Table of Contents

1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives of this WORK

2. Inductance and Inductive Coupling

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Magnetic field due to moving charges and electric currents
2.3 Inductive Coupling
2.4 Inductive Charging
2.5 Uses of Inductive Charging and Inductive Coupling
2.6 Advantages and Drawbacks of Inductive Charging
2.7 Resonant frequency
2.8 Resonant Inductive Coupling

3. Inductance of Coil and Coil Design

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Single Layer Coil
3.3 Q factor of a Single layer Air Core Coil
3.4 Multi-Layer Coil
3.5 Advantages of Air Core Coil

3.6 Downfall of Air Core Coil

3.7 Losses in an Air Core Coil
3.8 Applicaion of Inductor

4. The Oscillator Circuit

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Harmonic Oscillator
4.3 Relaxation Oscillator
4.4 Working Principle of a Simple LC Oscillator
4.5 The Basic Royer Oscillator
4.6 The Crystal Oscillator
4.7 Basic RC Oscillator

5. Transmitter & Receiver Circuits

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Transmitter circuit and Working Principal
5.3 Types of Transmitters
5.4 Block Diagram of Power Transmitter
5.5 Receiver Circuit and Working Principal
5.6 Block Diagram of Power Receiver circuit

6. Design and Implementation of Our Project

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Transmitter Module
6.2.1 The D.C. Power Source
6.2.2 The Oscillator Circuit
6.2.3 Operation of the Oscillator Circuit
6.2.4 The Transmitter Coil
6.2.5 The Transmitter Circuit as a Whole
6.2.6 Components Used in the Transmitter Module
6.3 Receiver Module
6.3.1 Receiver Coil
6.3.2 Rectifier
6.3.3 Operation of a Diode Bridge Rectifier
6.3.4 Rectifier Used in the Receiver Module
6.3.5 Voltage Regulator IC
6.3.6 The Receiver Circuit as a Whole
43 6.3.7 Components Used in the Receiver Module
6.4 Performance and Analysis

7. Possible Applications of Project

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Installing the Receiver Circuit inside the Body of the Devices
7.3 Transmitter Circuit as the Charging Dock
7.4 Charging Mid-range Power Devices
7.5 Charging Electric Vehicles
7.5.1 Benefits of the Technology
7.5.2 Safety Features
7.6 Commercial Possibility

8. Discussions and Conclusions

8.1 Discussions
8.2 Problems and Solutions
8.3 Suggestions for Future Work
8.4

Conclusion

INTRODUCTION
1.1Introduction
Wireless Power Transmission (WPT) is the efficient transmission of electric power
from one point to another trough vacuum or an atmosphere without the use of wire or
any other substance. This can be used for applications where either an instantaneous
amount or a continuous delivery of energy is needed, but where conventional wires
are unaffordable, inconvenient, expensive, hazardous, unwanted or impossible. The
power can be transmitted using Inductive coupling for short range, Resonant
Induction for mid range and Electromagnetic wave power transfer for high range.
WPT is a technology that can transport power to locations, which are otherwise not
possible or impractical to reach. Charging low power devices and eventually mid
power devices by means of inductive coupling could be the next big thing.
The aim of the project WIRELESS ENERGY TRANSMISSION SYSTEM is to
transmit electrical energy from a power source to an electrical load without
interconnecting wires. Wireless transmission is useful in cases where instantaneous or
continuous energy transfer is needed but interconnecting wires are inconvenient,
hazardous, or impossible.
This project as it is clear from the title is able to transmit wireless energy so it can
also be used to perform switching of any switching circuit by transmitting pulses
which can be received near switching circuit as firing pulse to switch on the devices.
All the home appliance switches can be used as wireless switching device with some
modifications.
In future, with the use of this system cell phones, household robots, mp3 players,
laptop computers and other portable electronics capable of charging themselves
without ever being plugged in, freeing us from that final, ubiquitous power wire.
Some of these devices might not even need their bulky batteries to operate.

1.2 Objective
The objective of this project is to design and construct a method to transmit wireless
electrical power through space and charge a designated low power device. The system
will work by using resonant coils to transmit power from an AC line to a resistive
load. Investigation of various geometrical and physical form factors evaluated in order
to increase coupling between transmitter and receiver.
A success in doing so would eliminate the use of cables in the charging process thus
making it simpler and easier to charge a low power device. It would also ensure the
safety of the device since it would eliminate the risk of short circuit. The objective
also includes the prospect of charging multiple low power devices simultaneously
using a single source which would use a single power outlet.

2.INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE COUPLING

2.1 Introduction
Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store energy in a magnetic field. Inductors
generate an opposing voltage proportional to the rate of change in current in a circuit.
This property is also called self-inductance to discriminate it from mutual inductance,
describing the voltage induced in one electrical circuit by the rate of change of the
electric current in another circuit.
The quantitative definition of the self-inductance L of an electrical circuit in SI units
(Webers per ampere, known as Henries) is
v= L di/dt

.. (2.1)
Where, v denotes the voltage in volts and i the current in amperes. The simplest
solutions of this equation are a constant current with no voltage or a current changing
linearly in time with a constant voltage.
Inductance is caused by the magnetic field generated by electric currents according to
Ampere's law. To add inductance to a circuit, electronic components called inductors
are used, typically consisting of coils of wire to concentrate the magnetic field and to
collect the induced voltage.
Mutual inductance occurs when the change in current in one inductor induces a
voltage in another nearby inductor. It is important as the mechanism by which
transformers work, but it can also cause unwanted coupling between conductors in a
circuit.
The mutual inductance, M, is also a measure of the coupling between two inductors.

2.2 Inductive Coupling

Inductive or Magnetic coupling works on the principle of electromagnetism. When a
wire is proximity to a magnetic field, it generates a magnetic field in that wire.
Transferring energy between wires through magnetic fields is inductive coupling.
If a portion of the magnetic flux established by one circuit interlinks with the second
circuit, then two circuits are coupled magnetically and the energy may be transferred
from one circuit to the another circuit.
In electrical engineering, two conductors are referred to as mutual-inductively
coupled or magnetically coupled when they are configured such that change in current
flow through one wire induces a voltage across the end of the other wire through
electromagnetic induction. The amount of inductive coupling between two conductors
is measured by their mutual inductance.
Power transfer efficiency of inductive coupling can be increased by increasing the
number of turns in the coil, the strength of the current, the area of cross-section of the
coil and the strength of the radial magnetic field. Magnetic fields decay quickly,
making inductive coupling effective at a very short range.

2.3 Inductive Charging

Inductive charging uses the electromagnetic field to transfer energy between two
objects. A charging station sends energy through inductive coupling to an electrical
device, which stores the energy in the batteries. Because there is a small gap between
the two coils, inductive charging is one kind of short-distance wireless energy
transfer.
Induction chargers typically use an induction coil to create an alternating
electromagnetic field from within a charging base station, and a second induction coil
in the portable device takes power from the electromagnetic field and converts it back
into electrical current to charge the battery. The two induction coils in proximity
combine to form an electrical transformer.

Greater distances can be achieved when the inductive charging system uses resonant
inductive coupling.

2.4 Resonant frequency

Resonance is a phenomenon
that causes an object to vibrate
when energy of a certain
frequency
physics,

is

applied.

resonance

is

In
the

tendency of a system (usually a

linear system) to oscillate with
larger amplitude at some frequencies than at others (figure 1). These are known
as

the

systems resonant

Figure 1 Resonant Frequency

frequencies. At these frequencies, even small periodic driving forces can

produce large amplitude oscillations.
Resonance of a circuit involving capacitors and inductors occurs because the
collapsing magnetic field of the inductor generates an electric current in its windings
that charges the capacitor, and then the discharging capacitor provides an electric
current that builds the magnetic field in the inductor.

2.5 Resonant Inductive Coupling

Resonant inductive coupling or electrodynamic induction is the near field wireless
transmission of electrical energy between two coils that are tuned to resonate at the
same frequency. The equipment to do this is sometimes called a resonant or resonance
transformer. While many transformers employ resonance, this type has a high Q and
is often air cored to avoid iron losses. The two coils may exist as a single piece of
equipment or comprise two separate pieces of equipment.
Using resonance can help efficiency dramatically. If resonant coupling is used, each
coil is capacitively loaded so as to form a tuned LC circuit. If the primary and
secondary coils are resonant at a common frequency, it turns out that significant
power may be transmitted between the coils over a range of a few times the coil
diameters at reasonable efficiency.

3. COIL DESIGN
3.1 Introduction
An inductor is usually constructed as a coil of conducting material, typically copper
wire, wrapped around a core either of air or of ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
material. Core materials with a higher permeability than air increase the magnetic
field and confine it closely to the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance. Low
frequency inductors are constructed like transformers, with cores of electrical steel
laminated to prevent eddy currents. Soft ferrites are widely used for cores above audio
frequencies, since they do not cause the large energy losses at high frequencies that
ordinary iron alloys do. Inductors come in many shapes. Most are constructed as
enamel coated wire (magnet wire) wrapped around a ferrite bobbin with wire exposed
on the outside, while some enclose the wire completely in ferrite and are referred to as
shielded. Some inductors have an adjustable core, which enables changing of the
inductance. Inductors used to block very high frequencies are sometimes made by
stringing a ferrite cylinder or bead on a wire.
An ideal inductor has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance, and does not
dissipate or radiate energy. However, real inductors have resistance (due to the
resistance of the wire and losses in core material), and parasitic capacitance (due to
the electric field between the turns of wire which are at slightly different potentials).
At high frequencies the capacitance begins to affect the inductor's behavior; at some
frequency, real inductors behave as resonant circuits, becoming self-resonant.

3.2 Types of air Coil

Air core coil is an inductor that does not depend upon a ferromagnetic material to
achieve its specified inductance. The term refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic, or
other nonmagnetic forms, as well as those that actually have air inside the windings.
Air core coils have lower inductance than ferromagnetic core coils.
Air core coil could be of two types;
(a) Single Layer Coil and (b) Multi-Layer Coil

(a) Single Layer Coil

A single layer coil, as shown in figure 3.1, has
two advantages. Firstly, like all air core coils,
it is free from iron losses and the non-linearity
mentioned above. Secondly, single layer coils have the additional advantage of low
self-capacitance and thus high self-resonant frequency.
In the simple case of a single layer solenoidal coil
the inductance may be estimated as follows:

Figure 3.1 Single

layer Coil

L = 0.001 N 2 (a/2) 2 / (114a + 254l) (3.1)

Where L is the inductance in henrys, a is the coil diameter in meters, l is the coil
length in meters and N is the number of turns.
The Q factor of an inductor is the ratio of its inductive reactance X L to its series
resonance RS. The larger the ratio, the better the inductor is.
Q = X L /RS.(3.2)
X L = 2fL (3.3)
Where f is the frequency in Hertz (Hz) and L is the inductance in henries (H)
RS is determined by multiplying the length of the wire, used to wind the coil, with the
D.C. resistance per unit length for the wire gage used.
Q changes dramatically as a function of frequency. At lower frequencies, Q is very
good because only the D.C. resistance of the windings (which is very low) has an
effect. As frequency goes up, Q will increase up to about the point where the skin
effect and the combined distributed capacitance begin to dominate.

(b) Multi-Layer Coil

Figure 3.2 Multi layer Coil

Figure 3.2 above, shows a multi-layer air cored coil wound on a circular coil former
or bobbin. This type of winding is very common because it's simple to construct with
a winding machine and a mandrel.

The ratio of the winding depth to

length, which is (b-a)/l, needs to be
close to unity; so the winding should
have a square cross section. This
makes sense because only with the
square is the average distance between
turns at a minimum (a circular cross

Figure 3.3 Cross-sectional View of

Multi-Layer Coil

section would be even better, but that is

hard to construct). Keeping the turns close together maintains a high level of magnetic
coupling between them, and so the general rule that the inductance of a coil increases
with the square of the number of turn is maintained.

In the simple case of a multi-layer coil the inductance may be estimated as follows:
L=0.008D 2 N 2 /(3D+9h+10g) . (3.4)

Where D is the average diameter of the coil; h is the height of the coil; and g is the
depth of the coilall in millimeters.

3.8 Applications of Inductor

Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing. Inductors in
conjunction with capacitors and other components form tuned circuits which can
emphasize or filter out specific signal frequencies. Applications range from the use of
large inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with filter capacitors remove
residual hums known as the mains hum or other fluctuations from the direct current
output, to the small inductance of the ferrite bead or torus installed around a cable to
prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down the wire. Smaller
inductor/capacitor combinations provide tuned circuits used in radio reception and
broadcasting, for instance.
Two (or more) inductors that have coupled magnetic flux form a transformer, which is
a fundamental component of every electric utility power grid. The efficiency of a
transformer may decrease as the frequency increases due to eddy currents in the core
material and skin effect on the windings. The size of the core can be decreased at
higher frequencies and, for this reason aircraft use 400 hertz alternating current rather
than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great saving in weight from the use of
smaller transformers. The principle of coupled magnetic fluxes between a stationary
and a rotating inductor coil is also used to produce mechanical torque in induction
motors, which are widely used in appliances and industry. The energy efficiency of
induction motors is greatly influenced by the conductivity of the winding material.
An inductor is used as the energy storage device in some switched-mode power
supplies. The inductor is energized for a specific fraction of the regulator's switching
frequency, and de-energized for the remainder of the cycle. This energy transfer ratio
determines the input-voltage to output-voltage ratio. This XL is used in complement
with an active semiconductor device to maintain very accurate voltage control.
Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to
depress voltages from lightning strikes and to limit switching currents and fault

current. In this field, they are more commonly referred to as reactors.

4. OSCILLATOR
4.1 Introduction
An oscillator is a mechanical or electronic device that works on the principles of
oscillation: a periodic fluctuation between two things based on
changes in energy. Computers, clocks, watches, radios, and metal detectors are among
the many devices that use oscillators. A clock pendulum is a simple type of
mechanical oscillator. The most accurate timepiece in the world, the atomic clock,
keeps time according to the oscillation within atoms. Electronic oscillators are used to
generate signals in computers, wireless receivers and transmitters, and audiofrequency equipment, particularly music synthesizers.
An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic
signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. They are widely used in many electronic
devices. Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals
broadcast by radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers
and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by electronic beepers and video games.
Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal: an audio
oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range, about 16 Hz to 20 kHz. An RF
oscillator produces signals in the radio frequency (RF) range of about 100 kHz to 100
GHz. A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates a
frequency below 20 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers,
to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.
There are two main types of electronic oscillator: (a) harmonic oscillator and
(b)relaxation oscillator.

4.2 Harmonic Oscillator

The harmonic, or linear, oscillator produces a sinusoidal output. The basic form of a
harmonic oscillator is an electronic amplifier connected in a feedback loop with its
output fed back into its input through a frequency selective electronic filter to provide
positive feedback. When the power supply to the amplifier is first switched on, the

amplifier's output consists only of noise. The noise travels around the loop and is
filtered and re-amplified until it increasingly resembles a sine wave at a single
frequency.

Harmonic oscillator circuits can be classified according to the type of frequency

selective filter they use in the feedback loop:
RC oscillator : In an RC oscillator circuit, the filter is a network of resistors and
capacitors. RC oscillators are mostly used to generate lower frequencies, for
example in the audio range. Common types of RC oscillator circuits are the
phase shift oscillator and the Wien bridge oscillator.
LC oscillator : In an LC oscillator circuit, the filter is a tuned circuit (often called a
tank circuit) consisting of an inductor (L) and capacitor (C) connected together.
Charge flows back and forth between the capacitor's plates through the inductor,
so the tuned circuit can store electrical energy oscillating at its resonant frequency.
There are small losses in the tank circuit, but the amplifier compensates for those
losses and supplies the power for the output signal. LC oscillators are often used
at radio frequencies, when a tunable frequency source is necessary, such as in signal
generators, tunable radio transmitters and the local oscillators in radio receivers.
Typical LC oscillator circuits are the Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp circuits.
Crystal Oscillator : A crystal oscillator is a circuit that uses a piezoelectric crystal
(commonly a quartz crystal) as a frequency selective element. The crystal
mechanically vibrates as a resonator, and its frequency of vibration determines the
oscillation

frequency.

Crystals

have

very

high

Q-factor

and

also better

temperature stability than tuned circuits, so crystal oscillators have much better
frequency stability than LC or RC oscillators. They are used to stabilize the frequency
of most radio transmitters, and to generate the clock signal in computers and
quartz clocks. Crystal oscillators often use the same circuits as LC oscillators, with
the crystal replacing the tuned circuit; the Pierce oscillator circuit is commonly used.
Surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices are another kind of piezoelectric resonator used
in crystal oscillators, which can achieve much higher frequencies. They are used in

specialized applications which require a high frequency reference, for example, in

cellular telephones.

In addition to the feedback oscillators described above, which use two-port

amplifying active elements such as transistors and op amps, oscillators can also
be built using one-port devices with negative resistance, such as magnetron tubes,
tunnel diodes and Gunn diodes. In these oscillators, a resonator, such as an LC circuit,
crystal, or cavity resonator, is connected across the negative resistance device, and a
DC bias voltage is applied to supply energy. The negative resistance of the active
device can be thought of as cancelling the (positive) effective loss resistance of
the resonator and permitting a sustained oscillation. These circuits are frequently
used for oscillators at microwave frequencies.

4.3 Relaxation Oscillator

A relaxation oscillator produces a non-sinusoidal output, such as a square, saw tooth
or triangle wave. It contains an energy-storing element (a capacitor or, more rarely, an
inductor) and a nonlinear trigger circuit (a latch, Schmitt trigger, or negative
resistance element) that periodically charges and discharges the energy stored in the
storage element thus causing abrupt changes in the output waveform.
Square-wave relaxation oscillators are used to provide the clock signal for sequential
logic circuits such as timers and counters, although crystal oscillators are often
preferred for their greater stability. Triangle wave or saw tooth oscillators are used in
the time base circuits that generate the horizontal deflection signals for cathode ray
tubes in analogue oscilloscopes and television sets. In function generators, this
triangle wave may then be further shaped into a close approximation of a sine wave.
Ring oscillators are built of a ring of active delay stages. Generally the ring has an
odd number of inverting stages, so that there is no single stable state for the internal
ring voltages. Instead, a single transition propagates endlessly around the ring.

4.4 Working Principle of a Simple LC

Oscillator
Energy needs to move back and forth from one
form to another for an oscillator to work. We can
make a very simple oscillator by connecting a
capacitor and an inductor together. A capacitor
stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field, while an inductor uses a magnetic
field. Imagine the following circuit (figure 4.1):

If we charge up the capacitor with a battery and then insert the inductor into the
circuit, the following will happen:
1. The capacitor will start to discharge through the inductor. As it does, the
Figure 4.1 LC circuit
inductor will create a magnetic field.
2. Once the capacitor discharges, the inductor will try to keep the current in the

circuit moving, so it will charge up the other plate of the capacitor.

3. Once the inductor's field collapses, the capacitor has been recharged (but with
the opposite polarity), so it discharges again through the inductor.

This oscillation will continue until the circuit runs out of energy due to resistance in
the wire. It will oscillate at a frequency that depends on the size of the inductor and
the capacitor.

4.5 The Basic Royer Oscillator

A Royer oscillator is an electronic oscillator which has the advantages of simplicity,
low component count, sinusoidal waveforms and easy transformer isolation. It was
first described by George H. Royer in December 1954 in Electrical Manufacturing.
The Basic Royer Oscillator is shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2Royer Oscillator

The diagram shows the basic Royer oscillator. It consists of a transformer with a
center-tapped primary, a choke labeled L1, two semiconductors (here shown as
IGBTs though they could just as well be FETs or bipolar transistors) labeled Q1 and
Q2, a resonating capacitor labeled C1 and cross-coupled feedback illustrated by the
crossed lines. In a real world oscillator there will be other components such as
steering diodes, bias resistors and so on but this simplified drawing shows all that is
necessary for the basic Royer oscillator.