1.

HYDRAULIC FUNDAMENTAL

1.1

SIGN CONVENTION
The program uses the following sign convention:

Consumption from nodes is positive for flow out from the network and negative for flow into
the network.

Flow, velocities and pressure gradients are positive for flow from upstream to downstream
nodes and negative for flow from downstream to upstream node. The arrows on plots
indicate the correct flow direction.

1.2

ELEMENTS

1.2.1

NODES
A node can be either several customers, a simple node without consumption, or a source. Additional
model elements such as reservoirs / water towers, leaks, pump controls and ACV (float valves) can be
added to nodes once they are drawn. Nodes are also used for connections between one or more pipes.
Nodal parameters include name, ground level, pressure, average flow and type of customer. Each node
can have up to twenty customer types. 1. Figure 1 shows a typical node.
Flow factors are used to vary consumptions with respect to time in order to simulate varying hydraulic
conditions. For each customer type a table of flow factors versus time is specified. The flow in a node at
any time during a simulation is a function of the specified (average) flow for each customer type multiplied
by the flow factor for each type at that time. The customer types are an integer (positive, negative, or
zero, max. 3 digits).
Also time varying or fixed pressures can be specified for a node. This enables a node to be used as a
source of pressure and hence flow into the network.
The simplest node is a junction between pipes, which can have no consumption allocated to it.

1. Figure 1: NODE DATA.

1.2.2

PIPES
Pipes are connections between nodes. Pipe characteristics include an upstream node, a downstream
node, length, internal diameter and roughness. A local pressure drop coefficient can also be defined to
allow for unusually high losses in a particular pipe.
Pumps, valves and pressure controls can be added to pipes.
If a pipe length is not defined it is calculated based on the co-ordinates of nodes and bends. The length
calculation is made taking account of the height of the nodes. The height of bends are set to the level of
the node from which the pipe originated.
In AQUIS, a pipe end IS NOT a node. Pipes are defined as shown in 1. Figure 2.
Pipe End
Fittings (valves, pumps etc.)
are located here
No pipe attributes

PIPE

NODE 1

NODE 2
Length
Diameter
'C' Value

1. Figure 2: AQUIS PIPE DEFINITIONS

Pipe attributes (Length, Diameter and 'C' value) only apply between the pipe ends. Between the pipe end
and the node is a fictitious, dimensionless section where fittings and/or minor losses can be attributed.
Hence it can be seen that if a PRV is allocated to a pipe, then there will be a pressure difference between
the node and the pipe end (see 1. Figure 3).

50m

60m

2.0m Hydraulic Headloss

48m

48m

NODE 1

NODE 2
PRV

FLOW

No
Fitting

.
1.Figure 3: AQUIS PIPE ATTRIBUTES
This method of allocating devices ensures that the hydraulic characteristics of the pipe can be totally
independent of any devices.

1.2.2.1

SIZING OF PIPES
AQUIS can be used for sizing of pipes during the hydraulic simulation. The user can specify one of four
criteria to be used: Velocity or pressure gradient, each of which can be combined with Colebrook - White
or Hazen - Williams friction formula.
A pipe is sized if the diameter of the pipe is initially undefined. AQUIS will then assign a diameter to the
pipe picked from the pipe types in the catalogue. The roughness is also taken from the catalogue.
There are no limits on the number of pipes, which can be sized, but the number of pipe types, to choose
from is limited. The pipe type catalogue contains a maximum of 500 different types. For each type a
name, internal diameter and Colebrook-White/Hazen-Williams coefficient is given.
It is possible to define sizing of pipe problems, which have no hydraulic solution. For example, if the pipe
to be dimensioned is part of a loop as in 1.Figure 4 and two different pressure gradients are specified a
hydraulic solution can not be found. AQUIS will not reach a solution, and the maximum number of
iterations will be exceeded.

1. Figure 4:

A SIZING PROBLEM WITH NO SOLUTION

In the example above, the user has to define at least one of the dimensions.
Note: There may be combinations of sizing criteria pipe lengths and pressure setpoints in a model, which
do have a hydraulic solution. In the example above a solution could be found if the pressure gradients
and lengths were the same for both pipes.

1.3

EQUIPMENT

1.3.1

RESERVOIRS
Reservoirs are located on Nodes in the model. The bottom water level of the reservoir is the level of the
node. The top water level, starting level and the level/volume relationship are defined for the reservoir. Flow
out of the associated node is equivalent to flow into the reservoir.

1.3.2

PUMPS
Pumps are assigned to pipe ends. Only one pump can be assigned to a pipe. A pump cannot be placed on
a pipe where another device has already been assigned.
A pump can be modelled as a fixed increase in pressure by using a Pressure change (P) or by a pump
curve.
When the pump is defined as a Pump, the lift, flow, power curve through the pump at a particular pump
speed needs to be entered. The pump characteristics can be entered as up to 12 sets of flow, pressure
and power consumption at a specific speed of rotation. If power calculations are not required any value
can be entered in the power column. The pump non-return valve is optional.
Inline pumps may be controlled by the level in reservoirs in the same way as inlet pumps (pump controls).
Pressure(m)

Flow l/s

1. Figure 5: PUMP CHARACTERISTIC CURVE.

1.3.2.1

PRESSURE DROP IN PUMPS

Change in pressures can be defined in either the upstream or downstream end of a pipe. These changes
can be specified as fixed pressure drops or fixed rises in pressure, or they can be functions of the mass
flow in the pipe.
Only one valve or one pump can be specified in a pipe.
For a pump, the actual lift in pressure is calculated from the expression below:

P = A N 2 + BNq
Where A, B, are constants determined interpolation between relevant sets of (dP,q) in the pump
characteristic. Q is the mass flow in the pipe and N is the pumps speed of rotation.

1.3.2.2

PUMP CONTROLS
A pump control can be added to a node. It represents a borehole pump with a defined performance curve.
A pump control is normally controlled by the level of an associated reservoir.

In order to simulate time control in addition to level control, a flow factor time series is defined for the inlet
node where the pump is located with the flow set to zero for the times when the pump is switched off.

1.3.3

VALVES
Valves are assigned to pipe ends. Only one valve can be assigned to a pipe. A pump cannot be placed on
a pipe where another device has already been assigned.
Valves can be modelled as a downward pressure change, or by a valve curve. The characteristics for a
valve are entered as a table of openings and valve head loss coefficients.
A time series of valve openings can be created to allow the user to vary the settings during the simulation.

1. Figure 6:
1.3.3.1

VALVE CHARACTERISTICS.

NON-RETURN VALVES
A model can include non-return valves, allowing flow in only one direction in a pipeline. The direction in
which flow is allowed is determined by the way the pipe is drawn.
E.g. if a pipe was drawn from node A to node B a non-return valve on the pipe will allow flow from A to B
and prevent flow from B to A.

1.3.3.2

PRESSURE REDUCING VALVES

Secondary pressure

(PP1, PS1)

Primary Pressure
1. Figure 7: PRV CHARACTERISTIC.
Pressure-reducing valves (PRV) reduce the pressure to a set value on their downstream side. A set of
data relating upstream pressure to downstream pressure are required to define the performance of a PRV.
1. Figure 7 shows a typical PRV performance curve. The characteristics of the valve are 0,0 Pp1,Ps1
Ppmax,Ps1. Where Ps1 is the outlet setting of the PRV and Ppmax is a value greater than the maximum
expected pressure at the inlet to the PRV. The plot shows that no pressure reduction takes place until the
pressure reaches the set point Ps1 then it is controlled at that setting for any further increase in upstream
pressure. Up to ten points can be used to define the up and down stream pressure relationship this allows
the PRV characteristic to be defined for imperfect PRVs which vary their outlet pressure as inlet pressures
change.
Upper and lower operation limits can be set for the inlet pressure they can be used as additional
characteristic points. If the upper limit is set the characteristic is extrapolated to the upper limit. If the
lower limit is set the lowest characteristic extrapolated to the lower limit.
WARNING: If the PRV secondary pressure values are defined greater than the primary pressure values.
The device will increase the pressure on its downstream side and act as a pressure-sustaining pump.
1.3.3.3

PRESSURE SUSTAINING VALVES

Upstream Pressure

(Pp1,Ps1)

Downstream Pressure

1. Figure 8: PSV CHARACTERISTIC.

A Pressure Sustaining Valve (PSV) maintains the pressure on its upstream side by remaining closed until
the pressure reaches the set point Ps1. The downstream pressure then follows the upstream pressure to
any value above the set point.
This valve is defined in a similar way to a PRV with four typical values of ;
0,0
0,Ps1
Pp1,Ps1
Ppmax,Psmax.
It may be necessary to put in a value close to Ps1 for the 0,Ps1 point.
1.3.3.4

PRESSURE DROP IN VALVES

Change in pressures can be defined in either the upstream or downstream end of a pipe. These changes
can be specified as fixed pressure drops or fixed rises in pressure, or they can be functions of the mass
flow in the pipe.
Only one valve or one pump can be specified in a pipe.
For valves the drop in pressure are calculated the following way:

P = - 1.296 106

2
v

where:

1.3.4

Pressure drop (Pa)

Flow (l/s)

Kv

Valve coefficient (Kkg/h/bar)

Basic density 1000 kg/m

Actual density (kg/m )

PRESSURE CHANGE
Pressure changes are assigned to pipe ends. Only one pressure change can be assigned to a pipe. A
pressure change cannot be placed on a pipe where another device has already been assigned.
A pressure change will either change the pressure to a set value or maintain a boundary condition
pressure set at a downstream node. The boundary condition pressure at the downstream node can be
varied using a time series. A pressure change can either increase or decrease the pressure on its
downstream side.

1.3.5

ACV VALVES
An altitude control valve represents an open-ended pipe allowing flow into a reservoir (reservoir subnode).
An ACV is a conventional, top entry, float valve or open-ended pipe. If a float valve is simulated, the fully
open and fully closed levels are defined and a valve characteristic is specified. As the associated reservoir
fills, the valve throttles the flow progressively from the fully open level to the fully closed level. If no valve
characteristic is defined, the ACV model is an open-ended pipe.
The flow through the ACV valves of model A is calculated using the same head loss equation as for
valves.

MODEL A
Customer

Customer

ACV Valve

Inlet
Spillage Level
Upper Level
Reservoir

Inlet

Lower Level

Customer

1. Figure 9: SKETCH OF ACV VALVE

1.3.6

LEAK
A leak can be defined at a node and is modelled as an orifice of user defined size. The flow out of the
leak is calculated based on the pressure in the node and the leak size.

1.3.7

HYDRANT
Hydrant types can be defined in the hydrant catalogue. They are identified by name and have a defined
diameter. Hydrants are then added to nodes and can be switched on and off. Hydrants should only be
placed at blind end of pipes.
The hydrants are modelled differently internally in the simulation module when opened or closed. An open
hydrant is a pressure control with the pressure boundary condition set equal to the surrounding pressure.
i.e. atmospheric pressure. A closed hydrant is a flow control with the flow boundary condition set to zero.
Hydrants must be implemented as shown in 1. Figure 11. From the node where the hydrant should be
placed (Node 2) a piece of pipe (Pipe 2) and a node is inserted (Node 3) where the hydrant bitmap must

be placed. Pipe 2 represents the pipe inside the actual hydrant. The data for Pipe 2 can be freely selected
except that the single-loss coefficient must be 1.44. The length of Pipe 2 should represent the length of
the pipe inside the hydrant (a typical value would be 1 meter) and the diameter of Pipe 2 should be the
same as the diameter entered for the hydrant.

1. Figure 10: HYDRANT IMPLEMENTATION INTO AQUIS

1.4

HYDRAULIC CALCULATION CONDITIONS BC

AQUIS imposes restrictions on the input data. These restrictions are all fairly simple and intuitive. An
AQUIS hydraulic simulation model must fulfil certain hydraulic conditions, before a problem is defined and
can be solved.
All flows to or from nodes - except one - must be defined and a set pressure must be defined somewhere
in the network e.g. a reservoir level or a source pressure. The following illustrate this principle.

Pknown
?P = f(Q)
P = Pknown - ?P

Qknown

Q = Qknown

1. Figure 11: PRESSURE LOSS IN A SINGLE PIPE.

The simplest model one pipe and two nodes is shown in 1. Figure 12. This model fulfils the conditions of
one pressure setpoint and all node flows - except for one - defined. The node on the left is a source and
has a defined pressure P and the node on the right has a defined flow Q. There are no restrictions on the
nodes where the pressures and flows can be defined.

P = Pknown + ?P1

Pknown
P = Pknown - ?P2

?P1

Qknown,1

?P2

P = Pknown - ?P2 - ?P3

?P3

Qknown,2

Qknown,3
Q = Qknown,1 - Qknown,2 - Qknown,3

1. Figure 12: PRESSURE LOSS CALCULATIONS AND FLOW CALCULATION.

Certain problems call for more than one pressure setpoint. If the lift of a pump or the pressure drop by a
valve is to be determined, an extra known pressure setpoint is needed. In fact every pressure change
calculation must be matched by an extra setpoint. In 1. Figure 14 a pressure change calculation is
required in the first pipe so an additional, known pressure needs to be applied at the final node.

Pknown,2

?Pcalc

Qknown,1

Pknown,1

Qknown,2

Q = Qknown,1 - Qknown,2

1. Figure 13: P CALCULATION

There are exceptions from these rules:
-

If P is to be calculated in a pipe, which is part of a loop.

An extra pressure setpoint can substitute a flow. The flow is then calculated from the
pressure profile. This is illustrated in 1. Figure 15 where the flow is calculated based on the
imposed pressures at the end nodes.

1. Figure 14: CALCULATION OF FLOW FROM THE PRESSURE PROFILE.