JD N S J TN CB15

Metallic Bonding
Definition: Electrostatic force of attraction between metal
cations and sea of delocalized electrons in a metal.
Factors affecting strength of metallic bond
Number of valence electrons
contributed per metal atom
Charge, radius and charge
density

The larger the number, the

stronger. (more
electrons=greater attraction
with cations)
Higher the charge and
smaller the radius, the
higher the charge density,
stronger the bond

Physical Properties
Melting and Boiling Points
High
Good electrical/heat
conductivity

Shiny Surface

Hard
Malleable and Ductile

Strong electrostatic forces of

attraction between metal
cations and sea of
delocalized electrons
Has sea of delocalized
electrons and ions acting as
mobile charge carriers.
Delocalised electrons can
also pick up heat energy to
vibrate faster.
When photon strikes surface,
oscillating electric field
causes electrons to oscillate.
Photon bounces off without
loss in momentum.
Depends on metallic bond
strength
Layers of atoms can slide
over one another into new
positions

Allow Combinations
Bronze
Brass
Steel
Stainless Steel

Ionic Bonding

Copper and Tin

Copper and Zinc
Iron and Carbon
Iron and Chromium

JD N S J TN CB15
Definition: Electrostatic force of attraction between
positively charged cations and negatively charged anions.
Factors affecting strength of metallic bond
Charges on cations and
anions
Radius

The larger the number, the

stronger.
Smaller the radius, the
higher the charge density.
LATTICE ENERGY=(Cc + Ca) /
(Rc + Ra)

Physical Properties
Melting and Boiling Points
High
Good electrical when
dissolved in water
Hard and rigid but brittle
Usually Soluble in Water

Strong electrostatic forces of

attraction between cations
and anions in a giant ionic
lattice
Dissociate into mobile ions
and act as mobile charge
carriers to conduct electricity
Strong force causes like
charges to come to next to
each other-repel, shatter
Ion forms ion-dipole
interactions with water,
releasing energy in the
process, and if this energy is
greater than the ionic bonds,
the ions become detached
from crystals surface.

Covalent Bond
Definition: Electrostatic force of attraction between nucleus
of each of 2 bonded atoms and shared pair of electrons.
Sigma/Pi Bonds

JD N S J TN CB15
Sigma Bond

HEADON OVERLAP
between (S-S/S-P/P-P)
Pi Bond

SideOverlap

Side

(Single bond 1 sigma, double bond 1

sigma 1 pi, triple bond 1 sigma 2 pi)
VSEPR
Linear
Bent
Trigonal Planar
Tetrahedral
Trigon pyramidal
Octahedral
Square Planar
General Steps for Drawing
VSEPR

180
118/104.5
120
109.5
107
90
90
1. Determine number of
pairs of electrons, be it
bond or not
2. Determine how many is

JD N S J TN CB15
lone pair
3. Find Structure for total
pairs of electrons (e.g
four pairs means
tetrahedral)
4. If there are lone pair,
take away one pair and
push the rest closer
together to form your
shape.
5. Visualize!
Hybridization
Consider this methane
molecule. It has a central C atom.
Carbon forms 4 bonds in CH4, and
as you can see its orbital diagram,
it only has 2 lone electrons in the
p orbital, so it cannot form 4
bonds with the 4 hydrogen!
AND SO IT HAS TO HYBRIDIZE,
WHICH MEANS

This happens, one of the electrons from 2s will fill up the last 2p orbital.
And since hybridization means the s and p orbitals join together to form
hybridized orbitals:

Why is it SP3 this time round?

JD N S J TN CB15

Because 1 S orbital combines with 3 P orbitals

They will look like this. As they have 75% P orbital shape and 25% S orbital
shape. This is probably the simplest way to visualize it.
And then we ask: Is there an easier and faster way to determine SP/SP2/SP3.
Definitely! The previous way was just to explain to you the concept.
Remember this: 1. All SIGMA BONDS are made from hybridized orbitals. 2.
All lone pairs are made from hybridized orbitals. 3. All p bonds are made from
LEFT-OVER P orbitals (if you understood the concept above)
Lets say we have BF3. How do we determine hybridization of B?

S
2

It has no lone pairs and 3 sigma bonds. Therefore it is SP2 hybridized.

JD N S J TN CB15

H2O has 2 lone

pairs and 2 bonds for
the O central atom. Therefore it is (S+P+2+3) = SP3 hybridized.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Weve studied about IONIC/COVALENT bonds (complete
electron transfer and equal electron sharing), but have we
thought about atoms that are in the middle with both ionic
and covalent character? This is where electronegativity
comes in.
Definition: Ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a
covalent bond to itself.
Increases across the period

Decreases down the group.

Effective nuclear charge

increases across the period,
stronger electrostatic forces
of attraction between
nucleus and outermost
electron, much easier to
attract electrons.
Effective nuclear charge
decreases due to increasing
shielding effect due to
increasing quantum shells.

AND SO, we have unequal sharing of electrons, which brings about polar
bonds, in every tug of war game someone will win!

JD N S J TN CB15
IONIC BONDS WITH COVALENT CHARACTER (SUB TOPIC)
We KNOW some cations with very
significant charges and very small
radiuses (high charge density)
Some anions are very large too, so
the electron cloud is very far from the
nucleus, and is less attracted.

These will attract the electron cloud of

the anion.
We say they have high polarizing
power.
This will allow the cloud to be easily
pulled away by the cation.
We say they have high polarisability!

This is WHY some metal non-metal compounds are considered covalent! (e.g
BeCl2 AND AlCl3)
And this is also why you might have heard that electronegativity determines
whether a bond is PREDOMINANTLY IONIC or PREDOMINANTLY
COVALENT.
COVALENT BONDS: formed when atoms of metals and non-metals
respectively have similar electronegativity (and so will share electrons
EQUALLY)
IONIC BONDS: formed when atoms of metals and non-metals have great
difference in electronegativity (one will pull ALL the electrons towards itself!)
NET DIPOLE MOMENT

As we can see in C2CL4. It has polar C-CL bonds, but the overall
molecule has no net dipole MOMENT. This is because its bond dipole
moments cancel out. Use vectors.
This is why TETRAHEDRAL molecules ARE ALWAYS NON POLAR!
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Low melting and Boiling Points

Electrical conductivity

Less energy needed to overcome

weaker dispersion/dipole
attraction/hydrogen bonding
forces.
No mobile charges, unable to

JD N S J TN CB15
conduct electricity as all electrons
held in covalent bonds and cannot
move.
Something is soluble if energy
released from solute-solvent
interactions higher than energy
needed to overcome solute-solute
interactions and solvent-solvent
interactions.

Solubility

Giant Covalent Structures (Learnt

in Sec 4 Diamond, SIO2, Graphite)

Polar solutes will dissolve in polar

solvents, same applies for nonpolar solutes. Water is polar.
Strong Covalent bonds. Graphite
can conduct electricity since its
carbon is only bonded to 3 others,
leaving 1 delocalised electron to
act as mobile charge carriers. Its
layers can also slide over one
another easily.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
*Differentiate this between your ionic/covalent/metallic bonding! This is
the force that holds molecules together, not individual atoms or ions!
This is also the determinant for your melting/boiling points.
Dispersion Forces

-Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole

(between non-polar molecules, remember that
electrons are never stationary and always
moving, so at some random point of time
more may be on one side, causing an
instantaneous dipole which induces a dipole
in another non polar molecule) (This is short
lived, since it works based on randomness.)
*POLAR MOLECULES experience
instantaneous dipole-induced dipoles too, in
addition to their permanent dipole-permanent
dipole attractions!
No. of
electro
ns
(more

Factors affecting Strength

-Larger molecules with
more electrons have
larger electron clouds,
being more polarizable,

JD N S J TN CB15
import
ant)

Surfac
e area
of
contac
t btw
adjace
nt
molecu
les
(same
numbe
r of
electro
ns)

Permanent dipolepermanent dipole

attractions
Hydrogen Bonding

forming more
instantaneous and
induced dipoles,
resulting in stronger
dispersion forces.
-Larger surface area
allows more points of
contact over which
electron clouds can be
distorted, so induced
dipoles can form easily.

*Here you can see both

have same number of
electrons but n-pentane
has higher boiling point
as it has a larger
surface area.
-Between POLAR molecules. Positive dipole of
one molecule attracts negative dipole of
another.
-Stronger type of permanent dipole-permanent
dipole attraction
That is why it requires TWO polar molecules
too!
-Requires H bonded to FON with another FON
that has a lone pair
-Why H20, NH3, HF have different boiling
points then (consider electronegativity and
limiting factor of number of lone pairs and H
bonded to FON)
-Water to have high surface tension
- Higher density in solid than liquid. Ice less
dense than water!

JD N S J TN CB15
VERY IMPORTANT THINGS YOU HAVE TO TAKE NOTE!
1. Smaller atoms form stronger bonds. Overlap between orbitals
more effective and orbitals closer to nucleus.
2. Polar bond stronger and shorter than non-polar bond. Electron
more attracted to a nucleus, requires more energy to break, bond
length shorter.
3. Multiple bonds stronger than single bonds. (More shared
electrons, more attraction between nucleus and electrons)