Matthew Gomez, Kenneth Dowling Jr.

,
Wei Guan, & Giovanni Tobar
ELE 346
Dr. Ghosh
01 May 1, 2015
ELE 346 Group Project Essay
Everyday our world grows; currently the worlds population is just over 7.2 billion people
and is exponentially growing! The world we live in is able to grow so vastly, because of the
immense advancements made in technology. Today, there exists over millions of technological
devices that help to make life easier. But how are we able to power so many devices? Currently
the main source of energy to power such devices comes from the earth itself, but these sources
are running dry. Scientist and engineers discovered that our Sun can be utilized as a new source
of energy, a source that will not run out anytime soon. With the invention of photovoltaic (PV)
cells, we can harness the Suns solar energy and convert it to electricity to power our digital
world. Although we have discovered this method of creating renewable energy, it has not been
perfected. Today many engineers and scientists continue to research and test PV cells to further
the efficiency of solar power; diligently logging all of their findings in scientific journals. IEEE
(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) members around the world lead this research
with new theories, tests, and devices emerging every day. In their journals, they discuss methods
and theories for manipulating devices specifications, optimizing environmental settings, and
creating other devices to optimize PV cell efficiency. Specifically, the following four journals:
Achievement of More Than 25% Conversion Efficiency With Crystalline Silicon
Heterojunction Solar Cell, Design, Characterization and Fabrication of Silicon Solar Cells for
>50% Efficient 6-junction Tandem Solar Cells, Amorphous/Crystalline Silicon Interface
Passivation: Ambient-Temperature Dependence and Implications for Solar Cell Performance,

and High-Bandgap Solar Cells for Underwater Photovoltaic Applications, give some insight on
the advancements made on PV cells.
First off, in the journal, Achievement of More Than 25% Conversion Efficiency With
Crystalline Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cell, discusses leading research in maximum efficiency
of PV cells. The IEEE members who wrote the journal found that designing the PV cells with a
crystalline silicon heterojunction with an integrated back contact (placing grid electrode on
bottom of PV cell), along with a transparent conducting oxide (TCO) layer would optimize the
Voc of the PV cell. The structure can do this by reducing the recombination loss, which results in
a much greater efficiency, ultimately raising the Voc. Before this design change, efficiency could
not surpass 25% because the placing of the grid electrode was above the first layer of the PV cell,
creating an ever-so-slight shadow that lowered results. With the electrode grid placed on the
bottom of the PV cell, it allows a wider range of wavelengths to be received and more efficiently
to the silicon wafer. With the electrode grids new placement, they were also able to create cells
that cover more surface area to further optimize the amount of solar energy taken into the PV
cell. The efficiency granted with this new design was the highest ever recorded (25.6%), but the
researchers state that there is still room for growth in all aspects of design.
Secondly, in the journal, Design, Characterization and Fabrication of Silicon Solar Cells
for >50% Efficient 6-junction Tandem Solar Cells, discusses how to develop high efficiency
solar cells by implementing photovoltaic conversion. The research simulations have shown that
increasing the number of junctions of a Multiple Junction Solar Cell, can permit conversion
efficiency greater than 50%. The Multiple Junction Solar Cell approach is currently based on a
six-junction tandem solar cell. In these six-junction tandem solar cells, the individual solar cells
are stacked upon one another and allowing each solar cell to absorb its best-matched slice of the
solar spectrum. The role of the silicon cell is to convert approximately 7% of the light incident

on the tandem stack into electricity, while the other junctions within the cell contribute to the
balance of the electricity, optimizing the efficiency of the solar absorption. A Multiple Junction
Solar Cell that has been completed and tested, has shown the absence of shunts and has
permitted an excellent fill factor, showing proof of such theories. However there are still flaws in
the design that are not matching the simulated efficiency and are being fixed for future
production, leading to improved efficiency.
Thirdly, in the journal, Amorphous/Crystalline Silicon Interface Passivation: AmbientTemperature Dependence and Implications for Solar Cell Performance, explains how the
dependence of Silicon heterojunction solar cell performance is affected by the temperature and
charge transport barriers. To determine the dependency of the diode, the scientists have to closely
observe the open circuit voltage, the fill factor and the change of the temperature coefficient of
the conversion efficiency when the solar cell is exposed to high temperature levels. They
determined though simulation, before the physical testing, that passivation helps to increase the
voltage created in the solar cell. Passivation is a coat that protects the PV cell from corrosion. For
testing, they use photo-conductance decay measurements (PCD), to measure the behavior of the
voltage and fill factor. For the experiment they used a crystalline silicon n-type, and poured a
passivation sample on it. Then the diode is heated up to 200 degrees Celsius to reach thermal
stability, and immediately cooled down from 150 to 30 degrees Celsius to not affect the lifetime
measurements of the PV Cell. The measurements were recorded from the range of 25 to 85
degrees Celsius, but 25 degrees Celsius is used as the reference point(at room temperature) to
observe how the device will work in realistic conditions. After the process of obtaining the
values for voltage, fill factor and current density, they found that the values were close to the
values they implied before doing the physical testing. Because their measurements were close to

that of the experiments, further simulations can accurately determine these factors without
having to have a finished cell.
Fourthly, in the journal, High-Bandgap Solar Cells for Underwater Photovoltaic
Applications, begins by explaining that underwater autonomous systems lack
the persistent power sources needed to operate. Prior to the research and
application, underwater autonomous systems, relied heavily on surface PV
arrays and batteries. In this study engineers and scientists test
photovoltaics underwater and experiment with the efficiency and
performance of these photovoltaic cells ranging from 2 to 10 meters
underwater. Such attempts to use photovoltaics underwater have had
limited success due to the lack of penetration of sunlight and the use of cells
optimized for the given terrestrial spectrum. In water, a useful spectral light
band exists up to 20 meters at wavelengths ranging from 450 to 700 nm,
and at a 2 meter depth all light of wavelength greater than 700 nm is
absorbed. At 20 meters all wavelengths longer than 600 nm are absorbed.
Results showed an optimized depth of 11.5 meters, with a power density of
5.0 mW/cm2. Although this is not nearly as efficient as the depth of 2 meters,
this is certainly within the useful range of power generation considering that
the NASA Juno mission to Jupiter used a solar cell with a mere solar intensity
of 4% (5.4 mW/cm2). Although intensity of solar radiation is lower
underwater, solar cells can be matched to a well matched wavelength range
to optimize the conversion efficiency. A single-junction InGaP cell has a very
high band gap, which allows the absorption of the blue portion of the light

spectrum, while the remaining spectrum is transmitted and absorbed by

lower cells with decreasing bandgaps. With a bandgap of 1.75 eV the InGaP
cells are grown n-on-p and on single crystal GaAs substrates that contain
high quality cells suited for underwater operations. InGaP cells have high
quantum efficiency between 400 and 600 nm, along with their intrinsically
low dark current permits high efficiency in low-light conditions. Tests on the
InGaP cells were done at waters of 25 degrees Celsius, as well as atop the
surface. The cells produced approximately the same amount of power as on
land solar panels, with the silicon outperforming the InGaP cell slightly. At all
other depths, the InGaP cell outperformed the silicon cell by a factor between
2 to 3 times. These results were due to a decreasing red portion of the light
spectrum, which decreases the operating voltage of the cell. At 9.1 meters
the silicon operating voltage dropped to 28%, while the InGaP cell only
dropped 10% with an output of .7 mW/cm2 or 7 W/m2, enough to sustain
most modern electric devices. Test results revealed the InGaP cells are well
matched to the solar spectrum while underwater, as well as exhibiting
specific electronic properties that are advantageous to the terrain. From the
data gained by the experiment, InGaP cells perform the best underwater
matching the blue/green portion of the spectrum that is exhibited
underwater.
Overall, all of the tests and research done on the PV cells have worked
on the optimization of the cells themselves. Whether the techniques used
were temperature adjustments of the cell, doping concentration, device

material, coatings and design elements, all experiments increased the

efficiency of the PV cell. The only draw backs found in the research were the
vast room for improvement. As one variable of the PV cell is manipulated and
optimized, another suffers. In the first journal, the maximum efficiency in a
PV cell was done without a concentrated silicon base, so the drawback of the
experiment is a what-if. What if the PV cell could have permitted a higher
efficiency if it had a concentrated silicon base; we will never know until it is
tested. In the second journal, a major drawback in the research was the
limited idea on design shape. In theory, there can be many shapes to the PV
cell and without proper testing, we will not know if the current design shape
is best to optimize device efficiency. In the third journal, a drawback was the
determination that there is a performance loss due to increase in
temperature. They found that there is a decrease in voltage and fill factor,
while finding an increase in current density. This increase in current density
does not affect the performance of the diode, it simply correlates to the
lifetime coefficient decreasing due to long periods of exposure under high
temperatures. Lastly, in the fourth journal, the largest drawback is simply the
specificity of the depth the PV cell needs to be placed. This will greatly
influence design and cost for installation, shying away investors. IEEE
engineers and scientists were able to do so much, but there will always be
some drawback. It is up to young minds such as ourselves (our group) to get
a fresh look at designs to come up with new methods and theories to
increase efficiency.

As a group, we came up with a few ideas to improve the designs or

methods found in the four journals referenced. For the first journal, an idea
for improvement would be to find an ideal aspect ratio between the multiple
layers of the heterojunction PV cell. The researchers made all layers of the
cell equal dimensions, but if the top silicon layer was thicker, it may be able
to permit more absorption, resulting in a higher efficiency. Another idea in
regard to the first journal, would be to continue to increase the surface area
of the PV cells to increase absorption. In regard to the second journal, to
further improve the efficiency of the Silicon Solar Cell, we can change the
shape of the Solar Cell and change the temperature. Changing the shape of
the photovoltaic cell from the typical rectangular prism to a cylinder will
allow for higher efficiency. The surface area will remain unchanged, but the
number of cylindrical solar cells one can place on a certain area will increase.
In regard to the third journal, placing these solar cells in areas like mountains
or high altitude places could increase efficiency. This is because higher
altitudes tend to be colder, yet have more intense sunlight than lower level
fields, keeping the device at an optimal temperature while absorbing more
solar power. Lastly, in regard to the fourth journal, PV cells could be placed
on buoys all over the coast to help supply the needed power near coastal
areas. The sun also moves throughout the day, so the PV cells underwater
could be supported by a device that moves underwater to angle the PV cell
to receive the largest range of wavelengths. All of these suggestions can be

tested in the lab or on site to see their relevance to IEEE engineers and
scientists research.
All in all, PV cells are the future. We are already making ground
breaking discoveries on how to maximize the efficiency of PV cells, yet we
can continue to make them better. Through variations of device design,
optimizing environmental settings, and creating other devices to work alongside the PV cell, we
will only continue to optimize PV cell efficiency. Most importantly, we need bright young minds
to innovate the existing technology to maximize its efficiency, but also to invent new devices to
keep the world spinning. We will eventually run out of all other sources of power
except for the Suns, so why not figure out how to harness it in entirety and
keep the world thriving.

Works Cited
"Achievement of More Than 25% Conversion Efficiency With Crystalline Silicon Heterojunction Solar
Cell." IEEE Xplore. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2015.
"Amorphous/Crystalline Silicon Interface Passivation: Ambient-Temperature Dependence and
Implications for Solar Cell Performance." IEEE Xplore. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2015.
"Design, Characterization and Fabrication of Silicon Solar Cells for 50% Efficient 6-junction
Tandem Solar Cells." IEEE Xplore. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2015.
"IEEE Xplore Full-Text PDF:." IEEE Xplore Full-Text PDF:. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 May 2015.