Carbonatereservoirgeology

Carbonatesedimentsarecommonlyformedinshallow,warmoceanseitherbydirectprecipitationoutofseawaterorbybiologicalextractionofcalciumcarbonatefromseawaterto
formskeletalmaterial.Theresultissedimentcomposedofparticleswithawiderangeofsizesandshapesmixedtogethertoformamultitudeofdepositionaltextures.Thesediment
maybeboundtogetherbyencrustingorganismsor,morecommonly,depositedasloosesedimentsubjecttotransportbyoceancurrents.Abasicoverviewofcarbonatereservoir
modelconstructionwaspresentedbyLucia,[1]andmuchofwhatispresentedhereinistakenfromthatbook.

Contents
1Depositionalclassificationofcarbonates
2Depositionalenvironments
3Diageneticenvironments
4References
5NoteworthypapersinOnePetro
6Externallinks
7Seealso

Depositionalclassificationofcarbonates
DepositionaltexturesaredescribedusingaclassificationdevelopedbyDunham.[2]TheDunhamclassificationdividescarbonatesintoorganicallyboundandloosesediments(see
Fig.1).Theloosesedimentcannotbedescribedinsimpletermsofgrainsizeandsortingbecauseshapesofcarbonategrainscanvaryfromspheroidooidstoflatconcaveandhigh
spiralshellshavinginternalporespace.Thegraincontentofagrainsupportedsedimentcomposedofshellscanbeaslittleas30%ofthebulkvolumebecausetheshellsoccupyless
spacethanspheroids.Loosesedimentis,therefore,describedonthebasisoftheconceptofmudvs.grainsupport.Mudreferstomudsizecarbonateparticles,nottomudcomposed
ofclayminerals.Grainsupportedtexturesare:
Grainstone,whichlackscarbonatemud
Packstone,whichcontainsmud
Mudsupportedtexturesarereferredtoas:
Wackestone,whichcontainsmorethan10%grains
Mudstone,whichcontainslessthan10%grains
Tocompletethedescription,genericnamesaremodifiedaccordingtograintype,suchas:
Fusulinidwackestone
Ooidgrainstone

(/File%3AVol5_Page_0011_Image_0001.png)

Fig.1Dunham [2]andEmbryandKlovan[3]
classificationofcarbonatesediments.

DunhamsboundstoneclasswasfurtherdividedbyEmbryandKlovan[3]becausecarbonatereefsarecommonlycomposedoflargereefbuildingorganisms,suchascorals,sponges,
andrudists,whichformsedimentscomposedofverylargeparticles.Todescribeautochthonous(inplace)boundstonereefmaterial,theyintroducedtheterms:
Bafflestone
Bindstone
Framestone
Todescribeallochthonous,(transported)reefsedimentwithparticleslargerthan2mmindiameter,thefollowingtermsareused:
Floatstone
Rudstone
Rudstoneisgrainsupported,whereasfloatstoneismudsupportedsediment.
EnosandSawatsky[4]measuredtheporosityandpermeabilityofmoderncarbonatesediments.
Theaverageporosityandpermeabilityofgrainstoneareapproximately45%and10darcies,respectively.
Theaverageporosityandpermeabilityofawackestoneareapproximately65%and200md,respectively.

Thehigherporosityinmudsupportedsedimentsiscausedbytheneedleshapeofsmallaragonitecrystalsthatmakeupthecarbonatemud,andthedecreaseinpermeabilityiscaused
bythesmallporesizefoundbetweenmudsizedparticles.Animportantobservationbasedonthisdataisthatallcarbonatesedimentshavesufficientporosityandpermeabilityto
qualifyasreservoirrocks.
Withmodifications,theDunhamapproachcanbeusedtocharacterizethepetrophysicalpropertiesofcarbonaterocks.Theclassificationmustbemodified,however,because
diagenesissignificantlyaltersthedepositionaltexture,andarockfabricclassificationthatincorporatesdiageneticoverprintsandthatcanbelinkedtopetrophysicalpropertiesis
required.TheclassificationproposedbyLucia[5]isdesignedforthispurpose(seeFig.2).Allporespaceisdividedintothefollowingclassifications:
Interparticle(intergrainandintercrystal)
Vuggy(porespacewithingrains/crystalsandmuchlargerthangrains/crystals)
InterparticleporespaceisclassifiedwiththeDunhamclassificationapproach.Insteadofgrainsupportvs.mudsupport,however,grainandmuddominatedareusedasabasic
division.Graindominatedfabricsincludegrainstoneandgraindominatedpackstone.Muddominatedfabricsincludemuddominatedpackstone,wackestone,andmudstone.The
packstoneclassisdividedintograinandmuddominatedpackstonebecausethepetrophysicalpropertiesofgraindominatedpackstoneareaccordingtograinsize,whereasmudsize
controlsthepropertiesofmuddominatedpackstone.Diageneticreductionsinporositybycementationandcompactionarereflectedintheamountofinterparticleporosity.

(/File%3AVol5_Page_0012_Image_0001.png)
Fig.2Lucia [5]classificationofcarbonatepore
space.

Dolostonesareclassifiedsimilarlyiftheprecursorlimestonefabriccanbedetermined.Theprincipalpetrophysicaldifferencebetweenlimestonesanddolostonesoccursinmud
dominatedfabrics.Limestonemuddominatedfabricshavemudsizedparticles(<20m)andverysmallpores.Dolomitizedmuddominatedfabricshavecrystalsizesrangingfrom
10morlesstomorethan200m,withcorrespondingporesizes.Dolomitizationmust,therefore,improvereservoirqualitybyincreasingparticleandporesize.
Theclassificationofvuggyporespaceisanimportantaspectofrockfabricclassificationthatisnotfoundintheclassificationofdepositionaltextures.Vuggyporespaceisdivided
intotwogroupsonthebasisofhowtheporespaceisconnected.Separatevugsareconnectedtoeachotherthroughinterparticleporespace,andtouchingvugsareconnecteddirectly
tooneanother.Selectivedissolutionofgrains,suchasooidsorskeletalmaterial,andintrafossilporosityaretypesofseparatevugs.Becauseseparatevugporosityispoorly
connected,itcontributeslesstopermeabilitythanwouldbeexpectediftheporositywerelocatedbetweentheparticles.Touchingvugsarecommonlyformedbymassdissolutionand
fracturing.Theseprocessescanformreservoirscalevuggyporesystemsthatdominatetheperformanceofcarbonatereservoirs.

Depositionalenvironments
Carbonatesedimentsaccumulateindepositionalenvironmentsthatrangefromtidalflatstodeepwaterbasins.Mostcarbonatesedimentsoriginateonashallowwaterplatform,shelf,
orrampandaretransportedlandwardandbasinward."Platform"isageneraltermfortheshallowwaterenvironment,whereas"shelf"and"ramp"refertotopographyshelveswith
flatplatformtopsandsteepforeslopesandrampshavinggentlydippingplatformtopsandslightlysteeperforeslopes.
Thelateraldistributionofdepositionalenvironmentsreflects:
Energylevels
Topography
Organicactivity
Thesechangescanberelatedtothegeometryofthecarbonateplatform.Oceancurrentsareproducedbytidesandwavesandareconcentratedatmajortopographicfeatures,suchas:
Rampandshelfmargins
Islands
Shorelines
Grainstonesandboundstonesareconcentratedintheareasofhighestenergy,commonlyatrampandshelfmargins.Sedimentistransportedfromtheshelfedgeontotheshelfslope
andintothebasinenvironment.Thistransportoccursprimarilyduringhighstandandresultsinprogradationoftheshelfmargin.Calcareousplanktonisdepositedinthebasinal
environmentaswell.Sedimentisalsotransportedlandwardontotheshoreline,creatingtidalflatdepositsthatprograde,primarilyduringregression.Transgressivesedimentsare
generallywackestonesandmudstonesatalllocationsbecauserisingsealeveltypicallycreatesalowenergydepositionalenvironment.
Thecombinationoforganicactivity,oceancurrents,topography,andeustasy(/Glossary%3AEustatic)producesatypicalfaciesprogressionfromlandtobasinduringhighstand,as
showninFig.3:
Peritidal
Middleramp
Rampcrest
Rampshelforslope
Basin
Theperitidalfacies,composedoftidalflatcappedcycles,normallydefinesthemostlandwardpositionofanHFC(/Glossary%3AHFC).Thecyclesareformedbyfilling
accommodationspaceanddepositingsedimentabovesealevelbytransportingcarbonatesedimentontothemudflatwithtidalandstormcurrents.Tidalflatsedimentsarekey
indicatorfaciesbecausetheydefinesealevel.Thetidalflatenvironmentisdividedintotheintertidalzoneoverlainbythesupratidalzone.Sedimentintheintertidalzoneis
characterizedbysedimentthatis:
Burrowed

Pelleted
Muddy
Algallaminatesareconcentratedattheboundarybetweentheintertidalandsupratidalzones.Thesupratidalzoneiseasilyidentifiedbyitscharacteristic:
Irregularlamination
Pisolites
Mudcracks
Intraclasts
Fenestralfabrics
Thesupratidalzoneissometimescalledasabkhaenvironment,referringtotheextensiveevaporiticflatsonthewesternshoreofthePersianGulf.

(/File%3AVol5_Page_0013_Image_0001.png)

Fig.3Generalizedblockdiagramillustrating
carbonaterampfaciespatternsandtopography.

Inaridclimates,evaporitedepositsmayformbyprecipitationofgypsum(CaSO42H2O)oranhydrite(CaSO4)fromevaporationofseawatertrappedonorinthesupratidalzone.
Halite(NaCl)isnormallyfoundinisolatedbasinssimilartotheDeadSea.Sulfatemineralsarefoundasdepositsinhypersalinelakesandasbedsandcrystalswithintheperitidal
sediments.Sulfatesfoundwithincarbonatesedimentsareproperlyclassifiedasdiageneticmineralsandcannotbeusedtodescribethedepositionalenvironment,butsulfatedeposited
outofastandingbodyofwater,isproperlyclassifiedassedimentandischaracteristicofthedepositionalenvironmentaswellastheclimate.Forsulfatetoprecipitatefromseawater,
threeconditionsmustbemet:
1. Thebodyofseawatermustbehighlyrestrictedfromtheocean
2. Thehypersalinewatermustbeabletoescapeeitherbyreturningtotheoceanorbyseepingintotheunderlyingsediment(seepagereflux),otherwiselargevolumesofHalite
willprecipitateformingabedofsalt
3. Theclimatemustbesufficientlyaridtoallowtheseawatertoevaporatetoatleastonethirditsoriginalvolume
Themiddlerampfaciesischaracterizedbyquietwaterdepositstypicallycomposedofskeletalwackestonesandmudstones.Burrowingorganismschurnthemuddysedimentand
producefecalpelletsthat,togetherwithskeletalmaterial,comprisethegrainfractionofthesediment.Duringhighstand,accommodationspacemaybereducedandwaterdepth
lessenedtothepointatwhichwaveandstormenergyincrease,limemudiswinnowedout,andapackstonetextureisproduced.Theincreaseingraincontent,possiblycappedby
packstone,isusedtodefinesealevelchangesinthisenvironment.
Therampcrestfaciesischaracterizedbyhighenergydeposits,typicallygrainstonesandpackstones.Theclassicupwardshoalingsuccessionofwackestonetopackstoneand
grainstonetypifiesthisenvironment.Typicalhighenergydepositsareasfollows:
Shelfmargin,tidalbar,andmarinesandbelts
Backreefsandsassociatedwithlandwardtransportofsedimentforfringingreefs
Localmiddleshelfdepositsassociatedwithgapsbetweenislandsortidalinletsforminglobatetidaldeltas
Packstonesaretypicallychurnedbyburrowingorganismsandshownoevidenceofcurrenttransport.Grainstonesarecommonlycrossbedded,ofteninmultipledirections,indicating
depositionoutoftidalcurrents.Reefsarealsofoundintherampcrestfacies.Thetermreefhasbeenmuchmisusedinthepetroleumindustry.Atonetime,allcarbonatereservoirs
werereferredtoasreefs,andthetermiscommonlyusedtodaytodescribeanycarbonatebuildup.However,thetermshouldberestrictedtocarbonatebodiescomposedof:
Bindstone
Bafflestone
Associatedfloatandrudstones
Theouterramp,orslope,faciesisformedbytransportofshelfmarginandinnershelfsedimentontotheshelfslope.Sedimentsaretypicallywackestonesandmudstones,alongwith
occasionalpackstonesandgrainstones,inchannelsassociatedwithdensityflowsintothebasin.Onsteepslopes,sedimentsmaybedominatedbysedimentarybrecciasanddebris
flowsproducedbythecollapseofasteepshelfmargin.Thebasinfaciesistypicallycomposedofthinbedded,quietwaterlimemudsthatcontainplanktonicorganisms.Wackestones
areoftenpunctuatedbydebrisandgrainflows.Classicturbiditetexturesandcyclesarealsofoundinbasinalcarbonatedeposits.

Diageneticenvironments
Becauseallcarbonatereservoirrockshaveundergonesignificantdiagenesis,understandingtheirdiagenetichistorycanbeasimportantasunderstandingtheirdepositionalhistory.
Moderncarbonatesedimentshavesufficientporosityandpermeabilitytoqualifyasreservoirrocks.Manyancientcarbonates,however,lacktheporosityandpermeabilityneededto
producehydrocarbonseconomically.Lossofreservoirqualityoccurswhensedimentchangesafterdeposition.Theprocessesthatcausethesechangesarereferredtoasdiagenetic
processes,andtheresultingfabricisoftenreferredtoasthediageneticoverprint.
Carbonatediageneticprocessesinclude:
Calciumcarbonatecementation
Mechanicalandchemicalcompaction
Selectivedissolution
Dolomitization
Evaporitemineralization
Massivedissolution,caverncollapse,andfracturing

Whereassedimentationisaonetimeevent,diagenesisisacontinuingprocess,anddiageneticprocessesinteractwithoneanotherintimeandspace.Thus,asequenceofdiagenetic
eventsmaybeextremelycomplicatedandthepatternofdiageneticproductsdifficulttopredictiftheyarenotrelatedtodepositionalpatterns.
Theprocessofdiageneticoverprintingofdepositionaltexturesmustbeunderstoodtopredictthedistributionofpetrophysicalpropertiesinacarbonatereservoir.Tothisend,
diageneticprocessesaregroupedaccordingtotheirconformancetodepositionalpatterns.
Thefirstgroupismadeupof:
Calciumcarbonatecementation
Compaction
Selectivedissolutionform
Theseprocesseshavethehighestconformancetodepositionalpatterns.
Thesecondgroupismadeupof:
Refluxdolomitization
Evaporitemineralization
Althoughtheseprocessesdependgreatlyongeochemicalandhydrologicalconsiderations,theyareoftenpredictablebecausetheycanberelatedtotidalflatandevaporite
depositionalenvironments.
Thethirdgroupismadeupof:
Massivedissolution
Collapsebrecciationandfracturing
Latedolomitizationform
Theseprocesseshavethelowestconformancetodepositionalpatterns,andtheirproductsarequiteunpredictable.
Thefollowingprocessescanoftenbelinkedtodepositionaltextures:
Calciumcarbonatecementation
Compaction
Selectivedissolution
Becausecalciumcarbonatecementationbeginssoonafterdeposition,itisoftenconnectedtothedepositionalenvironment.Itcontinuesasthesedimentisburied,sothedistribution
oflatecementsisoftenunpredictable.Cementationfillsporespacefromtheporewallsinward,reducingbothporesizeandporosityinproportiontotheamountofcement.
Compactionandassociatedcementationareafunctionofdepositionaltextureandthetimeoverburdenhistory.Compactionisbothaphysicalandachemicalprocessresultingfrom
increasedoverburdenpressurecausedbyburial.Texturaleffectsinclude:
Porosityloss
Poresizereduction
Grainpenetration,breaking,anddeformation
Microstylolites
Compactiondoesnotrequiretheadditionofmaterialfromanoutsidesourceandisoftenrelatedtodepositionaltextures.Experimentsandobservationshaveshownthatmud
supportedsedimentscompactmorereadilythanthosethataregrainsupported.
Selectivedissolutionoccurswhenonefabricelementisselectivelydissolvedinpreferencetoothers.Carbonatesedimentsarecomposedofthreevarietiesofcalciumcarbonate:
Lowmagnesiumcalcite
Highmagnesiumcalcite(magnesiumsubstitutedforsomecalciuminthecrystallattice)
Aragonite
Aragonite,inparticular,isanunstableformandisrarelyfoundincarbonaterocks.Grainscomposedofaragonitetendtobedissolved,andthecarbonateisdepositedascalcite
cement.Thisdistributionofaragonitegrainscanbepredictedonthebasisofdepositionalmodels.
Dolostone(arockcomposedofdolomite)isanimportantreservoirrock.ThecompositionofdolomiteisCaMg(CO3)2,anditisformedbyreplacementofcalciteandbyocclusionof
porespace.Inthefollowingdolomitizationequation,x=theamountofcarbonateaddedtotherockinexcessoftheamountinthesediment.
(/File%3AVol5_page_0015_eq_001.png)....................(1)
Amainsourceofmagnesiumisthoughttobemodifiedseawatercirculatingthroughthesedimentinresponsetovarioushydrodynamicforces,includingdensity,elevation,and
temperaturedifferences.Manyporevolumesofdolomitizingfluidareneededtoconvertalimestonetoadolostone.Therefore,thehydrologicsystemmustbeunderstoodforthe
distributionofdolostonetobepredicted.Thehypersalinerefluxmodelcanbeusedtopredictdolomitepatternsbecauseitcanbelinkedtoanevaporiticenvironment.Inanarid
climate,seawateristrappedintidalflatsedimentandhypersalinelakesandisconcentratedthroughevaporation,producingadolomitizingfluid.Ahydrodynamicpotentialiscreated
becausetheevaporatedfluidisdenserthanseawaterorgroundwaterandthetidalflatsareataslightlyhigherelevationthansealevel.Asaresult,thehypersalinefluidwillreflux
downthroughtheunderlyingsediment,convertingittodolomite.Thegeometriesofdolostonebodiesformedbythismechanismcanbepredictedifthedistributionofevaporitic
tidalflatfaciesisknown.
ThehypersalinerefluxmodelalsoaccountsfortheadditionofCaSO4,commonlyanevaporitemineralincarbonatereservoirs.CaSO4ismostcommonlyformedneartheEarths
surfaceinitshydrousform,gypsum(CaSO42H2O).However,athighertemperatures,thestableformisanhydriteCaSO4,whichistheformmostcommonlyfoundincarbonate
reservoirs.Insomelocations,tectonicshasupliftedcarbonatestrataintoacoolertemperature,andanhydritehashydrated,forminggypsum.
Fourtypesofanhydritearecommonlyfoundindolostonereservoirs.Porefillinganhydriteistypicallycomposedoflargecrystalsfillinginterparticleandvuggyporespace.
Poikilotopicanhydriteisfoundaslargecrystalswithinclusionsofdolomitescatteredthroughoutthedolostone.Theyarebothreplaciveandporefilling.Nodulesofanhydriteare
composedofmicrocrystallineanhydrite,oftenshowingevidenceofdisplacingsediment.Theymakeupasmallpercentageofthebulkvolumeandhavelittleeffectonreservoir
quality.Beddedanhydriteisfoundasbedscomposedofbothcoalescednodulesandlaminations.Anhydritebedsareflowbarriersandsealsinreservoirs.
Themostunpredictablediageneticprocessesare:
Massivedissolution
Collapsebrecciationandfracturing

Latedolomitization
Massivedissolutionreferstononfabricselectivedissolution,including:
Cavernformationatanyscale
Collapsebrecciationandfracturing
Solutionenlargementoffractures
Dissolutionofbeddedevaporates
Thisprocessisthoughttobemostcommonlyrelatedtotheflowofnearsurfacegroundwater,referredtoasmeteoricdiagenesisbutoftenincludedunderthegeneralheadingofkarst.
Theproductsofthisdiageneticenvironmentarecontrolledbyprecursordiageneticevents,tectonicfracturing,andgroundwaterflowandshowlittlerelationshiptodepositional
environments.Reservoirsofthistypeare,therefore,difficulttomodel.

References
1. Lucia,F.J.1999.CarbonateReservoirCharacterization,226.NewYork:Springer.
2. 2.02.1Dunham,R.J.1962.ClassificationofCarbonateRocksAccordingtoDepositionalTexture.inClassificationofCarbonateRocksASymposium,W.E.Hamed.,108.
AAPGMemoirNo.1.http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/carbona2/data/a038/a038/0001/0100/0108.htm
(http://archives.datapages.com/data/specpubs/carbona2/data/a038/a038/0001/0100/0108.htm).
3. 3.03.1Embry,A.J.andKlovan,R.E.1971.ALateDevonianReefTractofNortheasternBanksIsland,N.W.T.BulletinofCanadianPetroleumGeology19(4):730781.
http://bcpg.geoscienceworld.org/content/19/4/730.abstract(http://bcpg.geoscienceworld.org/content/19/4/730.abstract).
4. Enos,P.andSawatsky,L.H.1981.PorenetworksinHolocenecarbonatesediments.J.ofSedimentaryPetrology51(3):961985.http://dx.doi.org/10.1306/
212F7DF12B24
11D78648000102C1865D(http://dx.doi.org/10.1306/
212F7DF12B2411D78648000102C1865D).
5. 5.05.1Lucia,F.J.1995.RockFabric/PetrophysicalClassificationofCarbonatePoreSpaceforReservoirCharacterization.AAPGBull.79(9):12751300.
http://aapgbull.geoscienceworld.org/content/79/9/1275.citation(http://aapgbull.geoscienceworld.org/content/79/9/1275.citation).

NoteworthypapersinOnePetro
UsethissectiontolistpapersinOnePetrothatareaderwhowantstolearnmoreshoulddefinitelyread

Externallinks
UsethissectiontoprovidelinkstorelevantmaterialonwebsitesotherthanPetroWikiandOnePetro

Seealso
Reservoirgeology(/Reservoir_geology)
Siliciclasticreservoirgeology(/Siliciclastic_reservoir_geology)
PEH:ReservoirGeology(/PEH%3AReservoir_Geology)

(https://www.onepetro.org/search?q=Carbonatereservoirgeology)

(http://scholar.google.ca/scholar?q=Carbonatereservoirgeology)

(http://www.worldcat.org/search?q=Carbonatereservoirgeology)

(http://wiki.seg.org/index.php?

title=Special%3ASearch&redirs=1&fulltext=Search&ns0=1&ns4=1&ns500=1&redirs=1&title=Special%3ASearch&advanced=1&fulltext=Advanced+search&search=Carbonate
reservoirgeology)

(http://wiki.aapg.org/index.php?

title=Special%3ASearch&profile=advanced&fulltext=Search&ns0=1&ns4=1&ns102=1&ns104=1&ns106=1&ns108=1&ns420=1&ns828=1&redirs=1&profile=advanced&search=Carbon
reservoirgeology)