30.

Malleable cast iron production, structure, properties and

brands.
= Malleable cast iron is produced from white cast iron, which is made from hot
liquid iron with certain chemical components. The white cast iron needs to be treated
by malleablizing, such as graphitizing or oxidation and de carbonization, then its
metallographic structures or chemical components will be changed, so can become
into malleable cast iron. Malleable Cast Iron is the traditional material for
manufacturing pipe fittings whose characteristics make it as ideal choice. It is an
iron-carbon alloy which combines the outstanding properties of cast iron and steel to
produce a material which can still be cast but has improved strength and ductility. It
also allows the production of complex shapes combined with a thin wall section.
In its cast state it is very hard and brittle and unsuitable for most engineering
applications. A controlled heat treatment process (annealing) is applied to the cast
material which changes the structure and reduces the carbon content. The resulting
microstructure gives a material which is less hard, no longer brittle and now has
good malleable and ductile properties while retaining a sufficiently high strength.
Malleable cast iron is a heat-treated iron-carbon alloy, which solidifies in the as-cast
condition with a graphite-free structure, i.e. the total carbon content is present in the
cementite form (Fe3C).
Two groups of malleable cast iron are specified, differentiated by chemical
composition, temperature and time cycles of the annealing process, the annealing
atmosphere and the properties and microstructure resulting there from.

The designation according to ISO 5922 (1981) of malleable cast iron consists of one
letter designating the type of iron, two figures designating the tensile strength and
two figures designating the minimum elongation.
Letters designating the type of malleable cast iron can be:
W for whiteheart malleable cast iron,
B for blackheart malleable cast iron,
P for peariitic malleable cast iron.
Blackheart and pearlitic malleable cast iron
The microstructure of blackheart malleable cast iron has a matrix essentially of
ferrite. The microstructure of pearlitic malleable cast iron has a matrix, according to
the grade specified, of pearlite or other transformation products of austenite.
Graphite is present in the form of temper carbon nodules. The microstructure shall
not contain flake graphite.

Malleable iron, like ductile iron, possesses considerable ductility and toughness
because of its combination of nodular graphite and low-carbon metallic matrix.
Because of the way in which graphite is formed in malleable iron, however, the
nodules are not truly spherical as they are in ductile iron but are irregularly shaped
aggregates.
Malleable iron and ductile iron are used for some of the applications in which ductility
and toughness are important. In many cases, the choice between malleable and
ductile iron is based on economy or availability rather than on properties. In certain
applications, however, malleable iron has a distinct advantage. It is preferred for thinsection castings:

for parts that are to be pierced, coined, or cold formed,

for parts requiring maximum machinability,

for parts that must retain good impact resistance at low temperatures, and

for parts requiring wear resistance (martensitic malleable iron only).

31. Ductile cast iron production, structure,

properties and brands.
=

Ductile iron, also known as ductile cast iron, nodular cast iron, spheroidal
graphite iron, spherulitic graphite cast iron and SG iron, is a type of cast iron.
Ductile iron is not a single material but is part of a group of materials which can be
produced to have a wide range of properties through control of the microstructure.
The common defining characteristic of this group of materials is the shape of
the graphite. In ductile irons, the graphite is in the form ofnodules rather than flakes
as it is in grey iron. The sharp shape of the flakes of graphite create stress
concentration points within the metal matrix and the rounded shape of the nodules
less so, thus inhibiting the creation of cracks and providing the enhanced ductility
that gives the alloy its name. Ductile iron is a family of cast graphitic irons which
possess high strength,
ductility and resistance to shock. Annealed cast ductile iron can be bent, twisted
or deformed without fracturing. Its strength, toughness and ductility duplicate
many grades of steel and far exceed those of standard gray irons. Yet it
possesses the advantages of design flexibility and low cost casting procedures
similar to gray iron.
The difference between ductile iron and gray iron is in the graphite formation.
Ordinary gray iron is characterized by a random flake graphite pattern in the
metal. In ductile iron the addition of a few hundredths of 1% of magnesium or
cerium causes the graphite to form in small spheroids rather than flakes. These

create fewer discontinuities in the structure of the metal and produce a stronger,
more ductile iron. It is this graphite formation which accounts for the fact that
ductile iron is also referred to as nodular iron. The ductile iron process was
developed by The International Nickel Company, Inc. Flowserve Corporation
produces valves, pumps, and other process equipment in ASTM A395 ductile iron.
A typical chemical analysis of this material:

Carbon 3.3 to 3.4%

Silicon 2.2 to 2.8%

Manganese 0.1 to 0.5%

Magnesium 0.03 to 0.05%

Phosphorus 0.005 to 0.04%

Sulphur 0.005 to 0.02%

Iron balance

Other elements such as copper or tin may be added to increase tensile and yield
strength while simultaneously reducing ductility. Improved corrosion resistance can
be achieved by replacing 15% to 30% of the iron in the alloy with varying amounts
of nickel, copper, or chromium.

Much of the annual production of ductile iron is in the form of ductile iron pipe, used
for water and sewer lines. It competes with polymeric materials such
as PVC, HDPE, LDPE and polypropylene, which are all much lighter than steel or
ductile iron, but which, being flexible, require more careful installation and protection
from physical damage.
Ductile iron is specifically useful in many automotive components, where strength
needs surpass that of aluminium but do not necessarily require steel. Other major
industrial applications include off-highway diesel trucks, Class 8 trucks, agricultural
tractors, and oil well pumps.

32. Carbon alloy steel classification, characteristics,

applications and brands.
= Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts
between 1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels
are broken down into two groups: low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels. The
difference between the two is somewhat arbitrary: Smith and Hashemi define the
difference at 4.0%, while Degarmo, et al., define it at 8.0% Most commonly, the
phrase "alloy steel" refers to low-alloy steels.

any steel in the 0.35 to 1.86 percent carbon content range can be hardened using a
heat-quench-temper cycle. Most commercial steels are classified into one of three
groups:
1.

Plain carbon steels

2.

Low-alloy steels

3.

High-alloy steels

Plain Carbon Steels

These steels usually are iron with less than 1 percent carbon, plus small amounts of
manganese, phosphorus, sulphur, and silicon. The weldability and other
characteristics of these steels are primarily a product of carbon content, although the
alloying and residual elements do have a minor influence. It is divided into
Low. Often called mild steels, low-carbon steels have less than 0.30 percent carbon
and are the most commonly used grades. They machine and weld nicely and are
more ductile than higher-carbon steels.

Medium. Medium-carbon steels have from 0.30 to 0.45 percent carbon. Increased
carbon means increased hardness and tensile strength, decreased ductility, and
more difficult machining.
High. With 0.45 to 0.75 percent carbon, these steels can be challenging to weld.
Preheating, post heating (to control cooling rate), and sometimes even heating
during welding become necessary to produce acceptable welds and to control the
mechanical properties of the steel after welding.
Very High. With up to 1.50 percent carbon content, very high-carbon steels are used
for hard steel products such as metal cutting tools and truck springs. Like highcarbon steels, they require heat treating before, during, and after welding to maintain
their mechanical properties.

Low-alloy Steels
When these steels are designed for welded applications, their carbon content is
usually below 0.25 percent and often below 0.15 percent. Typical alloys include
nickel, chromium, molybdenum, manganese, and silicon, which add strength at room
temperatures and increase low-temperature notch toughness.
These alloys can, in the right combination, improve corrosion resistance and
influence the steel's response to heat treatment. But the alloys added can also
negatively influence crack susceptibility, so it's a good idea to use low-hydrogen
welding processes with them. Preheating might also prove necessary. This can be
determined by using the carbon equivalent formula, which we'll cover in a later issue.
High-alloy Steels
For the most part, we're talking about stainless steel here, the most important
commercial high-alloy steel. Stainless steels are at least 12 percent chromium and
many have high nickel contents. The three basic types of stainless are:
1.

Austenitic

2.

Ferrite

3.

Martensitic

Martensitic stainless steels make up the cutlery grades. They have the least amount
of chromium, offer high harden ability, and require both pre- and post heating when
welding to prevent cracking in the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
Ferritic stainless steels have 12 to 27 percent chromium with small amounts of
austenite-forming alloys.

Austenitic stainless steels offer excellent weld ability, but austenite isn't stable at
room temperature. Consequently, specific alloys must be added to stabilize
austenite. The most important austenite stabilizer is nickel, and others include
carbon, manganese, and nitrogen.
Special properties, including corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance, and strength
at high temperatures, can be incorporated into austenitic stainless steels by adding
certain alloys like chromium, nickel, molybdenum, nitrogen, titanium, and columbium.
And while carbon can add strength at high temperatures, it can also reduce
corrosion resistance by forming a compound with chromium. It's important to note
that austenitic alloys can't be hardened by heat treatment.

33. Nature of thermal treatment, application and

classification.
= Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter
the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common
application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of
many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or
chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as
hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques
include annealing, case hardening, precipitation
strengthening, tempering and quenching. It is noteworthy that while the term heat
treatment applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the
specific purpose of altering properties intentionally, heating and cooling often occur
incidentally during other manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.

Metallic materials consist of a microstructure of small crystals called "grains"

or crystallites. The nature of the grains (i.e. grain size and composition) is one of the
most effective factors that can determine the overall mechanical behavior of the
metal. Heat treatment provides an efficient way to manipulate the properties of the
metal by controlling the rate of diffusion and the rate of cooling within the
microstructure. Heat treating is often used to alter the mechanical properties of an
alloy, manipulating properties such as the hardness, strength, toughness, ductility,
and elasticity.

There are two mechanisms that may change an alloy's properties during heat
treatment. The martensite causes the crystals to deform intrinsically. The diffusion
mechanism causes changes in the homogeneity of the alloy
The crystal structure consists of atoms that are grouped in a very specific
arrangement, called a lattice. In most elements, this order will rearrange itself,
depending on conditions like temperature and pressure. This rearrangement,
called allotropy or polymorphism, may occur several times, at many different
temperatures for a particular metal. In alloys, this rearrangement may cause an
element that will not normally dissolve into the base metal to suddenly
become soluble, while a reversal of the allotropy will make the elements either
partially or completely insoluble.
Eutectoid alloys
A eutectoid alloy is similar in behaviour to a eutectic alloy. An eutectic alloy is
characterized by having a single melting point. This melting point is lower than that of
any of the constituents, and no change in the mixture will lower the melting point any
further. When a molten eutectic alloy is cooled, all of the constituents will crystallize
into their respective phases at the same temperature.

Hypo eutectoid alloys

A hypoeutectic alloy has two separate melting points. Both are above the eutectic
melting point for the system, but are below the melting points of any constituent
forming the system. Between these two melting points, the alloy will exist as part
solid and part liquid. The constituent with the lower melting point will solidify first.
When completely solidified, a hypoeutectic alloy will often be in solid solution.
Similarly, a hypo eutectoid alloy has two critical temperatures, called "arrests."
Between these two temperatures, the alloy will exist partly as the solution and partly
as a separate crystallizing phase, called the "pro eutectoid phase." These two
temperatures are called the upper (A3) and lower (A1) transformation temperatures.
As the solution cools from the upper transformation temperature toward an insoluble
state, the excess base metal will often be forced to "crystallize-out," becoming the
pro eutectoid. This will occur until the remaining concentration of solutes reaches the
eutectoid level, which will then crystallize as a separate microstructure.

Hypereutectoid alloys
A hypereutectic alloy also has different melting points. However, between these
points, it is the constituent with the higher melting point that will be solid. Similarly, a
hypereutectoid alloy has two critical temperatures. When cooling a hypereutectoid
alloy from the upper transformation temperature, it will usually be the excess solutes

that crystallize-out first, forming the pro eutectoid. This continues until the
concentration in the remaining alloy becomes eutectoid, which then crystallizes into
a separate microstructure.
Hypereutectoid steel contains more than 0.77% carbon. When slowly cooling a
hypereutectoid steel, the commentate will begin to crystallize first. When the
remaining steel becomes eutectoid in composition, it will crystallize into pearlitic.
Since commentate is much harder than pearlitic, the alloy has greater harden ability
at a cost in the ductility.

34. Material heating methods and equipment. Heating

environments.
= Industry relies on heating for a wide variety of processes involving a broad range
of materials. Each process and material requires heating methods suitable to its
properties and the desired outcome. Despite this, the literature lacks a general
reference on design techniques for heating, especially for small- and medium-sized
applications. Industrial Heating: Principles, Techniques, Materials, Applications, and
Design fills this gap, presenting design information for both traditional and modern
heating processes and auxiliary techniques.
The author leverages more than 40 years of experience into this comprehensive,
authoritative guide. The book opens with fundamental topics in steady state and
transient heat transfer, fluid mechanics, and aerodynamics, emphasizing analytical
concepts over mathematical rigor. A discussion of fuels, their combustion, and
combustion devices follows, along with waste incineration and its associated
problems. The author then examines techniques related to heating, such as vacuum
technology, pyrometry, protective atmosphere, and heat exchangers as well as
refractory, ceramic, and metallic materials and their advantages and disadvantages.
Useful appendices round out the presentation, supplying information on underlying
principles such as pressure and thermal diffusivity.
Induction heating is a process which is used to bond, harden or soften metals or
other conductive materials. For many modern manufacturing processes, induction
heating offers an attractive combination of speed, consistency and control.
The basic principles of induction heating have been understood and applied to
manufacturing since the 1920s. During World War II, the technology developed
rapidly to meet urgent wartime requirements for a fast, reliable process to harden
metal engine parts. More recently, the focus on lean manufacturing techniques and
emphasis on improved quality control have led to a rediscovery of induction
technology, along with the development of precisely controlled, all solid state
induction power supplies.

What makes this heating method so unique? In the most common heating methods,
a torch or open flame is directly applied to the metal part. But with induction heating,
heat is actually "induced" within the part itself by circulating electrical currents.
Induction heating relies on the unique characteristics of radio frequency (RF)
energy - that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum below infrared and microwave
energy. Since heat is transferred to the product via electromagnetic waves, the part
never comes into direct contact with any flame, the inductor itself does not get hot
(watch video at upper right), and there is no product contamination. When properly
set up, the process becomes very repeatable and controllable.
Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic
energy of particles through the boundary between two systems. When an object is at
a different temperature from another body or its surroundings, heat flows so that the
body and the surroundings reach the same temperature, at which point they are
in thermal equilibrium. Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region
of high temperature to another region of lower temperature, as described by
the second law of thermodynamics.
Heat convection occurs when bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries heat along
with the flow of matter in the fluid. The flow of fluid may be forced by external
processes, or sometimes (in gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused when
thermal energy expands the fluid (for example in a fire plume), thus influencing its
own transfer. The latter process is often called "natural convection". All convective
processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of convection is
forced convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan or
other mechanical means.

35. Steel structural transformations in heating. Critical

temperature. Austenite grain.
= This is a process utilized to change certain characteristics of metals and alloys in
order to make them more suitable for a particular kind application Heat Treatment
can greatly influence mechanical properties such as strength, hardness, ductility,
toughness, and wear resitence of the alloys.
Heat Treatment of Carbon Steels and Carbon Alloy Steels:
Heat Treatment on both type of the steel is done for improving mechanical
properties such as tensile and yield strength. This is accomplished by altering the
molecular structure of steel in order to produce more durable microstructure. The
structure of steel is composed of two variables:
During the alloy process elements such as carbon are introduced to the metal.
These added elements interrupt the flow of the individual grains, increasing strength.

Thus, control of the metal crystal structure is a key element in successful heat
treating.
A Metal can also exist in various phases: Ferrite, austenite and cementite. To better
understand these phases, look at the Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram. The Y-axis
(vertical) is a measurement of temperature while the X-Axis (Horizontal) is a
measurement of the carbon content of the steel. The far left hand side of the X-axis
represents the Ferrite phase of steel (low carbon content) while the far right hand.
Side represents the cementite phase of steel (high carbon content), which is also
known as iron carbide. The curved horizontal line that occurs just above 1333 F
represents the austenite phase of steel.
The following phases are involved in the transformation, occurring with iron-carbon
alloys:
L L represents a liquid solution of carbon in iron.
Del-ferrite -ferrite is a solid solution of carbon in iron. Maximum concentration of
carbon in -ferrite is 0.09% at 2719 F (1493C) temperature of the peritectic
transformation. The crystal structure of -ferrite is BCC (cubic body centered).
Austenite Austenite is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in -iron. Austenite has
FCC (cubic face centered) crystal structure, permitting high solubility of carbon up
to 2.06% at 2097 F (1147 C). Austenite does not exist below 1333 F (733C) and
maximum carbon concentration at this temperature is 0.83%.
-ferrite -ferrite is a solid solution of carbon in -iron. -ferrite has BCC crystal
structure and low solubility of carbon up to 0.25% at 1333 F (733C). It exists at
room temperature.
Cementite Cementite is an iron carbide, intermetallic compound, having fixed
composition Fe3C. Cementite is a hard and brittle substance, influencing on the
properties of steels and cast irons.
When ferrite (low carbon steel) is at room temperature, it has a body-centered-cubic
structure, which can only absorb a low amount of carbon. Because Ferrite can only
absorb a very low amount of carbon at room temperature, the un-absorbed carbon
separates out of the body-centered-cubic structure to form carbides which join
together to create small packets of an extremely hard crystal structure within the
ferrite called cementic. However, when ferrite is heated to a temperature above the
transformation line( austenite line) the body-centered-cubic structure changes to a
face-centered-cubic structure, thus allowing for absorption of the carbon into the
crystal structure.
Once the steel enters the austenitic phase all of the cementite dissolves into
austenite. If the steel is allowed to cool slowly, the carbon will separate out of the
ferrite as a cubic-structure reverts from face-centered back to body-centered. The
islands of cementite will reform within the ferrite, and the steel will have the same
properties that it did before it was heated. However, when the steel is rapidly cooles,
or quenched, in a quenching medium (such as oil, water or cold air) the carbon does
not have time to exit the cubic structure of the ferrite and it becomes trapped within
it. This leads to the information of martensitic; microstructure that produces the
most sought after mechanical properties in steel fasteners.
During quenching, it is impossible to cool the specimen at a uniform rate throughout.
The surface will always cool more rapidly than the interior of the specimen.
Therefore, the austenite will transform over a range of temperatures, yielding a
possible variation of microstructure and properties depending on the position within
the material.

The successful heat treatment of steels to produce a predominantly martensitic

micro structure throughout the cross section depends mainly on three factors:
The composition of the alloy.
The type and character of the quenching medium.
The size and shape of the specimen.
Hardenability : It is the ability of steel to transform into martensite with a particular
quenching treatment. This is directly affected by the alloy composition of the steel.
For every different steel alloy there is a specific relationship between its mechanical
properties and its cooling rate. It is not hardness which is a resistance to
indentation; rather, hardness measurements are utilized to determine the extent of a
martensite transformation in the interior of the material.
Tempering : It involves heating the steel to a specific temperature below that of
austenite and allowing it to cool slowly. This cause the crystal structure to relax,
thereby increasing the ductility and decreasing the hardness to specified levels. The
specific tempering temperature will vary based on the desired result for the steel.
The following example will demonstrate the effectiveness of the tempering:
ASTM A193 Grade B7 , SAE J429 Grade and ASTM A574 Socket Head cap Screws
are all made from alloy steels. In fact some alloy steel grades can be used to
manufacture any of the three final products. Such as 4140 and 4142 alloy steel. The
final mechanical properties apper in the table.
Annealing
It is the heat treating process used to soften previously cold-worked metal by
allowing it to re-crystallize.The term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a
material is exposed to an elevated tempertature for an extended period and then
slowly cooled. Ordinarily, annealing is carried out to, (1) Relieve stress (often
introduced when cold-working the part.) ;(2) Increase softness, ductility and
toughness; and (3) Produce a desired microstructure.
Any annealing process consists of the three stages:
Heating to the desired temperature
Holding or soaking at that temperature
Slowly cooling, usually to room temperature
Time is the important parameters in these procedures. It is used to negate the effects
of cold work that is to be soften and increase the ductility of a previous strainhardened metal.
Stress relieving
It is a process that is utilized when internal residual stress develop in metal pieces in
response to such thing as cold working.Failure to remove these internal stress may
result in distottion and warping. A stress relief anneaing heat treatment removes
these stress heating the piece to a recommended temperature, held there long
enough to attain a uniform temperature, and finally cooled to a room temperature in
air.
Normalizing
It is an annealing heat treatment used to refine the grains and produce a more
uniform and desirable size distribution. Medium and high carbon steels having
microstructure containing pearlite may still be too hard to conveniently machine or
plastically deform. These steels (and in fact,any steel) may be annealted to develop
the spheroidite structure . Spheroidized steels have a maximum softness and ducility
and are easlly machined or deformed.

36. Austenite transformation in the continuous cooling. The

cooling rate and the role of diffusion.
= Austenite, also known as gamma phase iron (-Fe), is a metallic, nonmagnetic allotrope of iron or a solid solution of iron, with an alloying element.
Austenitization means to heat the iron, iron-based metal, or steel to a temperature at
which it changes crystal structure from ferrite to austenite. An incomplete initial
austenitization can leave undissolved carbides in the matrix.
For some irons, iron-based metals, and steels, the presence of carbides may occur
during the austenitization step. The term commonly used for this is two-phase
austenitization
During heat treating, a blacksmith causes phase changes in the iron-carbon system
in order to control the material's mechanical properties, often using the annealing,
quenching, and tempering processes. In this context, the colour of light, or
"blackbody radiation," emitted by the work piece is an approximate gauge of
temperature. Temperature is often gauged by watching the colour temperature of the
work, with the transition from a deep cherry-red to orange-red (815 C (1,499 F) to
871 C (1,600 F)) corresponding to the formation of austenite in medium and highcarbon steel. In the visible spectrum, this glow increases in brightness as
temperature increases, and when cherry-red the glow is near its lowest intensity and
may not be visible in ambient light. Therefore, blacksmiths usually austenize steel in
low-light conditions, to help accurately judge the color of the glow.
Maximum carbon solubility in austenite is 2.03% C at 1,420 K (1,150 C)
Martensite is formed in carbon steels by the rapid cooling (quenching) of austenite at
such a high rate that carbon atoms do not have time to diffuse out of the crystal
structure in large enough quantities to form (Fe3C). As a result, the face centered
cubic austenite transforms to a highly strained body centered cubic form of ferrite
that is supersaturated with carbon. The shear deformations that result produce large
numbers of dislocations, which is a primary strengthening mechanism of steels. The
highest hardness of a pearlitic steel is 400 whereas martensite can achieve
700 Brinell The martensitic reaction begins during cooling when the austenite
reaches the martensite start temperature (Ms) and the parent austenite becomes
mechanically unstable. As the sample is quenched, an increasingly large percentage
of the austenite transforms to martensite until the lower transformation temperature
Mf is reached, at which time the transformation is completed. For a eutectoid steel,
between 6 and 10% of austenite, called retained austenite, will remain. The
percentage of retained austenite increases from insignificant for less than 0.6% C to
13% retained austenite at 0.95% C and 3047% for a 1.4% carbon steels. A very
rapid quench is essential to create martensite. For a eutectoid carbon steel (0.78%
C) of thin section, if the quench starting at 750 C and ending at 450 C takes place
in 0.7 seconds (a rate of 430 C/s) no pearlite will form and the steel will be
martensitic with small amounts of retained austenite. For steel 0-0.6% carbon the
martensite has the appearance of lath, and is called lath martensite. For steel

greater than 1% carbon it will form a plate like structure called plate martensite.
Between those two percentages, the physical appearance of the grains is a mix of
the two. The strength of the martensite is reduced as the amount of retained
austenite grows. If the cooling rate is slower than the critical cooling rate, some
amount of pearlite will form, starting at the grain boundaries where it will grow into
the grains at rates of cm/s until the Ms temperature is reached then the remaining
austenite transforms into martensite at about half the speed of sound in steel. In
certain alloy steels, martensite can also be formed by the working and hence
deformation of the steel at temperature, in its austenitic form, by quenching to below
Ms and then working by plastic deformations to reductions of area to 40% or as little
20% of the original. The process produces dislocation densities up to 10 13/cm2. The
great number of dislocations, combined with precipitates that originate and pin the
dislocations in place, produces a very hard steel (this property is frequently used in
toughened ceramics like yttria-stabilized zirconia and in special steels like TRIP
steels). Thus, martensite can be thermally induced or stress induced..

37. Isothermal transformation of austenite. Formation of

bainite.
= It is established that kinetics of upper bainite reaction are different from those of
lower bainite. The change is associated with the different nucleation and growth
mechanisms, which are accompanied by a change in the morphology of upper and
lower bainite. Also, it is suggested and that the rate-controlling factor for the
formation of upper bainite is the diffusion of carbon in austenite whereas the diffusion
of carbon in supersaturated ferrite is suggested as the rate controlling process for
the formation of lower bainite and Both upper and lower bainite in hypereutectoid
steels nucleate predominantly at prior austenite grain boundaries. Intergranular
nucleation is infrequent in hypoeutectoid steels but is a common occurrence in
hypereutectoid steels Also the carbide phase associated with upper bainite is
usually cementite whereas the carbide phase that is observed in lower bainite
depends on the transformation time and temperature as well as on the composition
of the steel and and may be -carbide (Fe2.4C) -carbide (Fe2C), or cementite
(Fe3C). It has been shown that the kinetics of the bainite transformation change in
the temperature range 300350 C In addition to the chemical composition of steels,
plastic deformation of austenite can influence the subsequent isothermal
transformation of bainite. Larn and Yang showed that the overall transformation
kinetics of bainite became slower and the final amount of bainite decreased in steels
deformed in austenite region.
Isothermal transformation diagrams (also known as time-temperaturetransformation (TTT) diagrams) are plots of temperature versus time (usually on
a logarithmic scale). They are generated from percentage transformation-vs
logarithm of time measurements, and are useful for understanding the
transformations of an steel that is cooled isothermally. An isothermal transformation

diagram is only valid for one specific composition of material, and only if the
temperature is held constant during the transformation, and strictly with rapid cooling
to that temperature. Though usually used to represent transformation kinetics for
steels, they also can be used to describe the kinetics of crystallization in ceramic or
other materials. Time-temperature-precipitation diagrams and time-temperatureembrittlement diagrams have also been used to represent kinetic changes in steels.
Isothermal transformation (IT) diagram or the C-curve is associated with
mechanical properties, microconstituents/microstructures, and heat treatments in
carbon steels. Diffusional transformations like austenite transforming to
a and ferrite mixture can be explained using the sigmoidal curve; For example the
beginning of pearlitic transformation is represented by the pearlite start (P s) curve.
This transformation is complete at Pf curve. Nucleation requires an incubation time.
The rate of nucleation increases and the rate of microconstituent growth decreases
as the temperature decreases from the liquidus temperature reaching a maximum at
the bay or nose of the curve. Thereafter, the decrease in diffusion rate due to low
temperature offsets the effect of increased driving force due to greater difference
in free energy. As a result of the transformation, the microconstituents, form; forms
at higher temperatures and bainite at lower. Austenite is slightly undercooled when
quenched below Eutectoid temperature. When given more time, stable
microconstituents can form: ferrite and cementite. Coarse pearlite is produced when
atoms diffuse rapidly after phases that form pearlite nucleate. This transformation is
complete at the pearlite finish time (Pf).
However, greater undercooling by rapid quenching results in formation of martensite
or bainite instead of pearlite. This is possible provided the cooling rate is such that
the cooling curve intersects the martensite start temperature or the bainite start
curve before intersecting the Ps curve. The martensite transformation being a
diffusionless shear transformation is represented by a straight line to signify the
martensite start temperature.

38. Formation process of martensite. Martensite structure and properties.

= most commonly refers to a very hard form of steel crystalline structure, but it can
also refer to any crystal structure that is formed by diffusionless transformation. It
includes a class of hard minerals occurring as lath- or plate-shaped crystal grains.
When viewed in cross section, the (lens-shaped) crystal grains are sometimes
incorrectly described as (needle-shaped).
Martensite is formed in carbon steels by the rapid cooling (quenching) of austenite at
such a high rate that carbon atoms do not have time to diffuse out of the crystal
structure in large enough quantities to form (Fe3C). As a result, the face centered
cubic austenite transforms to a highly strained body centered cubic form of ferrite
that is supersaturated with carbon. The shear deformations that result produce large

numbers of dislocations, which is a primary strengthening mechanism of steels. The

highest hardness of a pearlitic steel is 400 whereas martensite can achieve
700 Brinell. The martensitic reaction begins during cooling when the austenite
reaches the martensite start temperature (Ms) and the parent austenite becomes
mechanically unstable. As the sample is quenched, an increasingly large percentage
of the austenite transforms to martensite until the lower transformation temperature
Mf is reached, at which time the transformation is completed. For a eutectoid steel,
between 6 and 10% of austenite, called retained austenite, will remain. The
percentage of retained austenite increases from insignificant for less than 0.6% C to
13% retained austenite at 0.95% C and 3047% for a 1.4% carbon steels. A very
rapid quench is essential to create martensite. For a eutectoid carbon steel (0.78%
C) of thin section, if the quench starting at 750 C and ending at 450 C takes place
in 0.7 seconds (a rate of 430 C/s) no pearlite will form and the steel will be
martensitic with small amounts of retained austenite. For steel 0-0.6% carbon the
martensite has the appearance of lath, and is called lath martensite. For steel
greater than 1% carbon it will form a plate like structure called plate martensite.
Between those two percentages, the physical appearance of the grains is a mix of
the two. The strength of the martensite is reduced as the amount of retained
austenite grows. If the cooling rate is slower than the critical cooling rate, some
amount of pearlite will form, starting at the grain boundaries where it will grow into
the grains at rates of cm/s until the Ms temperature is reached then the remaining
austenite transforms into martensite at about half the speed of sound in steel. In
certain alloy steels, martensite can also be formed by the working and hence
deformation of the steel at temperature, in its austenitic form, by quenching to below
Ms and then working by plastic deformations to reductions of area to 40% or as little
20% of the original. The process produces dislocation densities up to 10 13/cm2. The
great number of dislocations, combined with precipitates that originate and pin the
dislocations in place, produces a very hard steel (this property is frequently used in
toughened ceramics like yttria-stabilized zirconia and in special steels like TRIP
steels). Thus, martensite can be thermally induced or stress induced.
One of the differences between the two phases is that martensite has a bodycentered tetragonal (BCT) crystal structure, whereas austenite has a (FCC)
structure. The transition between these two structures requires very little thermal
activation energy because it is a transformation, which results in the subtle but rapid
rearrangement of atomic positions, and has been known to occur even
at cryogenic temperatures. Martensite has a lower density than austenite, so that the
martensitic transformation results in a relative change of volume. Of considerably
greater importance than the volume change is the shear strain which has a
magnitude of about 0.26 and which determines the shape of the plates of martensite.
Martensite is not shown in the equilibrium phase diagram of the iron-carbon system
because it is not an equilibrium phase. Equilibrium phases form by slow cooling rates
that allow sufficient time for diffusion, whereas martensite is usually formed by very
high cooling rates. Since chemical processes (the attainment of
equilibrium) accelerate at higher temperature, martensite is easily destroyed by the
application of heat. This process is called tempering. In some alloys, the effect is
reduced by adding elements such as tungsten that interfere with nucleation, but,

more often than not, the phenomenon is allowed to proceed to relieve stresses.
Since quenching can be difficult to control, many steels are quenched to produce an
overabundance of martensite, then tempered to gradually reduce its concentration
until the right structure for the intended application is achieved. The needle-like
microstructure of martensite leads to brittle behavior of the material. Too much
martensite leaves steel brittle, too little leaves it soft.

39. Annealing types of steel, application and the resulting properties.

= Annealing, in metallurgy and materials science, is a heat treatment that alters a

material to increase its ductility and to make it more workable. It involves heating a
material to above its critical temperature, maintaining a suitable temperature, and
then cooling. Annealing can induce ductility, soften material, relieve internal stresses,
refine the structure by making it homogeneous, and improve cold working properties.
In the cases of copper, steel, silver, and brass, this process is performed by heating
the material (generally until glowing) for a while and then slowly letting it cool to room
temperature in still air. Copper, silver and brass can be cooled slowly in air, or quickly
by quenching in water, unlike ferrous metals, such as steel, which must be cooled
slowly to anneal. In this fashion, the metal is softened and prepared for further work
such as shaping, stamping, or forming.
Process annealing, also called intermediate annealing, subcritical annealing, or inprocess annealing, is a heat treatment cycle that restores some of the ductility to a
product during the process of cold working, so it can be worked further without
breaking. Ductility is important in shaping and creating a more refined piece of work
through processes such as rolling, drawing, forging, spinning, extruding and heading.
The piece is heated to a temperature typically below the temperature, and held
there long enough to relieve stresses in the metal. The piece is then furnace cooled.
It can then be subjected to additional cold working. This can also be used to ensure
there is reduced risk of distortion of the work piece during machining, welding, or
further heat treatment cycles.
The temperature range for process annealing ranges from 260 C (500 F) to 760 C
(1400 F), depending on the alloy in question. Aluminium can be annealed but care
must be taken whilst heating. The flame should be held at a distance to the
aluminium so that it gives a generalised heating to the metal.
A trick of the trade is to rub soap on to the surface of the aluminium and then heat it
on the brazing hearth. It takes only a short time for the soap to turn black. The
brazing torch should be turned off immediately and the aluminium allowed to cool
slowly. It is now annealed and should be very soft and malleable

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Annealed metals are relatively soft and can be cut and
shaped more easily. They bend easily when pressure is applied. As a rule they are
heated and allowed to cool slowly.
Hardened metals are difficult to cut and shape. They are very difficult if not
impossible to bend. As a rule they are heated and cooled very quickly by quenching
in clean, cold water.
The Annealing Process
Full annealing consists of heating the work-piece to above the upper critical
temperature and slow cooling, usually in the furnace. It is generally only needed for
the higher alloy steels, cast irons and complex alloys. Long treatment times are
necessary to produce optimum softening in the case of the higher alloy steels.
Where it is considered desirable to fully austenitise a steel during a softening
process, (e.g. in order to refine forged structures), but where economy is paramount,
a normalising treatment is often applied instead of a full anneal. This consists of the
same initial heating stage as full annealing but followed by removal of the work from
the furnace for air-cooling. Normalising is only applicable to the lower alloy and plain
carbon steels.
Sub-Critical Annealing
Sub-critical annealing is, as the name implies, carried out at temperatures below the
lower critical temperature. It is mainly carried out in the temperature range 630 to
700C. It reduces hardness by allowing recrystallisation of the microstructure to
occur. Alternatively, if a temperature just below the lower critical temperature is used
(690 to 710 C.), it is possible to produce spheroidisation of the cementite phase
instead of forming the normal lammellar pearlite and ferrite structure. Spheroidising
is a useful technique for softening high carbon steels to improve machinablity.
Lower temperature sub-critical anneals in the temperature range 550 to 600 C. are
used to stress relieve welded fabrications and to stabilise rough machined
components which are to be ultimately hardened and tempered, case hardened or
nitrided and whose dimensional stability is critical annealing under a controlled
atmosphere prevents scaling, leaving components in a bright condition.
40. Steel

normalization, application and resulting structures and

properties.
=
Normalization is a type of annealing process used to relieve stress in hardenable
steels after cold work and to improve ductility and toughness properties. The steel is
heated slightly above its upper critical temperature and held for sufficient time to
allow new, smaller grains to form and high energy grain shapes to coalesce, also
known as grain refinement.
Normalization can also eliminate denritic segregation that may remain from the
casting process. The steel is air cooled from the normalization temperature, yielding

a microstructure that lends the desired toughness and ductility properties with a
nominal tensile strength.
Normalizing Heat Treatment process is heating a steel above the critical
temperature, holding for a period of time long enough for transformation to occur,
and air cooling. Normalized heat treatment establishes a more uniform carbide size
and distribution which facilitates later heat treatment operations and produces a
more uniform final product.
Normalization is an annealing process. The objective of normalization is to intend to
leave the material in a normal state, in other words with the absence of internal
tensions and even distribution of carbon. For the process the high temperatures are
maintained until the complete transformation of austenite with air cooling.
The purpose of normalizing is to remove the internal stresses induced by heat
treating, welding, casting, forging, forming, or machining. Stress, if not controlled,
leads to metal failure; therefore, before hardening steel, you should normalize it first
to ensure the maximum desired results. Usually, low-carbon steels do not re-quire
normalizing; however, if these steels are normal-ized, no harmful effects result.
Castings are usually annealed, rather than normalized; however, some cast-ings
require the normalizing treatment. Table 2-2 shows the approximate soaking periods
for normalizing steel. Note that the soaking time varies with the thickness ofthe
metal. Normalized steels are harder and stronger than an-nailed steels. In the
normalized condition, steel is much tougher than in any other structural condition.
Parts subjected to impact and those that require maximum toughness with
resistance to external stress are usually normalized. In normalizing, the mass of
metal has an influence on the cooling rate and on the resulting structure. Thin pieces
cool faster and are harder after normalizing than thick ones. In annealing (furnace
cooling), the hardness of the two are about the same.
It is usually used as a post-treatment to forging, and pre-treatment to quenching and
tempering.
Induction is used in most applications of annealing and normalizing in compared to
conventional ovens.
Induction heating advantages:
Processed in line with control of parameters in real time
Metallurgical results similar to those obtained in conventional ovens
Less environmental pollution
Increase energy efficiency
Reduced processing time
Ability to control the heat, temperature accuracy
Ability to heat small areas without changing the characteristics of the rest of the part
Cycle accurate and repetitive heat
Reduction of surface oxidation
Improved job environment
Copper becomes hard and brittle when mechanically worked; however, it can be
made soft again by annealing. The annealing temperature for copper is between 700F and 900F. Copper maybe cooled rapidly or slowly since the
cooling rate has no effect on the heat treatment. The one drawback experienced
in annealing copper is the phenomenon called hot shortness. At about 900F,
copper loses its tensile strength, and if not properly supported, it could fracture
.Aluminium reacts similar to copper when heat treat-ing. It also has the characteristic
of hot shortness. Number of aluminium alloys exist and each requires special heat
treatment to produce their best properties.

41. Steel tempering and application. Selection of heating temperature.

= Steel Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the
toughness of alloys. Tempering is usually performed after hardening, to reduce
some of the excess hardness, and is done by heating the metal to some temperature
below the critical temperature for a certain period of time, then allowed to cool in still
air. The exact temperature determines the amount of hardness removed, and
depends on both the specific composition of the alloy and on the desired properties
in the finished product. For instance, very hard tools are often tempered at low
temperatures, while springs are tempered to much higher temperatures. In glass,
tempering is performed by heating the glass and then quickly cooling the surface,
increasing the toughness.
Tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or
cast iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy. The
reduction in hardness is usually accompanied by an increase in ductility, thereby
decreasing the brittleness of the metal. Tempering is usually performed after
quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its hardest state. Tempering
is accomplished by controlled heating of the quenched work-piece to a temperature
below its "lower critical temperature". This is also called the lower transformation
temperature or lower arrest (A1) temperature; the temperature at which the
crystalline phases of the alloy, called ferrite and commentate, begin combining to
form a single-phase solid solution referred to as austenite. Heating above this
temperature is avoided, so as not to destroy the very-hard, quenched microstructure,
called martensite.
Precise control of time and temperature during the tempering process is critical to
achieve the desired balance of physical properties. Low tempering temperatures
may only relieve some of the internal stresses, decreasing brittleness while
maintaining a majority of the hardness. Higher tempering temperatures tend to
produce a greater reduction in the hardness, sacrificing some yield strength and
tensile strength for an increase in elasticity and plasticity. However, in some low alloy
steels, containing other elements like chromium and molybdenum, tempering at low
temperatures may produce an increase in hardness, while at higher temperatures
the hardness will decrease. Many steels with high concentrations of these alloying
elements behave like precipitation hardening alloys, which produce the opposite
effects under the conditions found in quenching and tempering, and are referred to
as managing steels.
In carbon steels, tempering alters the size and distribution of carbides in the
martensite, forming a microstructure called "tempered martensite". Tempering is also
performed on normalized steels and cast irons, to increase ductility, mach inability,
and impact strength. Steel is usually tempered evenly, called "through tempering,"
producing a nearly uniform hardness, but it is sometimes heated unevenly, referred
to as "differential tempering," producing a variation in hardness.

42. Critical tempering rate. Tempering types by cooling technique and the
environment.
= After the hardening treatment is applied, steel is often harder than needed and
is too brittle for most practical uses. Also, severe internal stresses are set up during
the rapid cooling from the hardening tempera-ture. To relieve the internal stresses
and reduce brittle-ness, you should temper the steel after it is hardened. Tempering
consists of heating the steel to a specific temperature (below its hardening
temperature), holding it at that temperature for the required length of time, and then
cooling it, usually instil air. The resultant strength, hardness, and ductility depend
on the temperature to which the steel is heated during the tempering process. The
purpose of tempering is to reduce the brittleness imparted by hardening and to
produce definite physical properties within the steel.
Tempering always follows, never precedes, the hardening operation. Besides
reducing brittleness, tempering softens the steel. That is un-avoidable, and the
amount of hardness that is lost depends on the temperature that the steel is heated
to during the tempering process. That is true of all steels except high-speed steel.
Tempering increases the hard-ness of high-speed steel. Tempering is always
conducted at temperatures be-low the low-critical point of the steel. In this respect,
tempering differs from annealing, normalizing, and hardening in which the
temperatures are above the upper critical point. When hardened steel is reheated,
temper-ing begins at 212F and continues as the temperature increases toward the
low-critical point. By selecting a definite tempering temperature, you can
predetermine the resulting hardness and strength. The minimum temperature time
for tempering should be 1 hour. If the part is more than 1 inch thick, increase the time
by 1 hour for each additional inch of thickness. Normally, the rate of cooling from
the tempering temperature has no effect on the steel. Steel parts are usually cooled
in still air after being removed from the tempering furnace; however, there are a few
types of steel that must be quenched from the tempering temperature to prevent
brittleness. These blue brittle steels can become brittle if heated in certain
temperature ranges and allowed to cool slowly. Some of the nickel chromium
steels are subject to this temper brittleness. Steel may be tempered after being
normalized, providing there is any hardness to temper. Annealed steel is impossible
to temper. Tempering relieves quenching stresses and reduces hardness and
brittleness.
Actually, the tensile strength of a hardened steel may increase as the steel is
tempered up to a temperature of about 450F. Above this temperature it starts to
decrease. Tempering increases softness, ductility, malleability, and impact
resistance. Again, high-speed steel is an exception to the rule. High-speed steel
increases in hardness on temper- ing, provided it is tempered at a high temperature
(about 1550F). Remember, all steel should be removed from the quenching bath
and tempered before it is complete] y cold. Failure to temper correctly results in a
quick failure of the hardened part. Permanent steel magnets are made of special
alloys and are heat-treated by hardening and tempering. Hardness and stability are
the most important properties in permanent magnets. Magnets are tempered at the
mini- mum tempering temperature of 212F by placing them in boiling water for 2 to 4

hours. Because of this low- tempering temperature, magnets are very hard. Casehardened parts should not be tempered at too high a temperature or they may
loose some of their hardness. Usually, a temperature range from 212F to 400F is
high enough to relieve quenching stresses. Some metals require no tempering.
The design of the part helps determine the tempering temperature.
43. Harden ability of steel. Harden ability test methods.
= The hardenability of ferrous alloys, i.e. steels, is a function of the carbon content
and other alloying elements and the grain size of the austenite. The relative
importance of the various alloying elements is calculated by finding the equivalent
carbon content of the material. The fluid used for quenching the material influences
the cooling rate due to varying thermal conductivities and specific heats. Substances
like brine and water cool much more quickly than oil or air. Additionally, if the fluid is
agitated cooling occurs even more quickly. The geometry of the part also affects the
cooling rate: of two samples of equal volume, the one with higher surface area will
cool faster.
The hardenability of a ferrous alloy is measured by a Jominy test: a round metal bar
of standard size (indicated in the top image) is transformed to 100% austenite
through heat treatment, and is then quenched on one end with room-temperature
water. The cooling rate will be highest at the end being quenched, and will decrease
as distance from the end increases. Subsequent to cooling a flat surface is ground
on the test piece and the hardenability is then found by measuring the hardness
along the bar. The farther away from the quenched end that the hardness extends,
the higher the hardenability. This information is plotted on a hardenability graph.

Hardenability Testing
The rate at which austenite decomposes to form ferrite, pearlite and bainite is
dependent on the composition of the steel, as well as on other factors such as the
austenite grain size, and the degree of homogeneity in the distribution of the alloying
elements. It is extremely difficult to predict hardenability entirely on basic principles,

and reliance is placed on one of several practical tests, which allow the hardenability
of any steel to be readily determined:
The Grossman test
Much of the earlier systematic work on hardenability was done by Grossman and
coworkers who developed a test involving the quenching, in a particular cooling
medium, of several cylindrical bars of different diameter of the steel under
consideration. Transverse sections of the different bars on which hardness
measurements have been made will show directly the effect of hardenability. In Fig 1,
which plots this hardness data for an SAE 3140 steel (1.1-1.4% Ni, 0.55-0.75% Cr,
0.40% C) oil-quenched from 815C, it is shown that the full martensitic hardness is
only obtained in the smaller sections, while for larger diameter bars the hardness
drops off markedly towards the center of the bar. The softer and harder regions of
the section can also be clearly resolved by etching.
In the Grossman test, the transverse sections are metallographically examined to
determine the particular bar, which has 50% martensite at its center. The diameter of
this bar is then designated the critical diameter D0. However, this dimension is of no
absolute value in expressing the hardenability as it will obviously vary if the
quenching medium is changed, e.g. from water to oil. It is therefore necessary to
assess quantitatively the effectiveness of the different quenching media. This is done
by determining coefficients for the severity of the quench usually referred to as Hcoefficients. The value for quenching in still water is set at 1, as a standard against
which to compare other modes of quenching.
Using the H-coefficients, it is possible to determine in place of D0, an ideal critical
diameter Di which has 50% martensite at the center of the bar when the surface is
cooled at an infinitely rapid rate, i.e. when H = . Obviously, in these circumstances
D0 = Di, thus providing the upper reference line in a series of graphs for different
values of H. In practice, H varies between about 0.2 and 5.0, so that if a quenching
experiment is carried out at an H-value of, say, 0.4, and D0 is measured, then the
graph can be used to determine Di. This value will be a measure of the hardenability
of given steel, which is independent of the quenching medium used.
The Jominy end quench test
While the Grossman approach to hardenability is very reliable, other less elaborate
tests have been devised to provide hardenability data. Foremost amongst these is
the Jominy test, in which a standardized round bar (25.4 mm diameter, 102 mm long)
is heated to the austenitizing temperature, then placed on a rig in which one end of
the rod is quenched by a standard jet of water. The Jominy test: A - specimen size;
B - quenching rig
This results in a progressive decrease in the rate of cooling along the bar from the
quenched end, the effects of which are determined by hardness measurements on
flats ground 4 mm deep and parallel to the bar axis (Fig. 3). A typical hardness plot
for a En 19B steel containing 1% Cr, 0.25% Mo and 0.4% C, where the upper curve
represents the hardness obtained with the upper limit of composition for the steel,
while the lower curve is that for the composition at the lower limit. The area between
the lines is referred to as a hardenability or Jominy band.

Additional data, which is useful in conjunction with these results, is the hardness of
quenched steels as a function both of carbon content and of the proportion of
martensite in the structure. Therefore, the hardness for 50% martensite can be easily
determined for a particular carbon content and, by inspection of the Jominy test
results, the depth at which 50 % martensite is achieved can be determined.
44. Steel abatement types, the resulting structure, properties and applications.
= Steel has been used since ancient times as a paint pigment. Two major chemical
forms of lead are used as colors--they are called "white lead" (a lead carbonate) and
"red lead" (a lead oxide). Both types of lead provide a thick, heavy, tough coating,
one that does not crack through wear or temperature variations, because it can
expand and contract in unison with the base metal to which it is attached. In addition,
the chemical nature of lead causes it to provide corrosion resistance as well.
Because of these properties, lead paints have been and continue to be widely used
for bridges and other metal structures.
The overall amount of lead that has been used can be considerable--one estimate
for the Sydney Harbor Bridge in Australia is that 90 tons of red lead paint and 250
tons of battleship gray are used in a five-year painting cycle. The bridge itself
contains 51,300 tons of steel. Some old structures may have a thick coating from
decades of painting. Even new steel is often coated with lead paint. This may be
surprising to some, because many people are under the impression that lead paint
has been banned. It is true that lead has been prohibited for use as a residential
interior finish. But it continues to be used for many exterior uses. Even if lead were
banned today for new use on structural steel, construction workers would still face a
lead hazard for the next 25-50 years, because there are so many old structures that
contain it. It is estimated that 35%-40% of steel structures are coated with leadbased paint, including 90,000 bridges. Of all bridges repainted in 1985-1989, 80% of
them had lead coatings. Because demolition and repair are likely to be increasingly
important in the future as the Nation faces its "infrastructure problems," it is important
that every construction worker be aware of this hazard.
For some Laborers, the idea that the job can involve lead exposures may be a new
one. After all, lead is not a common item on the work site. It is not often present in
structural steel alloys, nor used as a specialty product. It may be present as a thin
film of paint, but this may seem like an unlikely possibility for causing a problem.
Well, if you ask anyone who has done any renovation or demolition work on old steel
structures lately, you begin to understand the problem. It is typical to use
oxyacetylene torches to cut on old steel structures or to use welding equipment to
weld on them. The high temperatures of the torch or welding process vaporizes the
lead, so it becomes airborne and available for the worker to breathe. The purpose of
this course is to explain the nature of the hazard, provide recommended work
practices to allow safe work, and to describe the relevant regulations and guidelines
for lead. Because lead is such an important hazard, it is covered by a very tough
OSHA standard. The Lead Standard will be reviewed in this course because it
addresses many of the hazards involved with lead exposure.

45. Surface strengthening of steel by the plastic deformation.

= Plastic deformation causes 1) change in grain size, 2) strain hardening, 3) increase
in the dislocation density. Restoration to the state before cold-work is done by
heating through two processes: recovery and re crystallization .General principles.
Ability to deform plastically depends on ability of dislocations to move. Strengthening
consists in hindering dislocation motion. We discuss the methods of grain-size
reduction, solid-solution alloying and strain hardening. These are for single-phase
metals. We discuss others when treating alloys. Ordinarily, strengthening reduces
ductility. This is based on the fact that it is difficult for a dislocation to pass into
another grain, especially if it is very misaligned. Atomic disorder at the boundary
causes discontinuity in slip planes. For high-angle grain boundaries, stress at end of
slip plane may trigger new dislocations in adjacent grains. Small angle grain
boundaries are not effective in blocking dislocations.
The finer the grains, the larger the area of grain boundaries that impedes dislocation
motion. Grain-size reduction usually improves toughness as well. Usually, the yield
strength varies with grain size d according to:
sy = s0 + ky / d1/2
Grain size can be controlled by the rate of solidification and by plastic deformation.
Ductile metals become stronger when they are deformed plastically at temperatures
well below the melting point (cold working). (This is different from hot working is the
shaping of materials at high temperatures where large deformation is possible.)
Strain hardening (work hardening) is the reason for the elastic recovery discussed .
The reason for strain hardening is that the dislocation density increases with plastic
deformation (cold work) due to multiplication. The average distance between
dislocations then decreases and dislocations start blocking the motion of each one.
Heating increased diffusion enhanced dislocation motion relieves internal strain
energy and reduces the number of dislocation. The electrical and thermal
conductivity are restored to the values existing before cold working.
Re crystallization
Strained grains of cold-worked metal are replaced, upon heating, by more regularlyspaced grains. This occurs through short-range diffusion enabled by the high
temperature. Sincere crystallization occurs by diffusion, the important parameters
are both temperature and time.
The material becomes softer, weaker, but more ductile.
Re crystallization temperature: is that at which the process is complete in one hour. It
is typically 1/3 to 1/2 of the melting temperature. It falls as the %CW is increased.
Below a "critical deformation", recrystallization does not occur.
The growth of grain size with temperature can occur in all polycrystalline materials. It
occurs by migration of atoms at grain boundaries by diffusion, thus grain growth is
faster at higher temperatures. The "driving force" is the reduction of energy, which is
proportional to the total area. Big grains grow at the expense of the small ones.

46. Surface tempering methods: heating with the flame, the high frequency current.
= Differential heat treatment is a method used to alter the properties of various
parts of a steel object differently, producing areas that are harder or softer than
others. This creates greater toughness in the parts of the object where it is needed,
such as the tang or spine of a sword, but produces greater hardness at the edge or
other areas where greater impact resistance, wear resistance, and strength is
needed. Differential heat treatment can often make certain areas harder than could
be allowed if the steel was uniformly treated, or "through treated". There are several
techniques used to differentially heat treat steel, but they can usually be divided into
differential hardening and differential tempering methods.
During heat treating, when red-hot steel (usually between 1,500 F (820 C) and
1,600 F (870 C)) is quenched, it becomes very hard. However, it will be too hard,
becoming very brittle like glass. Quenched-steel is usually heated again, slowly and
evenly (usually between 400 F (204 C) and 650 F (343 C)) in a process called
tempering, to soften the metal, thereby increasing the toughness. However, although
this softening of the metal makes the blade less prone to breaking, it makes the edge
more susceptible to damage, such as dulling, peening, or curling.
Differential heat treatment (also called selective heat treatment or local heat
treatment) is a technique used during heat treating to harden or soften certain areas
of a steel object, creating a difference in hardness between these areas. There are
many techniques for creating a difference in properties, but most can be defined as
either differential hardening or differential tempering.
Differential hardening consists of either two methods. It can involve heating the metal
evenly to a red-hot temperature and then cooling it at different rates, turning part of
the object into very hard martensite while the rest cools slower and becomes softer
pearlitic. It may also consist of heating only a part of the object very quickly to redhot and then rapidly cooling (quenching), turning only part of it into hard martensite
but leaving the rest unchanged. Conversely, differential tempering methods consist
of heating the object evenly to red-hot and then quenching the entire object, turning
the whole thing into martensite. The object is then heated to a much lower
temperature to soften it (tempering), but is only heated in a localized area, softening
only a part of it. Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes
used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material.
The most common application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the
manufacture of many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use
of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result
such as hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include
annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching. It
is noteworthy that while the term heat treatment applies only to processes where the
heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties
intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other manufacturing
processes such as hot forming or welding.

47. Upper layer strengthening by chemical heat treatment, its physical foundations.
= In a salt bath with consecutive hot quenching in AS 140; for parts with maximum
length < 600 mm and diameter < 300 mm; up to maximum cementation thickness:
1.2 mm.
In the mono crab unit with consecutive oil quenching; for parts with maximum length
< 1400 mm and diameter < 600 mm; up to maximum cementation thickness: 1.5
mm.
Hardening
Oil hardening; for small parts hardening and thermal refinement; for parts with
maximum length < 2300 mm and diameter < 150 mm; heating to hardening
temperature without protective atmosphere.
Water quenching of low carbon steel; small parts only (maximum hardening
temperature=980 C).
Nitriding
Gas nitriding (at 520 C); maximum hardened layer thickness 0.5-0.7 mm; for parts
with maximum length < 2300 mm and diameter < 250 mm.
Plasma nitriding (at 480 C 560 C according to customers requirement);
maximum hardened layer thickness 0.4-0.5 mm; for parts with maximum length <
2400 mm and diameter < 600 mm.
Annealing
In N2 protective atmosphere, for parts with maximum length < 2300 mm and
diameter < 600 mm.
A large bogie hearth furnace with gas heating; for parts with maximum dimensions <
7000x3000x1500 mm; all kinds of annealing up to 580 C available.
Two bogie hearth furnaces with electric heating; for parts with maximum dimensions
< 2500x1000x600 mm; all kinds of annealing up to 960 C available.
Shaft furnace with electric heating; for parts with maximum length < 1700 mm and
diameter < 900 mm; all kinds of annealing up to 960 C available.
Batch furnace only for small parts; all kinds of annealing up to 900 C available.
Alkaline Blackening
For parts with maximum dimensions < 1100x650x350 mm
Shot blasting
0.16 mm dia. steel shots
1500 mm dia. work table
Production of water for laboratory and industrial purposes (AQUA OSMOTIC 02) for:
chemical analyses
everyday laboratory needs
preparation of solutions, diluting, etc.
washing of laboratory glass
replenishment water for batteries

Chemical treatments are problematic for a number of reasons, the fist being that they
may not kill bed bugs, at all. Years of pesticide use has made bed bugs incredibly
resistant to chemical treatments. Recent research has shown that some bed bugs
can survive more than 1,000 times the amount of pesticide considered lethal just 10
years ago.
Theres no such thing as a heat-resistant bed bug, however. These pests cant
survive temperatures above 122. Our treatment raises temperatures in your home
up to 185 for a period of six to eight hours, ensuring that our treatment is almost
always 100% effective.
Secondly, the chemicals used in pesticides may pose health threats to people and
pets. The Environmental Protection Agency recognizes the following side effects of
pesticide exposure: skin and eye irritation, nerve damage, disruption of the
endocrine system and even cancers. Its also common for sprayed pesticides to end
up in the air, soil, or water, where they pose environmental threats.
48. Steel hardening by carburizing, application, technology, structure and properties.
= Carburizing or carburising (chiefly British English) is a heat treatment process in
which iron or steel absorbs carbon liberated when the metal is heated in the
presence of a carbon bearing material, such as charcoal or carbon monoxide, with
the intent of making the metal harder. Depending on the amount of time and
temperature, the affected area can vary in carbon content. Longer carburizing times
and higher temperatures typically increase the depth of carbon diffusion. When the
iron or steel is cooled rapidly by quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer
surface becomes hard via the transformation from austenite to martensite, while the
core remains soft and tough as a ferrite and/or pearlitic microstructure.
This manufacturing process can be characterized by the following key points: It is
applied to low-carbon work pieces; work pieces are in contact with a high-carbon
gas, liquid or solid; it produces a hard work piece surface; work piece cores largely
retain their toughness and ductility; and it produces case hardness depths of up to
0.25 inches (6.4 mm). In some cases it serves as a remedy for undesired
decarburization that happened earlier in a manufacturing process. it is also referred
to as Case Hardening, is a heat treatment process that produces a surface which is
resistant to wear, while maintaining toughness and strength of the core. This
treatment is applied to low carbon steel parts after machining, as well as high alloy
steel bearings, gears, and other components.
Carburizing increases strength and wear resistance by diffusing carbon into the
surface of the steel creating a case while retaining a substantially lesser hardness in
the core. This treatment is applied to low carbon steels after machining.
Strong and very hard-surface parts of intricate and complex shapes can be made of
relatively lower cost materials that are readily machined or formed prior to heat
treatment.

Most carburizing is done by heating components in either a pit furnace, or sealed

atmosphere furnace, and introducing carburizing gases at temperature. Gas
carburizing allows for accurate control of both the process temperature and
carburizing atmosphere (carbon potential). Carburizing is a time/temperature
process; the carburizing atmosphere is introduced into the furnace for the required
time to ensure the correct depth of case. The carbon potential of the gas can be
lowered to permit diffusion, avoiding excess carbon in the surface layer.
After carburizing, the work is either slow cooled for later quench hardening, or
quenched directly into oil. Quench selection is made to achieve the optimum
properties with acceptable levels of dimensional change. Hot oil quenching may be
used for minimal distortion, but may be limited in application by the strength
requirements for the product. Alternatively, bearing races may be press quenched to
maintain their dimensional tolerances, minimizing the need for excessive post heat
treatment grinding. In some cases, product is tempered, then cryogenically
processed to convert retained austenite to martensite, and then retempered.
Metlab has the ability to carburize and harden gears and other components that are
small enough to be held in one's hand, up to 14' in diameter and 16' tall, weighing as
much as 50,000 pounds. Shallow cases only 0.002 - 0.005", and deep cases, up to
0.350" have been specified and readily achieved.
The press quench located in the facility allows for the dimensional control, therefore
precise hardening of gears and bearings up to 16" in diameter.

49. Steel hardening by nitrogen and nirtocarburizing, technology, structure and

properties.
= Steel Hardening With unalloyed steels, the nitrogen is dissolved in the iron lattice.
Due to the diminishing solubility of nitrogen in iron during slow cooling, _'-Fe4N
nitrides are precipitated in the outer region of the diffusion layer, some in form of
needles, which are visible in the structure under the microscope. If cooling is done
quickly, the nitrogen remains in super-saturated solution. With alloyed steels which
contain nitride-forming elements, the formation of stable nitrides or carbonitrides
takes place in the diffusion layer independent of the cooling speed. With increasing
alloy content of the steel, the diffusion layer is thinner for identical nitrocarburizing
parameters. However, with their higher level of nitride-forming alloying elements
these steels have a greater case hardness. Fig. 3 illustrates the influence of
chromium on the hardness and depth of the diffusion layer in steels with a carbon
content of 0.40 - 0.45% after 90 minutes treatment at 580C (1075F). Total nitro
carburizing depth shown in Fig. 4 is the distance to the point where the hardness of
the nitride layer is equal to the core hardness. After a 90 minute treatment the total
nitrided depth is about 1.0 mm (0.040") on unalloyed steel, but barely 0.2 mm
(0.008") on a 12% Cr steel. Total nitride depth on various materials resulting from
nitrocarburizing
Shows the coefficient of friction both under dry conditions and after lubrication with
SAE 30 oil, measured by an Amsler machine. All samples were lapped to a
roughness of R_ = 1_m after their respective surface treatments and before testing.
Without lubrication the nitrocarburized QP had the lowest coefficient of friction, being
less than half of that of the hard chrome or case hardened surfaces. The lowest
friction level occurred when nitrocarburized QPQ is lubricated. It is 3-4 times lower
than that achieved with the chrome or martensitic surfaces. These results show the
direct effect of increased oxidation as it relates to friction on the surface of the
nitrocarburized samples. The QPQ sample, with its extra post-oxidation step, has a
much higher friction value than the QP specimen, which had part of its original
oxidation in the compound layer removed by lapping. However, with this variant, due
to the fine microporosity in the QPQ sample which causes the lubrication to adhere
better to the surface, this option gives the lowest friction value.
If a uniform running behavior is required the QP process is appropriate. Lubrication
has only a slight influence on the coefficient of friction because the oxide layer of the
outer surface was removed during the polishing operation.
It has been determined that, unlike with chrome surfaces, the coefficient of friction of
nitrocarburized QP and QPQ treated surfaces remains constant, even at varying
sliding speeds.
The intermetallic stricture of the compound layer, which contains epsilon iron nitride
formed during nitrocarburizing, is extremely resistant to adhesive wear and scuffing.
Fig. 8 shows the scuffing loads of gears made from various materials (6). It was
established by applying increasing pressure to the flank tooth until galling occurred.
Austenitic steel containing 18% chromium and 8% nickel had the lowest resistance
to galling, however, after nitrocarburizing its resistance was raised almost five-fold.
The performance with SAE 5134 was about tripled. Even SAE 5116, which had
already been carburized, more than doubled the scuffing load it could withstand
through the compound layer built by the nitrocarburizing treatment

. 50. Strengthen coatings, their main covering methods.

= A strength coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object, usually
referred to as the substrate. The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative,
functional, or both. The coating itself may be an all-over coating, completely covering
the substrate, or it may only cover parts of the substrate. An example of all of these
types of coating is a product label on many drinks bottles- one side has an all-over
functional coating (the adhesive) and the other side has one or more decorative
coatings in an appropriate pattern (the printing) to form the words and images.
Paints and lacquers are coatings that mostly have dual uses of protecting the
substrate and being decorative, although some artists paints are only for decoration,
and the paint on large industrial pipes is presumably only for the function of
preventing corrosion.
Functional coatings may be applied to change the surface properties of the
substrate, such as adhesion, wet ability, corrosion resistance, or wear resistance. In
other cases, e.g. semiconductor device fabrication (where the substrate is a wafer),
the coating adds a completely new property such as a magnetic response or
electrical conductivity and forms an essential part of the finished product.
A major consideration for most coating processes is that the coating is to be applied
at a controlled thickness, and a number of different processes are in use to achieve
this control, ranging from a simple brush for painting a wall, to some very expensive
machinery applying coatings in the electronics industry. A further consideration for
'non-all-over' coatings is that control is needed as to where the coating is to be
applied. A number of these non-all-over coating processes are printing processes.
A strength coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object, usually
referred to as the substrate. The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative,
functional, or both. The coating itself may be an all-over coating, completely covering
the substrate, or it may only cover parts of the substrate. An example of all of these
types of coating is a product label on many drinks bottles- one side has an all-over
functional coating (the adhesive) and the other side has one or more decorative
coatings in an appropriate pattern (the printing) to form the words and images.
Paints and lacquers are coatings that mostly have dual uses of protecting the
substrate and being decorative, although some artists paints are only for decoration,
and the paint on large industrial pipes is presumably only for the function of
preventing corrosion.
Functional coatings may be applied to change the surface properties of the
substrate, such as adhesion, wet ability, corrosion resistance, or wear resistance. In
other cases, e.g. semiconductor device fabrication (where the substrate is a wafer),
the coating adds a completely new property such as a magnetic response or
electrical conductivity and forms an essential part of the finished product.
A major consideration for most coating processes is that the coating is to be applied
at a controlled thickness, and a number of different processes are in use to achieve
this control, ranging from a simple brush for painting a wall, to some very expensive
machinery applying coatings in the electronics industry. A further consideration for
'non-all-over' coatings is that control is needed as to where the coating is to be
applied. A number of these non-all-over coating processes are printing processes.

51. Basics of steel alloyage. Effect of alloying elements on steel properties.

= The carbon content of steel is between 0.002% and 2.1% by weight. Too little
carbon content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents
higher than those of steel make an alloy commonly called pig iron that is brittle and
not malleable. Alloy steel is steel to which additional alloying elements have been
intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements
include: manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, and
niobium. Additional elements may be present in steel: manganese, phosphorus,
sulphur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and aluminium.
Effects of Alloying Elements in Steel
Steel is basically iron alloyed to carbon with certain additional elements to give the
required properties to the finished melt. Listed below is a summary of the effects
various alloying elements in steel.
Carbon
The basic metal, iron, is alloyed with carbon to make steel and has the effect of
increasing the hardness and strength by heat treatment but the addition of carbon
enables a wide range of hardness and strength.
Manganese
Manganese is added to steel to improve hot working properties and increase
strength, toughness and harden ability. Manganese, like nickel, is an austenite
forming element and has been used as a substitute for nickel in the A.I.S.I 200
Series of Austenitic stainless steels (e.g. A.I.S.I 202 as a substitute for A.I.S.I 304)
Chromium
Chromium is added to the steel to increase resistance to oxidation. This resistance
increases as more chromium is added. 'Stainless Steel' has approximately 11%
chromium and a very marked degree of general corrosion resistance when
compared with steels with a lower percentage of chromium. When added to low alloy
steels, chromium can increase the response to heat treatment, thus improving
harden ability and strength.
Nickel
Nickel is added in large amounts, over about 8%, to high chromium stainless steel to
form the most important class of corrosion and heat resistant steels. These are the
austenitic stainless steels, typified by 18-8, where the tendency of nickel to form
austenite is responsible for a great toughness and high strength at both high and low
temperatures. Nickel also improves resistance to oxidation and corrosion. It
increases toughness at low temperatures when added in smaller amounts to alloy
steels.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum, when added to chromium-nickel austenitic steels, improves resistance
to pitting corrosion especially by chlorides and sulphur chemicals. When added to
low alloy steels, molybdenum improves high temperature strengths and hardness.
When added to chromium steels it greatly diminishes the tendency of steels to decay
in service or in heat treatment.
Titanium
The main use of titanium as an alloying element in steel is for carbide stabilisation. It
combines with carbon to for titanium carbides, which are quite stable and hard to
dissolve in steel, this tends to minimise the occurrence of inter-granular corrosion, as
with A.I.S.I 321, when adding approximately 0.25%/0.60% titanium, the carbon
combines with the titanium in preference to chromium, preventing a tie-up of

corrosion resisting chromium as inter-granular carbides and the accompanying loss

of corrosion resistance at the grain boundaries.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is usually added with sulphur to improve machine ability in low alloy
steels, phosphorus, in small amounts, aids strength and corrosion resistance.
Experimental work shows that phosphorus present in austenitic stainless steels
increases strength. Phosphorus additions are known to increase the tendency to
cracking during welding.
Sulphur
When added in small amounts sulphur improves machine ability but does not cause
hot shortness. Hot shortness is reduced by the addition of manganese, which
combines with the sulphur to form manganese sulphide. As manganese sulphide has
a higher melting point than iron sulphide, which would form if manganese were not
present, the weak spots at the grain boundaries are greatly reduced during hot
working.
Selenium
Selenium is added to improve machine ability.
Niobium (Columbium)
Niobium is added to steel in order to stabilise carbon, and as such performs in the
same way as described for titanium. Niobium also has the effect of strengthening
steels and alloys for high temperature service.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen has the effect of increasing the austenitic stability of stainless steels and is,
as in the case of nickel, an austenite forming element. Yield strength is greatly
improved when nitrogen is added to austenitic stainless steels.
Silicon
Silicon is used as a deoxidising (killing) agent in the melting of steel, as a result,
most steels contain a small percentage of silicon. Silicon contributes to hardening of
the ferrite phase in steels and for this reason silicon killed steels are somewhat
harder and stiffer than aluminium killed steels.
Cobalt
Cobalt becomes highly radioactive when exposed to the intense radiation of nuclear
reactors, and as a result, any stainless steel that is in nuclear service will have a
cobalt restriction, usually approximately 0.2% maximum. This problem is
emphasised because there is residual cobalt content in the nickel used in producing
these steels.
Tantalum
Chemically similar to niobium and has similar effects.
Copper
Copper is normally present in stainless steels as a residual element. However it is
added to a few alloys to produce precipitation hardening properties.
52. Influence of alloying elements on the thermal processing technology and
properties.
= CuAlNi shape memory alloys (SMAs) have been developed for high
temperatures engineering components such as sensor and actuators, due to their
ability to work at temperatures near 200C, rather than NiTi and CuZnAl alloys
whose maximum working temperatures around 100C. These alloys are widely used

because they are much cheaper than NiTi/Cu-Zn-Al and do not require any
complicated processing during their manufacturing as do for other shape memory
alloys. In addition, these alloys have a small hysteresis and high transformation
temperatures compared with other alloys. Despite all these advantages, these alloys
have their limitations such as brittleness and low phase recovery strains and stress.
The present review describes the role of alloying elements on the properties of CuAl-Ni shape memory alloys. It has been found that the additions of alloying elements
have a significant effect on the formation, morphology, and structure of the obtained
martensite, therefore, the properties of these alloys varied in accordance of these
effects. From a heat treader's perspective, the purpose of adding alloying elements
to steel is to enhance the materials response to heat treatment, which in turn results
in improvement of the mechanical and physical properties of the steel. Alloying
additions are made for one or more of the following reasons:
To increase harden ability
To produce a finer grain size
To help control part distortion
To improve tensile strength without appreciably lowering ductility
To avoid quench cracking
To gain toughness
To achieve better wear resistance
To improve hot hardness
To achieve better corrosion resistance
With this disclaimer in mind, it is time to talk about the element manganese (Mn). We
know that the effect of a particular alloying element on either the steelmaking
process, the response to heat treatment and the properties achievable depends on
the effects of both the element in question and on the (complex) interactions with
other elements, either individually or collectively.
The effects of alloying elements and annealing temperature on thermal conductivity
and softening behaviour of Cu 01Ag xPyMg and Cu xSn yTe alloys (all
compositions are in wt-%) have been investigated. The Cu 01Ag xPyMg alloys,
in spite of greater amounts of P and Mg, had a higher electrical conductivity and a
higher softening temperature than those of a Cu 01Ag 0031P alloy. A Cu
0032Sn 0023Te alloy had the same levels of electrical conductivity and softening
temperature as those of Cu 0040Sn. The conductivity and softening temperature
of the Cu 0032Sn 0023Te alloy are comparable with those of the Cu 01Ag
0013P alloy currently used for continuous casting mould materials.
The role manganese plays in de oxidation of steel and modification of sulphides
presents it is a major alloying element. It has complex interactions with carbon and is
used to control inclusions. Manganese is beneficial to surface quality in all carbon
ranges with the exception of rimmed steels (< 0.15%C) and is particularly beneficial
in high-sulphur steels. Manganese contributes to strength and hardness, but to a
lesser degree than carbon. The increase depends on the carbon content highercarbon steels being affected more by manganese. Higher manganese in steels
lowers ductility and weld ability (but to a lesser extent than carbon). Manganese also
increases the rate of carbon penetration during carburizing.

53. Carburized alloy age structural steels, heat treatment and properties.
= Carburization of steel involves a heat treatment of the metallic surface using a
source of carbon. Carburization can be used to increase the surface hardness of low
carbon steel.
Early carburization used a direct application of charcoal packed onto the metal
(initially referred to as case hardening), but modern techniques apply carbon-bearing
gases or plasmas (such as carbon dioxide or methane). The process depends
primarily upon ambient gas composition and furnace temperature, which must be
carefully controlled, as the heat may also impact the microstructure of the rest of the
material. For applications where great control over gas composition is desired,
carburization may take place under very low pressures in a vacuum chamber.
Plasma carburization is increasingly used in major industrial regimes to improve the
surface characteristics (such as wear and corrosion resistance, hardness and loadbearing capacity, in addition to quality-based variables) of various metals, notably
stainless steels. The process is used as it is environmentally friendly (in comparison
to gaseous or solid carburizing). It also provides an even treatment of components
with complex geometry (the plasma can penetrate into holes and tight gaps), making
it very flexible in terms of component treatment.
The process of carburization works via the implantation of carbon atoms into the
surface layers of a metal. As metals are made up of atoms bound tightly into a
metallic crystalline lattice, the implanted carbon atoms force their way into the crystal
structure of the metal and either remain in solution (dissolved within the metal
crystalline matrix this normally occurs at lower temperatures) or react with the
host metal to form ceramic carbides (normally at higher temperatures, due to the
higher mobility of the host metal's atoms). Both of these mechanisms strengthen the
surface of the metal, the former by causing lattice strains by virtue of the atoms
being forced between those of the host metal and the latter via the formation of very
hard particles that resist abrasion. However, each different hardening mechanism
leads to different solutions to the initial problem: the former mechanism known as
solid solution strengthening improves the host metal's resistance to corrosion
whilst impairing its increase in hardness; the latter known as precipitation
strengthening greatly improves the hardness but normally to the detriment of the
host metal's corrosion resistance. Engineers using plasma carburization must decide
which of the two mechanisms matches their needs.
Gas carburizing is normally carried out at a temperature within the range of 900 to
950 C.
In oxy-acetylene welding, a carburizing flame is one with little oxygen, which
produces a sooty, lower-temperature flame. It is often used to anneal metal, making
it more malleable and flexible during the welding process.
A main goal when producing carbonized work pieces is to ensure maximum contact
between the work piece surface and the carbon-rich elements. In gas and liquid
carburizing, the work pieces are often supported in mesh baskets or suspended by
wire. In pack carburizing, the work piece and carbon are enclosed in a container to
ensure that contact is maintained over as much surface area as possible. Pack

carburizing containers are usually made of carbon steel coated with aluminium or
heat-resisting nickel-chromium alloy and sealed at all openings with fire clay.
There are different types of elements or materials that can be used to perform this
process, but these mainly consist of high carbon content material. A few typical
hardening agents include carbon monoxide gas (CO), sodium cyanide and barium
carbonate, or hardwood charcoal. In gas carburizing, the CO is given off by propane
or natural gas. In liquid carburizing, the CO is derived from a molten salt composed
mainly of sodium cyanide (NaCN) and barium chloride (BaCl2). In pack carburizing,
carbon monoxide is given off by coke or hardwood charcoal.
54. Upgradeable alloyage structural steels, heat treatment and properties.
= Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is a heat treatment technique
used to increase the yield strength of malleable materials, including most structural
alloys of aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some stainless steels. In
superalloys, it is known to cause yield strength anomaly providing excellent hightemperature strength.
Precipitation hardening relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to
produce fine particles of an impurity phase, which impede the movement of
dislocations, or defects in a crystal's lattice. Since dislocations are often the
dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to harden the material. The impurities play
the same role as the particle substances in particle-reinforced composite materials.
Just as the formation of ice in air can produce clouds, snow, or hail, depending upon
the thermal history of a given portion of the atmosphere, precipitation in solids can
produce many different sizes of particles, which have radically different properties.
Unlike ordinary tempering, alloys must be kept at elevated temperature for hours to
allow precipitation to take place. This time delay is called aging. Solution treatment
and aging is sometimes abbreviated "STA" in metals specs and carts
Precipitation strengthening is possible if the line of solid solubility slopes strongly
toward the center of a phase diagram. While a large volume of precipitate particles is
desirable, a small enough amount of the alloying element should be added that it
remains easily soluble at some reasonable annealing temperature.
Elements used for precipitation strengthening in typical aluminum and titanium alloys
make up about 10% of their composition. While binary alloys are more easily
understood as an academic exercise, commercial alloys often use three components
for precipitation strengthening, in compositions such as Al(Mg, Cu) and Ti(Al, V). A
large number of other constituents may be unintentional, but benign, or may be
added for other purposes such as grain refinement or corrosion resistance. In some
cases, such as many aluminum alloys, an increase in strength is achieved at the
expense of corrosion resistance.
The addition of large amounts of nickel and chromium needed for corrosion
resistance in stainless steels means that traditional hardening and tempering
methods are not effective. However, precipitates of chromium, copper or other
elements can strengthen the steel by similar amounts in comparison to hardening
and tempering. The strength can be tailored by adjusting the annealing process, with
lower initial temperatures resulting in higher strengths. The lower initial temperature

increase driving force of nucleation. More driving force means more nucleation sites,
and more sites, means more places for dislocations to be disrupted while the
finished part is in use..
55. Spring steels, heat treatment, properties and brands.
= Spring Steel is typically used because of its high yield strengths, resistance to
deformation and its ability to return to its original shape. Our spring steel is available
as heat-treatable annealed, which allows the forming to occur prior to the heat
treatment or as heat treated, having been previously hardened, tempered or
sprung. Precision Steels inventory of annealed spring steel can easily be formed,
tempered, heat treated, blanked or shaped. In addition to the annealed and heattreated spring steel,
Precision Steel also carries large inventories of stainless spring strip steel. Stainless
Spring steel is known for being resistant to water, environmental, and pollution
exposure. With two main groups, stainless spring steel can either be austenitic or
martensitic. The austenitic stainless spring steels like 301 and 302 are temper rolled
for light springs versus the martensitic spring steels, such as the 420 stainless strips,
that are heat treatable for high hardness and toughness and are typically used for
hardened tools.
These types vary widely in physical characteristics as well as cost. Let us help you
determine which type of Spring Steel is best suited to your particular application. Our
representatives offer years of practical experience. They have solid steel knowledge
and a sincere desire to be helpful.
FLATNESS - It has not been practical to formulate flatness tolerances for cold rolled
carbon spring steel to represent the range of widths and thicknesses and variety of
properties produced in coils and cut lengths. Hardened and tempered to meet the
most exacting requirements, Precision Steel Warehouse offers annealed 95 carbon
spring steel and polished, edged and blued precision brand blue tempered AISI 1095
spring steel. Our high carbon spring steel products have been thoroughly tested prior
to stocking, ensuring the best quality 1095 blue tempered and polished stainless
spring steel strip available.
pring steel is also commonly used in the manufacture of metal swords used for stage
combat due to its resistance to snapping or shattering.[dubious discuss] Spring
steel is one of the most popular materials used in the fabrication of lock picks due to
its pliability and resilience. Tubular spring steel is used in some of the smaller
aircraft's landing gear due to its ability to absorb the shock from landing & also acts
like damping. Applications include piano wire, spring clamps, antennas, and springs.
Carbon steel is steel in which the main interstitial alloying constituent is carbon in the
range of 0.122.0%. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) defines carbon
steel as the following: "Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum
content is specified or required for chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, niobium,
titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element to be added to
obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper does not
exceed 0.40 percent; or when the maximum content specified for any of the following

elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60,
copper 0.60.
The term "carbon steel" may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless
steel; in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels.
As the carbon percentage content rises, steel has the ability to become harder and
stronger through heat treating; however it becomes less ductile. Regardless of the
heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weld ability. In carbon steels, the
higher carbon content lowers the melting point.
56. Ball bearing steels, the composition, heat treatment and properties.
= Bearings consist of rolling elements (balls, cylinders or barrel shapes) and rings
which form the raceways. The manufacturing process for the rolling elements
involves the high reduction-rate plastic deformation of raw, cast material, into billets
with square sections. The deformation helps to break up the cast structure and to
close porosity. The billets are then reduced in section by further rolling or drawing,
heat-treated to a softened state and cut into lengths suitable for the manufacture of
balls; the finished rolling elements are then quenched and tempered, or isothermally
transformed, to the required hardness. Bearing rings can be made from seamless
tube produced by hot-rolling and similarly hardened, followed by careful machining
and grinding to the final dimensions and surface finish. The vast majority of rolling
elements and raceways are made using steel. The purpose of this section is not to
give a comprehensive description of the vast variety of bearing geometries, but
rather to establish the basic terminology which is used in experimental
investigations. Much more detail including images of specific bearing configurations
can be found elsewhere . Aspects of geometry can dramatically influence the choice
of material, bearing performance and its ability to bear loads. For example, the
contact angle defined in influences fatigue life and the temperatures developed
during bearing operation .
The most common material used to produce the load carrying components in
precision ball bearings, roller bearings, and tapered roller bearings is 52100 chrome
steel. These components are the bearings inner and outer rings, balls and rollers.
The chemical composition of this steel has high carbon and about 1.5% chromium
content. Using controlled processing and heat-treating methods the finished bearing
components have high strength to resist cracking and a hard surface to resist
subsurface rolling contact fatigue. The typical surface hardness for bearing
components made from this material ranges from 60- 64 on the Rockwell hardness
C scale (Rc).

Spherical balls enclosed between two concentric rings permit the rings to rotate
relative to each other, whilst supporting a radial load; this is the essence of a ball
bearing. Roller bearings use cylinders instead of balls and have a greater load
bearing capacity because of the greater contact between the rolling element and the
rings. Cylindrical roller bearings played a seminal role in the development of the
continuous rolling mill, now used in the manufacture of billions of tonnes of wide-strip
steel . Prior to this, the rolling process was by repeatedly passing the steel through a
single mill, involving many steps of handling and heating. The original bearing design
had an outer forged steel ring and a fixed bronze-bearing race holding steel rollers in
position. Modern bearings of this kind would be made entirely of steel although there
may be retaining cages which are made from other materials. In spherical roller
bearings, the rolling elements are barrel-shaped with two parallel raceways
permitting angular contact; the double set permits the bearing to accommodate shaft
misalignment.
Taper roller bearings take this concept further by making the rings and rollers
tapered, to increase the contact area, permitting large radial and thrust loads. They
are for this reason used in some helicopter transmissions to take advantage of their
greater load capacity for a given shape or weight when compared with ball or
cylindrical roller bearings .
In needle roller bearings, the cylinders are long and thin, so that the outer diameter
of the bearing is not much greater than that of the inner ring. This makes for a
compact design which can be an advantage when space is at a premium. A
spherical-roller bearing uses barrelled cylinders as the rolling elements, with two sets
of rollers enclosed by the rings. This allows the bearing to accommodate a
misaligned load.

57. Tool steels, heat treatment and application.

= Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly wellsuited to be made into tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness,
resistance to abrasion, their ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their resistance to
deformation at elevated temperatures (red-hardness). Tool steel is generally used in
a heat-treated state. Many high carbon tool steels are also more resistant to
corrosion due to their higher ratios of elements such as vanadium and niobium.
With a carbon content between 0.7% and 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under
carefully controlled conditions to produce the required quality. The manganese
content is often kept low to minimize the possibility of cracking during water
quenching. However, proper heat treating of these steels is important for adequate
performance, and there are many suppliers who provide tooling blanks intended for
oil quenching.
Tool steels are made to a number of grades for different applications. Choice of
grade depends on, among other things, whether a keen cutting edge is necessary,
as in stamping dies, or whether the tool has to withstand impact loading and service
conditions encountered with such hand tools as axes, pickaxes, and quarrying
implements. In general, the edge temperature under expected use is an important
determinant of both composition and required heat treatment. The higher carbon
grades are typically used for such applications as stamping dies, metal cutting tools,
etc.
Tool steels are also used for special applications like injection molding because the
resistance to abrasion is an important criterion for a mold that will be used to
produce hundreds of thousands of parts.
Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly wellsuited to be made into tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness,
resistance to abrasion, their ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their resistance to
deformation at elevated temperatures (red-hardness). Tool steel is generally used in
a heat-treated state. Many high carbon tool steels are also more resistant to
corrosion due to their higher ratios of elements such as vanadium and niobium.
With a carbon content between 0.7% and 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under
carefully controlled conditions to produce the required quality. The manganese
content is often kept low to minimize the possibility of cracking during water
quenching. However, proper heat treating of these steels is important for adequate
performance, and there are many suppliers who provide tooling blanks intended for
oil quenching.
Tool steels are made to a number of grades for different applications. Choice of
grade depends on, among other things, whether a keen cutting edge is necessary,
as in stamping dies, or whether the tool has to withstand impact loading and service
conditions encountered with such hand tools as axes, pickaxes, and quarrying
implements. In general, the edge temperature under expected use is an important
determinant of both composition and required heat treatment. The higher carbon
grades are typically used for such applications as stamping dies, metal cutting tools,
etc.

Tool steels are also used for special applications like injection moulding because the
resistance to abrasion is an important criterion for a mould that will be used to
produce hundreds of thousands of parts.
58. High speed steels, their composition, heat treatment characteristics and
properties.
= High-speed steel (HSS or HS) is a subset of tool steels, commonly used in tool
bits and cutting tools. It is often used in power-saw blades and drill bits. It is superior
to the older high-carbon steel tools used extensively through the 1940s in that it can
withstand higher temperatures without losing its temper (hardness). This property
allows HSS to cut faster than high carbon steel, hence the name high-speed steel. At
room temperature, in their generally recommended heat treatment, HSS grades
generally display high hardness (above HRC60) and abrasion resistance (generally
linked to tungsten and vanadium content often used in HSS) compared with common
carbon and tool steels.
High speed steels are alloys that gain their properties from either tungsten or
molybdenum, often with a combination of the two. They belong to the FeCX multicomponent alloy system where X represents chromium, tungsten, molybdenum,
vanadium, or cobalt. Generally, the X component is present in excess of 7%, along
with more than 0.60% carbon. The alloying element percentages do not alone
bestow the hardness-retaining properties; they also require appropriate hightemperature heat treatment to become true HSS; see History above.
In the unified numbering system (UNS), tungsten-type grades (e.g. T1, T15) are
assigned numbers in the T120xx series, while molybdenum (e.g. M2, M48) and
intermediate types are T113xx. ASTM standards recognize 7 tungsten types and 17
molybdenum types.
The addition of about 10% of tungsten and molybdenum in total maximises efficiently
the hardness and toughness of high speed steels and maintains those properties at
the high temperatures generated when cutting metals.
In general the basic composition of T1 HSS is 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, 0.7% C and rest
Fe. Such HSS tool could machine (turn) mild steel at speed only up to 20~30 m/min
(which was quite substantial in those days).
The main use of high-speed steels continues to be in the manufacture of various
cutting tools: drills, taps, milling cutters, tool bits, gear cutters, saw blades, planer
and jointer blades, router bits, etc., although usage for punches and dies is
increasing.
High speed steels also found a market in fine hand tools where their relatively good
toughness at high hardness, coupled with high abrasion resistance, made them
suitable for low speed applications requiring a durable keen (sharp) edge, such as
files, chisels, hand plane blades, and high quality kitchen, pocket knives, and
swords.
For Heat treatment the first high-speed steel, which was of the T1 type, was
developed at the beginning of this century. This steel, designated 18-4-l, was the
precursor of modern high-speed steel. Grade T1 has for many years kept its position
and it is still used to some extent. By adding some 5-10% Co and simultaneously
increasing the C and V contents the wear resistance is increased. Common to all 184-l steels is their high hardening temperature, viz. 1260-1280C. Any danger of

overheating the steels by using a hardening temperature of 1280C is therefore out

of the question.
As was the case for hot-work steels, it has been possible to replace W in the T1
grade by Mo. This has led to the development of the M2 type (6-5-4-2) which, for
most purposes, can replace T1.
Yet another variant is M7 which has a higher content of Mo but less W than M2. For
some applications M7 is said to possess greater toughness and wear resistance
than M2. Like T1, both M2 and M7 can be alloyed with Co which gives them
increased hot wear-resistance. Such a variant of M7 is designated M42. For the M
steels a suitable hardening temperature is 1200-1220C. Sometimes 1230C is given
as the maximum hardening temperature and under no circumstances should this
temperature be exceeded.
59. Metal ceramic hard metals, their properties, applications and brands.
= Ceramic material is proposed as a method for incorporating toxic heavy metals in a
solid form that has structural integrity and is resistant to chemical degradation and
leaching. This project is exploring the conditions under which nickel can be bound in
a ceramic matrix using pure and industrial grade kaolinite. The intent is to determine
optimal conditions for ceramic production from nickel contaminated clay that
effectively resists leaching of the metal under acidic conditions, and to determine the
mechanism by which the nickel is bound in the solid material. Although the cost of
materials and energy is high when compared to other treatment methods, there are
several distinct compensating advantages to this approach: 1) it is possible to treat
metal containing wastes on site and produce a material that is not classified as a
hazardous waste, thus reducing regulatory problems and off-site
transportation/disposal costs, 2) the ceramic product is significantly lighter than the
liquid containing wastes (further reducing transportation costs), 3) the ceramic
product is marketable for a number of applications such as light weight filler for
concrete, and 4) the incorporated heavy metals may be more resistant to leaching
than in other matrices thus making release to the environment following disposal less
likely. The mechanism by which the ceramic matrix isolates heavy metals is not
known. Two possibilities are chemical bonding in the alumina-silicate matrix, and
encapsulation of metal oxides, carbonates, etc. Finding optimum conditions for
producing heavy metal containing ceramics is dependent on this information.
Using a bench top furnace, kaolinite clay mixed with nickel containing solutions are
being sintered under a range of relevant conditions to produce ceramic pellets. The
pellets are characterized for mineral and chemical content, ground, and exposed to
acidic leaching conditions (consistent with EPA standard tests) to determine the rate
and extent of nickel extraction as functions of surface parameters. Solution and solid
data are collected to determine the extent of solid dissolution and changes in surface
chemical composition, and to distinguish between solute adsorption and leaching
from solid phase(s). Scanning Electron Microscopy, X-ray Photoelectron
Spectroscopy and X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy are used to verify or analyse
changes in surface structure, composition, and coordination around a particular
atom.

Ceramics are generally compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements and
include such compounds as oxides, nitrides, and carbides. Typically they are
insulating (not electrical or thermally conductive) and resistant to high temperatures
and harsh environments (corrosion resistant). They usually have lower electrical and
thermal conductivity, higher stiffness, good resistance to corrosive environments, and
lower fracture toughness than metals. With the exception of glasses, ceramics
usually cannot be reshaped easily. To shape a ceramic, a mixture of ceramic
powders, water, and binder materials is moulded into the desired dimensions to form
a temporary shape. These temporary shapes called "green bodies" are then dried to
remove water and heated to allow the binder materials to oxidize, leaving the
ceramic powder particles to bond to each other during the high temperature baking.
Ceramic materials are inorganic, non-metallic materials made from compounds of a
metal and a non metal. Ceramic materials may be crystalline or partly crystalline.
They are formed by the action of heat and subsequent cooling. Clay was one of the
earliest materials used to produce ceramics, as pottery, but many different ceramic
materials are now used in domestic, industrial and building products. Ceramic
materials tend to be strong, stiff, brittle, chemically inert, and non-conductors of heat
and electricity, but their properties vary widely. For example, porcelain is widely used
to make electrical insulators, but some ceramic compounds are superconductors.
60. Mineral ceramic, very hard materials and diamonds.
= A ceramic is an inorganic, non metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and
subsequent cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline
structure, or may be amorphous (e.g., a glass). Because most common ceramics are
crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted to inorganic crystalline
materials, as opposed to the non crystalline glasses, a distinction followed here.
The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects, including 27,000 year
old figurines, made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials, hardened
in fire. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create a colour, smooth surface.
Ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products and a wide range of
ceramic art. In the 20th century, new ceramic materials were developed for use in
advanced ceramic engineering; for example, in semiconductors.
A ceramic material may be defined as any inorganic crystalline material,
compounded of a metal and a non-metal. It is solid and inert. Ceramic materials are
brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension. They withstand
chemical erosion that occurs in an acidic or caustic environment. In many cases

withstanding erosion from the acid and bases applied to it. Ceramics generally can
withstand very high temperatures such as temperatures that range from 1,000 C to
1,600 C (1,800 F to 3,000 F). Exceptions include inorganic materials that do not
have oxygen such as silicon carbide. Glass by definition is not a ceramic because it
is an amorphous solid (non-crystalline). However, glass involves several steps of the
ceramic process and its mechanical properties behave similarly to ceramic materials.

Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, more
recent materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. The
modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include
silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued for their abrasion resistance,
and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in
mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine, electrical and
electronics industries.
In mineralogy, diamond (from the ancient Greek "unbreakable") is a met astable
allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the facecentred cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than
graphite, but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at standard
conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities,
most of which originate from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms. In
particular, diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk
material. Those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in
cutting and polishing tools and the scientific applications in diamond knives and
diamond anvil cells.
Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of
impurities, such as boron and nitrogen. Small amounts of defects or impurities (about
one per million of lattice atoms) colour diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen),
brown (lattice defects), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange or red.
Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion (ability to disperse light of
different colours).