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Authors:
Juan Antonio Lpez-Geta
Juan Mara Forns
Gerardo Ramos
Fermn Villarroya

A natural underground resource

MINISTERIO
DE EDUCACIN
Y CIENCIA

Instituto Geolgico
y Minero de Espaa

Fundacin
Marcelino Botn

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GROUNDWATER
A natural underground resource

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Authors
Juan Antonio Lpez-Geta
Juan Mara Forns Azcoiti
Gerardo Ramos Gonzlez
Fermn Villarroya Gil
This textbook corresponds to the English version of the book jointly published by the Instituto Geolgico y Minero de Espaa (IGME)
and Marcelino Botn Foundation, on 2001, titled Las aguas subterrneas. Un recurso natural del subsuelo. This publication includes a new
and long chapter about groundwater use in the world. Besides, authors have higtly modified the original structure to obtain a worldwide approach.
The book has been done with the special collaboration of Dr. Jos Javier Cla, valuable in his ideas, designs and treatment of texts coming
from the different authors. His scientific knowledge and editing industry experience have been crucial for the final quality of this work.
Dr. Jos Manuel Murillo Daz and Dr. Carlos Martnez Navarrete contributed to the following chapters: Conjunctive use of surface water
and groundwater, Artificial recharge, and Wellhead protection areas for groundwater catchments.
The authors thank Dr. Emilio Custodio, Former Director General of the Spanish Geological Survey (IGME) and Professor of the Technical
University of Catalonia, for his unfailing attention and dedication to the publication of this book. The observations and suggestions
made on the basis of his long experience were of inestimable help in achieving the desired quality for the contents of this book. We also
express our gratitude to Dr. Ramn Llamas Madurga and Dr. Juan Jos Durn Valsero for checking the manuscript and for their valuable
suggestions. We thank, too, Dr. Jos A. de la Orden Gmez for the reviewing of the translation into English, and all those who generously gave us permission to use the photographs illustrating the text, especially to Dr. Antonio Fernndez Ura, Marc Martnez Parra,
Carlos Torres Minondo, Juan Jos Rodes Martnez, Juan I. Rozas, Vicente Fabregat Ventura, Carlos Mediavilla Laso, Diego Martn Sosa,
the Provincial Council of Alicante, Crdoba City Hall, Rafael Nuche, Empresa Nacional de Residuos S.A., Aguas de Barcelona, Taylor &
Francis Group and NASA.
Translation
Glenn Harding
Typesetting
Ibersaf Industrial, S. L.
INSTITUTO GEOLGICO Y MINERO DE ESPAA <http://www.igme.es>
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO) <http://www.unesco.org>
FUNDACIN MARCELINO BOTN <http://www.fundacionmbotin.org>
Legal deposit: M-8122-2006
NIPO: 657-06-011-4
ISBN: 84-7840-618-2
Printing and photosetting
Grupo Industrial de Artes Grficas
Ibersaf Industrial, S. L.

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My well
Beneath its own image it springs
and each drop on being born
forestalls the birth
of one that nears
the threshold of its life.
Absent activity becomes calm,
tiring of movement,
confines its energy in a narrow space
and patiently awaits the succour of the rope,
chorus of innocence.
However often the bucket breaks it,
it never empties or depletes;
this sweetness comes from somewhere
undiminishable,
that is, without being, where it always was.
Eternal fresh spring water
that gathers in my hand
in its deep primordial state.
Water and rock, theres nothing else:
no sky or gaze or light or mouth.
No tread splashes, raising foam,
no voices break the calm.
Circle of grace! Cold mineshaft
of streamless water, silent,
without current, banks, or reeds.
Skyscraper, underground well,
subterranean dwelling,
here the tree, craving water,
put down a wayward root, and wedded its life
to a wound.
Translated from Pozo mo,
by Miguel Hernndez (1910-1942)

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Presentation
T

o preface a book is always a satisfactory task as it permits


underlining both the topic and content of the subjected
volume. This satisfaction increases when the book deals
with dissemination of the scientific knowledge on a resource that is critical for Man life and welfare, such as Water is.
Moreover, the content of the book can help in a better
understanding on the behaviour and characteristics of
groundwater for developing countries in which water availability is scarce. One may wonder if problems derived from
the scarcity of water in those countries is a result of real lack
of the resource or maybe they came out from technological
shortage and/or administrative deficiency.
In the last decades, many international meetings have
been mainly concerned with the necessity of guaranteing
basic endowment of water resources to population. For instance, the Conference of Mar de Plata, in 1977, and the
Earth Summit of Ro de Janeiro in 1992 were centered on
this topic.
The integration of all aspects related to water as a resource and social practices arises as a notorious necessity, such

as the former President of the International Council of


Scientific Unions (ICSU) clearly addressed during the
Symposium on The New Culture of Water held in Madrid
in 1998.
It is assumed that between 15% and 25% of the world
population has problems to access drinkable water, and
about one-third of the population does not own appropriate and safe sanitation systems. The Spanish Geological
Survey (IGME) is sensitive to this reality and deeply thank
UNESCO-IHP the possibility to contribute with the present
book to the dissemination of the basic knowledge on
groundwater. This is a hidden resource which supplies 50%
of the world population, and in addition covers 40% of the
total demand of water for industries and 20% of the water
required for agriculture.

JOS PEDRO CALVO SORANDO


Director General of IGME
(Spanish Geological Survey)

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he International Hydrological Programme (IHP) is an


evolving programme, ready to adapt to the needs of
an ever changing society. In order to respond promptly and
with appropriate actions, the programme is implemented in
six year phases, so as to identify new emerging problems,
alert decision makers, raise public awareness and provide
the necessary resources.
Today, integrated water resources management poses
not only scientific, but also technical, socio-economic, cultural and ethical challenges. IHP is a multidisciplinary programme at the forefront of research and development; and
to this end is a prominent agent in meeting the United
Nations Millennium Goals.
Since the seventies IHP has focused in particular on
hydrogeology and studies related to groundwater resources.
The intention of this monograph is to contribute to a
better understanding of the crucial role played by groundwater resources in the support of both ecosystems and
mankind.
A particular emphasis in this book is given to the
current challenges on groundwater issues such as the con-

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junctive use of surface water and groundwater, the artificial


recharge and the wellhead protection areas for groundwater catchments.
Because of the great importance of the contribution
made by this work to the groundwater knowledge dissemination, UNESCO-IHP has encouraged its translation
into English. This book represents a splendid example of
learning material and a valuable educational tool on
groundwater, illustrated through a relevant national case
study.
UNESCO-IHP is aware of the importance of providing
essential support to the publication of such monographs
and will continue to strengthen this kind of initiative.
We would like to express our deep thanks to all the authors whose valuable contributions appear here.

ANDRAS SZLLSI-NAGY
Division of Water Sciences
United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization

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he phrase may be well worn, but it is still true that the


past fifty years have witnessed spectacular changes both
in the fields of science and technology and in the political
and social structures of society. These changes have had a
great impact on the use made of underground water resources during this period, an impact which has had many positive aspects and some negative ones.

One of the most evident characteristics of present-day


society in Spain and in many other countries is that laws
are ineffectual if people, if all those comprising civil society,
do not understand and share their motivations and rules.
This non-observance, due to a lack of education and information, is particularly serious with respect to the use of
groundwater, a situation frequently found in Spain, as was
acknowledged in the White Paper on Water in Spain (Libro
Blanco del Agua en Espaa), published in 2000. To justify
the publication of this small book, perhaps it is appropriate
to remark that the progressively greater and more intensive
use of groundwater has occurred over a short period of time
(the last three or four decades) and has been carried out basically by hundreds of thousands of individual users, mostly
farmers of average economic means, and also by several
thousand small or median sized urban centres.
As is well known, crop irrigation makes up about 90% of
total water consumption in Spain. Available data clearly
shows that irrigation with groundwater is more profitable
and provides more jobs than does irrigation with surface
water. This is true even though the land area irrigated with
surface water is more than twice that irrigated with groundwater, and despite the fact that the annual volume of surface water used for irrigation is about four or five times greater than that of groundwater used for the same purpose.
These figures reveal the notably greater efficiency of irrigating with groundwater resources.
Groundwater exploitation financed and put into practice mainly by the users themselves, has been carried out
without the necessary control on the part of water autho-

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rities. These circumstances, together with the understandable lack of hydrogeological training of such small and
medium-scale farmers, has given rise in certain areas to
various problems, which are described in this book. These
problems are contributing to the birth of a certain awareness
that the management of groundwater cannot continue in
the same way. The Spanish Water Act of 1985 comprised an
attempt to rationalise the use of groundwater in Spain but,
as recognised in the White Paper on Water in Spain, the
improvements achieved so far have been insufficient.
The law creating a National Hydrologic Plan, which came
into effect in July 2001, also addressed this issue. Among
other goals, it advocated an intensive campaign of hydrologic education aimed at wide sectors of society. The present
publication is intended to contribute to this public awareness campaign.
A relevant aspect of the present book is that it has been
created as a result of cooperation between government,
represented by the Spanish Geological Survey (IGME), and
the private sector, in this case represented by the Marcelino
Botn Foundation. Preparation of the document was a joint
project carried out by staff of both institutions, who are acknowledged on other pages. We also acknowledge and are
grateful for the many hours dedicated by the former
Director General of the Spanish Geological Survey, who is a
renowned hydrogeologist, to reading and checking the
various drafts preceding the finished work.
For the staff of the Marcelino Botn Foundation it has
been a gratifying experience to collaborate with the experts
of the Spanish Geological Survey. What is most important,
however, is that we are convinced this book will be of great
help in achieving a better management of the hidden treasure beneath our feet, the groundwater of Spain.
M. RAMN LLAMAS
Director of the Groundwater Project
of the Marcelino Botn Foundation
7

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he phrase may be well worn, but it is still true that the


past fifty years have witnessed spectacular changes both
in the fields of science and technology and in the political
and social structures of society. These changes have had a
great impact on the use made of underground water resources during this period, an impact which has had many positive aspects and some negative ones.

One of the most evident characteristics of present-day


society in Spain and in many other countries is that laws
are ineffectual if people, if all those comprising civil society,
do not understand and share their motivations and rules.
This non-observance, due to a lack of education and information, is particularly serious with respect to the use of
groundwater, a situation frequently found in Spain, as was
acknowledged in the White Paper on Water in Spain (Libro
Blanco del Agua en Espaa), published in 2000. To justify
the publication of this small book, perhaps it is appropriate
to remark that the progressively greater and more intensive
use of groundwater has occurred over a short period of time
(the last three or four decades) and has been carried out basically by hundreds of thousands of individual users, mostly
farmers of average economic means, and also by several
thousand small or median sized urban centres.
As is well known, crop irrigation makes up about 90% of
total water consumption in Spain. Available data clearly
shows that irrigation with groundwater is more profitable
and provides more jobs than does irrigation with surface
water. This is true even though the land area irrigated with
surface water is more than twice that irrigated with groundwater, and despite the fact that the annual volume of surface water used for irrigation is about four or five times greater than that of groundwater used for the same purpose.
These figures reveal the notably greater efficiency of irrigating with groundwater resources.
Groundwater exploitation financed and put into practice mainly by the users themselves, has been carried out
without the necessary control on the part of water autho-

Search

rities. These circumstances, together with the understandable lack of hydrogeological training of such small and
medium-scale farmers, has given rise in certain areas to
various problems, which are described in this book. These
problems are contributing to the birth of a certain awareness
that the management of groundwater cannot continue in
the same way. The Spanish Water Act of 1985 comprised an
attempt to rationalise the use of groundwater in Spain but,
as recognised in the White Paper on Water in Spain, the
improvements achieved so far have been insufficient.
The law creating a National Hydrologic Plan, which came
into effect in July 2001, also addressed this issue. Among
other goals, it advocated an intensive campaign of hydrologic education aimed at wide sectors of society. The present
publication is intended to contribute to this public awareness campaign.
A relevant aspect of the present book is that it has been
created as a result of cooperation between government,
represented by the Spanish Geological Survey (IGME), and
the private sector, in this case represented by the Marcelino
Botn Foundation. Preparation of the document was a joint
project carried out by staff of both institutions, who are acknowledged on other pages. We also acknowledge and are
grateful for the many hours dedicated by the Director
General of the Spanish Geological Survey, who is a renowned hydrogeologist, to reading and checking the various
drafts preceding the finished work.
For the staff of the Marcelino Botn Foundation it has
been a gratifying experience to collaborate with the experts
of the Spanish Geological Survey. What is most important,
however, is that we are convinced this book will be of great
help in achieving a better management of the hidden treasure beneath our feet, the groundwater of Spain.
M. RAMN LLAMAS
Director of the Groundwater Project
of the Marcelino Botn Foundation
7

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Index
Page

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................
THE WATER CYCLE ...........................................................................................................................
WHAT IS GROUNDWATER? ..............................................................................................................
WHAT IS AN AQUIFER?.....................................................................................................................
NATURAL COMPOSITION OF GROUNDWATER .............................................................................
HOW IS GROUNDWATER EXTRACTED? .........................................................................................
CONJUNCTIVE USE OF SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER ...............................................
ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE ....................................................................................................................
WELLHEAD PROTECTION AREAS FOR GROUNDWATER CATCHMENTS...................................
GROUNDWATER USER COOPERATIVES..........................................................................................
ECONOMIC VALUE OF GROUNDWATER ........................................................................................
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF GROUNDWATER .........................................................................
DROUGHT...........................................................................................................................................
GROUNDWATER MONITORING NETWORKS .................................................................................
MAIN PROBLEMS AFFECTING GROUNDWATER............................................................................
Intensive use of groundwater ....................................................................................................
Contamination of aquifers ........................................................................................................
GROUNDWATER IN THE WORLD ...................................................................................................
Water and People .......................................................................................................................
The development of international water policies ....................................................................
Groundwater ..............................................................................................................................
GROUNDWATER IN SPAIN................................................................................................................
Aquifers and hydrogeological units...........................................................................................
Groundwater reserves and resources .........................................................................................
Public administration of water ..................................................................................................

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13
16
19
25
29
34
37
41
44
45
47
53
54
56
56
59
67
67
68
70
79
79
80
82

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Registry and Catalogue of water exploitations .........................................................................


Uses of groundwater ..................................................................................................................
THE FUTURE FOR GROUNDWATER.................................................................................................
THEMATIC CARDS .............................................................................................................................
RECOMMENDED READINGS ...................................................................................................................
INFORMATION OF INTEREST ..................................................................................................................

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85
90
95
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Introduction
N

umerous primitive civilizations were founded on sites


where groundwater was available. In fact, many placenames incorporate words such as bir in Arabic, well in English,
and pozo, fuente, hontanar, fontanar in Spanish.

Since prehistoric times, man has made use of the groundwater surging from natural springs. At first, this water was only
taken for drinking, but as
the centuries passed, it was
applied to other activities,
Numerous
such as agriculture and
primitive
industry, that were incorcivilizations
porated into daily life and
were founded
which required water. Thus
on sites
today in Spain, groundwawhere
ter is used to supply a third
of the population (some
groundwater
thirteen million people), as
was available
well as a significant proportion of the 60 million tourists who visit Spain each
year. One fact that demonstrates the importance of groundwater
in this country is that in 70% of urban centres, drinking water is
obtained from wells, boreholes or springs.

An annual volume of 5500-6500 Mm3 of water is extracted from


aquifers in Spain. Of this amount, an average of 4800 Mm3 is dedicated to crop irrigation, with the rest required for urban and industrial use. Of the 3.5 million hectares of land currently irrigated in
Spain, almost a third depend mainly on groundwater sources. The
value of the agricultural production of the 942,000 hectares irrigated with groundwater exceeds, in general, that of the 2,263,000
hectares irrigated with surface water.
For many, little or nothing is known about where groundwater comes from, which has given rise to myths and misunderstandings. Nevertheless, groundwater comprises an irreplaceable resource
for large areas of the planet, a resource that is essential for public
health and for economic progress. A good many people add to
the simple fact that the water is located below the surface of the
earth, a whole package of properties more suited to superstition:
it has been attributed with fabulous curative powers, for example. A halo of mystery surrounds everything concerning groundwater, to such an extreme that, even today, in order to find these
waters, people resort to the geomantic art of the water-diviner*.
This represents the darker side of the reality of hydrogeology,
which is a science and a technique based on straightforward principles of physics and chemistry, which can be evaluated in
mathematical and economic terms.

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Introduction
For centuries,
groundwater has been
used for economic
advantage

These scientific truths, together with


the development of drilling and extraction
techniques (the invention of the turbine
pump) laid the foundations for the extraordinary expansion of hydrogeology, especially since the mid-twentieth century.

normous conurbations such as Mexico City,


Lima, Dakar and Jakarta are supplied by
groundwater, as are countries like Denmark,
Holland, Hungary, Italy, Barbados, Malta and
Costa Rica, which depend almost entirely on
groundwater to meet their demands. In the USA,
half the water supplied for urban use is groundwater, while in France and Great Britain more
than a third is obtained from aquifers.

It is often the case that the concept of water is


related to the names of cities. Thus, the placename Madrid is derived from the Arab word mayrit,
which in turn seems to have come from the Latin
matrix aquae (waters mother), which was applied
to describe what now is known as viajes de agua
(water trips): galleries that drained and channelled groundwater to public fountains. Possibly,
without this wealth of underground water, Philip
II would not have transferred the capital of his
kingdom to Madrid (Spain).

WATER DIVINER: person said to have the


power to locate underground water by
using a wooden fork or pendulum, which
reveals the existence of effluvia supposed
to be caused by the flow of water beneath the earth. However, there is no scientific evidence to support this notion.
Ancient means of extracting water by means of an animal-powered water-wheel

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The water cycle


W

ater cycle refers to the constant movement of water, on the


Earths surface, above it and below it. Understanding this
cycle is fundamental for the correct use and management of water
resources.

zone* (groundwater runoff*). When the intensity of the precipitation exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil, surface runoff
occurs. This, in conjunction with subsurface runoff comprises total
runoff*, which then flows to the rivers and finally into lakes or
into the sea.

Water in the oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and reservoirs evaporates, and at a greater rate as the temperature rises and the air becomes drier. Vegetation also contributes to evaporation, by the
mechanism of transpiration. Water vapour rises into the atmosphere and charges the air with humidity. When the water vapour
cools it condenses into minute particles that form clouds and
mist. The water returns to the Earths surface and to the oceans
as precipitation (rain, snow, hail, dew or frost). Not all the precipitation reaches the Earths surface, as part of it evaporates
during its descent and part is intercepted by plants or by the surfaces of buildings, roads, etc., and is soon returned to the atmosphere as water vapour.
Of the liquid water that reaches the ground, part is retained in
puddles or small undulations. Most of this returns directly to the
atmosphere. Another part flows over the surface (direct surface
runoff* and subsurface runoff or inflow*) and is concentrated into
rivulets which then come together to form streams that later flow
into rivers. At the same time, part of the precipitation infiltrates
into the ground, depending on the soil type and humidity and on
the intensity and duration of the precipitation. The infiltrated*
water first soaks into the soil and then slowly percolates* through
the unsaturated* zone, producing the recharge* of the saturated

Zone avouring evaporation.


Laguna de Caada del Hoyo,
province of Cuenca (Spain)

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The water cycle

The different phases of the water cycle: evaporation of sea water, its transport in clouds, precipitation (as rain or snow), runoff into streams and
rivers, recharge of aquifers, evapotranspiration, outlet to the sea and the cycle begins again

P ERCOLATION : the movement of water


or other liquids through the interstices
of the soil. Usually applied to the vertical flow through an unsaturated
medium.

and flows through the upper part of the


soil without reaching the saturated
zone, subsequently reappearing on the
surface and rejoining the direct surface
runoff.

GROUNDWATER RUNOFF: the part of the


infiltrated water that recharges the saturated zone and flows through aquifers.

RECHARGE: The part of the infiltrated


water that reaches the saturated zone.

INFILTRATION: the quantity of precipitated


water that penetrates the land surface and
occupies, partially or totally, the pores, fissures and gaps in the soil.

SATURATED ZONE: The layer of the land


beneath a certain depth where water
totally occupies the gaps between the
solid particles.

TOTAL RUNOFF: the fraction of the precipitation that falls into a water basin, escapes
evapotranspiration and flows both on and
under the surface.

Mm3: equivalent to a million cubic metres or


to a thousand million litres.

S UBSURFACE RUNOFF OR INFLOW: the


part of the precipitation that infiltrates

DIRECT SURFACE RUNOFF: the part derived from the rain water that flows over the
land surface into streams, rivers and other
bodies of water.

14

UNSATURATED ZONE: The land lying between the land surface and the saturated
zone. In this sector the pores are occupied
by air and water.

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How the water cycle is affected by mans actions: atmospheric pollution, contamination of rivers and reduction in the volume of water they carry,
falling piezometric levels and entry of sea water into aquifers (red arrow)

ESTIMATE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF WATER IN THE HIDROSPHERE1


Volume (Mm3 x 106)
Oceans and seas.......... 1 338 000
Glaciers and polar
icecaps.........................
24 064
Fresh groundwater......
10 530
Freshwater lakes..........
91.0
Saltwater lakes ............
85.4
Rivers...........................
2.12
Biomass .......................
1.12
Atmosphere.................
12.9
1

% of the total water


on the planet
97.5
1.74
0.76
0.007
0.006
0.0002
0.0001
0.001

% of total
fresh water

68.7
30.1
0.26

0.006
0.003
0.04

Average
residence time
2500 years
9700 years
tens of thousands of years
17 years
150 years
15-20 days
a few hours
8-10 days

Shiklomanov, I. A. (1997). Comprehensive assessment of the freshwater resources of the World. World Meteorological Organization

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What is groundwater?
G

roundwater comprises all the water below the land surface, and specifically, the water lying beneath the phreatic
level*, completely filling all the pores and fissures in the ground.
This water flows naturally out to the surface through springs,
seepage areas and water courses, or directly into the sea. It can
also be channelled, artificially, into wells, galleries or other types
of catchments. Thanks to natural recharge, groundwater is
constantly renewed. This recharge is mainly derived from pre-

cipitation, but it can also be caused by surface runoff or come


from surface water courses (particularly in arid climates), from
nearby aquifers or from use-returns (notably the irrigation
returns).
Groundwater passes through aquifers very slowly. Its normal
velocity ranges from less than a metre to a few hundred metres
per year; only in the case of karstic aquifers* and severely frac-

PHREATIC LEVEL: the upper boundary of


the saturated zone in an unconfined aquifer. It is the geometric location of the
points of an unconfined aquifer that are at
atmospheric pressure. Its height within
the unconfined aquifer is determined by
the altitude of the undisturbed water in a
shallow well.
Recharge and discharge areas, flow lines and the residence time of water in an aquifer
from when it reaches the saturated zone until it emerges at the surface. This time varies
according to the route taken (the times shown are merely indicative)

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tured rocks may preferential conduits exist,


through which the water can travel at speeds
similar to those of surface currents. Thus, a
drop of water that falls onto a watershed located 200 km from the coast and that is incorporated into a river current would take a few
days to enter the sea. If the same drop, however, travelled underground (through a detritic
aquifer), it would take hundreds or even thousands of years to reach the sea.
This slow movement by water through
the unsaturated and saturated zones helps us
manage, exploit and protect groundwater.
In the latter case, it
means we can act
Groundwater moves
before a contaminavery slowly through
ting agent has time to
detritic aquifers;
spread through the
its average speed can
whole aquifer.

range from a few metres


to several hundred
metres per year.
In karstic aquifers,
it can travel at speeds
similar to those found
in surface currents

A significant proportion of what we


call surface water originates from groundwater. Groundwater is
derived from recharge
and, after passing
through the aquifers,
it may flow into rivers or out to the land surface through seepage areas, springs and areas
of diffuse discharge.

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KARST: morphological term derived from


a region of Slovenia, where the occurrence was first identified. It refers to landscapes, environments and processes that develop via a complex series of physical and
chemical phenomena in which an essential feature is the dissolution of rock by
water. Such phenomena are frequent in
various types of rocks, including gypsum,
limestone, dolomites, detritic rocks consolidated with clasts*, or soluble cement.
However, carbonate rocks provide the reference model, because of the complexity
of the process and the wide range of
forms created. These rocks, therefore,
best define a karstic landscape. When
karstification occurs there is continual interaction between surface water and
groundwater. The process develops
through selective action on the weakness
planes of the rock, on fractures and on
stratification surfaces. Thus a group of
exokarstic and endokarstic forms are
created, notable among which are sinkholes and caves, thus determining the flow
of water underground.
CLAST: rock fragment, of mineral or fossil
origin. May be loose or embedded within
a rock. These fragments are classified by
size, from larger to smaller, as follows:
blocks, pebbles, sand, silt and clay.

Natural outlet of groundwater in a karstic terrain

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What is groundwater?
Unsaturated zone: here, the pores
contain air and water. The water
is subject to capillary tension that
holds it against the ground and
which makes its effective pressure
less than atmospheric pressure.

Aquifer zones

The zone comprises three sectors:


a) The soil subzone (or edaphic
layer), from the ground surface to
the depth of plant roots. This layer is
criss-crossed by roots, by the spaces
left by roots that have disappeared
and by trails and tunnels opened by
animals (fast ones like mice and
moles, or slow ones like earthworms). Here, the soil humidity
varies greatly, depending on the seasonal changes that affect vegetation.
b) The intermediate subzone,
which varies in thickness considerably from one aquifer to another
(from just a few centimetres to tens
of metres) or which may not exist
at all. In this subzone, there is
hardly any seasonal variation in
soil humidity.
c) The capillary strip, characterised
by the existence of water-filled pores,
channels and fissures that are maintained above the phreatic level by
capillary tension. The finer the particles and fissures, the greater is the
height of this subzone.
Saturated zone: here, the pores are completely
water-filled; the water pressure exceeds that of

18

the atmosphere and increases hydrostatically


with greater depth. The water in this zone moves
naturally towards springs, rivers, lakes or the

sea, and can be channelled artificially towards


underground extraction sites, by means such as
pumping, draining and galleries.

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What is an aquifer?
A

n aquifer is a geological formation capable of storing and


transmitting water in significant quantities, such that the
water can be extracted by catchment systems. Its dimensions can
vary greatly, from a few hectares* in surface area to thousands of
square kilometres, while the depth can range from several metres
to hundreds or thousands of metres.

When these formations transmit water very slowly, and the


water is difficult to extract in any significant quantity by mechanical means, they are called aquitards. Nevertheless, the latter are capable of interchanging considerable
volumes of water with aquifers
that are in horizontal contact,
The term aquifer
as the interchange surface is
very large.
is used to describe

a geological formation
that is capable of
storing and
transmitting
groundwater in
significant quantities,
such that it can
be extracted by
catchment
works

We use the term aquiclude


to describe a geological formation that contains water
but does not transmit it, and
therefore from which it cannot be extracted. When the
aquifer contains no water at
all, it is called an aquifuge. In
practice, there do not exist
any geological formations
that can, strictly spea-king, be
termed aquifuges.

quifers can be classified as follows:

A) Depending on the hydrostatic pressure* of the water they contain:


Free, unconfined or phreatic aquifer: defined as an
aquifer in which the top of the water mass forms a real surface that is in contact with the air of the unsaturated zone and,
therefore, is at atmospheric pressure. When a well is drilled
down from the land surface, water appears in it when the phreatic level is penetrated or reached (from the Greek phreatos =
well) and remains at this depth. Recharge of this type of aquifer is mainly achieved by precipitation through the soil or by
the infiltration of water from rivers and lakes.
Confined or artesian aquifer: at the upper limit or roof*
of this aquifer, the water pressure is higher than that of the
atmosphere. This is typical when permeable materials are covered by a confining layer that is much less permeable (e.g. a
sandy layer lying beneath a layer of clay). If a well is drilled into
an aquifer of this type, when it penetrates the roof the water
level quickly rises until it stabilizes at a certain level. Water surges from the well when the piezometric level* is above the
height of the well mouth. This phenomenon used to be called
artesianism, but nowadays this term tends to be no longer used.

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What is an aquifer?

The recharge of a confined aquifer is mainly


caused by rainfall infiltrating directly through
the zone where the aquifer formation crops out,
that is, where it behaves
as an unconfined aquifer.
Alternatively, it may
occur where the aquifer
is semi-confined and
where conditions are
favourable.
Semi-confined aquifer:
this may be considered a special
case of confined aquifer, in which
the floor*, the roof, or both, are not
totally impermeable, but allow the
vertical movement of water. This vertical passage of water can occur towards or
away from the aquitard, and may even vary in time, depending on the relative values of the piezometric levels.
B) Depending on the type of materials making up the aquifer
Unconsolidated deposits of loose materials: these
geological formations are formed by the accumulation of
particles that are transported by gravity, wind or ice; in lakeside or marine settings. They are usually comprised of sands
and gravels of varying geological origin: fluvial deposits are
made up of the alluvial materials of rivers and their terraces;

20

Types of aquifers depending on their behaviour

deltaic deposits accumulate at river mouths. In general, such


deposits are recent, in geological terms. They are often very
suitable for exploitation and considerable volumes of water
can be extracted, given the appropriate means. Such is the
case of the Tertiary detritic aquifer that supplies Madrid and
of the marshland of the Almonte-Marisma aquifer (in the
provinces of Huelva and Sevilla), the site of the Doana
National Park (Spain).

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Consolidated sedimentary rocks: these are sediments


that have become consolidated by compaction or diagenesis
processes. They are classified, according to their origin) as
detritic (conglomerates, sandstones, clays), chemical (limestones, dolostones, marls) and organic (carbons and natural
hydrocarbons). The most important of these are the limestones and dolostones. They vary considerably in density,
porosity and permeability, depending on the sedimentation
environment surrounding their formation and the subsequent development of permeable zones caused by the dissolution of carbonate materials, especially in the case of limes-

Detritic aquifer

Fissured aquifer

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tone rocks. We must remember that if these rocks are not


karstified, then they are relatively impermeable. In Spain,
there are many aquifers of this type, some of the best known
being the aquifers of Campo de Montiel (the site of the lakes
known as Lagunas de Ruidera), those of the western part of
La Mancha (including the Tablas de Daimiel wetlands) and
the carbonate aquifer of Sierra de Cazorla. In fact, most of
the aquifers in the Mediterranean area of the peninsula, as
well as those of the Balearic Islands, are of this type, made up
of karstified limestones and dolostones. Sandstones (consolidated sands) and calcarenites (sandstones comprising car-

Karstic aquifer

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What is an aquifer?

bonate grains) also constitute important aquifers, for example the calcarenites that outcrop near Carmona (province of
Sevilla, Spain) or the Cretaceous sandstones known as facies
Utrillas. Consolidated sedimentary rocks contain abut 75% of
all the groundwater in peninsular Spain.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks: igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and consolidation of magma. They can be
extrusive (volcanic) or intrusive (plutonic), depending on
whether they consolidate on the surface or within the Earths
crust, respectively (eg granites, gabbros, etc).
Metamorphic rocks are those that have undergone profound physical and chemical transformations, giving rise to

changes in the structure of the rock itself, thus adjusting to


new pressure and temperature conditions and possible chemical inputs (eg slates, schists, etc). The possibilities of an aquifer
forming among such rocks are limited to the altered surface
zone or to areas fractured by faults and diaclases*, which enable an appreciable degree of water circulation. This type of
aquifer is common in the NE of the Iberian peninsula and in
Sistema Central. It comprises an important source of water for
small villages and for rural demand.
It is hard to define the hydrogeologic behaviour of volcanic rocks, as they may or may not constitute aquifers. Their
behaviour pattern is between that of porous consolidated and
fractured rocks. The levels of scoria, pyroclasts and retraction
fissures play a significant role. The
main factors influencing the flow of
groundwater are
the composition,
the age and, above
all, the degree of
alteration. These
aquifers are found
in practically all
the Canary Islands.

Types of aquifers
determined by the
hydrostatic pressure
of the water they
contain

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In the presence of lenticles, or discontinuous low-permeability layers in the unsaturated zone, perched aquifers may sometimes form. These layers retain part of the recharge for a certain
period, and produce relatively widespread saturated zones that

DARCYS LAW: expresses the proportionality


between the specific flow volume (q) of a
liquid travelling through a porous medium and
the hydraulic gradient (i)* q = k i It is only
valid when the flow is laminar.The speume (q)
is the flow per section unit of the medium.
The coefficient of proportionality k is called
the permeability or hydraulic conductivity.
DIACLASE: a fracture in a rock with no
relative displacement of any of its faces.
HECTARE: unit of surface area used in agronomy and equivalent to 10,000 m2.
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT: the variation in the
piezometric level per unit of movement in
the groundwater flow direction.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE: the pressure
exerted by an undisturbed column of water.
PERMEABILITY: also termed hydraulic conductivity.This is a measure of the ease with
which an aquifer transmits water. The magnitudes that determine permeability may be

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lie over the regional saturated zone. The groundwater in these


hanging aquifers both discharges towards the underlying regional saturated zone and gives rise to small springs or to bogs.
The movement of groundwater within geological formations
is governed by two relatively simple physical laws: Darcys Law*
and the Law of Conservation of Mass. The following three magnitudes are especially relevant in the corresponding equations:
the permeability* or hydraulic conductivity, the porosity* and
the storage coefficient*.

intrinsic or extrinsic. The former are those


relating to the aquifer itself and depend on
the size of the pores (all else being equal,
the larger the particle size, the greater the
permeability of a medium). Extrinsic magnitudes depend on the fluid, particularly its
viscosity and specific weight. The values of
both these are temperature dependent.
Permeability may be primary or secondary,
according to whe-ther it is produced at the
moment when the solid medium is formed
or afterwards, caused by fractures, by meteorisation of the rock or of the soil, or by
dissolution of the rocks. The transmissivity is calculated as the product of the
horizontal permeability and the saturated
thickness of the aquifer.

PIEZOMETRIC LEVEL: the height of the column


of water necessary to produce a pressure
equal to that of the aquifer at a certain point,
calculated for a given altitude. It represents
the energy per unit of weight of water.
POROSITY: the storage capacity of an
aquifer is determined by its porosity. This
is defined as the ratio between the volume of spaces (occupied by air and water)
and the total volume of the rock. Primary
porosity is created during the formation
of the rock, while secondary porosity
occurs after the rocks formation, due to
fracturing, meteorisation, dissolution openings or crevices provoked by plant or
animal action. Primary porosity is influen-

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What is an aquifer?

ced by the shape, degree of selection and


concentration of the clasts, while secondary
porosity depends on the distribution and
number of fractures opened and on the
degree of alteration. Drainable porosity (also
known as efficient porosity) only takes into
account the quantity of water that a rock or
saturated soil liberates due to the effects of
gravity.The difference between total and drainable porosity is the specific retention of

water, which in agronomy is termed the field


capacity.
ROOF AND FLOOR: In a geological formation,
the terms roof and floor, refer to the top and
bottom, respectively, of a stratigraphic series,
layer or seam.
STORAGE COEFFICIENT: water that can be
released by the vertical prism of an aquifer with

a cross section equal to that of the unit and


with a height equivalent to the saturated thickness of the unit, when a unit fall in the piezometric level occurs. This value is unidimensional. In unconfined aquifers, its value coincides
with that of the drainable porosity. In confined
aquifers, the value is related to the compressibility of the water and of the aquiferous
medium, a value that usually ranges between
10-5 and 10-3.

Left, panoramic view of the outlet of the Almonte-Marismas aquifer (Spain), in the vicinity of Asperillo (Mazagn-Matalascaas), showing the drainage
front that extends along the cliff face. Right, enlargement of the circled area, where the drainage front is clearly reflected in the profusion of ferns

24

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Natural composition of
groundwater
W

ater is a universal solvent, capable of dissolving a great


many substances contained in the ground through which
it flows. Groundwater has more opportunities to dissolve materials than does surface water, due to its prolonged contact with
the geological formations that is passing through, to the presence of carbon dioxide and oxygen dissolved in the water and to
the slow velocity at which it moves. For these reasons, groundwater normally presents a greater ion concentration than does
surface runoff of the same origin (Card 1).

The natural chemical composition of groundwater results


from the following processes: a) the evaporation and concentration of atmospheric salts, incorporated in the form of a marine
aerosol*, or as dust and salts dissolved in rainwater; b) the interaction of water with minerals in the soil, whether by hydrolysis
or by a state change via oxidation-reduction; c) the incorporation
of residual saline waters (relicts), as yet unwashed.
The natural composition of groundwater can be affected by
natural causes or by anthropogenic factors*. The former causes
include the climate, the temperature, the type of terrain

through which the groundwater flows, its residence time within the aquifer and the supply of reactive gases, mainly CO2
and O2.
With respect to anthropogenic factors, human activity can
affect the chemical composition of the infiltrating water and
the recharge, (sometimes intensely so), by modifying its temperature, introducing solutes (salts, nitrates, etc.) and various
substances (such as hydrocarbons, pesticides and halogenised
solvents) into the land and the water. Their presence may lead
to a significant degradation of the natural characteristics of
the water.
Moreover, the environment can be modified by other factors, such as chemical precipitation, ion interchange (mainly of
cations) and reduction-oxidation reactions. These processes
may be intense when one body of water is displaced by another
with a different chemical composition (good examples of this
are found in coastal aquifers, in the mixing zone between fresh,
inland water and salt seawater) or when the ground contains
organic matter.

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Natural composition of
g ro u n d w a t e r

An example of the evolution of the natural composition of groundwater within an aquifer: the recharge water containing CO2 of edaphic origin (from the
soil), dissolves the carbonate rock, which hardens the water and transforms it into a calcium bicarbonate type. In this initial stage, the water still
contains sufficient oxygen dissolved to be able to oxidize both the organic matter in the medium and the metals in a reduced state, such as Fe (II),
that it encounters. Most of the water discharges through the main spring and a minor proportion through the confined area, via the semi-confining roof.
In the case illustrated, there is not sufficient potential for submarine discharge to occur, and a large part of the confined aquifer contains almost
immobile salt water. Further inland, this gives way to fresh water, via a large intermediate mixing area where the degree of salinity is variable. In the
area marked as A, all the available oxygen may have been consumed and the presence of organic matter may cause the reduction of sulphates and the
subsequent appearance of sulphides (SH - and SH2 ) and/or the reduction of the Fe (III) in the medium to the soluble ion Fe ++, with sometimes very
complicated structures; there could also be an increase in alkalinity and the possible precipitation of metallic sulphides. If the land previously contained
salt water, there would be a cationic exchange which would decrease the hardness of the water and make it evolve towards a sodium bicarbonate type.
In the sector marked B, there is a mixing of fresh and salt water, presumably of a reductive nature, and cationic exchanges that depend on whether
the salinity is increasing (water hardening and precipitation of carbonates)or decreasing (water softening, increase in Na+ and the possible dissolution of
carbonates). In sector C, the composition of the water is close to that of the sea water, although it is only renewed very slowly (and thus is old) and is
presumably of a reductive nature (absence of SO4=, presence of SH- and SH2 , and perhaps that of CH4 , Fe++ and, sometimes, NH4+).

AEROSOL: suspension of very fine, solid or liquid particles in a gas, normally air.
ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS: processes, actions, materials and forms resulting from human activity. In this sense, man is considered a geological agent like
any other, with the capability to provoke phenomena that change the configuration of the geosphere. All resource-extraction activities, their commercialisation and use, civil engineering projects and agricultural activities are considered actions parallel to those of erosion, transport and sedimentation.They
are all capable of transforming the landscape and its geological components.
EVAPORITIC MATERIALS: sedimentary rocks formed by the evaporation of water and, therefore, with components that are easily soluble. The main evaporitic rocks are gypsum, anhydrite and common salt or halite.

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Example of a
map based on
an anthropogenic
contamination
study: nitrate
contents in an
area to the south
of Madrid (Spain),
represented by
isolines. The inset
map shows the
same situation but
with colour zones,
so that the areas
of highest nitrate
content are shown
in deep red.

Human activity can affect the chemical composition of the


water that recharges the aquifers, sometimes intensely or to a
considerable degree, modifying the temperature and introdu-

cing solutes that may lead to a degradation of the natural characteristics of the groundwater and of the land.

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Natural composition of
g ro u n d w a t e r

he groundwater in carbonate aquifers is mainly of magnesium and


calcium bicarbonate type. It is mineralised to a slight or moderate degree, with an electrical conductivity of 700 S/cm and concentrations of principal ions that rarely exceed those permissible for the
water to be fit for human consumption. In Spain, this type of water is
mainly found in aquifers in the Norte basin, in the northern part of
the Duero valley and on the borders of Sierra del Guadarrama, in the
Tajo basin. It is also present in some aquifers in the Alto Guadiana,
Guadalquivir, Sur, Jcar and
Ebro basins and in the inland
basins of Catalua.
Human activity can

affect the chemical


composition of the
groundwater, modifying
the temperature and,
what is more important,
introducing substances
both in the water and
in the land that may
lead to a degradation
of the natural
characteristics

Detritic aquifers are characterised by a low level of


mineralisation and by the variability of the chemical composition of their waters. They may
contain both calcium and magnesium bicarbonate facies and
those of calcium and sodium
sulphates and chlorides.
Examples of these in Spain
include the detritic basins of
the Duero and the Tajo, the littoral plains of the Levante
region and the alluvial aquifers of the Guadiana and the Guadalquivir
basins. The chemical quality is usually acceptable for all uses, although it
may sometimes present macroconstituent contents that exceed permissible limits for drinking water.
The composition of the groundwater in the Canary Island archipelago varies widely. In coastal areas, the water is highly mineralised,

28

with a predominance of chloride and sodium, largely due to the aridity of the climate. In the central parts of the high-altitude islands
(they can reach great heights), salinity is low. Emissions of carbon dioxide of volcanic origin sometimes give rise to the occurrence of water
that either has low pH or is highly mineralised, of sodium or magnesium bicarbonate type.
The existence of evaporitic materials* in the land is associated
with a high content of sulphates, chlorides and sodium in the water.
These circumstances occur quite frequently in some parts of Spain,
although they tend to be very localised.

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How is groundwater extracted?


M

any towns and cities were founded where springs surged


from the ground or on alluvial plains where wells could
easily be dug. The appearance of the steam engine and the development of pumps capable of raising water from great depths,
together with technical advances in drilling machinery and technology, enabled the drilling of numerous boreholes and wells during
the nineteenth century and even more so in the twentieth.

wells have been excavated, with or without deep galleries and


lateral drains to favour the acquisition of groundwater.

The oldest ways of using groundwater were to take it directly


from springs or fountains, or to carry out pick-and-shovel work by
digging wells and constructing horizontal galleries. In general,
wells had a circular cross-section, with a diameter of one to two
metres, and were only a few metres deep. The equipment consisted
of a pulley or an animal-powered system (for example, the water
wheels to be found all over the flatlands of La Mancha, in Spain)
or a wind-powered mechanism (such as the windmills around the
city of Palma de Mallorca). Today, these manual means of creating
wells have been replaced by modern drilling machinery.
The ancient civilisations of the East constructed systems of
galleries to channel water to where it was needed; a similar system supplied Madrid from the times of the muslims until the
mid nineteenth century, while Barcelona, too, had an extensive, and very old, network of galleries. Similar arrangements
have existed in many parts of eastern Spain and in
the Balearic Islands. In the Canary Islands archipelago it is very
common to make use of groundwater by means of long, deep
galleries that drain volcanic formations. In many other areas,

Drilling a well using the rotation system with


recirculation of mud and slurry

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How is groundwater
extracted?

odern wells require sophisticated technology with appropriate technical design, together with detailed knowledge
of the aquifer. Nevertheless, the importance of high quality well
design and construction is frequently underestimated. The lifetime of a well and the efficiency of its functioning depend
directly on the quality of the materials employed and on that of
the technology utilised. Some of the problems ascribed to
groundwater supply sources are, in fact, often due to defective
construction and/or maintenance of the well, and not to the
aquifer. Nowdays, highly advanced technology is available and
drilling a well has become a civil engineering project that requires good design, management, maintenance and observation.
The drilling methods most often used today are percussion,
rotation and roto-percussion.
Percussion drilling consists of repeatedly striking the rock
with a trepan* until the rock is pulverised. It can then be raised
to the surface surface by means of a tool called bailer and
extracted. This system has been used to drill wells in all sorts of
geological materials, although, depending on the type of rock,
drilling may be more or less difficult. This method is particularly
suitable for drilling into consolidated aquifers (marbles, limestones, dolostones and cemented sandstones, among others).
However, many wells in unconsolidated formations made up of
gravels have also been constructed by this system; drilling results
largely depend on the experience of the drill operator.

A hydrogeological borehole
and its components

30

Rotation drilling consists of breaking up the rock by


means of a cutting bit normally fitted with a giratory head that
breaks through the rock. The rock fragments are extracted by
pressure with water or mud. Two methods may be employed:

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Main drilling
methods and
technology

direct or inverse circulation of the fluid. Rotation drilling is


widely used to create wells in unconsolidated ground, such as
arkose, sandstone, silt and gravel.
For hard terrain such as quartzite, granite and slate, the
mixed method of roto-percussion, using a rotating percussor
head, is employed. The detritus* is extracted by injecting com-

pressed air into the shaft. The simplicity, speed of execution


and economy of this method (sometimes to the detriment of
construction quality and design) mean it is often used for other
types of geological materials, too. This technique only allows
operators to obtain an approximate description of the lithological column that is being drilled into. Currently, the system is
combined with that of rotation.

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How is groundwater
extracted?
Water extraction boreholes in Spain normally have a diameter of 300-500 mm and a depth of up to 300 m, although
with current technology, 1000 m or more may be reached.
Filters are used when water must be passed through boreholes
sited over detritic aquifers. These filters can be of various
designs and materials (normally they are made of metal or
PVC), and the filter mesh is sized depending on the granulometry of the detritic materials through which the borehole
must pass. The ring between the walls of the borehole and the
main shaft is filled with siliceous gravel calibrated, among
other functions, to prevent the passage of small-grained particles into the borehole.
Before the well is finished, it must be cleaned and stimulated. This is done by mechanical means (pistons or compressed
air) or with chemical methods (dry ice, polyphosphates, acids
or ice) or by both. These techniques are used to clean off any
residues that may have remained within the drill tube, such as
the silt within the mass of gravel, and to increase the efficiency
of the well by removing the silt from the first twenty or thirty
centimetres of the geological formation penetrated by the drill.
When constructing a well, it is very important that a
Works Manager should be present to ensure the
work planned and contracted
is
correctly
carried out.
The correct
design of an
Developing a borehole with dry
extraction
ice or solid carbonic anhydrid
system (well,

32

borehole, etc.) is a fundamental question in


determining its duration, or useful life, and
water output, without raising unwanted particles from the geological formation. An optimum design maximises output and minimises running costs. The project plan for a
borehole should include the following:
selecting the drilling method; determining
the estimated depth to be reached, according to the prior hydrogeological survey;
deciding upon the diameter of the drill
and the main shaft; locating which sections of tubing need to be equipped with
filter slots and meshes and which will be
blind-tubed (with no slots); identifying
the zones or sections that must be isolated, due to the presence of poor-quality water or of materials with a high
percentage of fine sands and
clayey silts suspended in the
water, etc. The project should
also include measures to protect the well, such as the
tipping (the cemented reinforcement) and sealing of
the first few metres
and closures, where
necessary to prevent
the undesirable mixing of water.
When the well does not achieve the desired
objectives and the decision is made to abandon it, it must be
sealed (with cement or other products) to avoid the possible
contamination of the aquifer and to prevent accidents.

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Portable pumping equipment used to


determine the optimum water flow
extractable from a well (Ondara, province
of Alicante, Spain)

DETRITUS OR DEBRIS: the remains of a


solid mass after it has disintegrated into
particles due to the action of the cutting
element of drilling machinery.
TREPAN: cutting instrument used in percussion. It consists of an extremely heavy
component with cutting edges, that carries
out the task of breaking, disintegrating and
crushing the rock.

Operator of well drilling machinery

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Conjunctive use of surface water


and groundwater
I

n many cases, the exclusive use either of surface water or of


groundwater does not meet the objective of fully satisfying the
demands created by different uses, especially for urban areas, for
crop irrigation and for industry. Nor does it always sufficiently respect the water-related environments.
A conjunctive use system can contribute to improving or to
fully satisfying a particular demand situation for water, through
the coordinated use of surface and groundwater resources.
Such a system makes use of the complementary hydrologic features of surface reservoirs and of aquifers. The former are large
enough to retain the volume of runoff that may be caused in extreme, short-term meteorological situations, while aquifers provide
long-term storage of a volume of water that can be tens or even
hundreds of times greater than that of the average recharge.
The proportions in which the waters from one or the other source are combined vary depending on the current state of the annual
water cycle, on the reserves available in the surface storage system
and in the aquifers, and on the quality of the water stored in each.
By these means, it is normally possible to make use of a greater
quantity of surface water, as the exploitation of reservoirs enjoys

34

greater guarantee when extraction from aquifers is incorporated


into the supply system. The extra element provides a higher degree
of overall security.
In conjunctive use, groundwater is used when and where
recommended by water management strategies, but the basic principle is to use surface supplies in wet years and groundwater sources in dry years.
In some conjunctive use schemes, the complementarity
sought involves not just obtaining a greater quantity of water
or of improving the reliability of supply, but also of obtaining
better water quality by mixing the two sources of water, surface and underground. This is done either at source, by means of
artificial recharge, or during delivery, using deposits and
canals.
The schemes set up in Spain correspond more to local expediency than to prior planning. These programmes have been
mainly promoted and established by the private initiative of users,
both at the individual level and at that of communities and organisations. Nevertheless, government bodies have subsequently
collaborated with actions to improve the more or less spontaneous
original systems.

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A system of conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater, comprising a surface reservoir and two aquifers, one of which is located upstream
from the surface reservoir. The diagram also shows the different areas of water demand (urban, industrial and irrigation). Depending on the
availability of water in the reservoir, a certain level of demand is met either from surface reserves, or jointly with groundwater, or exclusively
by the latter. This system can be complemented with artificial recharge operations so that river water may be stored in the aquifer

he most significant programmes carried out in the field


of conjunctive use have probably been those involving
Madrid and Barcelona, in Spain. Water supplies for the city of
Madrid and for most of its region are based on fifteen reservoirs that store and regulate the surface water derived from
Sierra de Guadarrama and Sierra de Somosierra, in conjunction with about 120 wells. Annual demand for water is

approximately 600 Mm3. The strategy employed to satisfy


this demand is based on extracting water from the aquifer
during dry years, to complement that stored in the reservoirs. During years when rainfall is normal or abundant, surface resources are used almost exclusively. In such periods,
then, water levels within the Tertiary detritic aquifer of
Madrid are allowed to recover.

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Conjunctive use of surface water


a n d g ro u n d w a t e r
The system that is most widely used in Spain, and which
has been most extensively developed, is that of Llobregat
(province of Barcelona). This system has evolved through
various stages since the early twentieth century when water
supply to Barcelona and nearby towns was improved by the
incorporation of groundwater sources. The successive construction of the reservoirs of Sant Pon and La Baells on the
river Llobregat, the scarifying of the river bed, the extension
to Barcelona of the Ter transfer, the construction of the
Abrera-Martorell radial wells and the artificial recharge of
the connection zone between Valle Bajo and the Delta, all
have varied the relative importance of surface water and
groundwater in this conjunctive use scheme. A more recent
initiative is the addition of the management of the aquifer
beneath the river Bess.
Barcelonas water supply system, which has historically
prevented the need for water restrictions, is an example of
how the integration of surface water and groundwater is not
a utopia but a reality that has been tried and tested. On the
other hand, some cities that normally rely exclusively on
surface water supplies to meet demand have suffered restrictions during periods of drought.
Other activities to integrate surface water and groundwater into an overall management system have been developed
in areas like the Guadalentn valley, the Sagunto plain, the
river Palancia, Marina Baja and the Adra delta, among
others. The best known scheme, with an extensive bibliography, is the exploitation system established for the aquifer
on the Castelln plain and the rivers and reservoirs with
which it is related.

36

Main diagram: Conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater in the


system supplying Madrid managed by the Canal de Isabel II company (Spain)
Smaller inset: Extraction well site. Larger inset: El Atazar reservoir (Spain)

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Artificial recharge
T

his technique, as part of a programmed intervention, enables


water to be introduced into an aquifer, either directly or induced. By these means, the volume of water available is increased, as
is the reliability of supply and the guarantee of water quality.
Artificial recharge is used, when it is technically and economically justified, to achieve a more rational management of water
resources within a particular river basin or exploitation system.

Artificial recharge
is defined as a body
of techniques that
via a programmed
intervention enable
water to be
introduced directly
or induced into
an aquifer,
thus increasing
the reliability and
availability of water
resources and
guaranteeing water
quality standards

From the operational viewpoint, the technique presents a


certain degree of complexity,
especially compared with the
simplicity of the technology that
has been applied to date in project planning and hydrogeological applications. The programming of interventions based on
artificial recharge should be limited, fundamentally, to the following areas: where water resources are relatively unregulated
and where demand is high; areas
of well developed and highly
productive agricultural activity;
areas where the profitability of
water is high; areas (especially

coastal areas) where it is not possible to construct conventional


regulation structures because of topographic difficulties.
The most frequently used applications of artificial recharge
are:

Underground storage of unregulated surface runoff.


Reduction or elimination of falls in piezometric levels.
Support for conjunctive water-use plans.

Operation to scarify the bed of the river Llobregat (province of Barcelona,


Spain) to enable the river flow to recharge the aquifer

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Artificial recharge

Artificial recharge of an aquifer using two different systems: the first favours the infiltration of river water by the construction
of dikes on the river bed to slow the river flow. The second system uses decantation and infiltration ponds constructed on the left
bank of the river

38

Maintenance of water resources in


areas of special ecological and environmental importance.
Reduction of transport, storage and
pumping costs.
Corrective action against problems of
land subsidence.
Reduction or correction of problems of
seawater intrusion.
Exploitation of soil properties and the
characteristics of the unsaturated

The goal of artificial


recharge is to contribute,
when it is technically and
economically justified, to
achieving a more rational
management of
water resources within a
particular river basin or
exploitation system

zone, as a filtration or treatment


technique both for drinking water
and for waste waters.
A necessary condition for planning and
constructing any type of artificial recharge
operation is the availability of sufficient
water resources, in the form of continuous or
discontinuous surface streams, or of treated
urban waste water, or of water derived from
another aquifer, among other possibilities.

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SOME EXAMPLES OF SURFACE-TYPE ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE INSTALLATIONS

River bed

Recharge by retention dikes. Top left, system of dikes to retain the water
for subsequent aquifer recharge. Bottom left, pilot construction on a
river bed

Recharge by infiltration ponds. Top right, diagram of operation installation. Bottom right, pilot construction in an alluvial valley

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Artificial recharge
Many and varied procedures have been used to put artificial
recharge into effect, although the classical techniques can be divided into two main groups of methods, depending on whether the
recharge is carried out by filtration through the land surface or by
direct introduction of the water into the aquifer by drilling a connection. The first-named method is used for unconfined aquifers,
while the second is particularly suitable for semi-confined and
confined aquifers.
In areas that are intensively farmed or densely populated,
where land is scarce and/or very expensive, surface artificial
recharge can be difficult to put into practice, because it generally
requires the availability of large areas of land. In such cases, deeplevel recharge is used, using boreholes. These are also employed for
geological formations where permeable and impermeable levels
alternate, or where there is an impermeable horizon between the
land surface and the aquifer.

Pilot deep-level recharge plant in the Esgueva valley


(province of Valladolid, Spain)

40

he USA is the country that has most developed and


applied the technique of artificial recharge. These operations are mainly located in the arid southern states of Texas,
Arizona and California. The importance of such projects is
reflected, for example, in the fact that in California alone the
Department of Water Resources has carried out artificial
recharge operations to introduce 1400 Mm3/year into aquifers.

Israel is another country where artificial recharge techniques are highly advanced. Recharge water is obtained from the
river Jordan, from Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), from sporadic runoff after heavy rain and from treated waste water.
In the European Union, Germany and Holland are the
countries that have carried out most artificial recharge operations. In these countries, the main objective of the activity is
to purify and improve water for urban consumption by soilaquifer treatment, although in Holland it is also necessary to
maintain the height of fresh water within coastal dune systems, in order to limit seawater intrusion.
The first artificial recharge installations in Spain were constructed near Barcelona, in the alluvial valleys of the rivers
Bess and Llobregat. In some years, up to 20 Mm3 have been
introduced into the latter aquifer by means of wells sited in the
valley, using surplus water from the treatment plant in the
river Sant Joan Desp. This recharge operation is complemented by scarifying treatment of the river bed upstream to favour
the infiltration of the flowing water. Other pilot experiments,
set up on a temporary basis, have provided valuable data about
the technique. Examples of these include those of the Palma
de Mallorca plain, the alluvial valley of the river Oja, the
Guadix plain, the Esgueva valley, the calcarenite aquifer of
Carmona and the alluvial valley of the Bajo Guadalquivir.

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Wellhead protection areas for


groundwater catchments
T

he establishment of wellhead protection areas is intended to


safeguard the quality and quantity of groundwater obtained
from urban supply wells. They are of crucial importance because of the risk posed by human activity in the vicinity of such
extraction points.
The wellhead protection area delimits an area around the
well in which graduated controls restrict or prohibit activities or
installations that might contaminate groundwater or that could
affect the flow of water intended for human supply.
Wellhead protection areas to protect groundwater and safeguard drinking water supplies must at the same time be compatible with the socio-economic activity in the area surrounding the well.
The protection system most commonly applied consists of dividing the area around the well into different zones, graduated from
highest to lowest risk and importance, and on this basis determine
the restrictions applicable to other activities.
To delimit these zones, detailed knowledge is required of the
aquifer over which the well is sited, and of the latters design
and characteristics. To protect the quality of groundwater, three
zones are normally considered:

Immediate or absolutely restricted zone: the definition criterion


for this zone is a water transit time* of 24 hours or a small, arbitrarily determined area (100-400 m2). Within this zone, all activities not directly related to water extraction are usually prohibited. A boundary fence preventing access to the area is recommended.
Proximal or maximum restriction zone: the limits of this zone
are generally fixed according to a water transit time of 50-60
days, to provide a measure of protection against microbiological
contamination.
Distant or moderate restriction zone: the most appropriate parameter to decide the limits of this zone is that the period of water transit should be several years; complementary hydrogeological criteria
should also be considered, to protect the well from long-lived contaminating agents.Moreover, Spanish legislation contains various
protection procedures: zones have been established to protect water
and the environment, to prevent contamination of what is termed
the Public Water Domain, to protect areas of special ecologic, landscape, cultural or economic interest, to reduce or eliminate overexploitation and to guarantee the conservation of wetlands.
When protection planning is considered for a particular
region, it is a good way to do to establish wellhead protection

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Wellhead protection areas for


groundwater catchments

Different zones established for groundwater quality protection around a well used for drinking-water supply

REGIONAL PLANNING
Priority in drawing up wellhead protection areas for urban areas
INITIAL STUDIES IN HIGH PRIORITY AREAS

Supply situation
and necessities

Hydrogeologic
characteristics
of the aquifer

Potential sources
of contamination
Aquifer vulnerability
Risk of contamination

Land planning
Urban planning

DETERMINE CRITERIA AND METHODS TO CALCULATE THE PROTECTION AREA

Restriction of activities

42

DEFINITION OF THE EXTENSION OF THE DIFFERENT ZONES


INSIDE THE WELLHEAD PROTECTION AREAS

Control mechanisms

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areas for each of the towns in that region. Firstly, studies must
provide the information needed to define, for each well point,
the criteria (distance, water table fall, transit time, hydrogeologic
criteria, self-cleaning capability of the terrain) and the methods
(analytical, mathematical models, hydrogeological studies) considered optimum to define each of the zones making up the wellhead protection areas.

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egislation in Spain enables two ways for a wellhead protection area to be established: via a Water Plan (article 42
of the definitive text of the Water Act) or, if no Water Plan
exists or if it needs to be complemented, by the River Basin
authority (article 56.3 of the same Law). The procedure may be
initiated ex officio by the relevant offices of the River Basin
authority, at the request of the municipal authority or at the
request of another authority with powers in the field.
Wellhead protection area boundary delimitation is the responsibility of the Government Board of the River Basin
Organism (which is called the Hydrographic Confederation),
taking into consideration the previous report of the Water
Council. The activities that may be restricted or prohibited in the
area defined by the wellhead protection area are detailed in article 173.6 of the Regulations on the Public Water Domain and
affect public works, urban activities, agricultural and livestock
activities, industrial activities and recreational activities.
The definition of wellhead protection areas is far from
being a reality in Spain, despite the fact that article 7.3 of the
Water Framework Directive states that member states of the
European Union may establish wellhead protection areas for
water sources intended for human consumption.

To protect the well points used for


drinking-water supply, they need to
be bounded by a wellhead
protection area. The photo shows
water being pumped from an
aquifer, closely surrounded by crops
onto which fertiliser might be
applied to improve productivity.
This, however, would cause
contamination of groundwaters

TRANSIT TIME: the time a particle of water


takes from when it reaches the saturated
zone until it arrives at the well point by the
fastest path, or until it emerges at the surface by natural means.

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Groundwater user cooperatives


T

he associative process to manage the use of groundwater has a


long tradition in Spain. The Water Court of Valencia dates back
to the second half of the thirteenth century. However, in the case of
groundwater, which was privately owned until the 1985 Water Act
came into effect, its free access and utilisation did not favour this
kind of cooperation.
Depending on their origin,
user cooperatives can be classified
into three groups:
a) Traditional or historical irrigation cooperatives. These were
constituted prior to 1900 to
exploit surface water, and many
date back to the Middle Ages.
They are generally sited in broad
river valleys and use traditional
irrigation techniques, such as
sheet flooding or gravity irrigation.

The exploitation of a borehole can be


remote controlled by systems managed
by service-providing companies or by
user cooperatives

44

b) Irrigation cooperatives constituted by publicly-initiative. These


have been created by administrative action over the last 100 years
to exploit large surface reservoirs
and other regulation works.

c) Private-initiative users associations. This group includes the


organised groups of users of groundwater.
The various groundwater user cooperatives vary greatly in their
characteristics and functioning. Their size and administrative
complexity range from the needs of a few users of the same well,
as is the case of the majority of the users cooperatives in the Norte
(northern) catchment area, to general communities that cater for
cooperatives of irrigators, municipalities and individual farmers
(Card 2).
Groundwater User Cooperatives are legally-recognised public
corporations affiliated to the River Basin Organism, whose responsibility it is to protect them, oversee their functioning and ensure
that their internal statutes and regulations are complied with.
Statutes and regulations refer not only to the organisation of
the User Cooperatives themselves, but also to the exploitation by
the users of goods belonging to the public water domain that
constitute the exploitation system. They are intended to facilitate
water management and to inform and advise members of the
cooperative. Groundwater User Cooperatives are a key institution in putting into effect appropriate policies for water in Spain.
These cooperatives were mainly set up by the initiative of the
users themselves. However, when public interest requires, as when
an aquifer is subject to a procedural declaration of over-exploitation, the River Basin Organism may require their constitution.

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Economic value of groundwater


W

ater makes it possible for life to exist on Earth and thus has
a fundamental environmental value. It is vital for industrial
and agricultural development and is a source of energy. The use of
groundwater has favoured the expansion of industrial estates and
of high-profitable irrigation crops, contributing to a sometimes
spectacular rise in living standards in some parts of the east, southeast and south of the Iberian peninsula, especially in Valencia,
Murcia, Almera and Huelva. Similar benefits have been enjoyed in
Albacete (eastern La Mancha), Ciudad Real (western La Mancha)
and the Canary Islands, among others.
The fact that any citizen can obtain drinking water in his/her
own home, of the quantity and quality desired, merely by turning
a tap, implies a cost that must be borne. Water has a price that
must be paid to reflect the costs of extraction, treatment, distribution and wastewater purification (in many cases, half of the
total water bill in a city corresponds to the costs of treating wastewater). Today, in developed countries the user normally pays
the direct costs of water (regulation infrastructure, transport, purification, electrical systems, conservation, amortization, etc.) and
also the indirect costs, which are difficult to evaluate in economic
terms but have a significant social, cultural and environmental
impact.
The tradition of the Public Administration as the financial
motor and manager of water policy, especially with respect to surface water, has in the past led to water being supplied cheaply, at
subsidised prices, particularly for irrigation. Unlike surface water,

groundwater has nearly always been exploited by private initiative, which has assumed the considerable construction and maintenance costs of wells, boreholes and pumping. This has meant that
groundwater has been used more efficiently, but it has also, on
occasion, produced sharp falls in water levels and reduced water
quality in some aquifers.
The Andalusian Regional Government (Spain), recently evaluated the profitability of irrigation with groundwater, in comparison
with the productivity achieved with surface water, and reached the
conclusion that, in Andalusia, the former is four to five times more
productive in financial terms, and creates three to four times more
employment per cubic metre of water used than does irrigation
with surface water.

AVERAGE PRICE OF WATER FOR URBAN SUPPLY


Country

Price (euro/m3)

Germany
France
Holland
Belgium
Spain

1.41
1.03
1.05
1.12
0.70

Although the 1985 Water Act declared all groundwater to be


in the public domain, much of it, in fact, remains in private
hands thanks to the Transitory Clauses of the law. The amend-

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Economic value of
g ro u n d w a t e r
PRICE OF WATER IN SPANISH CITIES (euro/m3)
City

Price

City

Price

City

Price

City

Price

Sta. Cruz T.
Barcelona
Las Palmas
Murcia
Alicante
Crdoba
Cuenca
Madrid
Palma de M.
Almera
Cceres
Logroo
Ceuta
Valencia

1.32
1.27
1.23
1.15
0.79
0.76
0.75
0.73
0.72
0.71
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.68

Sevilla
Tarragona
Gerona
Bilbao
Castelln
Huelva
Oviedo
Pamplona
Badajoz
Zamora
Zaragoza
Guadalajara
Soria
Mlaga

0.67
0.64
0.61
0.59
0.58
0.56
0.55
0.55
0.52
0.52
0.58
0.49
0.46
0.46

Teruel
Cdiz
Lugo
Lrida
Albacete
San Sebastin
Santander
Orense
Salamanca
Vitoria
Valladolid
Burgos
vila
Granada

0.44
0.44
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.42
0.41
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.35

Ciudad Real
Pontevedra
Palencia
A Corua
Len
Segovia
Jan
Toledo
Huesca
Melilla

0.33
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.30
0.29
0.23
0.22
0.21
0.09

T
Groundwater has nearly
always been exploited by
private initiative, which
has assumed the considerable
construction and maintenance
costs of wells, boreholes and
pumping. This has meant that
groundwater has been used
more efficiently
46

ment to this Water Act (the


46/1999 Law) permitted
the creation of so-called
water banks, to transfer
rights to water use. It is
hoped that these banks,
facilitating the temporary
ceding of water rights to
third parties, will prove to
be a tool leading to more
rational water management. By these means, the
Administration can acquire
water rights and thus permit and control their commerce.

he experience of California during the 1980s drought


can be summarised as a volume of 1000 m3 of water
purchased, mainly from farmers. This volume, or Water
Bank, was managed by the water administration, which
signed three types of contracts, buying the water at a prearranged price that was attractive but not so high as to
encourage speculators. The first contract type meant that
the farmer sold his water and ceased irrigation of his land.
In the second type of contact, the farmer sold his rights to
surface water, but continued pumping from the aquifer.
And in the third type, the farmer sold the water that he
had stored in small reservoirs. The first option turned out
to be the most popular. The Water Bank, in California, was
found to be an efficient solution, if only partial and
appropriate for a particular situation.

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Environmental aspects of groundwater


W

ater is a resource that is incomparable to any other because of its functions, its nature, its direct necessity to mankind and its aesthetic, recreational and emotional connotations.
It is an important part of the natural welfare of every place on
Earth. Springs and fountains are, for many towns and villages, a
historical and cultural legacy and a vital sign of their identity.
Groundwater supplies rivers, lakes and springs, and creates
varied areas of diffuse discharge that are generically termed
wetlands, originating unique coastal and inland landscapes
including marshes, lagoons, bogs, morasses and fens. Moreover,
it creates masses of phreatophytes*, water meadows, reeds and
other water plants of great aesthetic and environmental value,
particularly in arid and semi-arid countries, in steppes and
around the Mediterranean basin.
A profound knowledge of the hydrogeology of the land is
essential for understanding how groundwater functions and
reacts. This knowledge is irreplaceable when decisions must be
taken to improve and guarantee the conservation of the many
ecosystems associated with groundwater.
The natural surges of groundwater, through springs and diffuse
discharge areas, often produce landscapes of great importance, whose
survival depends directly on the conditions and characteristics of the
groundwater supply. Among the most significant examples in Spain
of wetlands closely related to groundwater supplies are the Doana
and Tablas de Daimiel National Parks, the Lagunas de Ruidera Natural

Park, the Laguna de Fuente de Piedra Nature


Reserve, and the Laguna de Gallocanta hunting reserve (proposed for classification as a
Natural Reserve), among others.
The water in most rivers is derived from
surface runoff and from aquifer discharge.
The former is produced mainly during the
winter and is generally intermittent and of
short duration. In the summer and
autumn, when river levels are low, most of
the water flowing over the riverbed is of
groundwater origin. Flow volumes are
usually greatest in late winter or early

The natural surges


of groundwater,
through springs
and diffuse discharge
areas, often produce
landscapes of great
importance, whose
survival depends
directly on the
conditions and
characteristics
of the groundwater
supply

Satellite image
showing the
Doana National
Park (in the
southern
part of the
AlmonteMarismas
aquifer) and the
mouth of the
river
Guadalquivir
(Spain)

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Environmental aspects of
g ro u n d w a t e r
GEOLOGIC CROSS-SECTION THROUGH LAGUNA DE FUENTE DE PIEDRA AND ITS SORROUNDING

spring, when the aquifers are


recharged and phreatic levels are
high. From late spring until well
into the autumn, these levels fall
progressively. The level may fall so
much that discharge from the aquifers stops, and then the river flow
disappears.

Laguna de Fuente
de Piedra (province
of Mlaga, Spain), one of
the most important
wetlands in Europe,
famed for its colonies
of flamingos

Lagunas de Ruidera (province of Ciudad Real, Spain). In the


upper basin of the river Guadiana, the natural
drainage of the groundwater of the carbonate aquifer of
Campo de Montiel flows through the wetlands for 25 km. As
a result of the calcium carbonate deposited by groundwater,
travertine barriers now form a
succession of attractive waterfalls between the wetlands

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he delimitation and protection of wetlands in Spain is


addressed by the Water Act and by the 4/1989 Act on the
Conservation of Natural Spaces, Plants and Animals.

The current surface area of wetlands in Spain has been


estimated at 1,140 km2, which represents 30-40% of the area
existing 50 years ago. Of these wetlands, a large proportion are
related to groundwater. Human action has led to the disappearance of numerous wetlands, such as Laguna de la Janda (province of Cdiz), which previously extended over 40 km2, and
La Nava (province of Palencia), with 22 km2. Also noteworthy is the degradation of the albufera (marshland) in
Valencia, the destruction of Ojos del Pontil in Aragn and that
of Ojos del Guadiana in the plain of La Mancha. In addition,
most of the systems associated with the discharge of groundwater into the ravines of the island of Gran Canaria have
disappeared.
Wetlands are frequently the site of vegetation that depends
on the discharge of groundwater. In most cases, an ascending
component of the groundwater flow provides the water
supply to the wetland. These wetlands play an important
role in the maintenance and conservation of biodiversity.
Their relief is normally flat and water surfaces are large,
shallow and frequently seasonal. The vegetation reflects the
persistence of the flooding and the degree of water mineralisation. The latter factor results both from the type of minerals
through which the groundwater flows and from the time with
which they are in contact. Typical vegetation include gramineae, cyperaceous shrubs and marsh-plants such as Phragmites
australis, Scirpus maritimus and Scirpus lacustris, Typha spp. and
Cladium mariscum.

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The water that surges from fountains facilitates the formation of landscapes that are frequently very attractive.
They are of special appeal in the most arid parts of Spain,
where their colours and lushness stand out from the dry
surrounding areas.
Springs provide many urban areas with drinking water
and also contribute the water needed for irrigation.
Moreover, such water outlets are often associated with recreation
and leisure areas. In some such areas, the waters are of thermal
or mineral-medicinal origin and are used in spas for
therapeutic purposes.
The two best known wetlands in Spain are the Tablas de
Daimiel and Doana National Parks, both of which have
suffered the effects of human intervention. In the early
1970s, the first of these parks comprised the most important natural outflow of the western La Mancha aquifer. This
huge aquifer, with an area of over 5500 km2, received an
average water input of 300 Mm3 per year and mainly discharged through the so-called Ojos del Guadiana. Las Tablas
de Daimiel, together with other wetlands in La Mancha,
has been catalogued as a Biosphere Reserve Area since
1981, as part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere programme. Between the mid 1970s and the late 1980s, new
irrigation areas were established, of over 100,000 hectares,
mainly as a result of private initiative. The average renewal
rate of the groundwater in the western La Mancha aquifer
is estimated at between 200 and 500 Mm3 per year (in dry
and wet years, respectively), while the extraction of
groundwater reached 600 Mm 3 per year by the end of the
1980s. In consequence, over these years a total of 3000-

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Environmental aspects of
g ro u n d w a t e r

Hydrogeologic
diagram of the
western La Mancha
aquifer in the area
of Las Tablas de
Daimiel

5000 Mm3 of the aquifers water reserves was withdrawn. To


limit this unsustainable extraction, the government took a
series of measures intended to protect the National Park:
the Water Regeneration Plan for Las Tablas de Daimiel was
passed in 1987; the aquifer was declared definitively overexploited in December 1994, and an application was made
to the European Union for a 5-year subsidy (1993-1997) to
provide financial compensation to farmers who voluntarily

50

restricted the volume of groundwater extracted (Income


Compensation Plan or Wetlands Plan). The assistance designated for this agricultural-environmental plan totalled
102.2 million euros, 75% of which was funded by the
European Union, with the remaining 25% being provided
by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and the
Regional Government of Castilla-La Mancha. The Wetlands
Plan was later extended until the year 2002.

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Another highly important natural landscape is the Doana


National Park and the Natural Park surrounding it. These parks
are located in the Almonte-Marismas hydrogeological unit,
which has a surface area of some 2,300 km2. The parks comprise a group of interconnected permeable detritic levels that
behave like an unconfined aquifer, except for the sector lying
beneath the marshes, where the behaviour pattern is of the
confined type.
The existence of the Doana National Park depends,
among other factors, on surface water and groundwater. The
former provides a supply that floods the marshes during part
of the year, and mainly results from the rain falling directly
onto the land surface and from the overflow from the rivers
that converge in this area. Groundwater sustains the permanent presence of wetlands and ponds.
In the part of the hydrogeological unit that functions as
an unconfined aquifer, the groundwater is closely related to
the rivers and streams. Thus, part of the water that reaches the
marshes is of underground origin, proceeding from aquifer discharge.
However, the role of groundwater in the National Park is
not limited to these contributions to flood levels in the marshes. During the dry summer season, animal and plant life is
only possible thanks to groundwater. Without it, the vital
ecological reserve of Doana could never have developed.
In the dune ecosystem, where the piezometric level of the
aquifer is close to the surface, the corrales (elongated spaces
between the dunes) maintain a degree of moisture in the soil
throughout the year. In the ecotones of La Vera and La

Almonte-Marismas aquifer. Top: replica of a hut used by the


original inhabitants of the area. Bottom: peridunar lagoons
(Navazo and Charco del Toro) created by the drainage of the
water infiltrated through the surrounding dunes

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Environmental aspects of
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Retuerta, the boundary areas between the
unconfined aquifer and the marsh, the piezometric surface is also very high, slightly above
the level of the marshes. In consequence,
wetlands and lagoons are common in all of
this boundary area. In the western part, the
Rocina stream drains groundwater almost all
year round and sustains an important area of
flora and fauna, which contributes to maintaining the Roco marshes.

Almonte-Marismas Aquifer. Top, hydrogeologic cross-section, north-south,


showing the existence of an unconfined aquifer (Almonte) and a confined
one (Marismas). Right, detail of La Vera ecotone, the contact zone
between the unconfined aquifer and the marsh

PHREATOPHYTES: plants that mainly obtain water directly from the phreatic level, with
which their roots are in constant contact through the capillary fringe.These plants are normally found on river banks or in dry riverbeds, where the phreatic level is not very deep. A
typical example is the gallery forest, comprising elms, alders, poplars and willows. The
eucalyptus is a typical phreatophyte artificially introduced into Spain; its roots are fast-growing and ensure the trees water supply, sometimes to the detriment of other species.

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Drought
T

he term drought usually refers to a prolonged period during


which precipitations are below the average values or, depending
on the methodology utilized, when over half the area in question
receives precipitations of less than 85% of average values during a
period of two years or more. This concept varies depending on whether a meteorological, a hydric or an anthropic approach is adopted.
Drought is an habitual, but hard to predict, phenomenon in
areas of Mediterranean climate. Its consequences, however, are evident: a reduction in the water flow in rivers and streams, reservoirs
emptying and possible water restrictions, among other effects.
How does an aquifer react to drought? There may be a fall in
water levels within wells and boreholes, although this would not
affect exploitation due to the long residence time of groundwater
within the aquifer and the large volume of water stored inside it
(although pumping costs could certainly be affected). Thus, areas
supplied from groundwater sources do not normally suffer water
restrictions. During periods of drought, the volume of groundwater extracted frequently rises sharply.
The drought that occurred in Spain between 1991 and 1995
demonstrated both the importance of groundwater in alleviating the shortage of water resources and the problems that can
arise from improvisation and lack of prior planning. Obviously,
both planning and preventive measures need to be carried out
during so-called normal periods.

he strategic importance of groundwater was amply demonstrated during the drought that affected Spain in the early
1990s. The temporary exploitation of
groundwater resources eased the shortage in large areas of the south and east
of Spain, for example, the measures
taken in the Jcar basin, where a series
of drought-relief wells were dug. These
provided sufficient volumes of water
for drinking-water supply and for irrigation. Similarly, water has been obtained from boreholes when necessary.
This method was used for 20 urban
areas in the province of Granada, with
a total of 100,000 inhabitants. In Jan,
during the same period, boreholes
were drilled to supply drinking water
to the city and to areas such as Loma
de beda, Sierra de Cazorla, Sierra
Mgina and Montes Orientales. Other
noteworthy cases are the improved
Fuente de Cella
water supplies obtained for Mlaga,
(province of Teruel, Spain). The
the western Costa del Sol, Campo de
natural outlet of the Montes
Gibraltar and Baha de Cdiz. In the
Universales aquifer that forms
the source of the river Jiloca.
latter cases, the total drilling length
The photo reflects the situation
was 10,000 metres and the flow voluduring the 1983 drought.
mes obtained exceeded 5,000 L/s.
In normal periods, more than
600 L/s flow beneath the arch

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Groundwater monitoring networks


T

he objective of a monitoring network is to acquire data


on the evolution of groundwater quantity and quality, in
order to adopt or modify strategies for water exploitation, conservation and protection.

The control of groundwater is a significant aspect of public


water domain management, as recognised in the Water Act and in
the European Union Framework Directive on Water (article 8.1). In
Spain, when a hydrographic unit extends over two or more self-

NUMBER OF MONITORING POINTS IN PIEZOMETRIC AND SPRING NETWORKS1


Basin

Duero
Tajo
Guadiana
Guadalquivir
Sur
Segura
Jcar
Ebro
Inland Basins
of Catalonia
Balearic Islands
Canary Islands2
Total
1
2

Surface
of permeable
outcrops
(km2)
52
17
14
15
5
7
23
17

Number of points
in the piezometric
network
(1996)

Density of
the piezometric
network
(points/km2)

Number of points
in the springs
network
(1996)

Density of
the springs
network
(points/km2)

798
473
740
157
215
023
787
047

284
84
228
433
779
170
334
237

1/186
1/208
1/65
1/35
1/7
1/41
1/71
1/72

75
18
109
134
35
22
72

1/233
1/819
1/139
1/113
1/201
1/1081
1/237

6 596
3 675
7 560

257
150

1/26
1/25

12

1/550

163 511

2956

1/55

477

1/343

Ministry of the Environment (2000). White Paper on Water in Spain (Libro Blanco del Agua en Espaa)
The existance of networks is not known

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governing regions, groundwater management is the responsibility


of the Hydrographic Confederations. Otherwise, the relevant
administrative bodies of the self-governing regional government
are in charge of such matters.
Groundwater monitoring (Card 3) in Spain began during the
1970s, coinciding with the start-up of important hydrogeologic
prospection programmes (PIAS, REPO, SPA, etc.) although some
networks predated this time. From this date, the networks were
expanded to cover a greater number of aquifers, and strengthened
and optimised, although more remains to be done in this respect.
In 2001, the monitoring network controlled by the Spanish
Geological Survey amounted to about 3000 piezometric monitoring
points, which provided data at least twice a year, and observations
were normally made every three months and sometimes monthly.
The flow gauge network for natural springs covered an area of about
42,000 km2 and comprised almost 500 monitoring points. In addition to the above, the Groundwater Quality Monitoring Network
(ROCAS, in Spanish) studied the evolution of different physical and
chemical parameters. In total, 1,650 points were controlled to
obtain twice a year analysis of chemical macroconstituents.
To complement the above network, the Intrusion Monitoring
Network (ROI, in Spanish) was established to study the evolution
of marine intrusion into coastal aquifers. This is a permanent
network that obtains bi-monthly or six-monthly samples, according to the peculiarities of different zones, and measures the
chloride content and electrical conductivity of the groundwater.
The network possesses nearly 800 observation points, but this is
still insufficient in some cases.

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Geological Survey only maintains data for which a special agreement exists or that are necessary for the purposes of research.
In addition to the above, some networks are operated by other
institutions (regional governments, provincial councils or local
entities). These networks are installed on the aquifers located in
their respective territories.

GROUNDWATER QUALITY
CONTROL NETWORK1
Basin

Norte
Duero
Tajo
Guadiana
Guadalquivir
Sur
Segura
Jcar
Ebro
Inland Basins
of Catalonia
Galician Coast
Total Peninsula

Surface area
(km2)
40
78
55
60
63
17
19
42
85

N of
ROCAS
stations

N of
ROI
stations

650
960
810
210
240
950
120
900
560

133
92
130
119
168
282
182
106
138

10
39
319

337

16 490
13 130

300

93

494 020

1650

798

1
Ministry of the Environment (2000). White Paper on Water in Spain
(Libro Blanco del Agua en Espaa)

Today, general responsibility for the observation data corresponds to the Hydrographic Confederations. The Spanish

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Main problems affecting groundwater


G

roundwater can present problems of quantity and/or quality.


The former problems occur when aquifers are intensively
exploited, beyond sustainable use of resources. Nevertheless, the
problems of groundwater quality are more worrying and in more
urgent need of solution and management. In any case, the best
policy in matters of groundwater protection is to apply preventive
measures.

2. Severe deterioration in water quality resulting from such


extraction rates.
3. Long-term threat to the subsistence of existing water use
as a result of current extraction rates.

INTENSIVE USE OF GROUNDWATER


The term over-exploitation of aquifers has been used to
describe various situations, and we should take care not
to confuse situations of over-exploitation with the
effects of occasional periods of drought, in which
falls in water level and flow volume can occur,
depending on the aquifer type. An aquifer is an
underground reservoir, and for its resources to
be used efficiently, we must accept that water
levels will fall while it is being exploited.
Under Spanish legislation, the designation of
over-exploitation is applied to one of three
possible situations:
1. Extraction rates very near or exceeding
renewable resources, putting the subsistence of existing uses in immediate danger.

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Pumping
cones created
by the simultaneous
extraction of groundwater
by several wells

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The concept of over-exploitation associated with the intensive


use of groundwater is a matter of controversy, because in addition
to the undesirable, even if internalizable, effects of the latter, it
does present very important economic and social benefits.
Undoubtedly, some intensively-exploited aquifers in Spain (eastern
and western La Mancha and the Almera coast), have functioned as
the motor for economic and social development in provinces such
as Ciudad Real, Albacete and Almera and in the Canary Islands.
Nevertheless, a severe environmental impact is sometimes suffered, the most emblematic cases being the disappearance of the
Ojos de Guadiana wetlands and the degradation of the Tablas de
Daimiel National Park, also on the river Guadiana.
The following are some of the negative effects produced by
inappropriate exploitation of groundwater:
a) Falling piezometric levels: the exploitation of an aquifer produces a decrease in the piezometric level that remains until a
new equilibrium is reached. If the falls in level are progressive and continuous the flow volume may diminish and this
could even lead to the total drying out of the well. In any
case, energy costs will increase due to the need to extract
water from ever-greater depths.
b) Degradation in groundwater quality: when severe falls in water
level occur, a significant deterioration in groundwater quality
can occur. Such has been the case of the Jumilla-Villena and
Quibas aquifers, in the Segura-Jcar basin, and of the AscoySopalmo aquifer in the Segura basin. This effect has also been
observed in coastal regions of arid and semi-arid regions,
where the change in hydraulic gradient caused by intensive
pumping can lead to seawater intrusion into the aquifer.
c) Problems of land subsidence: the extraction of groundwater can
produce changes in land tension that sometimes cause or
contribute to land subsidence problems (gradual land-surface
descent).

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his situation has occurred in some aquifers formed by


recent sediments, as is the case of the regions of Mexico
City and Venice. The significance of the phenomenon usually
concerns the situation of
the aquifer more than the
quantitative value of the
subsidence. Thus, the subsidence episodes that have
affected Bangkok and the
Gulf of Mexico, in coastal
zones, are given greater
importance than those
produced in cases such as
that of the Central Valley
in California, where land
levels fell by as much as 7
metres. Few problems of
subsidence caused by
groundwater extraction
have been observed in
Spain, but one recent case
was that of the city of
Murcia, where relative displacements between buildings occurred. In the
Llobregat delta, a subsidence of some tens of centimetres is believed to
have occurred; this might
be partially related to the
Displacement between buildings in the
fact that the coastline is city of Murcia (Spain) as a result of subsidence
phenomena after falls in piezometric levels
retreating.

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Main problems affecting


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d) Alterations to watercourses connected to the aquifer: the
exploitation of groundwater may substantially modify the
hydrogeologic functioning of a system. Falls in the piezometric level can sometimes cause the direction of an aquifer-river connection to be reversed. If this happens, areas
where the river used to receive water from the aquifer are
transformed into areas where the aquifer is recharged by
the river; in such circumstances, the river may dry out
completely, except during periods of high rainfall.

clear example of the latter is that of the basins of the


river Jcar and the river Guadiana, in Spain. In the
Jcar, the falls in the piezometric level have disconnected
stretches of the river that previously received water discharge
from the aquifer; these are now net losers and recharge the
aquifer. In consequence, some sections of rivers in the upper
part of the basin, such as the Zncara and the Cigela, which
in a natural regime always bear water, remain dry for a large
part of the year.

e) Ecological impact on aquatic ecosystems: in a similar way to


the process described above, a fall in the piezometric level
can lead to alterations of varying degree in areas of environmental importance. The possible negative effects
include: decreases in water flow from springs or their total
drying out; a reduction in soil moisture to levels at which
the phreatophyte vegetation cannot survive; the partial or
total disappearance of wetlands that are hydraulically
interconnected with an aquifer, under a natural regime;
perhaps, even, changes in the microclimate due to a
reduction in evapotranspiration. The importance of these

58

alterations is such that individual study is required for


each case, to evaluate all the effects considered, the possibilities of reversing the situation and the consequences of
all the possible options.

The evaluation of the possible impacts and benefits produced


by the intensive extraction of groundwater is of fundamental
importance in planning sustainable development. Hydrogeology
not only allow us to foresee and quantify many such consequences, but in many cases make it possible to alleviate negative effects
by careful planning of factors such as well sites and extraction
rates.
The participation in decision-making by users of aquifer
resources is a fundamental question. Thus, the Water Act, in the
case of an aquifer officially declared to be over-exploited, requires the constitution of a Users Cooperative. For participation to
be effective, users must be aware of their own importance, and
must have basic knowledge about the aquifer and how it functions.

n situations in which a river basin extends over more


than one self-governing region, thirteen hydrogeologic
units have provisionally been declared over-exploited (to
the year 2000) and for two of these (the aquifers of western
La Mancha and Campo de Montiel), the classification is
definitive. The complexity of the administrative process
and the difficulty of constituting a Users Cooperative mean
that the results to date have not fulfilled the expectations
aroused by the Water Act among water management professionals.

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CONTAMINATION OF AQUIFERS
Certain external factors, especially those of human origin, may
alter the natural composition of groundwater by introducing substances capable of affecting its original character and thus limiting
its suitability for certain uses. Aquifers have a high level of resistance against many contaminating agents, but once contamination is present, or enters the unsaturated medium and is transmitted within the recharge water, regeneration of the aquifer may be
a slow, difficult process. It may take several years and is not always
economically viable. This explains the high priority given to protecting groundwater against contamination, of whatever origin.

Experimental area located over La Plana de


Castelln aquifer (Spain), where groundwater
contamination by pesticides is studied

The magnitude of the


problem
depends
on
various factors, such as the
size of the affected zone,
the quantity of contaminant involved, its solubility, toxicity and density, its
mineral composition and
the hydrogeologic characteristics of the land
through which it is transmitted. Groundwater may
undergo direct contamination if the contaminant
reaches the saturated zone
without crossing any other
physical medium, or it may
be indirect if the contaminant passes through the
unsaturated zone.

roundwater
diffuse*.

contamination

may

be

limited

or

Diffuse contamination may be caused by:


Agricultural fertilisers. Whether mineral or organic, the
contamination produced is mainly due to their nitrate content. The excessive or incorrect application of fertilisers, and
unsuitable irrigation practices, favour nitrate leaching and its
incorporation into the aquifer. The consequences are more
severe in areas irrigated with groundwater, due to the recyclng
effect.
The presence of nitrates is the most common problem of
contamination, but its severity varies greatly from one area to
another. In Spain, the Technical and Sanitary Norm for the
Supply and Quality Control of Water destined for Human
Consumption (RD 1138/1990) requires drinking water to have
a nitrate (NO3) content not exceeding 50 mg/L. This problem
is prevalent on the Mediterranean coast, and particularly so in
the Maresme region in the province of Barcelona, where nitrate
levels can reach 500 mg/L, in large areas of the eastern coastal
flatlands of Castelln and Valencia, and in the Canary Islands,
where levels exceed 100 mg/L. Among the inland hydrographic
units, the plain of La Mancha, the alluvial valley of the Ebro
and some sectors of the Guadalquivir valley (the alluvial basin
of the Guadalquivir and the Guadalete) are the most severely
affected, with nitrate levels of 50-100 mg/L.
Agricultural pesticides. This is the term used to describe
the chemical compounds used to control and eradicate plant
plagues and diseases. These substances include insecticides,

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herbicides, acaricides and fungicides*. Many are compounds
that present strong resistance to biodegradation, either alone
or in the form of products of decomposition; this is especially
the case of the older substances. If recharge occurs slowly,
through unsaturated land, the substances may be retained and
undergo a certain degree of degradation, by chemical or by
biological action. However, if they reach the aquifer directly,
their elimination by purely biological means is very slow or
non-existent. The correct agricultural use of pesticides need
not seriously damage the groundwater, but this type of contamination is still not well understood in Spain.
Seawater intrusion. In coastal aquifers, the natural situation of the freshsaltwater interface may be altered if the flow
regime is affected by excessive pumping from the aquifer or,
sometimes, simply by the inappropriate siting of wells. If this
occurs, salt water may enter the aquifer.
Seawater intrusion is a common phenomenon on the
Mediterranean coast, and chloride content sometimes exceeds
500 mg/L within groundwater, affecting a large body of water
within the aquifer. This form of contamination is sometimes
more localised and limited to the surroundings of the extraction points. Examples of areas affected by seawater intrusion
include the aquifers of Plana de Vinaroz-Peiscola and of
Oropesa-Torreblanca (Spain).

Situation of an aquifer interface in direct contact with the sea. Top picture,
the interface in a natural regime, with freshwater flowing out to sea. Middle
picture, the incipient advance of the interface, although the quality of borehole water is not yet affected and part of the seaward outflows of freshwater
are maintained. Bottom picture, seawater intrusion has advanced and the
borehole is contaminated. Freshwater may cease flowing out to sea

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Limited contamination* may be due to:


Domestic activities. Organic, biological and mineral contamination may be caused by septic tanks, cess pits, leaks from
sewer systems, the indiscriminate disposal of liquids from
latrines, and other activities. This term also includes the contamination derived from the domestic use of chemical products, such as detergents and bleaches.
Livestock production. This form of contamination is
very similar to that produced by domestic activities, but it
occurs in a more concentrated, intense form, especially when
caused by battery farming methods. The number and dimensions of animal sheds on livestock farms have increased considerably during recent decades. Taking into account both the
waste from these installations and that from non-stabled animals, the total organic charge generated by the livestock maintained in Spain is estimated to be equivalent to a population of
about 100 million people. 20% of farm animal waste is converted into manure, another 20% is left on the land during the
shepherding, between 10% and 15% is subjected to some form
of treatment, and the rest is dumped directly onto the land or
into watercourses.

Elimination of highly contaminant residues from olive oil


production by means of evaporation ponds sited over
impermeable geological formations. Standard practice for
many years was to pour these residues into rivers and aquifers

In Spain, important contamination problems have been


recorded in the groundwater in aquifers located in the regions
of Castilla-Len, Andaluca, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalua and
Galicia.

Livestock production and the resulting lixiviation products


may contaminate groundwater if the installations are not sited
on hydrogeologically suitable areas

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Main problems affecting


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Contamination of a
groundwater extraction
well by a septic tank

Industrial activities. The industrial sector produces a


variety of organic and inorganic substances that, when
disposed of in an uncontrolled or badly-planned way, may
cause significant levels of contamination in groundwater.
Particularly unpleasant and harmful is the contamination
caused by heavy metals used in the metallurgic industry
and in producing ceramics and leather goods.

62

Among other causes, this contamination may result from


inappropriate storage
or transport of raw
materials, from traffic
accidents (spillage of
oil
and
oil-based
liquid fuels), from
industrial estates and
petrol stations, from
the dumping of residues into watercourses, ditches, or caves,
or into badly-built
septic tanks, or from
uncontrolled dumping into wells,
especially by foodproducing
industries. According to a
survey carried out as
part of the National
Plan for the Recovery of
Contaminated Soils, some 4,500 sites in
Spain are contaminated by toxic waste. It has been estimated that about 3 million tonnes of dangerous waste
are generated annually in Spain; of these, only 20%
are treated in any way, and the most common means
of disposal are by storage in specially prepared tips,
followed by incineration and physical-chemical
treatment.

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Contaminant plume in a waste disposal site with leaking of leached materials

Solid waste. Human activity produces solid waste of


various kinds that may be leached and thus infiltrate and
contaminate the aquifers. Residues are classified into three
main groups: a) inert residues, such as earth, presenting little danger; b) urban or assimilable substances (domestic
and commercial) that are potential contaminants and
should be disposed of with care; c) industrial waste, of high
contamination potential, particularly if it contains toxic

ash, soluble substances and certain liquids that can impregnate it. Every year, about 17 million tones of solid urban
and assimilable waste are generated in Spain, of which
81.3% end up on rubbish tips (of these 17.6% are disposed
of without any control at all). The European Directive on
Waste Disposal (1999/31/CE) requires member states to
incorporate its norms into national legislation within two
years.

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Main problems affecting


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Underground storage tanks. In 2005, there were about
7,550 petrol stations in Spain, which implies the existence
of 28,000 to 30,000 fuel deposits. Apart from these, there
were an estimated 300,000 to 350,000 fuel deposits for
domestic use.
Badly built or abandoned wells. Particularly dangerous
are wells that inter-communicate various aquifers, wells with
broken or corroded tubing located at levels where the water is

How an extraction
well is used to restore
the water quality
within an aquifer
contaminated by
leaking fuel from
an underground
petrol storage tank

64

of poor quality, and those that provide an easy entry route for
surface water.
Direct introduction of waste by injection wells that are
badly designed and/or sited. These are usually shallow wells
that are used to introduced contaminating liquid waste
directly into the aquifer (where the water is of good quality).
Such wells are normally in areas of difficult access for government inspectors.

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Schematic cross-section of a secure waste-disposal site

The preservation of groundwater quality should follow from


observing the principles of prevention and precaution, thus avoiding
contamination. For this purpose, norms should be established and
sufficient means made available to prevent the uncontrolled disposal of contaminant materials, to ensure adequate security measures are applied to potentially dangerous activities and to control
and limit the application of agro-chemical products. Thus it is
necessary to set up effective surveillance systems to detect any
variation in water quality early enough for action to be taken.

Creating aquifer contamination vulnerability maps (Card 4)


and defining wellhead protection areas are highly useful measures to achieve this goal. Once an aquifer has been contaminated, regeneration is very difficult, both in technical and in
financial terms. If the contaminant agents are degradable, then
the contamination will diminish in time, but if they are stable
materials, they could remain in the aquifer indefinitely, if not
extracted.

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Main problems affecting


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Contamination is frequently not apparent until it has been
detected in several wells, and this may not occur until after a significant proportion of the aquifer has been affected. It is not unusual for such a long time to pass between an aquifer being contaminated and this being detected that by this time the source of
contamination no longer exists.
If the contamination is caused from the land surface or at shallow depths and quickly discovered, it may be extracted from the
affected ground by earth-moving machinery. This type of reaction
is especially suitable to reduce contamination by certain heavy
hydrocarbons, as they spread only slowly.
In the case of permanently-contaminating agents, the first
measures to be taken should be to locate these sources of pollution
and eliminate them if possible. According to the particular circumstances, the following techniques could be applied: impermeabilisation, draining, application of a clay lining to prevent infiltration by rainfall and river water.
When only one well in a given zone shows signs of contamination, this may be due to the entry of water from other aquifers
or from the surface, because of inadequate construction or corrosion, or because a nearby well has been abandoned.

uropean Union norms and regulations place great emphasis


on groundwater quality. The Community Action
Programme on Groundwater states that the protection of phreatic
waters constitutes the principal objective of Community water
policy.
The European Union Water Framework Directive makes
frequent reference to the issue of ground and surface water
quality and of environmental protection. For example, article
1 of this Directive states: The objective of the present
Directive is to establish a framework for the protection of
continental surface waters, transition waters, coastal waters
and groundwaters that [] guarantees the progressive reduction of groundwater contamination and prevents new episodes of contamination.

DIFFUSE CONTAMINATION: contamination of groundwater by the arrival of a


contaminant that is distributed over a
relatively large surface area.
LIMITED CONTAMINATION: contamination
of groundwater by the localised entry of a
contaminant into the aquifer, via a localised source or within a relatively small
area.
PESTICIDES (INSECTICIDES,

HERBICIDES,

ACARICIDES AND FUNGICIDES):

chemical
compounds intended to eliminate insects
and plants harmful to crops, arachnids and
fungi.

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WATER AND PEOPLE
Water is essential for life. We are all
aware of its necessity, for drinking, for producing food, for washing; in essence for
maintaining our health and dignity. Water
is also required for producing many industrial products, for generating power and for
moving people and goods. In addition,
water is essential for ensuring the integrity
and sustainability of the Earths ecosystems.
Water consumption has almost doubled in the last fifty years. A child born in
the developed world uses thirty to fifty
times the water resources of one in the
developing world. Meanwhile, water quality continues to worsen. Diseases related
to water pollution are a major concern in
many parts of the world. For example, in
year 2000, diarrhoeal diseases caused 2.2
million deaths, principally among children under five years of age.

UNESCO (2003). Map of internal renewable water resources generated within a country on a per
capita basis, circa 1995. In Water for People, Water for Life
This map shows the per capita total internal renewable water availability by country

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UNESCO (2003). Map of water availability versus population. In Water for People, Water for Life
The global overview of water availability versus the population stresses the continental disparities, and in particular the pressure put on
the Asian continent, which supports more than half the population with only 36% of the worlds water resources

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL


WATER POLICIES
Several international conferences on water have been held over
the last thirty five years, particularly since the Earth Summit in Rio

68

de Janeiro. The history could even go back further, to the Mar del
Plata Action Plan of 1977, but perhaps the best starting point is the
Dublin Conference of 1992, from which emerged the Dublin
Statement on Water and Sustainable Development that was a contribution to the preparation of the Earth Summit in Rio. This sta-

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tement contains much of merit, including the four Dublin


Principles that have become the cornerstone of many debates on
international approaches to water policies:
Freshwater is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to
sustain life, development and the environment.
Water development and management should be based on a
participatory approach, involving users, planners and policymakers at all levels.
Women play a central part in the provision, management
and safeguarding of water.
Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and
should be recognised as an economic good.
The United Nations Conference on the Environment and
Development (1992) led to the adoption of Agenda 21, which
contained seven proposals for action on freshwater and contributed
to raising public awareness and approval of advances in water
management practices, although these are still very gradual. The
two conferences were pioneers in placing water at the heart of the
debate on sustainable development. The 2nd World Water Forum
(WWF), held at The Hague in 2000, and the International
Conference on Freshwater, held in Bonn (2001), continued this process.
At each of the meetings, goals to improve water management were set,
although very few of these have subsequently been achieved.
Among the objectives established by international organisations
in recent years, the Millennium Development Goals for 2015, adopted at the United Nations Summit in 2000, are still the most influential. Of these goals, the following are directly related to water:
1. Reduce by 50% the proportion of the people who live with
less than $1 per day.

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2. Reduce by 50% the proportion of the population suffering


hunger.
3. Reduce by 50% the proportion of the population without
access to clean drinking water.
All these necessities, moreover, should be achieved without
prejudice to the environment. The United Nations recognised that
these objectives, focussing on poverty, education and health, could
not be met without a fair and sufficient access to natural resources,
the most fundamental of which are water and energy.
The Ministerial Declaration at The Hague in 2000, resulting
from the 2nd WWF, identified the following seven challenges as the
basis for future action:
1. Meet basic human needs: ensure access to water supply and
treatment, in sufficient quality and quantity.
2. Ensure food supplies, especially to poor and vulnerable
populations, by means of a more efficient use of water.
3. Protect ecosystems and their integrity by the sustainable
management of water resources.
4. Share water resources by promoting peaceful cooperation
between water users and between countries, highlighting
issues such as the sustainable management of a river basin.
5. Risk control: offer security against water-related risks.
6. Value water resources: identify and evaluate the benefits
derived from water (economic, social, environmental and
cultural) and attempt to determine a price to reflect the costs
of supplying the service, taking into account criteria of fairness and the needs of poor and vulnerable populations.
7. Administer water in a responsible way, involving all sectors
of society in the decision-taking process and reflecting the
interests of all parties.

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At the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD),
held in 2002, the Secretary General of the United Nations, Kofi
Annan, identified the five main themes integrating a coherent
international strategy on sustainable development as Water and
Sanitation, Energy, Health, Agriculture, Biodiversity, collectively
termed WEHAB. The WSSD also set the goal of reducing by half the
proportion of the world population lacking access to water treatment services, by 2015.

GROUNDWATER
Since earliest antiquity, the human race has obtained much of
its basic requirement for good-quality water from groundwater.
Springs have played a fundamental role in human settlement and
social development. But for many millennia, capability to abstract
this vital fluid was tiny in comparison to the available resource.

The series of international conferences continued during 2003


with the 3rd World Water
Forum held in Japan and
with the declaration of
the International Year
of Fresh Water. The
years
2002
and
2003, thus, comprised a decisive stage
in human progress
towards recognizing
the crucial importance
of water for the future
of mankind. This issue is
now high on the list of
international political
priorities. However, it
should be noted that
major groundwater basin with highly-productive aquifers
in almost all the meearea with complex structure including some important aquifers
tings held to date,
area with generally poor aquifers, locally overlain by river-bed aquifers
very little attention
permanent ice
has been paid to the
large freshwater lake
role of groundwater.
UNESCO (2003). Map of the groundwater resources of the
world. In Water for People, Water for Life

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Today, total water use is about 4,000 km3 and groundwater represents an important source of fresh potable water.
Aquifers constitute the predominant reservoir and strategic
reserve of freshwater storage on planet Earth: probably about
30% of the global total and as much as 98% of the fraction in
liquid form. Certain aquifers (such as Nubian Sandstone Aquifer
and North Sahara Aquifer in Africa, Guarani Aquifer in South
America, Great Artesian Basin in Australia, High Plains Aquifer
in North America and North China Plain Aquifer in Asia),
extend quite uniformly over very large land areas and have
much more storage than all the worlds surface reservoirs and
lakes. In sharp contrast to surface water bodies, they hardly lose
any of their stored water by direct evaporation.

No.

Name

Area
(million km2)

Volume
(billion m3)

Replenishment
time (years)

Continent

Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System

2.0

75,000

75,000

Africa

North Sahara Aquifer System

0.78

60,000

70,000

Africa

High Plains Aquifer System

0.45

15,000

2,000

North America

Guarani Aquifer System

South America

North China Plain Aquifer Systems

Great Artesian Basin

1.2

30,000

3,000

0.14

5,000

300

1.7

20,000

20,000

Puri, S. & El Naser, H. (2003).


Schematic of a transboundary
aquifer. In Intensive use of
groundwater. Challenges and
opportunities

Asia
Australia

UNESCO (2003). Some large aquifers of the world. In Water for People, Water for Life

The Nubian aquifer system, more formally called the Nubian


Sandstone Aquifer System, is vast, extending 2,000,000 km2 over
the national territories of East Libya, Egypt, Northeast Chad and
North Sudan. It is called a system because it consists of a series of
laterally and / or vertically interconnected formations, including:
Palaeozoic continental deposits.

Mesozoic continental deposits, pre-Upper Cenomanian.


Post-Eocene continental deposits in hydraulic continuity with the underlying low permeability formations.
Together, these reservoirs of groundwater form a basin containing fresh quality water, although becoming very saline in

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the north. Major recharge took place in the last pluvial period
and at present there is slow discharge from the aquifer system,
while it responds to the current climatic conditions. The flow
directions of groundwater are from the south to the north and
natural groundwater discharges take place into several depressions in the coastal regions of the Mediterranean Sea.

Rapid expansion in groundwater exploitation occurred between


1950 and 1975 in many industrialised nations and between 1970
and 1990 in most parts of the developing world. The principal causes of this development are the following:
Improvements in drilling techniques,
which have enabled simpler and lower-cost
wells to be constructed.

The invention and commercialization


of submergible water pumps which,
given suitable terrain, enable a well of
less than 1 metre diameter to irrigate a
surface area of 1 square kilometre, or to
supply drinking water to a population
of 50,000 people.

Puri, S. & El Naser, H. (2003). Block diagram of the Nubian aquifer system. In Intensive use of
groundwater. Challenges and opportunities

72

Advances in scientific hydrogeology, which have expanded our


knowledge of the origin, location, existence and functioning
of groundwater, supplanting earlier notions of this resource as
something mysterious and unfathomable.
The knock-on effect produced among water users (mainly
farmers), on realizing the
important advantages and economic benefits obtained by
other users of groundwater, at
reasonable prices.

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Systematic statistics on abstraction and use of groundwater


are not generally available, but globally groundwater is estimated to provide about 50% of current potable water supplies,
40% of the demand of self-supplied industry and 20% of water
use in irrigated agriculture. These proportions vary widely from
one country to another. Moreover, the value of groundwater to
society should not be gauged solely in terms of relative volumetric abstraction. Compared to surface water, groundwater use
often brings large economic benefits per unit volume, because
of ready local availability, security against drought and good
quality requiring minimal treatment. But the social, economic
and environmental values associated with groundwater are
often unrecognised and undervalued by the water policy decision-makers and by the general public. Groundwater is the most
reliable source of supply for potable water and supports a wide
array of economic and environmental services. Of these, agriculture, the largest abstractor of groundwater, is less sensitive to
water quality but is generally the highest-volume user.
The evolution of the groundwater phenomenon in agriculture is revealing. Expansion of irrigation was the lead input driving yield increases during the Green Revolution of the 19601970 and subsequent decades. As the most reliable source of
irrigation water, groundwater played a particularly major role.
Agricultural yields in groundwater-irrigated areas are higher
often double or more compared to those in canal irrigated
areas.

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Moreover, groundwater is the primary buffer against


drought, and areas with access to groundwater irrigation are
generally able to achieve higher agricultural yields. If climatic
variability increases, as many analysts predict will be the case
with global climatic change, the buffering value of groundwater will be a particularly important factor determining societys
ability to meet basic food security, drinking-water supply and
environmental needs that depend on reliable water sources.

t the start of the twenty-first century, over 50% of the


worlds 6,000 million populations live in urban areas.
Of the 23 mega-cities estimated to have a population of
over 10 million by the year 2000, 12 are heavily dependent on groundwater and, with the exception of London,
all are in the developing world (Mexico City, Tehran,
Shanghai, Buenos Aires, Jakarta, Karachi, Dhaka, Manila,
Cairo, Bangkok, London and Beijing). Furthermore, other
mega-cities such as Los Angeles, see groundwater as a fundamental component of their water-supply planning or,
as in the case of New Delhi, have large populations that
are not served by the municipal system and that rely on
groundwater (which is often polluted) as their primary
source of supply. Groundwater is thus central to meeting
large-scale needs for food security and urban drinkingwater supply.

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UNESCO (2003). Map of the water stress in regions around mega-cities. In Water for People, Water for Life
Water stress is a measure of the amount of pressure put on water resources and aquatic ecosystems by the users of these resources, including the
various municipalities, industries, power plants and agricultural users that line the worlds rivers. The map uses a conventional measure of water
stress, the ratio of total annual water withdrawals divided by the estimated total water availability. This map is based on estimated water
withdrawals for 1995, and water availability during the climate normal period 1961-1990

Equally important to its role as a critical source of water


supply for agricultural and municipal uses, groundwater plays
a more subtle role related to poverty alleviation, health and
social vulnerability. The ubiquity and, in areas with high water

74

levels, the relatively low cost of obtaining access to groundwater are also major factors contributing to poverty alleviation
through access to irrigation and improvements in health and
household sanitation. In Africa, evidence indicates that potable

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supply, sanitation, stockwatering and garden irrigation are all


equally important, particularly in agro-pastoral communities in
arid regions where communities may rely totally on groundwater. It should be noted that there is a strong spatial correlation
between population density and groundwater use in both developed and developing areas of the world. These points to the
reliance humankind will continue to have on groundwater for
overall development.

mainly for irrigation and livestock (67.3%), and for public


supply (19.7%). Groundwater withdrawals were 47 km3/yr
in 1950. Peak rates of withdrawals occurred in 1975 and
1980, at 113 and 114 km3/yr. They have declined somewhat
since. The decline is attributed to reduced demands for irrigation water, new technologies in the industrial sector,
recycling and improved plant efficiencies. Conservation
programs in many states have also contributed to reduced
water demands. In England and Wales, groundwater
accounts for about one third of water extracted for public
supplies.

United States used about 471 km3 of freshwater in 1995;


366 of which comes from surface waters and 105 from
groundwater. The fresh groundwater withdrawals were used

Surface

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Irrigation and

Public

Industrial-

Domestic-

Thermo-

Total

livestock %

supply %

mining %

commercial %

electric %

(km3)

33.2

9.5

6.9

0.8

49.6

366

67.3

19.7

6.7

5.6

0.7

105

40.9

11.8

6.8

1.8

38.8

471

water
Groundwater
Total
(by use)

Ragone, S., Rivera, A., Vecchioli, J., Goodwin, C., Marn, L. E. & Escolero, O. A. (2003). Fresh surface water and groundwater use in the USA in
1995. In Intensive use of groundwater. Challenges and opportunities

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water use for irrigation, 69% of the domestic water supply and
59% of the water used by industry. Mexico City, with a population of 8.5 million inhabitants (within the city, and approximately 20 million including the surrounding areas) obtains approximately 55% of its drinking water from groundwater.

The 100 million inhabitants of


Mexico used more than 72 km3 of
water in 1998. Of this, 28.5 km3 came
from groundwater. Groundwater
supplies 34% of the agricultural

76

European Union Countries

50
40
30

Norway

Spain

U. Kingdom

Sweden

Ireland

Greece

Belgium

France

Finland

Netherlands

Luxembourg

Germany

Portugal

Italy

Switzerland

Iceland

Austria

10
0

Czech Rep.

20

Denmark

In many arid countries, dependence on groundwater is much


higher and it forms the primary
source of urban and rural supply.
For example, in Namibia, a
country without a national hydrogeological map, up to 60% of bulk
water supplies is derived from
groundwater.

Percentage used (%)

According to the European Environmental Agency, in


European countries with sufficient aquifer potential, around
75% of domestic water supply usually comes from groundwater. In Spain, this percentage is only 25%. Roughly 12
million people use groundwater as their main source of drinking water. In communities of less
than 20,000 inhabitants, approximately 70% of water comes from
groundwater sources, whereas in
larger cities 22% does. In comparison to other European countries
100
and with the exception of Norway,
90
which has very little aquifer
80
potential, Spain, has the lowest
70
percentage of groundwater used
for urban supply.
60

Country
Llamas, R., Forns, J. M., Hernndez-Mora, N. & Martnez Cortina, L. (2001). Percentage of
groundwater used for domestic water supply in different European countries. In Aguas
subterrneas: retos y oportunidades

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Industry %

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Agriculture %

Domestic %

Other %

Total (km3)

Surface water

41

66

31

33

43.7

Groundwater

59

34

69

66

28.5

Total (by use)

78

11

72.2

Ragone, S., Rivera, A., Vecchioli, J., Goodwin, C., Marn, L. E. & Escolero, O. A. (2003). Fresh water and groundwater use in Mexico in 1998. In
Intensive use of groundwater. Challenges and opportunities

The case of India is worthy of specific mention, since


groundwater directly supplies about 80% of domestic water
supply in rural areas. Groundwater is the backbone of irrigated agriculture in India. Consequent upon the advent of the
Green Revolution in India, the use of groundwater has become very intensive. This source of water contributes more to
agricultural wealth and well being than any other source of
irrigation (as much as 70% of national agricultural production being supported by groundwater). The total rechargeable groundwater resources in the country are computed as

432 km3. The available groundwater resource for irrigation is


360 km3, of which the utilisable quantity was 325 km3 in
1993. In absolute terms, the groundwater-irrigated area has
increased from 13 million ha to 27 million ha, an increase of
105% during 1970-1990. On the other hand, the area under
surface water irrigation increased from 16 million ha to 21
million ha, an increase of 28% during the same period. As a
result, today, more and more districts have a larger share of
irrigated land under groundwater irrigation than under surface water irrigation.

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Deb Roy, A. & Shah, T. (2003). Groundwater-irrigated area as percentage of net cropped area in India: 1970
and 1994. In Intensive use of groundwater. Challenges and opportunities

Japan used about 92 km3 of water in 1994, 77.5 of which


came from surface waters (84%) and 15 from groundwater
(16%). The groundwater withdrawals were used mainly for

78

industrial use (32%), domestic/business use (25.7%), agricultural use (24.6%), fish farming (11.4%) and for buildings (6.2%).
Irrigation in Japan, as in the United Kingdom, is insignificant.

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AQUIFERS AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL UNITS*
Aquifers in Spain can be grouped as follows, according to
their lithologic and hydrologic characteristics:
a) Detritic aquifers: comprised of loose or semi-consolidated
materials, such as gravels, sands and silts, that cover the
valley floors of the main rivers, like the Ebro and the
Guadalquivir, and deposits of a similar kind on the great
plateaus of the Duero and the Tajo and on the coastal
zones such as the deltas of the Llobregat and the Ebro
and the Castelln and Valencia plains, among others.
These aquifers are exploited to supply water for drinking, for industrial use and, particularly, for crop irrigation. The aquifers have a surface area of approximately
100,000 km2.
b) Carbonate aquifers: These are made up of karstified limestone materials. They outcrop in the east and south of the
Iberian peninsula and in the Balearic Isles and have an area
of about 70,000 km2.
c) Finally, the west of the peninsula contains materials that
are generically classed as impermeable or which are of very
low permeability, but which contain aquifers of local
importance. Most of these terrains contain igneous rocks
(granites and similar rocks) and metamorphic materials
(such as slates). These areas contain tens of thousands of

springs and wells that supply


small towns and villages, farmers and other users; they are,
thus, of great importance.
In the Canary Islands, the aquifers
are related to rocks of volcanic origin,
and groundwater comprises most of
the water used in the islands, with the
aquifers having a surface area of some
7,800 km2. In the peninsula, too, there
are volcanic aquifer formations, although much smaller, in Olot and in
Campo de Calatrava.

HYDROGEOLOGICAL UNIT: according to


the definition given in the 1985 Water
Act, a hydrogeologic unit comprises one
or more aquifers treated as a whole for
the purpose of rational and efficient
water management.

Fluvial terrace (Teruel, Spain)

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GROUNDWATER RESERVES AND RESOURCES


To a certain extent, an aquifer can be compared to a surface
reservoir in that both input and output flows can be quantified,
and too a storage. Nevertheless, there exist considerable differences between the two.

80

1. Aquifers, in general, are more resistant to periods of drought


than are surface reservoirs, due to their high storage capacity with
respect to the annual renewal rate. In other words, water enjoys a
longer average residence time* within the aquifer. The quantity of
exploitable fresh groundwater in Spain, counting only the water
stored to depths of 100-200 metres in the principle aquifers, is 3.5

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the well point or of transport to the water-consuming area. Neither


are large regulation projects required. In addition to these favourable conditions, it is not normally necessary to install water treatment plants, due to the good chemical and bacteriological quality
of the water. This, too, contributes to reducing the costs of exploitation.
We should remember that many parts of Spain classed as without aquifers are constituted of materials of low permeability that
may have localised water resources, both for supplying small population centres and for agricultural or industrial use. Good examples
of these are to be found in Galicia, Extramadura and Sierra de
Madrid, where there are a significant number of small aquifers.
Thus Spain can be said to enjoy very significant groundwater
resources, both in quantity and in quality.
The total renewable groundwater volume for all the aquifers in
Spain has been estimated at 20,000 to 30,000 Mm3 per year. This is
equivalent to 18-26% of the total water inlow* (total runoff), estimated at 110,000 Mm3 per year.

Piezometric
depression cone
within a pump-site

to 6 times greater (180,000 to 300,000 Mm ) than the storage


capacity of the 1,200 reservoirs currently sited in Spain (55,000
Mm3).
3

2. The widespread distribution of aquifers, which cover a third


of the territory of mainland and island Spain (178,000 km2), enables demand to be met without excessive costs of infrastructure at

RESIDENCE TIME: the average time that groundwater remains in an aquifer. Equal to the quotient of the volume of stored groundwater and that
of the annual recharge.
WATER INFLOW: the volume of water received in a river basin during a
given period. Under natural conditions, this input is equal to the total
volume of water discharged at a given point of the same basin.

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PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OF WATER
Under the 1879 Water Act, groundwater belonged to whoever
used it, whether or not they were the owners of the land above.
Nobody, however, could extract water to the surface without the landowners permission. This situation remained so until the 29/1985
Water Act was passed, under which groundwater was considered a
public good, with some exceptions stipulated in Transitory Clauses
of the law. These were intended to preserve some judicial situations
valid prior to the enactment of
the new law. In practice, certain
cases revealed the difficulty of
applying these clauses, and so
The large volume of water
the Spanish Parliament passed
stored in aquifers means
the 46/1999 Law which amenthat normal water demand,
ded the earlier one to resolve its
and even short-term increases,
deficiencies and difficulties (see
can normally be met with
revised text of the Water Law,
greater flexibility and reliability
passed by Royal Legislative
decree 1/2001, July 20).
than by means of surface

reservoirs, which are more


subject to the uncertainty of
rainy seasons

Taking into account the


experience of the drought suffered in Spain during the early
1990s, the 46/1999 Law stipulated the need to search for
other options that would enable water supply to be increased, by the application of new technologies, and that would also improve the efficiency of water consumption. For these purposes, the management of water exploitation was made more flexible, and the possibility of ceding water
consumption rights was introduced by means of an special contract to be signed between the interested people. Water saving poli-

82

CEUTA

MELILLA

River basins and Self-Governing Regions (Autonomous Communities*)


in Spain

cies were promoted, and it was made obligatory to measure water


consumption by means of standard control systems or by means of
administrative reference targets for irrigation water use.
The organisation of Public Water Administration is mainly
based on river basin organisms (Hydrographic Confederations)
and on the National Water Council (Card 5). This is so when the
river basin exceeds the territorial limits of one of the self-governing
regions in Spain. In other cases, i.e. when the river basin lies entirely within a self-governing region, administration is wholly the
responsibility of this region.

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INTERCOMMUNITY CATCHMENT AREAS: river basins which


area is included in more than one Autonomous Region.
INTRACOMMUNITY CATCHMENT AREAS: river basins which
area is completely included in one Autonomous Region.

Drip-feed irrigation with groundwater, in the


province of Huelva (Spain)

REGISTRY AND CATALOGUE OF WATER


EXPLOITATIONS
Administrative records are an essential part of the system established to protect the Public Water Domain. Their goal is to provide judicial security, to comprise objective evidence and to protect
registered water exploitations. The maintenance of a complete
inventory* of groundwater exploitation activity is a legal requirement of fundamental importance in the administration and management of water resources, as detailed in hydrologic plans. By
constantly updating the inventory, we can obtain more and more
data about aquifer hydrogeology and functioning.
The most important precursor of the present-day Water Use
Record was the Register of Exploitations of Public Water, created
in 1901. The aim of this record, which was obligatory and decla-

rative, was that all private uses of public water should be inscribed, so that the Administration could have a documented record
of the exploitation rights of different water users, one that systematically listed all information on the constitution, modification
and extinction of water-use rights. The goal of this record was to
prevent abuses and to avoid the loss of the wealth represented by
water resources.
The Third Transitory Clause of the 29/1985 Water Act states:
(with respect to those) who by virtue of the legislation repealed
by this Law are titleholders of a right over private water extracted
from wells or galleries under exploitation; within the next three
years, dating from the coming into effect of the present Law, both
their right to use the water resource and the non-affection to other
pre-existing legal water use rights. This must be done in the River
Basin organism in order to register in the Water Use Record the

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right as a temporary use of private water (are entitled to enjoy). The
Administration will respect the exploitation regime of the volumes
of water effectively used, for a period of 50 years. At the end of this
period, those who are lawfully exploiting this water will have preferential rights to obtain the corresponding administrative concession, as detailed in the present Law.

INVENTORY OF GROUNDWATER EXPLOITATIONS OR WATER POINTS: the record of all


the springs, natural fountains, wells and
boreholes, among other water sources,
located in a given geographical area, whether exploited or not, and the data for
which are recorded in cards stating the
administrative situation and technical and
hydrogeological characteristics.

The different possible


legal situations included in
the 29/1985 Law, and in its
Transitory Clauses, especially with respect to the
regime of public or private
water resource records
(Water Record and Cata-

logue of Exploitation of Private Water, respectively) are as


follows:
A) Water Record:
1. Surface. Section A: Concessions.
2. Underground. Section A: Concessions; Section B: Wells
and springs with a flow volume less than 7,000 m3/year;
Section C: Temporary use of private water.
B) Catalogue of Exploitation of Private Water: recording the
use made of privately-owned water.
There are officially estimated to be about half a million wells in
Spain (although the real figure might approach two million), of
which approximately 25% are recorded in the registers.

Common forms of groundwater exploitation: left, natural springs; centre, wide-bore well; right, installed borehole (showing the
piezometric level gauge and the control device)

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USES OF GROUNDWATER

he uses of groundwater may be consumptive or non-consumptive. In the former case, its use implies the loss of part
of the water; examples of this include urban supply, in which
about 80% of the water supplied is subsequently returned to the
water cycle, and crop irrigation, for which the return rate is estimated at 20%. On the contrary, with non-consumptive use,
almost all the water volume is later returned, although the quality might be affected. Examples of this kind of use include the
generation of hydroelectricity, hydroponics, fish farming, water
transport, landscaping and environmental applications and, to
a certain extent, the cooling of industrial plants and power stations. The above classification does not take into account changes in water quality or availability.

Indirect methods are normally used to


estimate the water volume really
supplied and consumed in
the different uses. Such
methods consist of

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applying theoretical values (established by River Basin plans) to


population centres, industries and irrigation areas, determined by
factors such as population size, type of industry, classes of crops,
climate characteristics and state of the infrastructure. The quantities thus obtained are assumed to be equal to real consumption.
There is an evident insufficiency of statistics on water use*,
demand* and needs*, which complicates estimation of the real
water volume used.
In Spain, the total demand for water (surface water and
groundwater) for consumptive use exceeds 30,000 Mm3/year,
divided between urban use, crop irrigation and industry. Every
year, agricultural use accounts for about 24,500 Mm3,
almost 80% of the total. Urban supply, including
industries connected to town systems, consumes
about 14% of the total, and the remaining 6% corresponds to industrial use and electricity generation not
included in urban networks.

Pumping test in a
borehole in Biar
(Alicante, Spain)

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Groundwater in Spain

POPULATION SUPPLIED AND VOLUME OF GROUNDWATER USED


groundwater supplies, for
example, Castelln (100%),
Palma de Mallorca (95%)
and Almera (80%). In
general, 70% of urban
areas are supplied by
groundwater. The average
level of domestic consumption is nearly 170
litres/person/day.

Urban supply: the supply of water to urban populations


is an unquestioned basic service for modern society and one
that is inescapably assumed by public authorities. This is stipulated in the Water Act, which considers urban supply a matter of the utmost priority.
In Spain, the volume of water used for urban supply, including that provided to industries connected to town networks,
totals about 4,700 Mm3/year, of which between 1,000 and
1,500 Mm3 are of underground origin. Groundwater is used to
supply about 13 million inhabitants, that is, over 30% of the
national population. Many cities rely wholly or mainly on

86

The water losses that


occur within the distribution systems have been
estimated at 34% for large
metropolitan areas and at
24% for towns with less
than 20,000 inhabitants.
Moreover, the use of water
for street cleaning and for public gardens and parks in towns
and cities is sometimes uncontrolled.
Industrial use: refers to water used for industrial production, not only that incorporated into products, but also the
water necessary for the processes of fabrication, refrigeration,
adaptation and conservation. It also includes the water needed
to satisfy corresponding auxiliary activities, such as catering and
hygiene facilities for staff, the security and maintenance of the
installations and other uses. Furthermore, the water employed
for cooling purposes in power stations must be taken into
account. The current water demand by industries not connected

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to urban networks is about 1,650 Mm3/year, of which some 360


Mm3/year correspond to groundwater. The inland areas of Catalonia and the Jcar and Ebro basins are the areas of greatest use of
groundwater by industries not connected to urban networks.

INDUSTRIAL USE OF GROUNDWATER


(Users not connected to urban networks)
Catchment area

Industrial
use (Mm3/year)

Norte
Duero
Tajo
Guadiana
Guadalquivir
Sur
Segura
Jcar
Ebro
Inland Basins of Catalonia
Balearic Islands
Canary Islands

20
10
45
2
20
6
7
75
65
100
4
6

Total

360

Agricultural use: This includes crop and livestock production. Almost 3.5 million hectares of land are irrigated, of
which about 68% (2,263,000 hectares) are estimated to be irrigated with surface water, 28% (942,000 hectares) with groundwater, and 4% (135,000 hectares) with mixed waters. The total
water demand for irrigation is approximately 24,500 Mm3/year,
of which 20,000 Mm3/year correspond to surface water and
4,500 Mm3/year to groundwater. In Spain, the water demand
for livestock production is insignificant in relation to total
agricultural demand.

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For equal volumes of water available, the amount of capital


invested in groundwater extraction infrastructure is less than
that employed for large above-ground hydraulic projects.
The freedom of exploitation and management existing until the
1985 Water Act, together with technical advances in transmission systems and rural electrification, were factors stimulating
the use of groundwater.
Private enterprise has
been the main force behind
the expansion of groundwater-based irrigation, such that
89% of the land receiving
groundwater corresponds to
private initiatives, in contrast
to the 37% of the land that is
irrigated with surface water.
Irrigation with groundwater is normally more efficient
due to the better use and
water savings made, as a consequence of the closer adjustment between the real cost of
the investment and the price
of water. This is not the case
of surface-regulated water,
the price of which is well
below the real cost. Another
factor that should be borne in
mind is that most groundwater irrigation installations

Water must sometimes be


pumped to mining installations
for various aspects of their
activity. Groundwater is used
in different stages of production

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Groundwater in Spain

were developed in or after the 1960s, which has enabled farmers to incorporate more modern irrigation systems.
The presence of groundwater in areas where the climate is
favourable for agriculture, such as the Mediterranean coast,
has led to the irrigation of large extensions of land to produce
highly profitable crops.

IRRIGATION DEMAND AND MEAL CURRENT


SUPPLIES BY HYDROLOGIC PLANS
(Surface water and groundwater)
Planning
Region

Irrigation
demand
(Mm3/year)

Irrigation
demand
(%)

Mean
supply
(m3/ha/year)

Norte (I, II y III)


Duero
Tajo
Guadiana (I y II)
Guadalquivir
Sur
Segura
Jcar
Ebro
Inland Basins of
Catalonia
Galician coast
Subtotal Peninsula
Balearic Islands
Canary Islands

532
3603
1875
2285
3140
1070
1639
2284
6310

2
15
8
9
13
4
7
9
26

7589
6547
8127
6701
6499
6704
6162
6173
8049

371
532
23641
189
264

2
2
98
1
1

5752
8337
6988
7862
8800

Spain

24094

100

7010

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Others: water transfers, returns, treated and desalinated water

On 34.9% of the land irrigated with groundwater, this is


done by gravity methods, while on 65.1%, sprinklers and/or
localised irrigation are applied.
Ecological and environmental uses: Estimation of the
ecological or environmental volume of water to be used presents the difficulty of defining the limit to which it is deemed possible to modify the natural flow regime without
endangering the survival or normal population levels of
aquatic species. Ecological water volumes vary depending on
the type of river, wetland, delta or estuary. In the case of
rivers, the general conditions for water flow are laid down in
the River Basin Plans.
Concerning the water needs of wetlands, and taking into
account that a minimum volume for these resources may be

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reserved from the total national water balance, it is necessary to establish an appropriate management strategy for each specific area to ensure its conservation, considering water inputs and the phreatic
level of the aquifer. This, in particular, is the task being carried out in the
National Wetlands Inventory, as
required by the 4/1989 Nature
Conservation Act.
Recreational use: varied uses of
the public water domain, with the common factor being the
goal of satisfying societys needs for leisure, sport and recreation. From the viewpoint of water resource utilisation,
three main categories can be defined:
Recreational uses that imply the derivation of water from
the environment (irrigation of sports fields, swimming
pools, sports complexes). In general, these uses require a
moderate consumption of water, and on occasions this is
difficult to distinguish from other urban uses. The application of water to golf courses is normally considered a
special case of irrigation demand and can comprise a significant volume of water consumption in some areas.

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Landscape uses indirectly related to water, where it is a


focal point or attraction for associated activities (camping,
walking, hunting, hiking, etc.). Since 1995, the Doana and
Tablas de Daimiel National Parks, together, receive about
half a million visitors annualy.

WATER DEMAND: the volume of water


required for various uses under the economic conditions for which this water is
available.
WATER NEEDS: the quantity and quality
of water necessary to achieve the goals of
the uses to which it is put.
WATER USE: a particular application of
water, that is, the quantity of water really
employed. In this sense, the concept is
equivalent to water supply.

Recreational activities using water in reservoirs, rivers and


other natural areas in a non-consumptive way (sailing, windsurfing, rowing, canoeing, swimming, fishing, rafting, etc.).

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The future for groundwater


G

roundwater is a renewable natural resource that is


frequently utilised by mankind. It is beneficial in
many ways, helping meet water demand for different
purposes and contributing to social, economic, cultural and recreational welfare.
Over the years, ever-greater demands have been
made on water resources. Todays society not only
requires water to be available in sufficient quantity
(in the developed world, it is unimaginable for a
house to lack running water) but also to be of a quality suitable for the intended purpose. For these reasons groundwater, due to its excellent quality and
resistance to contamination, plays a vital role in
supplying urban areas with drinking water. In Spain,
this importance is not always recognised, or not so
much as in countries with a similar level of social
and economic development.

Support to the water supplies to the


Baha de Cdiz region (Spain) during
the 1992-1995 drought. 500 L/second
extracted from the Arcos-Bornos aquifer
were incorporated directly into the town
supply system, taking advantage of the
pre-existing distribution infrastructure
of the reservoir located upstream from
the aquifer

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For extraction to be achieved without undesirable side


effects, we need accurate information in order to understand all
the issues related to water resources; water use must be planned
to be sustainable, so that conservation can be reconciled with
social and economic development. When this is not the case,
serious problems arise, especially concerning the lack of available water, in quality or quantity, for the purposes required. Such
problems have affected the human population, the economy
and the environment.
In the second half of the twentieth century, and especially
from the 1970s, intensive research has employed new methods
and technologies, making it possible to catalogue the principal
aquifers, define their geometry, determine their hydrogeologic
parameters and hydrodynamic functioning, quantify water
resources and reserves, their degree of exploitation and availability, and characterise their physical and chemical composition. The main problems affecting aquifers have been identified: these include intensive exploitation (that can cause overexploitation), contamination by nitrates, fertilisers and pesticides, seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers, contamination
arising from hydrocarbons or heavy metals used in industrial
processes, and the leaching of urban and industrial waste
matter.
The scientific advances made between 1968 and 1985 and
the new situations arising, such as the increasing numbers of
wells and the growing problem of contamination, were not sufficiently addressed by effective legislatory action. The law in
force at that time did not consider, or at least not in sufficient
detail or depth, aspects concerning the optimisation of groundwater use, aquifer protection or the correction of problems derived from unsatisfactory water planning.

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These limitations were largely overcome in Spain with the


1985 Water Act. This legislation, among other stipulations,
required the establishment of networks to monitor the piezometric levels of groundwater and the quality and quantity of
water extracted. Norms for the exploitation of aquifers were
specified, as were wellhead protection areas both of the
aquifers and their recharge areas. Also protected were recharge
areas, extraction points of water destined for human consumption, natural parks and wetlands. Additional measures included water saving measures and improvements in distribution
infrastructure. Notorious water losses occur from water pipes
used for urban supply, sometimes exceeding 40%. The losses
from water systems for agricultural use have not been evaluated, but could be much higher than those for urban areas, due
to the greater age and deterioration of much of this infrastructure.

ver the years, techniques for the prospection and evaluation of groundwater have evolved, incorporating the
advances made in other fields, such as engineering, geology,
mathematics, statistics, geochemistry and geophysics, among
many others. These advances have been specially significant in
areas related to:
1. Groundwater observation and sampling; data collection;
the application of new geophysical methods.
2. Studying how aquifers function, their recharge processes
and the circulation of groundwater flows. More accurate

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techniques and interpretation methods are now available, such


as hydrogeochemical and isotopic studies.

To Increase water supply guarantee and water resources availability. This double goal can be achieved by the conjunctive use
of surface water and groundwater.

3. Mathematical codes or models to simulate water flow,


solute transport and the conjunctive use of groundwater and
surface water.

The possibilities offered by using groundwater and aquifers


are very varied, taking into account the volume of water available, its spatial distribution, and its possibilities for transfer and
storage capacity. These characteristics make groundwater ideal
for resolving many of the problematic situations that arise today.
Some of the most important of these possibilities include:
1. Groundwater as a source of supply
Only option possible. This is the case where geographic, geomor-phologic and hydrologic conditions do not enable surface water to be used and where regulation infrastructure is difficult or impossible.
Most favourable alternative. Groundwater is used because it
represents the optimum solution, in terms of technical,
economic and environmental conditions.
Most suitable quality for use. In general, groundwater provides
good natural quality, and can be used directly for drinking
water with no special treatment. It is used for this purpose in
most European countries.

92

Applying air-transported geophysical methods to the


study of aquifers

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Availability of additional resources in emergencies or periods of


drought. The high water storage capacity of aquifers means
that water is available to provide a simple and sufficient
remedy to problems of water supply that may arise.

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for underground and surface runoff regulation, and possibly


to favour the recharge process, whether induced or artificial,
by applying appropriate techniques.
Use of water reserves within aquifers. These can be applied:

2. Aquifers as a means of improving water management


The use of aquifers for this purpose is based on their storage
capacity, which is much higher than that provided by surface
regulation measures. Aquifers can be used for the following
aims:
To increase the regulation capability in a river basin or of an
exploitation system. The role assigned to the aquifer would be
similar to that played by a surface reservoir. It could be used

a) To improve the supply guarantee for a given water


demand. This action would ensure the availability of the
average renewable water resources in situations derived
from a temporary lack of precipitations, in which annual
recharge is below average values. In these cases, the goal is
not to increase the mean water volumes extracted, but to
alleviate the deficits created in a special situation.
Subsequently, in periods of greater precipitation, these
extractions would be balanced by higher recharge rates.

Studying aquifers
by means of landbased geophysical
techniques

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The future for groundwater


b) As a reserve that is temporarily available. This alternative is an
issue that is highly questioned among scientists and planners due to its non-renewable character; once the water
reserve has been consumed, it cannot readily be replaced.

The application of this measure requires careful planning


and the establishment of corrective measures, such as a halt
to all exploitation of the aquifer or the availability of new,
external resources, by means of water transfers.

Appropriate management of an aquifer should enable the continued existence


of natural surges of groundwater

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Card 1
Some minerals are relatively insoluble but can be hydrolysed*. In the case of carbonates, this is due to the effect of CO2 (carbon dioxide),
which is incorporated into infiltrating water via the air within the soil.The gas is normally at a partial pressure 10-100 times greater than atmospheric pressure, due to the action of plants and microbes in the soil. The CO2 is mineralised as a bicarbonate ion and incorporates the mobile
cations of the rock, which become meteorized.
In volcanic zones or where there are recent magmatic intrusions there is also a contribution by deep-lying CO2; alteration of the rock then occurs at a considerable depth.
The oxygen dissolved in infiltrated water can also oxidize the organic matter in the soil
and the substances that are in a reduced state (as is the case of Fe2+, which is oxidized
into Fe3+).
This action stops when the CO2 and/or the O2 (the oxygen incorporated from above
soil and from the atmosphere) has been consumed in chemical reactions, which may be
fast or slow depending on the local circumstances.
Rain and surface water contribute an isotopic signature that characterises the origin
of the water and of the recharge process.The stable isotopes of water (oxygen-18 and deuterium) are separated during the generation and transport of atmospheric humidity, but
this does not normally occur underground. Carbon-13 reflects the processes by which CO2
is incorporated into the water and its reaction with carbonated minerals.
The recharge process also involves the incorporation of some radioactive isotopes that
are naturally present in the atmosphere or that are of human origin, mainly as residues from
atmospheric nuclear tests in past decades, or as emissions from nuclear power plants.
The most useful of these are tritium (a hydrogen isotope with a half-life of 12.4 years)
and carbon-14 (with a half-life of 5,760 years). Once water is underground, the atmospheric contribution stops and the isotopic content diminishes due to radioactive disintegration.This enables us to determine the time that has elapsed since infiltration, or rather, the
mean renewal time of the water in the aquifer, because a water sample is in fact a mixture
of different waters that have infiltrated at different times and from different origins.
Just because groundwater is in a natural state does not necessarily mean it is ideal for any use.The water may be brackish or saline, or contain excessive concentrations of certain natural substances, such as fluorine, boron and heavy metals like iron and manganese; it may be very hard,
or present an excess of alkaline ions with respect to alkaline earth metals, among other problems).

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Card 1
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Although these situations do occur, most groundwater is salt-free, or fresh, and contains no pathogenic germs or viruses. In general, it is
suitable for all uses and can be drunk directly.
Most of the substances dissolved in groundwater are found in an ionic state. Some ions are almost always present and they make up virtually the entire quantity of dissolved ions. These majority ions, are the cations, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, and the anions,
bicarbonate, sulphate and chloride. The nitrate anion is frequently included within the group of majority ions, even though its concentration
is low when human action is not a significant factor. The presence of the carbonate ion
requires a pH* greater than 8.3, which occurs only infrequently.When the pH is low, a large
proportion of the dissolved inorganic carbon is in the form of carbonic acid (CO3H2) or disHYDROLISIS: a reaction between the minesolved CO2. Groundwater often contains appreciable quantities of non-dissociated silicic
ral and water, in which the water ions, H+
acid, too, which is usually expressed as dissolved silica.
and OH- act as chemical reagents.
Hydrolysis acts on weak acid or base salts
Other ions and dissolved substances are generally present in much lower quantities
and provokes changes in the pH of the
than are the majority ions. They are known as minority ions when they do not normally exwater. The presence of dissolved CO2
ceed 1% of total ionic content (i.e. concentrations of between 0.0001 and 10 mg/L), and as
favours
the hydrolysis of carbonates and
trace elements when their presence is difficult to measure by standard analytical means (consilicates.
centrations of less than 0.0001 mg/L).
The chemical species dissolved in groundwater are determined, among other factors, by
the pH, the temperature and by the oxygen dissolved in the groundwater.The normal range
of pH values is from 6.5 to 8.The temperature of groundwater in the upper part of the aquifer varies very little and corresponds to the mean annual atmospheric temperature of the
area in question.The temperature usually increases by 1 C per 33 m additional depth. Most
groundwater contains between 0 and 5 mg/L of dissolved oxygen.
Surface water and groundwater, depending on the concentration of dissolved substances
they contain, are classified as freshwater (with a maximum of 1000-2000 mg/L of dissolved
substances), brackish (up to 5000 mg/L), saline (up to 40,000 mg/L) or brine (over 40,000 mg/L,
up to the saturation value of about 350,000 mg/L).

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pH: notation used to describe the decimal


logarithm of the inverse of the concentration of the hydrogen ion. It is used as an
indicator of the acidity or alkalinity of a
solution, depending respectively on whether its value is less or greater than 7. The
pH value must be measured in the field; if it
is measured in the laboratory, the value
may have been affected by a loss of carbon
dioxide from the water sample, or carbonate precipitates may have formed.

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Card 2
According to the Spanish Water Act,
a Groundwater Users Cooperative must
be comprised of the following management organs:
General Board or Assembly of Users,
made up of all the user members.
Board of Governors, elected by the
General Board of Users.
One or several committees: these
groups must deal with the questions
raised by users, must impose sanctions
on infractors, determine indemnities
payable to those whose interests are
prejudiced and ensure that obligations
arising from infractions are met.
Various Groundwater Users Cooperatives defending common interests may
combine to form a General Community of
Users of Groundwater. When various individual users, or even Groundwater Users
Cooperatives, act jointly, they may constitute a Central Board of Users of
Groundwater, to protect their rights and
interests, and to manage and oversee the
coordinated use of water resources.

Ceramic plaque commemorating the inauguration of Font de Quart (Quart spring),


province of Valencia (Spain)

In Spain, the region of Catalonia has pioneered the organisation of groundwater users to manage aquifer resources.Two Groundwater
Users Cooperatives are currently operational: the Llobregat Delta, Groundwater Users Cooperative, created in 1976 under the 1879
Water Act, and the Cubeta de Sant Andreu de la Barca Groundwater Users Cooperative, the first such to be registered in Spain under the
1985 Water Act. Between 1987 and 1995, 15 aquifers were provisionally declared to be over-exploited. Of these, only two have set up a
Groundwater Users Cooperative. Between 1989 and 1995, twenty Groundwater Users Cooperatives were created in the western La
Mancha aquifer and one in the Campo de Montiel aquifer.

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Cantabrian Sea
Hydrogeological
units with a
provisional or
definitive
declaration of
over-exploitation
(June 2000)

France

ed

it
e

rr
an

Se
a

Portugal

Atlantic Ocean

Balearic Islands

Canary Islands

ta
Ceu

lla
Meli

Units with a definitive overexploitation declaration


Idem, provisional
Idem, Inland Basins
of Catalonia

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Card 3
The Spanish government recognised the importance and necessity of controlling groundwater resources in the White Paper on
Groundwater (1994), which included a specific action programme entitled Official Management Networks, intended to replace the existing
network with a publicly-owned one that would enable the observation and monitoring of all the hydrogeological units in the country.
In particular, three types of monitoring network were established:
1. Basic, reference network.
2. Network to respond to users direct interests.
3. Control or surveillance network for specific problems.
The basic, or reference, networks are normally designed and operated by national or regional authorities. Those focussing on users
direct interests correspond to the users (supply companies, irrigation communities or associations, users cooperatives) who make use of
them to take decisions on the day-to-day running of the water exploitation system. They operate on a micro-scale, that of the local territory or the aquifer. The control networks for specific problems are installed to monitor particular problems, those potential or actually
existing, such as installations that might contaminate an aquifer, or the observation of a process of seawater intrusion.
The objectives of the official monitoring network are to:
1. Periodically define the state of groundwaters.
2. Determine trends in the evolution of water resources.
3. Explain the causes and relevant factors in the variations observed.
This network provides general information and can be used for various purposes, particularly by the management bodies responsible for
the allocation, exploitation and protection of water resources.
The basic quantitative and qualitative controls of groundwater consist of measuring:
1. Water depth in the boreholes comprising the piezometric network. This is a direct indicator of the water mass stored within the
aquifer and of the characteristics of the water flow within it.
2. Parameters defining the chemical quality of the water (electrical conductivity, pH, ion content and that of dissolved majority
components).

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3. Flow volume of the main natural discharges from individual springs or from identified sections of rivers. Monitoring consists of
using installations or devices to measure water flow; such systems are termed the spring or natural outflow network. This network
is part of, or complementary to, the official measuring-station network and, moreover, has its own, specific purpose, namely, to establish correlations between piezometric and hydrometric data and to enable predictions to be made of the base-level water flow of
rivers depending on the piezometric state of the aquifers. So, the influence of groundwater exploitation on the state of the aquifers
can be studied.

Automatic monitoring station at a natural groundwater surge: the Tempul spring in Jerez de la Frontera
(province of Cdiz, Spain)

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Card 4
The vulnerability of groundwater to contamination
is an intrinsic property of an aquifer that depends on its
capacity to resist the effects of human intervention.This
factor is independent of its possible interest or use and
of water quality. There are two types of groundwater
vulnerability:
Intrinsic or natural vulnerability, which depends on
the natural conditions of the aquifer and is independent of the behaviour of particular contaminants.
Specific vulnerability, which is evaluated in relation to a type of contaminant or group of contaminants with similar properties (single-objective
evaluation) or to various contaminants (multipleobjective evaluation).
The magnitudes defining the intrinsic vulnerability of
groundwater can be classified as:
Principal
Recharge
Soil type
Thickness and nature of the unsaturated zone
Aquifer conditions
Secondary
Topography
Possible contact with masses of surface or sea
water

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Contamination vulnerability maps comprise one of the most commonly used means of presenting the results of vulnerability evaluation.
They can be defined as preventative protection maps derived from hydrogeological maps. They are particularly useful for the purposes of
planning, management and decision-making at all levels of government, as well as in education and for public information.
In Spain, vulnerability maps were first created in the late 1970s by the Spanish Geological Survey.They consisted of 1:50,000 scale maps
intended to identify optimum sites for the location of urban solid-waste tips. In 1988, in another line of investigation, the Spanish Geological
Survey produced a series of maps to assist managers about the possibility of contamination of groundwater from waste disposal on the land.
These maps covered the whole country, at a provincial scale of 1:200,000 and at a scale of 1:500,000 for the River Basins.

Liquid waste, which could produce the contamination of surfacewater or groundwater if


not previously treated and purified

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Card 5
In Spain, the article 21 of the revised text of the Water Law (passed by Royal Legislative Decree 1/2001, July 20) states that in the river basins
that exceed the territorial boundaries of a Self-Governing Region, River Basin Organisms will be established, with the functions and responsibilities stipulated in the present Law. From an organisational viewpoint, the public water authority is represented in the inter-regional river basins
(Norte, Duero, Tajo, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, Sur, Segura, Jcar and Ebro) by the River Basin Organism, also termed the Hydrographic
Confederation, and in the intra-regional river basins (Galician Coast, Inland Basins of Catalonia, Balearic and Canary Islands) by the relevant
Water Administration of the corresponding regional government. In the latter case, each regional government can establish its own regulatory
system.According to article 23 of the above Water Act, the functions of the inter-regional River Basin Organisms are as follows: the preparation
of a river-basin Hydrologic Plan; the administration and control of the public water domain; the administration and control of public-interest water
exploitations or those that affect more than one Self-Governing Region; the planning, construction and exploitation of works carried out using
the Organisms own funds, of works commissioned by the State and of works based on agreements with other Self-Governing Regions, with local
corporations, with other public or private entities or with individuals.
Hydrographic Confederations comprise the following bodies:
GOVERNING BODIES

Water Commissioner

Board
of Directors

President

Technical Directorate

Secretariat
Secretara General
General

Water Planning Office

PARTICIPATORY BODIES
Exploitation Boards

Works Boards

Reservoir dam-out
Commission

Users Assembly

PLANNING BODIES
River Basin Water Council

Article 19 of the revised text of the Water Act created the National Water Council, the highest consultative body. Its function is to inform
and advise (but not to legislate or execute) on the following topics (art. 20):
The preparation of the National Hydrologic Plan, before its approval by the Government and submission to the National Parliament.
River Basin Hydrologic Plans, before their approval by the Government.
General regulatory norms drafts, related to the planning of the public water domain.
Projects of general interest relating to agricultural, urban, industrial, energetic or territorial planning that can affect water planning or
use.

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The questions common to two or more River Basin Organisms, related to the use of water resources and other goods within the public
water domain.
When the Government or high-ranking Executive Bodies of the Self-Governing Regions inquire about questions related to the public water
domain, the National Water Council provides the corresponding report. This Council also proposes public administrations and organisms on
lines of study and research to develop technical innovations to improve water extraction, use, conservation, recovery, integral treatment and
economy.
The planning and better use of available water resources are the fundamental objectives of the National Hydrologic Plan and of the River
Basin Hydrologic Plans. For groundwater, this implies the need to correctly define each and every one of the hydrogeologic units located within every planning ambit. This in turn means it is necessary to accurately establish the physical limits of each such unit and the magnitude of
various components of its water balance:
The nature and origin of the recharge
The value and destination of natural discharge
Water uses and alterations that determine the water balance of the aquifer
Natural quality
External factors that may affect water quality
The corresponding Hydrologic Plan assigns resources and establishes priorities and compatibilities between the different uses within the
various exploitation systems that may be defined, integrating groundwater and surface waters into such systems.The following aspects must be
also defined:
The basic characteristics of the different quality levels determined for groundwater, depending on the use to be made.
Protection areas for the aquifers requiring them, namely those used to supply urban demand and those discharging into specially-protected wetlands.
Measures to protect and recover groundwater presenting quality problems; guidelines for the recovery of over-exploited aquifers.
The National Hydrologic Plan defines the hydrogeologic units that belong to more than one planning ambit and determines the methodology to be used to assign resources. Additionally, criteria are established for the coordination of the different River Basin Hydrologic Plans and
for the transfer of resources between different planning ambits.
Although the Water Act does not address the hydrographic areas of Ceuta and Melilla, it is understood that, because the relevant powers
on the public water domain were not transferred to these areas, they correspond to the Ministry of the Environment.

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Recommended readings
BENNET, G. D. (1987). Introduccin a la Hidrulica de las Aguas
Subterrneas. Tcnicas de Investigaciones de Recursos Hdricos
del Servicio Geolgico de los Estados Unidos. Libro 3. Cap. B2.
U. S. Government Publishing Office. Washington, USA,
167 pp.
CUSTODIO, E. & LLAMAS, M. R. (1983). Hidrologa Subterrnea. 2nd
Edition. Ed. Omega. Barcelona, Spain, 2 Vol. 2350 pp.
DAVIS, S. N. & DE WIEST, R. J. M. (1966). Hydrogeology. 2nd Edition.
John Wiley & Sons. New York, USA, 463 pp.
DOMNICO, P. A. & SCHWARZ, F. W. (1997). Physical and Chemical
Hydrogeology. 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. New York, USA,
528 pp.
DRISCOLL, F. G. (1986). Groundwaters and Wells. 2nd Edition. Publ.
Johnson Division. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA, 1089 pp.
FETTER, C. W. (2001). Applied Hydrogeology. 4th Edition. Prentice Hall.
New York, USA, 598 pp.
FREEZE, R. A. & CHERRY, J. A. (1979). Groundwater. Prentice Hall. New
Jersey, USA, 604 pp.
HALL, P. (1996). Water Well and Aquifer Test Analysis. Water Resources
Publications, LLC. USA, 428 pp.
HEM, J. D. (1985). Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics
of Natural Water. 3rd Edition. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper 2254. USA, 263 pp.

HISCOCK, K. (2005). Hydrogeology. Principles and practice. Blackwell


Publishing. Oxford, UK, 389 pp.
IGME (2000). Actualidad de las tcnicas geofsicas aplicadas en
Hidrogeologa. Instituto Geolgico y Minero de Espaa. Eds.
Olmo Alarcn, M. & Lpez-Geta, J. A. Madrid, Spain,
375 pp.
ITGE (1993). Las aguas subterrneas en Espaa. Estudio de sntesis. 2nd
Edition. Instituto Tecnolgico Geominero de Espaa (now
Instituto Geolgico y Minero de Espaa, IGME). Madrid, Spain,
591 pp. + 12 maps. Available in: http://www.igme.es
ITGE (2000). Unidades Hidrogeolgicas de Espaa. Mapa y datos bsicos.
Mapa 1/1.000.000, CD-ROM y memoria. Instituto Tecnolgico
Geominero de Espaa (now Instituto Geolgico y Minero de
Espaa, IGME). Madrid, Spain, 34 pp.
LLAMAS, M. R. & CUSTODIO, E. (eds.) (2003). Intensive Use of
Groundwater: Challenges and Opportunities. Balkema Publishers
(Taylor & Francis Group). Lisse, The Netherlands, 478 pp.
LLAMAS, M. R., FORNS, J. M., HERNNDEZ-MORA, N. & MARTNEZ
CORTINA, L. (2001). Aguas subterrneas: retos y oportunidades.
Fundacin Marcelino Botn and Ediciones Mundi-Prensa. Madrid,
Spain, 529 pp.
MARTNEZ ALFARO, P. E., MARTNEZ SANTOS, P. & CASTAO
CASTAO, S. (2006). Fundamentos de Hidrogeologa. Ediciones
Mundi-Prensa. Madrid, Spain, 284 pp.
PRICE, M. (1996). Introducing Groundwater. Chapman & Hall. 2nd
Edition. London, UK, 278 pp.

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Recommended readings
ROGERS, P., LLAMAS, M. R. & MARTNEZ CORTINA, L. (eds.) (2006).
Water Crisis: Myth or Reality? Balkema Publishers (Taylor & Francis
Group). Lisse, The Netherlands, 341 pp.
SCHWARTZ, F. W. & ZHANG, H. (2003). Fundamentals of Groundwater.
John Wiley & Sons. New Jersey, USA, 592 pp.
UNESCO (2003). Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations
World Water Development Report. World Water Assessment
Programme, 576 pp.

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VILLANUEVA, M. & IGLESIAS, A. (1984). Pozos y Acuferos.


Tcnicas de evaluacin te ensayos de bombeo. Instituto Geolgico
y Minero de Espaa. Madrid, Spain, 426 pp. Available in:
http://www.igme.es/internet/webaguas/igme/homec.htm
WATSON, I. & BURNETT, A. D. (1995). Hydrology. An environmental
approach. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Ratn, USA, 702 pp.

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Information of interest
American Institute of Hydrology (AIH). United States
Web: www.aihydro.org

International Association of Hydrogeologists (IAH). United Kingdom


Web: www.iah.org

Australian Center for Groundwater Studies. Australia


Web: www.groundwater.com.au

International Water Resources Association (IWRA). United States


Web: www.iwra.siu.edu

British Geological Survey. United Kingdom


Web: www.bgs.ac.uk

National Ground Water Association (NGWA). United States


Web: www.ngwa.org

Bureau de Recherches Gologiques et Minires (BRGM). France


Web: www.brgm.fr

National Institute of Hydrology (NIH). India


Web: www.nih.ernet.in

Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (CEH). United Kingdom


Web: www.nwl.ac.uk/ih

National Water Research Institute. Canada


Web: www.nwri.org

Environment Agency (EA). United Kingdom


Web: www.environment-agency.gov.uk
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). United States
Web: www.epa.gov
European Environment Agency (EEA)
Web: www.eea.eu.int
General information about water. United States
Web: www.worldwater.org

Save Our Groundwater. United States


Web: www.saveourgroundwater.org
The Association of the European Geological Surveys
(EuroGeoSurveys).
Web: www.eurogeosurveys.org
The California Department of Water Resources (DWR). United States
Web: www.dwr.water.ca.gov

Ground Water Protection Council (GWPC). United States


Web: www.gwpc.org

United Nations Educational,


Organization (UNESCO)
Web: www.unesco.org/water

Scientific

Groundwater Foundation. United States


Web: www.groundwater.org

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). United States


Web: www.usgs.gov

Instituto Geolgico y Minero de Espaa (IGME). Spain


Web: www.igme.es

Water Education Foundation. United States


Web: www.water-ed.org

and

Cultural

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