Having bills for the last full year would be a big help expanding biomass energy market would contribute to
here. What are the maintenance costs for your that, woodland coming back into management would
current heating system? bring even more resources into the market. For wood
3. If you are reviewing options for a larger boiler chips, ample supplies are available for example from
system (i.e. non-domestic), do you have reasonable the South West Wood Fuels Ltd, a co-operative of
access both for installing a new biomass boiler landowners, foresters and others.
system and bringing in wood chip and/or wood
While UK produced supplies of wood pellets are more
pellet fuel? This is not an issue for domestic wood
limited and supplies have to be imported from
pellet systems.
Scandinavia and Canada, a domestic wood pellet
Key Questions on the Current Fuel Supplies production fuel cycle is being developed for the South-
West. Ample supplies of raw materials for wood pellets
1. Is your current fuel mains natural gas, LPG, oil, (e.g. sawdust) are available.
electricity, coal or a mixture of several of these?
Key Questions for Wood Fuel Supply
2. Have you assessed all energy efficiency options
recently in order to reduce your fuel demand? 1. Are there local sources of wood chips and wood
pellets? Do you have your own sources from timber
3. Are there any changes likely to your situation which management?
could increase the heat load in future (i.e. business 2. What tonnage of wood supplies or other biomass
expansion, home extensions, or a new leisure resources do you have available?
centre)?
3. What moisture content and consistency of content
Modern automatic biomass heating systems come in all do you have?
sizes, ranging from 6kW to greater than 1000 kW but 4. If you own woodland that is currently unmanaged
sizing a system accurately can ensure that cost- or only lightly managed, what resources might you
effectiveness is maintained. As long as you have utility have available if it was managed and the market for
bills for a 12-month period, a reputable biomass wood chips/fuel available?
heating supplier will work out the size of heating system
needed. For your local supplier of wood fuel contact South West
Wood Fuels 01398 324558.

WOOD FUEL
Step 3 - Costs Step 5 - Planning and Local Issues

The fuel for modern biomass heating systems is Automatic wood heating systems are a direct
generally cheaper than fossil fuel based equivalents. replacement for conventional fossil fuel systems. They
Wood chips can be around half the costs of heating oil are generally of larger physical dimensions and fuel
or LPG. For mains gas the margin is smaller, while for storage requirements are greater. However, for all but
coal and electricity the margin may be even greater. larger industrial scale applications, the planning
Evaluating the costs will depend on local contracts and requirements are similar to fossil fuel systems.
proximity to fuel sources.
For larger systems it is advisable to consult with local
The capital costs of biomass boilers are higher than the residents, the community and planning officers over the
equivalent oil/LPG boilers and electrical heating likely impact of fuel transport and delivery movements.
systems. However, the lower fuel and running costs will
pay back the difference over a number of years. How
long can only be determined by site-specific ◆ Case Study 1:
assessments which will determine the costs of Pinkworthy Barn, Oakford, Devon
conventional fossil-fuel based systems and local wood
fuel supplies. Automatic Wood Chip Heating
Project Details
For larger non-domestic systems the capital cost per
Pinkworthy Barn was used as workshops up until 2001
kilowatt of heat output is lower at around £100-200 per
and was heated using a combination of electric heaters
kilowatt heat output. For example a 100kW system
and wall mounted LPG burners. During 2001 the 250
heating a primary school is likely to cost between
square meter workshops were converted to offices and a
£10,000 and £20,000 depending the amount of
radiator and underfloor system was fitted throughout.
infrastructure/building work required. Capital grants to
A new wood chip boiler was specified and installed
encourage the development of clusters of commercial
which has sufficient capacity to heat both the offices
biomass heating systems are now also available.
and the neighbour’s swimming pool. Enough spare
capacity is available to cater for future additional space
Step 4 - Environmental Requirements
heating loads, which includes an existing large house
Automatic wood heating systems are highly efficient and workshops and a
and emit very few pollutants. Equipment meeting the further three
European Standard on boiler efficiency (EN 303-5) will bedroom house.
emit no visible smoke whatsoever, apart from an initial
start up. The subterranean
boiler house includes
an 18m3 fuel silo with
a hinged roof to
enable easy dumping
of chip using a fore-
end loader or
agricultural tipping
trailer. Locally grown

WOOD FUEL
wood is chipped using a fuel- exhaust cyclone is fitted as an option on the flue which
wood chipper to provide dry makes any fine dust particles drop out of the gases for
fuel of a consistent quality and periodic collection.
particle size.
On startup from cold some smoke is emitted for a short
The boiler is separated from time, but once under normal running conditions the
the existing buildings by 15m exhaust is clear and, using correct quality fuel, the
and so twin heating pipes were emissions are within the strict Austrian and UK
laid underground between regulations for pollution.
them. The pipes are encased in
a flexible insulated conduit Maintenance
similar to large drainage pipe Once a week the ash gate is revolved to let ash drop
and have a very low heat loss. The boiler therefore is from the combustion chamber into the ash store. Then
able to work effectively at large distances. at intervals of approx. 4-6 weeks (dependant on usage)
the ash store is emptied. Other routine mechanical
How it Works service items are attended to on a longer periodic
The silo is a 3m square by 2m deep block-work schedule, such as greasing points on auger bearings.
construction with a central revolving ‘agitator’ with two At two points within the heating season (suggested by
sweeper arms. An auger, in an open inclined trough, manufacturer) the dust from the cyclone is emptied and
receives chip from the sweepers and conveys it into the at the same time the heat exchanger tubes of the boiler
boiler room where the auger continues within a closed are swept.
tube. The chip is dropped through a rotary valve seal
into a horizontal ‘stoker auger’ at ground level which
feeds the boiler with fuel on demand. Technical Details
Boiler Binder - RRK 49-70
The boiler and feed system is operated by the electronic Rated Heat output 70kW
controller which can be interrogated, via a phone Fuel moisture content <35%
connection, by a remote computer. The boiler has Fuel particle size up to 25mm cubes
separate fans for primary air, secondary air and exhaust Building size 6m x 3m x 2m high
gas extraction, all of which are operated by the Chip store volume 18m3
Power supply 3 phase 16Amp
controller.
Distance from buildings 15m in this installation
The feature that enables the
controller to work so well is
the oxygen sensor in the flue.
Using the information this
provides, the controller can
vary the fuel and air supply
rates to allow the most
efficient burning of the fuel,
while giving the heat output
from the boiler that is
required at that time. An

ENERGY CROPS
Special energy crops such as short rotation coppice willow (above), rape seed, sugar
beet and miscanthus grass can be grown to be combusted for heat and power, or
processed to make bio-diesel and bio-ethanol.

ENERGY CROPS
Chapter 2.2
Energy Crops
Highlights What are Energy Crops?
◆ With significant surplus agricultural land available, Energy crops are specially bred and grown by farmers
and pressure rising to reduce power and transport for use by the energy industry. The crops include
sector CO2 emissions, there is an opportunity for miscanthus grass, short rotation poplar and willow, rape
‘’energy crops’’ to have an important role in the UK seed, sugar beet and cereals. They are used to produce
energy mix. heat and electricity, as well as processed into liquid
fuels for the transport and chemicals industries. Special
◆ Energy crops include those grown for wood and
grower’s grants are available for short rotation coppice
grass products which can be gasified or combusted (SRC) to establish the crop, while reductions in the fuel
for the heat and power market, and those such as duty levy are available for bio-diesel and bio-ethanol
rape seed and sugar beet which are grown for the (currently 20p/litre less than conventional oil-based
biofuels market. fuels).
◆ The economics of energy crops are heavily
The key benefit of energy crops is that the energy
dependent on subsidy regimes and in early 2003
expended in growing them (in planting, herbicides,
were marginal for most growers.
harvesting, drying the crop etc) is much less than that
◆ If biofuel duty tariffs are reduced further and grants released when they are burnt. The rest comes from
increased for crops such as fast-growing willow and energy taken in from the sun during growth. Estimates
miscanthus grass, the market could expand very of this ‘energy ratio’ (energy used to produce the crop
quickly. compared to the potential energy from the crop) for SRC
and miscanthus vary from about 1:10 to 1:90, with a
◆ Around 1500 hectares of short rotation coppice most likely figure of 1:20. This compares with around
willow has been established in Yorkshire, with 400 1:7 to 1:10 if traditional arable crops were burnt in a
hectares of miscanthus grass being established in similar way and with 1:2 to 1:4 for bio-diesel.
East Anglia in 2003.
In addition, these are environmentally beneficial crops.
◆ Parts of Devon would be suitable for energy crops if
Over the whole cycle they are virtually carbon neutral.
the market conditions were attractive.
Studies have identified real potential benefits to
A demonstration biomass gasification plant being
biodiversity and the potential to develop integrated pest
developed at Castle Cary, Somerset, has indicated its
management strategies. Energy crops are a good
wish to use energy crops as a fuel in future.
example of sustainable agriculture.
Originally it was assumed that to meet the

Government’s 10% renewable energy target by 2010
some 500-1000 MWe of biomass generation would be
needed. This would need as much as 125,000 hectares
of energy crops. Given the poor economic state of UK

ENERGY CROPS
agriculture, it was thought that energy crops could • A wide range of soil types can be tolerated, from
provide alternative income streams for farmers. While heavy clay to sand, including soil reclaimed from
the assumed biomass target is being revised downwards colliery spoil and gravel extraction.
due to non-performing gasification technology, the • Soil pH should be in the range of 5.5 to 7.
potential for large quantities of energy crops remains.
• Site selection has to meet guidelines under DEFRA
The energy crops have benefits beyond agriculture Establishment Grants booklet (see web site -
through the creation of jobs in rural areas. Estimates http://www.defra.gov.uk/erdp/schemes/projectbased
vary but it is generally accepted by the Government that /energy/energyindex.htm).
5 jobs are created for each MW of electricity generated. • Treated sewage can be used as a fertiliser if
considered feasible by the local water company.
The Crops Harvesting of SRC willow is usually by specialist
Short Rotation Coppice - Willow and Poplar machinery, including direct-chip harvesters, rod
Short Rotation Coppice (SRC) is densely planted, high- harvesting or billet harvesting. Direct-chip harvesting
yielding willow and poplar, harvested on a 2 to 5 year cuts the willow stems, chips them and blows them
cycle. SRC is a woody, perennial crop where the directly into an accompanying trailer. Rod harvesting
rootstock remains in the ground after harvesting, with cuts loose rods of willow, then off-loads these on the
new shoots emerging the following spring. A plantation headlands of fields or on the farm itself. Chipping then
should be viable for up to 30 years before re-planting takes place at a later date when the moisture content is
becomes necessary. lower. Billet harvesting involves cutting stems whole,
cutting these further into billets and then blowing these
Willow SRC is planted in the spring from specialist stock
into a trailer.
and using specifically designed equipment. The osier, a
shrub willow, provides the parent stock to the majority Despite the fact that SRC willow is a monoculture and
of willow used as energy crops. The willow will grow that weeds need to be eradicated during its
rapidly in the first year, often reaching 4 metres in establishment year, the biodiversity of the land is often
height. enhanced compared to other crops such as cereals. This
is due to the retention of the roots after harvesting, and
During the winter after planting the stems are cut back
the far lower use of pesticides.
to ground level to encourage the growth of multiple
stems. About 3-4 years after planting the first crop will Poplar SRC has only been used on a small-scale to date,
be harvested. UK yields are predicted to be about 7-12 often planted adjacent to willow to provide visual
oven dry tonnes per hectare per year (odt/ha/year) diversity. It is grown best in deep fertile soils and grows
depending on site and management. in most conditions except waterlogged and shallow soil
sites. Soil pH should be in the range of 5.5-7.5.
While specialist advice is available from DEFRA, some of
Preparation should be the same as for willow, including
the important issues to be aware of when considering
the removal of weeds in the establishment year.
planting and managing SRC willow include:
Miscanthus Grass
• Adequate moisture is needed by willow within 1
Miscanthus grass is a woody, perennial, rhizomatous
metre of the soil surface. 600-1000mm rainfall per
grass, originating from Asia and which has the potential
year is ideal.
for very high rates of growth. The flowering version is
• Willow can cope with seasonal flooding but not popular with many UK gardeners.
permanent water-logging.

ENERGY CROPS
Establishment and other Grants under the Energy Crops Scheme (ECS)
Under the ECS DEFRA will pay the following grants to help For miscanthus:
establish the crop:
• A grant of £920/ha for establishing the crop on land
For short rotation coppice (poplar or willow): which forms part of an agricultural holding.
• An enhanced rate of £1600/ha on eligible agricultural
Set aside land: These crops are permitted non-food crops on
land which is currently forage area for the purpose of the
‘set aside’ land. Land may be planted under the Energy Crops
IACS area aid application, not being AAPS eligible land, for
Scheme and continue to receive set-aside payments under the
which livestock premia are claimed. This means that the
Arable Area Payments Scheme (AAPS) - providing the
forage land must have been declared as part of the
conditions of both schemes can be met.
current or previous years’ IACS application and claims
made to one or more of the Beef Special Premium There are also grants of up to 50% to establish Producers
Scheme (BSPS), Hill Livestock Compensatory Allowance Groups to organise farmers in a region.
(HLCA), Suckler Cow Premium (SCPS) or Sheep Annual
Contact: Government Office of the South-West -
Premium (SAPS) in the current or previous scheme year.
Tel: 0117 900 1923 Fax: 0117 900 1905
• A standard rate on other eligible land, i.e. arable land,
non agricultural land and land which forms part of an Email: trender.gosw@go-regions.gsi.gov.uk
agricultural holding but is neither arable or forage of
£1000/ha.
Miscanthus is planted in spring and canes produced • Changes to the rules for co-firing of biomass and
during the summer are harvested in winter. The lifetime coal in coal-fired power plant may stimulate a
of the crop is usually around 15 years. Yields build up market for energy crops.
over three years to a peak. Yields from a mature crop • A demonstration biomass gasification plant
have exceeded 13 odt/ha/yr in experimental sites, and developed by Bronzeoak Ltd and located at Castle
20 odt/ha/yr in some years. Cary, Somerset, will likely use locally grown energy
crops, within 3-4 years. It is supported by the
Lowland agriculture sites with deep, moisture retentive
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI).
soils are regarded as the best growing options. While
there is only limited experience of growing the crop so Action Points
far, 400 hectares is being grown in East Anglia to feed • While there is uncertainty over the pace and
into a power plant for testing purposes. Planting using direction of energy crops schemes for the heat and
potato planting machinery has been carried out power sectors in the UK, the potential for a
successfully. significant shift to energy crops remains.
• What is currently missing for energy crops is a clear
While there are currently uncertainties over the market
and growing market in the power sector for the
for the energy crops in power plants, there are three
product, and more attractive economics for
promising developments:
establishing and growing the crop.
• It seems likely that the ARBRE gasification scheme in • Farmers should keep a watching brief through the
Yorkshire will be bought by an additional company National Farmers Union (NFU) who have several
and the technical problems overcome. This would non-food crops specialists and who are lobbying
bring confidence back to farmers. both the UK Government and European Union for
more attractive conditions to encourage growing.

ENERGY CROPS
Liquid Biofuels leaders in this new market (see www.rixbiodiesel.co.uk ).

Bio-ethanol has only recently entered the equation as a
The UK transport system, in line with the transport
potential alternative fuel. Companies such as British
systems of most developed countries, is based almost
Sugar and Cargill have been lobbying for fuel duty
entirely on oil. Personal vehicles mainly use petrol and
incentives. British Sugar is looking for alternative
diesel, refined from petroleum products, though a small
markets for sugar and cereals, given that subsidies for
but growing number of vehicles based on natural gas
farmers to grow sugar beet are on the way out. While
are entering the UK fleet. Alternatives to fossil fuels are
the energy equation and likely carbon reduction
available, at a price. At present these include bio-diesel
benefits for bio-ethanol were in some doubt, the
and bio-ethanol.
Treasury was persuaded to allow a 20p/litre fuel duty
Brazil uses a 24% bio-ethanol blend in all gasoline fuels, reduction from April 2003.
while in the USA some 12% of cars are powered by
British Sugar has indicated that if the economics are
biofuel blends. Both markets have been stimulated by
attractive enough for bio-ethanol they would be
attractive tax concessions. Brazil originally set up its
prepared to invest £60 million in production facilities.
bio-ethanol market to support its massive sugar
This would produce 100,000 tonnes of bio-ethanol a
industry, while the US system was specifically to support
year, using cereals or sugar beet as raw material. They
mid-West farmers seeking alternative outlets for cereal
argue that there is around a 50% CO2 reduction benefit
crops.
compared to petrol. At a 5% inclusion level in the liquid
Bio-diesel comes from crops such as rape-seed oil. It can transport fuels mix this would save 2.3 million tonnes
be used either as a 100% bio-diesel or as a blend with a of CO2 per year, and create 20-30,000 jobs, many in
proportion of bio-diesel content. While countries such rural areas.
as Germany, France and Sweden have
European Developments
encouraged the development of a
100% bio-diesel fuel market, others Figure 2.11 As well as UK fuel duty developments
5% blended bio-diesel based on rape
for liquid ‘bio’ fuels, there have also
such as the UK are more supportive
seed on sale at supermarket forecourt. been European developments. These
of a blended fuel market. The UK
include a draft Directive on biofuels
company Greenergy are the market
and production payments for
leaders, providing a 5% bio-diesel mix
farmers.
with ‘certified carbon reductions’ for
fleet managers who wish to switch The European Commission’s mid-
fuels. Responding to the potential term review of the Common
carbon benefits from bio-diesel, the Agricultural Policy (CAP) provided an
Treasury introduced a fuel duty opportunity to give a per hectare
reduction of 20p/litre in 2001. This payment for non-food crops grown
has been insufficient to encourage for electricity production or transport.
bio-diesel production in the UK, but However, this was proposed for
it has encouraged the recycling of existing areas of production only,
waste oils such as chip fats. A growing hence doing little to encourage a new
network of garages now stock industry. It was also set at a relatively
blended bio-diesel in Yorkshire. low level.
Rix BioDiesel is one of the market

ENERGY CROPS
Next Steps and Action Points

Figure 2.12
A Tesco home delivery truck being filled up with 5% In early 2003 the economics of bio-diesel and bio-
blended bio-diesel. ethanol were marginal for UK production both on the
crops and processing sides. Current fuel duty reductions
via the Treasury seem too small to allow companies to
commit to UK production and for farmers to have a
decent energy market for rape-seed, cereals or sugar
beet. Mainstream oil/chemical company production is
unlikely to emerge until fuel duty relief hits 25-30p/litre.
Farmers should monitor this situation however, as
modest changes to the current fuel duty regime might
swing the balance in favour of local production. So far
the only UK production of bio-diesel seems to be based
around ‘backyard’ efforts at reclaiming old cooking oil.
The EU Directive on biofuels has been weakened. The The disadvantage of these are question marks over
key proposal that each Member State should substitute engine warranties and ensuring quality control.
2% of its road fuels with biofuels by 2005, rising to
5.75% by 2010, has been turned into indicative only Action Point
rather than binding targets. The European Parliament • Fleet managers with local authorities and the
are keen to toughen this position and negotiations were private sector can make a modest but clear carbon
continuing as this Guide went to press. reduction effort by opting for the blended ‘Global
UK Bio-fuel Production Diesel’ produced and sold by Greenergy, plus other
Reactions to the 20p/litre fuel duty reduction for both blends sold by Rix BioDiesel.
bio-diesel and bio-ethanol has been one of
disappointment. The National Farmers Union thinks
that the duty reduction “may stimulate a few small-
scale projects mainly using reclaimed fuels (such as old
chip fat), but it’s not enough to take biofuel production
into the mainstream”. Companies such as Greenergy
and British Sugar support this view, and have been
lobbying for fuel duty reductions of 26-30p/litre. With a
fuel duty reduction of 25p/litre Greenergy predicts that
bio-diesel use would reach 3% by 2010, with between a
third and half of this coming from virgin rather than
reclaimed oil. A Duty cut closer to 30p/litre would be
needed to boost production from virgin oils
significantly. Cargill wants to build a bio-diesel
processing plant in the UK but thinks that 30p/litre is
the minimum fuel duty reduction to make this viable.

COMBINED HEAT AND POWER
Combined Heat and Power plant is an installation where there is simultaneous

generation of usable heat and power (electricity) in a single process.

Chapter 2.3
Biomass Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
Highlights clean-up technology is required to ensure that the
resulting gas is suitable to be burnt in a variety of gas
◆ Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems based on engines, without producing unacceptable emissions.
wood and wood residues are available in a range of
technologies in the UK. The main problem with small-scale gasifiers is that of
ensuring that feedstock (usually wood chips or wood
◆ These include technologies such as a conventional fines) moves through the gasifier. Large-scale gasifiers
gasifier and internal combustion engine/gas turbine, usually employ a series of mechanical devices to
a near market Stirling engine, a high speed steam achieve this but the economies of scale usually mean
engine and an organic Rankin Cycle. that small-scale plant cannot afford this. Gasifiers
◆ A small number of biomass CHP systems are usually require a consistent feedstock in terms of grade
operating in the UK, with a much larger number and moisture content. This type of system has similar
overseas. heat to power ratios as direct combustion plant but is
thermally more efficient.
◆ At present none is truly commercial, though this
situation could improve in the near future. While the technology looks promising many of the
existing sites are experiencing technical difficulties with
the gasifier operating intermittently. There are a
Review of Biomass CHP systems number of UK and European companies designing,
A recent review of biomass CHP systems in the UK supplying and installing small-scale gasifiers. A number
provides the basis of the following review1. Since the of small-scale gasifier based CHP plant were identified
conclusions of the study are that virtually no current during the lifetime of this project, of which 7 are
small to medium scale biomass CHP systems are currently commissioned and in use. A number of others
economic, this chapter will mainly highlight the are being planned or awaiting planning permission. Of
technologies, some examples, and prospects for better the seven projects that use gasifier-based CHP plant
economics in the future. reviewed in the EU-funded report, only 3 are in
operation on a commercial basis.
Conventional gasifier and internal The systems include a 200kWe system operating at
Blackwater Valley Museum in Northern Ireland, plus
combustion engine or gas turbine systems at De Montfort University in Leicestershire, in
Gasification is a thermo-chemical process in which Londonderry and Broughton. The Blackwater system is a
biomass is heated, in an oxygen deficient atmosphere to wood-chip fuelled CHP unit using a downdraft, moving
produce a low-energy gas containing hydrogen, carbon bed gasifier coupled to reciprocating engine and
monoxide and methane. The gas can then be used as a generator to produce 200kWe of electricity at 415 volts
fuel in a gas turbine or in compression ignition (CI) or and 400kWth of heat. The electricity, sufficient for
spark ignition (SI) engines to generate electricity. Gas meeting the power requirements of 400 homes, is
1
An evaluation of Small Scale Combined heat and Power
(<400kWe) from Biomass within the Wood Processing
Industries, RHPL and ARConsultants, January 2003

transformed to 11kV and supplied into the Northern to drive either a steam engine or steam turbine. On the
Ireland Electricity (NIE) grid. The heat is used by the plus side steam technology is well proven, reliable and
museum for space heating. commercially available, although compared with other
forms of power plant: gas turbines, diesels and petrol
There has been mixed success with the systems, some engines, they have high capital costs.
operating efficiently while others have only operated
intermittently and been used for demonstration Only three small-scale steam engine CHP systems were
purposes. identified in the UK, with one company supplying a
small steam turbine CHP.
The Stirling Engine

Stirling engines are a relatively old technology, having
Steam turbine based CHP
been around since 1816, and were for many years the No information on installations of small-scale steam
main alternative to steam engines. They are externally turbine CHP plant in the UK was available, although one
heated, but unlike steam engines, do not need a boiler, company, Talbott’s Heating Ltd, does supply a range of
and can be heated from virtually any heat source. turbine based CHP from 50kWe to 1000kWe. All models
in the range are similar in layout and comprise a fully
The Stirling engine operates with a closed system in automatic, high output, Talbott’s combustor coupled to
which a gas, usually helium although other gases such a stand-alone steam boiler package. Steam from the
as air and nitrogen can be used, is successively heated boiler feeds a skid mounted steam turbine generator set
and cooled. The expansion of the gas during the with exhaust heat being utilised to provide process
heating stage is used to move a piston, which rotates a and/or space heating to customer requirements.
crankshaft converting heat energy to shaft power.
Very little information on the commercial development Organic Rankin Cycle

of small-scale Stirling engines in the UK and Europe is
The Organic Rankin Cycle (ORC) is similar to a
available. What information has been found suggests
conventional Rankin Cycle except that the working fluid
that the majority of current work is focusing on small-
is an organic fluid with a relatively low evaporation
scale engines of less than 250kWe. Much of the
temperature. The organic fluid is confined in a closed
significant research and development budgets have
leak free circuit. A heat source vaporises the organic
been focused on natural gas-fired systems sized for the
fluid in an evaporator and then passes into a high speed
residential sector (1.1kW to 3.5 kW). The BG Group,
chamber where it expands, in a similar manner to
through their Microgen Division, is a major player in
steam in the steam turbine, giving up its energy to the
this potential market. BG and Powergen plan to market
turbine. The expanded vapour is then condensed and
domestic CHP plants based on the Sterling engine in
pumped back to the evaporator.
2004.
There are no biomass fuelled ORC based CHP plants in

Rankin Cycle based CHP the UK, although there are a number in existence
elsewhere in Europe. The majority of ORC plant in
The majority of biomass CHP plant in Europe are steam Europe has been installed to make use of waste heat
(or Rankin) cycle plant. The system involves direct generated from gas turbines, industrial processes and
combustion combined with a steam boiler raising steam gas engines.

Technology Review Summary

Of the technologies reviewed in a recent European
Commission funded project, only CHP plant employing
the Rankin cycle or gasification/internal combustion
engine and Rankin cycle seem close to being
commercially viable and even these are not fully proven
at this scale (<500kWe).
While no ORC based CHP plant has been installed in the

UK, and therefore no data is available, this technology
does show promise. ORC plant has been used
successfully in Europe for non-biomass fuel applications
(predominantly taking waste heat from other processes)
and at least two manufacturers offer the technology in
the UK.
Economics
Due to a number of factors, biomass based CHP systems
are currently uneconomic in most situations. An EU-
funded review of CHP systems in the UK concluded that
“no systems which could be said to be fully commercial
were identified”. The factors behind this conclusion
include:
• The low value of electricity for exported power due
to New Electricity Trading Arrangements and the
overall capacity surplus in the power market.
• High capital costs due to the low volume of
equipment sales.
• Some technical problems with systems which
prohibit sustained operation of some plant.
This situation could change however, if electricity prices

grow, capital grants are made available for CHP systems,
and technological reliability improves.

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Anaerobic Digestion provides an effective method for turning waste residues from food
and drink manufacturing processes and livestock farming into heat, power and a
valuable liquid bio-fertiliser.

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Chapter 2.4
Anaerobic Digestion (AD)
Highlights Introduction
◆ The waste management of livestock (especially Anaerobic Digesters produce conditions that encourage
intensive pig & poultry) and other organic wastes is the natural breakdown of organic matter by bacteria in
a growing problem. Pressure is growing via the the absence of air. Anaerobic Digestion (AD) provides an
European Union Landfill Directive, EU Animal By- effective method of turning residues from livestock
Products Regulations, EU Integrated Pollution farming and food processing industries into:
Prevention & Control Regulations, forthcoming EU
• Biogas. A methane-rich gas, which can be used to
Biowaste Directive and EU Sludge to Land
generate heat and/or electricity. This gas can also be
Regulations to prevent organic waste from being
enriched after cleaning (standard) for use as a
dumped into landfill. These issues are
transport gas referred to as Substitute Natural Gas
interconnected and present opportunities for
(SNG).
exploitation of existing biomass resources.
• Fibre. This can be used as a nutrient rich organic
◆ Anaerobic Digestion (AD) of organic wastes such as compost.
animal slurry, has been carried out for many • Liquor. This can be used as a liquid bio-fertiliser.
decades across the world. The process, which takes
place in the absence of oxygen, is applicable at a The AD process is already used for treating agricultural,
wide range of scales. household and industrial residues and sewage sludge.
It has been used in the UK agricultural sector in the
◆ While few AD systems are in operation in the UK, it’s form of small on-farm digesters producing biogas to
use is growing rapidly in countries such as Germany heat farmhouses, dairies and other farm buildings.
and Denmark, especially for large-scale centralised
systems. Experience has shown that an AD project is most likely
to be financially viable if it is treated as part of an
◆ Modern AD systems which produce heat and power integrated farm waste management system in which the
and leave a valuable fertiliser at the end of the feedstocks and the products from AD all play a part.
process are now being introduced in the UK, with an Larger scale centralised anaerobic digesters (CAD’s) are
innovative system in operation in Devon. also now being developed in the UK, using feedstock
◆ The market for centralised AD systems in the UK has from a number of sources. The first CAD plant is in
been estimated at around 100 units, although this Devon - the Holsworthy Biogas Plant - which generates
will increase with the uptake and possible up to 2.1MWe using a mixture of solid (poultry manure)
‘hybridisation’ of conventional AD systems with and liquid (pig & dairy slurries) farm residues (80%) and
‘front-end’ separation systems, often referred to as waste from a food processing factory (20%), due to the
Mechanical Biological Treatment (MBT), such as for requirements under the 15 year NFFO Contract (i.e.
mixed household wastes. <20% waste input).

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Benefits of Anaerobic Digestion convert animal manure, food waste and oils, putrescible
fractions of household and industrial waste, algae,
• Provides an Integrated Waste Management system water weeds, pharmaceutical sludges and crop residues.
for agriculture.
• Production of biogas for heating/electricity. There are two types of AD processes
• Production of fertiliser - nutrient rich compost and
1. Mesophilic digestion. The digester is heated to
liquid bio-fertiliser.
between 35-37ºC and the feedstock remains in the
• Reduces land & water pollution, use of fossil fuels, digester typically for 15 - 30 days. Mesophilic
greenhouse gas emissions (methane extraction), digestion tends to be more robust and tolerant (i.e.
recycles nutrients and preserves natural resources. conditions are not so critical) than the thermophilic
• The end-result of anaerobic digestion could be the process, but gas production rate is less, larger
production of a stable bio-fertiliser with little odour digestion tanks are required for a given throughput
(90% odour reduction), which is free from weed and pasteurisation, if required, is a separate process
seeds with no pathogens and can be spread directly stage.
onto farmland and growing crops.
2. Thermophilic digestion. The digester is heated to a
higher temperature of about 55ºC for a shorter
How it Works period, typically 12-14 days. Thermophilic digestion
systems offer a higher methane production rate,
The digestion process takes place in a warmed,
faster throughput (for batch systems), better
insulated container (called the digester), which creates
pathogen and virus sterilisation (when compared as
the ideal conditions for bacteria (either mesophillic or
a singular treatment system, i.e. not combined with
thermophilic) to ferment the organic material in
pasteurisation), but requires more expensive
oxygen-free (anaerobic) conditions. The digestion tank
technology, greater energy input and a higher
must be warmed (37ºC or 55ºC, respectively) and the
degree of monitoring.
raw materials mixed thoroughly to create the ideal
digestion medium for the bacteria to convert organic
matter into biogas. Why establish an AD project?
The biogas is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide The principle reason for developing an AD project may
(in a roughly 2:1 ratio). The carbon dioxide can be come from:
removed to leave Substitute Natural Gas (SNG), which Reduction of land-use pollution through integrated
will have a typical calorific value of 6.5kWh/m3 (1), which waste management:
is approximately half of the energy density contained in
• AD offers the opportunity to reduce odour.
natural (mains) gas. This gas can be used to generate
heat or electricity, while the residual sludge retains its • AD can reduce nitrate (and phosphate) pollution of
nitrogen to yield a good quality soil conditioner and water course because run-off is reduced through
liquid fertiliser. more effective control of nutrient application to
land.
It is a versatile process that can convert a wide range of • AD can help farmers and others to respond to new
‘waste’ products into usable products such as gas and regulations and public pressure to increase the
fertiliser. For example, the process can be used to effectiveness of farm residue management.
1
Assuming a 65% methane content. Source Farmatic UK Ltd

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Increased land owner income and savings: Capital Costs

The equipment has to be manufactured to a high
• AD can generate income from the sale of electricity
standard to avoid corrosion, and the resulting high
(generated from biogas).
capital costs may only be justified if the equipment has
• AD can offer financial savings through the use of the
a long lifetime (around 20 years for most fixed and
products on-site (liquor and fibre) avoiding the costs
static parts). The construction of plant and associated
of synthetic fertilisers, other soil conditioners and
site works, including any landscaping required under
energy from other sources.
planning permission, will also incur costs. The capital
Changing legal and political context for land use cost of an AD plant will vary between £3,000 to £7,000
supply chain: per kWe of generating capacity, where the revenue
• Public perceptions are changing and consumers are streams will vary compared to other forms of renewable
increasingly demanding farming practices that are energy.
environmentally sensitive. Example:
• There is increasing legislative and regulatory
• A small digester of 10kWe capacity, using residues
pressures and wider environmental concerns about
from 100 head of cattle or 1,000 pigs (requiring a
farming practices.
digester capacity of about 150m3), is likely to cost in
Growing demand and market for renewable energy: the region of £50,000 to £70,000.
• The Renewables Obligation (see chapter 1) offers a • A Centralised AD plant of 1MWe capacity (requiring a
premium price for electricity from renewable digester of about 10,000m3) is likely to cost in the
sources, which will significantly help to make an AD region of £3million to £7million.
scheme financially more attractive.
Project Development Costs
• Community heating schemes (from CHP) can be used
These can be very significant and may include:
to displace local use of fossil fuels.
• Technical, legal and planning consultants’ fees, and
Community Issues:
the farmer or developer’s own time in negotiations
• AD projects can directly boost the local rural with legal and statutory bodies. For example, in
economy through job creation, and indirectly obtaining planning permission and licensing
through increasing disposable incomes in rural through the Environment Agency.
areas.
• Financing and legal costs, including the cost of
• AD can offer an opportunity to realise potential in arranging finance.
local communities through stimulating associated
• Electrical connection costs. These can vary widely
new developments and new business (e.g. from the
depending on distance and ease of suitable grid
waste heat).
connection.
• Cost of licences (for example, if imported food
The Economics processing residues are used, a Waste Management
The costs of an AD project can be split into capital cost Licence will be required, which will involve an initial
of equipment, project development (including training) charge and an annual fee).
costs, and operation and maintenance costs.

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Running Costs • Heat sales (or displaced purchases).

The running costs can vary substantially depending on • Fibre Sales (or displaced fertiliser costs).
variations in design and operating circumstances, but • Liquor Sales (or displaced fertiliser costs).
are likely to be of the order £7,000 - £10,000 per year • Gate fees - charges made for processing wastes such
for an on-farm project. Running costs will include: as food waste.
• Staff and labour costs. The management of an on- • Savings on slurry handling and other waste
farm digester with power generating equipment is management costs.
likely to require two staff days per week. For large scale centralised AD see case study 2.
• Insurance.
• Transport costs.
Further Information
• Annual fees for licences and pollution control
measures. ‘Anaerobic Digestion of farm and food processing
• Other maintenance and operating costs. residues: Good Practice Guidelines’
Training Costs This publication was co-ordinated by British Biogen, the

The people who run AD projects, of whatever size, need UK Trade Association for Biofuels, in collaboration with
to be fully trained in the health, safety, financial and a large number of UK organisations connected with
environmental operational implications of the project. Anaerobic Digestion.
Copies are available from:

Income British Biogen, 16 Belgrave Square, London SW1 8PQ
or visit - www.britishbiogen.co.uk
The largest income streams are likely to come from
electricity sales (including avoided costs) and fibre sales,
but also waste ‘gate fees’ will be received by centralised
plants incorporating pasteurisation. Markets for all the
products will need to be taken into account when
calculating economic viability. Centralised schemes have
the benefit of taking in a variety of feedstocks and
hence some ‘dilution’ is achieved. The way the project
develops will depend on the priority product for the
developer (that is energy, fibre or liquor). This will have
implications for which technology should be chosen.
In summary, income streams or cost savings are likely to

include:
• Electricity sales. The electricity sales for a 10kWe AD
scheme, assuming 85% availability and an export
price of 6p/kWh would be approximately £4,400 per
year.

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Storage tanks at the Holsworthy Biogas plant.
◆ Case Study 2: The manure and food waste are first discharged into a
reception pit in which a ventilation system operates in
Holsworthy Biogas Plant the receiving hall. The air taken from the hall passes
The first large-scale centralised anaerobic digestion through a bio-filter in order to reduce any risk of odour.
plant for cow slurry in the UK has now started operation
The manure and waste are thoroughly mixed before
in Holsworthy, Devon.
being discharged into a larger mixing tank. The mixture
The plant has been built by the German company is then pasteurised by heating to 70ºC through a three-
Farmatic Biotech Energy ag. The company is also the stage heat exchanger. The pasteurisation process takes
main shareholder in Holsworthy Biogas Ltd., which was one hour and kills all weed seeds, pathogens and
established in 1998. The remaining shares are to be viruses (including Foot and Mouth disease, TB and the
held by the entrepreneur and local community and the like). The processed material that eventually leaves the
supplying farmers after full payback. Farmatic are also plant is therefore of higher value for farmers to spread
assisting in the operation of the plant. on their fields, and the risk of disease spread has been
removed.
Holsworthy Biogas has the capacity to process 146,000
tonnes per annum of cattle, pig and poultry manure After pasteurisation the mixture is pumped through the
plus organic food waste (20%). The manure is collected heat exchanger into either of the two 4000m3 digesters
from 30 local farms within a 5-6 miles radius of the located at the plant. Anaerobic digestion takes place at
plant. The food processing waste is collected direct 37ºC with an average retention time of 20 days in either
from food processors in the Devon and Cornwall area of tank. The biogas released by the digestion process is
the South West. methane gas. It is initially cleaned in a
de-sulphurisation unit and then stored in a gas store

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
The gas engines at the Holsworthy Biogas plant.
above the final digestate in the storage tank. The animal manure, which means that farmers can reduce
digestate (the treated waste mixture) is eventually the use of artificial mineral fertiliser. The extra storage
returned to the supplying farmers as a valuable bio- capacity provided on farms means that farmers only
fertiliser. have to spread the fertiliser during the growing season.
This helps minimise any risk of pollution.
The plant operates its own lorries, transporting the bio-
fertiliser to the supplying farms and then returning with The total gas production is budgeted to 3.9 million m3
raw animal manure. The lorries are specially designed methane per year (this equates to 39 million kWh of
for these operations. energy per year). The methane produced by the plant
will be used by two gas engines to generate electricity
Holsworthy Biogas Ltd has benefited from a £3.85 and heat. They have a combined total power capacity of
million EU grant from the Objective 5(b) programme 2.1 MWe with a budgeted gross power production of
administered by MAFF (now DEFRA) and their local 14.4 million kWh per year.
District Council of Torridge. The total project cost will be
£ 7.7million. The electricity produced will be sold at 5.93p per kWh
(2003 price level) under a 15 year Non-Fossil Fuel
Extra storage facilities to hold the bio-fertiliser are Obligation (NFFO) contract granted to Holsworthy
provided on the farms by Holsworthy Biogas. This has Biogas. The price is indexed linked and will increase or
been possible because of the EU grant. The bio- decrease over time according to the Retail Price Index.
fertiliser has a higher nutrient value than the original

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
The project is creating a number of local jobs in the The combined pre-pasteurisation and anaerobic
Holsworthy area. Furthermore, the project could help digestion of the waste is a very environmentally
keep some farmers in the farming business due to the responsible form of treatment for these wastes, which at
benefits of joining the project. the same time also gives higher nutrient values to the
farmers. Furthermore, this process is in line with the
It is anticipated that all the excess heat produced by the
new ‘EU Animal By-Products Regulations (Category 3
plant will eventually be sold through a new district
material)’.
heating system to supply the market town of
Holsworthy. The amount of heat available to supply the
The project in Holsworthy, which is based on many
district heating main will be about 15 million kWth per
years of experience gained from the successful
year. Initially, it is planned that the hot water will be
operation of similar plants in Germany and Denmark, is
used to heat the town’s new hospital, schools and other
expected to be the first of several centralised anaerobic
public buildings. This will further benefit the whole
digestion plants in the UK. Farmatic estimate the UK
town because the district heating will provide a
potential as 100 plants.
substitute for oil and other fossil fuels thus reducing air
emissions within the town.
Contact:
The anaerobic digestion of manure and waste not only
Jørgen Fink, Managing Director
has a positive influence on the environment, but also
or Mark Christensen, Project Development Executive.
offers many direct advantages to the farming sector :
Farmatic Biotech Energy UK Ltd.,
• Reduction in the risk of spreading disease.
5 Royal Crescent,
• Reduction in emissions to air, including significant Cheltenham. GL50 3DA
greenhouse gases.
Tel : 01242 242 111
• Reduction in odour problems.
Fax : 01242 243 111
• Reduction in the use of artificial mineral fertilisers.
e-mail: fink@farmatic.com
• Reduction in the need for landfill through the
Website: www.farmatic.com (go to English version)
increased recycling of waste.
• Reduction in surface and ground water pollution.
The net sale of electricity at 13.5 million kWh/year will

substitute the same amount of conventionally produced
electricity resulting in reduced CO2 emissions of 8,960
tonnes/year based on the current fossil fuel mix at
power plants. Furthermore, there is a considerable
reduction in methane emissions, which is 23 times
(IPPC, 2001) more harmful as a greenhouse gas than
CO2. If all the extracted methane was released
uncontrolled to the atmosphere this would have the
equivalent effect of up to 206,080 tonnes of CO2. Finally,
the district heating will give a CO2 reduction as well. The
actual reduction depends on the substituted fuel.

WIND POWER
Wind Power is the extraction of energy from the wind by the use of turbines to
produce electrical power.

WIND POWER
Chapter 3
Wind Power
Highlights Developments
◆ Assessment of a site for wind power potential
Introduction
requires analysis of the wind resource through
◆ Wind as a fuel is free and will not run out. existing data sources and site wind measurements.
◆ Globally the industry is worth £5 billion a year and ◆ Smaller developers can get assistance from several
is growing at 30-40% per annum. sources.
◆ The UK has enormous resources - one-third of
Environmental and Planning Considerations
Europe’s potential.
◆ Devon has an estimated onshore resource of 300 ◆ Careful attention needs to be given to visual and
MW by 2010. noise impacts.
◆ Early dialogue with planners and the local
Technology
community is essential if a wind power
◆ Modern wind power turbines use advanced development is to be given planning permission.
aerospace technologies and materials, and can
operate upwards of 20-25 years in a wide range of
environments.
The Benefits of Wind Power
◆ Turbines are available in a wide range of sizes from Wind energy offers the potential to generate substantial
less than a kilowatt acting as a battery charger to amounts of electricity without the pollution problems of
large machines rated at 3MW and with a tower 75 conventional forms of energy. For many centuries wind
metres high. has been used to provide mechanical power for
grinding corn and other industrial uses. It has only
Opportunities been within the last two decades that turbines have
◆ There are significant opportunities for landowners to been used to exploit this energy to generate electricity
work with wind developers because even a small in any significant quantity.
cluster of wind turbines could generate a sizeable
According to the Department of Trade and Industry
rental income.
(DTI), the UK has about 35% of Europe’s total economic
◆ Experienced wind power developers who can offer wind resource, more than any other European state and
turbine guarantees and access to finance are now sufficient in theory to supply the whole of the UK’s
present in the UK. electricity demand several times over. However, Britain
◆ A subsidy for wind power electricity sales is has been slow to utilise this resource, with installed
available, as are exemptions to the Climate Change capacity standing at about 500MW of capacity or about
Levy which can make wind turbines financially 0.5% of the UK’s electricity needs (enough to supply on
viable. average about 325,000 homes). By way of comparison,
Denmark, a country one-fifth the area of the UK and
with an inferior wind resource, currently has some

WIND POWER
2,400MW of wind power capacity (circa. 2,200MW on- How it Works

shore) generating approximately 18% of the country’s
electricity needs. Germany has more than 10,000 MW of Energy from the Wind
capacity. The reason for this is the attractive subsidies
Winds are large-scale movements of air masses in the
paid in these countries.
atmosphere. These movements of air are created on a
global scale primarily by differential solar heating of the
The key characteristics of a Wind Power development
Earth’s atmosphere. Therefore, wind power can be
are:
thought of as an indirect form of solar energy.
• No fuel costs (fuel is limitless, pollution-free, free of
‘extraction’ costs and delivered free of charge) and In addition to the main global wind systems there are
low running costs. also a variety of local effects. Differential heating of the
• A long lifetime for schemes, typically 20-25 years. sea and land also causes changes to the general wind
patterns. The nature of the terrain, ranging from
• High reliability and high availability when there is
mountains and valleys to more local obstacles such as
sufficient wind.
buildings and trees, also has an important effect.
• High initial capital outlay to install and commission
the system. Energy in the wind is extracted by a wind turbine which
• A visual, and some limited noise impact on the has blades with aerofoil cross-section which produces
environment but otherwise, a very low ‘lift’ rather like the wing of an aeroplane. This lift
environmental impact. causes the rotor to rotate. Thus wind energy is
• Levels of public support and acceptance are high, converted into shaft power, which is in turn converted
especially in community owned wind farm projects. to electrical power by the attached generator.
• The fastest growing renewable energy technology,

with 30-40% global growth rates for the last 5-6
How efficient are wind turbines?
years. The amount of energy that can be extracted from the
• No decommissioning problems or residual pollution wind has a theoretical maximum of about 60%, which is
on site. known as the Betz Limit. Modern wind turbines are
close to this limit over a range of wind speeds.
Wind power developments can vary substantially in Of course the wind does not blow at the best speed all
scale ranging from a small wind turbine providing of the time. On average the wind turbine produces 35%
electricity for a single house to a large wind farm of the electricity it could produce over a year at
providing electricity for many thousands of houses. maximum output.
The regional planning guidance for Devon indicates a

target of over 300MW of installed wind capacity in
Devon by 20101. Although the majority of wind
development within Devon may be in the form of small
wind turbines or ‘wind clusters’ comprising one or more
large wind turbines, it is likely that this target will
require some large wind farms.
1
Assessing the GOSW regional Targets and Assessment report, suggests 132MW of onshore wind for Devon by 2010, in order for the
Government to meet the UK’s 10% target by 2010. Report to DTI and DETR, ‘Renewable Energy Assessment and Target for the South
West’, Terence O’Rourke plc and ETSU April 2001 (www.gosw.gov.uk/publications )

WIND POWER
Variation of Wind Speed with Height 10 miles per hour) and reach maximum power output
at around 15 metres/second (around 33 miles per hour),
The wind is strongly affected by the friction of the
although these characteristics vary with manufacturer.
ground surface and hence wind speeds are nominally
In sustained very high wind speeds, i.e. gale force
zero at ground level and increase steadily with height
winds, (25 metres/second, 50+ miles/hour) wind
above the ground. For example, the average wind
turbines shut down automatically due to safety
speed at 40m above ground level will be somewhere in
considerations. The power curve described above is
the region of 20% higher than at 10m for a particular
shown in figure 3.1.
site. The variation of wind speed is also highly
dependent on local ground surface conditions.
It is important to note that the energy contained in the
wind is proportional to the cube of the wind speed.
Rated Power of a Turbine This means that a doubling of wind speed would result
The maximum electrical power generated from a wind in an increase in the available energy by a factor of 8.
turbine is called the ‘rated power’ of the turbine. This Therefore, the annual mean wind speed of the site is of
will be achieved at the ‘rated wind speed’. At lower critical importance to the economic viability of a
wind speeds the power will vary between the minimum project.
power and the rated power.
The so-called power curve of a wind turbine tells us The Annual Energy Capture from a
how much power to expect from the machine at various Wind Power Development
wind speeds. Wind turbines start operating at wind
speeds in the range of 4 to 5 metres per second (around To work out the annual income from a Wind Power
Project, the annual energy capture must be estimated.
The amount of energy that can be produced each year
Figure 3.1 at a given site is related to the design output of a wind
turbine or wind cluster by the ‘Load Factor’. This is the
The power curve of a typical wind turbine.
relationship between the actual energy produced in a
1400 year, and the maximum that could be produced if the
1300 plant were able to generate at full capacity for the full
1200 8760 hours in the year.
1100
1000 Annual Wind Power Energy Capture =
Power Output (kW)
900 Installed Capacity x Load Factor x 8760 hours

800
700 For a typical wind power scheme in the UK, the load
600
factor is likely to be between 30% and 35%.
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Wind Speed (m/s)

WIND POWER
The Technology:
Economics of Wind Power: Power Generation Systems
An Example
How wind turbines work
A small wind cluster containing 3 wind turbines
Almost all wind turbines producing electricity for the
rated at 1MW each would have a combined rating national grid consist of rotor blades which rotate
of 3MW. If the load factor for the site was around a horizontal hub. The hub is connected to a
estimated to be 30% on average, this wind cluster generator usually via a gearbox. The nacelle is the
would result in a total annual energy capture of name given to the housing at the top of the tower
which houses the electrical and mechanical
Annual Energy Capture = components. This type of turbine is referred to as a
3 x 0.3 x 8760 = ‘horizontal axis’ machine. The typical components of a
7,884MWh or 7,884,000kWh wind turbine are shown in figure 3.2.
Components of a Wind Turbine

A developer could then work out the likely
income once they know the value of each kilowatt The crucial parameter for a wind turbine is the
hour via sales to a local electricity supplier, diameter of the rotor blades - the longer the blades, the
larger the area ‘swept’ by the rotor and the greater the
community or business.
energy capture. At present the average size of new
machines being installed is 1.3 megawatt rated capacity,
The cost of wind cluster developments although there are 1.5, 2 and 3 megawatt machines on
The typical cost of a wind farm development will the market. The trend is towards using these larger
generally be in the range from £600-800 per machines.
installed kilowatt (kW). For example, a 3MW wind Most modern wind turbines have three blades. This
cluster may cost in the order of £1.8 million to turbine design typically rotates more slowly than 2-
£2.4 million. Because of the high capital cost blade designs and gives a more restful, balanced and
involved, most landowners usually allow a hence less distracting appearance. It is often a quieter
development company to finance the wind cluster design due to the lower rotational speed and has other
practical benefits. The blades are made of fibreglass-
development and gain annual income from land
reinforced polyester or wood-epoxy.
rental.
The blades on large machines typically rotate at 10-30
If the electricity was sold to the grid for say revolutions per minute at constant speed, although an
4p/kWh, from the example above a 3MW wind increasing number of machines operate at a variable
cluster would produce income from electricity speed.
sales of £315,360 per year. A typical ground rent The yaw mechanism connects the top of the tower and
for a landowner who allows the wind cluster to be nacelle and turns the turbine so that it faces the wind.
built on his or her land might be in the region of Sensors are used to monitor the wind speed and
2% of electricity income, which would equate to direction and thus the tower head can be turned to line
up with the wind. In very small machines, this is done
£6,307 per year.
by passive means such as a simple tail vane.

WIND POWER
Towers are mostly cylindrical (or polygonal) and made Site Issues
of steel, generally painted light grey. Lattice towers are
used in some locations. Towers range from 25 to 75 Practical Requirements
meters in height for large machines.
The main technical requirements of a large wind cluster
site are primarily determined by the need for it to be
Figure 3.2 financially viable.
The cross-section of a wind turbine with numbered
components listed below The Wind Resource
4 1 The economics of any wind farm site are heavily

2
11
influenced by the Annual Mean Wind Speed (AMWS).
7 6 5
10 8 Since the power available scales with the cube of the
12 9
16
wind speed, a small difference in the AMWS can mean a
3 large change in the power available and hence the
13
14 energy capture.
15
17
In the UK, AMWS values of 7.5 - 8m/s (around 15 miles
per hour) at a height of 40m are considered good,
although much lower wind speed sites have been
1. The Rotor Blades usually made of glass fibre
developed in other countries where higher prices are
reinforced plastic. paid for wind power, particularly Denmark and
2. The Hub. Germany.
3. The Turbine Frame.
4. The Rotor Bearing. Land Availability
5. The Rotor Shaft.
6. The Gearbox. A wind farm requires a fairly large area of land as the
7. The Disc Brake located on the high speed shaft of the wind turbines need to be spaced at least 5 rotor
gearbox. diameters apart - say at least 200m - to prevent
8. The Generator Coupling. shadowing of one wind turbine by another with a
9. The Generator.
consequent loss of efficiency (so-called ‘array losses’).
10. The Radiator, for cooling the gearbox oil.
11. The Wind Measuring System consists of a anemometer The site must also be exposed to the prevailing winds,
and wind vane, which measures the wind conditions be on sufficiently flat ground with no obstacles and
and gives signals to the turbine control system. have suitable ground conditions for strong foundations.
12. The Control System monitors and controls the
operation of the wind turbine.
Good Access.
13. The Hydraulic System.
14. The Yaw Drive to ensure the turbine is always facing The construction of a wind farm will require the use of
the prevailing wind direction. large lorries and cranes, which necessitates A-road
15. The Yaw Bearing. In addition the turbine is equipped
access. Component trailers are now typically 30m long
with an active yaw disc brake system.
16. The Nacelle Cover usually made of glass fibre and 3.5m or more in width and height. Weak bridges,
reinforced plastic on a steel frame. sharp bends and lightweight C class roads are normally
17. The Tower is a tubular steel structure which can be a ‘show stopper’ for a project. If long access routes have
delivered in various heights.
to be constructed this can have a major impact on the
cost of a project.

WIND POWER
High Voltage Infrastructure Smaller installations, such as those contemplated by

individuals, cannot afford expensive site assessment
The power from a wind turbine will be fed into the local
exercises. Greater reliance is therefore placed on
grid at either 11kV or 33kV. It is therefore important
predictions based on computer modelling and other
that the site is reasonably close to the existing high
information such as local knowledge. In these cases
voltage network, so that construction of long lengths of
small errors in the annual energy capture are usually
new electricity cable is avoided. Long grid connections
not so crucial.
sometimes lead to planning difficulties if they require
additional over-head lines and may be prohibitively
In all cases, what is being attempted is an estimate of
expensive if the planning authority insists upon an
the long-term wind resource, ideally over the expected
underground connection.
lifetime of the wind turbines, which could be between
20 to 25 years. Usually it is the long term past wind
The Need to Predict the Wind resource at the site that is being relied upon; the
working assumption being that the long-term wind
Resource resource will not be changing.
Prediction of the wind resource at a given site is a
Large wind farms represent a significant investment
crucial part of the development of commercial wind
(often tens of millions of pounds). Therefore, however
energy generation. Without an accurate assessment of
sophisticated a computational assessment, there will
the available wind resource no meaningful evaluation
always be the need for on site data collection, as there
of a particular wind generation proposal can be
is no substitute for accurate measurement at or near the
attempted.
locations where the wind turbines will be sited. Data
As stated earlier, the power in the wind increases as a will usually be collected for a minimum period of 8
cube of the wind speed, therefore it is essential to months to 1 year.
obtain an accurate long term wind speed distribution
for a site to predict the annual energy capture and Wind Speed Measurement- Anemometry
hence the revenue. The most dependable approach to site assessment is to
actually measure the wind, ideally at the hub height of
At different stages of project development different the proposed turbines so as to remove any uncertainties
levels of assessment are appropriate: arising from predicting wind shear (variation of wind
• At the early stages a superficial and low cost speed with height above ground level). This means
appraisal of a site is often undertaken to see if putting up a mast with a small anemometer. Planning
sufficient potential exists to justify a time consuming permission is required. The exercise costs about
and potentially costly measurement exercise. £10,000. An additional measurement point lower on
• Once it has been established that a site is promising the mast is also useful so that the wind shear can be
in terms of wind speed and that the project is likely calculated. This enables the wind speed at different
to be economically viable, a full wind speed hub heights to be estimated.
measurement campaign can be undertaken.
The Wind Speed Database for the UK
The Department of Trade and Industry wind speed
database is called NOABL and contains estimates of the

WIND POWER
annual mean wind speed throughout the UK. This is One interesting trend is that in virtually all public
useful to anyone wanting to get a rough idea of the attitude surveys, irrespective of who conducts them or
wind resource in any particular area. where they are undertaken, broadly the same result is
found. Around 70% of the population tend to support
NOABL divides the UK into a grid of 1km squares and wind power development, 10% are opposed and 20%
gives the mean annual wind speeds at three heights have no opinion. These ratios change in areas that have
(10m, 25m and 45m). It is based on wind data over 20 experience of wind development where it is typically
years. The NOABL database gives a broad assessment of 80:10:10. In other words, the approval rating goes up
the wind resource within a region, although it does not when people have experienced wind turbines in
take into account any local effects. Despite its operation.
limitations, it enables a good first estimate of the wind
resource in a particular area to be made and has the In 2002 the Scottish Executive commissioned the most
advantage of being very simple and quick to run. extensive study to date which corroborated these
figures.
Computer Models for wind speed prediction
Within the wind industry there has been a continual
Environmental Considerations
evolution in wind resource assessment techniques.
Since future wind speeds cannot be measured, Whilst the majority of the public accepts and supports
predictions must be made from past wind speed the environmental benefits of wind power, visual and
measurements. The most common method used by noise intrusion of wind farms is perceived by some to
developers is called Measure-Correlate-Predict (MCP). be of particular concern. Choosing a site to minimise
This relates short-term measurements at the potential the visual intrusion from houses and settlements is an
wind farm site, to long-term measurements of wind important consideration, but this should not unduly
speeds at a nearby reference site with the same wind compromise performance.
climate. This enables an accurate prediction of the
same long term period at the potential site. Although it is important that wind farms are sited some
distance from centres of population, it is inevitable that
some sites will be close to individual homes and
Public Opinion to Wind Farms in dwellings. It has been suggested that turbines should
not be sited less than a minimum distance of 500m
the UK from the nearest dwelling, depending on the size and
There has been a great deal of controversy in the recent noise emission of the wind turbine and whether the
years over proposed wind power developments. Some property is financially involved in the project or not.
people genuinely do not like any intrusion into well-
loved landscapes. Some has been whipped up by Areas of particular historic, environmental or
pressure groups implacably opposed to wind power at recreational value have special protection which will
all costs, while in other instances local newspaper inevitably make planning permission more difficult to
editors have seen the opportunity to create controversy obtain. For example, National Parks in England and
as a good running story to sell newspapers. There is a Wales have special protection and no large wind farm
balance to be struck between protecting beautiful has ever been built to date in such an area.
landscapes and the imperative to bring on energy
sources which cut UK carbon emissions.

WIND POWER
How much space do wind turbines require? Planning Authorisation & Social
The wind is a diffuse form of energy, in common with Issues
many renewable sources. A typical wind cluster of 10
turbines might extend over an area of 1 square Advice on planning issues in the UK is provided by the
kilometre, but only 1% of the land area would be taken British Wind Energy Association (BWEA) in their Best
out of use, the remainder can still be used for other Practice Guidelines for Wind Energy Development. In
purposes, such as farming or as natural habitat. the UK, planning guidelines are set out in the Planning
Policy Guidelines Note PPG22 (Department of Trade and
Wind turbines and livestock Industry). A revision to this, which could have the effect
of making it easier for sensitively planned wind parks to
The installation of wind clusters is popular with
proceed, was promised by the Government for late-
farmers, because their land can continue to be used for
2003. An application by a wind turbine developer for
growing crops or grazing livestock. Sheep and cows are
planning permission, depending on the size and
not disturbed by wind turbines.
location of the proposal, may require an Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA).
Wind turbines and birds
It has been shown that correctly sited wind turbines, for In recent years all forms of development have come
example avoiding bird migration paths, will have a under increasing pressure to consider fully the impacts
minimal impact on birds with very few, if any, that they have on the environment. The technique of
mortalities1. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has developed
(RSPB) has worked closely with the wind energy industry rapidly and continues to be refined. Given the strong
to produce guidelines to minimise bird and habitat environmental credentials of wind energy it is of extra
impacts. The RSPB actually promote a brand of green importance that proposals fully consider and mitigate
energy called RSPB Energy with Scottish Power. the impacts that a wind farm might have.
Noise from wind turbines National and European directives generally require an
EIA to be undertaken for every wind farm proposal in
Virtually everything with moving parts will make some
the UK. Officially in the UK the ‘cut in’ point is for a
sound, and wind turbines are no exception although
5MW project or 5 turbines or more. However, in
modern wind turbines are generally quiet in operation.
practice most planning authorities will require a large
When compared to the noise of road traffic, trains,
amount of information for any application, so the
aircraft and construction activities the noise from wind
proposer will have to carry out some form of
turbines is very low. Outside the nearest houses, which
assessment even for a single large machine.
are at least 500 metres away the sound of a wind
turbine generating electricity is likely to be about the An EIA will represent a very significant cost to the
same level as noise from a flowing stream about 50-100 developer at the initial stages of the project when the
metres away or the noise of leaves rustling in a gentle outcome is far from certain. For a medium size project
breeze. This is similar to the sound level inside a typical this will be in the order of £50,000 to £100,000 in the
living room with a gas fire switched on, or the reading UK. It therefore follows that the developer must have a
room of a library. level of confidence that their proposal is a good one
and is likely to be successful.
1
For further information contact BWEA (see Annex3).

WIND POWER
A planning decision will be based largely on the findings

of the EIA (or assessment for smaller projects). The British Wind Energy Association
process enables every aspect of the project to be
considered. It is therefore, if used correctly, a beneficial The British Wind Energy Association has
tool for a developer in designing a project. The EIA developed into the largest renewable energy trade
must however be an integral part of the design process association in the UK, with a membership of over
and not an additional extra. 500, including more than 200 corporate
members.
New Approaches to make Local In the UK at present just under 1000 turbines
produce around 500MW of electrical power,
Wind Development Accessible enough to supply more than 325,000 homes. This
Because of the difficulties and expense of gaining corresponds to less than half of the 1% of
planning permission for a wind turbine or group of electricity generated in Britain from renewable
turbines with no guarantee of success, developers will energy sources. Yet the UK has the greatest wind
now offer a ‘risk-free’ option to landowners who have resource in Europe, and the wind energy industry
suitable sites. believe that they could supply 80% of the 10%
renewables target by 2010, both on and offshore.
A new initiative by National Wind Power (NWP), called
‘WindWorks’, is designed to make it easier for The BWEA is committed to supporting the
landowners who have a potential wind power site to continuing development of the wind energy
develop a wind farm or wind cluster. industry, not least because wind is a clean,
abundant and entirely renewable source of
WindWorks provides landowners, whose land is suitable, energy. For more information contact British
with the opportunity, guidance and support to take a Wind Energy Association, Renewable Energy
small wind energy project through planning at no cost House, 1 Aztec Row, Berners Road, London,
to the landowner. Where planning consent is secured, N1 0PW, UK. Telephone: 020 7689 1960.
NWP will finance and operate the turbines and share Or visit the website - www.bwea.com.
the return with the landowner.
Other wind farm developers, including the Devon-based

company Farm Energy Ltd, will offer a similar package
to landowners with suitable sites.
A suitable site will be:

• Windy and well exposed.
• An open area at least 500 metres away from
neighbouring homes.
• Owned by someone interested in an income from
the wind.

WIND POWER
◆ Case Study 3: A series of improvements commenced in April 2002

following a technical review, including modifying the
Frogwell Lodge, Haddon Hill, tower to 12m height, up-rating to 12 batteries and
Skilgate, Exmoor fitting a second inverter.
Small-Scale Wind Power How the system Works

The wind turbine is mounted on a rigid steel tower with
Location of Turbine.
a concrete foundation of approximately 1m depth. The
turbine is an upwind design, which finds the wind
direction with the help of a tail vane. High speed winds
are coped with by virtue of its hinged tail-vane and
rotor being mounted on an inclined hinge. The function
of this safety system is to limit the rotation speed of the
rotor and hence to limit the axial forces acting upon the
rotor, and the mechanical stresses in the generator. As
wind-speed increases, the force on the rotor increases
and gradually it turns out of the oncoming wind. As this
happens the machine is able to capture less of the
available power and so slows down. The position of
Details of the Project
rotor, tail and vane are stable at every wind speed, i.e.
Up until late 2001 electricity for the 3 bed cottage was
the torques around the hinge axis and around the
supplied solely by a single cylinder Lister diesel
vertical axis of the rotor head are in balance.
generator. The wind turbine system was installed as an
alternative to the option of mains connection. At the Battery Bank.
time of installation, partly due to the foot and mouth
outbreak, the neighbouring landowners were reluctant
to allow access across their land for running a spur off
the mains network. Mr Robson therefore chose the
option of a standalone wind system with battery storage
to complement the diesel generator. At the time this
had favourable economics.
The site is at 300m above sea level and has a good An underground cable takes the generated DC electricity
approach from the prevailing South-Westerly wind and to the turbine junction box in the stable building, where
so is perfect for a wind power scheme. it is connected to the turbine control box. From here the
power is either fed to the battery bank, or is diverted to
During the planning stages objections from local dump loads if the batteries are fully charged. The dump
residents meant that a site meeting was required loads lose the heat to the outside air, although this
involving all interested parties and the National Park could be diverted to immersion heaters in future.
planning team. A compromise layout resulted, with the
turbine being repositioned out of sight from the
adjoining car park.
Stuart Robson, Frogwell Lodge - Reactions to the Wind Turbine

“In the event of a power cut in the local network the house, being standalone, is unaffected.”
“The turbine is very therapeutic to watch” (It’s actually visible while seated at the kitchen table).

WIND POWER
Two inverters take power “When approaching a wind power supplier to quote for
from the battery bank a system, the power requirements should be increased
and convert it to usable by half again of the current consumption. This allows
domestic AC at 230V. the site owner to install extra appliances that might not
If the battery voltage have been possible before the turbine was installed (due
drops below a set level to generator size limitations).”
the generator will start
up in parallel. “Quotations should be obtained and carefully compared
between a connection to the mains network and the
The operating hours of proposed system.”
the generator have
dropped significantly Costs
Turbine control unit and
although at present Two thousand pounds were granted by the National
Inverters
there is no kwh meter Park towards the scheme. The total cost of phase 1 of
fitted, and so no calculations the scheme was in the order of £11.5k. After the
of fuel saving have been done. technical improvements this figure became £17.5k.
Maintenance
The access panel on the tower base is removed to check Technical Details
the power cables and unwind as necessary. At the same Wind Turbine Fortis - Montana
time the battery acid levels are checked and topped up Generator 5.8kW DC Permanent Magnet
as appropriate. Service periods for the generator are - no gearbox
Cut-in / Rated Windspeed 2.5m/s / 16m/s
now significantly longer due to reduced usage.
Rotor 3 blades comprising 5.7m
Owner / Operator’s Comments diameter
Blades Mechanical Furling to avoid
The performance of the system has been compromised
overspeed
by the positioning of the tower in such close proximity
Brake Mechanical Disc Brake
to the line of Beech trees at the border of the property.
Storage 12 cell Varta battery bank
The approaching wind is unimpeded but there is a operating at 24V
barrier to the wind leaving the turbine, resulting in a Connection 2x Victron 2.5kW Inverters
reduced power output. The owner remains convinced of giving AC output
the merits of the technology but makes the following Distance from Buildings 10m
comments. Mast Height 12m
Diesel Generator 2.5kW Lister Petter
“You can’t just put up a turbine and expect to get
electricity, it’s got to be in the right place! If the
authorities say it should be inconspicuous and suggest
placing it behind something, then you must argue that
it will not be in a practical position. Don’t back down,
push for an effective installation otherwise there is no
point.”

WIND POWER
◆ Case Study 4: It is important that the system is reliable as usually

there are no technical staff on site at the times of
Pinkery Farm Activity Centre, greatest demand (i.e. at night).
Pinkworthy Pond, Simonsbath, An underground cable takes the generated DC electricity
Exmoor. to a junction box in the generator building, where it is
connected via a manual disconnection switch to the
Small-Scale Wind Power and Photovoltaics turbine control box. From here the power is either fed
to the battery bank or is diverted to ‘dump loads’ if the
batteries are fully charged. The ‘dump loads’ take the
form of immersion heater elements in the Centre’s hot
water tanks and so the energy is not wasted, and
actually displaces some LPG use.
The Project
Up until 2001 electricity for the 44 bed visitor centre Two inverters take power from the battery bank and
was supplied solely by the 3-cylinder Lister Petter diesel convert it to usable domestic AC at 230V to satisfy the
generator with heating and hot water provided using Center’s requirements. If the battery voltage drops
LPG. The site is too far from the existing grid for below a set level, the generator will start up in parallel.
connection to be viable.
In this setup the generator
A series of improvements commenced in mid 2001 use is much less, in fact the
starting with the installation of a Proven wind turbine operating hours of the
and battery storage system. A recent addition has been generator have dropped from
a 75m2 roof covered with Photovoltaic tiles which is an average of 105 hours per
connected via a matched control unit to the battery week to 5 hours a week. As
bank. the generator is used less, its
12V starting battery is kept
How it Works charged up from the wind
The wind turbine is placed at a suitable distance from turbine and battery bank so
obstacles to allow unhindered passage of wind past the that it is always ready for use.
blades from the most common wind directions. The
turbine is a simple downwind design which naturally Maintenance
aligns itself to the wind The lack of a gearbox in the Proven wind turbine means
direction, and the rotor that the only maintenance required is a 6 monthly
blades have a passive greasing of the moving parts. This requires the tower to
pitching mechanism based be lowered with the aid of a hand operated winch.
on rotor speed. This means Battery levels are checked and topped up periodically.
that mechanically there is Service periods for the generator are now significantly
very little to go wrong, and longer due to a reduced usage.
there are no external
connections other than for
the electricity output.
Alan Bailey - Pinkery Residential Activity Centre

“It’s magic! I’m a complete convert and find myself preaching to visitors. The park authority are very keen to duplicate the success of
this scheme elsewhere on Exmoor.”
“Now that the diesel generator hardly ever runs, you can really appreciate the bird song and the beauty of the site. Previously if
someone left the smallest light on, the generator would run all night!”

WIND POWER
Owner/Operator’s Comments
Initially Western Power Distribution were approached to Technical Details
quote for providing mains cover at the site but Wind Turbine Proven WT6000
responded that they would be unable to supply the site. Generator 6kW DC Permanent Magnet
By way of compensation, a donation was made towards - no gearbox
Cut-in Windspeed 2.5m/s
making alternative arrangements. The Park authority
Rated Windspeed 10m/s
are keen to duplicate the success of this project at other
Rated rpm 200
sites.
Rotor 3 blades comprising 5.5m
diameter
Costing
Blades Mechanical Furling to avoid
The Pinkery Centre received funding from the following
overspeed
sources: Brake Mechanical Disc Brake
• Exmoor National Park. Storage 24 cell battery bank
operating at 48V
• Western Power Distribution.
Connection 2x 4.5kW Inverters giving AC
• Department of Environment Transport & the output
Regions. Distance from Buildings 150m
• Rural Development Agency. Mast Height 9m
Diesel Generator 13.2kW Lister Petter
The cost of the system (excluding the photovoltaics) was 3-cylinder
£24,000 excluding building works to provide a new
generator building to house the battery bank and
turbine controls. This figure includes the turbine,
storage, inverters, connections and installation. The
foundations and ground preparation for the turbine
were undertaken by a local firm.

SMALL-SCALE HYDROPOWER
Photo: Historic Weir at Filleigh Sawmill, North Devon.
Water was once used extensively as a source of motive power in the British Isles.
Government targets for renewable energy and development of modern turbine units
now make re-activation of many of these sites for electricity generation economically
worthwhile.

Chapter 4
Small-Scale Hydropower
Highlights ◆ Planning acceptance and local support remain
critical issues for the success of hydro power in
General Devon. Though the technology is less problematical
◆ Hydropower captures the energy of falling water in planning terms than wind power, involving the
using a turbine and then generates electricity. community directly through investment in the
project is a useful model to follow.
◆ Small-scale hydro schemes used to be common in
the UK both for direct motive power and sometimes
electrical power. Many of these have fallen into Benefits of Small-Scale
disuse, though some parts of the river infrastructure
are often re-usable.
Hydropower
The flowing water in rivers and streams is a valuable
UK Small-Scale Hydro Market
natural resource, which has for many centuries been
◆ There are 30,000 to 40,000 disused water mill sites used to provide mechanical power for grinding corn and
in the UK, though only a handful are currently used other industrial uses. It has only been within the last
for power generation. hundred and fifty years that turbines have been used to
◆ Considerable potential exists in many hilly areas of exploit this energy to generate electricity, with minimal
Britain for hydropower which has not been environmental impact. Despite the existence of
adequately quantified. between 30,000 to 40,000 former mill sites in the UK, a
relatively small number are currently used for power
◆ The last major small-scale hydropower assessment
generation. However, the premium price now being
for the UK found that there was an ‘economic’
paid for renewable energy, combined with advances in
potential of over 300MWe.
technology, means that many potential hydropower
◆ The 300MWe is an underestimate as advances in sites may now be more economic to develop.
low-head micro-hydro technology (i.e. between 2-4
metres of falling water) now means that sites below Many potential hydropower schemes that could be
25kWe may be feasible. economically exploited in Devon will be at mill sites
where civil structures such as weirs and leats still exist.
Devon and Small-Scale Hydro
There is also considerable potential in many hilly areas
◆ The true potential for Devon has not been of Devon for hydropower. Turbines are available which
adequately assessed, but estimates vary from can utilise quite small spring fed streams for power
between 7 and 11MWe, excluding the potential of generation if the fall is sufficient. These sites can often
sites under 25kWe. be developed at reasonable cost since, in this case, civil
◆ This chapter takes you through the five key steps to structures associated with large flows of water, such as
a successful small-scale hydro project. weirs, are often not required.

SMALL SCALE-HYDROPOWER
The key characteristics of a hydropower development Annual Flow Distribution

are:
The amount of water carried by a river will vary greatly
• A high initial capital outlay to install and throughout the year, generally having high flow during
commission the system. the winter months and low flow during the summer
• Zero annual fuel costs and low running costs. months. In general, a small-scale hydropower scheme
in the UK, correctly sized for maximum energy capture,
• A long lifetime for the scheme.
will not be expected to have sufficient water to run
• High reliability and availability.
continuously throughout the summer months. Figure
• Totally automated. 4.1 shows mean daily flows for a Devon river over one
• Very low environmental impact. year where it can clearly be seen that the flow drops to
very low levels in the Summer.
A well maintained hydropower scheme can run
indefinitely, with periodic component replacements e.g. The flow variation at a particular site is usually
new generator every 10-15 years and new turbine represented on a Flow Duration Curve (FDC). Using
approximately every 25 years. The development of historical flow data, this shows the percentage of time
small-scale hydropower should therefore be viewed as a which a particular flow rate is likely to occur in any
medium to long term investment to generate clean, given year. Figure 4.2 shows a typical Flow Duration
green electricity. Curve and indicates the reserve flow, stipulated by the
Environment Agency, which must be left in the river at
all times. The reserve flow required by the Environment
How Small-Scale Hydro Works Agency is often set at the flow which is available for 95%
Energy from Water of the year. This is written as Q95.
Flowing water, derived from rainfall, contains A hydro turbine will operate over a range of flows. The
gravitational energy (Potential) and energy of motion maximum turbine flow (or rated flow) will produce the
(Kinetic) which slowly dissipates as the river flows back maximum power, but power will still be generated
towards the sea. down to when the cut-off flow is reached.
35
Figure 4.1
The typical mean daily flow on a 30
Devon River over 1 year.
25
Flow (m3/s)
20
15
10
0
Jan Dec

The Calculation of Electrical Power from a Turbine

The electrical power generated from a hydropower scheme is given by the formula:
Electrical Power = Head x Flow x Gravity x Efficiency
Where:
Power is measured in kWe (kilo Watts).
Gravity = 9.81 m/s2 (measure of the density of water and acceleration due to gravity).
Head is the vertical height between level of water at the intake to the turbine (‘head race’) and the level
of the water where it exits the turbine (‘tail race’). This is measured in metres.
Flow is the quantity of water per second flowing through the turbine. This is measured in cubic metres
per second (m3/s) 1, often called ‘cumecs’.
Efficiency no turbine will capture all the potential energy contained in the falling water. There will also be
mechanical losses in the rotor and electrical losses in the generator. The overall efficiency, usually
given the symbol ‘η’, is often called the ‘water to wire’ efficiency and has values typically between
60-70% for small hydro schemes, and is somewhat higher for larger schemes.
The Annual Energy Capture from a Hydropower Scheme

To work out the annual income from a hydropower scheme, the annual energy capture must be estimated. The
amount of energy that can be produced each year at a given site is related to the design output of a turbine by the
‘Load Factor’. This is the relationship between the actual energy produced in a year and the maximum that could
be produced if the plant were able to generate at full capacity for all 8760 hours in the year.
Annual Energy Capture = Installed Capacity x Load Factor x 8760
For a typical run-of-river hydropower scheme the load factor is likely to be between 50% and 70%.
Worked Example: Take the vertical distance between the head race and tail race measured to be 3 metres, and
assume the design flow of the turbine is matched to the mean flow of the river, which might be 1/2 m3/s or 500 litres
per second. Assuming a ‘water to wire’ efficiency of 80%, the electrical power of the turbine at design flow will be:
Electrical Power = 3 x 0.5 x 9.81 x 0.8 = 11.8kW
With a typical load factor of 60% this would give an annual energy capture of:
Annual Energy Capture = 11.8 x 0.6 x 8760 = 62,000kWh
If this electricity was sold to the grid for 5p/kWh this would result in a gross income for the site owner of about
£3,100 per year.
1
It should be noted that 1 cubic metre per second is equal to 1000 litres per second or 1 ‘cumec’.

In the example FDC in Figure 4.2, the rated flow will be capture.
available approximately 25% of the time at this site, but
the turbine will continue to operate for about 72% of Cross-flow and Kaplan turbines both have high
the time (or 37 weeks). efficiency at low flows and therefore will be able to
operate for most of the year and hence will have a
Because of the large flow variation encountered it is much higher annual energy capture. This must be
necessary to accurately size the turbine, and to predict weighed up against their cost, with some Kaplan and
how much energy could be produced in a given year sophisticated cross flow turbines being relatively
and hence gauge the economic viability. An alternative expensive. A schematic of a crossflow turbine is shown
is to provide water storage. in figure 4.3.
Power Connection and Distribution

Technology
There are a number of different ways to utilise the
Power Generation Systems electricity from a small hydropower scheme. Firstly,
larger hydropower schemes often sell all the generated
Hydropower schemes use a water turbine to generate
power directly to the grid, via a Power Purchase
power. For Low-Head schemes, the four main options of
Agreement. A second option, where there is on-site
turbine are: a simple propeller, cross-flow, Francis or
power demand, is for the hydropower to displace any
Kaplan. The propeller turbine has the advantage of low
on-site usage and then sell any excess to the grid. This
cost, but has high efficiency only when the flow is close
will optimise the value of the power, since a site owner
to the design flow and hence will have very poor part-
will pay more for imported power than they will get for
flow efficiency and consequently a relatively low energy
the power they sell to the grid.
Figure 4.2 1.0

Flow Duration Curve
0.9
at Cutters Mill
0.8
A Flow Duration Curve
FDC
0.7
Flow rate, Q (m3/s)
Q95 (reserve flow)

0.6
0.5
0.4
Turbine Rated Flow
0.3
0.2
0.1 Turbine Cut-off Flow
Reserve Flow
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of Time Exceeded

There are five main areas to

Figure 4.3
A Cross-Flow Turbine.
consider for the development of a
Small-Scale Hydropower Project:
• Assessing the site.
• Estimating the potential resource.
• Costs involved in development.
• Environmental requirements.
• Planning and local issues.
Step One - Site Issues

Practical Requirements
A typical hydropower scheme will consist of:
• A suitable rainfall catchment area i.e. a river or
stream of reasonable size.
• A river with a suitable drop in level (vertical distance
The cost and work involved with grid connection must
gives the hydraulic head).
be weighed up in relation to the annual electricity sales.
For very small systems, a third option would be to • A water intake above a weir or behind a dam.
simply use the hydropower on-site and excess power be • A pipe or channel to convey water to the turbine.
‘dumped’ to heat water. In all options, when the • A turbine, generator and electrical connection.
hydropower output is below the on-site demand, power
• A tailrace to return the exhaust water to the main
can be imported ‘seamlessly’ from the grid to meet this
flow.
demand.
The key feature for most low-head schemes will be the
In cases where there is no mains electricity, hydropower existence of a weir and a leat, which may still be in
can be used in conjunction with a battery-inverter place transporting water, or may be silted up. Other
system to provide ‘mains-like’ electricity. features that are important are an overflow or spillway
to prevent leat damage at times of high flow and a fish
screen/trash rack is generally employed to prevent fish
or floating items such as logs from entering the turbine.
Figure 4.4 shows a plan view of a typical run-of-river

hydropower scheme. The majority of potential
hydropower sites in Devon will be of ‘low-head’ where
the vertical distance between the headrace and tailrace
will typically be between 2m and 4m.

Figure 4.4 Fish pass

Plan view of the main features
of a typical run-of-river scheme.
Weir
Direction of flow in river
Water is returned to the

river via a tailrace
Location of turbine and generator
Short penstock pipe
Leat
Intake to penstock with screen
Sluice gate and overflow allowing
excess water past the turbine
Step Two - Estimating the Resource A ten year power purchase contract obviously has a
much greater value to the developer when seeking
If your site fulfils some of the requirements as outlined finance from a bank or other investor.
in Step One, has a head greater than 2 metres and has
some of the civil infrastructure in place from a previous
project, then contact either local companies (see Step Four - Environmental
resources at the end) who can assess the resource for Requirements
you, or contact the British Hydropower Association.
Hydropower schemes need to be developed sensitively
to avoid any detrimental environmental effects.
Step Three - Costs and Economic Schemes would be subject to environmental controls,
Viability primarily imposed by the Environment Agency, which
has responsibility for the environmental protection of
There are many variables in assessing costs and the watercourses in England and Wales. It may be necessary
likely income from a project. Estimates of the costs of to construct approved fish passes/ladders to allow fish
the turbine, generator and civil structures can be migration and to fit fish screens and/or fish guidance
obtained from one of the companies specialising in this systems to ensure that fish are not inadvertently drawn
area. Likely income will vary depending on whether the into the water intake of the turbines installed. Non-
electricity is used on-site, or locally where a higher water related aspects, such as buildings and
electricity price can be obtained, or by selling the power transmission line construction, are regulated by the
to the grid. Although the output in this case will attract local and regional planning authorities.
a Renewable Obligation Certificate and will be exempt
from the Climate Levy, a main supplier will usually only It is unlikely that a hydropower scheme would be
give a proportion of the value of these in return for allowed to use the entire river flow for generation.
making a contract for more than a few years duration. A portion of the flow, termed the ‘compensation flow’,

will need to by-pass the turbines to maintain the

ecology and aesthetic appearance of the river, to keep The British Hydropower Association
the river bed wetted over the majority of its width, and The British Hydropower Association is the trade
to maintain a visible flow over any waterfalls or weirs. association for the UK hydropower industry. It
Hydropower schemes can have a beneficial represents a wide range of interests: consulting
environmental effect in that they aerate the water engineers, manufacture, design, investment and
passing through them and so increase the quantity of operation as well as specialist service providers (e.g. legal
air in the water downstream, however river water is firms).
significantly aerated naturally as it passes over rocks Hydropower has a long history, but its role in generating
and waterfalls. electricity is a more recent development - in the UK,
hydropower has been contributing to electricity
Step Five - Planning and Local Issues generation for over 70 years. It is a mature industry with
an established UK manufacturing base and supply
Planning is not usually a contentious issue as networks. The UK industry is developing skills in the
developments often use already existing river bed refurbishment and rehabilitation of hydropower plants.
structures. The main focus of dialogue with the planners
Hydropower is a proven, highly efficient, green
is often focussed around the turbine room, which may
technology. It offers low operation and maintenance
need to be constructed anew, or the current structure
costs and a return on capital investment over a very long
extensively refurbished. Experience with planners in the
period. Each hydropower plant is designed for its
South West suggests that many are keen to see turbine
particular location and it is subject to the specific factors
rooms refurbished and retained. On the power
present at each site. This means that by design,
development side, planning consent is not formally hydropower has built-in environmental awareness and
needed as all the main potential sites in Devon are has built up a history of working to mitigate
below the cut-off point at which planning consent is not environmental impacts.
required. Early dialogue with planners is always a good
The UK industry is active in all aspects of the
idea.
construction, operation and maintenance of reservoir
A water ‘abstraction licence’ is needed from the fed power plants, run-of-river and pumped storage
Environment Agency. Time needs to be factored into the power plants. So far, pumped storage is the most
project development for this, as experience suggests efficient method for storing power. Small pumped
that this can take up to 6 months. The local team storage offers the prospect of balancing and enhancing
dealing with water abstraction licences is based at the generation from intermittent renewable power sources
nearest Government Office of the South West (GOSW). such as wind generation.
Though small-scale hydropower projects have proved to Members of the British Hydropower Association have an
be much less contentious than other renewable established and significant export potential offering a
developments such as wind power, local community wide range of skills in services, manufacture,
concerns need to be addressed. Experience has again construction, rehabilitation and refurbishment and
operation of hydropower plants.
suggested that a major focus of concern is the
perception that small-scale hydro will increase the Contact:
chances of local flooding. The reality is that the Kieron Hanson
development is either neutral or will in fact improve Tel. 01202 886609
flooding control on the river. Email: info@british-hydro.org

◆ Case Study 5: How it works

The water is diverted away from the natural river course
Sowton Mill, Dunsford, Devon. by a weir about 500 metres upstream. The leat carries
the water from the weir to the turbine inlet screen (just
Small-Scale Hydropower
beyond the bridge in the picture). The screen filters out
debris that would otherwise cause damage to the
turbine, and prevents the ingress of fish. From the
screen a 1 metre diameter concrete pipe takes the water
into the purpose built turbine house. This is about the
size of a small garage and is screened by plants in a
corner of the garden. Water passes through the turbine
(shown below) and down into the original mill tailrace
from where it returns to the river. A controller monitors
the water level and regulates the turbine power output
so that minimum water levels are maintained. In the
event of a power cut the turbine disconnects, and
reconnects automatically when grid power is restored.
Quote from owner

“Cast out any idea of capital repayment within five
years. Micro hydropower is initially capital intensive
Sowton Mill.
and it might take up to ten years to recoup the costs.
Introduction But, once it is paid for, running costs are very small and
Sowton Mill is an historic mill on the River Teign. The you get a steady income for your life, and your
mill stopped operating as a corn mill many years ago, children’s lives.”
but retained the leat and tailrace which used to carry
the water to and from a water wheel. In the early Picture of Turbine.
1980’s the owner decided to build a micro hydropower
system to generate enough electricity for the three
nearby dwellings and sell the surplus to the national
grid.
Technical Details
Turbine type: Ossberger crossflow, rated flow rate 850
litres/second.
Speed increaser: Flat belt and pulley system.
Generator type: Three-phase asynchronous, exited by
the grid.
Site hydraulic head: 4 metres.
Maximum power output: 28kW.
Annual energy capture: 132,000kWh.

Maintenance
The owner is very happy with the system. It has been
running now for 16 years with hardly any problems, just
an occasional bearing to replace or branch to remove
which has floated down the leat.
General Cost Profile

The cost of a small scale hydropower development will
be very site specific and will depend on factors such as
the hydraulic head, amount of civil works required, ease
of grid connection etc.
However, as a general guide the installed cost of a small

scale hydropower development will be between £1,000 -
£3,000 per installed kW.
For example:
A 10kW site may cost between £10,000 and £30,000 to
install. The annual electricity generated would be of the
order of 50,000kWh.
At a sale price of 6p/kWh this would equate to an

income of about £3,000 per year, with a small
maintenance budget for periodic part replacement.

SOL AR PHOTOVOLTAICS
Solar electricity directly from light has been described as the ‘stuff of dreams’ where
homeowners can produce their own power from solar tiles on an ordinary roof.

Chapter 5
Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
Highlights end of 2003. Japan has a 70,000 roofs programme while
a number of US States are supporting PV.
◆ Using special slices or thin films of silicon, solar
photovoltaic (PV) cells convert light directly into Despite having a large proportion of the country in
electricity. Northern latitudes, much of the UK actually receives
significant solar exposure. The year 2002 saw a major
◆ Though currently one of the most expensive turning point in the UK for Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
renewable technologies, commercial niche markets development. After several years of opposing any kind
such as parking meters exist where the costs of of mass subsidy programme for domestic Solar
hooking up to the grid are high. Photovoltaic (PV), in late 2001 the UK Department of
◆ The costs of PV cells are falling as the market grows Trade and Industry (DTI) announced an initial £20
at about 25-30% per annum. million grants subsidy programme over three years.
There was the promise of more to follow if the initial
◆ Demonstration schemes exist around the UK for phase is successful.
large commercial and public buildings, usually
supported by grants. Describing this as: “a major initiative with industry and
others to achieve a UK Solar Photovoltaic demonstration
◆ A growing number of domestic systems are being programme in line with those of our main competitors”,
installed in the UK due to a new grants scheme. the Major Demonstration Programme went live in April
2002 and will last until June 2005.
Solar PV - An Introduction Until recently there were no more than a few score solar
Light falling on special silicon cells causes electrons to PV systems in the UK. These were either erected by
move across the cell and produce electricity. Initially pioneering individuals, or were demonstration schemes
boosted as a key element of the USA space programme, at schools and other public buildings, or commercial
the costs of PV have fallen sufficiently to make buildings where larger systems or ‘arrays’ were
increasing inroads to the commercial market on land. integrated into building facades. European Union or a
Major manufacturers such as BP-Solar, Shell-Siemens, modest amount of UK Government subsidy monies
Sharp, Unisolar and Kyocera have set up manufacturing supported these schemes.
units across the world.
Only where buildings are off-grid or where appliances Energy from the Sun in the UK
require significant investments to hook up to the
Typically a domestic solar PV system will be 1.5-2kWp1
distribution grid is PV currently cost-effective. However,
made up of 20 - 30 modules. It will cover an area of 5-
the costs have been falling and subsidy support around
10m2 for crystalline technologies and 15-25m2 for thin
the world have stimulated a rapid growth in the market.
film technologies depending on the modules used and
In Germany a 100,000 solar roofs programme has been
the orientation of the array to the sun.
hugely successful with the target likely to be met by the
1
kWp refers to the peak output of a photovoltaic cell under
standard light conditions. Over a year, in the UK the average
output of a photovoltaic cell will be about 10-15% of the peak
value.

A south-orientated inclined array in southern UK

typically produces 750kWh/kWp/yr. A vertical facade will The UK Solar PV Grants Scheme
have a lower yield although it will generally have a
better balance between summer and winter months. There are two streams of grants available
Horizontal installations (on flat roofs for example) give a towards the cost of installing solar photovoltaic
good performance in summer and poor in winter. (electrical) equipment. Grants are for grid-
connected applications only:
An average array will save 0.6kg CO2/kWh produced and
so a 2 kWp system will prevent about a tonne of carbon Stream one provides fixed grants of up to 50% for
dioxide emissions per year. Building Integrated small-scale applications (0.5kWp - 5kWp). This
Photovoltaics (BIPVs) are designed so that they can also funding is available for domestic householders,
serve as constructional elements - roofs, glazing, walls Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) and small
and shading devices. They can either be a visible feature scale building projects (e.g. schools and
or virtually invisible to the building user and the community groups). Approval is on a rolling
general public. The advantages of BIPV are increased basis. Grants are fairly automatic, provided
cost effectiveness as well as providing weather proofing, applications meet certain criteria and accredited
day lighting, shading, rain screening (plus electricity). installers are used.
Stream two provides grants for large-scale

Grants Programme now Available applications (5kWp - 100kWp). Up to 65% funding
is available for social housing groups and larger-
While the initial sums of £20 million for the Major scale public authority building projects.
Demonstration Programme - £10 million each from the Commercial organisations are eligible for 40%
DTI and the New Opportunities Fund paid from Lottery fixed grant funding due to European Union State
Funds - are modest by international standards, this may Aid rules, which limit grants to this level.
be only the first phase of a programme similar to that
in Japan where a 70,000 solar roofs programme is well Stream two grant funding is payable in two
advanced. If the programme can achieve something like stages: up to 70% on approval (with proof of
3000 solar roofs equivalent the DTI would like by 2005, contract), the remaining 30% on completion.
then more money is promised. The DTI are also very Applications are made on a quarterly
keen to see the UK innovate with secondary products competitive call basis and awarded by an
for solar cells, which can be adopted around the world. independent panel.
Innovations like the 300 solar bus shelters recently
developed between Solar Century and JC Decaux the Contact for details: www.solarpvgrants.org.uk
advertising company for the City of Plymouth. or call 0870 241 2089 (UK only) for practical help.
If this first phase of a serious PV programme is

developed further and prices as hoped, do come down,
Phase 2 could support an additional 10,000-15,000
installations, taking the UK into the ‘serious’ category of
solar PV countries.

Grid connection and metering issues

Permission is needed from a local Distribution covering specific issues for individual technologies
Network Operator (DNO) to connect to the electricity such as PV and micro-CHP. This is in final draft form
grid and approved equipment for use within the UK and will soon supersede G77/1.
must be used. This is to ensure that distributed grid
connected generation systems like PV will not cause The DNO also requires a meter to ensure that any PV
risks to engineers working on the network. PV generated electricity fed into the grid is credited to
installers will normally ensure that all the required the generator. Some energy suppliers such as London
approvals are in place. Electricity, accommodate ‘net metering’. This allows
a single meter to run and measure both ways in their
Engineering Recommendation G77 was published by own regional areas - i.e. when electricity is imported
the Electricity Association to provide simplified from the grid and when it is exported to the grid.
guidance for the connection to the mains power
network of small PV generators on domestic To deal with data and metering issues in other parts
residences. It was updated in Autumn 2002 as G77/1. of the UK the companies used ‘profiling’ i.e.
G77/1 covers the Connection of Inverter-connected assumptions about average electricity use and likely
single-phase PV Generators up to 5kVA to Public output of the solar PV array and use this for payment
Distribution Networks. Its aim is to encourage the purposes. In both arrangements, the same price is
use of ‘approved’ inverter equipment and recognised received for the exported electricity as paid for the
connection procedures in order to lessen the need for imported electricity. In other cases two meters are
DNO personnel to perform local tests. installed where a different price is paid for the PV
generated electricity. TXU’s ‘Solarnet’ programme was
Although G77/1 is only a ‘recommendation’ and put in doubt when TXU went effectively bankrupt in
therefore not mandatory, it has been agreed by all mid 2002, but Powergen, who took over TXU’s
the DNO companies. Applications that stick to G77/1 customers, are said to be positive about retaining the
are usually processed more quickly. There is a scheme. NPower, who have teamed up with
separate Engineering Recommendation for the Greenpeace to promote the green electricity brand
installation of systems bigger than 5 kW (G59/1 ‘Juice’, were also due to launch a low or zero finance
Recommendation for the connection of embedded option for solar PV with UK market leader Solar
generating plant to the Regional Electricity Century in early 2003.
Companies’ distribution systems).
Another standard, G83, is being produced covering all

generation technologies with individual annexes

Progress on the Major Savings Trust, who manage the programme for the DTI:
“prices are drifting down though quite slowly so far”.
Demonstration Programme so far The domestic price is coming in at around £6-7/Wp
In the three grant rounds that have taken place so far, while for the larger-scale schemes, prices at the lower
over 300 domestic applications have been agreed as a end are £4/Wp. They are up to £10/Wp at the higher
result. Many schemes are completed and already end, depending on the end use. Martin Cotterell, boss of
generating power with the majority in the public sector, PV installer Sundog, admits that costs are: “creeping
not surprising with the higher (65%) grant available. slowly down, but then we haven’t got the UK volume to
Ford Motor Company is involved with one scheme to expect big reductions at this stage”.
build a new Engineering and Manufacturing Training
Paul Ruyseveldt, PV Manager for ESD Ltd, has been
Centre in Essex with a 100kWp solar array. Of the grant
watching costs closely and notes that: “prices in the UK
winners so far in the larger programme, a few are based
are still 20-30% higher than in the Netherlands and
in the South West region in Bristol and Wiltshire but, at
Germany for example”. While he thinks that “this will
the time of writing, there is one in Devon at the
change over time, don’t expect a dramatic drop soon”.
National Marine Aquarium, Plymouth which is installing
Bruce Cross, of installation company PV Systems Ltd,
a PV scheme.
thinks that: “until we develop UK equipment such as
Of the schemes where details of the solar cells and the decent inverters and actual PV cell manufacturing, big
installers are available, a few trends are discernible. The reductions in costs will be harder. Without a long-term
companies doing well so far are: Solar Century, BP Solar, market horizon beyond 2005 however, no one will
Dulas, Sundog and PV Systems Ltd. Seven projects had commit serious manufacturing investment”.
no details of the installers available. There are 28
So far there has only been limited visible activity
accredited installers under the scheme so far, with 15
amongst the private sector for the programme. This
granted only partial accreditation until they get
reflects to some extent the lower grant levels available.
additional schemes under their belts. Of these, four are
According to Paul Ruyseveldt: “the reality is that unless
based in the South West Region (see list of supplier
there is some significant public relations value for the
companies in Annex 2).
company, or expensive building cladding is being
Among the solar cells used, BP Solar’s monocrystalline replaced it is still difficult to make a clear economic case
cells are generally thought at present to be the narrow for large arrays of PV”. Bruce Cross candidly admits that:
‘first choice’ leaders, with Unisolar triple junction “at a 40% grant level the economics do not stack up”.
amorphous silicon and Kyocera polycrystalline close Jerry Leggett of leading UK PV installer Solar Century
behind. A further 9 types of cell were involved in at least takes a different perspective and stresses the need to:
one project, with three of these being thin film cells. “watch this space - we are very advanced in dialogue
with a number of private sector companies who are
The premise of the grants programme is that with committed to solar PV”.
increased sales and volumes, the costs of solar PV will
fall. The contrary experience in Germany, where PV
supply was for a period unable to match demand and
costs remained high, means that care needs to be taken
when making such projections. According to Kirk
Archibald, the Programme Manager for the Energy

PV Costs
A 2kWp domestic PV system currently costs of the order
of £8000-10,000 before the application of a grant which
would be 50% of total costs. An accredited installer can
apply for the grant with the home-owner and also
advise on finding a power utility who offers ‘net
metering’ deals to increase the value of any power
exports. It should be noted that payback times are
about 70 years.
Larger systems vary in price considerably, depending on

the complexity of the scheme. If it is a public building
then grants of up to 65% are applicable. Only 40%
grants are available for the private sector due to limits
from the European Union’s Competition Directive.
Action Points
• Owners of current and planned public and
commercial buildings should assess whether solar
PV might be integrated with the building.
• Domestic home owners interested in generating
their own power and who have a roof that faces
between south-west to south-east should contact
one of the accredited solar PV installers and find out
if their home is suitable for a system.
• If the building is suitable for a system then work
with an accredited installer to apply for grants.

COMMUNITY BASED RENEWABLE INITIATIVES
Community involvement is essential to maximise local benefits of

renewable energy projects.

Chapter 6
Community Based Renewable Initiatives
Community Involvement with which may include renewable energy as part of their
sustainable activity, is the Market and Coastal Towns
Renewables Initiative which applies to many of the towns across the
Interest in renewable energy has been increasing South West.
among local communities, as well as among businesses.
At County level, a number of Devon based community
This interest is being stimulated by groups concerned
initiatives have raised the profile of renewable energy
about the environmental impacts of a wide range of
through studies and action plans, whilst others are
economic and social developments at the local level.
moving into a more active phase to develop community
The origins of these groups vary, but many include
based projects. Profiles of the main groups are listed
campaigning from Local Agenda 21 groups, a
below.
sustainability agenda within a group’s broader remit or
a clear local opportunity to benefit from a renewable
energy initiative. The Need for Community
National, regional and local government policies have Involvement
prioritised the involvement of local people in the future
Consultation with and active involvement of local
development of their areas. This is most clearly seen in
businesses and community groups in any renewable
the establishment of local authority led community
energy activity can broaden awareness, understanding
planning processes, support for community
and local support for such activity. Land based
development trusts and the setting up of regeneration
industries interested in pursuing renewable energy
partnerships in rural and urban settings. These locally
initiatives may benefit from active involvement of local
based and locally managed development groups often
communities to achieve their objectives. Further advice
include a focus on sustainability issues - whether social,
can be obtained from some of the advisory groups
economic or environmental. Renewable energy is being
already in existence in Devon and listed below.
included for both economic and environmental reasons,
resulting in some community led renewable energy
initiatives. A new grants scheme for Community Groups, Community Financing of
under the ‘Clear Skies’ initiative, provides monies for
both feasibility studies and capital grants for
Renewable Energy
equipment. Until early 2003 the financing of community-based
renewable schemes had to be carried out in a range of
At the regional level, advice for community led innovative approaches. Pooling monies, selling shares,
renewables is being provided by the Countryside obtaining one-off grants from local authorities, working
Agency’s Community Renewables Initiative (CRI). In with developers, obtaining bank financing and seeking
Devon and Cornwall this is being overseen by the Devon European Union grants were just some of the options
Association for Renewable Energy (DARE) who are tried. However, a new Government grant programme
profiled in this chapter. Another regional initiative, introduced in 2003 will make the development of

community schemes much easier. The ‘Clear Skies’ Contact Details

scheme offers grants to community and individual Paul Baker, DARE, 12A The Square, North Tawton,
householders for both feasibility and equipment capital Devon EX20 2EP
grants. For feasibility grants up to 75% of costs Tel: 01837 89200
(maximum of £10,000) is available. The capital grants Email: mail@devondare.co.uk
vary by technology. See www.clear-skies.org
South West Wood Fuels Ltd
South West Wood Fuels Ltd (SWWF) is a non-profit
Community Group Profiles agricultural co-operative operating in the South West of
England which was established in 2000 to:
DARE: The Devon Association for Renewable
Energy “increase economic activity associated with the
DARE is a not-for-profit company incorporated in March production, processing, promotion, marketing and
2001. It is a membership organisation, managed by an utilisation of wood fuels in South West England”.
elected Board of voluntary Directors.
SWWF currently has almost 50 members and came into
DARE’s Mission Statement is: being out of the ‘Exmoor Wood Fuel Project’ which was
a LEADER/DEFRA funded project focused on North
“To facilitate and promote the production and use of
Devon and West Somerset. The membership consists of
Renewable Energy in Devon - by working to break
farmers, woodland owners, forestry contractors, owners
down barriers, and by helping to provide appropriate
of companies producing biomass residue (e.g. sawmill
support services to Local Authorities, Businesses,
owners), people or businesses who have installed or are
Community Groups and Individuals.”
interested in installing automatic wood heating systems
in their properties.
Background
DARE was formed by five people who were brought
The group is spread geographically across Devon and
together as representatives of their communities in an
Somerset and therefore has the ability to supply wood
innovative European Renewable Energy Project
chip fuel locally to heating sites from a number of
developed and managed by Devon County Council.
independent sources. SWWF wishes to expand to
include the whole of the South West of England. South
Activities
West Wood Fuels owns a wood fuel chipper which is
DARE aims to bring together all those with an interest in
available to its members at modest cost. SWWF offers
small-scale decentralised Renewable Energy (RE) in
help and advice on matters relating to wood chip fuel
Devon, providing its members with an information and
production and supply.
advisory facility, and networking opportunities. It
supports and assists the establishment of project and
Contact Details
technological training, undertakes project management,
Mr Richard Tompsett, South West Wood Fuels,
and basic consultancy/feasibility work. DARE
SCC Highway Depot, Station Road, Dulverton, TA22 9AD
contributes to relevant local and regional policy
Tel: 01398 324558
development, and operates out of a newly established
Email: admin@swwf.info
office base in central Devon.

South Hams Sustainable Development Project Through the DARE office, advice, information, and
assistance, is provided on all aspects of the
Aim: To educate and inspire people in sustainable living
development of Renewable Energy for community
through establishing a centre for education, training,
benefit. This includes help with public involvement,
demonstration and living.
along with technology, planning, environmental,
Activities: This Project has a range of aims and funding, and energy efficiency issues. The CRI
activities, part of which is focused on renewable energy. undertakes educational and awareness raising events,
Specifically, the Project would include the construction whilst helping to overcome the barriers to decentralised
of practical working demonstrations of alternative Renewable Energy development. All Renewable Energy
energy systems ranging from cheap and effective technologies are covered.
products, to sophisticated hi-tech systems. The centre
The CRI helps to ensure that communities are able to
would be self-sufficient in energy and, if possible, sell
take advantage of the opportunities that Renewable
surplus electricity to the grid. The centre would provide
Energy can create by way of new skills, livelihoods and
accommodation and study facilities, a café and
incomes, in a sustainable and environmentally sensitive
bookshop, using local produce and employing local
manner. It enables local people to appreciate and
people. The centre would be a focus for
understand these opportunities, promote them, and
environmentally conscious people and promote the
then go on to identify and develop local projects, and
efficient use of local resources.
get them incorporated in local plans and strategies.
Membership: The Project has members from statutory, Local people, creating local power for local benefit.
voluntary and community organisations and is currently Anyone interested should contact DARE.
seeking an appropriate site for development of their
centre.
Trans-Send
Contact Details Trans-Send is a community environmental group set up
Tony Lyle, Broad View, Portlemore Close, Marlborough, to promote sustainable living and the use of renewable
Kingsbridge, Devon TQ7 3SX. energy in Ilfracombe and surrounds. It achieves this by
Tel: 01548 561264. undertaking community-based projects and providing
Email: cft-rlyle@supanet.com information, training, education and advisory services.
Trans-Send operates a drop-in centre in Ilfracombe High

Community Renewables Initiative Street which is currently open 4 days a week and, as
Launched nationally in March 2002, this Countryside well as providing advice, information and meeting
Agency scheme operates in ten areas of England, one of space, sells a limited, but growing, range of
which is Devon and Cornwall. Devon Association for environmental goods. The shop is run by volunteers and
Renewable Energy (DARE), provides project qualified Energy Efficiency Advisors are on hand to give
management across the two counties, and delivers the detailed advice on reducing energy costs as well as on
service in Devon with a Local Support Team (LST). This renewable energies.
LST comprises members of the community/voluntary
Volunteers help develop projects to provide community-
sector, trade representatives, environmental
based facilities and services which will reduce reliance
organisations, local authorities, and other government
on fossil fuels and to showcase renewable technologies.
and non-government organisations.

Current projects include:

• Community eco-garden.
• Farmer’s market.
• Cycle parking and local cycling club.
• Renewable Energy installations in local public
buildings including the school, swimming pool and
Youth Hostel.
• Newsletter (called ‘Power to the People’).
• Recycling batteries, mobile phones, printer
cartridges, cans and stamps.
• Regular meetings with visiting speakers on
sustainable living topics.
• Community owned renewable energy facilities.
• Development of a community energy company.
Trans-Send can be contacted via:

Centre for Sustainable Living,
139 High Street,
Ilfracombe.
Devon.
EX34 9EZ
Tel: 01271 862781
Email: info@trans-send.org.uk
Website: www.trans-send.org.uk
The Centre is open: Tuesday 9-1

Wednesday 12-4
Friday 12-4
Saturdays 9-1

ANNEX ONE
Contact for information and support call Practical help

Annex 1 on 0870 241 2089 or E-mail: info@practicalhelp.org.uk
Government grants Website: www.practicalhelp.org.uk
and support Clear Skies Programme

A new programme announced in early 2003, this is
programmes for focused on renewable energy developments by
community groups and individual home-owners.
renewable energy Feasibility studies and capital grants are available.
Home owners can obtain grants between £500 to £5000
whilst community organisations can receive up to
Community Energy Programme £100,000 for capital grants and feasibility studies.
The Community Energy Programme offers funding, Website: - www.clear-skies.org
information and support to Local Authorities, Registered
Social Landlords, Universities, Hospitals and other
public service organisations for the refurbishment of Bio-Energy Capital Grants
existing and installation of new community heating
This is focused on developing clusters of biomass
schemes.
powered heating systems in a regional context. It allows
It is a £50 million fund established to assist the up to 25% capital grants for certified biomass heating
development of community and district heating systems. For the south west region, Wood Energy
investments. It allows both fossil fuels and biomass Limited have won a bid for £500,000 of such grants for
investments. Grants are available for feasibility studies suitable projects.
and subsequent capital grants when investments are
Contact: Keith McKendrick, Pinkworthy Barn, Oakford,
due to take place.
Tiverton. Devon EX16 9EU
Website: www.est.org.uk/communityenergy/
Tel: 01398 351349. Fax: 01398 351115.
index.cfm
Email: admin@woodenergyltd.co.uk
EST Innovation Programme Renewable Obligation Certificates

The Energy Savings Trust (EST) Innovation Programme is
Renewable generators producing above 1MWh of
focused on residential energy efficiency and renewable
electricity can claim a Renewable Obligation Certificate
energy projects, at least 70% of the carbon savings in
(ROC) which can be traded between companies. It is
any project must come from the residential sector.
administered by OFGEM the energy regulator.
Grants are available for feasibility and subsequent
capital grants for implementation. Support is available Contact: www.ofgem.gov.uk
up to £10k for a feasibility study and up to £90k for
implementation funding.

ANNEX ONE
Solar PV Major Demonstration Energy Crop Establishment Grants

Programme Certain crops such as SRC willow, poplar and miscanthus
are eligible for establishment grants if grown for use as
Community groups and home owners can apply for
a fuel for power generation. In addition, grants to
funding through the first phase of the £20m Major
establish producer groups to market the fuel are
Photovoltaics Demonstration Programme. This should
available.
see PV systems installed on 3,000 homes and 140
medium and large non-domestic buildings - a total of Site selection has to meet criteria outlined in the DEFRA
9MWp installed capacity. Establishment Grant guidelines.
Website: www.defra.gov.uk/erdp/schemes/
Further details can be obtained through the helpline
projectbased/energy/energyindex.htm
0800 298 3978 or www.solarpvgrants.co.uk.
Contact: Government Office of the South-West.
Tel: 0117 900 1923. Fax: 0117 900 1905.
Climate Change Levy (CCL)
Email: trender.gosw@go-regions.gsi.gov.uk
Exemption
Renewable energy based electricity can claim
exemption from the CCL. Details from OFGEM the
Other sources of information
energy regulator and the Inland Revenue. Search on Business Link Business Support Directory.
Website: www.businesslink.gov.uk
Contact: Inland Revenue: Working with Business and
Consumers to Protect the Environment.
Or on the SWRDA website:
Website: www.inlandrevenue.gov.uk/budget2002/
http://www.southwestrda.org.uk/what-we-do/
hmt2.htm
business-growth/finance/funding.shtm
Also OFGEM:
Website: www.ofgem.gov.uk
Enhanced Capital Allowances

(ECAs)
Allows 100% capital write-downs in 1 year for certain
energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies.
These include biomass heating, solar water heating and
solar PV systems.
Website: www.eca.gov.uk

ANNEX TWO
Fuelwood Harvesting
Annex 2 Suppliers of automatic wood chip boilers and log/joinery
waste space heaters ranging from 20kW - 100kW.
Developers, Contact: Willie Dobie, Abbey St. Bathans, Duns.

Berwickshire TD11 3TX
contractors and Tel: 01361 840251. Fax: 01361 840248.

Email: wdobie@farmersweekly.net
suppliers of Foundation Business Centres

Suppliers of automatic wood pellet, wood chip, grain boilers
and advanced combustion log boilers and firewood
renewable energy processors.
Contact: Joe Zygmunt, 39B Park Farm Industrial Estate,
equipment and Buntingford. Herts SG9 9AZ
Tel: 01763 271271.
services Email: heather@fbc.demon.co.uk

Website: www.fbc.demon.co.uk
Talbotts Heating Ltd

Automatic Wood Heating Systems Manufacturers of biomass fuelled energy systems for over 30
years with over 3,500 installations worldwide. Automatic
UK - based systems can be fuelled with a wide range of biomass
materials.
BioEnergy Devices Ltd Contact: Amy Fielding, Talbott’s Heating Ltd, Drummond
Design and supply of wood drying machines and wood Road, Astonfields Industrial Estate, Stafford. ST16 3HJ
burning systems. Sole UK importer for ‘Enviro’ pellet stoves. Tel: 01785 213366. Fax: 01785 256418.
Contact: Marc Howell, BioEnergy Devices Ltd, Unit 28 Email: enquiries@talbotts.co.uk
Brynmenyn Business Centre, St Theodores’ Way, Brynmenyn Website: www.talbotts.co.uk
Industrial Estate, Bridgend. CF32 9TZ
Teisen Products Ltd
Tel: 01656 724300. Fax: 01656 72462.
Email: marchowell@bioenergy-devices.co.uk Suppliers of FARM 2000 automatic wood chip/wood pellet and
Website: www.bioenergy-devices.co.uk miscanthus boilers, plus log or straw fired boilers. Advice on
all aspects of utilisation and installation. Over 25 years
Econergy Ltd experience.
Wood fuelled heating and CHP systems ranging from 40kW to Contact: Peter Teisen, Teisen Products Ltd, Bradley Green,
5MW thermal and up to 1.5MWe electric. Supplied as turnkey Redditch, Worcester. B96 6RP
installations or within a comprehensive renewable energy Tel: 01527 821621.
supply and carbon/energy management service. Email: peter.teisen@btinternet.com
Contact: Mr Jim Birse, Econergy Ltd, 69 Hampton Park,
Redland, Bristol. BS6 6LQ Torren Energy Ltd
Tel: 0870 054 5554. Fax: 0870 054 5553. Provide metered heating from biomass with a range of
Email: info@econergy.ltd.uk services including consultancy and turnkey contracts for
Website: www.econergy.ltd.uk biomass heating installations and district heating schemes.
Contact: Steve Lamb and Andrew Sutherland, Glencoe.
Argyll, Scotland PH49 4HX
Tel: 0131 477 7921. Fax: 0131 550 3711.
Email: info@torren-energy.com
Website: www.torren-energy.com

ANNEX TWO
Welsh Biofuels Ltd Greenergy

Suppliers of automatic wood pellet, wood chip and grain Formulate and market a fully carbon credited bio-diesel blend
boilers ranging from 8kW - 185kW. (5% bio-diesel) under the ‘Global Diesel’ brand.
Contact: Martin Jolly, 32 Chilcott Avenue, Brynmenyn Contact: Steve Wakelin, Marketing Manager. Greenergy
Industrial Estate, Bridgend. CF32 9RQ International Limited, 1 Adam Street, London. WC2N 6AN
Tel: 01656 729714. Fax: 01656 729714. Tel: 020 7484 0500. Fax: 020 7484 0599.
Website: www.welsh-biofuels.co.uk Email: info@greenergy.com
Website: www.greenergy.com
Wood Energy Ltd
Design, installation and service of automatic wood fuelled RixBioDiesel Ltd
heating systems from 12kW to 5MW. Produce and sell bio-diesel based on waste oils.
Contact: Keith McKendrick, Pinkworthy Barn, Oakford, Witham House, 45 Spyvee Street, Hull. HU8 7JR
Tiverton. Devon EX16 9EU Tel: 01482 224422. Fax: 01482 338968.
Tel: 01398 351349. Fax: 01398 351115. Email: Info@rixbiodiesel.co.uk
Email: admin@woodenergyltd.co.uk Website: www.rixbiodiesel.co.uk
Website: www.woodenergyltd.co.uk
Biomass-fired Combined Heat and
Anaerobic Digesters Power
Milbury Systems Ltd
Biomass Engineering Ltd
Design, supply and installation.
Turnkey supplier of renewable energy, CHP gasification
Contact: Mr Brian Mees, Milbury Systems Ltd, The Long Barn,
systems. Biomass waste fuels to green CHP production.
Clevedon Road, Tickenham, Bristol. BS21 6RY
Contact: Andy Connor, Projects Manager, Unit 1, Junction Lane,
Tel: 01275 857799. Fax: 01275 853123.
Sankey Valley Industrial Estate, Newton-le-Willows. WA12 8DN
Email: bmees@milbury.com.
Website: www.milbury.com Tel: 01925 220338/295959. Fax: 01925 220135.
Email: andrewc@shawton.co.uk
Farmatic Biotech Energy UK Ltd Website: www.biomass.uk.com.
Bio-power plants anaerobic digestion of animal manure and
B9 Energy Biomass Ltd
organic waste in an economic and environmental solution.
Development of biomass fuelled gasifier CHP from 130kWe to
Contact: Jørgen Fink, Managing Director, Farmatic Biotech
520kWe.
Energy UK Ltd, 5 Royal Crescent, Cheltenham. GL50 3DA
Contact: Mark Gallagher, Unit 22, Northland Road Industrial
Tel: 01242 242111. Fax: 01242 243111.
Estate, Northland Road, Co. Londonerry. N. Ireland.
Email: fink@farmatic.com
Website: www.farmatic.com Tel: 028 71271520.
Website: www.b9energy.co.uk
Energy Crops Bronzeoak Ltd

Developer of biomass energy systems in the 1-10MW range
Biomass Industrial Crops Ltd using combustion or gasification for electricity generation or
Promote the use of miscanthus and other biomass crops in CHP.
British agriculture. Contact: Alastair Tod, Bronzeoak House, Stafford Road,
Contact: Rebekah Rhode, Kingsmill Arable Centre, Kingsmill, Caterham. Surrey CR3 6JG
Cullompton. Devon EX15 1BS Tel: 01883 341055. Fax: 01883 347523.
Tel: 01884 35899. Email mail@bronzeoak.com
Website: www.bronzeoak.com

ANNEX TWO
Rural Generation Ltd Evans Engineering Ltd

Bio-filtration, bio-remediation, planting and harvesting of Manufacturer of turbines up to 1MW, valves, gates and
energy crops, anaerobic digestion, waste disposal and screens. Design, operate and install worldwide with over 30
production of wood chip as a fuel source. years experience. Applications micro and mini river hydro
Contact: Rural Generation Ltd., Brook Hall Estate, 65-67, schemes.
Culmore Road, Co. Londonderry. N.Ireland BT48 8JE Contact: Rupert Armstrong-Evans, Trecarrell Mill, Trebullett,
Tel: 028 7135 8215. Fax: 028 7135 0970. Launceston. Cornwall PL15 9QE
Email: info@ruralgeneration.com Tel: 01566 782285. Fax: 01566 782793.
Website: www.ruralgeneration.com Email: info@microhydro.com
Website: www.microhydro.com
Talbott’s Heating Ltd
Design, development, manufacturer and supplier of wood G.P. Electronics
fired furnaces and boilers. CHP developer. automatic systems We have 30 years experience in the design and manufacture of
fuelled with a wide range of biomass materials: wood, control systems for both stand-alone and grid connected
chipboard, sawdust, cardboard, pallets, shavings and paper. hydro electric plant, including electronic load controllers,
Contact: Amy Fielding, Talbotts Heating Ltd, Drummond Road, Mainscon Systems, water level control and screeners.
Astonfield Industrial Estate, Stafford. ST16 3HJ Contact: Gerry Pope, Pottery Road, Bovey Tracey.
Tel: 01785 213366. Fax: 01785 256418. Devon TQ13 9DS
Email: enquiries@talbotts.co.uk Tel: 01626 832670. Fax: 01626 832670.
Website: www.talbotts.co.uk Email: gpelectronics@onetel.net.uk
Hydro Generation Ltd

Small-Scale Hydropower Designers, developers and turbine manufacturers for micro
hydropower systems.
South West England Contact: Philip Davis, Pinkworthy Barn, Oakford.
Devon EX16 9EU
Alec Gannon Metalwork
Tel: 01398 351166. Fax: 01398 351115.
BSc. and apprenticeship served in Mechanical Engineering.
Email: p.c.davis@hydrogeneration.co.uk
Can offer fabrication and engineering services including
Website: www.hydrogeneration.co.uk
restoration and installation of small turbines and associated
building works. Hydroplan UK
Rose Cottage, Well, Luxborough, Watchet. Somerset TA23 0SX Leading engineering consultant specialising in feasibility
Tel/Fax: 01984 641177. studies, design, project management, commissioning and
testing of small hydro power stations. Also undertake
Bernard Perry
commercial R & D and regional resource studies.
Waterway engineer and maintenance specialist.
Contact: Kieron Hanson, Unit 12 Riverside Park, Station Road,
Fouracres, Helland, North Curry, Taunton. TA3 6DU Wimborne. Dorset BH12 1QU
Tel/Fax: 01823 490295. Tel: 01202 886622. Fax: 01202 886609.
Dorothea Restorations Ltd Email: info@hydroplan.co.uk
Website: www.hydroplan.co.uk
Experience in refurbishment of second-hand hydro turbines.
Can supply new water wheels and replica Francis turbines.
Nationwide service from Bristol and Derbyshire.
Contact: G J O Wallis, Unit 6, Riverside Business Park, St Anne’s
Road, Bristol. BS4 4ED
Tel: 0117 971 5337. Fax: 0117 977 1677.
Email: south@dorothearest.co.uk
Website: www.dorothearest.co.uk

ANNEX TWO
Miles Fursdon Wind Energy in the UK

Operator of small grid-connected power plant on Dartmoor.
Consultation, design, supply and construction of water South West England
powered projects. Old Walls Hydro-electric. Agents for ‘CINK’
turbines. Farm Energy Ltd
Contact: Miles Fursdon, Lowertown Farm, Poundsgate, Wind farm developers. Wind farm consultancy including wind
Newton Abbot. Devon TQ13 7PQ monitoring, site evaluation, planning and environmental
Tel: 01364 631282. Fax: 01364 631194. statements.
Email: mr.and.gr.fursdon@farming.co.uk Contact: Peter Crone, Unit 2, Castle Park Road,
Whiddon Valley, Barnstaple. Devon EX32 8PA
Malcom Cooper
Tel: 01271 371888. Fax: 01271 371333.
Over 20 years experience of restoring historic water wheels,
Email: pcrone@farmenergy.co.uk
turbines and associated machinery in order to generate power.
Website: www.farmenergy.co.uk
Contractor on small scale hydropower and mill restoration.
Contact: Malcom Cooper, 365 Snarlton Lane, Melksham. Western Windpower Ltd
Wiltshire SN12 7QW Manufacturers of the Windmast system, which records wind
Tel: 01225 707153. speeds to assess site viability for the installation of wind
Email: carolac71@msn.com turbines. After 10 years in business, we have supplied over
1,000 Windmasts in heights up to 50 metres.
Valley Hydro Contact: Wendy Watson, Sales Manager, Western Windpower
Manufacturer of microhydro powered electric generators and Ltd, Axiom House, Station Road, Stroud.
specialist manufacturer of the Crossflow type of turbine. Gloucestershire GL5 3AP
Producers of hydroelectric power at own site for twelve years. Tel: 01453 759408. Fax: 01453 759416.
Maintenance and refurbishment of all types of turbine and Email: info@western-windpower.com
associated equipment. Website: www.western-windpower.com
Contact: Peter Trebilcock, Blowinghouse Farm, Ponts Mill, Par.
Cornwall PL24 2RR EcoWind 2002 Ltd
Tel: 01726 817088. Company developer, owner operator of wind power stations.
Email: valleyhydro@lineone.net Contact: Jill Richards, EcoWind 2002 Ltd, 15E Cuxhaven Way,
Longrock, Penzance. Cornwall TR20 8HX
Waterpower Engineering Ltd Tel: 01736 330171. Fax: 01736 362025.
Agents for Ossberger Crossflow turbines, full consultancy and Email: info@ecowind.com
installation service. One day acquaintance courses on hydro- Website: www.ecowind.com
power.
Contact: O M Goring, Coaley Mill, Coaley, Dursley.
Glos GL11 5DS
Tel: 01453 890376. Fax: 01453 890958.

ANNEX TWO
Solar Photovoltaics UK-wide companies with extensive

South West England PV experience
Accredited and partially accredited Solar PV installers
SUNDOG Energy Ltd
under the Government’s Major Demonstration Grants
Experienced domestic and public sector/housing association
scheme.
systems.
Becosolar Contact: Martin Cotterell. Matterdale End, Penrith.
Cumbria CA11 OLF
Contact: Rob Adams. 8-10 Speedwell Units, Nelson Road,
Dartmouth. Devon TQ6 9SZ Tel: 01768 482282. Fax: 01768 482600.
Email: info@sundog-energy.co.uk
Tel: 01803 833636 Fax: 01803 835379.
Website: www.sundog-energy.co.uk
Email: info@becosolar.com
Website: www.becosolar.com Solar Century
Cholwell Energy Systems Ltd Experienced domestic and larger-scale PV systems for public
buildings and private sector.
Contact: Hilary White. Cholwell Farm, Lower Velwell,
Dartington. Devon TQ9 6AD Contact: Kat Johnston. 91-94 Lower Marsh, London. SE1 7AB
Tel: 01803 762628. Fax: 020 8742 2856. Tel: 020 7803 0100. Fax: 020 7803 0101.
Email: cholwell@aol.com Email: homes@solarcentury.co.uk
Website: www.solarcentury.co.uk
Solar Sense UK Ltd
Contact: Stephen Barrett. 1 Chapel Court, Long Ashton
BP Solar
Business Park, Yanley Lane, Bristol. BS41 9LW Contact: Rob Adams. 8-10 Speedwell Units, Nelson Road,
Dartmouth. Devon TQ6 9SZ
Tel: 01275 394139. Fax: 01275 540113.
Email: solarsense@blueyonder.co.uk Tel: 01803 833636 Fax: 01803 835379.
Email: info@becosolar.com
Barum Solarheat Website: www.becosolar.com
Contact: Chris Verney. 5 Burlington Grove, Newport.
Devon EX32 9BU
Dulas Ltd
Unit 1, Dyfi Eco Parc, Machynlleth. Powys SY20 8AX
Tel: 01271 343377. Fax: 01271 343377.
Wales, UK
Tel: 01654 705000 Fax: 01654 703000.
email: dulas@dulas.org.uk
PV Systems
Unit 2, Glan-y-Llyn Industrial Estate, Taffs Well. CF15 7JD
Wales, UK
Tel: 029 2082 0910 Fax: 029 2082 0911
Website: www.pvsystems.com
Please note, inclusion of suppliers in this

list does not imply endorsement.

ANNEX THREE
Combined Heat and Power Association (CHPA)

Annex 3 The trade association for CHP (fossil fuelled and biomass) in
the UK. Political lobbying, detailed information, meetings and
Useful Contacts and conferences.

Contact: CHPA, 4th Floor, Grosvenor Gardens House, 35/37
Websites Grosvenor Gardens, London. SW1W 0BS

Tel: 020 7828 4077 Fax: 020 7828 0310.
Email: info@chpa.co.uk
Website: www.chpa.co.uk
Renewable Energy Trade
AD-NETT
Associations AD-NETT is a network of professionals working in anaerobic
digestion of agro-industrial wastes in Europe and Canada.
Allied BioDiesel Industries (UK) Website: www.ad-nett.org
Representing the British bio-diesel industry. It is running a
campaign to reduce the fuels duty on biofuels. Background to PV-UK
the introduction of bio-diesel to the UK, together with some Trade association for solar PV in the UK
useful facts and figures on biofuels are available from their Contact: The British Photovoltaic Association, National Energy
Web site: www.biofuels.fsnet.co.uk Centre, Davy Avenue, Knowlhill, Milton Keynes. MK5 8NG
Tel: 01908 442291 Fax: 0870 0529193.
British Biogen
Email: enquiries@pv-uk.org.uk
The trade association for UK biomass industry.
Website: www.pv-uk.org.uk
Contact: 16 Belgrave Square, London. SW1 8PQ
Tel: 020 7235 8474. Renewable Power Association
Website: www.britishbiogen.co.uk Trade association for a large number of renewable developers
in the UK.
British Association for Biofuels and Oils (BABFO) Contact: Renewable Power Association, 6th Floor, 30 Millbank,
Curlew Court, Guys Head, Sutton Bridge, Spalding. London. SW1P 4RD
Lincs PE12 9QQ.
General Tel: 020 7963 5852 Fax: 020 7963 5921.
Tel: 01406 350848.
Website: www.r-p-a.org.uk
Email: babfo@pclery.freeserve.co.uk
Website: www.biodiesel.co.uk
Parliamentary Group
British Hydro-Power Association
Contact: Kieron Hanson. Unit 12 Riverside Park, Station Road, PRASEG
Wimbourne. Dorset BH21 1QU (Parliamentary Renewable and Sustainable Energy Group) -
Tel: 01202 886622 Fax: 01202 886609. multi-party group acting as a focal point for raising the profile
Email: info@british-hydro.org of renewables. Holds regular meetings in Parliament, Email
Website: www.british-hydro.org newsletters on latest political and other developments and
conferences where Government Ministers regularly attend.
British Wind Energy Association
Email: praseg@chpa.co.uk
Renewable Energy House, 1 Aztec Row, Berners Road,
Website: www.praseg.org.uk
London. N1 0PW, UK
Tel: 020 7689 1960 Fax: 020 7689 1969.
Email: info@bwea.com
Websites: www.bwea.com, www.deepgreenpower.org,
www.offshorewindfarms.co.uk

ANNEX THREE
Environmental Pressure Groups Other Organisations

All the groups are lobbying in favour of renewable energy
Carbon Trust
development and Government support.
Government funded agency to stimulate technology and
Friends of the Earth market developments to cut carbon. Provides free policy
26-28 Underwood Street, London. N1 7JQ papers. Funding is administered through EST programmes as
Tel: 020 7490 1555 Fax: 020 7490 0881. well as internal venture capital and investment programmes.
Email: info@foe.co.uk Contact - Carbon Trust, 9th Floor, 3 Clement’s Inn,
Website: www.foe.co.uk London. WC2A 2AZ
Tel: 020 7170 7000. Fax:020 7170 7020.
Greenpeace
Email: info@thecarbontrust.co.uk
Greenpeace, Canonbury Villas, London. N1 2PN Website: www.thecarbontrust.co.uk
Tel: 020 7865 8100 Fax: 020 7865 8200.
Email: info@uk.greenpeace.org British Sugar
Website: www.greenpeace.org.uk Lobbying for fuel duty reductions for bio-ethanol.
Website: www.britishsugar.co.uk/bsweb/biofuel/index.htm
RSPB
The RSPB, The Lodge, Sandy. Centre for Alternative Technology
Bedfordshire SG19 2DL. Founded in 1974 and situated in Mid-Wales, CAT is a display
Tel: 01767 680551. and education centre offering practical ideas and information
Website: www.rspb.org.uk/ on environmentally sound practices. It is a 40 acre site with
70,000 visitors every year, with working displays and offering
WWF residential courses.
WWF-UK, Panda House, Weyside Park, Godalming. Contact: Centre for Alternative Technology, Machynlleth.
Surrey GU7 1XR Powys SY20 9AZ
Tel: 01483 426444. Fax: 01483 426409. Tel: 01654 705989.
Website: www.panda.org.uk Website: www.cat.org.uk
Regen SW
Green Power and Carbon Trading The renewable energy agency of the South West.
Greenprices Contact: Sterling House, Dix’s Field, Exeter. EX1 1QA
Tel: 01392 229394
Excellent website on Green Power developments across
Email: admin@regensw.co.uk
Europe.
Website: www.regensw.co.uk
Subscribe to free Email newsletter via:
greenprices@greenprices.com
Website: www.greenprices.com
Point Carbon
Free Email mailings on carbon trading developments.
Website: www.pointcarbon.com

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A Renewable Energy Guide for Devon

A Renewable Energy Guide for Devon 2004

Chapter Page Renewable Heat & Power Ltd.

Chapter 5 - Solar Photovoltaics (PV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3. Useful contacts and websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

2 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

Secondly, international and national targets for the

A fourth reason is the benefits that local, clean energy

Foreword Renewable energy has the potential to play a part in

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 3

This Guide shows the reader how to time is opportune to invest in

4 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

◆ The UK renewable energy market is currently

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 5

6 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

3. Technology Development Thirdly the environmental cost of bringing fuels from

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 7

The percentage of total energy 30

Country derived from renewable 20

8 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

As we move into the new millennium, the search for

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 9

A community-led Devon Association for Renewable

10 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

When ‘e’ is added (e.g. kWe) this means electrical power.

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 11

12 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 13

Devon and Biomass Energy

14 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

Wood is an environmentally friendly renewable fuel which can make a substantial

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 15

If wood fuel is sold by weight the critical parameter is

very important implications for transporting fuel - there

16 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

Figure 2.3 6.0

Wood as a Function 4.5

Calorific Value (MWh/tonne)

is a considerable cost associated with transporting Drying - the importance of low

The Energy Density of Wood

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 17

• The third approach is to reduce the moisture Transport of Wood Fuel

18 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

4 bedroom house 2m3 6m3 20m3

Note: 1m3 = 1,000 litres

Figure 2.4 3.0

Mains Gas (j)

Wood Pellets (d)

Night Storage (k)

e Heating oil at 15p/litre

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 19

stable. It should also be noted that the efficiency of the

upon the requirements of the market. Production

20 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

The quality of chips varies between different makes of

The drum chipper (see Figure 2.7) has a rotating drum

The screw cone chipper consists of a conical screw with

To chip for fuel use it is essential to have a consistent

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 21

Wood Pellets development. There are now many hundreds of

22 A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004

A RENEWABLE ENERGY GUIDE FOR DEVON 2004 23

As we have seen, pellets are of small uniform size and