Journal of Manufacturing Processes 16 (2014) 405413

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Use of vegetable oil in water emulsion achieved through ultrasonic

atomization as cutting uids in micro-milling
Geoff Burton a , Chan-Seo Goo b , Yanqiao Zhang a , Martin B.G. Jun a,
a
b

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada

Mechatronics and Storage R&D Laboratory, LG Electronics, Seoul, South Korea

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 9 July 2013
Received in revised form 17 April 2014
Accepted 28 April 2014
Available online 24 May 2014
Keywords:
Vegetable oil
Cutting uids
Oil-in-water emulsication
Atomization
Micro-milling

a b s t r a c t
Signicant amount of work is reported on development of vegetable oil based metalworking uids
(MWFs). Many also report on development and performance evaluation of vegetable based oils. For
many of these water-based MWFs with vegetable oils, much effort is focused on stable emulsication of
vegetable oil in water using a variety of surfactants. It has been found that surfactant-free stable emulsication of oil in water is possible through ultrasonic vibration. However, emulsication through ultrasonic
atomization has not yet been considered, and the feasibility of emulsied metalworking uids through
ultrasonic atomization has not been investigated. In this paper, stable emulsication of vegetable oil in
water has been achieved through ultrasonic atomization without using any surfactant. The emulsied
vegetable oil in water is directly used to investigate its effectiveness as MWF in milling operations. Lower
cutting forces, chip thickness, and burr amount are observed with vegetable oil-in-water emulsion compared to conventional MWF. The experimental results show strong potential for vegetable oil-in-water
emulsion obtained through ultrasonic atomization as an effective MWF.
2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of The Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

1. Introduction
Cutting uids or metalworking uids (MWFs) are extensively
used to cool and lubricate, ush away chips, and inhibit corrosion
during machining operations such as drilling, turning, and grinding. Metalworking uids lead to increased tool life, improved work
quality, enhanced machine tool life, effective chip management,
and reduced process variability. Due to their advantages, the consumption of MWFs is increasing in the machining industry. It is
reported that over 7.5 billion liters of cutting uids were used by
North American manufacturers in 2002 [1]. Because most MWFs
are petroleum-based oils and at least two-thirds of used MWFs
need to be treated and disposed every year, the cost of waste
uid treatment is substantial [2]. Moreover, the treatment is not
always completely effective, and disposal may lead to inadvertent
environmental contamination. In addition to the environmental
challenges, use of MWFs also introduces several health and safety
concerns. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) estimates that 1.2 million workers are exposed to
MWFs annually and reports health-related issues due to exposure
to MWFs [3]. Although substantial changes to the composition of

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 250 853 3179.

E-mail address: mbgjun@uvic.ca (M.B.G. Jun).

MWFs and reductions in the contaminants have occurred in the past

few decades, adverse respiratory effects in workers continue to be
a persistent problem [4]. Therefore, to address these issues, environmentally friendly and safe MWFs as well as an effective MWF
application method are needed.
Attempts to address these issues have led to the development of
environmentally adapted lubricants (EALs) using vegetable-based
oils instead of the petroleum-based. EALs have high biodegradability and low toxicity with performance equal to or better than
conventional MWFs [5]. However, EAL-based MWFs can still contain surfactants, biocides, and defoamers in order to emulsify
vegetable-based oils, eliminate bacteria for long term use and
recycling, and reduce foams that commonly occur with MWFs [6].
Because biocides and defoamers are required for long term use
and recycling of MWFs, in order to eliminate recycling by applying
the minimum volume required for the cutting process, manufacturers have applied minimum quantity lubricant (MQL) strategies
involving low-volume sprays of oil delivered in compressed air. In
principle, MQL systems deliver oil exactly at the same rate the oil
is consumed by the process [7]. The MQL approach also eliminates
large volumes of aqueous waste, thereby reducing environmental
burdens [1]. Even though MQL can solve the most serious environmental and health issues associated with conventional MWFs, it
cannot be universally applied since it does not provide sufcient
cooling for many operations [8]. Gas-based MWF with vegetable

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2014.04.005
1526-6125/ 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of The Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

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based oils has also been introduced by Skerlos et al. to address

the limitation of the MQL approach [9], but this requires additional
equipments for maintaining supercritical CO2 needed for gas-based
MWF application. Spray-based MWF application using ultrasonic
atomization has been introduced by Jun et al. [10], but only the use
of conventional MWF was considered with the system.
Use of vegetable-based oils has recently been gaining attention
as a viable alternative [5,11]. Vegetable oils in fact have superior
natural properties such as high lubricity, viscosity index, and a high
ash point, etc. Among many, canola, soybean, and rapeseed oil
have been currently emerging as an environmentally viable alternative. Signicant amount of work is reported on development and
formulation of vegetable oil based MWFs [3,1215]. Shashidhara
and Jayaram reported a comprehensive review on use of vegetablebased oil as cutting uids and concluded that vegetable oils are
found to be promising alternative for mineral based oils [16].
Many also report on performance evaluation of vegetable based
oils [2,1618]. For many of these vegetable oil-based MWFs, much
effort is focused on stable emulsication of vegetable oil in water
using a variety of surfactants. To avoid the use of surfactants, ultrasonic vibration can be used to emulsify oil in water [1922], where
ultrasonic vibration causes oil to break into small oil droplets in
water, resulting in emulsication. However, emulsication through
ultrasonic atomization has not yet been considered, where oil and
water mixture is ultrasonically atomized into ne droplets, forming
a mist in the air. Also, the feasibility of using emulsied vegetable
oil in water via ultrasonic atomization as metal working uid has
not been investigated.
In this paper, stable emulsication of vegetable oil in water has
been achieved through ultrasonic atomization without using any
surfactant. The emulsied vegetable oil in water is directly used to
investigate its effectiveness as MWF in micro-milling operations.
The experimental atomization setup for stable emulsication as
well as delivery system for uid application to the cutting zone
are rst presented, followed by experiments examining stability
of the emulsication. Then, experimental setup for micro-milling
operations is described, followed by micro-milling experiments to
evaluate the performance of the atomized vegetable oil in water
MWF. The performance evaluation results are compared to that of
atomized conventional MWF and dry cutting. Finally, discussion
and some conclusions are presented.

2. Oil in water emulsication experiment

Ultrasonic or acoustic emulsication is one of the techniques to
disperse immiscible oil in water. The ultrasonic vibration is found to
break up the oil to form small oil droplets and prevent them from
coalescence, thus generating more stable emulsication [1922].
Kamogawa et al. [22] sonicated oleic oil in water solution and
achieved oil droplet size distribution peaking at 100 nm diameter using 200 kHz. As high as 1000 kHz was used to stabilize the
emulsication.
Emulsication through ultrasonic atomization instead of sonication is considered in this paper. With sonication, the vibration
energy does not break the mixture containing water and oil into
droplets, but only the oil is broken into small droplets. With ultrasonic atomization, the mixture is broken into a cloud of droplets in
the air. Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the experimental setup to atomize vegetable oil and water mixture, using an ultrasonic atomizer
vibrating at 1.75 MHz. A photograph of the experimental setup is
shown in Fig. 2. Off-the-shelf canola cooking oil was purchased and
used for the experiment. By volume, 130% of canola oil was mixed
with water and the mixture was tested. As the mixture was atomized, the atomized droplets were carried to the nozzle using carrier
air in indicated in Fig. 1. In order to examine the atomized droplets,

Fig. 1. A schematic of the experimental setup to test emulsication of vegetable oil

in water.

Fig. 2. A photograph of the experimental setup.

the atomized droplets are accelerated to form a spray jet at the

nozzle and subsequently collected in a cup. In actual machining
operations, the spray jet is applied to the cutting zone as cutting
uids.
Fig. 3 shows the view within the atomization chamber when
canola oil is added to water at 1% by volume. Canola oil oating on
water can be seen within the atomization chamber. However, from
the solution collected after ultrasonic atomization, it is observed
that stable emulsication of oil in water is achieved. Fig. 4 shows a
photograph of the collected solutions after four days since obtained.

Fig. 3. A photograph of canola oil added to water within atomization chamber.

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407

Fig. 4. A photograph of the collected solutions at different oil percentages in the

atomization chamber.

The emulsication is very stable, and no separation of oil from water

is observed even after two months for all cases. The ultrasonically
atomized solutions are obtained with different percentages of oil
amount initially added to the atomization chamber as shown in
Fig. 4. Interestingly, regardless of the percentage of oil amount compared to water by volume, the collected solution seems to contain
the same amount of oil emulsied in water. The oil concentration is
found to be 0.15% using a refractometer (Extech RF-12) for all uids.
This seems to indicate that the percentage of oil that can be emulsied through ultrasonic atomization is limited to 0.15% regardless
of the amount present in the atomization chamber. However, this
also implies that the performance will be consistent regardless of
the oil amount mixed in water. After a period, water evaporation
can change the percentage of oil amount within water but will not
change the performance of the atomized uids.

Fig. 6. A photograph of the collected solution and solution from the atomization
chamber at 20% oil.

Fig. 7. Possible mechanisms for emulsication through ultrasonic atomization.

Fig. 5a shows the oil droplets seen under an optical microscope.

The average droplet size is measured to be around 2.1 m. For comparison, conventional MWF (TRIM ) mixed at 5% with water is also
observed under an optical microscope and shown in Fig. 5b. The
size of oil droplets within conventional MWF seems to be similar
to that of canola oil droplets emulsied in water as shown in Fig. 5a.
The results of the experiments in this section show that stable
emulsication of vegetable oil in water can be achieved through
ultrasonic atomization. However, as shown in Fig. 6, when 20%
oil was added to the atomization chamber, a fraction gets emulsied and the rest is separated. Nevertheless, when this solution

Fig. 5. A photograph of oil droplets seen under a microscope: (a) ultrasonically

atomized oil droplets and (b) oil droplets within conventional MWF (TRIM ) at 5%
concentration (scale bar = 50 m).

Fig. 8. Schematic of cutting uid application system.

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Fig. 11. Tool wear photographs at different MWF conditions after milling 25 slots.

Fig. 9. Experimental setup for micro-milling operations.

is atomized, stably emulsied solution is obtained. This may be

due to either only the emulsied oil-in-water solution is atomized into droplets as shown in Fig. 7a, or very thin oil lm wraps
each atomized droplet as shown in Fig. 7b. When the droplets are
collected to form solution, the oil lm becomes small oil droplets
within the solution, resulting in stable emulsication. For example, 75 nm thick oil lm around 6 m diameter droplet results in
an oil droplet size of around 2 m. However, further study needs
to be conducted to determine the exact process of emulsication
through ultrasonic atomization. The atomized uids, in any case,
shows that stable emulsion of oil in water can be achieved. In the
next section, this emulsion is used to evaluate its performance as
MWF.

3. Micro-milling experiments
3.1. Experimental setup

Fig. 10. Resultant cutting forces with different cutting uid conditions at the feed
rates of (a) 0.3 and (b) 1.0 m/tooth.

A schematic of the cutting uid application system is depicted

in Fig. 8 similar to the ones used in [10,23,24]. The nozzle is directed
to the cutting zone as shown so that the spray jet effectively wets
and cools the cutting zone and simultaneously ushes away chips.
In order to evaluate the cutting performance of the atomized emulsion, micro-milling operation is selected. To perform the micro
milling tests, a custom built micro-machine tool (Alio Industries)
with a spindle (NSK E800Z) at maximum 80,000 rev/min (RPM)
is used, as shown in Fig. 9. Two-ute at end mills of 396 m
in diameter (Performance Micro Tools) are used for micro-milling
operations. Cutting forces generated during micro-milling are measured using a Kistler MiniDyn 9256C1 dynamometer. The measured
signals of forces are acquired through a data acquisition board (NI
PCI-6133). The generated chips morphology, machined part quality, and burr formations are evaluated using an optical microscope
(Olympus BXFM) and a scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Hitachi
S4700).
The experiments were carried out with dry cutting and two
types of cutting uids, 5% TRIM and canola oil emulsion described
above. Two different materials were considered for evaluation:
Al6061 and Steel 1018. Full immersion slots were milled on both
materials. Two feed-per-tooth (FPT) values of 0.3 and 1.0 m/tooth
were selected and cutting velocities of 75 m/min (60,000 rpm) and
60 m/min (50,000 rpm) were chosen for aluminum and steel workpieces, respectively. For each new tool, total of 25 slots of 20 mm
length were milled at the axial depth of cut of 150 m. Tool wear
of the tool was observed after milling each slot.

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409

Fig. 12. SEM photographs of generated aluminum chips with dry, TRIM 5%, and canola oil-in-water emulsion (scale bar = 200 m).

3.2. Experimental results with Al6061

3.2.1. Machining forces
In this section, cutting forces measured during machining are
evaluated. Fig. 10 shows the peak-to-valley values of the resultant milling forces for each slot at the feed rates of (a) 0.3 and
(b) 1.0 m/tooth. As expected, highest forces are observed with
dry cutting. Signicant force variations are observed with dry cutting experiments. This may be due to formation of built-up-edge
or clogging of chips at the cutting zone. Compared to conventional
cutting uid (5% TRIM), lower cutting forces are observed with the
canola oil-in-water emulsion. Lower cutting forces indicate that
better lubrication was achieved with the use of canola oil. Note

that conventional cutting uids contain surfactants and additives,

and the lubricity of the cutting uid may be affected by these.
Note that almost 30% reduction in peak-to-valley values of the
resultant cutting force is achieved with the use of the canola oil-inemulsion compared to the conventional MWF (5% TRIM) at the feed
rate of 1.0 m/ute. Compared to dry cutting, use of canola oil-inwater emulsion resulted in forces less than a half. This shows the
feasibility of the vegetable oil-in-water emulsion achieved through
ultrasonic atomization in cutting operations.
3.2.2. Tool wears
Tool wear photographs were taken using an optical microscope
to observe the cutting edge of the tool after twenty-ve slots were

Fig. 13. SEM photographs of aluminum chip thickness at the feed rate of 1.0 m/ute with dry, TRIM 5%, and canola oil-in-water emulsion (scale bar = 5 m).

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Fig. 14. Photographs of burrs formed on slot top surfaces.

milled (Fig. 11). As expected, more wear is observed with dry cutting. There seems to be slightly more wear with 5% TRIM. At the feed
rate of 1.0 m/tooth, hardly any wear is observed with canola oilin-water emulsion, whereas much more wear is seen with the use
of 5% TRIM solution. This conrms better lubricity achieved with
the use of canola oil-in-water emulsion.
3.2.3. Chip morphology
Chips generated during slot-milling were carefully collected and
examined to verify the chip morphology and thickness. Fig. 12
shows the SEM images of the chips generated at the feed rates
of 0.3 and 1.0 m/tooth with dry cutting, 5% TRIM, and canola
oil-in-water emulsion. The chips generated with both canola oilin-water emulsion and 5% TRIM show smaller and discontinuous
than those with dry cutting, likely due to improved cooling with
the use of atomized cutting uids [10]. Chips generated with both
5% TRIM and canola oil-in-water emulsion are similar in shape and
size. Fig. 13 shows thickness of the chips generated at the feed
rate of 1.0 m/ute. The chips generated with canola oil-in-water
emulsion seem to be thinner than those with 5% TRIM. The chip
thickness is the thickest with dry cutting. The thin chip with canola
oil-in-water emulsion provided indirect validation of the improved
lubricity effect since thinner chips are caused by higher shear angle,
which is due to decrease in the friction forces.

3.2.4. Burr formation

Top burrs are examined to study the effects of the MWF condition on the quantitative amount of burrs on the top surface. Fig. 14
shows photographs of burrs generated on top of the machined slots
(1st and 25th slots). Top burrs formed on the rst milled slot are
signicantly larger with dry cutting than those with cutting uids
(5% TRIM and canola oil-in-water emulsion). Comparing between
5% TRIM and canola oil-in-water emulsion, there is hardly any
burr with canola oil-in-water emulsion whereas some burrs are
observed with 5% TRIM. There are more and larger burrs on top of
the 25th slot with both dry cutting and 5% TRIM. This is likely due
to tool wear, resulting in more rubbing, ploughing, and vibrations.
With canola oil-in-water emulsion, the amount of burrs is signicantly less than those with 5% TRIM. This agrees with the cutting

Table 1
Number of slots machined for steel before tool failure.
Feed rate (m/tooth)

0.3
1.0

Cutting uids
Dry

5% TRIM

Oil-in-water emulsion

3
7

4
9

5
13

Fig. 15. Average resultant cutting forces over the number of slots machined before
tool failure with different cutting uid conditions at the feed rates of (a) 0.3 and (b)
1.0 m/tooth.

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411

Fig. 16. Tool wear photographs at different MWF conditions after milling 2 slots.

force measurements and chip thickness observations. These results

all indicate that better lubrication is achieved with the canola oilin-water emulsion created by ultrasonic atomization.
3.3. Experimental results with Steel 1018
3.3.1. Machining forces
Table 1 shows a number of slots machined for steel before tool
failure at two different feed rates. As shown, the oil-in-water emulsion achieved by ultrasonic atomization lead to more number of
slots machined before tool failure. Note that at low feed rates,
due to excessive ploughing and large forces, tool failed only after
machining 3, 4, and 5 slots under the conditions of dry, 5% TRIM,
and oil-in-water emulsion, respectively. Fig. 15 shows the average
values of the resultant milling forces for machining 3 slots at the
feed rate of 0.3 m/tooth and 7 slots at 1.0 m/tooth. The number

of slots was taken for calculating averages values so that the same
number of slots is taken for all three conditions. Because the tool
failed subsequently under the dry cutting condition while the tools
survived in other conditions, these were the maximum number of
slots possible. As shown in Fig. 15, lower cutting forces are observed
with the canola oil-in-water emulsion at both feed rates, compared
to conventional cutting uids (5% TRIM). This explains why the tool
was able to machine more slots with canola oil-in-emulsion.
3.3.2. Tool wears
Fig. 16 shows optical microscope images taken to observe the
cutting edge of the tool after machining two slots. As expected,
signicantly more wear is observed with dry cutting. Also, cutting edges are almost worn out at the feed rate of 0.3 m/tooth,
due to excessive ploughing and rubbing. There seems to be slightly
less wear with canola oil-in-water emulsion than 5% TRIM at both

Fig. 17. SEM photographs of generated steel chips with dry, TRIM 5%, and canola oil-in-water emulsion (scale bar = 400 m).

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Fig. 18. SEM photographs of steel chip thickness at the feed rate of 1.0 m/tooth with dry, TRIM 5%, and canola oil-in-water emulsion (scale bar = 10 m).

Fig. 19. Photographs of burrs formed on slot top surfaces after machining two slots at the feed rates of 0.3 and 1.0 m/tooth.

feed rates. These results are in agreement with the number of slots
machined before tool failure given in Table 1 and cutting force
results in Fig. 15.
3.3.3. Chip morphology
Chips generated during machining were carefully collected and
examined to verify the chip morphology and thickness. Fig. 17
shows the SEM images of the chips generated at the feed rates of
0.3 and 1.0 m/tooth with dry cutting, 5% TRIM, and canola oil-inwater emulsion. Similar to the aluminum chips, chips generated
with both canola oil-in-water emulsion and 5% TRIM are smaller
and discontinuous than those with dry cutting. It seems that chips
generated with canola oil-in-water emulsion are slightly shorter
than those with 5% TRIM. The chip thickness at the feed rate of
1.0 m/tooth is shown in Fig. 18. As shown, the chip thickness is
thinnest with canola oil-in-water emulsion while it is the thickest
with dry cutting. This agrees with the aluminum cutting results, and
this indirectly shows that better cooling and lubricity was provided
with oil-in-water emulsion.
3.3.4. Burr formation
Fig. 19 shows photographs of burrs generated on top of the
second slot after machining. The amount of generated burrs
with dry cutting is signicantly larger, especially at the low feed
rate. It shows that the amount of burrs decreased substantially
with the use of oil-in-water emulsion. Increasing the feed rate
to 1.0 m/ute decreased formation of top burrs signicantly.

Increase in the mount of burrs at the low feed rate is likely due to
increased rubbing and ploughing associated with small uncut chip
thickness close to the minimum chip thickness. Consistent with
results given above, results with canola oil-in-water seem to be the
best among the tree conditions examined. This shows signicant
improvement in cutting uid application because, although the
use of surfactants and additives are eliminated, the cutting results
are similar to or better than when conventional cutting uids
are used.

4. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the work of this
paper:
Stable emulsication of vegetable oil (canola) in water can be
achieved through ultrasonic atomization without use of any surfactant.
Vegetable oil in water emulsion with the same concentration is
obtained regardless of ratio of oil and water within the atomization chamber when ultrasonic atomization is used to generate
the oil-in-water emulsion.
Reduction in peak-to-valley values of the resultant cutting force
is achieved for both materials examined (Al6061 and Steel 1018)
with the use of the canola oil-in-emulsion compared to the conventional MWF (5% TRIM).

G. Burton et al. / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 16 (2014) 405413

Thinner chip thickness and less burr amount with the use of
canola oil-in-water emulsion indicate that better lubrication is
achieved compared to conventional MWF (5% TRIM).
The results of this paper show potential for vegetable oil-in-water
emulsion obtained through ultrasonic atomization as an effective
and environmentally friendly MWF without the use of surfactants.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the nancial support of the Discovery and Engage program of the National
Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada.
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