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Authors:
Juan Antonio Lpez-Geta
Juan Mara Forns
Gerardo Ramos
Fermn Villarroya
MINISTERIO
DE EDUCACIN
Y CIENCIA
Instituto Geolgico
y Minero de Espaa
Fundacin
Marcelino Botn
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GROUNDWATER
A natural underground resource
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Authors
Juan Antonio Lpez-Geta
Juan Mara Forns Azcoiti
Gerardo Ramos Gonzlez
Fermn Villarroya Gil
This textbook corresponds to the English version of the book jointly published by the Instituto Geolgico y Minero de Espaa (IGME)
and Marcelino Botn Foundation, on 2001, titled Las aguas subterrneas. Un recurso natural del subsuelo. This publication includes a new
and long chapter about groundwater use in the world. Besides, authors have higtly modified the original structure to obtain a worldwide approach.
The book has been done with the special collaboration of Dr. Jos Javier Cla, valuable in his ideas, designs and treatment of texts coming
from the different authors. His scientific knowledge and editing industry experience have been crucial for the final quality of this work.
Dr. Jos Manuel Murillo Daz and Dr. Carlos Martnez Navarrete contributed to the following chapters: Conjunctive use of surface water
and groundwater, Artificial recharge, and Wellhead protection areas for groundwater catchments.
The authors thank Dr. Emilio Custodio, Former Director General of the Spanish Geological Survey (IGME) and Professor of the Technical
University of Catalonia, for his unfailing attention and dedication to the publication of this book. The observations and suggestions
made on the basis of his long experience were of inestimable help in achieving the desired quality for the contents of this book. We also
express our gratitude to Dr. Ramn Llamas Madurga and Dr. Juan Jos Durn Valsero for checking the manuscript and for their valuable
suggestions. We thank, too, Dr. Jos A. de la Orden Gmez for the reviewing of the translation into English, and all those who generously gave us permission to use the photographs illustrating the text, especially to Dr. Antonio Fernndez Ura, Marc Martnez Parra,
Carlos Torres Minondo, Juan Jos Rodes Martnez, Juan I. Rozas, Vicente Fabregat Ventura, Carlos Mediavilla Laso, Diego Martn Sosa,
the Provincial Council of Alicante, Crdoba City Hall, Rafael Nuche, Empresa Nacional de Residuos S.A., Aguas de Barcelona, Taylor &
Francis Group and NASA.
Translation
Glenn Harding
Typesetting
Ibersaf Industrial, S. L.
INSTITUTO GEOLGICO Y MINERO DE ESPAA <http://www.igme.es>
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO) <http://www.unesco.org>
FUNDACIN MARCELINO BOTN <http://www.fundacionmbotin.org>
Legal deposit: M-8122-2006
NIPO: 657-06-011-4
ISBN: 84-7840-618-2
Printing and photosetting
Grupo Industrial de Artes Grficas
Ibersaf Industrial, S. L.
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My well
Beneath its own image it springs
and each drop on being born
forestalls the birth
of one that nears
the threshold of its life.
Absent activity becomes calm,
tiring of movement,
confines its energy in a narrow space
and patiently awaits the succour of the rope,
chorus of innocence.
However often the bucket breaks it,
it never empties or depletes;
this sweetness comes from somewhere
undiminishable,
that is, without being, where it always was.
Eternal fresh spring water
that gathers in my hand
in its deep primordial state.
Water and rock, theres nothing else:
no sky or gaze or light or mouth.
No tread splashes, raising foam,
no voices break the calm.
Circle of grace! Cold mineshaft
of streamless water, silent,
without current, banks, or reeds.
Skyscraper, underground well,
subterranean dwelling,
here the tree, craving water,
put down a wayward root, and wedded its life
to a wound.
Translated from Pozo mo,
by Miguel Hernndez (1910-1942)
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Presentation
T
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ANDRAS SZLLSI-NAGY
Division of Water Sciences
United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
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rities. These circumstances, together with the understandable lack of hydrogeological training of such small and
medium-scale farmers, has given rise in certain areas to
various problems, which are described in this book. These
problems are contributing to the birth of a certain awareness
that the management of groundwater cannot continue in
the same way. The Spanish Water Act of 1985 comprised an
attempt to rationalise the use of groundwater in Spain but,
as recognised in the White Paper on Water in Spain, the
improvements achieved so far have been insufficient.
The law creating a National Hydrologic Plan, which came
into effect in July 2001, also addressed this issue. Among
other goals, it advocated an intensive campaign of hydrologic education aimed at wide sectors of society. The present
publication is intended to contribute to this public awareness campaign.
A relevant aspect of the present book is that it has been
created as a result of cooperation between government,
represented by the Spanish Geological Survey (IGME), and
the private sector, in this case represented by the Marcelino
Botn Foundation. Preparation of the document was a joint
project carried out by staff of both institutions, who are acknowledged on other pages. We also acknowledge and are
grateful for the many hours dedicated by the former
Director General of the Spanish Geological Survey, who is a
renowned hydrogeologist, to reading and checking the
various drafts preceding the finished work.
For the staff of the Marcelino Botn Foundation it has
been a gratifying experience to collaborate with the experts
of the Spanish Geological Survey. What is most important,
however, is that we are convinced this book will be of great
help in achieving a better management of the hidden treasure beneath our feet, the groundwater of Spain.
M. RAMN LLAMAS
Director of the Groundwater Project
of the Marcelino Botn Foundation
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rities. These circumstances, together with the understandable lack of hydrogeological training of such small and
medium-scale farmers, has given rise in certain areas to
various problems, which are described in this book. These
problems are contributing to the birth of a certain awareness
that the management of groundwater cannot continue in
the same way. The Spanish Water Act of 1985 comprised an
attempt to rationalise the use of groundwater in Spain but,
as recognised in the White Paper on Water in Spain, the
improvements achieved so far have been insufficient.
The law creating a National Hydrologic Plan, which came
into effect in July 2001, also addressed this issue. Among
other goals, it advocated an intensive campaign of hydrologic education aimed at wide sectors of society. The present
publication is intended to contribute to this public awareness campaign.
A relevant aspect of the present book is that it has been
created as a result of cooperation between government,
represented by the Spanish Geological Survey (IGME), and
the private sector, in this case represented by the Marcelino
Botn Foundation. Preparation of the document was a joint
project carried out by staff of both institutions, who are acknowledged on other pages. We also acknowledge and are
grateful for the many hours dedicated by the Director
General of the Spanish Geological Survey, who is a renowned hydrogeologist, to reading and checking the various
drafts preceding the finished work.
For the staff of the Marcelino Botn Foundation it has
been a gratifying experience to collaborate with the experts
of the Spanish Geological Survey. What is most important,
however, is that we are convinced this book will be of great
help in achieving a better management of the hidden treasure beneath our feet, the groundwater of Spain.
M. RAMN LLAMAS
Director of the Groundwater Project
of the Marcelino Botn Foundation
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Index
Page
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................
THE WATER CYCLE ...........................................................................................................................
WHAT IS GROUNDWATER? ..............................................................................................................
WHAT IS AN AQUIFER?.....................................................................................................................
NATURAL COMPOSITION OF GROUNDWATER .............................................................................
HOW IS GROUNDWATER EXTRACTED? .........................................................................................
CONJUNCTIVE USE OF SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER ...............................................
ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE ....................................................................................................................
WELLHEAD PROTECTION AREAS FOR GROUNDWATER CATCHMENTS...................................
GROUNDWATER USER COOPERATIVES..........................................................................................
ECONOMIC VALUE OF GROUNDWATER ........................................................................................
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF GROUNDWATER .........................................................................
DROUGHT...........................................................................................................................................
GROUNDWATER MONITORING NETWORKS .................................................................................
MAIN PROBLEMS AFFECTING GROUNDWATER............................................................................
Intensive use of groundwater ....................................................................................................
Contamination of aquifers ........................................................................................................
GROUNDWATER IN THE WORLD ...................................................................................................
Water and People .......................................................................................................................
The development of international water policies ....................................................................
Groundwater ..............................................................................................................................
GROUNDWATER IN SPAIN................................................................................................................
Aquifers and hydrogeological units...........................................................................................
Groundwater reserves and resources .........................................................................................
Public administration of water ..................................................................................................
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Introduction
N
Since prehistoric times, man has made use of the groundwater surging from natural springs. At first, this water was only
taken for drinking, but as
the centuries passed, it was
applied to other activities,
Numerous
such as agriculture and
primitive
industry, that were incorcivilizations
porated into daily life and
were founded
which required water. Thus
on sites
today in Spain, groundwawhere
ter is used to supply a third
of the population (some
groundwater
thirteen million people), as
was available
well as a significant proportion of the 60 million tourists who visit Spain each
year. One fact that demonstrates the importance of groundwater
in this country is that in 70% of urban centres, drinking water is
obtained from wells, boreholes or springs.
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Introduction
For centuries,
groundwater has been
used for economic
advantage
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zone* (groundwater runoff*). When the intensity of the precipitation exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil, surface runoff
occurs. This, in conjunction with subsurface runoff comprises total
runoff*, which then flows to the rivers and finally into lakes or
into the sea.
Water in the oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and reservoirs evaporates, and at a greater rate as the temperature rises and the air becomes drier. Vegetation also contributes to evaporation, by the
mechanism of transpiration. Water vapour rises into the atmosphere and charges the air with humidity. When the water vapour
cools it condenses into minute particles that form clouds and
mist. The water returns to the Earths surface and to the oceans
as precipitation (rain, snow, hail, dew or frost). Not all the precipitation reaches the Earths surface, as part of it evaporates
during its descent and part is intercepted by plants or by the surfaces of buildings, roads, etc., and is soon returned to the atmosphere as water vapour.
Of the liquid water that reaches the ground, part is retained in
puddles or small undulations. Most of this returns directly to the
atmosphere. Another part flows over the surface (direct surface
runoff* and subsurface runoff or inflow*) and is concentrated into
rivulets which then come together to form streams that later flow
into rivers. At the same time, part of the precipitation infiltrates
into the ground, depending on the soil type and humidity and on
the intensity and duration of the precipitation. The infiltrated*
water first soaks into the soil and then slowly percolates* through
the unsaturated* zone, producing the recharge* of the saturated
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The different phases of the water cycle: evaporation of sea water, its transport in clouds, precipitation (as rain or snow), runoff into streams and
rivers, recharge of aquifers, evapotranspiration, outlet to the sea and the cycle begins again
TOTAL RUNOFF: the fraction of the precipitation that falls into a water basin, escapes
evapotranspiration and flows both on and
under the surface.
DIRECT SURFACE RUNOFF: the part derived from the rain water that flows over the
land surface into streams, rivers and other
bodies of water.
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UNSATURATED ZONE: The land lying between the land surface and the saturated
zone. In this sector the pores are occupied
by air and water.
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How the water cycle is affected by mans actions: atmospheric pollution, contamination of rivers and reduction in the volume of water they carry,
falling piezometric levels and entry of sea water into aquifers (red arrow)
% of total
fresh water
68.7
30.1
0.26
0.006
0.003
0.04
Average
residence time
2500 years
9700 years
tens of thousands of years
17 years
150 years
15-20 days
a few hours
8-10 days
Shiklomanov, I. A. (1997). Comprehensive assessment of the freshwater resources of the World. World Meteorological Organization
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What is groundwater?
G
roundwater comprises all the water below the land surface, and specifically, the water lying beneath the phreatic
level*, completely filling all the pores and fissures in the ground.
This water flows naturally out to the surface through springs,
seepage areas and water courses, or directly into the sea. It can
also be channelled, artificially, into wells, galleries or other types
of catchments. Thanks to natural recharge, groundwater is
constantly renewed. This recharge is mainly derived from pre-
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What is groundwater?
Unsaturated zone: here, the pores
contain air and water. The water
is subject to capillary tension that
holds it against the ground and
which makes its effective pressure
less than atmospheric pressure.
Aquifer zones
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What is an aquifer?
A
a geological formation
that is capable of
storing and
transmitting
groundwater in
significant quantities,
such that it can
be extracted by
catchment
works
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What is an aquifer?
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Detritic aquifer
Fissured aquifer
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Karstic aquifer
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What is an aquifer?
bonate grains) also constitute important aquifers, for example the calcarenites that outcrop near Carmona (province of
Sevilla, Spain) or the Cretaceous sandstones known as facies
Utrillas. Consolidated sedimentary rocks contain abut 75% of
all the groundwater in peninsular Spain.
Igneous and metamorphic rocks: igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and consolidation of magma. They can be
extrusive (volcanic) or intrusive (plutonic), depending on
whether they consolidate on the surface or within the Earths
crust, respectively (eg granites, gabbros, etc).
Metamorphic rocks are those that have undergone profound physical and chemical transformations, giving rise to
Types of aquifers
determined by the
hydrostatic pressure
of the water they
contain
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In the presence of lenticles, or discontinuous low-permeability layers in the unsaturated zone, perched aquifers may sometimes form. These layers retain part of the recharge for a certain
period, and produce relatively widespread saturated zones that
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What is an aquifer?
Left, panoramic view of the outlet of the Almonte-Marismas aquifer (Spain), in the vicinity of Asperillo (Mazagn-Matalascaas), showing the drainage
front that extends along the cliff face. Right, enlargement of the circled area, where the drainage front is clearly reflected in the profusion of ferns
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Natural composition of
groundwater
W
through which the groundwater flows, its residence time within the aquifer and the supply of reactive gases, mainly CO2
and O2.
With respect to anthropogenic factors, human activity can
affect the chemical composition of the infiltrating water and
the recharge, (sometimes intensely so), by modifying its temperature, introducing solutes (salts, nitrates, etc.) and various
substances (such as hydrocarbons, pesticides and halogenised
solvents) into the land and the water. Their presence may lead
to a significant degradation of the natural characteristics of
the water.
Moreover, the environment can be modified by other factors, such as chemical precipitation, ion interchange (mainly of
cations) and reduction-oxidation reactions. These processes
may be intense when one body of water is displaced by another
with a different chemical composition (good examples of this
are found in coastal aquifers, in the mixing zone between fresh,
inland water and salt seawater) or when the ground contains
organic matter.
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Natural composition of
g ro u n d w a t e r
An example of the evolution of the natural composition of groundwater within an aquifer: the recharge water containing CO2 of edaphic origin (from the
soil), dissolves the carbonate rock, which hardens the water and transforms it into a calcium bicarbonate type. In this initial stage, the water still
contains sufficient oxygen dissolved to be able to oxidize both the organic matter in the medium and the metals in a reduced state, such as Fe (II),
that it encounters. Most of the water discharges through the main spring and a minor proportion through the confined area, via the semi-confining roof.
In the case illustrated, there is not sufficient potential for submarine discharge to occur, and a large part of the confined aquifer contains almost
immobile salt water. Further inland, this gives way to fresh water, via a large intermediate mixing area where the degree of salinity is variable. In the
area marked as A, all the available oxygen may have been consumed and the presence of organic matter may cause the reduction of sulphates and the
subsequent appearance of sulphides (SH - and SH2 ) and/or the reduction of the Fe (III) in the medium to the soluble ion Fe ++, with sometimes very
complicated structures; there could also be an increase in alkalinity and the possible precipitation of metallic sulphides. If the land previously contained
salt water, there would be a cationic exchange which would decrease the hardness of the water and make it evolve towards a sodium bicarbonate type.
In the sector marked B, there is a mixing of fresh and salt water, presumably of a reductive nature, and cationic exchanges that depend on whether
the salinity is increasing (water hardening and precipitation of carbonates)or decreasing (water softening, increase in Na+ and the possible dissolution of
carbonates). In sector C, the composition of the water is close to that of the sea water, although it is only renewed very slowly (and thus is old) and is
presumably of a reductive nature (absence of SO4=, presence of SH- and SH2 , and perhaps that of CH4 , Fe++ and, sometimes, NH4+).
AEROSOL: suspension of very fine, solid or liquid particles in a gas, normally air.
ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS: processes, actions, materials and forms resulting from human activity. In this sense, man is considered a geological agent like
any other, with the capability to provoke phenomena that change the configuration of the geosphere. All resource-extraction activities, their commercialisation and use, civil engineering projects and agricultural activities are considered actions parallel to those of erosion, transport and sedimentation.They
are all capable of transforming the landscape and its geological components.
EVAPORITIC MATERIALS: sedimentary rocks formed by the evaporation of water and, therefore, with components that are easily soluble. The main evaporitic rocks are gypsum, anhydrite and common salt or halite.
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Example of a
map based on
an anthropogenic
contamination
study: nitrate
contents in an
area to the south
of Madrid (Spain),
represented by
isolines. The inset
map shows the
same situation but
with colour zones,
so that the areas
of highest nitrate
content are shown
in deep red.
cing solutes that may lead to a degradation of the natural characteristics of the groundwater and of the land.
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Natural composition of
g ro u n d w a t e r
28
with a predominance of chloride and sodium, largely due to the aridity of the climate. In the central parts of the high-altitude islands
(they can reach great heights), salinity is low. Emissions of carbon dioxide of volcanic origin sometimes give rise to the occurrence of water
that either has low pH or is highly mineralised, of sodium or magnesium bicarbonate type.
The existence of evaporitic materials* in the land is associated
with a high content of sulphates, chlorides and sodium in the water.
These circumstances occur quite frequently in some parts of Spain,
although they tend to be very localised.
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How is groundwater
extracted?
odern wells require sophisticated technology with appropriate technical design, together with detailed knowledge
of the aquifer. Nevertheless, the importance of high quality well
design and construction is frequently underestimated. The lifetime of a well and the efficiency of its functioning depend
directly on the quality of the materials employed and on that of
the technology utilised. Some of the problems ascribed to
groundwater supply sources are, in fact, often due to defective
construction and/or maintenance of the well, and not to the
aquifer. Nowdays, highly advanced technology is available and
drilling a well has become a civil engineering project that requires good design, management, maintenance and observation.
The drilling methods most often used today are percussion,
rotation and roto-percussion.
Percussion drilling consists of repeatedly striking the rock
with a trepan* until the rock is pulverised. It can then be raised
to the surface surface by means of a tool called bailer and
extracted. This system has been used to drill wells in all sorts of
geological materials, although, depending on the type of rock,
drilling may be more or less difficult. This method is particularly
suitable for drilling into consolidated aquifers (marbles, limestones, dolostones and cemented sandstones, among others).
However, many wells in unconsolidated formations made up of
gravels have also been constructed by this system; drilling results
largely depend on the experience of the drill operator.
A hydrogeological borehole
and its components
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Main drilling
methods and
technology
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How is groundwater
extracted?
Water extraction boreholes in Spain normally have a diameter of 300-500 mm and a depth of up to 300 m, although
with current technology, 1000 m or more may be reached.
Filters are used when water must be passed through boreholes
sited over detritic aquifers. These filters can be of various
designs and materials (normally they are made of metal or
PVC), and the filter mesh is sized depending on the granulometry of the detritic materials through which the borehole
must pass. The ring between the walls of the borehole and the
main shaft is filled with siliceous gravel calibrated, among
other functions, to prevent the passage of small-grained particles into the borehole.
Before the well is finished, it must be cleaned and stimulated. This is done by mechanical means (pistons or compressed
air) or with chemical methods (dry ice, polyphosphates, acids
or ice) or by both. These techniques are used to clean off any
residues that may have remained within the drill tube, such as
the silt within the mass of gravel, and to increase the efficiency
of the well by removing the silt from the first twenty or thirty
centimetres of the geological formation penetrated by the drill.
When constructing a well, it is very important that a
Works Manager should be present to ensure the
work planned and contracted
is
correctly
carried out.
The correct
design of an
Developing a borehole with dry
extraction
ice or solid carbonic anhydrid
system (well,
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A system of conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater, comprising a surface reservoir and two aquifers, one of which is located upstream
from the surface reservoir. The diagram also shows the different areas of water demand (urban, industrial and irrigation). Depending on the
availability of water in the reservoir, a certain level of demand is met either from surface reserves, or jointly with groundwater, or exclusively
by the latter. This system can be complemented with artificial recharge operations so that river water may be stored in the aquifer
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Artificial recharge
T
Artificial recharge
is defined as a body
of techniques that
via a programmed
intervention enable
water to be
introduced directly
or induced into
an aquifer,
thus increasing
the reliability and
availability of water
resources and
guaranteeing water
quality standards
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Artificial recharge
Artificial recharge of an aquifer using two different systems: the first favours the infiltration of river water by the construction
of dikes on the river bed to slow the river flow. The second system uses decantation and infiltration ponds constructed on the left
bank of the river
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River bed
Recharge by retention dikes. Top left, system of dikes to retain the water
for subsequent aquifer recharge. Bottom left, pilot construction on a
river bed
Recharge by infiltration ponds. Top right, diagram of operation installation. Bottom right, pilot construction in an alluvial valley
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Artificial recharge
Many and varied procedures have been used to put artificial
recharge into effect, although the classical techniques can be divided into two main groups of methods, depending on whether the
recharge is carried out by filtration through the land surface or by
direct introduction of the water into the aquifer by drilling a connection. The first-named method is used for unconfined aquifers,
while the second is particularly suitable for semi-confined and
confined aquifers.
In areas that are intensively farmed or densely populated,
where land is scarce and/or very expensive, surface artificial
recharge can be difficult to put into practice, because it generally
requires the availability of large areas of land. In such cases, deeplevel recharge is used, using boreholes. These are also employed for
geological formations where permeable and impermeable levels
alternate, or where there is an impermeable horizon between the
land surface and the aquifer.
40
Israel is another country where artificial recharge techniques are highly advanced. Recharge water is obtained from the
river Jordan, from Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), from sporadic runoff after heavy rain and from treated waste water.
In the European Union, Germany and Holland are the
countries that have carried out most artificial recharge operations. In these countries, the main objective of the activity is
to purify and improve water for urban consumption by soilaquifer treatment, although in Holland it is also necessary to
maintain the height of fresh water within coastal dune systems, in order to limit seawater intrusion.
The first artificial recharge installations in Spain were constructed near Barcelona, in the alluvial valleys of the rivers
Bess and Llobregat. In some years, up to 20 Mm3 have been
introduced into the latter aquifer by means of wells sited in the
valley, using surplus water from the treatment plant in the
river Sant Joan Desp. This recharge operation is complemented by scarifying treatment of the river bed upstream to favour
the infiltration of the flowing water. Other pilot experiments,
set up on a temporary basis, have provided valuable data about
the technique. Examples of these include those of the Palma
de Mallorca plain, the alluvial valley of the river Oja, the
Guadix plain, the Esgueva valley, the calcarenite aquifer of
Carmona and the alluvial valley of the Bajo Guadalquivir.
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Different zones established for groundwater quality protection around a well used for drinking-water supply
REGIONAL PLANNING
Priority in drawing up wellhead protection areas for urban areas
INITIAL STUDIES IN HIGH PRIORITY AREAS
Supply situation
and necessities
Hydrogeologic
characteristics
of the aquifer
Potential sources
of contamination
Aquifer vulnerability
Risk of contamination
Land planning
Urban planning
Restriction of activities
42
Control mechanisms
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areas for each of the towns in that region. Firstly, studies must
provide the information needed to define, for each well point,
the criteria (distance, water table fall, transit time, hydrogeologic
criteria, self-cleaning capability of the terrain) and the methods
(analytical, mathematical models, hydrogeological studies) considered optimum to define each of the zones making up the wellhead protection areas.
Search
egislation in Spain enables two ways for a wellhead protection area to be established: via a Water Plan (article 42
of the definitive text of the Water Act) or, if no Water Plan
exists or if it needs to be complemented, by the River Basin
authority (article 56.3 of the same Law). The procedure may be
initiated ex officio by the relevant offices of the River Basin
authority, at the request of the municipal authority or at the
request of another authority with powers in the field.
Wellhead protection area boundary delimitation is the responsibility of the Government Board of the River Basin
Organism (which is called the Hydrographic Confederation),
taking into consideration the previous report of the Water
Council. The activities that may be restricted or prohibited in the
area defined by the wellhead protection area are detailed in article 173.6 of the Regulations on the Public Water Domain and
affect public works, urban activities, agricultural and livestock
activities, industrial activities and recreational activities.
The definition of wellhead protection areas is far from
being a reality in Spain, despite the fact that article 7.3 of the
Water Framework Directive states that member states of the
European Union may establish wellhead protection areas for
water sources intended for human consumption.
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ater makes it possible for life to exist on Earth and thus has
a fundamental environmental value. It is vital for industrial
and agricultural development and is a source of energy. The use of
groundwater has favoured the expansion of industrial estates and
of high-profitable irrigation crops, contributing to a sometimes
spectacular rise in living standards in some parts of the east, southeast and south of the Iberian peninsula, especially in Valencia,
Murcia, Almera and Huelva. Similar benefits have been enjoyed in
Albacete (eastern La Mancha), Ciudad Real (western La Mancha)
and the Canary Islands, among others.
The fact that any citizen can obtain drinking water in his/her
own home, of the quantity and quality desired, merely by turning
a tap, implies a cost that must be borne. Water has a price that
must be paid to reflect the costs of extraction, treatment, distribution and wastewater purification (in many cases, half of the
total water bill in a city corresponds to the costs of treating wastewater). Today, in developed countries the user normally pays
the direct costs of water (regulation infrastructure, transport, purification, electrical systems, conservation, amortization, etc.) and
also the indirect costs, which are difficult to evaluate in economic
terms but have a significant social, cultural and environmental
impact.
The tradition of the Public Administration as the financial
motor and manager of water policy, especially with respect to surface water, has in the past led to water being supplied cheaply, at
subsidised prices, particularly for irrigation. Unlike surface water,
groundwater has nearly always been exploited by private initiative, which has assumed the considerable construction and maintenance costs of wells, boreholes and pumping. This has meant that
groundwater has been used more efficiently, but it has also, on
occasion, produced sharp falls in water levels and reduced water
quality in some aquifers.
The Andalusian Regional Government (Spain), recently evaluated the profitability of irrigation with groundwater, in comparison
with the productivity achieved with surface water, and reached the
conclusion that, in Andalusia, the former is four to five times more
productive in financial terms, and creates three to four times more
employment per cubic metre of water used than does irrigation
with surface water.
Price (euro/m3)
Germany
France
Holland
Belgium
Spain
1.41
1.03
1.05
1.12
0.70
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Economic value of
g ro u n d w a t e r
PRICE OF WATER IN SPANISH CITIES (euro/m3)
City
Price
City
Price
City
Price
City
Price
Sta. Cruz T.
Barcelona
Las Palmas
Murcia
Alicante
Crdoba
Cuenca
Madrid
Palma de M.
Almera
Cceres
Logroo
Ceuta
Valencia
1.32
1.27
1.23
1.15
0.79
0.76
0.75
0.73
0.72
0.71
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.68
Sevilla
Tarragona
Gerona
Bilbao
Castelln
Huelva
Oviedo
Pamplona
Badajoz
Zamora
Zaragoza
Guadalajara
Soria
Mlaga
0.67
0.64
0.61
0.59
0.58
0.56
0.55
0.55
0.52
0.52
0.58
0.49
0.46
0.46
Teruel
Cdiz
Lugo
Lrida
Albacete
San Sebastin
Santander
Orense
Salamanca
Vitoria
Valladolid
Burgos
vila
Granada
0.44
0.44
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.43
0.42
0.41
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.35
Ciudad Real
Pontevedra
Palencia
A Corua
Len
Segovia
Jan
Toledo
Huesca
Melilla
0.33
0.33
0.32
0.32
0.30
0.29
0.23
0.22
0.21
0.09
T
Groundwater has nearly
always been exploited by
private initiative, which
has assumed the considerable
construction and maintenance
costs of wells, boreholes and
pumping. This has meant that
groundwater has been used
more efficiently
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ater is a resource that is incomparable to any other because of its functions, its nature, its direct necessity to mankind and its aesthetic, recreational and emotional connotations.
It is an important part of the natural welfare of every place on
Earth. Springs and fountains are, for many towns and villages, a
historical and cultural legacy and a vital sign of their identity.
Groundwater supplies rivers, lakes and springs, and creates
varied areas of diffuse discharge that are generically termed
wetlands, originating unique coastal and inland landscapes
including marshes, lagoons, bogs, morasses and fens. Moreover,
it creates masses of phreatophytes*, water meadows, reeds and
other water plants of great aesthetic and environmental value,
particularly in arid and semi-arid countries, in steppes and
around the Mediterranean basin.
A profound knowledge of the hydrogeology of the land is
essential for understanding how groundwater functions and
reacts. This knowledge is irreplaceable when decisions must be
taken to improve and guarantee the conservation of the many
ecosystems associated with groundwater.
The natural surges of groundwater, through springs and diffuse
discharge areas, often produce landscapes of great importance, whose
survival depends directly on the conditions and characteristics of the
groundwater supply. Among the most significant examples in Spain
of wetlands closely related to groundwater supplies are the Doana
and Tablas de Daimiel National Parks, the Lagunas de Ruidera Natural
Satellite image
showing the
Doana National
Park (in the
southern
part of the
AlmonteMarismas
aquifer) and the
mouth of the
river
Guadalquivir
(Spain)
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Environmental aspects of
g ro u n d w a t e r
GEOLOGIC CROSS-SECTION THROUGH LAGUNA DE FUENTE DE PIEDRA AND ITS SORROUNDING
Laguna de Fuente
de Piedra (province
of Mlaga, Spain), one of
the most important
wetlands in Europe,
famed for its colonies
of flamingos
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The water that surges from fountains facilitates the formation of landscapes that are frequently very attractive.
They are of special appeal in the most arid parts of Spain,
where their colours and lushness stand out from the dry
surrounding areas.
Springs provide many urban areas with drinking water
and also contribute the water needed for irrigation.
Moreover, such water outlets are often associated with recreation
and leisure areas. In some such areas, the waters are of thermal
or mineral-medicinal origin and are used in spas for
therapeutic purposes.
The two best known wetlands in Spain are the Tablas de
Daimiel and Doana National Parks, both of which have
suffered the effects of human intervention. In the early
1970s, the first of these parks comprised the most important natural outflow of the western La Mancha aquifer. This
huge aquifer, with an area of over 5500 km2, received an
average water input of 300 Mm3 per year and mainly discharged through the so-called Ojos del Guadiana. Las Tablas
de Daimiel, together with other wetlands in La Mancha,
has been catalogued as a Biosphere Reserve Area since
1981, as part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere programme. Between the mid 1970s and the late 1980s, new
irrigation areas were established, of over 100,000 hectares,
mainly as a result of private initiative. The average renewal
rate of the groundwater in the western La Mancha aquifer
is estimated at between 200 and 500 Mm3 per year (in dry
and wet years, respectively), while the extraction of
groundwater reached 600 Mm 3 per year by the end of the
1980s. In consequence, over these years a total of 3000-
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Environmental aspects of
g ro u n d w a t e r
Hydrogeologic
diagram of the
western La Mancha
aquifer in the area
of Las Tablas de
Daimiel
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Environmental aspects of
g ro u n d w a t e r
Retuerta, the boundary areas between the
unconfined aquifer and the marsh, the piezometric surface is also very high, slightly above
the level of the marshes. In consequence,
wetlands and lagoons are common in all of
this boundary area. In the western part, the
Rocina stream drains groundwater almost all
year round and sustains an important area of
flora and fauna, which contributes to maintaining the Roco marshes.
PHREATOPHYTES: plants that mainly obtain water directly from the phreatic level, with
which their roots are in constant contact through the capillary fringe.These plants are normally found on river banks or in dry riverbeds, where the phreatic level is not very deep. A
typical example is the gallery forest, comprising elms, alders, poplars and willows. The
eucalyptus is a typical phreatophyte artificially introduced into Spain; its roots are fast-growing and ensure the trees water supply, sometimes to the detriment of other species.
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Drought
T
he strategic importance of groundwater was amply demonstrated during the drought that affected Spain in the early
1990s. The temporary exploitation of
groundwater resources eased the shortage in large areas of the south and east
of Spain, for example, the measures
taken in the Jcar basin, where a series
of drought-relief wells were dug. These
provided sufficient volumes of water
for drinking-water supply and for irrigation. Similarly, water has been obtained from boreholes when necessary.
This method was used for 20 urban
areas in the province of Granada, with
a total of 100,000 inhabitants. In Jan,
during the same period, boreholes
were drilled to supply drinking water
to the city and to areas such as Loma
de beda, Sierra de Cazorla, Sierra
Mgina and Montes Orientales. Other
noteworthy cases are the improved
Fuente de Cella
water supplies obtained for Mlaga,
(province of Teruel, Spain). The
the western Costa del Sol, Campo de
natural outlet of the Montes
Gibraltar and Baha de Cdiz. In the
Universales aquifer that forms
the source of the river Jiloca.
latter cases, the total drilling length
The photo reflects the situation
was 10,000 metres and the flow voluduring the 1983 drought.
mes obtained exceeded 5,000 L/s.
In normal periods, more than
600 L/s flow beneath the arch
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Duero
Tajo
Guadiana
Guadalquivir
Sur
Segura
Jcar
Ebro
Inland Basins
of Catalonia
Balearic Islands
Canary Islands2
Total
1
2
Surface
of permeable
outcrops
(km2)
52
17
14
15
5
7
23
17
Number of points
in the piezometric
network
(1996)
Density of
the piezometric
network
(points/km2)
Number of points
in the springs
network
(1996)
Density of
the springs
network
(points/km2)
798
473
740
157
215
023
787
047
284
84
228
433
779
170
334
237
1/186
1/208
1/65
1/35
1/7
1/41
1/71
1/72
75
18
109
134
35
22
72
1/233
1/819
1/139
1/113
1/201
1/1081
1/237
6 596
3 675
7 560
257
150
1/26
1/25
12
1/550
163 511
2956
1/55
477
1/343
Ministry of the Environment (2000). White Paper on Water in Spain (Libro Blanco del Agua en Espaa)
The existance of networks is not known
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Geological Survey only maintains data for which a special agreement exists or that are necessary for the purposes of research.
In addition to the above, some networks are operated by other
institutions (regional governments, provincial councils or local
entities). These networks are installed on the aquifers located in
their respective territories.
GROUNDWATER QUALITY
CONTROL NETWORK1
Basin
Norte
Duero
Tajo
Guadiana
Guadalquivir
Sur
Segura
Jcar
Ebro
Inland Basins
of Catalonia
Galician Coast
Total Peninsula
Surface area
(km2)
40
78
55
60
63
17
19
42
85
N of
ROCAS
stations
N of
ROI
stations
650
960
810
210
240
950
120
900
560
133
92
130
119
168
282
182
106
138
10
39
319
337
16 490
13 130
300
93
494 020
1650
798
1
Ministry of the Environment (2000). White Paper on Water in Spain
(Libro Blanco del Agua en Espaa)
Today, general responsibility for the observation data corresponds to the Hydrographic Confederations. The Spanish
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56
Pumping
cones created
by the simultaneous
extraction of groundwater
by several wells
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CONTAMINATION OF AQUIFERS
Certain external factors, especially those of human origin, may
alter the natural composition of groundwater by introducing substances capable of affecting its original character and thus limiting
its suitability for certain uses. Aquifers have a high level of resistance against many contaminating agents, but once contamination is present, or enters the unsaturated medium and is transmitted within the recharge water, regeneration of the aquifer may be
a slow, difficult process. It may take several years and is not always
economically viable. This explains the high priority given to protecting groundwater against contamination, of whatever origin.
roundwater
diffuse*.
contamination
may
be
limited
or
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Situation of an aquifer interface in direct contact with the sea. Top picture,
the interface in a natural regime, with freshwater flowing out to sea. Middle
picture, the incipient advance of the interface, although the quality of borehole water is not yet affected and part of the seaward outflows of freshwater
are maintained. Bottom picture, seawater intrusion has advanced and the
borehole is contaminated. Freshwater may cease flowing out to sea
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Contamination of a
groundwater extraction
well by a septic tank
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ash, soluble substances and certain liquids that can impregnate it. Every year, about 17 million tones of solid urban
and assimilable waste are generated in Spain, of which
81.3% end up on rubbish tips (of these 17.6% are disposed
of without any control at all). The European Directive on
Waste Disposal (1999/31/CE) requires member states to
incorporate its norms into national legislation within two
years.
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How an extraction
well is used to restore
the water quality
within an aquifer
contaminated by
leaking fuel from
an underground
petrol storage tank
64
of poor quality, and those that provide an easy entry route for
surface water.
Direct introduction of waste by injection wells that are
badly designed and/or sited. These are usually shallow wells
that are used to introduced contaminating liquid waste
directly into the aquifer (where the water is of good quality).
Such wells are normally in areas of difficult access for government inspectors.
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HERBICIDES,
chemical
compounds intended to eliminate insects
and plants harmful to crops, arachnids and
fungi.
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UNESCO (2003). Map of internal renewable water resources generated within a country on a per
capita basis, circa 1995. In Water for People, Water for Life
This map shows the per capita total internal renewable water availability by country
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UNESCO (2003). Map of water availability versus population. In Water for People, Water for Life
The global overview of water availability versus the population stresses the continental disparities, and in particular the pressure put on
the Asian continent, which supports more than half the population with only 36% of the worlds water resources
68
de Janeiro. The history could even go back further, to the Mar del
Plata Action Plan of 1977, but perhaps the best starting point is the
Dublin Conference of 1992, from which emerged the Dublin
Statement on Water and Sustainable Development that was a contribution to the preparation of the Earth Summit in Rio. This sta-
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GROUNDWATER
Since earliest antiquity, the human race has obtained much of
its basic requirement for good-quality water from groundwater.
Springs have played a fundamental role in human settlement and
social development. But for many millennia, capability to abstract
this vital fluid was tiny in comparison to the available resource.
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Today, total water use is about 4,000 km3 and groundwater represents an important source of fresh potable water.
Aquifers constitute the predominant reservoir and strategic
reserve of freshwater storage on planet Earth: probably about
30% of the global total and as much as 98% of the fraction in
liquid form. Certain aquifers (such as Nubian Sandstone Aquifer
and North Sahara Aquifer in Africa, Guarani Aquifer in South
America, Great Artesian Basin in Australia, High Plains Aquifer
in North America and North China Plain Aquifer in Asia),
extend quite uniformly over very large land areas and have
much more storage than all the worlds surface reservoirs and
lakes. In sharp contrast to surface water bodies, they hardly lose
any of their stored water by direct evaporation.
No.
Name
Area
(million km2)
Volume
(billion m3)
Replenishment
time (years)
Continent
2.0
75,000
75,000
Africa
0.78
60,000
70,000
Africa
0.45
15,000
2,000
North America
South America
1.2
30,000
3,000
0.14
5,000
300
1.7
20,000
20,000
Asia
Australia
UNESCO (2003). Some large aquifers of the world. In Water for People, Water for Life
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Puri, S. & El Naser, H. (2003). Block diagram of the Nubian aquifer system. In Intensive use of
groundwater. Challenges and opportunities
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UNESCO (2003). Map of the water stress in regions around mega-cities. In Water for People, Water for Life
Water stress is a measure of the amount of pressure put on water resources and aquatic ecosystems by the users of these resources, including the
various municipalities, industries, power plants and agricultural users that line the worlds rivers. The map uses a conventional measure of water
stress, the ratio of total annual water withdrawals divided by the estimated total water availability. This map is based on estimated water
withdrawals for 1995, and water availability during the climate normal period 1961-1990
74
levels, the relatively low cost of obtaining access to groundwater are also major factors contributing to poverty alleviation
through access to irrigation and improvements in health and
household sanitation. In Africa, evidence indicates that potable
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Surface
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Irrigation and
Public
Industrial-
Domestic-
Thermo-
Total
livestock %
supply %
mining %
commercial %
electric %
(km3)
33.2
9.5
6.9
0.8
49.6
366
67.3
19.7
6.7
5.6
0.7
105
40.9
11.8
6.8
1.8
38.8
471
water
Groundwater
Total
(by use)
Ragone, S., Rivera, A., Vecchioli, J., Goodwin, C., Marn, L. E. & Escolero, O. A. (2003). Fresh surface water and groundwater use in the USA in
1995. In Intensive use of groundwater. Challenges and opportunities
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water use for irrigation, 69% of the domestic water supply and
59% of the water used by industry. Mexico City, with a population of 8.5 million inhabitants (within the city, and approximately 20 million including the surrounding areas) obtains approximately 55% of its drinking water from groundwater.
76
50
40
30
Norway
Spain
U. Kingdom
Sweden
Ireland
Greece
Belgium
France
Finland
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Germany
Portugal
Italy
Switzerland
Iceland
Austria
10
0
Czech Rep.
20
Denmark
Country
Llamas, R., Forns, J. M., Hernndez-Mora, N. & Martnez Cortina, L. (2001). Percentage of
groundwater used for domestic water supply in different European countries. In Aguas
subterrneas: retos y oportunidades
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Industry %
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Agriculture %
Domestic %
Other %
Total (km3)
Surface water
41
66
31
33
43.7
Groundwater
59
34
69
66
28.5
78
11
72.2
Ragone, S., Rivera, A., Vecchioli, J., Goodwin, C., Marn, L. E. & Escolero, O. A. (2003). Fresh water and groundwater use in Mexico in 1998. In
Intensive use of groundwater. Challenges and opportunities
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Deb Roy, A. & Shah, T. (2003). Groundwater-irrigated area as percentage of net cropped area in India: 1970
and 1994. In Intensive use of groundwater. Challenges and opportunities
78
industrial use (32%), domestic/business use (25.7%), agricultural use (24.6%), fish farming (11.4%) and for buildings (6.2%).
Irrigation in Japan, as in the United Kingdom, is insignificant.
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Groundwater in Spain
AQUIFERS AND HYDROGEOLOGICAL UNITS*
Aquifers in Spain can be grouped as follows, according to
their lithologic and hydrologic characteristics:
a) Detritic aquifers: comprised of loose or semi-consolidated
materials, such as gravels, sands and silts, that cover the
valley floors of the main rivers, like the Ebro and the
Guadalquivir, and deposits of a similar kind on the great
plateaus of the Duero and the Tajo and on the coastal
zones such as the deltas of the Llobregat and the Ebro
and the Castelln and Valencia plains, among others.
These aquifers are exploited to supply water for drinking, for industrial use and, particularly, for crop irrigation. The aquifers have a surface area of approximately
100,000 km2.
b) Carbonate aquifers: These are made up of karstified limestone materials. They outcrop in the east and south of the
Iberian peninsula and in the Balearic Isles and have an area
of about 70,000 km2.
c) Finally, the west of the peninsula contains materials that
are generically classed as impermeable or which are of very
low permeability, but which contain aquifers of local
importance. Most of these terrains contain igneous rocks
(granites and similar rocks) and metamorphic materials
(such as slates). These areas contain tens of thousands of
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Groundwater in Spain
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Piezometric
depression cone
within a pump-site
RESIDENCE TIME: the average time that groundwater remains in an aquifer. Equal to the quotient of the volume of stored groundwater and that
of the annual recharge.
WATER INFLOW: the volume of water received in a river basin during a
given period. Under natural conditions, this input is equal to the total
volume of water discharged at a given point of the same basin.
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Groundwater in Spain
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION OF WATER
Under the 1879 Water Act, groundwater belonged to whoever
used it, whether or not they were the owners of the land above.
Nobody, however, could extract water to the surface without the landowners permission. This situation remained so until the 29/1985
Water Act was passed, under which groundwater was considered a
public good, with some exceptions stipulated in Transitory Clauses
of the law. These were intended to preserve some judicial situations
valid prior to the enactment of
the new law. In practice, certain
cases revealed the difficulty of
applying these clauses, and so
The large volume of water
the Spanish Parliament passed
stored in aquifers means
the 46/1999 Law which amenthat normal water demand,
ded the earlier one to resolve its
and even short-term increases,
deficiencies and difficulties (see
can normally be met with
revised text of the Water Law,
greater flexibility and reliability
passed by Royal Legislative
decree 1/2001, July 20).
than by means of surface
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CEUTA
MELILLA
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rative, was that all private uses of public water should be inscribed, so that the Administration could have a documented record
of the exploitation rights of different water users, one that systematically listed all information on the constitution, modification
and extinction of water-use rights. The goal of this record was to
prevent abuses and to avoid the loss of the wealth represented by
water resources.
The Third Transitory Clause of the 29/1985 Water Act states:
(with respect to those) who by virtue of the legislation repealed
by this Law are titleholders of a right over private water extracted
from wells or galleries under exploitation; within the next three
years, dating from the coming into effect of the present Law, both
their right to use the water resource and the non-affection to other
pre-existing legal water use rights. This must be done in the River
Basin organism in order to register in the Water Use Record the
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right as a temporary use of private water (are entitled to enjoy). The
Administration will respect the exploitation regime of the volumes
of water effectively used, for a period of 50 years. At the end of this
period, those who are lawfully exploiting this water will have preferential rights to obtain the corresponding administrative concession, as detailed in the present Law.
Common forms of groundwater exploitation: left, natural springs; centre, wide-bore well; right, installed borehole (showing the
piezometric level gauge and the control device)
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USES OF GROUNDWATER
he uses of groundwater may be consumptive or non-consumptive. In the former case, its use implies the loss of part
of the water; examples of this include urban supply, in which
about 80% of the water supplied is subsequently returned to the
water cycle, and crop irrigation, for which the return rate is estimated at 20%. On the contrary, with non-consumptive use,
almost all the water volume is later returned, although the quality might be affected. Examples of this kind of use include the
generation of hydroelectricity, hydroponics, fish farming, water
transport, landscaping and environmental applications and, to
a certain extent, the cooling of industrial plants and power stations. The above classification does not take into account changes in water quality or availability.
Search
Pumping test in a
borehole in Biar
(Alicante, Spain)
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Industrial
use (Mm3/year)
Norte
Duero
Tajo
Guadiana
Guadalquivir
Sur
Segura
Jcar
Ebro
Inland Basins of Catalonia
Balearic Islands
Canary Islands
20
10
45
2
20
6
7
75
65
100
4
6
Total
360
Agricultural use: This includes crop and livestock production. Almost 3.5 million hectares of land are irrigated, of
which about 68% (2,263,000 hectares) are estimated to be irrigated with surface water, 28% (942,000 hectares) with groundwater, and 4% (135,000 hectares) with mixed waters. The total
water demand for irrigation is approximately 24,500 Mm3/year,
of which 20,000 Mm3/year correspond to surface water and
4,500 Mm3/year to groundwater. In Spain, the water demand
for livestock production is insignificant in relation to total
agricultural demand.
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were developed in or after the 1960s, which has enabled farmers to incorporate more modern irrigation systems.
The presence of groundwater in areas where the climate is
favourable for agriculture, such as the Mediterranean coast,
has led to the irrigation of large extensions of land to produce
highly profitable crops.
Irrigation
demand
(Mm3/year)
Irrigation
demand
(%)
Mean
supply
(m3/ha/year)
532
3603
1875
2285
3140
1070
1639
2284
6310
2
15
8
9
13
4
7
9
26
7589
6547
8127
6701
6499
6704
6162
6173
8049
371
532
23641
189
264
2
2
98
1
1
5752
8337
6988
7862
8800
Spain
24094
100
7010
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reserved from the total national water balance, it is necessary to establish an appropriate management strategy for each specific area to ensure its conservation, considering water inputs and the phreatic
level of the aquifer. This, in particular, is the task being carried out in the
National Wetlands Inventory, as
required by the 4/1989 Nature
Conservation Act.
Recreational use: varied uses of
the public water domain, with the common factor being the
goal of satisfying societys needs for leisure, sport and recreation. From the viewpoint of water resource utilisation,
three main categories can be defined:
Recreational uses that imply the derivation of water from
the environment (irrigation of sports fields, swimming
pools, sports complexes). In general, these uses require a
moderate consumption of water, and on occasions this is
difficult to distinguish from other urban uses. The application of water to golf courses is normally considered a
special case of irrigation demand and can comprise a significant volume of water consumption in some areas.
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ver the years, techniques for the prospection and evaluation of groundwater have evolved, incorporating the
advances made in other fields, such as engineering, geology,
mathematics, statistics, geochemistry and geophysics, among
many others. These advances have been specially significant in
areas related to:
1. Groundwater observation and sampling; data collection;
the application of new geophysical methods.
2. Studying how aquifers function, their recharge processes
and the circulation of groundwater flows. More accurate
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To Increase water supply guarantee and water resources availability. This double goal can be achieved by the conjunctive use
of surface water and groundwater.
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Studying aquifers
by means of landbased geophysical
techniques
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Card 1
Some minerals are relatively insoluble but can be hydrolysed*. In the case of carbonates, this is due to the effect of CO2 (carbon dioxide),
which is incorporated into infiltrating water via the air within the soil.The gas is normally at a partial pressure 10-100 times greater than atmospheric pressure, due to the action of plants and microbes in the soil. The CO2 is mineralised as a bicarbonate ion and incorporates the mobile
cations of the rock, which become meteorized.
In volcanic zones or where there are recent magmatic intrusions there is also a contribution by deep-lying CO2; alteration of the rock then occurs at a considerable depth.
The oxygen dissolved in infiltrated water can also oxidize the organic matter in the soil
and the substances that are in a reduced state (as is the case of Fe2+, which is oxidized
into Fe3+).
This action stops when the CO2 and/or the O2 (the oxygen incorporated from above
soil and from the atmosphere) has been consumed in chemical reactions, which may be
fast or slow depending on the local circumstances.
Rain and surface water contribute an isotopic signature that characterises the origin
of the water and of the recharge process.The stable isotopes of water (oxygen-18 and deuterium) are separated during the generation and transport of atmospheric humidity, but
this does not normally occur underground. Carbon-13 reflects the processes by which CO2
is incorporated into the water and its reaction with carbonated minerals.
The recharge process also involves the incorporation of some radioactive isotopes that
are naturally present in the atmosphere or that are of human origin, mainly as residues from
atmospheric nuclear tests in past decades, or as emissions from nuclear power plants.
The most useful of these are tritium (a hydrogen isotope with a half-life of 12.4 years)
and carbon-14 (with a half-life of 5,760 years). Once water is underground, the atmospheric contribution stops and the isotopic content diminishes due to radioactive disintegration.This enables us to determine the time that has elapsed since infiltration, or rather, the
mean renewal time of the water in the aquifer, because a water sample is in fact a mixture
of different waters that have infiltrated at different times and from different origins.
Just because groundwater is in a natural state does not necessarily mean it is ideal for any use.The water may be brackish or saline, or contain excessive concentrations of certain natural substances, such as fluorine, boron and heavy metals like iron and manganese; it may be very hard,
or present an excess of alkaline ions with respect to alkaline earth metals, among other problems).
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Card 1
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Although these situations do occur, most groundwater is salt-free, or fresh, and contains no pathogenic germs or viruses. In general, it is
suitable for all uses and can be drunk directly.
Most of the substances dissolved in groundwater are found in an ionic state. Some ions are almost always present and they make up virtually the entire quantity of dissolved ions. These majority ions, are the cations, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium, and the anions,
bicarbonate, sulphate and chloride. The nitrate anion is frequently included within the group of majority ions, even though its concentration
is low when human action is not a significant factor. The presence of the carbonate ion
requires a pH* greater than 8.3, which occurs only infrequently.When the pH is low, a large
proportion of the dissolved inorganic carbon is in the form of carbonic acid (CO3H2) or disHYDROLISIS: a reaction between the minesolved CO2. Groundwater often contains appreciable quantities of non-dissociated silicic
ral and water, in which the water ions, H+
acid, too, which is usually expressed as dissolved silica.
and OH- act as chemical reagents.
Hydrolysis acts on weak acid or base salts
Other ions and dissolved substances are generally present in much lower quantities
and provokes changes in the pH of the
than are the majority ions. They are known as minority ions when they do not normally exwater. The presence of dissolved CO2
ceed 1% of total ionic content (i.e. concentrations of between 0.0001 and 10 mg/L), and as
favours
the hydrolysis of carbonates and
trace elements when their presence is difficult to measure by standard analytical means (consilicates.
centrations of less than 0.0001 mg/L).
The chemical species dissolved in groundwater are determined, among other factors, by
the pH, the temperature and by the oxygen dissolved in the groundwater.The normal range
of pH values is from 6.5 to 8.The temperature of groundwater in the upper part of the aquifer varies very little and corresponds to the mean annual atmospheric temperature of the
area in question.The temperature usually increases by 1 C per 33 m additional depth. Most
groundwater contains between 0 and 5 mg/L of dissolved oxygen.
Surface water and groundwater, depending on the concentration of dissolved substances
they contain, are classified as freshwater (with a maximum of 1000-2000 mg/L of dissolved
substances), brackish (up to 5000 mg/L), saline (up to 40,000 mg/L) or brine (over 40,000 mg/L,
up to the saturation value of about 350,000 mg/L).
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Card 2
According to the Spanish Water Act,
a Groundwater Users Cooperative must
be comprised of the following management organs:
General Board or Assembly of Users,
made up of all the user members.
Board of Governors, elected by the
General Board of Users.
One or several committees: these
groups must deal with the questions
raised by users, must impose sanctions
on infractors, determine indemnities
payable to those whose interests are
prejudiced and ensure that obligations
arising from infractions are met.
Various Groundwater Users Cooperatives defending common interests may
combine to form a General Community of
Users of Groundwater. When various individual users, or even Groundwater Users
Cooperatives, act jointly, they may constitute a Central Board of Users of
Groundwater, to protect their rights and
interests, and to manage and oversee the
coordinated use of water resources.
In Spain, the region of Catalonia has pioneered the organisation of groundwater users to manage aquifer resources.Two Groundwater
Users Cooperatives are currently operational: the Llobregat Delta, Groundwater Users Cooperative, created in 1976 under the 1879
Water Act, and the Cubeta de Sant Andreu de la Barca Groundwater Users Cooperative, the first such to be registered in Spain under the
1985 Water Act. Between 1987 and 1995, 15 aquifers were provisionally declared to be over-exploited. Of these, only two have set up a
Groundwater Users Cooperative. Between 1989 and 1995, twenty Groundwater Users Cooperatives were created in the western La
Mancha aquifer and one in the Campo de Montiel aquifer.
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Cantabrian Sea
Hydrogeological
units with a
provisional or
definitive
declaration of
over-exploitation
(June 2000)
France
ed
it
e
rr
an
Se
a
Portugal
Atlantic Ocean
Balearic Islands
Canary Islands
ta
Ceu
lla
Meli
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Card 3
The Spanish government recognised the importance and necessity of controlling groundwater resources in the White Paper on
Groundwater (1994), which included a specific action programme entitled Official Management Networks, intended to replace the existing
network with a publicly-owned one that would enable the observation and monitoring of all the hydrogeological units in the country.
In particular, three types of monitoring network were established:
1. Basic, reference network.
2. Network to respond to users direct interests.
3. Control or surveillance network for specific problems.
The basic, or reference, networks are normally designed and operated by national or regional authorities. Those focussing on users
direct interests correspond to the users (supply companies, irrigation communities or associations, users cooperatives) who make use of
them to take decisions on the day-to-day running of the water exploitation system. They operate on a micro-scale, that of the local territory or the aquifer. The control networks for specific problems are installed to monitor particular problems, those potential or actually
existing, such as installations that might contaminate an aquifer, or the observation of a process of seawater intrusion.
The objectives of the official monitoring network are to:
1. Periodically define the state of groundwaters.
2. Determine trends in the evolution of water resources.
3. Explain the causes and relevant factors in the variations observed.
This network provides general information and can be used for various purposes, particularly by the management bodies responsible for
the allocation, exploitation and protection of water resources.
The basic quantitative and qualitative controls of groundwater consist of measuring:
1. Water depth in the boreholes comprising the piezometric network. This is a direct indicator of the water mass stored within the
aquifer and of the characteristics of the water flow within it.
2. Parameters defining the chemical quality of the water (electrical conductivity, pH, ion content and that of dissolved majority
components).
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3. Flow volume of the main natural discharges from individual springs or from identified sections of rivers. Monitoring consists of
using installations or devices to measure water flow; such systems are termed the spring or natural outflow network. This network
is part of, or complementary to, the official measuring-station network and, moreover, has its own, specific purpose, namely, to establish correlations between piezometric and hydrometric data and to enable predictions to be made of the base-level water flow of
rivers depending on the piezometric state of the aquifers. So, the influence of groundwater exploitation on the state of the aquifers
can be studied.
Automatic monitoring station at a natural groundwater surge: the Tempul spring in Jerez de la Frontera
(province of Cdiz, Spain)
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Card 4
The vulnerability of groundwater to contamination
is an intrinsic property of an aquifer that depends on its
capacity to resist the effects of human intervention.This
factor is independent of its possible interest or use and
of water quality. There are two types of groundwater
vulnerability:
Intrinsic or natural vulnerability, which depends on
the natural conditions of the aquifer and is independent of the behaviour of particular contaminants.
Specific vulnerability, which is evaluated in relation to a type of contaminant or group of contaminants with similar properties (single-objective
evaluation) or to various contaminants (multipleobjective evaluation).
The magnitudes defining the intrinsic vulnerability of
groundwater can be classified as:
Principal
Recharge
Soil type
Thickness and nature of the unsaturated zone
Aquifer conditions
Secondary
Topography
Possible contact with masses of surface or sea
water
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Contamination vulnerability maps comprise one of the most commonly used means of presenting the results of vulnerability evaluation.
They can be defined as preventative protection maps derived from hydrogeological maps. They are particularly useful for the purposes of
planning, management and decision-making at all levels of government, as well as in education and for public information.
In Spain, vulnerability maps were first created in the late 1970s by the Spanish Geological Survey.They consisted of 1:50,000 scale maps
intended to identify optimum sites for the location of urban solid-waste tips. In 1988, in another line of investigation, the Spanish Geological
Survey produced a series of maps to assist managers about the possibility of contamination of groundwater from waste disposal on the land.
These maps covered the whole country, at a provincial scale of 1:200,000 and at a scale of 1:500,000 for the River Basins.
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Card 5
In Spain, the article 21 of the revised text of the Water Law (passed by Royal Legislative Decree 1/2001, July 20) states that in the river basins
that exceed the territorial boundaries of a Self-Governing Region, River Basin Organisms will be established, with the functions and responsibilities stipulated in the present Law. From an organisational viewpoint, the public water authority is represented in the inter-regional river basins
(Norte, Duero, Tajo, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, Sur, Segura, Jcar and Ebro) by the River Basin Organism, also termed the Hydrographic
Confederation, and in the intra-regional river basins (Galician Coast, Inland Basins of Catalonia, Balearic and Canary Islands) by the relevant
Water Administration of the corresponding regional government. In the latter case, each regional government can establish its own regulatory
system.According to article 23 of the above Water Act, the functions of the inter-regional River Basin Organisms are as follows: the preparation
of a river-basin Hydrologic Plan; the administration and control of the public water domain; the administration and control of public-interest water
exploitations or those that affect more than one Self-Governing Region; the planning, construction and exploitation of works carried out using
the Organisms own funds, of works commissioned by the State and of works based on agreements with other Self-Governing Regions, with local
corporations, with other public or private entities or with individuals.
Hydrographic Confederations comprise the following bodies:
GOVERNING BODIES
Water Commissioner
Board
of Directors
President
Technical Directorate
Secretariat
Secretara General
General
PARTICIPATORY BODIES
Exploitation Boards
Works Boards
Reservoir dam-out
Commission
Users Assembly
PLANNING BODIES
River Basin Water Council
Article 19 of the revised text of the Water Act created the National Water Council, the highest consultative body. Its function is to inform
and advise (but not to legislate or execute) on the following topics (art. 20):
The preparation of the National Hydrologic Plan, before its approval by the Government and submission to the National Parliament.
River Basin Hydrologic Plans, before their approval by the Government.
General regulatory norms drafts, related to the planning of the public water domain.
Projects of general interest relating to agricultural, urban, industrial, energetic or territorial planning that can affect water planning or
use.
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The questions common to two or more River Basin Organisms, related to the use of water resources and other goods within the public
water domain.
When the Government or high-ranking Executive Bodies of the Self-Governing Regions inquire about questions related to the public water
domain, the National Water Council provides the corresponding report. This Council also proposes public administrations and organisms on
lines of study and research to develop technical innovations to improve water extraction, use, conservation, recovery, integral treatment and
economy.
The planning and better use of available water resources are the fundamental objectives of the National Hydrologic Plan and of the River
Basin Hydrologic Plans. For groundwater, this implies the need to correctly define each and every one of the hydrogeologic units located within every planning ambit. This in turn means it is necessary to accurately establish the physical limits of each such unit and the magnitude of
various components of its water balance:
The nature and origin of the recharge
The value and destination of natural discharge
Water uses and alterations that determine the water balance of the aquifer
Natural quality
External factors that may affect water quality
The corresponding Hydrologic Plan assigns resources and establishes priorities and compatibilities between the different uses within the
various exploitation systems that may be defined, integrating groundwater and surface waters into such systems.The following aspects must be
also defined:
The basic characteristics of the different quality levels determined for groundwater, depending on the use to be made.
Protection areas for the aquifers requiring them, namely those used to supply urban demand and those discharging into specially-protected wetlands.
Measures to protect and recover groundwater presenting quality problems; guidelines for the recovery of over-exploited aquifers.
The National Hydrologic Plan defines the hydrogeologic units that belong to more than one planning ambit and determines the methodology to be used to assign resources. Additionally, criteria are established for the coordination of the different River Basin Hydrologic Plans and
for the transfer of resources between different planning ambits.
Although the Water Act does not address the hydrographic areas of Ceuta and Melilla, it is understood that, because the relevant powers
on the public water domain were not transferred to these areas, they correspond to the Ministry of the Environment.
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Recommended readings
BENNET, G. D. (1987). Introduccin a la Hidrulica de las Aguas
Subterrneas. Tcnicas de Investigaciones de Recursos Hdricos
del Servicio Geolgico de los Estados Unidos. Libro 3. Cap. B2.
U. S. Government Publishing Office. Washington, USA,
167 pp.
CUSTODIO, E. & LLAMAS, M. R. (1983). Hidrologa Subterrnea. 2nd
Edition. Ed. Omega. Barcelona, Spain, 2 Vol. 2350 pp.
DAVIS, S. N. & DE WIEST, R. J. M. (1966). Hydrogeology. 2nd Edition.
John Wiley & Sons. New York, USA, 463 pp.
DOMNICO, P. A. & SCHWARZ, F. W. (1997). Physical and Chemical
Hydrogeology. 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. New York, USA,
528 pp.
DRISCOLL, F. G. (1986). Groundwaters and Wells. 2nd Edition. Publ.
Johnson Division. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA, 1089 pp.
FETTER, C. W. (2001). Applied Hydrogeology. 4th Edition. Prentice Hall.
New York, USA, 598 pp.
FREEZE, R. A. & CHERRY, J. A. (1979). Groundwater. Prentice Hall. New
Jersey, USA, 604 pp.
HALL, P. (1996). Water Well and Aquifer Test Analysis. Water Resources
Publications, LLC. USA, 428 pp.
HEM, J. D. (1985). Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics
of Natural Water. 3rd Edition. U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper 2254. USA, 263 pp.
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Recommended readings
ROGERS, P., LLAMAS, M. R. & MARTNEZ CORTINA, L. (eds.) (2006).
Water Crisis: Myth or Reality? Balkema Publishers (Taylor & Francis
Group). Lisse, The Netherlands, 341 pp.
SCHWARTZ, F. W. & ZHANG, H. (2003). Fundamentals of Groundwater.
John Wiley & Sons. New Jersey, USA, 592 pp.
UNESCO (2003). Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations
World Water Development Report. World Water Assessment
Programme, 576 pp.
106
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Information of interest
American Institute of Hydrology (AIH). United States
Web: www.aihydro.org
Scientific
and
Cultural
107