ANALYSIS

VECTOR
A

OF

THE

LECTURES

GIBBS,

WILLARD

PHYSICS

AND

UPON

Professorof Mathematical

STUDENTS

OF

USE

MATHEMATICS

FOUNDED

J.

THE

FOR

TEXT-BOOK

OF

PH.D.,

Physics in

LL.D.

Yale

University

WILSON,

PH.D.

BY

EDWIN

BIDWELL
in Mathematics

Instructor

NEW

YORK
LONDON:

CHARLES

in

Yale

University

SCRIBNER'S

EDWARD
1901

ARNOLD

SONS

Copyright,
BY

YALE

UNIVERSITY.

Published,

December,

UNIVERSITY

AND

PRESS

SON

1901,

"

CAMBRIDGE,

"

1901.

JOHN

WILSON

U.S.A.

PKEFACE

SINCE
Vector

the

be

to

glad

very

text-book
I

have

the

meet

the

years

this

want,

have

to

in the

Analysis

use

who

were

desire

has

been

the

be

but

known

made

to

expressed

of

substance

form, should

fuller

however,

leisure

at

the

"

quarter, that

in

those

among

of

published,

never

"

Elements

the

on

that

tise,
trea-

accessible

to

public.

As,

1881"84,

years

GIBBS

pamphlet

subject,

one

perhaps

short

circulated

in the

than

more

the

in the

widely

interested

in

of

printing

Analysis

somewhat

PROFESSOR

BY

on

not

the

own

text-book

adequate
of

the

seemed

hearers

of

real

undertake

the

on

Wilson

should

was

Vector

preparationof

that

of

judgment
in which

the
of

geometry

my

Dr.

lectures, but

in all

and

UNIVERSITY,

aim

that

he

simply
should

respects for the production of

subject should

examples

rather

as

to

be
meet

illustrated

so

the

wants

by
of

September,

1901.

G47442
BHGINKEKING

LIBRARY

a
an

dents
stu-

physics.
J. WILLARD

YALE

one,

course

my

the

finding

my

subject.

desired

number

which

1899-1900

year

reproduction

his

of

one

without

passed

GIBBS.

GENERAL

I undertook

WHEN

engaged

material

Statistical

in

assistance
from

expected

free

entirely
the

topics

It

has

been

in

text-book

Vector

has

Foppl's

Some

could

the
of

feel

to

me

in

selection
treatment.

thus

granted

method

his

presenting

been

of

in

Those

Arts,
but
first

MaxwelVsche

My

made

been

of

Heaviside's

of

study

on

University

and

by
the

Elec~

Professor

in

Electricitdt

der

Theorie

previous

and

obtained

best

suited

which

it

for

Quaternions

set

apart

with

have

been

Indeed,

be

well

has

drawn

from

These

way

subject.
in

the

omitted

at

asterisk

an

large part

method.

the

incorporate

to

may

marked

examples

physics.

best

reasons

been

applications
been

seemed

of

mastery

easy

the

in

arranged

been

has

to

various

have

illustrative

not

Die

on

thus

reading

with

has

lectures

great assistance.

which

mechanics,

the

at

ing
follow-

the

of

Oliver

Mr.

in

in

course

however,

use,

used

Theory (Electrician Series, 1893)

material
seems

the

annually

Analysis

1894).

which

have

be

freedom

material

from

delivered

lectures

(Teubner,

do

for

book

mode

the

the

use

no

wished

alike

in

the

taken

Vector

on

tromagnetic

to

to

necessary

been

Gibbs.

chapters

the

was

and

greater part of

the

Professor

text

as

Analysis

The

treated

this

he

reason

fully

so

understood

was

of

discretion

own

endeavor

my

pages

also

be

this

nial
Bicenten-

form.

far

By

my

it

composition

For

use

to

far

so

the

in

Gibbs

series, Elementary

same

that

Yale

already

was

in the

appear

the

in

himself

Mechanics,

him.
to

of

only

to

of Professor

lectures

publication

Gibbs

his work

upon

Principles

for

Professor

Series,

the

adapt

to

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

on

PREFACE

(*).

merous
Nu-

geometry,

of the

of

the

in

chapters by themselves,

text

has

applications
but

have

PREFACE

GENERAL

throughout the body of the book as fast as

for their adequate
the analysishas been developedsufficiently
be
the reader may
It is hoped that by this means
treatment.
Great care
of the book.
better enabled to make practical
use
has been taken in avoiding the introduction of unnecessary
each idea that is introduced
as
ideas,and in so illustrating
its necessity
evident and its meaning easy to grasp.
to make
of
is not intended
Thus
the book
as
a complete exposition
the theoryof Vector Analysis,but as a text-book from which
much
of the subjectas may be requiredfor practical
so
cations
appliHence
a
includinga list
summary,
may be learned.
of the more
important formulae, and a number of exercises,
less
and many
have been placed at the end of each chapter,
distributed

been

essential

points in the

fullyworked

out, in the

The

details.

text

summary

have

hope
may

been

indicated

that the reader

be found

rather

will

than

supply the

useful in reviews

and

for reference.
The

subjectof

Vector

three distinct parts.

Analysisnaturallydivides

First,that which

itself into

addition

concerns

and

Second, that which

productsof vectors.
differential and integralcalculus in its relations

the scalar and vector

the

concerns

to

the

scalar and

functions.

vector

theory of

the

linear vector

Third, that which

function.

The

contains

first part is

introduction
to both other parts. The
second
necessary
and third are
mutually independent. Either may be taken

up

first. For

second
But

must

practicalpurposes

in mathematical

physicsthe

be

student

regardedas more
elementarythan the
not
primarilyinterested in physicswould

third.
urally
nat-

he would
pass from the first part to the third, which
attractive and easy than the second.
probablyfind more
Following this division of the subject,the main body of
the book

is divided

into six

chaptersof

which

two

deal with

each of the three parts in the order named.

Chapters I. and
II. treat of addition,subtraction, scalar multiplication,
and
the scalar and

The
products of vectors.
exposition
has been made
stood
quite elementary. It can readilybe undersuited for such readers as have a
by and is especially
knowledge of only the elements of Trigonometry and Anavector

GENERAL

PREFACE

xi

lyticGeometry. Those who are well versed in Quaternions

allied subjectsmay
maries.
or
perhaps need to read only the sumof
Chapters III. and IV. contain the treatment
those topicsin Vector Analysis which, though of less value
of the utmost
to the students of pure mathematics, are
tance
importo students of physics. Chapters V. and VI. deal with
To students of physicsthe linear
the linear vector function.
cal
function is of particular
vector
importancein the mathematiwith
of phenomena
connected
treatment
non-isotropic
media

and

to the student

of pure
will probablybe the most

mathematics

this part of

of all,owing
interesting
to the fact that it leads to Multiple Algebra or the Theory
of Matrices.
A concludingchapter,
VII., which contains the
development of certain higher parts of the theory,a number
of applications,
and a short sketch of imaginary or complex
the book

vectors, has been

In

the

added.
of

integralcalculus, Chapter IV.,

questions of mathematical
rigor arise. Although modern
theorists are
devotingmuch time and thought to rigor,and
althoughthey will doubtless criticise this portionof the book
it has been deemed
best to give but littleattention
adversely,
to the discussion of this subject. And
for the
the more
so
that whatever
reason
system of notation be employed questions
of rigor are
associated with the calculus
indissolubly
and

treatment

occasion

who
Analysis,

postpone

until

that

no

to
difficulty

new

first learn

must

later the detailed

than

physicsthe
On

half

fact remains

the other hand

there

Analysis.
to

no

The

before

system of

may
Vector

completenesshas
in hopes
"I am

be

been
that

consideration

Vector

and

are

of the

may
restrictions

to

have

introduce

been

made

during

Quaternions

into

they have not found wide favor.

has been a growing tendency especially
of
of
form
toward the adoption
some
works
of Heaviside
and
ferred
Foppl rethat

in the last decade

Vector

of

student

the facts

what

efforts which

century

the

those facts.

put upon

are

the
Notwithstanding
more

the

cited in evidence.

Analysis

which

published.
the

In

As

yet however

makes

any claim to
fact Heaviside
says :

chapter which

now

finish may

PREFACE

GENERAL

xii
as

serve

stopgap till regularvectorial treatises

to

come

be

ment
based upon the vectorial treatphysicists,
of vectors
(ElectromagneticTheory, Vol. I.,p. 305).
in the same
Elsewhere
chapter Heaviside has set forth the
claims of vector analysisas againstQuaternions, and others
have expressedsimilar views.
The
keynote,then, to any system of vector analysismust
be its practical
utility.This, I feel confident,was Professor
He uses
it
Gibbs's point of view in buildingup his system.
and Magnetism and on
in his courses
on
Electricity
entirely
ElectromagneticTheory of Light. In writing this book I
point,
standhave tried to present the subjectfrom this practical
the quesand keep clearlybefore the reader's mind
tions:

written

suitable for
"

combinations

What

physicsand geometry ?
in the way
symbolically
The

?
on

physicshas

subtraction
been

the

vector

which

of
aim

treatment

been

too

vectors.

here

to

functions

or

And

how

may

these

to

facile

best suited
of these
much

give

in

be

modern

books

the addition

scarcelyenough.

is

also

to

occur

represented
ulation
analyticmanip-

questionsin

confined

This

of vectors

and

It has

expositionof scalar and

an

products,of the operator v" "f divergence and curl

have gained such universal recognitionsince the appearanc
of Maxwell's

Treatise

on

and
Electricity

Magnetism,

slope,potential,linear vector function, etc.,such as shall

be adequate for the needs
of students of physics at the
present day and adapted to them.
It has been asserted by some
that Quaternions, Vector
gating
Analysis,and all such algebrasare of littlevalue for investithis
questions in mathematical
physics. Whether
of

assertion shall prove true or

vectors
to mathematical
are

that
may still maintain
physics what invariants are to

not,

one

As

be thoroughly conversant
every geometer must
with the ideas of invariants,so every student of physics
should be able to think in terms
And
of vectors.
there is

geometry.

no

way

in which

studies, can

entific
at the beginning of his scihe, especially
come

to

so

true

an

appreciationof

the

importanceof vectors and of the ideas connected with them

as
with
by working in Vector Analysisand dealingdirectly

GENERAL

the

themselves.

vectors

of

success

(four

Mechanik

by

of

means

Vorlesungen

analysis,

vector

of

theory

the

these

views

uber

Technische

1897-1900,

Teubner,

which

in

hold

that

those

Fb'ppl's

volumes,

edition),

second

To

Professor

xiii

PREFACE

already

mechanics
be

can

the

in

oped
devel-

is

but

an

aging
encour-

sign.
I

take
Prof.

and

H.

A.

The

work.
H.
the

suggesting
also

am

for

Wilson,

proof,
me,

has

he

and

it
to

is

be

been

he

has

who

through

ready
furnished
the

UNIVERSITY,

October,

the

their

in

present

used

with

deep

although

he

has

to

either
talk

me

1901.

BIDWELL

and

edness
indebtbeen

so

manuscript

matters

with

Edwin

proofs

the

the

in

Mr.

my

read

script.
manu-

particularly

father,

my

Porter

over

inspiration

work.

EDWIN

YALE

IV.

B.

express

to

to

been

illustrations
to

M.

with

have

both

wish

Dr.

me

and

the

For

unable

always

cany

of

Gibbs.
to

III.

connection

Finally,

as

latter

obligations

in

help

Professor

preoccupied

the

many

under

manuscript.
to

of

assisting

Chapters

arranging

in

and

form

for

services

colleagues,

my

Bumstead,

good

in

valuable

thanking

in

pleasure

WILSON.

or

with
ficient
suf-

TABLE

CONTENTS

OF

PAGE

PREFACE

vii

GIBBS

PROFESSOR

BY

ix

PREFACE

GENERAL

CHAPTER

ADDITION

SCALAR

AND

MULTIPLICATION

ARTS.

SCALARS

1-3
4

EQUAL

THE

6-7
8-10

VECTORS

AND
AND

SCALAR

OF

SUBTRACTION

12

LAWS

THE

APPLICATIONS
VECTOR

23-24

CENTERS
25

OF

THREE

20-22

THE

UNIT

VECTOR

1,j,

GRAVITY.

OF

VECTORS

OF

CHAPTER

ON

27-28

THE

29-30

THE

31-33

THE

34-35

THE

DISTRIBUTIVE

THE

TRIPLE

DIRECT,

OF

AND

THE

ORIGIN

27
39
.

51
52

LAW

DOT

PRODUCT

AND

A*

OF

TWO

VECTORS

APPLICATIONS

55
58

APPLICATIONS

CROSS

LAW

VECTORS

OF

PRODUCT

AND

OR

VECTOR,

II

PRODUCTS

OR

46

AREAS

SKEW

...

SCALAR,

PRODUCT

21

GEOMETRY.

COORDINATES

DENOTE

CHAPTER

DISTRIBUTIVE

SKEW,

18
IN

CHAPTER

DIRECT

14
....

BARYCENTRIC
TO

....

EQUATIONS

PROBLEMS

SUNDRY

12

OPERATIONS

INDEPENDENT

OF

EXERCISES

FOREGOING

VECTORS
TO

SUMMARY

36

LAW

VECTORS.

RELATIONS

USE

7
....

11

COMPONENTS
17

SIGN

NEGATIVE

PARALLELOGRAM

GOVERNING

18-19

CHAPTER

THIS

THE

THE

ADDITION.

THE

OF

VIEW

MULTIPLICATION.

11

13-16

VECTORS

NULL

POINT

OF

TWO

VECTORS

60
63
67

CONTENTS

XVI

ARTS.
37-38

THE

SCALAR

39-40

THE

VECTOR

41-42

PRODUCTS

46-47

SOLUTION

SYSTEMS

SYSTEMS

48-50

52

CONDITIONS

53

RELATIONS_JBETWEEN

RIGID

OF

58-59

KINEMATICS

60

THE

61

INTEGRATION

62

SCALAR

63-67

THE
THE

69

VECTOR

OF

OF

SCALAR

THE

OF

OF

THE

DIVERGENCE

OF

THE

CURL

73

LAWS

78

GEOMETRIC

TO

SUMMARY

EXERCISES

V"

V
OF

THE

OF

ON

"

"

"

V-

"

138

152
155

157'

EXPANSION
TAYLOR'S

OF

TOR
VEC-

THEOREM.
159

OF
OF

THE

LAPLACE'S

SECOND

ORDER

166

OPERATOR

170

DISPERSION

CHAPTER

133

150

OPERATORS

CHAPTER

149

SPACE

S7

TO

INTERPRETATION
As

"

HYDROMECHANICS

DIFFERENTIATING

V*

136

CURL

ANALOGOUS

APPLICATION
THE

THE

APPLICATION

FUNCTION

KINEMATICS

IN

INTERPRETATION

OF

125

147

POSITION
AND

131

'v7

72

OPERATION

SPACE

IN

THE

77

HODOGRAPH

TO

INTERPRETATION

V"

120

....

OPERATOR

FUNCTIONS

115

ROTATION

OF

POSITION

OPERATOR

FUNCTIONS

CURVES

APPLICATIONS
OF

VECTORS

VECTOR

GAUCHE

OF

AXIS
WITH

PARTIAL

106

VARIABLE

71

THE

HI

70

74-76

113

PARTICLE.

FUNCTIONS

OF

OF

109

TORSION

DIVERGENCE

101

104

CALCULUS

INSTANTANEOUS

SCALAR

SYSTEMS

COORDINATES

YECTORJDIFFEUENTIATING

68

VKCTOKS

N IT

DIFFERENTIALS

OF

BODY

TO
AND

92

....

AND

CURVATURE

RIGID

PLANAR

DIFFERENTIAL

RESPECT

BODY

RIGHT-HANDED

CHAPTER

DERIVATIVES

RIGID

OF

CHAPTER

57

IN

97

TWO

CHAPTER

ON

WITH

LINEAR

BODY

GEOMETRY.

IN

ON

EQUILIBRIUM

FOR

EXERCISES

55-56

CATIONS
APPLI-

81

EQUATIONS

VECTOR

I'KKI'I.M"I"TLAU

THE

WITH

VECTORS

ACTING
A

OF

SUMMARY

71

87

FORCES

KINEMATICS

PROBLEMS

C)

VECTORS

THREE

AND

51

54

VECTOR

OF

TIIKKK

(B

68

"

75

OF

SCALAR

OF
UNKNOWN

AN

[ABC]

TRIGONOMETRY

TO

RECIPROCAL

THREE

THAN

MORE

COR

A* B

PRODUCT

TRIPLE
OF

43-45

PRODUCT

TRIPLE

in
in

172
177

CONTENTS

xvii

CHAPTER
INTEGRAL

THE

IV

CALCULUS

VECTORS

OF

PAGE

ARTS.

LINE

79-80

WITH

FUNCTIONS

VECTOR

OF

INTEGRALS

TIONS
APPLICA-

179
81

GAUSS'S

82

STOKKS'S

THEOREM

184

THEOREM

83

CONVERSE

84

TRANSFORMATIONS

187

STOKES'S

OF

THEOREM

OF

LINE,

REMARKS
POTENTIAL.

86-87

THE

88

COMMUTATIVE

89

REMARKS

90

THE

91

RELATIONS

TEGRALS.
IN-

200

FUNCTIONS

INTEGRATING

"

OPERATOR

POT

OF

PROPERTY
UPON

VOLUME

197

MULTIPLE-VALUED

ON

AND

SURFACE,

POT

"
.

^7

AND

215

"NEW,"

OPERATORS

INTEGRATING

"LAP,"

INTEGRATING

THE

BETWEEN

MAX

"

AND

"

THE

228
"

POT

"

POTENTIAL

is

POISSON'S

OF

SOLUTION

EQUATION

230

SOLENOIDAL

93-94

MUTUAL

96

CERTAIN

PARTS

IRROTATIONAL

AND

CERTAIN

FUNCTION.

95

AND

OPERATORS

NEWTONIANS,

POTENTIALS,

OF

VECTOR

INVERSE

THEIR

LAPLACIANS,

240

BOUNDARY

SUMMARY

OF

EXERCISES

iv

CHAPTER

99

DYADICS

CHAPTER

VECTOR

FUNCTIONS

ANY

101

THE

NONION

102

THE

DYAD

LINEAR
A

THE

103-104

PRODUCTS

105-107

DEGREES

108

THE

260

DEFINED

264

VECTOR

IDEMF

FUNCTION

PROPERTIES

DYADIC.

IS
OF

FUNCTIONS

FORM
OR

MOST

SCALAR
OF
OF

OF

OF

BE

REPRESENTED

DYADICS

266

....

269
PRODUCT

FUNCTIONAL

GENERAL.
AND

MAY

DYADIC

INDETERMINATE

THE

249
255

DEFINED

100

BY

iv

LINEAR

VECTOR

243

THEOREMS

VALUE

CHAPTER

ON

LINEAR

234

AND

MAXWELLIANS

97-98

222

ENTIATING
DIFFER-

OPERATORS

92

205
211

FOREGOING

THE

193

THEOREM

GREEN'S
85

APPLICATIONS

WITH

VECTOR

OF

TWO

TORS
VEC-

PROPERTY

271

PRODUCTS

276

DYADICS
NULLITY

ACTOR

OF

282

DYADICS

...

...

288

CONTENTS

XV111

PAGE

ARTS.

109-110
111

RECIPROCAL

POWERS

DYADICS.

CONJUGATE

PARTS

OF

ANTI-SELF-CONJUGATE

117
118-119

REDUCTION
DOUBLE

TO

SECOND

120

CONDITIONS

121

NONION

122

INVARIANTS

AND

OF

THIRD

FOR

294

THE

VECTOR

UCT.
PROD-

297
NORMAL

FORM

306

310

DYADIC

DEGREES

DIFFERENT

302

....

DYADICS

OF

MULTIPLICATION

THE

ANTI-

AND

VERSORS

DYADICS

OF

290

DYADICS

OF

DYADIC

DYADICS.

QUADRANTAL
115-116

ROOTS

SELF-CONJUGATE

DYADICS.

SELF-CONJUGATE

112-114

AND

OF

313

NULLITY

DETERMINANTS

FORM.
OF

315

THE

DYADIC.

HAMILTON-CAYLEY

EQUATION
SUMMARY

319
OF

EXERCISES

CHAPTER

ON

321

CHAPTER

329

CHAPTER

VI

ROTATIONS

123-124
125-126

HOMOGENEOUS
ABOUT

127

THE

128

BlQUADRANTAL

VECTOR

CYCLIC

130

RIGHT

131

TONICS

132

REDUCTION

STRAINS

REPRESENTED

STRAIN

ROTATIONS

129

AND

BY

332

DYADIC
.

VERSORS

POINT.

FIXED

SEMI-TANGENT

OF

VERSORS

VERSION

AND

THEIR

PRODUCTS

334

343
347

DYADICS

351

TENSORS
AND

353

CYCLOTONICS
OF

CYCLOTONICS,

SUMMARY

DYADICS
SIMPLE

OF

TO

CANONICAL

AND

COMPLEX

CHAPTER

143-146

THE

147-148

VARIABLE

149-157

CURVATURE

158-162

HARMONIC

356
.

368

APPLICATIONS
372

SURFACES

PROPAGATION

OF

LIGHT

IN

CRYSTALS

....

392
403

DYADICS
OF

VII

MISCELLANEOUS

QUADRIC

TONICS,

FORMS,
SHEARERS

vi

CHAPTER

136-142

339

411

SURFACES

VIBRATIONS

AND

BIVECTORS

426

ANALYSIS

YECTOft

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

negativenumbers

positiveand

The

this

For

typicalscalar s.

algebrawhen

scalar

Consider

first

straight line

This

it is the

translation

equal
the

to

and

the

point Q

the

; the

points

in the

in

ment
displace-

direction

from

equivalent

distance

called

to

for the
as

without

translation.

When

all the

shiftingspace

to

through the

magnitude.

Let

space.

of

of one,

direction and

same

the

It

undergoes

space

point of space undergoesa displacement

magnitude

displacement PP'
in

of

displacementnot

displacement is

T, each
in

is

direction

direction

possesses
a

This

D.

Such

rotation.

of all the

in that

rigidbody

consider

straightlines

in

distance

same

but

PP'

position P'.

of the line PP'

direction

Next

displacedin

new

magnitude

length of

P'.

in space.

positionis representedby

The

is the

be

take

and
of

change

line PP.

pointsmove

translation

Let

(Fig.1).

the vector

this book.

displacementof

point

subjectof

is the

is the

typicalvector

ordinaryalgebrais called

distinguishit from

to

necessary

algebraor analysiswhich
The

the

reason

the

of ordinary algebraare

and

which

translation

is also known

direction; and

is

known,

for Q

particularpoint P

one

any

Q'

conversely if

then

that

be

must

of any

equal and

fers
sufother

parallel

toPP'.

The

by
are

an

translation T is representedgeometrically
or

equal

of this
arrow

and

arrow

(Fig.1)

to those

arrow

its head

or

is

final

Its tail or

point,its
0

and

quantity,a stroke, is

are

used

justas

as

the

The

the

initial

terminus.

the terminus

used

as

direction

and

magnitude

absolute

entirelyimmaterial.

stroke.

originis designated by
for all vectors,

the

of the translation.

in space

is called

of which

graphically
position

Technicallythe

point
In

by

is its

the
T.

the mathematical

origin;

figure the
This

metric
geo-

symbol

bers
ordinarypositiveand negativenumsymbols for all scalars.

As

3.]

volume,
however, is by

magnitude.

characteristics,as
distinguishing

own

different.

The
all

to them

As

It is the

examples

and

simple.

two

alone

,to a

rigidbody

consideration
And

force.

than

in the

the

case

that

alone.

analogy
vector

careful

he

which

and

Hence

it acts

do not

some

obtain

the

point

the

is present
vector,

consideration

in

quantitiestheir magnitude

abstracts

it ; and

or

quantitiesother

mathematical

these

on

magnitude

dimensions

just as

the
his

propertiesto

erroneous

into

non-rigidbody

all directed

belong to

taken

fice.
suf-

primary object of

be

applied

not

for vector

but

the

do

question of

must

one

be

and

of

it is

alone

important as

nothing

pure

ideas

direction

must

has

vector

When

direction

as

number,

attribute

lest he

and

of these

two

and

quantities. The

from

scalar, pure

involves

vector

applied to

is the

direction

consequently

Each

complicated.

the

Moreover

this book, abstracts

impliesnothingbut

belong to

vector

frequentlytrue

of scalar

quanti-

for all scalars.

which

the

the force is

stroke, which

and

of

more

it is

is

common

all scalar

given.

line in which

case

Such

direction.

been

those

magnitude

in

is

the

of
application

as

than

force

But

vector.

very-

city,
quantitiesforce,displacement,velo-

magnitude

"

physicists
may

excellence and

symbol

concept of

The

its

of which

property

It

has

3, etc., are

Of

one.

simplest.

have

acceleration

characteristics

other

only

scalar par

of vector

work

Each

to

is,however,

the mathematical

as

and

is the

number

3,

quantities.

example

an

known

time

the

perhaps

magnitude.
it is used

3, a

magnitude

"

tities pure

well

sense

distance

cited.

be

the

in

its dimensions

of

besides

implies something

tance,
dis-

are

Magnitude,

etc.

the sole property of these

means

no

Others

mentioned.

inertia, work,

of

moment

sity,
time, den-

quantities mass,

been

temperature have

and

Each

of scalar

examples

MULTIPLICATION

SCALAR

AND

ADDITION

magnitude and
guard lest from

the

he must

results

the mathematical

mathematical
be

even

more

by consideringthe

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

quantitiesof physicsas possessingno

vector

those of the mathematical

than

do

never

consider

to

itself.

is but

singleconcept, it

between

scalars

carefullythe

and

one

from

if

scalar;

be

but

scalars ;

When,

vectors.

with

symbols

as

from
for

This

permits the

settingup

C be

the

to

mass,

Clarendons
directed

in

the appearance

in the letter itself.

This

vectors

magnitude

and

convention, however,

instances it would

chieflyvaluable

prove
in the

just

as

is

by

of that

be

the scalar

may

no

moving

possible to

pass

magnitudes by
any

equal when

of

use

from
mere

confusing
they have

direction.

same

undesirable

of
application

; if g be

velocity. The

said to be

if

current

letter without

Thus

direction,C may

velocityof

it

scalar

are

the

be the

makes

of

change

if

their

in

same

for scalars.

differently
printed

and

gravity,g

to

vectors

quantitiesto

Definition: Two

are

type is

Clarendon

magnitude.1

magnitude

due

change

the

letter

its scalar

magnitude

to denote

also

are

distinguish

to

ordinary type

same

and

acceleration

be the

may

time,

it

regarded merely

are

represent the magnitude of that

of that

value

physical

refraction

relied upon

and

of the

use

acceleration

vector

letters

the

acceleration,

in this book

vectors

the electric current

be used

the

in mathematical

as

of

", the

a,

be

must

represent the vector

to

the

Hence

scalars.

used

and

mass,

distinguish

by

index

the

difference

particularphysical significancesome

no

typographicaldifference
vectors

stroke

or

to

is furnished

be

however,

be

vector

Sometimes,

force, and

/, the

not

may

the fundamental

other.

the

m,

by

confusion.

some

it is necessary

distinction

interpretation.Thus

unaltered

warning

a
entirety,

to

the

as

it would

be designatedby
appropriately

may

vectors,

physics,the
must

in its

however

Owing

letter.

one

as, taken

Inasmuch

4.]

This

possiblysave

it may

yet

necessary,

example

its effects

and

force

shiftingit parallelto

For

vector.

propertiesother

invariablyfollowed.

means
as

vectors

it is convenient
to

physics.

In

in others.

some

It is

AND

ADDITION

The
usual

equality of
sign

Evidently
about

vector

from
may

point P falls upon

the
A

In this way

all vectors

be

will

space

at the

are

the

in space

may

Thus

These

its

the

the three scalars r,

yf,z' of

be Cartesian

its terminus

and

Q~Q',

#, y,

y'

x,

originof coordinates, the

may

be

the

drawn

represented
terminus

of

in space

of its

vector

be

may

x\

origin.

z).

"

coincide

vector

will

of the coordinates

y,z'

"

the

vector

vector

ways.

/,,

particularthe origin of

three coordinates

varietyof

any

the differences

determine

(r, $, V)

those

(x1

in

space

coordinates

given by

If in

vectors

three scalars

vector

coordinates

as

directed

their termini

PP't and

of

in

"",9 which
r

be considered

pointT.

Equal

placed with

chosen

originof

the vector.

itself until

replaced by

(Fig.1) A

be

may

with

if z, y,

origin;

as

some

point 0.

determination

$, 0 be polar coordinates

Or

be

coincide,when

If r,

by

P' upon

PP'

~OT.

originat

the

T.

fixed

one

vector

any

parallelto

and

OT=

course

numerical

necessary.

moved

point 0.

same

both fall upon

For

of

by

by shiftingit

assignedpoint 0

point 0

segments radiating from

in

Hence

any

PP

altered

is not

itself in space.

be drawn

may

is denoted

stroke

or

segment PP'

for the
the

and

vectors

Thus

=.

parallelto

(Fig. 1)

two

MULTIPLICATION

SCALAR

with

representedby

the
the

of its terminus

r~(x', y',z').
When

two

them
one

vector

vectors
must

be

are

equal

the

three

scalars

each
equal respectively

equalityimpliesthree

scalar

to

which
each.

equalities.

sent
repreHence

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

:
Definition

is

magnitude A
Such

is called

vector

All null vectors

be

by

null

or

its

is written

Thus

0 if A

and

vector

zero

manner.

from

vector

0.

each

to

other

without

linear

It

point.

geometrical standpointwould
that is to
segment of length zero
a

"

consequently would

direction or, what

have

to the

amounts

terminate
inde-

wholly

thing,none

same

at

If,however, it be regardedas the limit approached by

all.
vector

of finite

direction

which

length, it might
is the limit

finite vector, when

length

limit.

decreases

that
of the

the direction

and
indefinitely

all null

(Art.8)

vectors

to other

proaches
ap-

equal

as

vectors

multiplied (Arts. 27, 31) by

when

have

to

for disregarding
justification

The

added

considered

be

approached by

looking upon

they are

and

occurs

and

this direction
that when

the

as

zero

the

when

zero

of direction.

representedby a

say,

equal to

regardedas equal

are

considerations
a

null

the usual
A

In fact

be

zero.

equal to naught in

any

is said to

vector

is

change

no

other

vectors

product is zero.

operations
5.] In extending to vectors the fundamental
of algebraand arithmetic, namely, addition, subtraction,and
care
multiplication,

must

be exercised

not

only to

but

lay

down

contradictorydefinitions
Both

these

ends

may

be

also

accomplished

easilyby lookingto physics(for in

present themselves) and

what

that

science

what
force, or velocity,

is two,

three,

What,

is the

sum

equivalentof
to these

the
of A

negative of
and

and B taken

B ?

vectors

by observing

If then

A?

useful

A?

That

together?

be

selfones.

naturally and

most

there.

treated

quantitiesare
times

to

avoid

how

tinually
con-

such

ment,
given displaceor

in

general

And

if B be another,

is to

say, what

The

obvious

is the

answers

questions suggest immediatelythe desired definitions.

AND

ADDITION

SCALAR

Scalar

6.] Definition:A
positivescalar
if v be

Thus
is

its

weight, 1000

usual

as

before

the

in

direction

still

the

upon

force

scale-

exerted

by

ward.
verticallydown-

is

cases

product

of

and

A is

This

obvious

when

place the

it follows

(x y) A

arithmetic.

multiplier
scalar

the associative

law

(x A)
This

the fact is taken

multiplicationdoes

scalar

multiplicationby

and
multiplication,

(y A)

x.

to

customary

ordinary algebraand

that scalar

the

f is the

or

multiplicand A.

as

2 J times

by

more

is called scalar

that scalar

by North,

force exerted

the scalar the

It is,however,

East
with

both

in

and

If A be the vector
denoted

multiplied by

multipliedby

knots

times

direction

The

kilogram.

be

to

nine knots

if f be the

Or

gram

is

magnitude

velocityof

North.

by
by

pan

is said

vector

velocity of twenty-one

East

Multiplication

is left unaltered.

its direction

and

when

MULTIPLICATION

is immediatel

statement

into

consideration

not

alter direction

one

whose

but

merely

multipliesthe length.
Definition: A

unit

vector

Any

may

be looked

vector

vector
a

in its direction

by
A

The
A

unit

by \/A

vector
or

as

the

may

is

the

quotient of

the

product

positivescalar A,
=

similarlybe

as

upon

magnitude

is
of

its

unity.
a

unit

tude.
magni-

A.

written

and

A.

as

the

product of

VECTOR

The

7.] Definition:
For

is

example

stroke

from

of
"

B, will be

to

its

negative sign

direction

If A

denote

reaction."

The

positivesign,+

call

in connection

reversed.

The

with

multiplicationof

of

laws

same

be

scalar

in

operationas

signs +

denote

the

and

use

third law

prefixedto
that

of

of the

will

"

may

two

instead

to A

Newton's

to the fact

particularattention

been

has not

from

"action,"

an

if the

length

same

illustration

taken

be

may

from

right,

Again

is of the

Another

A.

"

vector

feet to the

two

A, which

magnitude unchanged.

feet to the left.

two

motion.

to

displacementfor

is in the

but which

of the

if A be

be A, the stroke

prefixedto

"

displacementfor

as

negativesign,

but leaves

its direction

reverses

ANALYSIS

the

direction

when

"

vectors

ordinary algebra.

tor
vec-

used

follow

the

These

are

symbolically
+

+ ;

is
interpretation

The

addition

Subtraction

and

of two

vectors

most

simply by regarding them

space

(Art.2).

Let

S be

be

is

direction.
carry

P'

If

into

Q' such

now

into

equal

to

is to

into P"

that

QQ1

The

such

in

Let

that

magnitude

the
and

T will then

it in

being

magnitude.

result of S followed

point P

in

T will

space,

then

into the
S

lation
trans-

line P'P"

equal to

carry the

and

in

the

"

T and

Q be any other point

P'

transformation

Consequentlythe

2.

T the other.

(Fig.2).

space

The

to
parallel

P".

and

carries P

line PP'

be treated

may

defining translations

as

point of

strokes

or

vector

one

FIG.

+ ;

--

(" A).

ra

-;

obvious.

Addition

8.]

(ra A)

"

The

-;

will

carry

by

point

carry

Q' into Q"

10

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

sequentlythe points P, P', P",

Hence

parallelogram.

pin pn
allel

an(j

equai

js

PP'.

to

by
whereas

P'".
the

case

This

same.

ries
car-

followed
P"

into

by

through

final result is in

The

designatedsymbolically

be

may

lowed
T fol-

through P',

P"

carries P

therefore

into

par_

Hence

carries P'" into P".

either

of

P'" lie at the vertices

and

by writing

It is to be noticed

that S

origin;

common

statingthe
If two

and

This

P.

through

definition

vectors

diagonal which
the

and

passes

in

lengths of
the

togetherthe
on

common

very

of

vectors.

sides,their

their

drawn

way

originand

same

as

gram
parallelo-

will be that

sum

origin.

common

"

parallelogramlaw

accordingto

ity,
force,acceleration, velocquantities
It is

compounded.
lie

along the

to be added

are

subtracted

but

In either

case

the

addition.

The

if the vectors

they

has the

sum

line vector

same

added
if

important to

same

have

site
oppo-

direction

greater vector.
the

laid down,

so

as

"

vectors

direction

same

After

10.]

and

them

diagonal

equivalentto algebraicscalar

the two

that of the

been

the

the vectors

case

directions.
as

from

point P

the

is the

sides

the two

are

have

of two

sum

angular velocityare

that

P P'"

PP"

through

physicalvector

addition becomes

have

upon

another

of the

is the well-known

This

note

to

be drawn

and

P" P'" which

that

leads

be constructed

which

PP'

parallelogramPP'

of the

definition

the

sum

of

first two, to this

until all the vectors

of the
several
sum

sum

may

of two
be

found

has

vectors

by adding

the third, to this the fourth,

have

been

combined

into

sin-

AND

ADDITION

final result is the

The

gle one.

originof

the

preceding

their

that if

and

the

is

sum

the

once

of the

form

vectors

In

closed

from

vector

of the last.

terminus

the

the terminus

upon
at

by placing

displacementsR, S, T

closed

that the
in

order,then the effect of carryingout the displacementsis

nil.

R, S, T

"

point of

Each

"

"

the sides of

such

are

"

states

polygon taken

strokes

form

"

"

case

polygon

Interpretedgeometricallythis

zero.

of

that obtained

as

same

drawing

the first to

number

then

11

MULTIPLICATION

succeeding vector

points coincide

these two
and

each

one

originof

the

SCALAR

is

space

brought

in mechanics
at

act

point and

taken

order

number

the sides of

This

may

of the vectors

may

be

be shown

of forces

closed

terprete
In-

and

polygon
the

point

of the forces.

the action

of sequence

vectors

To

starting
point.

that if any

they form

equilibriumunder

The

to its

order,then the resultant force is zero

in

is in

back

it states

if

in

by provingthat

interchangedwithout

is of

sum

no

cent
adja-

two

any

the
affecting

sequence.
con-

result.

show

A+B+C+D+E=A+B+D+C+R
Let

~0~A,B

Then
Let

Ofi
B

now

C'

may

proves
be

by

order in which

this

C +

C' B

C D

is

C +

B +

Since

WE.

E.

parallelogramand

E,
two

any

since the

sum

may

adjacentvectors
be

arranged in

interchangesof adjacent vectors,

successive

the vectors

in the

occur

is said

vector

after reversal of direction.

means

E
(TlT,

B +

the statement.

By

A
11.] Definition:
is added

~BC,D

Hence

C.

and
interchanged,

any order

Then

0~E
which

D.

consequently C'

Zi?,C

the

is immaterial.

sum

to be

subtracted

when

it

Symbolically,
(- B).

subtraction is reduced

to

addition

and

needs

12

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

and
There is however
an
interesting
specialconsideration.
importantway of representingthe difference of two vectors
OB
OA, B
(Fig.4). Complete
geometrically. Let A
no

the

parallelogramof

which

are

the

Then

the

0 C

is the

two

sides.

Next

vectors.

parallelogramof
OB'

"

and

Hence
A

vectors

to

which

vectors

drawn

as

terminus

Thus

the two

of A and

B.

the

same

of the vector
from

vector

the

which

sum

of

But

the

equal

The

ence
differ-

originis
tracted
to be subit is subtracted.

which
parallelogram,

sides,give the

as

be the

paralleland

from

diagonalsof
and

upon

of the

"

agonal
the di-

Then

followingrule

drawn

are

the

the difference to the two

the terminus

from

the

is constructed

be taken

may

This leads to the

and B.

of two
the vector

BA

is

OD

and

negative of

the

segment
to EA.

D will

of the

which

diagonal

complete

the sides.

are

OD
A

sum

and

sum

and

ference
dif-

B.

12.] In the foregoingparagraphsaddition,subtraction,and

scalar

of
multiplication
To

make

same

formal
from

development

defined

of vector

systematicit would

laws

the

in

as

standpointof

the

of
interpretation
laws

been

I6

(n A)

(A

II

III,

B)

the

(m

-I-B

IIIa
III6

(m, + n) A

physicaland

geometrical
superfluous. These

seem

(A
(A

+
+

B)
B)

A)
B +

m
m

(m ri)A,

(B-f C),

A+

necessary

operationsfollow

are

preted.
inter-

though
ordinary scalar algebra,al-

this may

vectors

and

matically
algebramathe-

become

now

that these three fundamental

to demonstrate

the

the

and

exact

have

vectors

A,

A,

B.

B,

and

Ia is the so-called law of association

I6 is the law of association for

adding

in

that

at

result.

of vector

law

II is the commutative

It

be inserted

parenthesesmay

vectors

addition.

in vector

vectors

alteringthe

points without

any

of

commutation

multiplication.

the scalar factors in scalar

states

13

MULTIPLICATION

SCALAR

AND

ADDITION

addition.

IIIa is the distributive

law

for scalars

in

scalar

cation.
multipli-

IIIj is the distributive

law

for vectors

in scalar

cation.
multipli-

IIIC is the distributive law for the negativesign.

proofs of

The

these

of

laws

which

propositionsin elementary geometry

the first

propertiesof

will

They

work

reader

be

not

them

for the sake

out

mind.

clearlyin

The

in the statement

laws

which

vectors

of the

of arithmetic
which

with
need

quantity.
other

For

zero.

the

of the

algebra

be summed

may

up

same

the usual

Scalars and
this

laws

and

these

vectors

from

dealingwith

vectors

which

no

much

caution

be

never
case

the vectors

this

only

they were
enter

equated

where

to be added

if

"

by operating

need
difficulty
as

and

+,

entirelydifferent

are

they can
not

justifies

it is also

One

manner.

reason

in mind

equationsin

which

signs =,

vectors

they are

reason

scalar

governing

of results obtained

correctness

For

formal
familiar

of

this is borne

from

fundamental

more
multiplication

except perhaps in the trivial

"

the

algebra.

as

long
Thus

scalar

signs in

be mentioned.

to each

scalar

identical with those

are

use

the

the

those

sorts of

So

to

ensures

fixingthe

addition, subtraction, and

govern

preciselythis identityof

extension

triangles.

suggested that

result of the laws

in ordinary
operations

the

similar

of
multiplication
It is

it is

of

addition,subtraction, and

ideas of

The

but

given here;

to deal with

have

parallelogramand

the

those

operation depend upon

each is

together.
be

pated
anticiscalars.

with
linearly

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

14

coefficients unknown

scalar
found

by

in

as

in the

solution

all

at

not

same

with

the

and

eliminations

the

variables

the

or

tions
limita-

same

the scalar coefficients of the

what

on

eliminated

be

may

and

way

ordinary algebra;for

depend solelyon
and

vectors

tions
solu-

equations
If

represent.

for

instance
aA

then

A, B, C,

or

"B

cC

dD

0,

expressedin

be

may

of the

terms

other

three
D

as

(a A

b B +

C).

(M

And

two

equationssuch

vector

as

3 A+4B=E
2 A

and

yieldby

the usual

3 B

the solutions

processes

A=3E-4F
and

3 F

2 E.

Components of

13.] Definition:
they
to

are

the

parallelto

the

plane.

Two

same

be drawn

can

said

to

or

to

be

which

said

are

be

to

collinear

line; coplanar,when

same

parallelare

vectors

more

Vectors

Vectors

vectors

more

said to be non-collinear.

plane

no

be

can

non-coplanar. Obviously

drawn
two

any

parallel

which

to

when

line

no

Three

or

parallelare
vectors

are

coplanar.
Any

vector

product of
ratio of the
when
have

b and

collinear

and

positiveor

magnitude
a

have

with

oppositedirections.

same

OA

The

a.

direction

If then

expressed

negative scalar

of b to that of

the

be

may

;
=

which

as

the

is the

sign is positive

negative,when
a, the vector

they
drawn

from

the

either

SCALAR

AND

ADDITION

origin 0

direction

to

point of

any

be

the

regarded as
Let

line OA.

0 B

in

this

equation

any

point not

line

produced

all

may

fore
there-

pointsin

the

(Fig.5).
The

b.

be
that

in either direction

Let

produced

(1)

(vector)equation of

now

the line OAor

upon

line OA

a.

variable scalar parameter

be

the

is
r

If

15

MULTIPLICATION

is

vector

surely
o

of the

not

line

form

The

it.

upon

through B

and

OA

parallelto

point

Draw

a.

from

0~R=
or

equation

pointsin

is

point.

14.] Any
and

and

b
b

be

may

all the
one

the

vector

be

may

is
a

the

proper
of

the

is

two

into two

Of

other, y b.
scalar

sign)of

and

b.

the

these components

the

and

one

are

lengthsof

non-collinear

vectors

parallelto

allelogram
parare

agonal
diis

tively
respec-

(taken with

ratios

of which

may

the sides

of which

b and

and

components

resolution

of which

(vector)equation of

parallelto

coplanarwith

these

the

components

to the

lengths

Hence
r

is

(2)

regarded as

resolved

and

r.

the

is

drawn

vector

"a.

line which

(Fig.6)

b +

respectively.This

parallelto

and

B~R

accomplished by constructingthe

be

the

Hence

a.

CTB

with

is

0 to E

This

is collinear

BE

consequently expressibleas

be any

let E

vector

FlG

typicalform

several vectors

for any

rv r2, r3

"

vector
"

"

may

(2)'

y b

coplanarwith
be

expressed in

and

b.

this form

If
as

16

rx

their

This

is the
of

vectors.

be

yl b,

r2

z2

2/2 b,

r3

^3

2/3k

(2/i+

the

are

If the vector

Consequently
the

equivalent to

of

sums

is

the

the

the

components

of

components
of

equation

those

of its components

vector

one

scalar

two

that

each

zero

---) b-

2/3 +

y2 +

theorem

well-known

vectors

zero.

xl

is then

sum

sum

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

must

is

equations

(3)
2/i+

15.] Any

vector

parallelto

components

2/3 +

2/2 +

"

"

"

in space
any

three

may

be

resolved

three

into

given non-coplanarvectors.
Let

the vectors

and

c.

The
then

may

be a, b,

resolution
be

plished
accom-

by constructing
the

7)

parallelepiped
(Fig.
of which

are
c

the

parallelto

and

of which
is

r.

allelopiped
pIG

drawn

and

of the vector

r ;

terminus

These

R.

and

b, b and
a

c, c

and

six

planes will

then

b, and
agonal
di-

the
This

par-

may

be

spectively
planes parallelre-

through

similar set of three

a,

easilyby passing

three
to

edges

the

origin0

planes through
be

its

parallelin pairs

18

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Let

r' =

x'

x',

Then
For

Hence

x'

"

of the other two

=rca

r'
r

x'

r'

"

r-i

I 1

and
o

JH

two

if a, b, and
be

0.

coplanar.In

expressedin

z' c

(x' +

z')a

[(x +

(#' +

2')]a,

"

[(y+ nz)-(y'

L\
T^

_.

vfl
//t

v
*"

^^

y' +

similar
infer

theorem

may

a?, y,

to be

if

manner

that

their

and

stated

This

coplanar.
(Arts. 18

et

explained.

col-

were

vanish

follows

vector,

non-coplanar vectors, the

be collinear ;

be

as

tively
respec-

used

cessarily
ne-

the three vectors,

or

in

this is not

the

applications

seq.).

In the

vectors

vectors

principlewill

The

17.]

two

of one

terms

are
equal. But
correspondingscalar coefficients

if the

equal

coefficients

perhaps be
three

vectors, or

directions

z'.

expressedin

are

z')b,

0.

r' in the

"

/"ri *y'
//(" "

J^

/y*
tX/

necessitates
a

(y' +

zero.

~"

7i2)b,

b
nz')']

components of

equal vectors

non-collinear

true

terms

b.

impossibleto

two

could

z')c.

c were

yr b

individually. The
case

z' =

"

#',y',z'. In

it is

(ic+ m2)a+(2/

means

no

0,

(z

O"

by

y'} b

2c

"*/

to

or

are
(supposed different)

this

In

y'

z9.

linear

(y

^ +

But

2/b

i"i /*" "i

y',

individual

the

z' c,

as

Hence

"

be true

not

Then

x')a

0,

y' b

of the three vectors

one

case

(x

this would

But
that

r' =

r',

Unit

Vectors i,j,k.

foregoingparagraphs the

in terms

The

Three

of three

simplestset

method

of

given non-coplanarones
of three such

vectors

ing
expresshas been

is the rect-

in

angularsystem familiar
rectangular
system may
types. In
that

one

or

Y-

side of the X

plane on
to the

axis

will

^-axis
axis

to

the Z'-axis will

"-axis

lies upon

through

F-axis

appears

counterclockwise

adopted
the

the

toward

and

observer

the

distinct

very

rotation

right and

the

be .directed

point toward

two

be stated in another

relation may

directed

be

the

This

Geometry.

which

the convention

accordingto
positive
This

be either of

however

X-axis

the

angle from

Cartesian

Solid

(Fig. 8, first part)

case

19

MULTIPLICATION

SCALAR

AND

ADDITION

Or

F-axis

if the Xthe

to

right,

of state-

method

Still another

pointupward.

If the X-

the
vertically,

observer.
the

try.
Trigonome-

in

form.

F-axis

right

Left-handed

Right-handed
FIG. 8.

is

ment
a

in mathematical

common

be

right-handed screw

axis

it will advance
of

axes

It is easy to
the

JT-planeon

turned

from

the

X-axis

Z-axis.
along the (positive)

is called

or
right-handed,positive,
see

that the F-axis

which

axis is counterclockwise

rotation
;

and

If

physicsand engineering.

the

from

lies upon
the

to

Such

F-

tem
sys-

wise.2
counterclockthat side of

.Z-axis to

X-axis, upon

the

that

the Xside of

X Yhalf of that axis is meant.

The
By the X-, Y-, or Z-axis the positive
the plane which
contains
the X- and
0.
Y-axis,f.e., the plane z
plane means
2 A
convenient right-handedsystem and one
which is always available consists
of the thumb, first finger,
and second
If the thumb
and
fingerof the righthand.
first fingerbe stretched
the palm perpendicular
out from
to each other,and if the
second
be
bent
toward
the
at
over
a rightfinger
palm
rightangles to first finger,
handed
system is formed
by the fingerstaken in the order thumb, first finger,
second
finger.
=

20

VECTOR

the

YZ-plaue

which

on

the three

Thus

is turned

screw

YZX

from

In the other

(Fig. 8, second

which

and

the

the

Z-

relation

the

as

the

right-handed

it advances

next

similar

between

relation

cyclicorder

same

oppositeof

is turned

three

axes

YZX

Hence

is

made
In

this case, too,

long

so

it is

just

left-handedscrew

it advances

next

ative.
neg-

concerning

symmetrical
If

the

or

appears

preserved but

is

case.

toward

axis

one

be

right

^"J^-plane

JT-axis

F^-plane.

that in the former

from

the third.

the

may

clockwise,

side of the

that

statement

the

through

appears

^"-axis to

in its relation to the

the X-axis

along

system is called left-handed,negative,

this

clockwise.1

or

The

two

systems

One

is

Thus

image

the

superimposed, the
the direction
that if two

of

of the

axes

will

Which

of the two
as

in
slightly
all which

the

shall be

counterclockwise
1

A
was

left-handed
formed

by

of

so

opposite

directions.

by reversing

thought

reversed

and

advisable
the

will show

system will

it will be.

matters

In this book

in

systems be

the other

geometry

metric.
sym-

seen

as

in direction the

sign,it is

adopted.

in

are

different

little

systems be used,
of

other

from

be reversed

formulae

the matter

point

axes.

be altered, but if all three be

not

the

be obtained

of the

one

of

of the two

F-axes

^"-axes

system may

one

superposable. They

not

are

If the X- and

mirror.

one

If

rotation

F-axis

lies upon

from

rotation

clockwise

the

that

the

to

part) the Z'-axis lies upon

which

F-plane on

F-axis then

The

the

toward

axis

the JT-axis to the

angle from

as

it appears

is observed.

one

case

that side of the X

the

F-axis

third.

along the

on

the

perfectlysymmetrical so long

is

axes

cyclicorder

same

from

rotation

axis is counterclockwise.
between

ANALYSIS

little.

But

mechanics
to settle

asmuch
in-

differ
once

for

or
right-handed

system will be invariablyemployed.

system may
the

right.

be formed

by

the left hand

justas

right-handed

ADDITION

SCALAR

AND

three letters i,j,k

The

:
Definition

of

three vectors

unit

Z-

will be

drawn

length

of the X-, F-, and

directions

21

MULTIPLICATION

of

axes

reserved

note
to dethe

respectivelyin

rectangular
right-handed

system.
of these vectors, any

In terms

coefficients x, y,

The

of the

of

terminus

The

coordinates.
.Z-axes

x'\ +

if its

k from

i to

established

i,

between

either

the

methods

to

analysisto

origin of

the JT-, F-, and

and

intrinsic meaning

the

on

of the

to

i, and

correspondenceis

the

analysisin

is

will

at

pass

tesian
Car-

tory
nothing contradic-

contrary it is often desirable

the

formulae

coordinates

to

pass
of the

account

obtained

for

the

known

already

convenient

the

j from

possibleto

There

results

both

because

k.

k, about

translate

with

vectors

i, j, k such

Cartesian

into

them

j,

other.

to

frequently

more

obtained

coordinates

at the

parallelto

analysisand

On

them.

comparing
still

situated

it becomes

that

necessary

vector

(6)

positive.

vector

to

one

between
even

all

are

coordinates

or

of

of these vectors

means

from

ak.

originbe

i from

about

rotations

By

expressed as

respectively

are

about

be

may

ordinaryCartesian

components

The

y\

the

are

vector

it

of
is

Cartesian

brevity thereby

expressionsshow

vector

sake

and

from

by

forth the

formulae.

Applications

*18.] Problems
easilyby
the

plane may

which
may

vector

in

planegeometry

methods.
be taken

as

all others in that

also be

Any

selected

the

two

be
frequently

non-collinear

fundamental

plane may

at

may

be

pleasure.

ones

expressed.
Often

it is

solved

vectors

in terms
The

in
of

origin

possible to

22

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

make

such

choice

advantageous

an

that

vectors

the

analytic

work
the

simplified.

The

adaptability of

the

that

of

same

as

scales

the

two

middle

which

materially

method

vector

coordinates

point of

joins one

is about
with

of

vertex

side

opposite

an

-t

ent
differ-

gram
parallelo-

trisects the

diagO

ii

(Fig. 9).

onal
Let

the

be

BCD

the

to

the

BE

parallelogram,

vertex

middle

'

AC.

Choose

origin,A

as

fundamental

two

is the

of

sum

and

where

A~R

is the

AE

And

where

y is the

scalar

(S

EB

to

ratio

of A

is

and

and

R.

To

(S

unknown

an

"

(S

line

or

Hence,

\T

(S

third

T.

as

of
the

Then

show

| T),
scalar.

to

be

shown

(S

T)

"Sl

equating corresponding

the

T),

jl(to

i T)

side

cuts

one

toj.
Hence

the

the

T).

=|

ER

A~R

Let

of ER

ratio

vectors

T.

joining
of

this

"

line

point

^^Jc AD, R the point in which

Z^^-^/
To
show
diagonal A C.

is

mental
funda-

axes.

line

origin and

of solution

Cartesian

oblique

The

(Example?^}
to

the

upon

the

of

coefficients (Art. 16),

equal

From

SCALAR

AND

ADDITION

which

Inasmuch
well

as

as

is also

gthe diagonal
A C.

23

MULTIPLICATION

-.

the line EB

must

Example %j) If throughany pointwithin

be trisected

as

lines
triangle

be drawn

to the sides the sum

of the ratios of these
parallel
lines to their corresponding
sides is 2.
Let A B C be the triangle,
R the pointwithin it. Choose
A B and A C as the two fundamental
A as origin,
vectors S

and T.

Let

2TB

S is the fraction of A B which

to
parallel

A C.

The

wT.

mS+

(a)

is cut off

remainder

by the

of A B must

line through
be the fraction

the ratio of
Consequentlyby similar triangles
the line parallel
to A G to the line A C itself is (1
m).
the ratio of the line parallel
to A B to the line A B
Similarly
S the
itselfis (1
n ). Next
express R in terms of S and T
third side of the triangle.Evidently
from (a)
"

S.

"

"

"

Hence
line

(m

(m

n)

S +

n) S is the fraction of

to
throughR parallel

B C.

the ratio of this line to B

(T

A B

S).

which

is cut off by the

angles
Consequentlyby similar triC itselfis (m -f n). Adding

the three ratios

(1

"

and the theorem

w)

(1

"

TO)+ (m

n)

2,

is proved.

lines
Example 3 : If from any pointwithin a parallelogram
of the parallelobe drawn parallel
to the sides,the diagonals
grams
thus formed intersect upon the diagonal
of the given
parallelogram.
Let A B CD be a parallelogram,
R a pointwithin it,KM
and Z^Vtwo
lines throughR parallel
and
to AB
respectively

?
N

24

of

KN=KR

Zlf

(1

RN

"

and

mS

and
meet

the two

mental
funda-

?i

[m

S +

(1

LM.

n) T,

n) T],

[(l-m)S

with

T,

S +

(1

S +

m)

T +

Hence

LBMR

as

of KN

intersection

DA,AB,

diagonals KN
and

and

sides

Let

T.

point of

let P be the

Then

the

that

origin,A

as

S and

vectors

and

show

parallelogramsKEND

two

\Choose

C.

on

the

the

lying upon

respectively.To

C, CD

LM

points K, Z, M"

the

AD,
B

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

wT],

Equating coefficients,
*"

By solution,

"

either
Substituting

7i

"

of these solutions

1
in the

expressionfor P,

the result is

which
*

shows

19.]

solved

in

Problems

in

the
essentially

of which

solution

is

"

that P is collinear with

In this
terms

case

three
same

there

all others

analogous

to

can

G.

dimensional
manner

are

as

three
be

that

geometry
those

fundamental

expressed.
in

in

the

The

simpler

two

may

be

sions.
dimen-

vectors

in

method

of

case.

Two

26

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

In like

~AB'

and
Hence

B'

manner

#2 C +

~AB '+ ""'=

";2C + y2D

and

"2(/B

1 -f

yz D

mC

kz (I

kz (P

B).

wD-

1),

xz=Jczm,
"2 n.

7/2 =

1
Hence

""

l-l
PB'

""-:

and
"2

In the

same

be shown

it may

way

that

,PZ"'

PC'

Adding

the four
1
2

Example
point and
the

Let
and
it

as

ratios the result is

(l +

"

To

find

two

two

lines be
on

originand

let

l +

m+n

line which

given

cuts

B, 0 and D

n)

passes

through a given

lines in space.

fixed

each.

l.

by
respectively

Let

0 be the

two

points A

given point.

Choose

V=OD.

Any point P
P

Any point Q

If the

of A B

may

be

OP=

OA

of CD

may

likewise be written

points P

are.collinear.

and
That

expressedas
x

TB

Q lie in the
is

same

line

(B

A).

through 0, P

and

SCALAR

AND

ADDITION

Before

it is

possibleto equate

vectors

must

be

expressedin

Let

J)

Then

P
=

[C +

Hence

four

A)

nC

B +

ra

the

nC.

(B

"

of

one

of the other three.

m'B

(IA.+

coefficients

terms

lA. +

27

MULTIPLICATION

"

0)].

I,

zym,

[1 +

(n

1)J.

Hence

I+

I +

P and

in
Substituting

Q
I A+

I +

and

be taken

of these may

Either

cuttingA

Let

OA

find the vector

To
the

terminus

ratio

P=

and

=~OP

divides

from

OP=

as

A^*^^

"/

'".

in the

A B

Px^^Jv^

f^^^

of which

Oil

-^"
+

~AB

"+

"
FlQ

"^"
m

n
n

is,

given ratio

10

: n.

That

OB

in

line AB

arbitrarypoint

any

origin.

line drawn

independentof the Origin

divide

To

1:

20.] Example
: n
(Fig.10).
Choose

defininga

as

and

Vector Relations

(B-A).

B
/7,

(")

28

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

The

components
the

to

segments

divided

and

in

the

and

hold

be taken

Example
of

signs

would

formula

To

and

into

PB

If it should

of

without
into

so

change

the

happen
/

would

in inverse

are

which

ratio AP

and

m,

be

line A B

is

that P divided

would

PB

ratio

be

tive,
nega-

opposite, but

if this difference

of

the

sign

account.

find the

point of

intersection

of the medians

triangle.

Choose

the

triangle. Let
be

and

A P

externally,the

line AB

the

parallelto

point P.

the

by

of P

origin 0
OA

random.

at

'= B, and

A, OB
middle

respectivelythe

points

vertices

A, B, G.

Let

medians

and

OM

the vector

Let

be

the

~OC

of

the

point of
drawn

BC
C.

sides

be
Let

the

A\ B\ 0'

opposite the

intersection

to it.

given

of the

Then

and

Assuming
triangleso
may

that 0 has been

that A, B, C
be

chosen

outside

equated.

Hence

plane of

the

cients
non-coplanar,correspondingcoeffi-

are

Hence

of the

AND

ADDITION

The
to

drawn

vector

In

the

the

to the

of the

third

one

SCALAR

of which

problems

origin could

median

be

the

chosen

become

termini

A,B,C,

Thus

etc.

M=\(A
is typicalof

methods.

of

parts of

such

cases,

be

origin may
of the
other

the

specializedand
renders

the

for

in

those

to

as

points themselves
read

B+C).
soluble

problems

regard

facilitate the

just

as

by

vector

between

the

independent

demonstration.

Arts. 18, 19, the

to

In

positionof
crucial

some

computation

generalityobtained

results

A, B, C, etc.,

vectors

the

analytic

but

the

point

in many

by leaving the origin un-

leads

undetermined

gard
disre-

possible to

even

necessarilybe

the

dependen
is in-

figure must

specializedwith

figureso
cases

as

result

purely geometricrelation

origin assumed

the

some

fact any

In

the

given

class of

whole

just been

the formulae

and

to trie vertices.

has

replace the

different

it is

subjectsof analysisand

the

This

drawn

solution

Hence

origin entirely and

their

by

triangleis equal

and
arbitrarily

of that choice.
the

of

point

of the vectors

sum

29

MULTIPLICATION

to

easy

to

and

sufficient

which

symmetry

and

compute

more

easy

to remember.

Theorem

necessary

equation represent

vector

is that

the

sum

of

side

one

The

the

of

the

zero

be

of
on

vector

the

relation

scalar

independent

coefficients

of

sign of equality is equal

coefficients of the vectors

terms

upon

the other

to

sum

of the

scalar

the

one

the

equation written

in the latter form

be

on

of the

sum

Or

origin

vectors

if all the

side

leaving

coefficients

zero.

Let

of the

the

side.

equation be transposed to

other, the

that

condition

must

30

Change
E

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

then

(B

5B

cC

E)

aA

by adding
A, B, C, D

constant

The

----

vector

equation

becomes

(A

'

0 to 0

of the vectors

to each

00'

origin from

the

If this is to be

(C

dD

E)

+B

...

independent of

the

(a

(D

j, +

originthe

R)

-f

d +

"

"

...).

coefficient of E

is fulfilled in the two

this condition

That

Hence

vanish.

must

B)

cited

examples

is obvious.

M=|(A

If

_1
3

21.]

The

coefficients is zero,
and

C),

,1

7" *."

sufficient
which

equation, in

satisfyan

vectors

and

necessary

"

"_*_.+

condition

the
be

is that the vectors

sum

that

of the

two

scalar

equal in magnitude

in direction.

First let

and
It is of

course

vanish.

If

the value

of

the
a

I B

0.

that not both

assumed

they did

the

equation would

obtained

from

the first.

B.

coefficients
mean

the second

and

nothing.

stitute
Sub-

equation into

ADDITION

Secondly if
the

SCALAR

AND

and

magnitude

in

equal

are

31

MULTIPLICATION

and

direction

equation
A-B

The

"A

would

be

Substitute

coefficients

the

of

value

0.

be

the

or

equations

non-vanishingcoefficient.

obtained

b, c, vanish

a,

Let

meaningless.

cC

b +

the

"B

and
all

vectors

nate
originthey termi-

common

three

line.1
straight

same

First let

Not

that

zero.

of the scalar coefficients

sum

from

drawn

is that when

in the

the

which

equation,in

satisfyan

of the coefficients is

sum

sufficient condition

and

necessary

is zero,

The

them.

subsists between

from

the

second

equation

into the first.

-("
or

(C-A)

Hence

the vector

collinear
Hence

those

which

three

OA, B

terminate

0,

extremities

lie

on

of

line.

straightline.

A is

and

B.

Secondly

drawn

00

OB,C=

in

of C and

extremities

joins the

cC

"(A-B).

points A, B,

origin0

same

joins the

which

that

three vectors

suppose
the

with

c)A+"B

from

Then

the

vectors

A~B
collinear.

are

Hence

the

(B
subsists.
the

and

r= C

AC

equation
A)

(C

A)

of the coefficients

sum

on

the

sides

two

is

same.

The

necessary

in which
1

The

the

Vectors

Hamilton

"

which

and

of the

sum

hare

sufficient condition

common

termino-collinear."

scalar
originand

that

an

equation,

coefficients is zero,
terminate

in

one

line

are

subsist
called

by

32

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

in

they terminate

aA

of

6B

and

from

the last

d(D-A)

or

line A D

The

is

A, B, (7,D

suppose

that

A~D

the
D

other

where

This

(B

A)

Z,TO, and
in this

Between

Let

Q.

(A-B)

may

leads

the

to

(C

A)

Hence

all four

plane. Secondly

one

do

A, and

C).

C.

lie in

lie in

AB

"

plane.

one

expressed in

be

value

the first.

(A

of A, B, C, D
=

the

Substitute

and

A B

of them

are

planar
co-

terms

of

equation

certain scalars.

are

(D

A)

The

0,

of the coefficients

sum

equation is zero.
five vectors

any

of whose

A, B, C, D

One

two.

of

A, ~AC

origin

common

equation into

termini

vectors.

the

coplanarwith

termini

Then

dD

cC

non-vanishing coefficient.

obtained

b +

d be

plane.1

one

First let

Let

from

four vectors, is that if drawn

between

coefficients is

equationthe

one

sum

zero.

be

A, B, C,D, E

there exists

the

five

given

Form

the

other

three

vectors.

differences
E-A,
One

of these
or

"

what

be

may

amounts

equation between
k

The

(E
sum

Vectors

by Hamilton

A)

expressed in

to

the

"

have

of the

terms

thing there

same

exist

must

an

them.
I

(E

B)

(E

of the coefficients of this

which

E-D.

E-C,

E-B,

originand
termino-complanar.1'
a

common

C)

(E

equation is
terminate

in

D)

==

0.

zero.

one

plane are

called

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

34

and

determines

This

Hence

(B

multipleof
and
Hence

(B

n)

w)

(1

It

AG.

A.

G.

n)

A.

therefore

must

multiplethat

w)

the second

equations which

shall be

zero.

reasoning

(1

wC=

and

such

F and

the

of

(1

(1

similar

BO

cuts

vector

C)

of its coefficients is

n~B

the first equationfrom

Subtract

This

wB=D

E, C,

vectors

n.

"

nC

"

straight

same

the

connects

sum

rearrangement and

another

By

as

the

that

such

be

must

the

lie upon

which

equation

the

Hence

line.

and

points E, C,

the

However

the

cients
of the coeffi-

sum

B, C, and

connect

be

G, A,

or

zero.

C)

(1

n)

(1

2 nJf.

B +
F

Hence

")

"

SB

the

and

has

theorem

considerable

space

been

In

given.
of

been

proved.
each

because

The

detail of the
the actual

however,
reality,

justfour equationsobtained

Example

To

the

determine

has

proof

covered

reasoning has

analysishas

simply from

equationsof

sisted
con-

the first.

the

line and

plane.
Let

the line be fixed

be

any

The

vectors

point

of

A, B, and

by

the
P

two

pointsA

line.

Choose

terminate

and

Therefore

an

in the

0.

b +

aA

6B

and

upon

it.

Let

arbitraryorigin.
same

line.

Hence

AND

ADDITION

They

values.

the

points P

different

For

be

may

scalars

and

replacedby

xA.

yE

I have

and

generallyto represent variables.

more

35

MULTIPLICATION

SCALAR

different

y, which

are

used

Then

Let

plane

point of

Let P be any
The

determined

be

the

A, B, C, and

vectors

and

P terminate

c+p

aA.

Therefore

a,

to write

customary

points of

the

y +

line which

quadrilateralto
divides

Hence

in their stead x, y,

The

plane.

one

cC

b +

Example

arbitrary
origin.

an

Q.

JB

for different

Z",c, vary

C.

As

in

and

points A,B,

cC

+
b +

three
Choose

plane.

SB

aA+

by

the

the

is

more

z.

joins one

of

vertex

of

intersection

opposite sides

plane, it

plete
com-

diagonals

two

monically
har-

(Fig. 12).
A, B, C, D be four vertices

Let
of

Let
quadrilateral.

in

CD

in the

BC

meet

Let

the

intersect

that

FG

and

by

E.

in

G.
A B

intersects

that

E'

sixth

That

and

To

in the

same

point E'

and

CD

ratio

is to show

(A

show

in

the lines AB

E"

F.

vertex

diagonals AC

two

BD

such

meet

E, and A D

fifth vertex

A B

EE')

that
=

as

the

are

and

in

CD

divided

cross

(CD -EE")

ratios
=

point E1'

internallyat

divided

they are

1.

externally

36

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the

Choose

the

it to

from

drawn

random.

origin at

four

The

points A, B, C\

terminate

in

one

Hence

plane.

aA

"B

and

a-f-" +

cC

dD

0.

Separatethe equationsby transposingtwo

"A

cC

+
+

"A

Divide

A, B, C, D

vectors

manner

(a

c)0

b +

d"D

6B

cC

+
b +

(a + d)?

"

c)

Form:

(a

5B

cC

In like

(b + d).

"

(Z"B

"

terms

(a

"

cG

(a

d)

"

c)

(a + d)

"

cC-dJ"
or

Separatethe equationsagain and

"A

JB

cC

"

divide

dD

Hence
c

."

"2.

ratio

divides

c :

Hence

d.

in
externally
internal and
of

and

the
which
If

d.

of

ratio.

external

they have

'"

To

in

certain

in the

divides
CD

internallyand

the

is E".

A B

in the

divisions

the relative

upon

sign

same

CD

ratio

In

internal
a

is

signs
point

similar way

harmonically.

geometric nets.
a

lines
pointsand straight
a

CD

of the two

Which

to divide

(")

b and
J""

depends
the

discuss

divide

oppositesigns,it

geometric net

Start with

that
E"

and

be shown

may

Example 4

By

shows

same

of division is E; if
E' and

in the ratio

equation (a)

But
"

E.

"

number

plane is

meant

obtained

in the

followingmanner.

of

pointsall

figurecomposed

of which

lie in

one

These

all the

Draw

plane.

This

second

construction

the

number

Joining

points

which

there

these

From
To

these

the

and
subsist

b +

between

cC

four

"A
E

intersect

in

so

three

lines may

new

six

and

down

dD

with.

commence

out

points.

new

on.

the

equations

is

(c)

drawn

given points.

from
From

an

termined
unde-

these

it is

b"B

cC

dD

b +

+_c_

"

"B

+
a

b +

the equationsinto
by splitting
four vectors

This

step

obtain

possibleto

the

to

cut

the four vectors

the

origin to

each

figureincreases.

Three

be obtained

6B

on.

so

plane geometric net

four.

write
analytically

treat this net

aA

which

given

lines may

more

given

are

figure. These

the

in

be drawn

now

the

six lines which

are

from

points different

At
indefinitely.

of

points.

stillgreater number

in

pairs.

pointsin pairs.

up

lines

four points

of

joined in pairs and

interestingcase

most

number

be

kept
and

in

points

these

connect

turn

be

may

of

Probably the

in

may

The

in

in

set of lines will determine

points which

that

other

each

all the lines which

draw

37

MULTIPLICATION

joining these

lines

lines will intersect

Next

of

SCALAR

AND

ADDITION

sum

such

as

two

A, D, E, F may

of whose

cG
c

parts and dividing.Next

be

coefficients is

zero

and

chosen

the equation

be determined.

may

be

would
"

aA.

d'D

(a

b)'E+ (a + c)F

By treatingthis equation as (c) was

be obtained.

treated

new

0.

pointsmay

38

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"

(a

d D

6)E

(a

c)!

2a

"

d D

(a + ") E

b +

The

fuller

in Hamilton's

said.

Five

obtained

by findingthe
of the

of three

remaining pairs.
with

the

from

Between

of whose

of

intersections

construction

in

before

as

lines

I.
be

may

be

be carried

There

nets.

originto

there

exists

This
the

ward
for-

analytictreatment

plane

zero.

and

be

may

connecting the

then

The

vectors

coefficients is

separatedinto parts

nets

pointsmay

new

undetermined

these

forward

planespassed through

may

of

case

an

points

more

word

just a

these

that

points.
sum

From

to

drawn

geometric

given points with

The

these

points goes

space

pointsthus obtained.

five vectors

the

in

from

selected

of Quaternions,"Book

the

is similar

five

given.

pointsare

of

account

Elements

"

from

findingmore

regards geometric nets

As

sets

of

process

indefinitely.A

and

found;

be

four vectors

of

sets

b +

other

A, B,C, D, E, F, G may

found

c) F

(a + 6)E

between

dD

obtained.

(a

Equations

an

the

given

equation

equation

be

may

points may

new

are

thus

be obtained.

aA

b"B

cG

dD

"E

then

are

way.

two

of the
Nets

d +

b +

d +

may

be

points and

in space

are

others

also discussed

found

in the

by Hamilton,

same

loc. cit.

AND

ADDITION

Centers
*

be

The

23.]
found

easilyby

very

physics which
1".

The

situated

at

and

In

it into
the

in

situated

the

at

Given

two

center

where

the

This

follows

of

center

mass

of

a
a

and

b situated

is

-f b situated

at

three

Then

"B

1 and

the

a, o,

b +

"B

of law

equivalentto

b +

cC

situated

as

means

formula

by

(a + 6)
a

and

pointsA

B.

origin whatsoever.

any

masses

Hence

system and

system.

point
a

equal

(7)

ratio.

given

considered

the

in the

at two

law

be found

be

b may

systems of

two

single mass

the

to

from

C may

masses

given by

referred

gravity of

pointsA, B,

masses

and

are

two

inverselyproportional

are

masses

gravity of

line in

replaced by

of

immediately
of

connecting the

of the

gravity G

vectors

for division

three

be

sum

(considered as

masses

gravity of

of

center

center

masses

Their

The

the

to

of

laws

the extremities.

at

masses

two

following:

segments which

two

system may

magnitude

two

the line

on

The

the

are

gravity of

finding the

each

masses

of

system of particlesmay

methods.

vector

assumed

points) lies

to

2".

be

will

center

divides

of Gravity

of gravity of

center

39

MULTIPLICATION

SCALAR

2.
a

at the

The

single

40

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the

Evidently
6,

a,

c,

situated

d,

be found

of

center

in

the

at

similar

gravity of

of

points A, JB, C, Z",

The

manner.

aA

number

any

"B

cC

l +

result
^D

masses

may

...

is

"""

Theorem

the

triangleto

lines which

The

with

masses

the

areas

hi

of

the

Join

lines

last

from

compounding

Let

be the

until

the

and

first three.

intersect

they

ABC

ter
cen-

A, B, C to G and

A', 2?',C" respectively.To

proportion between

A,B,C

triangleweighted

GBC:GCA:GAB:ABC=a,:l:c:a
The

at the opposite

masses

Let

Z",c.

a,

gravity.

produce
oppositesides

the

gravityof

triangleswhich

(Fig.13).

vertices

of

the

three

it into

vertices
the

of

center

proportionalto

are

be

...

jointhe

divide

vertices

d+

l +

I +

show

that

c.

comes

It is, however, useful

in

the demonstration.
ABC

A'

AG

GA'

_b
=

G B C

~~

G A'
ABC

Hence
GBC

BCA
In

similar

manner

GCA

Hence

I +

GAB=
the

Theorem
a

CAB
and

J 4-

~c

'

proportion is proved.
2

tetrahedron

The
to the

lines which
vertices

join the

divide

center

of

the tetrahedron

gravityof
into four

42
therefore

5, c may

a,

of

inside

points P

do

and

point P,

each

each

to

of sets

of

the

set

there

there

point

which
quantities,

another

except for

plane ABC

which

one

of

factor

proportionality.

of

triangleABC

of the

negative weights
masses

2 and

would

be

ratio 1

2.

That

suitable

of

set

idea of

The

if the
as

Calcul"

The
in

in 1826.

GAB

to

point

areas

and

by
P

be

the

only

him

in

This

may

which

they

would

the sides of
areas

avoided
of

areas

then

of the three

of these

respectively
the

one

ratios of

the

the

be

will differ in
of the

Z",and

a,

sign

are

portant
im-

positive.

at the vertices

due

Mobius

to

entitled

triangle

taken

situated

gravityis

his book
be

represented by

always be

masses

of

sign. Similarly

and

Barycentrische

"

the

regarded as
fairly

starting

analyticgeometry.

may

vertices

the

representedby

lies outside

conception of negative masses

nature

be

may

may

point P

of the center

point of modern

gravity of

externallyin

differ in

ABO

quantitiesmay

published by

was

conception of

and

line A B

Z",c of which

a,

employing

coordinates

of

produced

plane

masses

of the

two

as

the

Inasmuch

ABC.

center

pointsA

a, b which

masses

of

the

lie outside

is

the other two

from

at the

of the line A B

point

The

masses.

or

to

resort

may

point G dividing the

suitable set of

any

one

1 situated

"

Any point

of the

pointsP

the

obtain

To

To

triangleABC.

the

differ from

not

coordinates

as

upon

infinite number

corresponds an
however

looked

be

definite

corresponds a

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

are

be

the

proportional. The
three numbers
which

by

no

the

existence
at

masses

triangles GBC,

given triangleABC,

is determined

have

by replacingthe

trianglesof
a

which

GCA,

the
and

coordinates

of

proportionalto

the

is the

common

the bases.

vertex

The

followingdefinition.

sign

Definition: The
positiveor

The

through them.
pointsfollow

the

in the

Cyclic permutation
the

sign

of the

BCA

the

hold.

The

The
may

The

be

areas

these

four

quantitiesor
be

outside

employed.
be

the

masses

are

proportionalto

may

takes

the

Or

it here

may

Definition:
to

be

not

be

The

positivewhen

Gr is

point

sideration.
con-

the

light of
the

Then
that of

P.

mass

the

represented by

theorem

idea

them.

tetrahedra
of

To

masses

2, page

40,

which

umes
negative vol-

negativeweights.

importance later,a

at

", c, d

a,

negative

four

to

situated

proportionalto

in

the

into

"

tetrahedron

volume

of the

larycentric coordinates

the

of

taken

of the

of

out

be outside

be

areas

gravity

replaced by

idea is of considerable

if P

weightedwith

others

place of

of

pointsA, B, C,

are

of

them.

reversal

quantitiesproportionalto
"

four

tetrahedron

to

coordinates

The

center

may

the

of the idea of

points

PGA

three

or

respectively. The
obtain

alter

not

trianglethe equation

signs of

the

is immediate.

the vertices of

amounts

will also hold

regarded as

extension

space

does

sign.

C +

PB

same

triangleprovided
them

the

point within
PA

must

direction.

CAB.

letters which

two

cyclicorder changes

If P be any

clockwise

area.

of

Interchange

negative when

letters therefore

of the

in the

circle described

the

upon

be

to

other

each

is said to be

area

negative or

ABG

the

direction

counterclockwise

said

triangle is

A, B, C follow

the vertices

positivewhen

of

ABC

area

43

MULTIPLICATION

SCALAR

AND

ADDITION

As

brief treatment

this
of

place.
A B CD

of

triangleABC

tetrahedron
appears

is said

positiveto

44

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the

situated

eye

if the

solid model.

difficult to
which

from

see

if

hold

model

it which

The

negative.

be

of

signs

negative

the

various
have

to

necessary

scarcelysufficient.

It is

positiveand

trianglesappear

following relations

will

be

to

seen

examined.

interchangeof

The

the

is

plane drawing

is

negative.

it is almost

perfectlyclear

tetrahedra

of

discussion

the

make

To

volume

The

D.

point

triangleappear

of the

area

the

at

letters in the

two

tetrahedron

A B CD

changes the sign.

ACBD=CBAD=BACD=DBCA

sign of the tetrahedron for

twenty-fourarrangements of

The

by reducing that arrangement

means

of

If the

number

number

of

that of AB

as

CD

CADB
If P

is any

if

the

even

be obtained
B

of
interchanges

inside

point

order

sible
pos-

two

by

letters.

sign is the

same

odd, opposite. Thus

-CABD

the

interchangesis
;

of the

one

the letters may

to

of successive

given

any

of

CBD

the

-ABCD.

tetrahedron

the

ABCD

equation
ABCP-BCDP+
holds

good.

provided
and
to

one

ABCD
The
if the

It still is true

the

The

CDAP-DABP=ABCD

signs

of the

if P
volumes

easilyremembered

number.
+

form

into consideration.
more

cal
symmetri-

all
by transposing

the terms

Then

BCDP

CDPA

proportion in theorem

signs of

the tetrahedron

be taken

be put into

equation may

more

be without

the tetrahedra

DPAB+PABC=Q.

2, page
be

40, does

regarded.

It should

BCDG:CDGA:DOAB:GABC:ABCD
=

: c

: a

-f b +

not

d.

hold
read

true

If the

ADDITION

AND

SCALAR

point

G- lies inside

the

tetrahedron
the

quantitiesproportionalto
located

at the vertices

of

center

still be

gravity.If

masses

positionof

the

centric

"

The

coordinates

four numbers

point of

the

from

B G is

plane A

be

must

G is to be the

they may

negative

are

whose

In this

is established

drawn

vector

of which

point G-.

the

which

masses

of the tetrahedron

some

perhaps better merely as

5, c, d represent

a,

if
respectively

A,B,C,D

G lies outside

regardedas

45

MULTIPLICATION

"

or

ratios determine
set of

manner

"Jary-

for space.
indeterminate

an

originto

any

(page 35)

a?A

yB

aC

y +

Comparing

this with

the

"

expression
"A

6B

cC

that the

it will be

seen

more

nor

less than

with

respect

the

the

to

b +

quantities05, yt z

in

are

coordinates
barycentric

reality
nothing

triangleABO.

of the

like

In

pointP
from

manner

equation

_xA.

y'B

which

expresses

origin in
the

any

it may
origin,

same

be

the

four

the tetrahedron
the

w'D

from

indeterminate

an

A, B, C, D

drawn

from

by comparison with
c

C +

b +

y, z,

of P, the
B CD.

l'B +

quantities#,

coordinates

vectors

seen

zG

drawn

given

aA.

that

y +

vector

of four

terms

terminus

Thus

d"D

preciselythe barycentric

are

of P, with

the vector

respect to

methods

and the methods

origin is undetermined
co-extensive.
Calculus
are
practically

of

in which
the

"

centric
Bary-

"

It

was

mentioned

before and

it may

be well to

repeat here

46

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

that

the

the vectors

wholly

of consideration

out

The

their termini.

replacedby

become

then

left

be

origin may

vector

xA

and

y B

+
+

zC

y +

C +

y +

yB

wD

w.

step brings in the points themselves

and

the

"

Use

:
25.] Definition

by

An

in

the

letters

nowhere

point

cuts

0 when

the

follow

PQR

each

other in the counterclockwise

At

and

M N

plane

which

positivefrom

to appear

"

Areas

one

PQR

curve

objectsof

of Grassmann.

denote

to

lying

area

continuous

itself is said

Vectors

of

the

as

BarycentrischeCalcul

"

Ausdehnungslehre

"

The

bounded

to the

leads still nearer

analysisand
of Mb'bius

equations

point equations
xA

This

and

positiveorder;

or

when

follow

they

negative

negative,

clockwise

or

the

in

order

(Fig.14).
It

Cf

of its

same

0.

the

area

from
circle

and

from

some

in

lies,but

that

side of the

in which

point

negativerelative

upon

the

negative

from

plane on
all

sign

reference

the side of the

JTF-plane and

which

points on

the
the

its

side
0 out-

to

to the

plane

described

positivetrigonometricorder appears positivefrom

point on

area

determined

only

to

an

Q is negative relative

0 is

point 0'

lying in

that

that direction

traced

viewed

area

viewed

area

oppositeto
in the

an

to be

For

plane.

and

PQR;

supposed

is

no

se^ but

per

14.

to

boundary

have

can

FIG.

is evident

every

positiveZ-axis

side upon

which

ADDITION

the

negative^-axis

and

the direction

walking

upon

statingthe

is said

walking

the

To

other.

be

kept

it will

one

positiveis

which

it appears

force

out

of
of

togetherthe

the

of

through
of

the

plane
and

one

the

the

plane

positive side

closed

the

the

plane.

enclosed

left hand

of the

positive;

to

which
the

the

from

upon
idea
If

the
the

the
area

side

This

plane curve

by

curve

magnetism.

circuit pass

positiveside

the

If

his left-

area

upon

and
electricity

the

curve,

same

negative,the negative side.

positiveside

placed upon

closed

consequently appear

called

follows

as

It is clear that if two

flow around

electric current

out

right.

side of the

students

to

definition is

his

righthand

seems

magnetic

boundary must

it lies upon

to trace

other, negative. That

familiar

the

point of view

positiveif

oppositesides

upon

will lie upon

the

be

to

be considered

persons

the

reason

plane traces

side, negativeif upon

hand

this

For

descriptionof
of

enclosed

area

of

method

Another
person

lies.

47

MULTIPLICATION

mind.

clearlyin

SCALAR

AND

is
an

lines of

negative to

positivemagnetic pole

of the

plane will

be

repelledby

the circuit.
A

plane

area

positive or

of the

is a vector
when

magnitude
the

upon

It

is the

the

in which

The

be

may

considered

numerical

normal

denoted

value

of

the

upon

normal
area

to
A

orthogonally
upon

the

the

lie in the
the

of

N'.

the

plane

concerning
vector

and

area

area

whose

of the
a

upon

whose

of that vector

plane,
plane
in

the

projection(Fig. 15).

plane MN.

plane M'

that

that

component

plane

by

positiveside

orthogonalprojectionof

to

important.

be

area

to

Hence

followingtheorems
are

than

possessingmore

it lies.

vectors

as

plane

representedby

direction
Let

If

is the

direction

will be

plane

quantity.

looked

Theorem

then

as

upon

negativemagnitude.

positiveside

areas

looked

direction,namely, the direction of the normal

possess

area

be

may

Let

Let MN

it be
and

projected

M' N'

inter-

48

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

in the

sect

planes be

two

x.

Consider

rectangle P'Q'R'S'

M'N'.

will be

equal

to

PQ

and

RS;

will be

equal

to

QR

and

SP

the

angle between

the

This

sides

the

PQRS

rectangles,of

sides

the

which

sides

cosine

of

From
area

the

is

equal to

angle between
up into

the

that
the

of #,

the

respectively

are

sides
I and

of the

likewise

are

whose

area

any

is

the

planes.
A

area

given area
planes.

largenumber

series of lines in M N

S'P'

originalrectanglesmultipliedby

angle between

this it follows

which

of the

the

cosine

line of intersection

respectively
paralleland perpendicularto
of

Q' R' and

15.

planes,projectinto rectangleswhose
to the area

R' S'

Q' and

the

coax.

paralleland perpendicularto I,the

equal

in M N

project into
P'

multiplied by

FIG.

two

will

The
but

these

planes. Consequentlythe rectangle

P'Q'R'S'

Hence

between

respectivelyparallel

are

line I.

in

angle

rectangle PQRS

QR, SP

the

perpendicularto

diedral

first

and

sides,PQ, RS

whose
and

let the

I and

line

projectedinto

multipliedby

For

of small

is

any

area

an

the cosine
may

vided
be di-

rectanglesby drawing

paralleland perpendicularto

the line /.

50

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Theorem
surface

is

This

The

be

proved by
to be

fluid assumed

surface

moves

neither

of

surface

The

proof

Consider

the

the

from

part nearest

the

projectsinto

covered

twice, once
each

closed surface

upon

But

plane
that

is

the vector

equal
which

along the

line

however,

was

Upon

The

each face

proportional
of all

resultant

equilibrium. Hence
surface

double

is

zero.

upon

part of the

The

area.

and
the

total
with

of the

component

with

once

the

is

negative.

projectionof

area

an

that

upon

representing

vector

perpendicularto

plane

the

regard to sign)is

projectionof

perpendicularto

portion of the plane which

Hence

the

Thus

negative area.

plane.

representsa closed surface has

any

closed

the closed surface

plane (if taken

the

to

the

plane projectsinto positivearea

other.
a

internal

purely geometric manner.

positivearea

theorem

by

certain

in the direction

area

in

plane, into

with

cancel

zero.

given

of

body

own

by

in the closed

areas

the

surface

These

to it.

the fluid is in

consists of

farthest

its

definite force

orthogonalprojectionof
This

plane.

surface

be

may

normal
as

of all the vector

sum

any

be zero,

of

cluded.1
forces,gravityin-

the other.

nor

way

in

fluid bounded

the

fluid exerts

the

these forces must

the

one

of the face and

area

all external

equilibrium under

portion of

The

pressures.

considerations

polyhedron drawn

free from

fluid is in

The

of certain

means

the

hydrostatics.Suppose

to the

representsa closed polyhedral

zero.

may

the

which

vector

no

Hence

component

plane of projection.This,

whatsoever.

Hence

the

vector

is

zero.

The

theorem

closed

surface

Such

state

has

consists

in the

of

proved

The

in the

all

atmosphere

and

suspendingstring.

gravityacts

In

case

case

in

that

which
surface

the
be

of a
practical
purposes in the case
to
pheric
atmosconsequentlysubjected
but is counterbalanced
by the tension

to

force of

for the

planes.

of affairs is realized

polyhedron suspended
pressure.

been

ADDITION

curved

it may

whose

number

vector

which

curved

is

be

may
That

AND

be

SCALAR

of

faces increases

closed

If the surface

be not

representedby
is the

limit

limit.

surface
closed

approached by

representsthat polyhedralsurface of which

when

limit

is the

the

number

of faces

Hence

the

polyhedralor
but be curved

if it

justas

vector

polyhedralsurface

without

represents any

zero.

vector

the limit of

regardedas

51

MULTIPLICATION

it

polyhedral.

were

the

which

vector

the curved

becomes

surface

indefinitely

great.
SUMMARY
A

is

vector

direction.

and

the

itself.

parallelto
multiply

its

vector

laws

as

To

add

any

three

components

of

non-coplanarvectors,
are

vectors

the

This

equal

i,j,k form
limit

exists and

polyhedralsurface

leave

xa,

the

the

same

into

three

components

This

resolution

way.

y'b +

equal, and
vectors

To subtract

tion,
Addition, subtrac-

(4)

zc.

to
equal vectors, parallel
are

direction.

scalar follow

tiply
mul-

in ordinarymultiplication

resolved

its direction

its

reverse

add.

by

nitude
mag-

positivescalar

non-coplanar vectors.

The

and

accomplished in only one

whose

one

parallelogramlaw.

vectors

be

may

it
by shifting

negativescalar

and

scalar

its direction

vector

and

by

vector

addition,subtraction,and

parallelto
be

scalar

the

is

by

vector

magnitude

same

altered

vector

zero

that

accordingto

the

is not

multiply a

that

possessingmagnitude

as

vector

multiply a

possess

or

of
multiplication

algebra. A
can

length by

reverse

and

vectors

null

length by

Vectors
a

A
To

zero.

unchanged.
its

Equal
direction.

same

is

quantity considered

and

CHAPTER

OF

are

three

converselyif
equal.

The

given

the

ponents
com-

three

right-handedrectangularsystem.

is

unique.
approachesthe

It is independent of the method

curved

surface.

unit
In

in which

52

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

of them

terms

vector

any

coordinates

Cartesian

x, y,

ratio

the

(6)

y\ + zk.

divides

line in

given

the formula

given by

is

: n

of

means

z.

xi

expressed by

point which

The

Applications.

be

may

(7)
+

The

sufficient condition

and

necessary

that

equation

vector

represent a relation independent of the originis that the

of the scalar coefficients in
any

there

four vectors
If the

exists

of the

sum

termino-coplanar. If
coefficients

is

termino-collinear.
masses

a,

A, B, C

"

given by

"

"

Z",
c

"

"

"

situated

supposed

the

between

to be

drawn

b +

with

of

sum

whose

of

number
the

are

scalar

they

vectors

termini
from

cients.
coeffi-

scalar

the vectors

gravity of

the

at

Between

zero.

zero

three

of

center

be

equation

an

equation

an

The

equation

coefficients is

exists

zero

the

sum

are

of

vectors

origin is

common

the formula

.-

vector

used

be

may

plane the magnitude

of the area,
the normal

and

positiveside

EXEECISES

ON

2.

the laws

trianglemay

----

an

is

If the

area.

equal to

of the

the

area

magnitude

is the direction

plane.

is

The

of

vector

zero.

CHAPTER

stated in Art. 12.

be constructed

the medians

-\

of the vector

is

Demonstrate

equal to

of the vector

closed surface

1.

and

the

to denote

the direction

upon

representinga

of any

whose

sides

given triangle.

are

parallel

The

3.

three

If two

4.

four

upon

pointsof

three

diagonalsof

plete
com-

lie three

straightlines.

trianglesare
of

intersection

so

situated

in space

correspondingsides

that the

lie

joining the corresponding vertices

the lines

on

three

line,then

through a

pass

point and conversely.

common

Given

5.

Find

in
quadrilateral

joins the

line which

of the

middle

the

point

of

the

two

oppositesides.

the

and

coincide

same

joiningthe
of these

two

the

the vertices.
where
7.

the

are

gravityof

bisectors

not

joins the

gravityof

be

system

quadrilateral.
be

space
formed

the centers

line with

four

middle

points are

be
quadrilaterals

on

point

diagonals.

quadrilateralin

this theorem

Can

masses

The

of

originalquadrilateral.By
of

the

that these two

pointsof division, then

the center

is meant

of

lie
quadrilaterals

two

gravityof

Show

if two

and
proportionally

divided

line which

the vertices of the

opposite sides

If two

6.

the middle

points of

the center

with

placed at

equal masses

Find

space.

middle

points of
of

the

pairs of oppositesides

the

meet

53

MULTIPLICATION

which

points in

six

quadrangle 1
by

SCALAR

AND

ADDITION

of

the

by

gravity
of

center

the center

of

equal masses

gravity

placed at
the

generalizedto

case

equal?

of the

angles

of

in

trianglemeet

point.
8.

If the

edges of a hexahedron
four diagonals
of the

points,the
In the

the three
9.

pointsare

Prove

pointsof
to the

at

an

that the three

the sides of any

the

hexahedron

the hexahedron

by

four in three
in

meet

is

point.

parallelepiped

infinite distance.

straightlines through
face of

line connecting a
straight

point of
1

in which

specialcase

four

meet

oppositeedge

the

middle

tetrahedron, each parallel

fixed

of the

point P

with

the

tetrahedron,meet

completequadrangle consists of the six straightlines which may

through four pointsno three of which are collinear. The diagonalsare
which jointhe pointsof intersection of pairsof sides.

be

dle
midin

passed

the lines

54

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

point
and

is

and
bisected

11.

five

A,

the

that
with

equation

this

by

Show

10.

vectors

that

B,

such

that

gravity

coefficients

of

through

passes

the

there

exception

without

PE

tetrahedron.

exists

between

any

one

four

vector

given

C, L.
the
if

in

of

center

scalar

Discuss
vectors

is

point

each

they
of

conditions,

satisfy
which

imposed
two

is

zero.

equations

upon
the

three,
sum

four,
of

the

or

efficients
co-

CHAPTER

AND

DIRECT

SKEW

PEODUCTS

Products

THE

27.]

have

It

applications.

because

of B

sum

and

and
into

Definition

that

states

equal

is

law

the

to

be

of

the

called

of

product

few
two

products

products

of the

sum

in

way

introduce

to

will

scalar

the

employed

necessary
These

in

vectors

been

fundamental

the

and

subtraction,

for

have

vectors.

which

law

distributive

of

they obey

defined

becomes

VECTORS

Vectors

addition,

and

now

combinations

new

of

been

physics

by

suggested

OF

of Two

operations

multiplication

II

; i. e.,

into
of A

products

the
the
into

C.

The

the

scalar

the

magnitudes

direct

obtained

quantity
of

the

of

product

two

vectors

the

by multiplying
the

by

vectors

cosine

of

and

is

of

product

the

angle

tween
be-

them.
The
with

direct
a

between

dot

denoted

is

product

them

the

by writing

two

vectors

as

A-B.

This

is read

dot

product

the

scalar
If A

dot

instead

of

product
be

the

and

therefore

the

direct

owing

product.

the

to

of

magnitude

often

may

fact
and

that

It
its
that

be

called

is

also

value
of

the

called
is

lar.
sca-

B, then

definition
A-B

Obviously

the

direct

^"cos

product
A

"

(A,B).

follows

"

the

A.

commutative

(1)
law

(2)

by

56

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

If either

be

vector

multipliedby

multipliedby

(x A)
In

the two

case

"

vectors

becomes

them

That

scalar.

that

zero

and

or

one

its cosine is therefore

and

Hence

negative sign.
is

vectors

The

vectors

the

are

product of
of its

the

the

hundred

scalar

and

the
of

positiveor

two

parallel

their

lengths.

the directions

they are

itself is therefore

by

tween
angle be-

eightydegrees

product of

negativewhen

same,

B).

"

product

the

to

of the

opposite.

equal

length

Consequentlyif
In

and

is

the

product of

the

two

between

the

vectors

them

either

which

vectors

or

for

the

The

i,j,k

more

plus

or

scalar
are

the
"

(A, B)

cos

or

"

by

itself vanish

the

one

perpendicular the

are

minus

ninety degrees

product A

B vanishes.

"

vanishes, then
0.

(A, B) is

cos

zero,

of them
two

and

is null.

either

the

Thus

the

of

vectors, neither

0.

products of

the

three

fundamental

unit

evidently
i.i

If

of
perpendicularity

vanishes,is A

28.]

and

product A

perpendicularor

are

condition

vector

Hence

scalar
A

vectors

becomes

vanishes.

cosine

Converselyif the

Hence

(3)

null vector.

case

angle

The

to the square

A-A=^2.

vector

is

product

collinear the

are

product is positivewhen

vector

(A

equal to unity with

numericallyequal

sign of

the

is

(x B)

"

scalar

generally a

j.j

and

are

k-k

any

l,

two

product
a

"

cos

(a,b).

(4)

unit

vectors

the

58

direct

or

(A
be

This may
to its

proved by

B)

(A

or

(A

B)
A

sum

(G c)

"

B)

of A

c, that

"

is

the relation

(A

"

equal

If two

It has

vectors

of

sum

equal

its direction.

in

and

A.B^^i

of

A.P

particularA

the

A.a+...

B.P

B.Q

the

...

product

^j

Bl j

"

"

i +

Al "2

i +

Al Bl

and

are

JS^Szt""

are

and

lines A

B referred to

^gk) .(^1

reduces
=

in

expressed

are

#2 j + Bz k,

A1^AZ^A8
and

generalization

i +

^3"1k.j

upon

projectionof

justas

of B

projections. Hence

Bl

"

the

Az j + As k,

the

i +

(4) this

c, that

A1

Al B^
2

"

nary
in ordi-

of

terms

the

as

means

i, j, k
=

; B

peculiardifficulties.

and

c.

"

immediate

an

be used

no

But

c.

upon

ft+---)

product may

three unit vectors

If in

C be

(Co)

B.

(tfc) +

"

"

(6) is proved. By

algebra.

By

(6)

C.

unit vector

upon

the

to

B+...)-(P

scalar

then

"

Let
projections.

The

C +

"

of

means

projectionof

is the

"

show

(A

is

multipliedby

magnitude
To

"

B)

the distributive

follows

product

multiplication.That

of

law

scalar

The

29.]

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"

"2j

"3k)

j + Al Bz i k
.

"2 j j
"

,43"2k.j

#, j

^3"8k.k.

to
+

4, "2

A8 JSS.

(7)

unit vectors, their components

the

X, Y, Z.

direction

cosines

of the

AND

DIRECT

SKEW

cos

(A, JT), Az

cos

(A, F),

AB

cos

(A, ""),

cos

(B, JT), "3

cos

(B, F),

^3

cos

(B""")"

"

is the cosine

the

equation becomes

cos

(A,B)

known

(A, Z)

cos

and

case

the

line A

and

the

of

(A, F)

cos

(A,")

"

(B, F)

cos

(B,^).

cos

reduces

the well-

to

A)

of

of the squares

their

product

Or, the square

projectionof
If A
D

and
=

C.C
D"D

B
"

(A

B^

cos

the

"

B +

side of

one

cosine

other

"

as

are
are

the

two

the

B).(A

2 A

"

sides diminished

of the

diminished

bj

them.
of

twice

the

the other, the theorem

theorem.

parallelogram,C

diagonals. Then
B)=A.A

(A-B).(A-B)=A.A-2A-B

the

sum

the

triangleis equal to

of

twice

by

angle between

Pythagorean
generalized
sides

(A, B)

cos

triangleis equal to

sides

two

(AB).

"*-2A"cos

side of

one

either of those sides upon

known

sometimes

A,"

(B, F)

cos

the third

the

of the

squares

cos

of the other two

times
of

A)

A*

is,the square

sum

(A, F)

(Fig.17).
(B

"

C*

or

That

cos

sides 0 A

two

are

B-A

(B

of

cosines

triangleOAB,

side ^"isC

or

cos

Hence

line B.

and

If A

OB

(B,Z)

cos

direction

and

30.]

and

angle.

perpendicularthis

are

(A,Z)

cos

between

the

(B, Z)

cos

included

of the

relation
0

59

VECTORS

A1

Moreover

In

OF

PRODUCTS

2A.B

B"B,

B.B,

60

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

is,the

That

is

equal

like

In

the

twice

to

of the

sum

of the

difference

If A

is any

then

if A be

vectors

a,

i -f

A2

expressedin

b, c

A2

"

the

of i,j,k

terms

ft2+

a? +

gives

oblique

as

A2 j + AB k,

A?

A*

A*.

of any three

terms

c2 +

cos

is

analogous

to the

the

distance

between

If the

axes.

(8)

non-coplanarunit

a,

b) + 2

pointsbe

c a

cos

(b,c)

cos

(c,a)

in Cartesian

one

x^

points

two

yv

zv and

geometry
referred

to

yz, zz the

xv

squared is

distance

D2

(a,

zj)2+ (y,

O2

("a
(2/2 2/i)

02 -zj

the vector

upon

yi)"+ (*,

xj (2/2 yj)

31.] Definition:
normal

of the

as

formula

which

one

it.

This

diagonalsof

product of

the other upon

Al

of the

squares

expressed in

vector

But

sides.

(A, B).

cos

four times

projectionof

the

by

"AB

parallelogramis equal to
sides

of two

squares

4 A-B

C*-D*

or

is,the

gram
parallelo-

also

manner

C-C-D.D

That

diagonalsof

of the

of the squares

sum

The

is the

vector

that

side of

skew

ajj)cos

(^,X).

product of the

quantity C
the

(JT,F)
(^ ^)

*i) cos

(xz

cos

Zi)2

plane

whose
of A

vector

direction
and

on

into

is the
which

AND

DIRECT

rotation

from

hundred

and

from

angle
which

cross

as

direct

the

with

direct

the

and

where

is

unit

this

it is called the vector

vector

the

product whose

one

hundred

vanishes

and

vector.

And

(A,B)
A and

direction

skew

product

or

consequentlythe
converselyif A
B

in

trast
con-

(zB)

sin

vector
X

and
respectively

(9)

c,

In

case

reduces

angle from

and

to the
A

to

B.

scalar

that scalar.

eighty degrees.

uct,
prod-

is scalar.

multipliedby

B is

parallelthe angle between

and

value

of C.

the sine of the

product is multipliedby

are

sin

in the

if either vector

(xA)

quantity and

vector

cross

definition

multipliedby

it is often called the

reason

magnitudesof

the

vectors

Obviously also

or

18.

AxB

scalar

or

are

unit

unit vector

If A and

B*

FIG.

product is by

vector

their

in

AXB

however,
frequently,

that

as

was

to the fact that it is

owing

are

denned

by

product

For

B.

cross

product. More

the sine of the

by

It is written

read A

when

and

as

so

denoted

product is

dot.

The

clockwise
counter-

by multiplying

(Fig.18).

and

one

obtained

also be

may

it turns

as

toward

skew

less than

ordinary right-handed

The

by

of

positive or

appears

magnitude is
magnitudes of A

of A

advances
carry

angle

an

61

VECTORS

to B.

an

screw

OF

whose

direction

The

to

eighty degrees
of the

product

the

through

to

and

PRODUCTS

SKEW

them

In either

product A

B is zero

(A,B)

xC.

0.

is either
case
X

the
B is

zero

sine
null

^62

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Hence

or

parallelismof
As

0.

corollarythe

Thus

zero.

the condition

of which

neither

vectors

two

is

(A, B)

sin

or

product

vector

vanishes
of any

is A

for
B

into

vector

itselfvanishes.
The

32.]
the

are

denoted
and

the

at the
seen

product

in

by

the

did in the

certain

analysisthey

They

two

ucts
prod-

have

been
dot

place held

the

occupy

of scalar

analysis. They

algebraictreatment,

to

present a few

At

later.

The

the
signs of multiplication,

amenable

time

same

ever
wher-

appear

importance, just as

of the cosine.

case

common

In vector

cross.

is of

complementary.

sense

two

will

vectors

angle

functions
trigonometric

the

by

of two

of the included

sine

the scalar

product

vector

of the

uses

are

will be

as

product may

vector

be cited.
If A

and

the vector

direction

common

in mechanics

are

couple is
any

forces

two

point of

appearance

given
the
B

point of

"

in

vector

body

from
will

is
and

magnitude

drawn

product A

which

any

that

The

with

is

The

A.

vector

couples.

couple, the
a

product

rotatingwith
direction

point of

vector

product
If A

and

of the

makes

from
its

ual
velocities of the individ-

by

locity
angular ve-

an

A.

If B, be

R.

the

the axis of rotation A

give the velocityof

to the radius

might

drawn

vector

and

it the

moment

the

extremity of

(Art. 51). This velocityis perpendicularalike

of rotation and

it

From

product.

once.

again in consideringthe

particlesof
radius

at

connection

forming

to any

importance

provided only that

and

follows

in

(A,B)

parallelogram in magnitude

definition of the

trigonometricdefinition

"

ogram
parallel-

geometric representationof

This

the

as

B sin

occurrence

well be taken

appears

of that

area

(Art.25).

is of such

of

product
C

represents the

adjacentsides

the two

(Fig.18) are

to the axis

DIRECT

AND

The

33.]

of A

and

other.

Hence

from

normal.

to the

upon

B and

other.

For

which

of A

the

are

and

is the

if

plane

positiveon

plane

the

not

are

side of the

one

one

each

normal

magnitudes of

The

will appear

the

opposite to

63

VECTORS

to A

is the

and

positiveon

appear

B, rotation

that side

upon

to B

OF

negatives of

in fact the

are

from

rotation

products

vector

They

same.

PRODUCTS

SKEW

the

same.

Hence
AxB
The

factors

in

product

vector

if and only
interchanged

be

can

reversed.

if the sign of the product be

This

(10)

-BxA.

in which

is the first instance

the laws

from
analysisdiffer essentially

vector

It may
accompany

give rise
this are,

to

be

first this

at

of

sign which

change

factors in

some

and
difficulty

confusion.

order

No

of

and

in the

(y

x)

"

althoughthe sign is not required for

(y

cos

if the

x)

"

cos

trianglebe changed, the

Changes

similar to

think

the result.

"

the
x

will

be

-A

CB.

area

must

product will

vector

of interchanging

"

y)

"

Thus

y),
case

of the cosine,

y~).

of the letters A B C in the

cyclicorder

sis.
analy-

expression sin (x

sin (x

"

would

one

prefixingthe negativesign to
sin

Again

of scalar

interchangeof

however, very familiar.

operation in

those

the

the
without

that

of

changed

in

area

of

sign (Art.

25).
A

In
when
will

the

appear

34.]

and

little

convenient

of vector

of the factors in

after

The

this reversal

manner

the order

natural

case

same

as

distributive

of

vector

practiceand

sign, which

occurs

product is reversed,
acquaintance just as

it is necessary.

law

of

products just as

multiplicationholds
in

ordinary algebra
"

in the

except

64

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the

of

order

the

that

factors

carefully maintained

be

must

expanding.

when

A very

be

simpleproof may

given by making

developed

coplanar with

and

be

sides of

two

Then

third

(Fig.19).

side

The

19.

in order.

this

of

areas

(A

"

Suppose

that C

and

Let

B.

B) will be the

Form

slant

the

prism

base

the

height

and

edge.

or

lateral faces

the

triangletaken

triangleis

C is the

of which

FIG.

26.

is not

of which
A

Art.

in

of the ideas

use

of this

prism are
A

The

of the bases

areas

the

prism
A

is

C +

x~C

(A

AxC

with
any
that

Since
A

the

(A

faces

"

of the

prism

B)

\ (A

C +

(A

"

B)

B)

in

B.

Should

coplanarwith

out

of that

(C

D)

productsmay

be

for the

C be

plane.

B)

C +

D)

(A

B)

0,

(11)

C.

0,

is

case

Then

\(A

B, choose

D,

also will lie out

of

and

non-coplanar

by (11)
+

three vectors

B, C, D will be

is zero;

proved

Hence

B).

Hence

BxC

C +

C.

is therefore

plane.
A

4-

and

vector

"

(A

relation
A

or

The

B)

"

closed surface.

(A

B) and

of all the

sum

C,

are

(A

s
ii

But

C,

(C
in

each

set

non-coplanar if

expanded.

B)

(C

A, C, D, and
D

is

D).

B, C, D, and

properlychosen, the

66

This

may

of two

angles
Let

products.

cross

j-plane. If

angleb

the

be

makes

(y

If

(y

cos

Hence

sin

Hence
If Z,m,

unit vectors

cos

(a,b)

cos

cos

y +

x)

cos

cos

b'

cos

y i

cos

(a, b')

cos

k sin

x)

the

dot

and

lyingin

with

i, and

the

y the

""

cos

sin

sin y

b'

(y

x)

sin ^

l\im\n1

(sin y
cos

cos

the

are

a' referred

to

sin

"

sin

"

cos
#

(y

k sin

(a, b')

x.

x).

sin y sin

"

(a,b)

sin y.

j,

cos

x),

"

sin y sin

cos

k sin

(y

cos

sin y

b'

j,"

sin y j,

"

(sin y

and

sin

i +

makes

y i +

"

that

from

ference
dif-

or

sum

unit vectors

two

cos

and

angle

(y

sin

b be

x)

immediately

a-b'
Hence

of the

cosine

cos

"

"

follow

and

a-b
cos

as

i,then

with

Hence

sine

and

determinant

Ac

for the

formulas

The

of

in the form

be written

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

sin

#),

"

y).

cos

a; cos

sin

{y

y.

k sin

x.

(y
cos

cos

direction

#)
?/).

y.

cosines

of

two

JL, F, Z, then

w'k,
a

as

has

"

a'

alreadybeen

for the square

be found.

cos

(a, a')

shown

in Art. 29.

of the sine of the

angle

m'

The

familiar

between

and

formula
a' may

DIRECT

a'

AND

sin

SKEW

(a, ar) e

is

(7m'

(a

a') (a

leads to

sin2

(a, a')

way

of

Products

of

More

(nl'

n'

"

I) j

"

n'

af.

and

sin2

(a,a').

Z)2+(lm'

the
establishing

I' w)2.

useful

identity

(7

36.] Up
products

to

in

this

is called

and

A"B

All

which

the

scalar

the

be

vectors

two

realitydoes

in

The

(Art.6).
be

the scalar

inasmuch

as

not

product of
two

are

reduced

simplest tripleproduct
product of

to

tripleproducts

and

differ

the two

them, the parenthesisin (A-B)

cannot

be

interpretedin

of the vector
i

Later

by

(Chap. V.)

will be defined.

But

consequentlyno

any

"

the

most

important.

third C

as

and

side

either

to

Moreover

B.

side

by

dot

is

plication
scalar multi-

merely happens

case

stand

without

expression

simple products

by multiplying the

vectors

cannot

B C

the

from
essentially

unite

as

result

C.

of

product

greater than

product the

B into

form

concerning

to them.

scalar in this

vectors

said
is

is formed

(A-B)
This

into

triple product. Next

AxB

been

vectors

combined

are

Vectors

has

of

number

higher products may

The

Two

than

point nothing

If three vectors

two.

and

(nl'-

easy

an

m' n) i +

"

67

VECTORS

I'm) k,

"

(mn'-m'n)z+

sin2(a,a')
This

a')

"

OF

perpendicularto

unit vector

(run'

-f

where

PRODUCTS

or

in

the

cross

to

superfluous.

The

"

other

way

than

as

the

product

the scalar A"B.

the

product BC, where

it will be

seen

ambiguity can

there

that

arise from

no

sign either

(A.B)
the

C and

omission

dot

or

A"(BC)
of the

cross
are

occurs,
identical

parenthesis.

68

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

37.]

vectors, of which

two

is itself a vector

one

product has

of

sort

product,as

and

scalar value

often

the

called

consequentlyis

scalar

are
properties

Its

easilydeduced

from

tripleproduct.
perhaps most

its commonest

Let
interpretation.
geometrical
and

of which
scalar

side

volume

and
is

of the B

sides.

Then

BxC

is

In

other

if

but

of three

they

allelogra
par-

adjacent sides.

The

(14)
of
parallelepiped

the

left-handed

lie

the

same

opposite

on

right-handedor

scalar

which

See Art. 28.

lie upon

BxC

B, C form

vectors

form

of the

area

negative if they

if A,

words

the

height or edge.
and

drawn

vectors

"

of the

positiveif
but

A, B,

origin (Fig. 20).

two

are

the slant

C-plane;

positivesystem
is

same

be the volume

is the base

This

the

three

any

from

A-(BxC)

will therefore
BxC

be

and

of

product

(AxB"C.

A"(BxC)or
This

scalar

is the

tripleproduct

second

The

is

A"(BxC)

tive;
posi-

negative system, it

or

negative.
In

A, B, and

case

neither

is

lie in

must

condition
which

zero

the

three

is

A"(BxC)

of three

collinear must

vanish

same
are
cases.

A, B, C.

of the
The

0.

for any

As

two

and

of the

of the

vectors

two
are

(AxB)"C

are

and

cient
suffi-

A, B, C

are

none

scalar

equal

or

coplanar.
equal

to

same

the

edges

concurrent

is the

be

piped
parallele-

corollarythe

vectors

volume

will

converselyif

the necessary

whose
parallelepiped

sign

of which

vectors

productsA"(BxC)

volume

Hence

volume

And

zero.

for the coplanarity

of three

vanishes

two

this

edges A, B,

plane.

one

tripleproduct
The

coplanar

are

negative but

positivenor

the volume

of

in

both

Hence

(AxB)-C

A.(BxC)

v.

(14)'

AND

DIRECT

This

be stated

equalitymay
the

and

in

cross

without

scalar

alteringthe

It may

also be

of the

will be

therefore

may

have

the

be

A, B, C may

C.(AxB).

the

muted
per-

the

of the A

cyclic order

of the

of

each

The

the

case

of the

B C-

A-plane and

tripleproduct

i-(AxB)

(BxC).A

in

same

equivalentforms

B-(CxA)

of the

positiveside

B-plane.

of six

one

(15)

volume

have

will

positiveside

(AxB"C

If however

volume

any

A-(BxC)

dot

~be interchanged

may

vectors

B.(CxA)

the

positiveside

the

upon

The

operation.

product.

if A is upon

on

of

alteringthe product.

that

sign,because

plane,B

the

of

expressionsgives

and
parallelepiped
same

rule

that the

seen

A-(BxC)
each

as

69

VECTORS

Of

tripleproduct

value

cycliclywithout

For

PRODUCTS

SKEW

(15)'

(CxA)-B.

the

letters

is

changed

the

product will change sign.

A-(BxC)
This

be

may

from

seen

the
BxC

Hence

the dot

the

or

cross

or

the fact that

CxB.

"

product is
triple

scalar

from

figureor
=

(16)

A"CxB).

altered

not

by interchanging

the
by permuting cyclicly

of the

order

order be changed.
vectors,but it is reversed in sign if the cyclic
A

38.]
in

this

word

is necessary

tripleproduct.
?

They

can.

The

the

upon

Can

they

be

subjectof parentheses
omitted

without

biguity
am-

expression
A-BxC

can

have

only the

one

interpretation
A"BxC).

For

the

expression (A"B)xC

to form

the

skew

is

product

meaningless. It

of

scalar

A-B

and

is
a

sible
imposvector

70

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Hence

C.

owing

to

tripleproducts of A, B,

and

parentheses. Furthermore
six scalar
and

value

the

may

omitting
there

fact that

C which

another, it is often

from

one

the

consequently generallynot

are

A"BxC

from

arise

can

which

in

way

one

confusion

no
interpreted,

be

only

is

there

as

have

worth

the

the
are

same

ing
distinguish-

convenient

to

use

the

symbol

[ABC]
to denote

[A

C]

A-BxC

AxB.C

[A

then
scalar

The

C]

tripleproducts

except the

all vanish

equal products.

of the six

one

any

B-CxA

(16)'

B].

of the

which

two

=' CxA-B

BxC-A

[A

C-AxB

three

unit vectors
the

contain

three

i,j, k

different

vectors.

[ijk]=-[ikj]
if three vectors

Hence

(17)

l.

A, B, C be expressed in terms

of i,j, k

as

Al

i +

Az j + A3 k,

Bl

i +

"2 j + #, k,

C=Cli+
then

[A B C]

Al "z C3

be obtained

may
which

may

are

be written

A, Bz "72

This

"72j+ C3k,
Bl C2 A3
S1 C3 A2

+
-

C, At Bz
0, As Br

by actuallyperforming the multiplications

indicated

in the

in the form

of

tripleproduct.

C]

result

determinant.1

-"-\ -^2

[A

The

"*

(18)'

C1
1

This

tetrahedron
see

is the
one

exercises.

formula
of

whose

given in
vertices

solid

analyticgeometry for the volume of a

origin. For a more
general formula

is at the

DIRECT

If

SKEW

AND

A,
generally

more

B, C

non-coplanar vectors

expressedin

are

b,

a,

OF

PRODUCTS

which

terms

of any three

necessarilyunit

not

are

71

VECTORS

vectors,
=

"J

"2 b + "3

"2 b

cx

c2 b +

where

av

bv 62,J3;

"2, "3;

"3 c

and

c3

certain

are

cx, e?2,c3

stants,
con-

then

[ABC]-

(a1 "2 c3

ft,c2

"3 +
a2

Co

Ci

of two

third

The

39.]

(19)'

d.

type of tripleproduct is the

of which

vectors

62) [a b c].

"1 "2 "l [a be]

[ABC]-

or

Cj a3

"

J3

Cl "2

is itself

one

product

vector

Such

product.

vector

are

and

Ax(BxC)
The

perpendicular to

(BxC) is perpendicularto the plane of

Ax(BxC)

vector

But

is

(BxC), being perpendicular to (BxC)

Ax

plane

of B

and

and

thus

take

the

form

B +

y C,

In

like

Ax(BxC)
where

in the

and

plane of

and

and
and

must

manner

being perpendicular to (AxB)

and

Hence

B.

(AxB)xC
where

scalars.

two

are

(AxB)xC,

vector

in

(AxB)xC.

are

two

scalars.

(BxC).
Hence

C.

lie in

the

also

the
lie

must

it will be of the form

mA

to

From

wB

this it is evident

that

general
(AxB)xC

The

parentheses
It

is not

therefore

is essential

to

equal to

Ax

cannot

be

know

(BxC).

which

removed
cross

or

changed.
inter-

product

is

72

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

formed

second.

tripleproduct in

vector

The

This

This

vector

which

is

be used

the

upon

AXB

given

for

the

propertiesof

Let

and

(Fig.21) be

it sheds

product.

another

given

to

pendicular to

(AXB)

X
p

perpendicular to

Ax

(AxB)

lies in the

perpendicular to
of

examination
is

(AxB)

is

plane

the

B"

re-

from

product

It is furthermore

that

of B".

The

B.

B.

show

=~AZB

Ax(AxB)

if b" be

per-

with
the

B".

An

direction

of

Hence

scalar constant.

some

but

and

it is collinear

that

B'and

be

and

and

figurewill

opposite to

Now

of A

Hence

A.

of A

plane

the

the

origin. The product AxB

common

is

Let

paralleland

spectively. Draw

21

ponents
com-

perpendicular

found.

of U

components
A

be

to

are

vector

whose

vector

paralleland

where

the

vector

only in

not

light

ponent
com-

AXB

Ax

that

to express

product is valuable

itself but

the

tripleproduct.

perpendicularto

of the

geometric use

is termed

product

to the scalar

contrast

tripleproduct may

vector

of
A.

which

first and

B"

unit vector

sin
sin

(A,B) b"

(A,B) b",

in the direction

Hence

Hence

B"

Az

Ax
=

of B".

A"A.

(AxB)

(20)

7-7"

AfA

The

component

in terms

component

of B

of the vector
B'

perpendicularto
tripleproduct

parallelto

was

found

has

been

of A, A, and
in Art.

expressed
B.

28 to be

The

74

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Substitutingthese

(II)",

in

values

Ax(BxC)
relation is therefore

The

method

Another
It

that

shown

was

of

A-C

for any

proved
vector

Ax

(BxC)

(24)

C.

A, B, C.

three vectors

demonstration

giving the

the

A.B

is

tripleproduct

follows.

as

(BxC)

Ax

was

of the form

Since
it

by

is

Ax(AxC)
is

Hence

Ax

is

scalar

zA-B

A"C

A-B.

"

A"B

"

It remains

C),

.'"

to

show

1.

"

B.
=

(A-C

B-B

allows

an

tripleproduct

Ax(BxC"B
if the order

A"BxC)xB

of the factors

A-B

C-B).

interchange of

dot

and

From
four

tne

allied

1 and

Ax(BxC),

A-C

by

of which

be formed.

parenthesesmay

each

These

Ax(CxB),

vector

product changes

factors

is

B-B-BC]

A,B

letters A, B, C

products in

B be inverted.

and

-B.C

Ax(BxC)

three

A-[Bx(BxC)],

=-A.[B-C
=

Hence

(BxC)

-A.[Bx(BxC)]

two

Hence

cross.

As

product of

direct

2/A-C

(A-C

."

constant.

Ax(BxC"B
The

(BxC).

scalar

Multiplyby

the

Hence

zero.

and

2/C.

perpendicularto A,

A.[Ax(BxC)]

where

#B

B.B

+
B

A^B C.

different
B and

interchanged,the

(24)

arrangements,
are

included

(BxC)xA.

sign whenever
above

the

order

(BxC) =-Ax(CxB)

(CxB)xA

of

products evidently

satisfythe equations
Ax

in

are

(CxB)xA,
its

A.C.

-(BxC)xA.

AND

DIRECT

The

for

expansion
that

alreadyfound

(AxB)xC
The

formulae

therefore

when

the

Cx(AxB)

and

(BxC)

(AxB)xC
formulae

reduction

content

A.C

A-C

of such

are

nearer

in the

the

41.]

hand

But

other

(BxC)

it is

the

directly
last

C"A

B.

use

A.B

(24)

C-B

A.

(24)'

constant

to

exterior

the

that

formulae
of the

for

nearer

the

first.

without

the

the

analysis

vector

vector

all may

expansion for

the

for
coefficient

convenient

of which

expand

for
coefficient

generally get along

than

To

factor into

scalar

from

memory.

factor into the

scalar

and

occurrence

followingrule.

frequentlymore

reduction

and

obtained

of
practicalapplications

complicated

simply by making
Ax

exterior

this result

can

one

more

product.

the

as

concerned,

formulae

multiply the

subtract

far

As

which

be committed

parenthesisto form

one, and

remoter

are

parenthesisto form

then

one,

in

term

be stated in the

may

term

remoter

the

C.B

tripleproduct firstmultiplythe

vector

in

parenthesiscomes

great importance that they should

Their

be

75

VECTORS

become

then

Ax

These

OF

tripleproduct

vector

first may

parenthesiscomes
from

PRODUCTS

SKEW

any

triple

to

have

be

derived

at

tripleproduct

of the

rules of

operation with

the

scalar

product

of

each

tripleproduct

A"BxC.
To

reduce

is itself a vector

of two

product

two

vectors

vectors,

of which

as

(AxB).(CxD).
Let
vectors

this be

regarded as

A, B, and

CxD

"

scalar

tripleproduct

thus

AxB.(CxD).

Interchangethe

dot and

the

cross.

of the three

76

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

AxB.(CxD)=A-Bx(CxD)
Bx(CxD)

(AxB).(CxD)

Hence
This

(AxB)-(CxD)
If A
and

the

antecedents;

expansion

of two

may

be

antecedents

times

stated

diminished

by

the

(scalar)product
reduce

the

A-D

B-C

B-D

is itself a vector

means

The

scalar

this

product

product of
(scalar)

to the

then
proportions,

in

in words.

in

consequents

usage

of

the

of the

(scalar)product

the

consequents
times

means

the

extremes.

of two

product

vector

the

C the

and

; B

(scalar) product

of the

(25)

B.C.

(25)'

products is equal

vector

To

A-C

familiar

the

A-D

and

D.

form.

be called the extremes

and

product according to
the

B-D

A-C

B-C

in determinantal

be written

may

B-D

product

of two

each

vectors

vectors,

of which

as

(AxB)x(CxD).
Let

CxD

The

E.

product becomes

(AxB)xE
value

the
Substituting

(AxB)x(CxD)
Let

The

AxB.

of E back

all the terms

[B
This

D]
is

vectors

an

to
-

these two
one

[C

F"D

B +

A.

equation:

(B-CxD)

C-F.C

(AxB"C)

equivalent results

[D

D.

and

There

(26)'

transposing

equation,
A

B]

[A

C]

equation with scalar coefficients between

A, B, C, D.

(26)

A.

becomes

(AxB"D)C

side of the

A]

B.E

into the

product then

(AxB)x(CxD)

(A.CxD)B

Fx(CxD)

By equating

A.E

is in

general only one

0.

(27)

the

four

such

equa-

AND

DIRECT

tion,because
one

of the

terms

other

of that equation which

found

be

to

nothing
taken

those vectors
be

in

written

[A
More

of

combination

any

legitimateway

of terms

sum

The

crosses

are

of

tripleproducts

The

also

equation may

of which

[A

B +

it becomes

dots and

of

the

or

be

in

any

such

time

to

at most.

cross

analyzingthe
that

showing

in

that

product of

only one

and

at

two

of the

ultimatelyreduced

contains

formulae

end

are

connected

vectors

crosses
can

some

the

at

(27)'

C.

fairlyobvious

of

vectors

removed

D]

depends solelyupon

reduction

be

may

scalar coefficients

four vectors

exercises

number

this theorem

the

the

formulae, of which

the

any

possiblecombinations
fall under

scalar

[C A D]

among

by

each

proof of

combinations

of such

thus

time.

of these

view

the

number

D]

given

In

chapter.

four

of reduction

examples

important, are

expressed in only

exists between

three at

[B

three

the

but

be

can

77

VECTORS

form

the

D]

B C

OF

of the vectors

one

any

in

way

PRODUCTS

SKEW

that

way

until not

they

all
the

than

more

remains.

one
*

42.] The formulae developed in the foregoingarticle have

interesting
geometric interpretations.They also afford a
simple

of

means

These
Their

place is

deducing
do not

taken

which

by

(AxB)x(CxD)

are

now

unit

Let

A, B, C, D be
centre

sphere

of the
at

the

to be

formulae

the

SphericalTrigonometry.
analysisproper.

two

quadruple products,

A.C

B-D

B.C

[ACD]

[ABD]

(25)

A.D

[BCD]

[ABC] D,

(26)

interpreted.

sphere (Fig. 22)

unit

of

in the vector

occur

(AxB).(CxD)
and

the

vectors

sphere,and

be

drawn

given.

from

terminating in

points A, B, C,

D.

The

Let

common

the

the

vectors

origin,the
surface

of the

great circular

arcs

78

and

the

(7,etc., give the anglesbetween

AB,
A

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

The

C, etc.

pointsA, B, (7,D determine

the sphere. A C
upon
pair of oppositesides
CD

and

other.

(AxB).(CxD)
AxB

and
the

by

the

between

angle

A.C

and

; A

between

one

C, the

A.D

B.C

sin(C, D).

and

the

to

the

is

is the

CxD

normals

planes themselves.

B,

diagonals.

B.D

This

CD-planes.

are

and

the

AxB

the

BD

(A,B), CxD

and

quadrilateral

are

between

angle

angle

22.

sin

The
FIG.

vectors

AB-

same

as

it be denoted

Let

Then

x.

(AxB). (CxD)
The

sin

angles (A, B), (C, D)

circular

AB,

arcs

CD

A.C

B.D

"

A.D

B"C

sin CD

AC

cos

them.

a;.

replaced by

measure

sin A

"

be

may

which

(AxB).(CxD)

(A,B) sin (C,D)cos

cosBD

great

Then

cos

x,

AD

cos

"

the

BC.

cos

Hence
sin A

sin CD

In words
of
the

cos

The

cos

product

of the cosines

less
sphericalquadrilateral

other

two

oppositesides
sines

of

the

the

theorem

"

of two

angle

to

Furthermore

the

center

let p^

of the

pb, pc

the cosines

of

product

of which

them.

are

angle,
sphericaltri-

of

arcs

the sides be denoted

by

be the unit

great
a,

", c

vectors

points A, B, C.
great circular arcs dropped

sphere to

be the

This

Gauss.

23.

from

opposite sides

between

Let A, B, C
respectively.
drawn

C.

the

A, B, C (Fig.23) be

Let

cos

diagonals multiplied by

to

the

the

is credited

circles.

cos

product of

equal

the sides
FIG.

of

is

of the

cosine

Let

cos

the

AND

DIRECT

(AxB).(CxA)
sin

Then

the

is

angle is equal
plane of C,
is

(A, B)

sin c,

It

A.

of the

one

180"

angle

to the sides "z, J, c.

is,however,
of the

A,

as

(C,A)

cos

the interior

not

but

triangle:

B and

the

which

angle A

it is the

of the

This

CxA.

plane of A,

the

sin b.

x,

and

AxB

examination

an

sin

sin b

angle between

angles

"

sin

"

A- A.

B-C

(Cx A)

between

angle

to the

B-A

A-C

(AxB). (CxA)

where

79

VECTORS

formula

Interpretthe

B, C

the vertices A,

perpendicularlyfrom

(AxB)

OF

PRODUCTS

SKEW

exterior
show.

figurewill

Hence

(AxB)x(CxA)
B"A

A"C

The

Next
cases

"

sin

A" A

results and
b

cos

b ='

cos

cos

cos

cos

cos

cos

"

"

"

obtained

be

may

cos

cos

"

sin b sin

cos

sin

cos

sin

sin

sin b

cos

(BxC)x(AxB)

B.A

C.B

(CxA)x(BxC)

C-B

A.C

which

CxA,

of the

one

[A

a,

is

vectors

[A

respectively.Then

AxB

C]

C.
of the

B.C.

"

sin

[ABC]

AxC

c,

sin

cxb

(AxB).C

C]

sin b

c.C sin

sin

"

in the

special

repeated.

b, c be unit vectors

AxB

(AxB)x(AxC)

1.

C.A,

interpretthe identity(AxB)x(CxD)
in

identities

the

the three vectors

BxC,

cos

by cyclicpermutation

(AxB)x(AxC)
Let

A)

"

transposing,

cos

(180"

cos

sin b

cos

from

or

sin b

cos

last two

letters

sin

B"C

"

By equating the

in the direction

b sin b

"

sin

sin b sin A

(90""pe)

cos

sin pe

A.

"

sin

of

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

80

cancellingthe

results and

By equatingthe

sin pe

sin b sin A

sin

last two

letters.

sin B

sin C.

by cyclicpermutation of

the

of

the

Again

sides.

angle and

of the sines of the

terms

altitudes

the sines of the

give

formulae

The

in
triangle

obtained

be

may

sin

The

factor,

common

write

(AxB)x(AxC)
(BxC)x(BxA)

[BCA]B

(CxA)x(CxB)

[C AB]

Hence

sin

sin

the results in

C]

sin

sin B

[B C A]

sin b sin

sin 0

[C A B].

pairsand

obtained.

sin

sin

These

sin

sin B

"*=

sin

obtain.

If A

vectors

From

this

is

C be

B
zero

"

is to

sin A

in

sin

the
triangle,

for

singleline.

sin C

Trigonometry
the

are

even

of the

sum

triangleis

easy

more

sides

closed

to

taken

polygon.

equation
a

almost

sin B

sin b

of Plane

sin B
_

formulae

be written

sin A

The

equal. Equate

sin b sin C

sin C

may

sin

are

the formulae

sin b sin A

as

[A

sin b sin A-"

C.

expressions[ABC], [BCA], [CAB]

The

are

[ABC]A

all the

be hoticed

b +

elementaryformulae
that the

anglesfrom

follow
a

immediately.

to b, from

It

b to c, from

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

82
where

6,

a,

Multiply by

"

to

constants

scalar

three

are

determined.

be

c.

//"

r-bxc

cc-bxc

[rbc]=a[abo].

or

like

In
.

a"bxc

" b-bxc

b the coefficients " and

by multiplying the equation by

manner

[rc a]

[r a b]
Hence

"-"4.
[abe]

denominators

The

[c a b]

,[r a b]

^-"\

b +

[be aj

and

-^"r^
[c b J

(28)

c.

this

Hence

equal.

all

are

[b c a]

[r c a]

c]

"

be found.

may

gives

the

equation
[ab c]r
which

[cr a] b

r"b

"

three vectors

"

"

again

over

this

reason

b and

in

c,

a,

and
of

distinctive

multipliedby

namely

[ab c]

b.

They

important
name

and

system of three vectors

b

r",

perpendicularrespectivelyto

are

large number

they merit

: The
Definition

and

c.

[a b c]

"

"

important. They

planesof

"

axb

cxa
"

[abe]

the

[abc]

here

appear

bxc

very

b +

"

[abc]

which

are

axb

cxa,
a

--

[abc]
The

[a be]

[abc]

bxc
r

b, c.

r"axb

r"cxa

[abc]
r

r, a,

also be written

equationmay

or

[ra b] c

the four vectors

exist between

must

The

[b c r]a

cxa

axb

[abc]'
[abc]'[abc]

over

and

relations.

For

occur

notation.

DIRECT

which
c

AND

found

are

a,

by dividingthe

b of three

product [ a
The

word

planar

the

PRODUCTS

SKEW

three

non-coplanar vectors

is called the

reciprocal
system

all become

understood

This

the term

that

denoted

the

three

"

r.a'a

be

then

note

be

a,

the

are

and

expressed

to

in

coefficients #, y,

b,

a,

normals

terms

of them

(29)

simple form

r.c'c.

(30)
of the

terms

of a, b, c.
c

the

to

are

In the

Hence

of proper

means

first

non-coplanar,

planes of

non-coplanar.

by

reciprocal

and
r

[abc]r

zbxc

[a b c] r"a
[a be]

r"b

[a b c] r"c
r

a' +

"

r"aa'

scalar

c'
zaxb.

2/cxa

"b, "c.

^a,
=

7/b' +

This

gives

[b c a],

[cab],

r"b

[a b c],

r"c

r"bb'

r"c

"

c'.

c,

may

z.
=

that if a, b,

also be

Multiplysuccessively
by

Hence

coplanar.

not

are

to the very

terms

b must

r
or

used, it will be

[a b c]

expressed in

place it
and

r.b'b +

of in

is necessary

is

axb
'

"

"

reduces

have

a',b', c'.

as

system a',b', c' instead

[ab c]

may

a', b', c' which

b,

a,

cxa

'

"

vector

and

carefullyremembered.

reciprocalto system

vectors

by primes

expressionfor

Tl^e

co-

coplanarvectors

be

vectors

[abe]
The

Three

must

bxc
a"

were

vanish

would

reciprocal
system

system of three

will be

c.

[a b c]

[a b c]

meaningless.

reciprocalsystem.

The

If a, b,

b,

"

[abe]

when

the scalar

by

to a,

c,

axb

cxa
"

Hereafter

fractions
bxc

no

products b

b,

a,

tripleproduct [a b c]

scalar

83

VECTORS

vector

non-coplanaris important.

consequentlythe

would

OF

r"a

(31)

84

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

44.] If a', b', c' be the system reciprocalto

product of

scalar

of the

vector

any

a'.b
be

a'.c

This

may

terms

of themselves

is

be

a' +

r"b b' +
+

a'""cc'

b'

b'.aa' +

b'-bb'

b'-cc'

o'

c'"aa' +

c'-bb' +

b'"a

l=b'-b

From

the third

O^c'.a

This

proves

"

may

cients
coeffi-

equationsmust

"

a'

c.

b'.c.
c'"c.
also

be

proved

[be a]

"

=-

[abc ]
b

[abe]

bxc.b

=0

[abc]

[abc]

forth.

Converselyif
a,

[abc]

and

c'.b

bxc

so

They

[abc]

and

a'.b

relations.

bxc

corresponding

the definitions of a', b', c'.

,
a'"a

"

c'.cc'.

of these three

a'.a

the

c' in

the first

the second

'

r"c

non-coplanar the
from

0.

c'.

a'-bb'

sides of each

is

(31)

the formula

a'"aa' +

From

c'-b

Hence

from
directly

c'"a

but

That

easilyby expressing a', b',

accordingto

are

unity;

is zero.

the

(32)

a'

the two

equal.

b'-c

into the

r"a

a', b', c'

on

c'.c

Since

b'.a

most

seen

Hence

b'-b

b,

reciprocal
system

of the given system

corresponding vector
the product of two non-correspondingvectors
a'.a

a,

two

sets

of three

vectors

each, say A, B, C,

the relations
b, c, satisfy
A"a
A.a

A.c

B"a

B'b
=

B.C

C"c
=

C-a

1
=

(M"

AND

DIRECT

then

PRODUCTS

SKEW

the set A, B, C is the

a' +

b' +

A"b

a' +

C"a

these

Substitutingin

to
system reciprocal

A-a

85

VECTORS

b,

a,

c.

to that before

By reasoning similar
A

OF

b' +

C"b

c'

A"c

C-c c'.

equations the given

relations the

sult
re-

is
A

a',

b',

c'.

Hence
Theorem

The

sufficient conditions

a', b', c' be the

of vectors

set

and

necessary

reciprocalsof

that the

a, b,

they satisfythe equations

a'.a
a'.b
As
to

these

a,

as

upon

That

c.

Theorem:
then

b,

a,

a,

c'-c

b'.c

the

c'.a

it is evident

If

be

may

the

reciprocalof

the

reciprocalsystem

of a, b, c,

b, c will be the reciprocalsystem of a', b', c'.

These
definitions
but

c'

c'

could
are

system of

a', b', c'.

a'

a'
^

b'

(29)'

~[a'b'c']'
[a'bV]' "[a'b'c']'

relations

rather

be

long

and

b, c, then a, b,

demonstration

tedious
The

The

symmetrical and
a,

The

formulae.

desired.

directlyfrom

demonstrated

be

may

a', b', c'.

of

reduction

0.

system a',b', c' just

the

regardedas

b,

c'.b

that the system a, b,

reciprocalof

a',b', c' be

b'

a,

(32)

is to say,

"

as

perfectly
symmetrical with respect

system a', b', c' may

the

b,

b'.a

equations are

a', b',c' and

be looked
as

a'.c

is that

b'.b

as

must

depends

proof given

relations
hence

it

is

above

between

the

ward,
straightforon

is

cated
complias

short

a',b', c' and

if a', b', c' is the

be

the.

reciprocal

reciprocalsystem

of

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

86

45.]

Theorem

the scalar

If

'

'

'

and a, b,

[a b c]

and

tripleproducts [a'bV]

systems
reciprocal

be

are

numerical

is

That
reciprocals.

fb

,,

(33;

[abc]=l

[a'bV]
x

ex

axbl

~L[abc] [abc] [abc]J

[bxc

axb].

cxa

[abc]3
[bxc

axb]

cxa

(bxc)x(cxa"(axb).

(bxc) x (cxa)

But

[bxc

Hence

axb]

cxa

[abc]c.

[abc]

c"axb

[abc]2.

[a'bV]

Hence

By
is

[abc]3

possibleto

(P.QxE)(A-BxC)

which
nine

replacesthe
terms

each

Thus

products are

two

crosses

removed.

P.B

P-C

Q.A

Q.B

Q.C

E.A

E.B

E-C

tripleproducts by

is the

To

give

in the

occur

the

(34)

proof

two

let P, Q,

expressedas
p

Then

But

P.A

A' +

P.B

B' +

p.c

cr

E.A

A' +

E.B

B' +

E.C

c'.

FPQE1=

P.A

P.B

p.c

Q-A

Q.B

Q-C

E.A

E.B

E.C

[A'B'C'J
=

[ABC]

of

sum

of three direct products.

product

which

[a b c] it

formula,

P.A

scalar

two

of which

the

[a'b' c'] and

important reduction

an

prove

(33y

[abc]

between

of this relation

means

[abc]2

[A'B'C'].

scalar
E

be

AND

DIRECT

[PftR] [ABC]

Hence

system of three unit

The

OF

PRODUCTS

SKEW

P.A

P.B

P.C

Q.A

Q.B

Q.C

S.A

B-B

R.C

i,j, k is its

vectors

87

VECTORS

reciprocal

own

system.

.,_jxk

,,_kxi
--J'

_i_.

---

this

For
a

of

system

set of

TJie

Let
Then

is the

That

A, B, C be

which

are

their

reciprocals

own

left-handed systems of three

"

set of vectors

the vectors

B.B

which

is its

c-c

i.

unit

k.

reciprocal.

own

Hence

is

B is

C.A
C is

Hence

A, B, C

46.]

scalar
in

equation
The

an

term

of each

o.
C.

o.

and

C.

O.

and

B.

system like i,j,k

equation of

each

value

of such

be

B-C

=C-B

perpendicularto
must

B and

perpendicularto

Hence

A.C

perpendicularto
B.A

Hence

all unit vectors.

are

A.B

once.

denote

to

by (32)

Hence

an

of rectangular

set

used

are

will

primes

system i,j, k and the system i, j,

A.A

The

to denote

another

',F', Z1

vectors

right-handed and

vectors.

needed

JT, Z, Z.

only systems of three

the

are

X]

just as

different from

axes

to denote

in the future

i,j,k

axes

not

are

reciprocalto i,j, k.

vectors

be used

therefore

primes i',j',k'

the

reason

k,_ixj_

must

i,j,
"

be scalar.

"(cxd).(exr)+

be

more

As

an

given.

f"r -f d

k.

vector

not

occurs

equation the followingmay

a-bxr

like

the first degree in

of which
term

or

0,

is

than
ple
exam-

where

a,

b,

c,

d, e, f

vector

unknown

where

is

known

vector

this result in the

as

and

axb"r

{a

axb

(cxd)xe-r +
b

(cxd)xe

complicatedforms

more

to take

the desired

f}"r

"

"

d.

be nec'essary to make

use

be made

equation can

form,

has three

vector

f"r +

before the

r"A

it may

formulae

of various reduction

As

complish
ac-

given equation proceed

of the

case

To

scalar.

known

a,

follows.
a

In

the first degree in

Z",c, d, known

a,

to the form

be reduced
r-A

and

equationof

scalar

may

vectors

known

are

Obviously any

scalars.
an

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

88

a.

freedom

degrees of

scalar

equation is insufficient

scalar

equations are

it is clear that

determine

to

one

Three

vector.

necessary.
The

of
geometricinterpretation

r-A

the equation

(36)

'A

is

interesting.Let
drawn

(Fig.24)
A

origin. The

be

from

fixed vector

equation then

or

cos

be
a

variable

fixed

drawn

vector

origin.

from

the

Let

same

becomes

(r,A)

cos

(r,A)

a,

=".

if r be the

magnitude

of

is the

of
projection

that the

projectionof

and
cos

upon
r

upon

that

of A.

The

expression

(r,A)
The

A.
a

equation therefore

certain

fixed

vector

states
must

90

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

equations

scalar

four

From

r"A

r.B

r"C

(39)

r.D=d
the vector

equations and

solve three of the

To

entirelyeliminated.

be

may

accomplish
the

substitute

value

this

in

the

fourth.

or

[BCD]
A

47.]
is

vector

an

[CAD]

"

equation of

vector

equationeach

of which

vector

not

is

unknown

an

vector

than

more

(40)

[ABC].

the first degree in

term

unknown

containingthe

[ABD]

+c

quantity
Such

once.

equationis

an

(AxB)x(Cxr)
where
and

A, B, C, D, E, F
the

unknown

be solved

r.

generalsufficient

to

The
with

dot

vectors.

may

of

solving a

successively
by
Thus

three

be solved

by

firstplacelet the

three

scalar

=0,

known

equation

unknown

in general

may

equation is

vector

one

scalar,

vector

which

in

is

is to

arbitraryknown

of the

multiply it

non-coplanar

obtained.

equations are

a*r

are

B b-r +

known

written in the terms, for

the vectors.

equation

foregoingarticle.

These
In the

equation be

A, B, C, D, a, b, c
are

the

vector

the methods

where

such

is to say,

determine

vectors,

One

That

in it to the first degree.

method
a

known

are

vector.

for

contained

D ET

c"r

D,
No

vectors.

they may

be

scalar

cients
coeffi-

incorporatedin

Multiplythe equation successively

by A', B', C'.

It is understood

of

course

that A, B, C

are

non-coplanar.

But

Hence

a'

D-A'

a' +

c-r.

D-C' c'.

b' +

D-B'

is

b,

a,

also

generalvector equation

vector

contains

is it will

The
in

three

vector

type

type

Hence

a"r

reduces

"

"

vector

constant

be reduced
"

which

of three

in terms

The

to

and

b, c,

products

of three.

terms

a,

ples
multi-

the

always

may

expressed

all the

therefore

a"r

an

tor
vec-

scalar
are

vector

the vectors

all be

may

expressed in

the

not

known

known

are

which

terms

of

another

which

; terms

For

number.

consist

the unknown

of the

terms

which

vector;
and

coplanar vectors.
be

coplanarwill

types

product of

the scalar

known

multipliedinto

may

in

specialcases

D.

Exr,

r,

terms

unknown

of the

terms.

contain

the unknown

product of

non-

are

of the first degree in

of the

terms

a"r.

multipliedby

and

A, B, C

here.

a"r,

b-r,

non-

c"r,

of all terms

sum

expression of

an

are

"

"

"

of

three

as

The

c'

b' b"r +

either of these sets of three vectors

most

terms,

D-B'

The

unknown

to

non-coplanar.

The

vector

b"r

case

be discussed

That

D-Ar

accomplished in

coplanar and
which

a"r

solution is therefore

The

a.r

91

VECTORS

OF

PRODUCTS

SKEW

AND

DIRECT

terms

of the

B b-r +

a"r

types

and

Exr

c"r.

may

also be

expressed

in this form.
n

Exr

Adding

all these

wa'a"r

==

Exa'

terms

+
a"r

b'b"r

Exb'

togetherthe

c'c"r

b-r+Exc'
whole

equation reduces

to the form

a"r

b"r +

c"r

c"r.

K.

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

92

SUNDRY

In

the

in

vector

the

Mechanics

do

like
sufficiently
If
.same

the

produce

not

point 0, the

alike

in

Art.

3.

also

in

Nevertheless

line

magnitude
the

body

vectors

are

treatingthem.

fv f2,fg,"""act

of the forces added

sum

it has

but

are

effect.

of forces

is not

See

different lines in

lie upon

forces to be useful

number

direction

same

force

this book.

in

forces which

direction,but which

and

expressed.

r were

rigid body

of which

PRODUCTS

OF

understood

sense

application. Two

of

of

magnitude and

force has

vector

APPLICATIONS

mechanics

c'.

b, c in terms

a,

unknown

Applicationsto

48.]

K-N'

b' +

non-coplanarvectors a',b',c'.

of three

productscontainingthe

K.M'

system reciprocalto

the

form

These

as

K.L' a' +

solution is in terms

The

the

solved

alreadybeen

has

This

on

body

the

is called

vectors

as

at

the resultant R.
R

In the

same

the term
added

if f

way

resultant
if

justas

idea

of

force does not

Definition
:
equal

to

the

from
however

"

as

"

do not

applied to

...

act

the

at the

point

same

of these forces

sum

vectors.

f1 + fa + ", +

force.

therefore

As

differ from
The

"

2,

they were

far
a

moment

as

(41)

...

does

not

the resultant

introduce

the

is concerned

vector.

of

force f about

the

point 0

is

product of the force by the perpendiculardistance

0 to the line of action of the force.

is best looked
is

of the resultant

line of action
a

x,

is still

The

f1 + fa + f, +

upon

defined above.

as

vector

The

quantity.

Its direction is

moment

Its magnitude

usually taken

to

be

normal

the

and

point 0

the

of

The

force

the

of the

area

magnitude

both

the

The

point P

of the

the terminus

be attached

and

direction
be

to

to denote

0 in the

of

the

of the

is

positive

0 is

point

includes

and

at

which

once

(Art. 25).
the

equal

point Q,

represents the force f.

the moment.

duce
pro-

follows

as

moment

origin;

to

definingthe

This

designatethe point about

to

appears

point

Q.

the

which

arrow

will be used

letter M

triangle0

supposed

is

the

Q about

point

method

Q about

the

Another

of the force f

moment

to twice

the force

about

to rotation

trigonometric direction.
moment

plane passed through the

which

line f upon

93

VECTORS

OF

that side of the

on

tendency

PRODUCTS

SKEW

AND

DIRECT

The

subscriptwill
the moment

is

taken.

{t}

Mo
The

moment

of

sum

of the moments

If

*i

This
f

1"

is known

*2'

"

'

drawn
the

of the individual

**

"

"

"

the total

the

force

point 0

force, the moment

product of

unit vector

The

"

"

is the

(vector)

?*Qi'~
+

resultant

d sin

body

OPZ Qz
moment

"

..).

of the forces

if d be the vector

and

point in

the line of action

the

distance

0 is the

(42)

dxf

d/sin (d,f)e,

d sin

of dxf.

(d,f)/e.

(d,f) is the perpendiculardistance

magnitude

point

of

in the direction
dxf

Now

"

of the force about

dxf

be

or

f2,

forces.

(0 P! Ql

to any

d into f

For
e

acting on

Mo

if

x,

'

from

vector

of forces f

-Pi0i.

as

If f be

49.]

number

{fn fa,

Mo

from

to

f.

accordinglyequal to this perpendicular

multipliedby /, the magnitude of the force.
of dxf

is

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

94

magnitude of

is the

This

is the

of dxf

{f}

Mo

"

"

{fJ

point P

is

Mo

{fa|

dxf

acting on

dxf2

dxf1

forces

about

resultant

f2,
"

j,

from

"

"

"

"

from

d1
{f!, f2,

M0' #!, f2,

"

is the

"

"

"

"

"

d1'+

"}

dxxf j

d/xf !

(dx

djXf i+daxf2

0' of

to f

"

"

"

2,

of those
0' of

the

(44)

to

point

any

"

be the vectors

"

"

in

drawn

Let
respectively.

d2'+

d2xf2

d2'xf2+

c)xf !

about

parallelhi direction

"

d2

drawn

f
x,

Then

"

f2,

c,

is the vector

moment

of forces f

about

from

in f

0 to 0'.

-\

----

"} + M0' (Ho \.

"

jp

drawn

points

same

0.

"

0' to the

Mo

{fp

vectors

let

(43)

...

moment

respectively.Let d/, d2',

be the vector

But

be

"

to the total moment

acting at

as

Mo

For

point.

dxfa

the

by

considered

Ro

d15 d2,

equal

increased

Mo- {f!, f a ,"""}

Let

is

rigidbody

the moment

about 0' of any number

total moment

to

Then

{f!"

---

of forces

number

that

The

Hence

moment.

equal

acting at

Mo

{fa}+

Ko

same

0 to P.

from

d be the vector

0 of

of the forces

of the resultant E

Mo

the

acting at

"

2,

direction

dxf.

about

moments

of the

sum

The

proved.

the relation is

The

of the

direction

the

as

same

{f}.

MO

the moment

(d2

+
+

----

from
a

force

"

c,

"""

"

c)xf 2
cx(f j

0' to 0.

equal

but situated at 0.

in

"

"

+ f2 +

Hence

"

"

"

"

")
c

magnitude
Hence

f,

and

SKEW

AND

DIRECT

PRODUCTS

-cxCfj+fjj + ...)=Hence

{f1? fa,

M0/

The

resultant

is attached

supposed

act

is the

scalar
same

the

other

words

and
for all

the

the

points of

at

all

to

show

at

what

what

of the

the

0' and

relation follows

Me?

the

the

are

"

"}

"

the

relation

moment

is taken

to

is

is
a

it is

"} + M0' {Ro}.

"

"

IRo}

fa,

"

The

of

the

in

variation

the

be found

"

"}

about

point

such

that

resultant.

RxM0

{R0}what

"."

|fi

M0'

Hence

The

{"lffa,
|B0 1

which

total
the

the total moment

condition

=0

M0'

the

the resultant.

parallelismis
RxM0'

"

matter

no

always perpendicularto

parallelto

important

equation

perpendicularto

variation
is

the

"

proved.

50.] A point 0' may

about

ant,
result-

is invariant

This

space.

{f^f-j, "}+

applicationbe.

due

the

them

"""}=". Mo
of R

moment

be taken.

moment

{fi,*2"-"}

Mo

{fj f2,

Mo

R.Mo'
and

For

the resultant

total moment,

pointsin

two

any

{fj,fa,

of

is taken.

is

of that moment.

angle between

immediately from

moment

point 0

point it

space.

ForE-Mo^f^fa,
But

The

points.

and

point the

B-M0'{fi,fa, """}=""
where

0'

about

total moment

the

product of

cosine

same

affects the value

about

matter

moment

product of

no

{Ro}-

the

merely

when

M0'

,"""} + M0' {Ro |.

{f15

course

of
pointof application

The

In

to

cxR0

95

VECTORS

proved.

is of

subscript 0
the

M0

is therefore

theorem

The

"}

"

"

OF

"

"

"}
0

for

problem is to

ExM0

is

to

be

R'B.

"

"

"

in the

"

2,

E-c

ExM0
c

0.

the

be

supposed to

is also

B"B

"

plane through

0 and

0.

c.

E"c

the

in

chosen

Then

E.

Ex(cxE)

"

quantity. MO

known

Let

known.

f
v

equation for

solve this

ExM0
Now

the f

to write

Then

{ }.

ExM(y
The

Replace M0'{EO}

random.

at

brevityomit

for

and

its value

braces

point chosen

is any

where

by

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

96

equation

dicular
perpen-

reduces

to

E-E

If

equal

be chosen

point 0 ',which

the

will be

parallelto

the total moment

is at

the resultant

and

itself is constant

they

parallelthe

will be

The
about

If

about

is

in

the

0' is

parallelto E,

equal

merely one

to

that

to

the

E.

the

line drawn

Furthermore

only one

which

unless the resultant

obtained

the

in

the

direction

the

since

where

case

total

may

about
but

moment

be summed

vanishes.
up

as

resultant.

cxB.

and

the

it is
the

which

the

solution

exists in the

"""}

Hence

0.

through 0

the

of the

vanishes

cxE

about

point 0'

parallelto the resultant

point

and

unchanged by displacingthe point

it is taken

0 (Jfis

in

to c,

minimum.

which

find not
is

of

value

M0' |fi,fa,"""}=M0{f1,fa,

equal

is constant

it is clear that

numerical

total moment

For

from

distance

vector

about

total moment

Moreover, since the scalar product of

E.

resultant
are

the

this vector

to

parallelto

found

in

possibleto

total moment
about

total moment
'

moment

is

equation

parallel
for

plane perpendicular to
The
follows

results that
:

any

have

is

"

been

velocity

The

axis.

the
to

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

98

of

product

the

its circle

in

point

any

equal

and

velocity

the

of

of

radius
the

by

the

angular velocity.
the

represent
drawn

from

any

The

body.

of

rotation

point

the

of the

equal

in

and

magnitude

of

terminus

its

r.

For

magnitude

distance

a
2"

*3 a

body
"

"

of

the

rotations

are

case

"

be

which

to

described

drawn
in

that

right-handed

Let

if turned
the

in

of

be

radius

to

taken

be

may

is

body

magnitude

of rotation

sin

to

vector

point

in the

its direction
is the

(a,r)

direction

product
the

If the

and

rotation

the

vector

body.
axis

and

(a,r) from

sin

is

product

vector

axr

is

axis.

vector

which

in

Let

The

advance

direction

rotating.
a,

be

which

in

would

screw

the

axis

circle

of

axis

direction

be

the

the

velocity

the

(Fig. 25)

the

along

25.

tance
dis-

point.

Let

FIG.

the

angular

to

the

perpendicular to
the

of

the

point

direction

equal

perpendicular

the

from
The

of

product

the

to

is

radius

the

angular velocity and

the

is therefore

It

circle.

of

point
=

is
of
to

the

to

perpendicular
a

and

the

the

line

a.

gyroscope

through
the

v.

the

and

perpendicular
That

is

(45)

the

velocities

to

axr.

rotating simultaneously about

pass

of

velocity v

same

due

several

point
to

as

the

axes

in

the

various

AND

DIRECT

where

rx, r2, rg,

"

SKEW

"

the axis a1} a2, a3,

on

the vectors

r1? r2, r3,

of the

intersection

the

are

"

"

"

"

drawn

from

99

VECTORS

point of

same

be drawn

"

the

from
the

points

body.

Let

point of

common

Then

axes.

rl

radii vectores

to the

"

"

OF

PRODUCTS

r2

r3

"

and
v

v2 +

vx +

v3 +

"

"

(a1 +

This

shows

that

the

body

angular velocity which

velocities a15 a2, a3,
as

the

"

"

This

parallelogramlaw

It

will

be

rigid body

shown

time

rotation

This

axis is called

axis is not

the

of

about

position. The

is the

radius

rotating with
of

the

the

angular
known

that

is at

drawn

each

of

any

instant

through

that

of

point.

axis of rotation.

instantaneous

The

constantlychanges its

rigidbody

the motion

point of

one

which

is

representedby

from

(45)

axr

angular velocity;and

instantaneous

drawn

vector

-)xr.

"

is sometimes

is fixed

axis

where

sum

theorem

which

of

motion

fixed is therefore

vector

for all time, but

same

a3 +

if

as

(Art.) 60

some

the

a2 +

a3xr

angular velocities.

later

point of

one

the

a2xr

moves

is
"

axxr

"

the

fixed

point to

r, the

point of

any

the

body.
The

is fixed

may

be

treated

point 0.

At

any

instant

Eelative

about
any
v0

to the

axis

point

of the

relative

drawn

body

velocity of
to

rigidbody

as

this

Choose

point

will have

through
may
and

point of

no

follows.

point 0 the body will have

some

the

of

general motion

most

be

0.

Hence

velocityv0.

of rotation

velocityv

represented by

axr

the

v0 +

axr.

arbitrary

an

motion
the

which

velocity of

the

of

sum

that

point

0.
v

of

(46)

100
In

screw

advancing along a.
find

possibleto
velocityis

its

In

be done

may

a"a

Let

r, such

a, it

that

"

a"r

"

a"a

v0xa.

"

Then

a.

"

v0

v"

xa.

v0xa

"

to
perpendicular

be chosen

vector

Multiply by

(axr)xa
or

of

motion

to
perpendicular

the

and

v0.

"

follows.

as

is

That

zero.

axr

This

v0 is

case

point,given by

around

moves

preciselythe

is

simultaneously. This

body

a, the

parallelto

is

v0

case

along
is

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

a"r

is

and

zero

a*a

The

thus determined, has

pointr,
is

If

zero.

this

about
In

be resolved

into two

pointmay

by

r'.

Then

motion

here

translation

the most

it may

"

such

points of
the

axr

that
"

the

a.

axr.

body

referred

to this

v0'+ axr'.

(46)'

expressed consists of rotation about

along

general motion

point be

equation becomes
v

and

4- V
vo

v0'4- v0" +

be found

now

Let the different

V*o

=
"

v0"

The

perpendicularto

and perpendicularto
respectively
parallel

are

denoted

rotation

components
'

point parallelto

of instantaneous

one

parallelnor

Vvo

which

this

axis.

new

v0 is neither

case

is

body

ity
property that its veloc-

through

line be drawn

of the

motion

a, the

the

that
of

axis.
a

It is therefore

rigid body

is at

an

seen

any

axis
that

instant

the

of

motion

definite axis
of

The

in space.

certain

of the

axis

of rotation

per unit

at

101

VECTORS

rate

along a

and

its rate

screw

(i,e. its pitch)change from

to instant.

instant

conditions

The

52.]

principle of
methods.

virtual

Suppose

done

be

body
forces

the

by

be

may

treated

system of forces

any

obtained

equilibrium as
f

x,

be

finite

by

by
"

"

"

2,

displaced through a

this distance

whether

for

velocities

If the

rigid body.
work

OF

advancing

screw

advancing

PRODUCTS

SKEW

AND

DIRECT

vector

act

on

tance
dis-

vector

infinitesimal

or

the

the

is

D-fj,D.fa,

...

total work

The

is therefore

done
W

If the

the work
W

D-f

work

The
their
D.

done

D-f
2

done

by

resultant.

The

be

must

The

"

D"(f !

forces

the

This

total resultant
work

by
time

t is

is
be

must

equal

the work

to

for

D.E

""")=

0.

done

by

displacement

every

by

rotation

of

Hence

D.

be

must

done

if the

zero

force f when

body

be in

the

angular velocitya

equilibrium.

rigidbody
for

an

placed
is dis-

infinitesimal

approximately

d is
a

the action of the forces

zero

a"dxf

where

"""

equation

for all vectors

The

zero.

D.R

holds

D.f

equilibrium under

in

be

body

D.f

vector

to any

components

drawn

point of

f ',f "

from

f.

To

t,
any

prove

point of

the axis of rotation

this break

up

f into two

to
paralleland perpendicularrespectively
a-dxf

a-dxf

'

a-dxf ".

a.

102
to
parallel

"' is

As

VECTOR

ANALYSIS

the scalar

product [a d

a"dxf

done
a

by

the

during

displacement.
the line

perpendicularfrom

vector

by

done

f"

during

of

rotation

W=hf"
The

d drawn

vector

at

If h be the

common

t",the work
for time

angular velocitya

from

point of

any

third is

tripleproduct [a d

f "]

only

perpendicularalike

to

and

a, and

rigidbody

by
and

if

the

"

"

be the

pointsof
forces f

body be

1?

f2,
"

W=

"

"

"

must

As

for

may

a"dxf

will be

"

"

"

be

act

infinitesimal
from

any

is

placed
dis-

time

point

the work

of

done

approximately
a.d2xf2 + """)*

a.M0

{fj.fj,,
"""} t.

equilibriumthis

work

|flf
f2, .} t
.

must

be

zero.

0.

of the

angular velocitya and

forces tv fa,
about
any point 0
be any vector

whatsoever

vanish.

Mo

which

t.

tltf 2,

an

drawn

the scalar

Hence

then
respectively,

zero.

a-CdjXfj+ d2xf2 + ..-) t

product

of the

moment

"

In
of

a.M0

scalar

"

2,

f ".

effect.

the forces

vectors

(a^xfj

in

Hence
The

a.dxf

f may

is h, another

one

component

f " has any

which

upon

"

If the

of which

that

point of

to any

parallelto

angular velocitya

an

d15d2,

to any

a"hxf"

W=
If

*hxt"t.

the

to
parallel

by

being parallelto

to the force

up into three components

be broken

f'

For

the work

equal to

approximately

t is

is

f " is

by

its line of action.

to
perpendicular

is

done

the work

hand

the other

On

".

a.dxf

f '] vanishes.

{tv tv

.}

0.

the

moment

the
must

total
be
itself

DIRECT

The

SKEW

PRODUCTS

conditions

that

AND

necessary
under

the

of those

of

action
and

forces

Conversely

if the

vanish

the

total

resultant

simultaneously,

If "

total work

{fp f 2,

MO

other

point

"

"

\ be

"

ant
result-

point

any

in

"

Hence

equal
a

to

is any

"

'I

time

the

through
t with

space.

It has

forces

during
be

in

the

in space

equilibrium.

of translation

the

suffers

body

any

for

Then

0.

"

"

"

this

the forces

this

when

the

0'.

This

distance

proved

is

may

be

combined

that

displacement

equilibrium.

work

rigid body

The

about

the
is

total

the

line

zero.

regarded

work

as

line

done
the

proved.

rotation

suitable

Hence
is

is

is rotated

body

with

zero.

theorem

expression

about

angular velocity a

of

{BO}.

MO*

But

angular velocity a

been

"

whatsoever.

by

"}

"

0.

"

"

"

{fp fa"

point

"

Hence

zero.

(fp f 2"

an

displacement

translation

in

given point

{f:,f2,

is also

done

t with

passing through
Any

be

when

for

MO

vector

the work

time

and

0.

zero

a"Mo'

of forces

0'

by hypothesisR

where

will

body

is zero,

MO'

must

the

particularpoint

one

displacement

done

{fi?f2"

MO-

for

rium
equilib-

of translation.

displacement
Let

system

any

the

for any

0, then

the

for

about

moment

of

D.R

But

in

system of forces is that

forces about

of those

moment

any

be

rigid body

103

VECTORS

shall vanish.

space

and

OF

by

in
the

forces

104

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Applicationsto Geometry
53.]

between

Relations

mutually perpendicularunit
such

be two

of three

right-handedsystems

two

vectors.

Let

"

systems. They form their

i,j, k and

k'
i',j',

reciprocal
systems.

own

Hence
r

and

From

j'
k'

i'.ii +

i'.j
j +

i'.k k

j'.ii

j'.j
j+

j'.kk

k'.i i +

k'-jj

scalarsaj,
"2,

direction cosines
That

cj
In the

of

k'.k k

"2 j +

"3 k

b, i

J2j

53 k

Cj i +

b 3;
bv Z"2,

a3;

==

(i',
i)

cos

"!

ax i +

c3 k.

c2 j +

cr c2, c3

i';
j';k' with respect

the
respectively

are

to

(47')

i,j, k.

is

ax

]j

r.k'k'.

+
r.j'j'

The

r.i'i' +

r.jj + r-kk

this

i'

r.ii +

cos

cos

same

a2

cos

(i',
j) "3

cos

(j',
j) Z"3

cos

(j',
i) Z"2
(k',i) c2

(k',j) c3

cos

k)
(i',

cos

(j',
k)

cos

(k',k).

(48)

manner

i.i'i' +

i-j'j'
+ i.k'

k'=

j-i'i'
+ j-j'J'
+ j-k'k'
k.i'i' +

+
k-j'j'

) j-j

and

C k.k
r

k-k'k'

i' +

^ j'+

Cj

aa i' +

"aj' +

c2 k'

as i' +

6,j'+

c3 k'

a22+ 622+ C22

a32+ "32+ C32

i'.j'

j'-k'

6lCl +62C2

cj a, +

I k'.i'

ai

6j +

aa

62 +
+

c2 a2 +

a8

k'

(47)"

J3

53C3
c3 as

(50)

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

106
but

to

its form

the

left it is

upon

magnitude is V "a2+ "32 or V bf

Its

of those

be the line of intersection

it must

Hence

the

lie in

to

seen

and

jk-plane;

the

in

wholly

lie

the i direction

j'k'-plane.
planes.

two

This

c^.

from

gives the

scalar relations

magnitude 1

The

i'. Hence

i and

the vectors

between

"1k'-c1j'
line of

is the
its

Eight

sine of the

other similar vectors

of the nine

one

the

is

each

the sine of the

case

Various

54.]
be solved

by
1

Example
to

the

CA

to

to A

in the

Choose

~C.

of the two

angle between
Plane

the

of

tually
mu-

is in

planes.

Solid

and

sets

gives

of the vector

magnitude

Geometry

in

meet

the vertices

point

0.

To

show

originand

Let

point.

perpendicularsfrom

as

planes.

found, each of which

from
perpendiculars

the

the

may

products.

oppositesides

meet

B.

of

The

triangle. Let

The

jk-planes,and

between

angle

be

may

examples in

means
:

j'k'-and

lines of intersection

orthogonalplanes.

(53)

a,j-ask

angle

the vector

of the

intersection

magnitude

of the sine of the

is the square

af

"

B C

to B C and

0 C

let OA

of

"

is

gle
trianbe

the

from

perpendicular

A, OB

B, and

Then

By hypothesis
A.(C
aQd

B-(A

Subtract;
which

B)

C)

0.

0,

C.(B-A)

proves

Example

2:

the theorem.
To

find the

vector

throughthe point B parallelto

equation of

given

vector

A.

line drawn

0 be the

Let

B is

"

PRODUCTS

originand

from

vector

"

SKEW

AND

DIRECT

0 to

B the vector

any

parallelto

OF

Hence

A.

Let

OB.

dius
ra-

Then

product vanishes.

the vector

Ax(R-B)

be the

required line.

of the

point

107

VECTORS

0.

^\

is the desired

This

unknown

88)

to be

scalar

The

R.

vector

It is

equation.

equation of

equation such
E"C

in the unknown
The
found

point
at

vector

of

plane was

(page

seen

B.

The

of

line and

plane

be

may

equations are
(

Ax(B

B.C

(AxR)xC
B

AxB

(AxB)xC

A
A

(AxB)xC

(AxB)xC

(AxB)xC

Hence

C.R

A.C

B)

AxB

A.C

the

as

intersection

once.

equation in

vector

A.C

The

solution

evidentlyfails when

the line is

parallelto

or, if it lies in the

3:

Example
Heretofore

the

plane and

But

point.

it is

The

analyticgeometry.
a

plane in

space.

Let
The

there is

to

use

analogous to

assumed

an

plane M

the

is to be

ever
how-

solution

of solutions.

plane areas

of

normal

to

was

to the

vectors

case

represent planes.

to denote

equal

was

no

infinite number

justas
plane itself,
0 be

In this

0.

of the vector

possibleto

result is

an

used

been

magnitude

of vectors

direction

but the entire

plane area
a

have

The
the

are

introduction

vectors

"

plane and

plane,there

The

definite extent.

the

to

area

denote

vector

plane

to be

presented.
re-

not

represents

coordinates

of

origin. Let M N be
denoted
by a vector

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

108

of the

direction

is the

direction

whose

perpendiculardropped
whose
magnitude is the

plane from the origin 0 and

of the lengthof that perpendicular.Thus
reciprocal
the

upon

plane is

to

be the

originthe longer will

the

the

nearer

which

vector

represents it.
If

be

plane and

in the

drawn

radius vector

any

be

if p

the

from

vector

the

originto

denotes

which

point

the

plane,

then
r.p

equationof

is the

the

Now

PI the

distance
is that
If

length of

from

and

p be

plane.

expressed in

Hence

the

reciprocalof

p is the

0 to the

(r,p) p.

cos

On

perpendiculardistance.

The

For

plane.
r.p

quantitiesu,
plane p

The
of

v,

the

upon

relation

r"p

the other hand

Hence

vj

xu

are

the

yv

be

r"p must

(r,p)

cos

unity.

of i, j, k

terms

perpendicular

+
+

wk
zw

l.

of
reciprocals

the

interceptsof

axes.

between

duality. If

ui

the

in the

and

p is

symmetrical.

It is

tion
rela-

equation

be

regarded as variable,the equation represents a plane p

which is the locus of all pointsgiven by r.
If however
p be
regarded as variable and r as constant, the equation represents

point

development
It is familiar
to denote

Chapter VII.

through

of the
to

idea

which
of

all students

all the

dualitywill
of

planes p
not

geometry.

planes will scarcelybe

alluded

be
The
to

pass.

The

carried

out

use

of

tors
vec-

again until

AND

DIRECT

PRODUCTS

SKEW

SUMMARY
The

products of

scalar

CHAPTER

OF

lengths multipliedby

of their

II

is

vectors

two

109

VECTORS

OF

equal to
of the

the cosine

the

product

anglebetween

them.
A.B

A B

A.B

The

and

necessary

of two

product

(2)

^2.

(3)

sufficient condition

neither

vectors

B.A

A"A

vanishes.

(1)

(A, B)

cos

for the

of which

vanishes

scalar

products of

The

perpendicularity

is that their scalar

the vectors

i,j, k

are

i.j=j.k
A.B
A-A

If the

The
the

them.

to the

rotation

appears

their

The

plane of

of less than

are

A*

B upon

vectors

A*.

180"

is

vector

is

vectors

from

(8)
B',

equal in magnitude to
the sine of the

of the vector

direction

the two

(7)

As B3

product is

that side

on

gle
an-

the firstvector

on

the

which

to the second

positive.

vector

vector

A2 B2

two

lengthsmultipliedby

AxB

The

k.i

A?

vector

product of

vector

product of

normal

A2

projectionof

between

A1B1

k"k

j'j

which

the two
for

sin

(A, B)

(9)

c.

product is equal in magnitude

and

direction to the

represents the parallelogramof which

adjacentsides.
the

The

parallelismof

two

necessary
vectors

and

and

sufficient

neither

dition
con-

of which

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

110
vanishes

that

is

laws

their

product

vector

The

vanishes.

hold.

do not

(10)

AxB=-BxA

AxB

Bs

mutative
com-

jxj

ixi

ixj

="

jxk

"

kxi

"

(12)

kxj

ixk

jxi

(^3 B1

i +

"a)

kxk

Al

(13)
j
AxB

scalar

The

to the volume

edges

which

tripleproduct
of the
meet

in

[AB C]

dot and
and

without

the

of three

of
parallelepiped

[A

vectors

which

C]

A, B, C

is

are

equal
three

point.

A-BxC

B.CxA

AxB"C

BxC-A

C"AxB

(15)'
[ABC]

The

(13)'

A,

in

cross

the order

alteringthe

tripleproduct

of the letters may

value

(16)'

[ACB].

=-

scalar

CxA-B

of the

be

may

be interchanged

permuted cyclicly

product ;

but

change

of

cyclicorder changes the sign.

[ABC]

[ABC]

(18)'

[a be]

(19)'

DIRECT

If the

AND

SKEW

PRODUCTS

of B

component

OF

perpendicular

be

to

111

VECTORS

B",

"_

(20)

"

(BxC)

Ax

(AxB)xC

(AxB)x(CxD)

A-C

which

A"B

C.B

A.C

B.D

[A CD]

[ABD]

equation

(AxB).(CxD)

The

A.C

(24)'

(25)

B.C

[BCD]

C-[ABC]

subsists

(24)

A.D

(26)

D.

between

four

A, B, C, D

vectors

is

[BCD]

A-[CDA]B+

Application

of formulae

of Plane
The

and

system of
of three

system

[DAB]

of vector

non-coplanar vectors
bxc
=

p-"

[a b

[a be]

its

be

may

reciprocalin

The

expressed

non-coplanar

similar

two

If

af,b', c' form

form

be

b,

reciprocalto

the

axb
c'

r'

c]

[a b
of

in terms

(29)

"
"

"

set

c]

of vectors

and

ways

r.b' b +

r.c' c

(30)

r.aa'

r.bb'

r.cc'.

(31)

that the

sufficient conditions

a'.c

the formulae

r.a'

vectors

obtain

(27)

a,

a'.a
a'.b

0.

and

necessary

a,

to

cxa

V
,..-,"

vector

analysisto

a',V, c' is said

vectors

Spherical Trigonometry.

a'=

when

[ABC]

C-

b'.c

system

b'.b
=

systems of

a',b', c' be reciprocalsis that

b, c and
=

two

c'"c

b'.a

c'-a

reciprocalto

system reciprocalto a',b',c'.

a,

c'-b

b, c

0.
then

a,

b, c

will

112

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

[PftR] [ABC]-

is its

system i,j, k

The

its

system be

of the
scalar and

theory

Applications of

and

force.

in the

of

the

of

virtual

a, and

which

angles

axes.

Application
form

under

in vector

between

vectors.

to

is

rigid body
to

the

finite

single

to

that
of

(46)
translational

ity
veloc-

angular velocity of

the

methods

of

the

the

to

direction

mutually

method

plane areas)

make

by
may

be

the

obtain
cosines

orthogonal
including

their

which

tation.
ro-

principle of

method

nine

of

obtain

to

of the

use

coordinates

the

in

treatment

special problems in geometry

analysis and

the

and

perpendicular

systems

plane

unknown

an

obtaining

vector

between

two

which

distinguishedfrom
by

exist

on

point, v0

Applications

of

Chapter II.,to

to

equilibrium by making

of the

the

the

in

system of forces

application of

velocities.

the relations

cation
Appli-

is

methods

any

handed

solution

the

(36)

plane

v0 +

left

vectors.

degree

rigid body

velocityof

Further
for

the

conversely

a.

of any

of which

if

to

direction

conditions

unit

plane

(34)

right or

acting

motion

is the

be

system of forces

where

R.C

in

Application

instantaneous

R.B

developed

couple

E.A

the methods

the reduction

particularto
force

a-c

must

of

equation

vector

of

a-B

of the first

r-A

treatment

Q.A

reciprocal systems

of

equations

vector

The

vector.

P.C

mutually perpendicular

of three

system

P.B

reciprocal and

own

reciprocalit

own

P.A

ance
appear-

planes (as
represented

114

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

by

Show

12.

of

methods

vector

vertices

four

whose

tetrahedron

formulae

the

that

for

the

ume
vol-

are

is

1/3

13.

Making

of

(34)

formula

of

use

[a

where

14.

is

of

termini

given
15.

sixth

in

of

that

the

distance

16.

If

through
three

lines

a,

b,

vectors

origin
a,

b,

c.

of

and

respectively

(c, a),

cos

the

the

volume

product

of

between

them

line

the

of

that

perpendicular

from

the

show

text

(as
a

upon
Use

(a, b).

cos

determined

plane

the

quantity)

vector

where

method

of

by

solution

46.

Art.

Show

the

dropped

lengths

(b, c),

cos

the

are

Determine

which
the

b,

a,

c]

the

is drawn

vertex

thus

and

obtained

two

each

the

sine

face

of

plane

perpendicular
lie in

is

edges by

opposite
and

in

tetrahedron

plane.

to

the

the

of

any

the

equal

to

one

lar
perpendicu-

included

angle.

triedral
third

angle

edge,

the

III

CHAPTER

CALCULUS

DIFFEBENTIAL

THE

IF

55.]
of
denoted

be

will

by

unrestricted
have

it may
the
a

vector

determined
values

be

it will
from
the
value

magnitude

variable

the

in

such

describes

to

change,

of

variable

radius

vector

the

curve;

r', of

space,

chord

P'

of

the

of
a

If, however,

function)

vector

be

will

t' of

be

unrestricted

of

completely

", which

give

of

quantities

the

vector

the

one

and

as

drawn

as

will

terminus

its

will

be

of

point

neighboring
curve.

involved

its

the

be

When

freedom

that

in

the

changes

will

curve

of

think

way

t and

(Fig. 26).

degree

one

also

(a
of

value

variable
r

the

direction.

function

conception

If

course

any

values

advantageous

vector

will

known.

clearer

independent

and

as

two

r', are

origin

is of

t the

the

and

and

ment
incre-

(1)

quantity.
A

regarded

fixed

possesses
vary

obtain

To

any

when

r'-r,

vector

increment

scalar

r' the

to

r' and

between

the

be

single

two

be

must

Variable

r.

Ar

where

from

changes

difference

the

usual

as

and

varies

vector

VECTOES

Scalar

of One

Functions

Differentiation of

OF

The

Ar

Al

point
ratio

P'.

FIG.

will

26.

be

the

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

be

will

ratio 1

the

in

When

A t.

P, the chord PP7

PP'

the chord

collinear with

vector

P' will

approaches zero
the

approach

will

magnified

but

at

tangent

proach
ap-

P, and

the vector
dT

Ar
,

...

will

which

is

If

the

be

expressedin

components
r'

of i, j, k

terms

rt)i

O2

A r,
l

i.

along

A*

t?r

A*

the

in that

curve.

as

ra)j

r2$

"

directed

at

curve

of the scalar t.

functions
r2, rz will be

rv

("!+

to the

the variable t increases

in which

sense

"

dt

tangent

vector

approach

(r8 +

r3)k

n
.

i 4^

'

V
*

A*
A.I

and

Hence

the
to

of the

components

components

first derivatives

the

are

of

The

r.

first derivative
with

respect to

for the second

is true

same

of

with
t of

and

spect
re-

the

higher

derivatives.
.

_i
_

dt*

__

dt*

dt*

\
*

j
__

dt*

|_
k'

(2)'
dn

d* rt

d t"

In

similar

manner

non-coplanarvectors

d t*

if

b,

a,

"

d^r_d^
"~a

dnr2

be
c

aa

7r

J +

dnr3
~dr'

expressed in
as

5b
"Z*J

cc

dnc
*c'

k'

terms

of any

three

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

Example
The

vector

and

describe

ellipseof

an

This

oblique Cartesian

of

b sin t.

t +

cos

117

VECTORS

be

may

by

seen

coincident

X, Y

axes

which

and

ing
assum-

with

Then

b.

diameters

of

Y=b

t,

cos

equation of

is the

which

will then

set

conjugate diameters.

two

are

Let

OF

CALCULUS

sin t,

ellipsereferred

an

and

lengthsa

to

pairof

jugate
con-

respectively.

dr
"

"

Hence

"

t+

sin

t.

cos

(t

cos

b sin

90") +

(t + 90").

CL t

The
for

tangent
0

the

to

90").

derivative

second

the

radius

vector

2
=

The

parallelto

is

curve

(a cos

"

b sin

t +

negativeof

is the

t).
Hence

r.

_
~

is

evidentlya

differential

Example

Let

The
b

are

vector
two

will then

equation satisfied by
cosh

describe

t +

an

the

ellipse.

b sinh t.

hyperbolaof

which

conjugatediameters.
dr
=

"

sinh t +

b cosh

cosh

b sinh t.

t,

CL b

and

t +

TT

Hence

"

"

"

dt2
is

differential

equation satisfied by

the

hyperbola.

and

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

118
56

combination of vectors all of which depend

much
scalar variable t may be differentiatedvery

same

the

on

as

in

ordinary calculus.

For

(a
(a b)

(a

"

a)

"

"

Aa-Ab
b +

'

~T7

A~7

A"

A"

A t

in the limit when

Aa
+

TT

A2

Ab)

Ab

A(a.b)
"

Hence

(b

"

Ac

0,

da.

db

,o,

(a"b)

a"-r

-(axb)

(o)

/ cZa\

l77J+(T7)

ax

xb

//"x

"4"

fdv\

d
dt

"

"

/ d b\

"^

"

f-

"

(a"bxc)
v

'

a.bx

-\

a"(

^-Ixc

(5)

(6)

[bx.].
The
as

last three of these formulae

be demonstrated

exactly

the first was.

The

formal

differs in
one

may

no

point in

process
from

way
which

analysis,
namely

that

vector

The

differentiation

of

in scalar

vector

analysis

analysisexcept

in this

differs from

scalar

analysisalways

order

in

of the factors in

vector

product

THE

DIFFERENTIAL

cannot

be

Hence

of the

changing the sign of

changed without

119

VECTORS

OF

CALCULUS

the

product.

formulae

two

and

the

first is

other

evidentlyincorrect, but

words, scalar

alteringthe

order

factors must

be

be

differentiation
of the

factors

differentiated

second

the

take

must

of

in situ.

place without
The

product.

vector

This

In

correct.

of

to

was

course

expected.
In

the vectors

case

the results
with

the
practically

respect

Suppose

occur.

three

are

depend

the

to

and

scalar variables

depend

upon

these

partialderivatives

b
#,

three
of the

are

y,

In

same.

scalar

than

more

upon

placeof

one

variable

tives
total deriva-

variables,partialderivatives

two

The

z.

scalar

variables, and

depend

which

vectors

product

it will

a"b

have

on

will
three

first order.

CT)

The

second

partialderivatives

are

formed

in the

same

5x9y

way.

it is

Often

convenient

more

(a-b)

d
d

and

If

example.

be

b)

As

forth.

so

(a

of

the

the

Differentiate

"

the

increment
This

vector.

sphere the

hence

*57.]

Vector

the

in

denote

where

f is some

be the
curve

unity and

0.

origin.
A

/A

is

Hence

the

will be

(d r)

of unit
two

upon

ables.
vari-

0.

is

vector

perpendicularto

point in

traces

the

tangent

employed advantageously
torsion of

and

Let

curves.

curve

of the scalar t.
t

In most

from

definite

some

is the chord

approximatelyequal
as

Let

toward

unit

that

point of
of the

magnitude

in

its limit when

will be

directed

cations
appli-

represents the time.

increment

dr/ds

r.

be

measured
The

be at each

approaches unity

and

following

geometrically. If

mechanics

depends

unit

function

arc

infinitesimal.
curve

may

of

physicsand

Hence

curve.

of curvature

length of

the

sphericalsurface

seen

methods

vector

as

"

must

the radius vector

in

the

be
d

is

perpendicularto

discussion

(4)'

db,

(3)'

db,

"

consider

origin,

of

dr

can

variation

plane and

b +

(d r)

"

the

dealing with

when

equation.

Hence
Hence

but

unit vector

(d r)

illustration

an

about

radius described

to

da.

locus of the terminus

The

da.b

derivatives

the

not

use

(3),(4)become

formulae

The

firstdifferentials.

to

true
particularly

is

This

the differentials.

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

120

vector

becomes

tangent

portion of

the

122

ANALYSIS

VECTOR
t.t

c"c

and

t"c

the
Differentiating

first set

c"n

t.dt

c"dc

n"t

0.

n"d!n

0,

the second

and

t" do

But

dt'C

c"dn

to
parallel

d t is

dt

Hence
The

increment

of

is also

the

of

n"dt

"

perpendicularto

is T
tortuosity

n.

0.

the increment

But

parallelto

It is therefore

n.

dn/ds,

0.

0.

is perpendicularto t.

dn"t

to
consequently perpendicular

and

dc"n

n"

As

n"n

it is

dn

to
parallel

c.

hence

and

too.

The

is

T
tortuosity

d
T

"

ds

(txc)

"

dsds

dr
T

T~

The
been

seen

to be

magnitude
c

the
the

of this

first term

in the

direction

("

d*r

dsz

ds

scalar
of C.

of the

curve

away

therefore be

from

"

With
c
c.

dz

the

The
"

moreover

has

Consequently

the

i/ds2.
of T

normal

by

T.

the

appears

direction
which

unit

to have

turn

to

if viewed
the

or

tor
vec-

in

from

positivepart

appears

to

move

that is,n
is positive,
tortuosity

scalar value
c

(11)

c "C

this convention

when

given by

ds*

It is desirable however

c-plane upon

lies.

in the direction
turns

"2

product

tortuosity
positivewhen the
positiveor counterclockwise

that side of the

expressionvanishes.

parallelto

of T is the

d*r

fdr

of the

will
tortuosity

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

CALCULUS

dBr

dr

c"T

"

c.

"

"

is

the vector

to
parallel

is

unit vector

"

-^"

Hence

shorter

ct

if not

c"n

Hence

0.
d

must

of
because
the

curve.

parallelto
Hence
be

dn/ds
n

another

by

"n

dn"t

dc

"

method

which

parallelto
taken

perpendicularto
But"Znis
The

c.

however

appears

clockwise

Hence

the scalar

"t

dt*n.

"

0.

from

the

the

may

n.

nitude
mag-

negative sign

positivedirection

T
tortuosity

be

of

given by

dc
.c

"

tortuosityis

the

Hence

n.

perpendicularto

with

dn

r=-

0.

dn"c

"

hence

n"t

dn"t

"

quite so straightforward.

dt"c

*?

be obtained

dc

"

(13)

Hence

d t

"

as

tortuosity
may

d t is

'"^x-^
ds*

--"

t"c

Now

Hence

C.

dzr

ft

is somewhat

^s2^sVC"C

as2

The

^s

Hence

in the direction

r=-c.T

ur

dzr

0.

C
c

dr

r/ds2.

d2

-T-

VECTORS

"

"

"

"

And

"

ds3"Y/c"C

ds

But

"

123

OF

n."

ds

ds

(14)

dp

txc-^"
as

(14)'

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

124

C
c

"

"

"

"

dC
do
c.c

ds
dC

dc
.

"

t x

"

,""-.

ds

t x

"

t x

But

-C

VC

"

0.

dV
t x

/^"

VC

"

"

"
C

^1

r=

c.c

t x

"

"

'

^TC"
dr

T=

(13)
dsz

In Cartesian

coordinates

this becomes

dy

dz

ds

ds

ds2

ds2

dsz

ds y
ds9

dBz

(13)'
ds

ds*

ds9

T=
ds2'
Those

who

would

surfaces in space
find the book
mann

"

pursue

the

further from

Application de

la Geomttrie
1

study of twisted

the

standpointof

la Methode

et

Naud,

1899.

and

vectors

will

Vectorielle de Grass-

Infinitesimale"1
by

Paris,Cam?

curves

FEHB

extremely

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

He

helpful.
is

works
The

elegant.

from

that

points of

with

used

by

difference

ct -I

to

exhibited

the

I
O

"*

L.

"*

J.

o
"i

""

treatment

slightlydifferent
The

fundamental

this table

["j "2]

/N^

I CZl

O_|

need

The

$o

Li

have

^Q

"

o_|

with
difficulty

no

important elementary properties of

there

are

treated.

They

will

Let

58.]

taken

be

radius

Kinematics
drawn

vector

moving point or particle.Let

of the

path

from

fixed

originto

The

equation

t be the time.

is then

particleis

the

of
velocity

This

is the limit of the increment

LIM

of

its rate

The

change of position.

to the increment

rArn

This

velocityis

direction

the

"

The

term

scalar

value

followed

of the

here.

be the

of the

(15)

curve.

quantity.

vector

tangent of the
speed is used
of

the

Its direction

described

curve

frequentlyto

velocity.

This

by

denote

convention

is the
the

ticle.
par-

merely
will

be

Then

length of

differentiations
the

A t.

di

*asA*-*.-nrTTL*jFr

if

curves

be

not

the

here.

up

in

either method

surfaces

and

are

125

VECTORS

is however

present writer.

Clo

Jj

All

other.

Clo

used

used

the

"

OF

constantly.

vectors

notation

EJ

One

CALCULUS

the

arc

It is found
with

from

measured

convenient

in mechanics

respect to the time

quantitydifferentiated.

This

some

is the

by

dots

fixed

point

to denote

placed over

oldfluxionalnotation

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

126

by

introduced
the unit

tangent

to denote

It will also be convenient

Newton.

by

to the curve

equationsbecome

The

t.

dr

T=r=j*
dS

"

The
is

quantity.

vector

is the

acceleration

rtR\

(16)

s=-

of

rate

Let

(17)

t.

of

velocity. It
by A. Then by

change

it be

denoted

definition
LIM

"

and

Differentiate

the

expression

d7

dt

C is the

speed in

the

_dt

d t

where

~d~T
d

t.

dv

_dv_d(vt)
=

dz

dt

'dti^

""

d t

(vector)curvature

of the

these
Substituting

curve.

g?
A

The

t +

is the

equation
oZ

0a C.

%*

acceleration

the

in the

been broken
to

and

curve

values

the result is

'

di*

of

particle
moving

up into two

tangent

t and

components

of which

in

has

curve

of which

the other is

one

C, that is,perpendicularto the tangent.

resolution

has been

be

is parallel

parallelto

curvature

accomplished would

fore
there-

That

unimportant

the
this

were

THE

DIFFERENTIAL

for the remarkable

it not

independent of
It would

be

what

the

sort of

speed

of

change

it describes

same

hand

the

component of the acceleration

is

equal

speed

expressedin

be

"

the

curvature

these

change

of

xi

j/j+ zk,

x*

y*

"i

Just

The

be

The

greater
the
this

The

(16)'

^j+sk,

(18)'

the
any

assumed

vector

to

rate of

of

Jr

was

the

\V*v\

of

when
of

curvilinear

is the

vector

s"

change

the

of

rate

clearly

it is that

certain
he stated

of

velocity,

first became

his second

velocityis proportional

change

introduced

-^-

But

say.

change

origin the
in the

between

rate

but rate of

locus of its terminus

the radius

f , the

it in mind

hodograph

study

y y +

difference

hard

(15)'

"a,

this difference

had

impressed force

59.] The
With

The

curve.

;a ==g-

when

have

must

of motion.

to

of the

k,

the

speed,and

recognizedwould

aid

square

as

v=s=

formulae

apparent.

to the

tangent

of the

yj

^t

law

the other

to the

of the

i +

Newton

normal

product

of i,j, k

terms

is

On

curve.

the

right line

the

From

entirely

component of the acceleration.

normal
r

It is

the greater the component.

But
particle,
change of speed in path has no effect at all on

of

If

tangent is equal

greater this component.

the

curve,

speed of

rate

to

particleand

of the

sharperthe
the

magnitude

in

the

particleis describing.

the

the

as

bringsto light. The

particledescribed

with

127

VECTORS

speed.

the

curve

if the

same

it

parallelto

of

the rate

magnitude to

OF

fact which

of the acceleration

component
in

CALCULUS

of

by
motion

speed is
Hamilton
of

velocityf

hodograph.

not.
as

an

particle.

is laid off.

In other words,

of
hodograph gives the velocity

the

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

128

in magnitude and direction at

particle
step further' and
to proceedone
possible
done
graph of the hodograph. This is
acceleration

vector

radius

in the

vector

from

hodograph of

in

(Fig.29)

circle

with

uniform

angular velocity
speed of

will
particle

the

Let

drawn

The

vector

radius

the

The

is therefore

radius

describes
a.

vector

acceleration

which

acceleration A may

But

as

axv

be

to

the

r.

radius

vector

particle.The
It is

a.

tude.
magni-

of constant

circle of radius

r.

just ninety degrees in

its circle,and

in

the

it

quently
conse-

angular velocity

same

of

rate

change

of

is

equal in magnitude to
v

a2

r.

the formula

given by

ax(axr)

then

r.

is the

and

the circle with

always perpendicularto

The

the

to

f in this circle is

vector

of

advance

be

always perpendicularand

hodograph

The
The

is

and

The

a.

equal to

be

to
perpendicular

The

origin.

hodograph therefore

of radius

is

off the

by laying

the

gives the acceleration at each instant.

Example 1 : Let a particlerevolve

velocityv

hodo-

the

construct

assumed

an

It is

instant.

any

is perpendicular
to the

a"r

plane in

a"a

"

which

r.

lies,a

"

0.

Hence
r

The
a

acceleration due

circle is directed
to

the square

"

a"a

"

to the uniform

a2

r.

motion

of

in
particle

toward

the

of the

angular velocitymultipliedby

radius of the circle.

centre

and

is

equal

in

tude
magnithe

is

path
A

at

The

r.

be

to go

radius

the

of which

by

r,

A r,

and

the

instant
+

This

r.

is

area

|rx(r+ Ar)=irxr
The

descriptionof

of

rate

^rxAr=|rxAr.

the

by

area

radius

r-

irx(r*-Ar)

Lm
A*=02
Let

f and

and

P0 which

r0 be

t~*

velocityat

together. The

near

are

of the

values

two

"

2r

~A*=0

A*

Ar_i.

Lm

is

vector

consequently

are

of the

area

chord

the

and

particle in

the next

at

approximatelyequal to

radii is

enclosed
triangle

of the

vector

of the vector

area

into
carefully

little more

instant,the radius vector

one

bounding

the

If

question.

this

be well

it would

Perhaps
its

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

130

two

points

acceleration r0

P0

at

is the limit of
r

r'0 Af

"

'

A*

Break

up the vector

paralleland

Lz""

the other

into

two

components

one

perpendicular to the acceleration f 0

Af

if

be

normal

to

proaches unity when

approaches

Hence

r x

(r
(r

A t

when

zero

the

r0)

i?0.The

approaches

A t

r'0) x

vector

The

zero.

approaches

zero.

r'0
+

y A*

A*

(r0^
+

quantity

ap-

quantityy

n.

f0

CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

OF

131

VECTORS

Hence
Ar

r0xi0="

rxf"

X
A

But

of the

each

order

point of
all

at

the

fixed

curve.

The

This

Let
space.
to any

But

proves

the

theorem.

of

the second

Moreover

i)i

in the

be drawn

(d r

of c"r

(xi

"

di+

(# j

"

di

(#k"di

But

i"rfj+j

j =j

"""!

j"dk

k"dj

k.di

i"dk

j)j

"

body

but

from

the fixed

i, c?r

"

"

(d r

j, d

yi "dj

yj

yk"c"j

"

+
i

()

or

j"(H

or

k.dj

or

axis

moving

"

in

point

k) k.
k obtained

"

k"k

"d

2i"^k)i

rfj +

i"i=j"j
i"^i

is

Then

body.

values

of which

equation
dr

Hence

fixed

vector

"

for any

point.

axes

(d r

of the

instantaneous

an

an

exactlyequal

point

one

about

rotation

is true
be

must

rigid body

the fixed

the

the
Substituting

Hence

rates

the radius

point of

This

is

tion
descrip-

infinitesimal

an

the

i,j, k be three
Let

P0 differ by

instant

passingthrough

the rates of

Hence

Hence

motion

is at any

right-handside

the

upon

respect to the time.

with

points.

60.]

terms

and

at

area

second

three

of the second order.

infinitesimal
of

"

k"c?k

"

k) j

"k"rfk)k.
0.

i"rfj

"

dk

"

"

l.
=

0.

j.tfk
'k

"

di.

from

132

(2 i

d k

"

is
d

i"dk

i +

(Wj

Let
a

with

the

angular velocitya
from

rotations

be

a2 be two

Hence

be
d
d

If the

k).

of the

body

about

the

instant

be

may

is

The

like

dj

dz

51.

vectors.

displacements

ftl x

d1r

d1

d t,

aa

d t.

a, it becomes

displacedby

aj

a.1xidt.

aa, it becomes

d t +

[r + ("l

aa

d t +

infinitesimals (d t)2 of order

a2

r) d f\ d
x

t.

(ax x r) (d t)\

higher than

first be

the

neglected,
d

which

a.

The

in Art.

added

one

line

to instant.

in the work

angular velocities.

are

displacedby

If it then

i +

motion

infinitesimal

If

k.

Two

them

j) j

di=axr-

fillsthe lacuna

to

"

l-d7J+'-dlk-

this theorem

due

"

d i

proof of

aj and

r.

angular velocitychanges

Let

k)

k)x("

that the instantaneous

rotation

This

shows

"

d i

"

d k

k-^1

Then

This

"

(# j

product.

vector

"

i) i

"

(y

This

"

expressionfor

in the

values

Substitutingthese

of

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"1

proves

d t +

a2

the theorem.

d t

If both

("1 + a2)

a1 +

sides be divided

dr

aa)xr.

t,

by

d t

This

In

the

case

(Art. 51)

before

obtained

was

of

direction
reduces

the motion

The
As
a

acceleration
does

and

hence
to

Inasmuch

is

as

all

parallelto

about

it

This

than
of

is

in

equal

depend
to what

the

upon

is known

the acceleration

(a

magnitude

velocitymultipliedby

in

move

such

one

centric
con-

a, it is

plane.

toward
particle

r.

the centre

r).

the

to

radius

the

r) is parallelto

is

moves

rotating body

more

part of the acceleration

of the circle in which

(a

ax

is, it is perpendicular

planes perpendicularto

in

consider

to

That

r.

collinear with

be

must

of the

a.

(axr).

its direction

points

stant,
con-

r.

the other hand

On

unnecessary
The

r.

circles

about

steadyrotation

r=axr+axr=axr+ax

change

not

axis, is

instantaneous

of

one

different way.

the

a,

to

in

It

angular velocities.

for

parallelogram law

the

is

133

VECTORS

OF

CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

square

of the

of

circle.

the

angular

It does

not

angularacceleration a at all. It corresponds

force. On
the other hand
as
centrifugal
normal

to the radius

of the circle is

axr.

This

is

equal

in

magnitude

velocitymultipliedby
depend

in any

its rate

upon

way
of

the

upon

the rate

to

radius

differentials

word.
If then

It is

change

of the circle.

of

angular

It does

not

angular velocityitself but only

the

change.

61.] The subjectof integrationof

the

of

depend

vector

scalar

upon

equationsin

variables

needs

which
but

preciselylike integrationin ordinarycalculus.

d
r

d s,

C,

134

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

in any

case
particular

it is in the

justas

Example

projectile.
The equationof

the

is

motion

and

downward

due

where

is

velocityat

the time

is another

constant

of the
last

equation is

expressingit in

moves

The

under

integration. It

The

0.

of

of

the acceleration

is

For

"

Hence

this is

y and

"

(r

(r x j)

which

proves

the statement.

so

given by
be

may

areas

when

is constant.

the

radius,

0.

cl t

and

is

f(r).

"

positionvector

C,

seen

this

by

t.
eliminating

parallelto

(r x f)

is the

descriptionof

But

That

central acceleration
r

Since

evidentlythe

is

which

path

and

rate

tically
always ver-

b,

integration.It

t=

terms

is

gravity.

parabola.

0.

of

time

point at

Example

of

constant

acceleration

the

g t +

of

motion

g,

to

scalars.

simply

the fact that

expresses

difficulty

some

of

equation

r=

which

of

matter

ordinaryintegrationof

Integrate

1:

be

may

of

case

accomplishthe integration

To

vector.

constant

is some

where

r).

r.

ticle
par-

THE

Example

with

moving
from

Integratethe equation of

an

acceleration

toward

of the

inverse

multiple

constant

OF

CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIAL

the

motion

for

centre

and

square

135

VECTORS

of

particle
equal

the

to

distance

the centre.
c2

Given

--

r.

r3
Then

Hence

0.

C.

Multiply the equationstogetherwith

C

"

X.

"

-^2-

7Frx(rxr)=:
r

Then

Differentiate.

"

"

side of this

"

and

by

I
r

"

"

of

integration, e

in its direction.

"

+
C*
C

"

rxr.CC"C

is its

Multiplythe

"

But

I,

constant

unit vector

r.

r2

I is the vector

perfectdifferential.

c2
where

equality is

Integrate. Then

"

c2
Each

7F
r2.

121?

Hence

{r'rr -'""}.

"

I.

tude
magnition
equa-

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

136
C

Let

"

and

Then

cos

Or

(r,I).

cos

cos

u.

COS

P
f=
6

equation of

is the

This

axis.

vector

The

lengthof

is the eccentricity.

of

direction

in the

is drawn

The

which

ellipseof

the

the

major

this axis is

drr
1
e2

"

"

It is

possibleto
So far

the time.

merely

A function

value

for each

scalar function

set

of

the

path

has been

found.

in

Space.

The

of Position

Scalar Functions

62.]

further
integration

the

carry

takes

(a?,
y, 2)which

of coordinates

#, y,

positionin

space.

(a?,
y, z) =x2

OperatorV
definite scalar

on

is called

in space

Such

obtain

and

function, for

ample,
ex-

is
V
This

function

(",y, z) from
be in

gives the
the

generalcontinuous

functions

theoryof

of

heat the

scalar function
and

theories

function.
If

of the

This, too, is
V

the

that

of

be set

equal to

the

function

surface

in space

V has the

same

such

value

that
c.

In

body

the
is

all-important

position.

constant, the

tion
equa-

(20)

r(x,y,z)=c.
defines

to

In mechanics

point.

scalar function

In

point of

potentialis

point

supposed

occurrence.

at any

positionof

of attraction

scalar function

of the

physicsscalar

In

valued.
single-

temperature

r2.

V will be

of constant

position are

distance

function

The

and

zz

of the

square

origin.

y2

at every
case

point

of it the

F be the tempera-

The

63.]

vector

or

vector

The

VF.

of V,

regardV

It is customary to

F.

VFfrom

vector

Hamilton

and

is

although owing
some

is

name

to

Fof

positionin

universal

number

that

the

of times

arises from

the

in
no

use

Others

harp.

coined the

the term

have

noted

to the

is read

has been

simply as

defined

easy

"

owing

h k

--

3y
to

its likeness

an

to

occurs

hearer

del F."

as

"

Qz

its fancied
to

"

by

Nabla

and

speaker or

dx
Some

short

so

found

inconvenience

.9

been

for it,

symbol

in which

Although this operator

=

of the
has

R.

There

complicatedformulae

repetition.V

Sir W.

by

frequent occurrence

practicalnecessity. It

even

space.

universallyrecognizedname

no

for

obtains

employment.

experience that the monosyllabledel is

pronounce

used

operator which

an

V V

reason

also

are

introduced

was

in

now

however, to be

seems,

as

scalar function

symbolic operator

This

slopeof

gradientand

terms

directed

"

F, the primitiveof

and

V;

this

For

speak.

to

so

called the derivative of

will be

derivative

change of

rate of

representsa directed

rate of increase

is the resultant

which

sum

by VF.

of F is denoted

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

138

resemblance

inverted

A and

to

have

Assyrian
consequently
an

Atled by inverting
the order of the letters in
euphonious name
Theorie der ElecFb'pplin his Einfuhrung in die MaxweWsche
tricitat avoids
and refers to the symbol as "die Operation
any specialdesignation
V."
How
this is to be read is not divulged. Indeed, for
printingno particular
is necessary, but for lecturing
name
and purposes of instruction something is required
too
that
does not confuse the speaker or hearer even
something
when
the word

none

too

Delta.

"

often repeated.

that

so

CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

it appears

depend

to

is in

realityindependent

from

the

of the

rapid

take

the

as

of the

axes,

be

surmised

would

magnitude and

of V.

To

to them.

Then

the

it

direction

demonstrate

i',j',k' and

of axes,

set

a/,y',z' referred

variables

increase

another

This

139

VECTORS

the choice

upon

of them.

of
interpretation

most

OF

pendence
indeset

new

referred

of

to this

system is

*
By making

formulae

of the

use

104, for transformation

of

actually carrying

the

into

taking

out

from

details

method

shorter

V
which

Vis

V=

Let

c.

point

from

Then

any

the
=

by

the

The

point
be

may

radius

the

here, because

is to

be

given.

(Fig.30)

O, y,z)=c

and
be

which
a

A c,
are

fixed

the

given point upon

surface

dius
ra-

in

by

surface

represented

actual increase

infinitely

moreover

r.

of Ffrom
FIG.

is

another

origin.

near

vector

the first surface

may

this

to

fixed

any

neighboring

#, y,

drawn

(50),V

(49) and

omitted

(#,y, z)

denote

vector

are

constant

together. Let

near

finallyby

V.

surfaces

two

upon

and

by

into V.

proof

and

page

i, j, k to i',
j',k' and

identities

of demonstration

Consider

64.

of the

"22"'

differentiations

V'
The

(47)'and (47)",Art. 53,

axes

the

account

transformed

actuallybe

30.

to the second

quantity dc.

Tlie rate

of increase

is

variable

140

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

quantity and

depends

passingfrom

when

direction

the

upon

to the

surface

one

which

dr

other.

lowed
is folThe

rate

the actual increase d c and

be^the^guptieir^of
between
dr
at the point
the surfaces
Vdr
tnV~fTifitapOft
will

of increase

"

as, y,

surfaces

and

between

the

The

dr.

direction

the

in

the

Let

r.

of

segment

surfaces,n d

will

quotient
yd
be

the

be

the

to

intercepted

normal

that

then

normal

unit

for

least value

will therefore

be

equal in magnitude of

"

when

maximum

is

to
parallel

and

expression

The

n.

(23)

an

vector

of which

the direction

is the direction

most

rapid increase

of Fand

of which

magnitude

rate

of that increase.

is therefore

the

X, Y,

axes

second.

Then

From

this

gives the
in that

Let

Z.

is the increment

of Fin
let V

is

vector

be

direction

to show

first given. To

is the

entirelyindependent
its

replacedby

passing from

first surface

the

to the

F"be definedagain as

of most

rapid increase

Moreover

VFis

do this

multiplyby

"

which

vector

of V and

independent

that this definition is

the

of the

equivalentto

is

and

unit

normal.

must

be

the surfaces.

Hence

"

rate
axes.

the

one

r.

.rfr.
d
n

of

which

d V

equal

definition,V V is certainlythe

direction.

It remains

This

the

of

(25)

is the

projectionof

equal to the perpendiculardistance

on

between

THE

DIFFL

ENTIAL

CALCULUS

OF

141

VECTORS

dV

VF.

dr

dn

"

dV.

(25)'

dn
9V

9V
But

dV=^-d

where

(d #)2 +

If dr

takes

dx+

9V

-^-dy

ay

(d z)2

(d y)2 +

equation (25)'takes

successivelythe

on

-~-dz,

values

"

r.

dx, $ dy, bdz

the

the values

on

9V
VF"

i d

TT"

dx

9V

VV.)dy

-rdy

(26)

9V

W*ls.dz

^"dz.

9z

If the
that

factors

the

d x, d yy d

components

be

cancelled

i, VF"

"

i,j, k directions respectively

are

VF=

Hence

and

second

9V

9 x*

3y*

9z'

(VF.

i) i

VF=i

+
9

definition

j) j

(VF-

definition
d

The
of V

(24)

Accordmg

11

-^- satisfies the equation

d

dy

(VF.

has

found
to

k)

the

k.

(21)

9 y

equation (25V
F.

j+k"

in

state

to

9V

consequently is equivalent to

*65.]

ative

equal

equations
k of VT

j, VF"

9V_

by(26)

The

these

9z
been

reduced

to

the

first

it.
above

is often

ordinarycalculus

taken

as

the deriv-

142

derivative

Definition: The

either

They

of

the

are

The

function

scalar

definitions

tangible. The

cannot

be

functions

has

for

But

before

given

of

computation of

frequentlycarried

treated.

by

the

See

be

better.

this last

subject of

Chapter
of

V
of

means

to

of
significance

real

the derivative

on

important

practicalpurposes

seems

appreciateduntil
been

and

natural

most

considerations.

more

definition
vector

certainlythe

definition is

theoretical

from

of

VF

of dr.

for all values

This

manner

satisfythe equation

shall

space

similar

followingdefinition.

the

possibleto lay down

positionin

In

equation defines dy / dx.

this

Moreover
it is

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the

VII.

function

linear

is most

ordinary partial

differentiation.

Example

Let

(x,y,z)"r

.dr

dr

3r

i^-+J^r+k^dy

ax

"

Vr=:i
,

Vx*

yz

z2

Vx*

z*

y'*+

Vx*

Hence

y'*+ zz

i*

and

The
This
and

derivative of
is

the

evidentlythe
rate

of that

is

unit

vector

direction of most
increase.

in the

direction

of

increase

of

rapid

r.
r

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

CALCULUS

Let

OF

143

VECTORS

1
r

x2 -f

y2

22

_i

(xz + v2 + z2)'
2

""2 + 2/2+ 22)1

Hence

"

"

-=-

5"
+ y2
(a;2

^_
and

of

"

of

derivative
r, and

square

Example

whose

vector

direction

the

magnitude is equalto

whose

of the

"

r3

"

proof is left

Example 4

r1* =

denote

(#,y, 2) of

Let

'

F(#, y, 2)

the vector

drawn

space, the function

F(#,y,2)
and

Hence

the

"

ia? +

"

to the reader.

log yx2

log V

/"

"

"

(k r)2
"

"

k k"r.

"

k k"r

"

=
"

originto

be written

"

#2

#2 +

j y).

the

V may

jy

from

log Vr

-f v3.

(i"

of
reciprocal

711*

a;

If

is that

length r.

The

2)

-Y

(r r)?

1/r is

j
=

-T

The

jy

r
=

ix

(-

^- "

22)

"

"

."

^K"rj*

k k"r

(r-kk.r).(r-kk.r)'

as

the

point

144

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the

upon

of

method

is another

There

computing

is based

which

identity

Example

Let

YT

"

Vr"r

V
2

Example

Let

"

"

^7^=-^=

Hence

-'

r"r

a, where

dF=rfr-a

r.

is

vector.

constant

"2r.VF.

VF=a.

Hence

constant

Let

3:

Example

d F

2 dr"r

Hence

a"b

VF=

where

and

are

bx(rxa)

of execution

independent

of

preferred. It

the

expressed the former

method

of

The

case.
axes

in
r.

case

and

(#,y, 2) be

be
the

seen

their

has to be resorted

from

temperature

few
at

be
be

Fcan
be

cannot

so

to.
V

matical
in mathe-

pose
Sup-

illustrations.

the

is

therefore

function

when

But

latter method
may

the

be

shall

computing

great importance of the operator

physicsmay

V F.

depends entirely upon

cob'rdinate

terms

"

br"a

"

for

in that

is also shorter

expressed easilyin
*66.] The

methods

particularcase

ease

two

"fr

(rxb).

r"a

(ra"b-br.a)

*T"

'

dr"b

ar.b

"

r""

"

r-b

(ra.b-ar.b)

of these

applied in

dr-a

r"b.

r"a

"

2ra"b

Which

a"b
r"r
i-.*- ". la

VF=

(rxb),

"

vectors.

F
Ar.rtub*

relative

(rxa)

F=

point #,

y,

of

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

146

magnetism is the potentialenergy

in attraction problems
pole; and potential

or
Potential in electricity

is

charge or

unit

per

potential
energy

unit

per

with

taken, however,

mass

the

negativesign.

*67.] It is often convenient

quantityprovided it obeys the

the

operator

an

formal

same

example

for

quantity. Consider

treat

to

laws

as

that

as

partialdifferentiators

_?__?_.
9x* 9y* 9z
JL

far

As

laws

of differentiators

be if instead

scalars

three true

",

a,

For

given.

were

concerned, the formal

are

they would

preciselywhat

are

of these

combinations

as

instance

the commutative

law
d

99

"

"

"

-r"

a,

9y9x

9x9y
the associative law

9/99\/99\9
( ;r- ;r~ 1

;r-

9z\9y9zJ
and

( ir~

TT~

\9x9yj9z

a
"

(a w6)c,

(6 c)

the distributive law

9/9

9 \
-

5zJ

9
9x\dy

99
=

99

9x9y

9x9z

hold for the differentiators

formulae

----

---

is

function

of

propertiesof differentiators.

placed

under

Such

patent

operand

must

the
error

influence
may

9
=

w^
u

such

course

as

where

Of

for scalars.

justas

aiM"

A
of

upon

on

account

scalar function
the

be avoided

be understood

hold

cannot

sign

cannot

9/9

be

differentiators.

of

by remembering
which

of the

is to

that

an

operate.

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

In

the

same

CALCULUS

147

VECTORS

be obtained

great advantage may

way

OF

by

lookingupon
f\

Sf\
*

4-

"

9
as

It is not

vector.

not

are

scalars.

true

course

"

dz

dy

vector, for the coefficients

true

4-

"

It is

differentiator and

vector

operand is always impliedwith

an

concerned

operations are

As

it
like

it behaves

far

as

vector.

of

formal
For

instance

(u 0)

if

and

#, y,

and

regardto
68.] If
A.

are

if

which
A

two

any
be

(V u)

i)

(c M),
of the scalar variables

scalar functions

scalar

(V 0),

independent of

the differentiations

variables with

performed.

are

the

vector

represent any

the

formal

combination

Vis

A-v=^+^ii; ^a4-'
+

provided
This
to

operator A

"

scalar function

is

Al

i+

-42j

A3k.
When

scalar differentiator.

e$ V

0 V

convenience

applied

(x,y, z) it gives a scalar.

0 V

(28)

^r=Al-+A,-+A3-.
Suppose for

"2T"

that A is

unit vector

-+a3C/ vC

a.

(29)

148

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

where
the

to

"

of

derivative

directional

well-known

the

It expresses

the

magnitude

the direction

a.

In the

the normal

to

direction

a.

The

operator a

yieldsthe

of

rate

of F

in

-this direction

is

increase

where
of

value

F, this relation

derivative.

"

applied to

result

same

of the normal.

cosines

the

as

scalar

of

function

direct

product

of

position

the

and

F.

vector

of the

of constant

"3 be the direction

nv

particularcase

surface

the normal

becomes

(30)

(a.V)F=a.(VF).
For

the

as

appears

3y

3x

5s

in

referred

is often written

This

if nv

Consequently (a V)

X, Y, Z.

axes

cosines of the line

the direction

are

"2, "3

av

this

either

reason

be denoted

operationmay

simply by

a.VF

without

parenthesesand

omission.

The

(a V)
a.

On

the

direction

VFin

mass

any

hand

becomes

direction
in

Hence

The

(a

V) Fand

"

derivative

of F in the

(V F) is the component
The

to

directional

the

component

directional

In

derivative

case

sign must

of the

the

from
a

important

"

(V F)

theorem.
direction
of V F

in

of

in

derivative

potentialthe
gravitational
derivative

gives the component

difference of

result

can

an

If Fdenote

that direction.

potentiala

"

equal

that direction.

theorem
in

directional

a.

is

forms

interpreted in

the other

direction

any

be

F is the

different

two

however

may

ambiguity

no

Fbe

of the

of the
force

electric

be observed.

or

potential
per

unit

magnetic

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

Vector

69.]

with

associates

F has

space
of

in

rigid bodies

of

each

position of

the

position in

of

scalar

The
V

Let

to

yieldanother

and

"

be

may

point.

In

point

of

ics
mechan-

of the

body

is

Fluxes

of

heat,

all vector

are

applied

F2 (a, y,z)j+

al

i +

04

"2

"2

a3

9
a

value.

physics.

functions

(a-V)

Vl

to

vector

tion
func-

function.

vector

Vl (x, y, z),i

(a.V)V

each

k.

space.

operator

Then

in

point

electricity,
magnetic force, fluids, etc.,

ponents
com-

F3 (x, y, z)

At

vector

definite

its three

numerous

very

definite

function

space

into

up

occurred.

velocity

of the

function

vector

the

are

has

is

in

y,

F2 (as,
y, z) j

VF

general

x,

broken

functions

Space

'

yj

be

in

z\

v
'

point

may

function

the

Already

F! (x,y,z)i+

of vector

Examples

(x

149

VECTORS

in space

position

each

function

The

(x, y, z)

^i^r *"-"
"*?"

"5"MJ

vector.

of

OF

Position

of

function

which

Functions

vector

v:

"

CALCULUS

k.

9
-

l~a3T"

"

3 y

i +

k
F3 (as,
y, z)

(a

V)

F2j

+(a.V)F3

9Vl
and

(a.V)V

(31)

150
This

"

in the direction

(a

appliod

when

dctiiu'd.
VV

"

Hence

VV
of the vector

meaning

the

but

the

has

yet been

not

interpretationgiven

one

be

at

the

(formal)scalar product and

of V

into V.

They

been

combinations

function

vector

has not

formal

two
present,1

and

operator V

be

may
the

defined

and

VxV

by

treated.

These

uct
(formal)vector prod-

are

and

of the vector

"

it

to

V.

cannot

symbol

present standpointthe expression

70.] Although the operationV

are

"

yp.pt.nr fn notion

ft-

from

have

can

(a.V)

to

the

parentheses. For

without

V)

vector

write

to
possible

It is

a.

of the

derivative

directional

is the

(a V)

function

in the foral

be written

may

Hence

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

is read del dot V; and

k_xV.

V, del

"32"

(33)

cross

V.

500

The

differentiators

"

-"

by

the dot and

the

cross.

=lx+Jx
These

be

may

"

That

beingscalar operators,pass

is

kx.

expressed in terms of the components

of V.
1

definitionof A V will be given in

Chapter VTL

(33)'

Vv Vv Vz

T^^

DIFFERENTIAL

CALCULUS

PV_3F1

Now.

^"

3F2.

^-i

3V

3F3v

9x

9x

9x

3F, i

9x

3F-

3F9
i

151

VECTORS

OF

"

3 y
3V

(34)

9 y

"

^
""

K*j-

9z

3V_3Fj

Then

Q)

c)

tC

ZC

3V

Hence

v.v

^^

Moreover

3F3
-r-2

3V
.

"

3FJ_.

3V=
3s

3s

3s

Hence

\ 3a;
This

may

be written

in the form
i

Vx

of

determinant

3y J

999

(33)'"

9 y

3s

C*K

some

productsof
which

looked

be

may
from

all

means

advisable

symbolic vector
laws

same

"

"

"""

"

as

-""

71.] That

"

just in

so

laws

as

same

the

functions

two

proof
operator V

be

may

is

intrinsic
to

in

Art.

is immediate

propertiesof

V
in

independent of

fact the inference

This
far

symbol obeys the

ordinaryscalar quantities.
and

"

flow of

V
a

some

63

it

that V

invariant

"

the

From

axes.

V and

of choice of

Let

therefore

the
this

represent
In order

axes.

to attribute to the

definite physical meaning such

fluid substance.

vector

that

seen

of

very

forward
straight-

the

was

the choice

have

with

connection

perceive these propertiesit is convenient

function

differentiators

the

as

easilyrecognized. By

indicated

it

9z

Qy

obey the

formulae

regard

to

important physicalmeanings
function

and

operators

remembering

for

differentiator.

vector

"

(33)'

and

9x

as

ix+jx+kx.

practicalpurposes

by

seems

entirelynew

as

upon

symbols

by

V, shall be

for

that the

definition

the

avoided

be

objectionsmay

These

into V.

quitedistinct

But

"

as

simply laying down

x,

appliedto

symbolicvector and introducingV V

respectivelyas the symbolic scalar and vector

againsttreatingV
and

to be

operators are

Vv Vv Vz when expanding the determinant.

standpointsobjectionsmay be brought forward

the functions
From

that the

understood

It is to be

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

152

the

vector

flux

as

or

denote

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

154

"I

[3V

V(x,y,z)

dx\

"

dydz

#V
i

(x,y, z) dy dz

"

"

dx

"

"y

is

these

through

two

quantities. This

of these

sum
algebraic

the

faces is therefore

cube

the

from

outward

flux

total

The

dz.

dy

"X/

simply
i

d
In like

dx

"

dy

/.

Tdx

"

fluid which

The

quotient of

"

"

thus

matter

convergence
a

negativeof
much

as

change
the

the

matter

must

the volume

dx

of

to

is
satisfy

__

the

divergence.Maxwell
the

at

rate

-*.

az

density

employed

fluid approaches
This

is the

the fluid is incompressible,

cube

therefore

3F3
"

unit volume

which

per unit time.

case

is

of

leavinga point per

denote

per
dz of

dy

ay

diminution

be

as

enters

zero.

characteristic differential equation which

fluid must

3F2
+

is

leave the

must

-i
"

cube

This

density.
3F,

divergence.In

of contents

unit volume

point per

the

represents the

per unit time, it is called

term

leaves

3V
-

d y

at which

the rate

by

3V
.

c/a;

Because

this

of diminution

3V
j

dz-

9y

time.

dx

unit

"

dz.

o~

quantity of
rate

dy

is the net

gives the

dx

"

"=

3V

3V
"

This

V.V=i.

"

is therefore

the cube

from

3V
"

the cube

"

total flux out

(i

1.3V

andj

dz

"

the

faces of

pairsof

other

through the

3 V

or

dy dz.

are

The

^ dx

-^"
ox

"

the fluxes

manner

the cube

dy dz

dx

"

"

it. The

total

For

this

any

sible
incompres-

reason

THE

where

DIFFERENTIAL

is the

known

the

as

CALCULUS

flux

of the

OF

fluid.

This

is

obeys the
then

laws

same

D be the electric

To

This

the

of

curl

of

positionin

connected
each

point.

the

easilyobtained
Consider
Take

at

before

sphere?
in

may

At

direction

translational

this it may

have

virtue

of

Finallyit
axis

which

through

an

angular velocity the

infinitesimal
distinct

sphere

translation with
definite rates

of

such

sphere about
off

as

any

of the
a

other

In

whole

words

it

addition

In

that

subjectedto

been

so

fluid.

has become

r.

at

divergence.

deformation

to

it is

no

by

strain

in shape.
slightlyellipsoidal

jis_a whole

rotated

therefore

about

is to say, it may

That

magnitude

or

flux

is neither

curl

moved

amount

dw.

definite

what

have

may

have

been

types of motion

the

that of the

instant

it becomes

angle

of the

spin

velocityof di/dt.

It may

have

may

an

undergone

longer a sphere.

indicates,it is closely

name

infinitesimal

place it
by

function

vector

represents the flux of

the next

In the first

have

simple as

an

certain

is itself a

of
interpretation

definite instant

curl.

name

curl V.

the

point (#, y, z).

If

widely accepted.

that

as

so

nor

the

gave

angular velocityor

the

But

placemen
dis-

0.

Maxwell

As

space.

with

is due
electricity

incompressiblefluid.

"

function

vector

in

hypothesiselectric

an

become

has
V

The

as

operator V

nomenclature

any

displacement,
div D

72.]

Maxwell's

accordingto

by

practically
incompressible. The

great importance of the equation for work

to the fact that

is often

equation

It is satisfied

hydrodynamic equation.

flow of water, since water

155

VECTORS

of

may

which
have

all of them

any

the

axes

have

dw/dt.
one

combined.

velocity. Second,

elongationalong

is

some

of

an

An
three

a
Firsjb,

strain with
of

an

three

ellipsoid.

156

Th0d,

angular velocityabout

an

which

type of motion

third

is

the curl of the flux V

point and

that

The

of

motion

of the

of the

of

is

curl

Vxv

Let

expand

(a

is

product of V,
V
v0 is

constant

v0 +

a1 i +

constant

of the differential

vector

of

the

in the

linear

if it

case

It

treating

was

(Art.

seen

at

the vector

were

it may

of the

(V

any

triple

3a

"

"

a) r.
v0 vanishes.

6.

dz

be
"

dz_
\-

"

f\

r) a

dy

(r\
"l^+a2^+"3^
Therefore

in

"3 k

9y
1-"

"

operator,V

Vxv

fluid presents

(axr).

the term

"

Hence

rigid body

Vx

"

Hence

dx

is

a2

_dx

at

r.

(V

v0 +

vector.

"

of rotation

of

Then

r.

As

Vxv0

a, and

point

sufficiently
complex

operation.

r) formallyas

fact,

formula

the

given by

each

to introduce

51) that the velocityof the particlesof

instant

In

the instantaneous

motion

rigidbody

adequate idea

give an

at

to twice

it is necessary

difficulties than

the curl.

curl.

axis

instantaneous

analyticdiscussion

more

has

It is this

that axis.

angular velocityabout
The

which

axis.

the

given by

is

magnitude equal

definite

vector

of the

direction

the

space

to

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

placed upon
a

the other side

V.

"

"

motion

2a.
of

the

curl

twice

the

rigidbody

velocityat any point is equal to

angular velocityin magnitude and in direction.

CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

The

multiplyinga

v)

of V

expansion

(a

157

VECTORS

2 a,

curl

v.

\ (curlv)

Vo +

be

r) formally may

then

and

out

curl

gVxv

\(V

v0 +

OF

(34)

r.

avoided

applyingthe operator

by
X

to

the result.
in the

73.] It frequentlyhappens, as

just cited, that

applied to
both.

or

Let

of

operators V"V*"

of scalar

combinations
The

useful.

the

be

of

positionin

(u

V.(u
Vx(u

v)
v)

(u v)

V.(wv)

(" v)

Vx

V(u"v)

'

v)

+
+

(u

word

of such

v)

v.

Vu

is necessary

rule followed

By

tions
func-

vector

V.v

(36)

v.

(V

(38)

(39)

u)

(41)

(V

v)1
(42)

u.Vxv
Vv

n.

(40)

Vv

u"

"

"

(37)

wV"v

.?'+"

Vn
x

Vxv

Vwv

V.u

(35)

uV.v.1

of the

the matter

(43)

interpretation

expressionsas

to the nearest
1

found

Vv

Vxu

upon

Vwv,
The

be

vV-u

"

be

functions,

Vu

V"(uxv)=v.Vxu
V

u,

to

Then

space.

and

tion
applica-

have

x,

operation will

functions

scalar

functions,vector

followingrules
w,

of the

case

Art.

term
the

69
"

V)v-

'Vu

Vw.v,

in this book

only.

is that

That

expressionsv

"

the

v.

operator V

applies

is,
u

an(i

"

are

*"

be

interpretedas

158

ANALYSIS

VECTOR
V
V

to which

it,the terms
as

by expanding
vectors

the

"

(V u~)v

"

(V u)

it is

one

term

be

may

terms

follows

which

enclosed

side of the above

in

thesis
paren-

equations.

given

naturally

most

of three assumed

of summation

of it the

means

v.

applied are

formulae

sign 2

The

the

than

more

"

(V u)

expressionsin

the

i,j,k.

By

the left-hand

upon

proofsof

The

appliedto

is to be

If V

unit

will be found

operators V" V*" A

venient.
con-

take

the

form

The

summation

To

demonstrate

extends

over

Vx

#, y,

z.

wv

2.
Hence
To
V

Vx(wv

demonstrate

(u v)
.

Vv

(V

u)

(V

v).

OF

CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

159

VECTORS

'

x)

Now

"v*

2v.^1
2

or

"

^"

-*

Hence

^n"
^

manner

V(n"v)

other formulae

71]

u)

Vu.

"

"

(V xv)

ux

u"Vv.

Bx

+
The

(V

In like

vx(Vxu)

-v-"

2v..-

(V

u)

demonstrated

are

in

(V

v).

similar

manner.

notation1

The

(44)

V(n.v)u
will be used

that in

to denote

is to be

product (u v),the quantity n

"

That
the

"

it in

are

Let

generalif

formula

41.

thereby. The
(V X u).

idea of V

w2j

V
partial

certain amount

so

constant.

as

only partiallyupon
is to

be

which

which

are

carried

out

after

occur

for the

constant

parenthesisas subscripts.

to

of

(u v)n 's surelyno

'

regarded

functions

after the

MJ i +

notation of
But

of

functions

written
u

This idea and

the

lost

out

number

any

those
parenthesis,

differentiations

of

In

product (u v).

partiallyupon

is carried

is, the operationV

to the

applying the operatorV

w3k,

speak

may

be avoided

compactness
more

and

by means
simplicityis

complicatedthan

"

or

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

160
then

M.V

UIVI

u2v%

usv3

f\

and

(u v)
"

0*ivi

u*v*

But

and

":t

V(u" v)

Hence

Vw}

v1

v2 V

w2

But

V(tt.")m

"1Vv1

waVi?a + M8V"l

and

V(u.v)v

-y1Vw1

v2Vw2

Hence

(u v)

This

formula

"

(u v)n
the

corresponds to

v3V^3.

(u v)

"

(44)'

(45)

"

v.

in the

followingone

tion
nota-

of differentials
d

(u v)
"

or

formulae

The
written
with

(u v)
"

(u v)n +

"

"

followingmanner,
correspondingformulae
V
V-

(M
(n

(35)-(43) given

in the

the

v)

(u + v)

v)
=

"

"

as

in differentials

v~)u+

V.

(u

v)u

V.

(u

from

is obvious

(u

v.

(Art. 73)

above

(u v)T

v)u

+
V

(u

(u
(u

be

analogy

").

may

(35)'

v)y

(36)'

v)v

(37)'

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

162
if V, u,

formallyas

ux(Vxv)
second

The

which

upon

"

v.

"

parenthesisin

(V

But

operand.

an

as

v) is

be

must

it stands.
has

operator V

operate. It therefore

to

that it shall have

of the

"

The

is not.

first term, however,

The

u"vV

as
capable of interpretation

is

term

Then

all real vectors.

were

nothing

transposed so

being

outside

for the differentiations.

constant

Hence
u

and
If

be

the

vector

"

function

product of

Consider

(u v)u
.

(a v)a +

the

of

(x +

by (25)'

(46)

(47)

dv

dr.

d y,

d vz

dv3

dr"

Vv8.

of

direction

plus

the

a.

z)
v

"

Vt"2 j

+
d

"

(",y, z).

v8k).

ve

v)dr + (V

v)

the derivative

dr"Vv1
Vfl2

d VB k.

dr"

(d

"

v3k

(V vti

dvz

neighboringpoints.

v2

d vl i +

to

into the direction

y +

#,

dv1

Hence

By (46)"

v.

(a,y, z)

vli

equal

dx, y + dy, z + dz)

v

v)

in that

at two

(x + d

Let

Hence

"

derivative

is

vector

the curl of

the values

and
v

(V

"

But

"

in the direction

projectionof

(n v)n

the fact that the directional

expresses

of

v)

unit vector, say a, the formula

a

vector

(V

r.

(48)

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

Or if v0 denote
value

at

the dels,and

(d

v0 +

expressionof
of

at the

displacementd

the

of

That

derivative

of

and

the

For

"

"

"

given point,

the expansion

by Taylor'stheorem,

is constant

(r v)v
v

v0 at

+/'("")"* *-

"

(r v)v

(49)

dr.

analogous to

variable

one

is

(r v) when

is

v)

of its value

/ (a) =/(*o)
The

163

VECTORS

point (#,y, z)

v)at + (V

"

in terms

scalar functor

of

the value

OF

neighboringpoint
v

This

CALCULUS

is

equal to

v.

v.

(V

r)

v,

999
V

Vl1

"

Vr

v"

TT-

vli

V
Hence

In like
vector

be

VBd

^3k

0~
9z

v,

0.

"

v.

of the finite vector

r, an

infinitesimal

substituted,the result still is

V

By (47)

T~+

9 y

v2j

(r v)v

if instead

manner

V2*

(d

"

v)v

v.

V(dr.v)dr+

v0 +

V(dr-v)
Hence

(d

V(rfr.v)d"
v)dr

"

(V

(d

+
"

v)

rfr

V^r-vV

v)

"

v.

:
Substituting

+ !(Vxv)xdr.
v=4v0+ ^V(rfr.v)

This

gives another

convenient

form

It is also

of

(49)

more
slightly

which

is sometimes

symmetrical.

(50)
more

164
*

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

76.]

Consider

velocityof
a

the fluid at the

point of

each

this

(#, yt
the

small

"

z,

f)

time

be

the
round
Sur-

t.

sphere.

c2.

v0 +

8 1 the

of time

"

v.

pointsof

this

spherewill

have

the distance

moved

(v0 +
The

is
sphere the velocity
v

In the increment

Let

point (#,y, z) at

point(z0,y^ z0)with
d

At

fluid.

moving

point at

"

will have

the center

v)

8 1.

moved

the distance

v08t.
The

distance
the

upon

between

sphere

the

of radius

interval 8 t has become

To

from

the

dr

The

has

result will show

been

fluid
A
may

90, and

transformed

duringthe
more

time

"

solved

the solution

were

of the

commencement

8 1

d r' it is necessary

Vv

to

St,

r.

for d

into

an

ellipsoidby

the method

by

substituted

that the infinitesimal

of

into the second.

sphere

the

motion

of the

8 1.

definite account

be obtained

points that

of that interval

dr"

be

equation may

Art. 47, page

the

at

extremity of

c2
first

the

equations

dr'

The

at the end

find the locus of the

eliminate

and

center

of the

by making

use

change that

of

has taken

equation (50)

place

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

or

of the

The

v0 +

first term

V(dr.v)dr+(Vx

v0 in these

the infinitesimal

is

sphere

velocityequal to
of the motion.

The

moving

v0.

that

the

This

as

The

sphere

middle

is

known
becomes

undergoing

if vv vv vs be

rotation

set

be chosen

and

about

with

half the

an

an

lar
angu-

magnitude of

the

sphere

v1 +

this term

d y V

dr

v) x
is

is

undergoing
virtue

by

v2 -f d

fairlyobvious

of three
such

that

of which

that

it

that

03,
of

at

any

in the

tions
direc-

given point

mutually perpendicular axes

at

mation
defor-

equal to

the components
respectively
It is

i, j, k.

may

one

homogeneous strain

as

ellipsoidal.For

(#""y"i zo) a

term

fact that

the

expresses

taneous
instan-

an

is the translational element

V(dr.v)rfr-(Vx

or

with

last term

velocityequal in magnitude to
v.

whole

axis in the direction of curl

instantaneous

the fact that

equations expresses

curl

dr,

v)x

|(Vxv)xdr ^curl
shows

165

VECTORS

v)xdr.
[V(dr.v)dr+|(Vxv)x
dr]+|(Vx

v0 +

OF

equation (49)
v

CALCULUS

point Vvj, Vv2, Vv3

i,j,k
are

re-

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

166

simply

becomes

referred to the

point whose coordinates

infinitesimal sphere are
The

will have

moved

of
totality

to

the

the

pointsupon

into

over

which

the

totalityof points

the

-2

statements

possess have

before

made
which

an

therefore

(Art.72) concerning the

infinitesimal

succession.

This

will

forming derivatives
expressionsfound
axes

by

The
and

thus
V

of fluid may

appliedseveral times
correspond in a general way to
be

may

order

higher than

repeatingV
itself is.

the

will all be

There

are

first. The

ent
independ-

six of these

order.

(x, y, z) be

derivative V V
a

an

because

dels of the second

Let

of

sphere

three

demonstrated.

been

now

77.] The symbolic operator V

of the

ellipsoidof

"2

"/2

types of motion

in

the

upon

equation is

~2

The

8 t it

sphere
"

goes

the

position

new

of

this,velocity. In the time

with

is therefore endowed

center

dz

dy,

d x,

The

expression above

the

Then

them.

spectivelyparallelto

scalar function

is

vector

function

divergence. Therefore
V.VF,

VxVF

of
and

positionin
hence

has

space.
a

curl

DIFFERENTIAL

THE

the

are

The

from

second

be

of

the

terms

that if

The

first

which

be

may

VxVF=curlVF.

(52)

function V
V

"

when

versely
con-

VF,

scalar function

expression V

All

curl,i. e. if

ho

possesses

0, then

some

of i,j, k.

in terms

is,

This

curl.

no

(Art. 83) it will be shown

curl W
of

That
identically.

possesses

function

vector

W=

V vanishes

Later

out.

is the derivative

order

(51)

scalar

any

cancel

second

167

VECTORS

V.VF=divVF

by expanding

seen

OF

V.

expressionV

the derivative
may

of the

derivatives

two

obtained

CALCULUS

F.

expanded

in

of

terms

i,j, k becomes

C/

Symbolically,
The

operator

"

"

Cf

C/

"

"

is therefore

the

well-known

operator of

Laplace. Laplace'sEquation

c/

becomes

in the notation

ic~

here

ci

(53)

z-

"

y~

employed
(53)'

V.VF=0.
When
a

applied to

scalar

function

F the

scalar function
which

operator V

the

is,moreover,

"

yields

divergence of

the

derivative.
Let

be

the
p

flow

f is

the

temperature in

density,and

body.
the

Let

be

the

specificheat.

ductivity,
con-

The

168

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

The

rate at which

unit

time

is V

of

increment

The

f.

"

unit volume

leaving a point per

heat is

per

temperature is

=-.

=-,v-vr.

"

dt

equation for

is Fourier's

This

Let V

be

operator V

The

the rate

function, and

vector

pk

of

"

of

change of temperature.

Tv Vv Vz

Laplace

its three

be

may

ponents.
com-

applied to

V.

(54)
If

function

vector

its three
order

scalar

of V.

The

has

"

VV.V
The

curl V

and

and

Of

these

the

of
divergence

83)

vector

function

"

some

(55)
a

curl,

div curl V

(56)

curl curl V.

vanishes

of any
x

in terms

vector

function

This

zero.

of i,j, k.
if the

i. e.
identically,

0, then .W

(57)

That
identically.
is

vector

conversely that

curl

derivative

vanishes

div W

is the curl of

"

the curl
"

expressions V

it will be shown

second

VxVxV.

by expanding V

seen

"

divergenceand

V-VxV,
V

dels of the

VdivV.

has in turn

Other

the divergenceand
by considering

divergenceV

of

Laplace's Equation, each

does.

components

be obtained

may

satisfies

V.

may

Later

is,
be

(Art.

divergenceof
if

curl V,

It

of V" Vw
is interesting.
78.]The geometricinterpretation
depends upon a geometric interpretationof the second

derivative of

scalar function
of

Let ui be the value

to

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

170

That

xl and

Let

point x0.

of

derivative

find the second

Let

with

scalar variable

one

point xt.

at the

of the

it be

required

respect to

at

points equidistantfrom

x2 be two

x.

the
x0.

is,let
x

"

Then

"

"

is the ratio of the difference between

and

pointsx1

the value

x2 and

distance of the

of

x2 from

pointsxv

dja

a.

of

the average

at the

of the

at x0 to the square

x0.

That

LiM

a==0
is

a*

proved by Taylor'stheorem.
easily
Let

three

be

scalar function

of

positionin

mutually orthogonallines i, j,

space.

and

Choose
the

evaluate

expressions

Let o!2and

x1 be two

x0 ; a;4 and

xs, two

x0 ; xt and

#6, two

pointson

j at the

points on
pointson

the line i at

k at

the

Lai
.

5"5

LlM
_

a=0

_J

distance
distance

same

same

distance

'-",

from

from

from

x0.

THE

DIFFERENTIAL

CALCULUS

OF

171

VECTORS

Add:
2

2_

LDI
-

a=OL
As

and

this

V"

be

expression may

then

still

for

of the

independent

are

evaluated

different

for

ii"\+ w2 +
X

-w=
a

of

"

of axes,

"

terms

"

at the

time

same

direction

in every

point

axes

infinite and

become

"

sets

set

By adding together all

etc.

one,

different

chosen,

results

these

Let

particularaxes

let the

different

issuingfrom

x0.

The

fraction
u1 +

u2 +

""

Qn

'

terms

6n

approachesthe

then

sphere

by

of radius

value of

average

upon

surrounding the point

the surface

this

Denote

x0.

of

"""

"

of the

equal to

is

of

excess

the center

at
same

If

six times

on

constant

be

surface

to the square

reasoning held
u

the

the

factor

in

the limit

case

sphere above

of the radius
u

is

temperature of
which

of

approached by the

a
a

depends

vector

body
upon

of the

ratio

the value

sphere.

The

function.
V"Vw

the

(except for
material

of

the

172

equal

body)

is

77).

If V"Vwis

small

sphere

The
of

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the

steadyflow

be

scalar

vector.

the average

the value

of

of the

that

Laplace'sEquation.
to

"

vector

"

Consequently

function

the center.

at

is

vector

with

of

solution

the function

on

In

whether

"

The

is

the

vector

may

it be scalar

whether

additions

of

excess

infinitesimal

an

case

average.

SUMMARY

that

steady

surface
function

in

it

are

additions.

vector

case

remain

for

dispersionis proportionalto

value

average

If

the

0.

function.

of
dispersion
The

concentration

name

vector

or

be called the

above

the

gave

"

is,the temperature is

Maxwell

the

center.

must

center

is

That

or

In

condition

the

the

at

warmer.

the

at

temperature

temperature

growing

Evidently therefore

constant.

flow

is

sphere

the

temperature (Art.
temperature upon

average

the

greater than

is

of

of increase

rate

positivethe

of

center

the

to

respect

of the
and

is
to

function

t is

tangent

whose

terminus

to

of

the

the

scalar

t the

described

curve

is

equal

curve

per

derivatives of the components

III

of

unit

vector

direction

by

to the rate

is

the terminus

of advance

change
are

of

derivative

quantity whose

vector

magnitude

along

CHAPTER

OF

the

of

t.

of
The

components

of the derivatives.

d^r_dnrl. dn r2
TT"~~dl** ~TrJ
A

combination

differentiated

of vectors

just as

in

the differentiations must

dn rz

Trk*

of vectors

may

be

ordinaryscalar analysisexcept

that

or

be

performed in

and

situ.

scalars

THE

DIFFERENTIAL

CALCULUS

OF

d b

_(.."),_."

or

(a

b)

"

d(axb)
and

so

forth.

d b

b +

"

daxb

"

(3)'

b,

(4)'

axdb,

differential of

The

(S)

.._,

173

VECTORS

unit vector

is

lar
perpendicu-

to that vector.

The

derivative

curve

which

the unit

tangent

the

of
the

with

terminus

to the

along which

curve

vector

the

directed

curves

is

of

respect

supposed

the

to

that

derivative

direction
whose

of t with

is normal

to

to increase.

"""

respect to the
the

curve

arc

the

on

is

vector

concave

of the

the curvature

magnitude is equal to

is

part of the

"-*"
The

of

describes

vector

toward

arc

whose

side

and

curve.

d*r

dt

C-d~s~d^'
The

of
tortuosity

unit

normal

arc

to

the

osculatingplane

with

respect

of the
to

the

s.

^r=-^x^_i.

magnitude of

"

d s*

ds\ds

as

The

derivative

is the

in space

curve

the

).

"

(ii)

C/

is
tortuosity

j-4341

cL

cL

70
/T

(.to

ff

"

/"/ C
(* o

O
"

(13)

If

positionof

the

denote

'-"-*

"15"

"="=*

"16"

acceleration

The
which

of

rate

and

of the

change

path,and

of the

the

upon

proof

point of
axis

the

of the

two

tangent and

the

velocityv

of

depends
the

the

upon

particlein
the

particleand

the

of

components

perpendicularto

is

its

tangent

the

which

hodograph,
a

central

ture
curva-

fixed

particular motion

acceleration.

instantaneous

an

in

Application

of

rigidbody

rotation

about

point.

respect

differentiation.

in

(19)

the motion

that

is fixed is

through the

vz C.

t +

theorem

Integrationwith
of

into

up

velocityof

circle,parabola,or under

an

path.

Applications to

one

broken

scalar

to the

d2

the other

of which

depends

be

may

parallelto

is

one

t the time,
moving particle,

acceleration,

the

A
velocity,

the

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

174

to

scalar

is

merely the

inverse

Application to finding the paths

due

to

given accelerations.
The
space

operator V

gives a

applied to

vector

increase

of that

the rate

of that

whose

function
increase

scalar

function

direction is that
and

per

whose
unit

of

of most

magnitude

change

of

positionin
is

rapid

equal to

positionin

that

direction

"22"

THE

The

CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIAL

defined

the

by

of

invariant

is

operator

the

175

VECTORS

OF

It

i, j, k.

axes

equation
(24)

",

VV.dr

or

of

Computation

of
V

far

the

as

formal

the

be

If

in

the

It

laws

unit

direction

of

vector

"

of

of

is

that

vector

vector

the

currence
oc-

vector,

laws

9/ 9

of

just

vectors

9 / 5 y,

#,

vector

9[ dz

in

obey

quantities

is the

directional

derivative

of

a.

F=

a.VF=(a"V)
If

ing
dependof

Illustration

formal

the

scalar

methods

two

fictitious

as

differentiators

scalar

by

physics.

upon

obeys

(25)'

(25)'.

mathematical

in

and

(21)

dV.

derivative

looked

be

may

differentiator.
so

the

equations

upon

be

may

function
function

"

(32)'

*.

+
3

derivative

directional

jx

(30)

(VF).

a.

+
d

the

J.

=ix

"

direction

+
d

is

the

in

(33)'

kx,
d

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

176

Proof that V

of
divergence

is the

"

and

V, the curl

of V.
V

V
V
V

(w
(u

"

(u

v)

(w v)

Vx(wv)

"

Vwxv

V(u.v)=vVu

(u

Introduction

V-

(37)

v,

(38)

v,

(36)

v,

(39)

v,

"

(40)

wVxv,
+

vx

(Vxu)

ux

(Vxv),

-Vv

u-n

(42)
uV"

upon

v.

which

"

performed

(41)

u.Vxv,

partialdel,V (u v)n, in

of the
are

"

ii"Vv

v)=v"Vu

V-

V"(uxv)=vVxn
Vx

(35)

V0,

V.

"

"

v)

curl V.

v)

4-

div V,

(u v~)

"

(43)

ferentia
the dif-

hypothesisthat

the

is

constant.

If

be

unit vector

The
of

"

expansion of
a

the directional

any

or

v0 +

"

function

which

(d

"

derivative

v)a + (V

vector

point (a;,,,
y# "0) at
v

(a

(46)

v)u-n"Vv.

(Vxv)=V(u"

nx

it takes

v)dr + (V

on

v)

a.

neighborhood

in the

the value

of v0 is

rfr,

(49)

dt.

(50)

v)

|v0+ V(^r.v)+^(Vxv)

Applicationto hydrodynamics.
The

dels of the second

order

are

(47)

six in number.

178

VECTOR

and

perpendicular

results
If

4.

where

r,

for the
radius
these

Show

is

is

of the

velocityand

function
a

where

direct

d, *e,f

in

are

of the

in

the

expressions

acceleration

along

of

Art.

in

Compute

constant

vectors.

equal

to

and

"

(r

Fwhen

VV,

when

the

Reduce
y,

#,

63

z.

that

the

axes.

for

computing

find

of which

term

"

Fis

a)

e,

r2,

r,

t,

or

-,

VV

is

V, and

equal

to -?

and

show

in

terms

"

"

r2

8.

space,

origin, "f"the

in terms

given

obtain

suggested

"

V"

the

case

(r r) r,

Compute

7.

method

the

tripleproduct [ab c] each

of a;, #,
=

reduce

parallelof latitude.

method

of

and

path

coordinates

ordinaryform

the

second

the derivative

particleparallel

from

polar angle

independent

the

By

6.

polar

point

meridian, and

the

operator V

of

6 the

expressionsto

5.

of

distance

components
vector,

to the

tangent

system

angle,and

meridianal

moving

form.

"", 6 be

is the

the

to

the usual

to

of

accelerations

the

Obtain

3.

ANALYSIS

when

that

is

in these

r3

cases

9.

show
10.

the formula

Expand
that

they

Show

(58)
x

vanish

and

Prove

"

in terms

VxV=VV.V-V.

A.V(V"W)

Vx

of

i,j,k and

(Vx

of i,j, k that
VV.

VA.

and

(VxV)

(Art. 77).

by expanding
Vx

11.

VF

holds.

W)w

VW+WA-

VV,

IV

CHAPTER

INTEGRAL

THE

Let

space.

Let

C be any

drawn

from

Divide

the

79.]

(z,y, z) be

the

originto

at

pointof

some

limit of this

in number, each

sum

when

"

the

0 and

curve

positionin

the radius vector

the

and

curve.

From

dr.

the element

the

the value

"

r.

elements

approachingzero,

of

points of

these elements

2 W

along the

function

in space, and

product of

thus

VECTORS

into infinitesimal elements

curve

of the function

The

OF

vector

curve

fixed

some

of the scalar

sum

CALCULUS

dr become

is called the line

infinite

of
integral

is written

dr.

If
and

fw"
J

The
the

definition
which

describe the
r

dr=

(1)

Jo

definition of the line

specifyin
d

have

curve

integraltherefore

usually given.

It is however

direction the radius vector

during

the

oppositesignswhen

coincides with

necessary
is

For
integration.
the

curve

supposed

to
to

the elements

is described

in oppo-

180

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

If

site directions.

by

the other

C and

'dr

"

-o

case

surface
such

closed

the

curve

C is

the

curve

will

always

that

the

direction

denoted

by

(7,

"

/W
In

descriptionbe

of

method

one

dr.

W*

bounding

curve

be

described

regarded as

enclosed

area

portion of

in

positive

appears

(Art. 25).
If f denote

force which

the

the

point to point along

when

its

point

of

point r

The

function

scalar

r0 to the

F(z,
is

point r

of the function
That

line

F(r)

definition

r*
/
dV=
v

at

the

the initial

point

integral

dr.

the

derivative

point

the

between
and

of

point

the values
the

at

from

curve

any

the difference

equal to

the force

by

point r0.

is,

By

z) along

"(#,y, z)

from

from

vary

r0

integralof

y,

to

done

is the line

Ff.

JO

moved

applicationis

Cf.dr
Theorem

supposed

(7,the work

curve

C to its final

r0 of the curve

be

may

F(r0)

F(r)

F(r.)

F(*f

V F=

y,

")

(""

yw

O-

d V

F(a,y,")

F(*0,y0,"). (2)

r
o

Theorem,

ifi^ single valued

closed

curve

The

show

line

scalar

integral of

function

of

the

derivative

position

taken

V F

of

around

a
a

vanishes.

fact that the

is denoted
To

The

integralis
by writinga circle at

taken

around

the foot of the

closed

curve

integralsign.

"

0.

(3)

INTEGRAL

THE

initial point r0 and

The

the final

F(r)

Hence

OF

CALCULUS

181

VECTORS

coincide.

point r

Hence

F(r0).

by (2)

Jo
Theorem

closed

Conversely if the

function

is the

vanishes, W

curve

I W
*/

The

line

any

fixed

"

r0 be

of

derivative

about

some

every
scalar

0.

show

Let

of
integral

(x, y, z) of positionin space.

Given

To

line

F.

point in

and

space

variable

point.

integral

f W-rfr
o

independentof

is

paths

G and

to r0 is

G.
path of integration

G' be drawn

of the

consists

the

closed

path G

between
from

r0 to

Hence

curve.

r.

and

the

The

path

let any
curve
"

two

which

G' from

by hypothesis
r

r0 and

For

"G'

/F
-G'

iw*dr

Hence
J

Hence
of

the value

and
integration

of the

*J

c'

fw"dr.

c'

integralis independent of the path

depends only upon the final point r.

182

VECTOR

of the

value

The

the

"

O,

between

taken

integralbe

function

scalar

coordinates

whose

point r

f.
Let

therefore

integralis

the

positionof

the

ANALYSIS

are

of

a:, y, z.

2).

y,

near
pointsinfinitely

two

together.
But

by

d V.

work

i,j,k be chosen

axes

done

from

moves

by

the

force

f"dr

(z

the

force

exists
is

Evidentlyif F
by adding to

equal
is
V

one

any

scalar

z0)

function

point

(ZQ

of

the force-function is

V=w=g(z0-e).
Or
The

more

simply

force is

"
"

VF=

g
-

z.

k.

Then

application

dz.

V
force-function

position V
the

another
force-function,

arbitraryconstant.

of

Let

z).

"

from
of

near

gravity.

fg

"

"/

each

at

"

mass

is

positionr

force f is said to be derivable

there

of

point

its

gk"dr

"

unit

upon

that k is vertical.

so

when

to

Hence

when

the

positionr0

"

"/

The

acts

the influence

of the earth under

system of

The

the force which

f be

the surface

the

demonstrated.

is therefore

theorem

80.] Let

Hence
The

V*

definition

derivative
may

In

such

the

that
VF".

be obtained
above

ample
ex-

THE

The
V

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS

and

necessary

sufficient condition

(x, y, z) exist,is that the work

moves
point of application

The

work

done

by

If

this

integralvanishes
f

when

only by

done

work
closed

unit

to

the

and

the work

done

can

particleis

For

exist.

moved

around

the
in

zero.

never

is directed

mass

closed

every

const.

force-function

of attraction

force

zero.

friction when

circuit is

The

its

constant.

by

circuit be

around

force-function

The

there is friction
no

case

taken

V
In

the force when

VF==VM;

vanishes.
integral

differ

force-function

I f'di.

converselyif

the

the force is

contour

And

by

closed

183

VECTORS

that

done

around

OF

exerted

toward

inverse

by

the
of

square

fixed
the

fixed
mass

mass

and

distance

upon

is proportional

between

the

masses.

M
f

r.

"

rs
This

of universal

is the law

It is easy
function
of the

to

see

this force

that

rr
w

"

coordinates

the work

Then

M.

mass
attracting

M
c

T"dr.

-r-

rs

Jr
o

But

"

"

"

"-""cM

cM

2
r

stated

is derivable

origin of

the

Choose

V.

gravitationas

d r,

done

by

from
at

is

Newton.
a

force-

the center

184

By

equal

had

where

rv

r2, r3,

from

the

The

would

made

therefore

may

be

derivable

carried

exists the work

closed

loss of energy.

function

exists

space.

above

be

any

elements.

which

the

normal
is

to the surface

equal to

the

surface.

is at
at

to

be

if

force-

a
a

point is

consequently there

bodies

force-

the

From

system.

moving

conservative

function

vector

Divide
elements

represented by

direction

forces

under

system

"

collide.

be any

These

of

system for which

conservative

do not

Let

be

and

zero

gravitationform

(x,y, 2)

may

law

forces when

it is clear that

Let W

and

the

converted
The

motion.

Conversely

mechanical

long as they
S

is

been

requires the

by

curve

the law of universal

81.]

done

is called

example justcited

so

during the

is moved

the assumption

on

has

energy

requires

point
is

unit

"

energy

This

zero.

force-function.

when

forces

"

of mechanical

therefore

energy

attracted

Mz, Ms

Mv

shall be

of energy

of

around

at least

the

by

the

of

distances

the

are

"

curve

from

function

"

"

forms

conservation

Mv

been

have

of the mechanical

none

Mv

__

done

closed

into other

plane

be

may

attractingbodies

attractingmasses

work

the

that

no

constant

force-function

of the conservation

law

around

is

the

units

several

been

force-function

that

of

as

If there

mass

ANALYSIS

The

unity.

to

chosen

the

choice

proper

VECTOR

each

that

magnitude

of

this surface
may

be

infinitesimal

point

the

area

into

regarded
vectors

direction

point and of which

of the

positionin

the

finites
inas

of

of the

tude
magni-

of the infinitesimal

186

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

gives the

the surface
the

volume

time.

which

matter

unit

per

which
unit

per unit

at

rate

time

which

of that substance

amount

time

It

was

leaving

closed

The

f.

"

(Art. 71) that

point

bounded

by

is the

ordinary tripleintegral

of matter

surface

" per

V*tdv.

the

Hence

of

flux taken

integralof
enclosed

the

surface

the

in the

out

surface

flux

and

taken

surface
the

over

tegral
in-

volume

the

space

"

fff

Written

(6)
connectinga

closed

over

divergence of

the

by

relation

important

very

unit

per

total amount

leaves

space

passingthrough

before

seen

was

was

is

notation

(7)

of the

ordinary calculus

this

becomes

\f[Xdydz+

where

X, F, Z

theorem

is

components

is treated

is known

as

integral(taken
function
normal

and

to that

the volume

three

dx

the

Zdxdy]

familiar when

each

The
.

of the three

separately.

dy

fff*^dxdy

Gauss's
over

components of the flux

perhaps still more

ff
This

the

are

Tdzdx

Theorem.
closed

cosine

surface

of
integral

makes
the

It states

surface) of

of the
with

that the surface

the

angle which
the

(8)'

dz.

X-axis

partialderivative

product
the
is

of

exterior

equal

to

of that function

THE

with

respect

that

surface.

If the

CALCULUS

INTEGRAL

to

taken

surface

S be

throughout the
the

CC
d

surface

187

VECTORS

volume

bounding

enclosed

is the volume

f.d"

V.f

of that

infinitesimal

an

dv

cube.

sphere or

Hence

(9)

J J

dv

This
V

"

equation

limit

be taken

may

the

From

this definition which

volume

approaches

propertiesof

all the
to make

order

of
definition

the

of the

"

than

from

82.]
function
taken

consequently
Theorem

taken

by

over

That

is

This

from

interestingmore

the
In

develop

to

of vectors

treated.

face
sur-

that volume

it is necessary

be

the

to

evidentlyindependent of
divergencemay be deduced.

surface

the closed

"/

"/

in

of different

of
integral

integralof

curve

before

definition
theoretical

*J

be

vector

function

vector

that surface.

(11)

of Stokes.

all branches

proofswill

Cw-dr.

W-rfa=

theorem

the curl of

that

bounding

is the celebrated

great importance
number

equal

its limit.

integralcalculus

to the line

equal

around

The

f/Vx
This

f is

divergence

practicalstandpoint.

is

is

the

is

differentiating
operators can

of V

as

zero

of this definition

use

at least the elements

the

divergenceof a vector function

approached by the surface integralof f
bounding an infinitesimal body divided

when

axes

as

The

f.

by

cube

sphere or

where

OF

On

account

of mathematical

given.

of its

physicsa

188
First Proof
S

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

(Fig. 32).

Consider

by (50),Chap. III.,the

Then

where

\\W0

the

symbol

it from

of W

(W

"

has been

which

r)

(V

23 upon

the

at

is to be used

FIG.

be

vertex

W)

introduced

taken

the surface

W0.

neighboringpoint is

value at any

integralof

integration.The

triangle1

small

value

the

Let

j
,

for the sake

of distinguishi

the

of

as

around

element
the

triangle

32.

Cw-di=lfw
t/A

"/

f (V

W)

Sr-dr.

*J A

Thefirstterm

\ Cwo.dr "W0. f dr
=

"/

vanishes

because the

this

case

vanishes

small

by

t/

of
integral
is zero.
triangle,

virtue of

(3) page

180.

around
The

second

Hence

closed
term

in
figure,

THE

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS

and

dot

the

When

equal

is

to this side.

is the

and

side 31,

when

di

in the

opposite direction.

When

1 at which

W=

the

is twice

W0

BT

are

of

denotes

surface.

Sr

collinear.

is the

is

B r
triangle,

is also

di

Hence

In

the vector
a

line

like

manner

side.7#, but

same

product

drawn

Hence

triangle. This

2$r
where

product

the

from

the
area,

taken

vanishes.

the

product

vertex

is the

moreover,

Hence

123.

positivearea

the

to this side 23.

of the

area

1 2 of

23, S

is the side

tripleproduct

side

Hence

because

vanishes

the

to

in this

/VxW'Srxdr.
"/

equal

cross

fw"dr=4
J

189

VECTORS

=l-

Interchange the

OF

the

For

d a,

of the

positivearea

the

relation

di

infinitesimal

triangular element

triangle therefore

the

/"

W*dr

W"

d*

holds.
the

Let
For
be

surface

convenience
made

up

of

S
let

the

be
the
sides

divided

into

curve

which

of

these

elementary triangles.
bounds

triangles.

the

surface

Perform

the

integration
A

around

each

of these

trianglesand

add

the results

together.

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

190

second

The

member

-8

is the surface

In

of
integral

adding togetherthe

those

Hence

which
surface
which
curve

of

surface

the

in the

all the terms

arise from
S

cancel

arise from

those

of W

along the

Hence

sides

Hence

the

oppositedirections.

the

only

sum

make

which

up

reduces

sum

bounds

which

curve

in

triangleslyingwithin

of the

leaving in

out,

along the bounding

lie

twice

mentary
ele-

sum

those sides

of the surface.

which

traced

are

in the first

occur

that all the sides of the

to notice

trianglesexcept
curve

which
integrals

line

it is necessary

member

the curl of W.

the

the

terms

bounding

the

to

the

line integral

the surface

S.

1
=/w

W.dT.

t/o

Second
contour

Proof
drawn

is continuous

FIG.

C' be another
Consider

takes

place

passing

contour

C be any

upon

and

to C.

in
33.

Let

the

such

not

cut

itself.
near

S which

integralof

the contour

that C

contour

the variation

in the line

from

C".

does

closed

surface

It will be assumed

(Fig.33).
Let

to the

THE

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS

"

(W "c"r)=

8 d

"

expressiond (W

The

value

the

difference

the

beginning

integralis

"

integralof

between

of

path

around

"

therefore

at the

integration. In

the closed

this
Hence

C.

contour

end

f*

Jc

//"
W

8 d

"

and

I SW

iw

C\

SW"dr

"di=

d W

-=

-=

9 W^
and

dW*Sil.

"

9W
d y +

"

-=

-z

d 2,

"

"y z

ay

9W
i

"

8 r,

I^W"8r,

"

9W

"

9W
d W

dr

"

9W
But

"

S I W*di=

or

I d W

"

"

"

-^

"

9 W^

-^"
"y z

*ST.

perfectdifferential.

of W

I dW

"

expressionwill

the values

of the

taken

that

dr.

r.

its form

r) is by

"

d S

c
I oW

/W"dSr=/d(W"8r)

The

of the

S d

"

8 d

/W

and

Hence

Jc
r

191

VECTORS

c
J C'

/r

OF

"

d r,

and

case

be
at

the

192

values

Substitutingthese

/r

W-dr=t

(3
i x

( 3

by (25)

But

ax

similar terms

5 W

In

Fig. 33
along the curve
C".

curve

coincides

curve

with

"

"

"

-^

in y and

from

"

r.

0 and
Hence

S
S

that

seen
r

is the

is the distance
d

is

equal

from
to the

between

of

element
the

curve

area

of

C and

arc

C to
an

mentary
ele-

C' upon

the

is
X

Cw*dr=

di

d",

TV

W"da.

startingat a point 0
the contour
bounding S.

in

The

expand
line

the value

at the

IW-dr

Jo

point 0

until

it

integral

fW'di
will vary

the

3 W

similar terms

Br

Let

jix-^""Srxdr

it will be

That

"

parallelogramincluded
S.

or

"

-="

/CW'di=J

surface

z.

3 W

r)

"

in y and

111

page

3 W\
"=

9 W

9 W

\-^--dr i-Sr--

the

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

to the value

194

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

of V

definition

plane
through
d

area

and

with

the

theorem

P,

finitesi
in-

an

plane

small

axes

to

Pass

P.

point

it,concentric

in

draw

Stokes's

Consider

area.

of

independent

is

by applying

be obtained

i,j,k may

which

circle of

a.

W-da

Vx

f W"dr.

(13)

Jo

When
line

has the

be

integralwill

between

will

as

equal

be

the

of the

the

angle

For

unity.

to

of

value

cosine

for the

maximum,

and

direction

same

this

of da,

value

Jo
Hence

the

curl V

of space

point
which

with

integral of

the

that line

integralof

the circle about

given

one

from

theoretical

Stokes's

point

for

than

is

the

rather

Let

equal

be

It is

area

per unit

fact learned

force around
of the

rate

the circuit.

of
The

its

converse

of
of

area

like the

the

electric

force, B the

C the

experiment that

closed

circuit

total

flux

is

the

equal

force

of

duce
dein

magnetic
electricity

density).

current

magnetic

total electromotive
around

to

electro-magneticfield

of the

from

of the electric force taken

the

be used

may

(i. e. the

of

nitude
mag-

interestingmore

is

time

change

by

definition

divergence

induction, H the magnetic force, and

per unit

divided
This

centric
con-

magnitude

the

to

in

practicalconsiderations.

from

or

The

maximum.

value

equations

simple manner.

is

plane

circle

small

each

at

that

to

about

it is taken.

81

theorem

Maxwell's

taken

has

the normal

maximum

which

Art.

in

of

point in question

of the curl at the

function

vector

direction

the

the line

of

to

motive
total electrothe

negative

induction

through

is the line

integral

the circuit.

That

is

THE

The

total

induction

magnetic

integralof
bounded

CALCULUS

INTEGRAL

the

induction

That

195

VECTORS

through the

magnetic

the circuit.

by

OF

is the

circuit

B taken

over

face
sur-

surface

is

therefore

Experiment

shows

that

/d

E.rfr

or

E*dr=

the

by

It is also
unit

equal
The
the

The

to

circuit.

"

integralof

That

a.

theorem

B.

"

experiment that the work

carrying a
H

of

integralof

"

around

the total electric flux

in

flux

"

curl E

B,

"

B.rfa,

positivemagnetic pole
done

total

surface

fact of

4?r times

work
line

of Stokes's

converse

J J

Jo

Hence

"

"

unit

around

pole

over

around
That

the

surface

rH.rfr

4?r

IJ

(NcZa.

is

the circuit.
circuit

is

is

bounded

that

teaches

circuit

circuit

is

Experiment therefore

in carrying

closed

through

circuit.

the

electricity
through
C taken

done

is the

by

the

196

By

the

of Stokes's

converse

With

theorem

addition

in

depending
interpretation
relation and

hypotheses,this

equations of
Heaviside
The

and

C.

TT

of
interpretation

proper
current

an

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the
the

to
one

upon
the

placemen
C, as the dis-

current

conduction

current,

of Maxwell's

primary

precedingone

Maxwell's

theory,in

are

the

the fundamental

form

used

by

Hertz.
of Stokes

theorems

and

Gauss

may

be used

strate
to demon-

the identities.
V

0,

div curl W

VxVF=0,

Accordingto

Gauss's

fff

curlVF=0.

theorem

V.Vx

W"20

ffvxW.da.

J J J

According to

J J

Apply

CCC

the

this to

sphere is

point;

and

Stokes's theorem

Hence

0.

an

d?

Cw*dr.

infinitesimal sphere. The

closed.

the

f W-dr.

Wtd*=

Hence

its

around
integral

bounding

it,to

Jo
V"V

curve

zero.

fw."fr

V.VxWdv=

surface

0.

0,

bounding

reduces

to

CALCULUS

INTEGRAL

THE

ffvxVF.

bounding

J
infinitesimal

this surface

the derivative

this

similar

for any

function

line

integralof

then

zero,

that

theorems

converse

divergenceV

"

is the

of

vector

curl

of

some

may

be

function
vector

W.
U

of

If the

curl V

then

is the derivative

d a, it follows

the

If the

everywhere

is

the

VF=0.

manner

demonstrated.

Hence

curve

equation holds

The

surface.

vanishes.

VF"

Vx
In

portionof

is closed.

V
As

fvF-dr.

da=

this to any

Apply

197

VECTORS

Stokes's theorem

Again accordingto

J J

OF

84.] By making
between

dels,viz.

the

use

is

everywhere zero,

scalar function

some

of

W.

function

vector

of

the

line,surface, and

three

F",

fundamental

volume

relations

and
integrals,

the

f VF.rfr

F(r)-F(r0),

(2)

"''o

ffvxW"rfa

it is

possibleto

transformation

obtain

of

fw.rfr,

large number

integrals. These

of

(11)

formulae

formulae

for the

correspond to

198

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

with

connected

those

They

calculus.

(u i?)

First

V(uv)'di

I
Jo

Hence

by integratingboth

obtained

are

in

ordinary

sides of the

u.

wVv"dr=

uVv"dr=[uv']

vVu'dr.

lvVu"di.

"

The

"

161, for differentiating.

formulse, page

integrationby parts

"

(14)

"

r0

[u v~\

expression

ro

representsthe difference between

end of the
If the

path,and

path

Second

wV

(u v~)at

beginningof

the

r, the

path.

vdi

"

vV

u"dr.

(14)'

Jo

(wv)

Vx

the value at r0, the

of

be closed

ff

the value

%Vxv

C C

(uv)"d*=

Vwxv.

C C

wVxvcU+

Vwxvrfa.

Hence

rfvwxv^a=
J

f
J

uvdr"

J J

uV

xvda,

(15)

or

rfwVxvda=
Third

fwvc?r"

Vx("Vfl)^ttVxVv

But

Hence

fTVwxv.^a,

VxVv

(u

VwxVtf.

v)

v,

(15)'

INTEGRAL

THE

CALCULUS

199

VECTORS

OF

cr^ux^v'dB..

(wvv)"^a=
8

Hence

i V

J J

da.=

"

uV

dr

v"

"

Jo

Fourth

(u v)

"

liivt(uv)dv

"

rrruvvdv

vV

(16)

dr,

u*

Jo
"

v.

r r

"

"z v.

Hence

uV*vdv=[

III

C i i ^U'vdv,

da,"

uv

(17)

or

dv=

v^"v

Fifth

vVwxv

Hence

f f \?

In

all these

surface
which

here.

most

functions

da,

formulae

of

C i C

"

which

surface

Vw"vxv.

"

u*\7

contain

(18)

dv.

tripleintegralthe

bounding the body throughout

integrationby parts

multiplied almost
the

"

(17)'

integrationis performed.

Examples
given

S is the closed
the

VXV^*v

rrTwVv^v,

wv^a"

I I

without

It is known

limit.
as

important of all.
of

position,

like those

Only

one

above
more

Green's Theorem

and

is

If

any

two

and

are

can

be

will

be

perhaps
scalar

200

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

/ /V^*V^i?=//

/J J V

IV"("V*)rf""

(v V w)

"

V w,

"

Iu^'Vvdv,

J J TV V

"

"

"

0.

Hence

/ / /V^"Vv^v

/ /w

V?"

"

(wVVv

is obtained.
the

of Green's

due
generalization

"

theorem

(u^7 v

(i9"

"

w)

"

cZa.

of i,j,k

terms

be

may

obtained.

(Lord Kelvin)

to Thomson

d P,

(20)

By expanding the expression in

ordinaryform

further

v^7"^u)dv=

"

formula

the
By subtractingthese equalities

f fvv-vwdv.

=r A"vw"da" r

"

is the

:
following

/ /

l"V"*V*"fr=i

/ I vwVU'd*

where
The

t0

of

any
*

is

"

of volume

in these

in these

dv

has

equationsor

two

uw^7V'da""

different

of

third scalar function

element

function
use

"

[w

w]

c?v,

(21)

position.
do with

nothing to
in those
senses

I u^7"[w^7v\dv,

the scalar

that go before.

can

The

hardly give rise

to

misunderstanding.
85.]

In the

which

precedingarticles

have

been

subject to

the scalar
treatment

and
have

vector

been

tions
funcsup-

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

2Q2

along

value

the

The

along the other.

closed

might

It

"

to

79

of Art.

is not

is

false

were

which

is
difficulty

The

so.

value

TT.

of the work

bottom

entire

however

This

follows fell out.

equal

is

results

therefore the

seem

the
consequently

that

and

vanish, but

not

does

curve

path being the negativeof the

integralaround the circle which

one

that the function

y
y-

-i

F=tan

V takes

function

only the

not

on

point (!,!)"f"r instance, the

the

single-valued.At

is not

F=

value

tan

^"

4
but

where
the

series of values

whole

positiveor negative integer. Furthermore

k is any

origin,which

paths

of

fails to

therefore

that the

function

V.

not

would

have

included

origin vanishes
Inasmuch
vitiates the

not

but
so

an

the

results

the

closed

distorted
its

as

no

values

words

other

curve

origin

which

of the

does

integral
of the

value

the

not

to

appears

be

the

include

point

obtained,let it be considered

Any

which

longer to

continuity. The

closed

be shrunk

originmay

curve

seen

the

it should.

as

as

originthe

In

impassable barrier.

contain
a

the

closed

It will be

derivative.

differed.

integralaround

terminate
inde-

wholly

becomes

peculiaror singularpoint of the

paths of integrationfrom (4-1, 0) to

originis

If the two

("1,0) had
not

possess

semicircular

the two

between

function

the
integration,
and

by

included

was

at

up

surrounds
enclose

curve

or

the

that

C not

curve

as

which

marked
does

which

expanded

at will ;

origin cannot

point without

surrounding

the

be

ing
break-

origin

THE

INTEGRAL

shrink

may

the

origin.

only shrink

can

always

down

It cannot

remain

be

does

barriers.

Then

V vanishes

be

to

line

irreducible

singular points

of V

the

are

circuits

two

the line

integralof

region such
up

point of

to

without

about

them

closed

any

without

closed

acyclic. All

other
of

no

is said

to

be

theorem

In

to

such

more

then

may

of

any

It may

or

case

function
not

may

irreducible

one

coincide

be

another

with

of

any

the

breaking its continuity,

the

are

same.

passing through
its

in which

is

of

the values

C within

curve

breaking

curve

it

or

said to be reconcilable and

V

within

passing through

nothing without

region every
means

and

that

and

The

as

without

and

tinuous
con-

breakingits continuity

circuit
so

have

all

impassable

as

one

circuit 0.

reducible

distorted

circuit

contains

Let

to

or

the derivative W

irreducible

be

C may

nothing

to

irreducible.

any

an

whatsoever.

contains

without

up

integralof

around

around

circuit

By

reducible circuit

marked

which

up

shrunk

so

be

which

circuit

it is said
The

circuit
shrunk

be

be

pointscannot

shrunk

F",then,

irreducible circuit

any

fails to be continuous

any

reducible; but

C is said to

curve

any

function

partialderivatives

point may

stated:

V is any

which

first

vanish

around

around
integral

that

next

points at

and

It must

vanish.

not

such

The

about

closer

of the function

case

integraltaken

but the

Suppose
the

the

and

continuity;

nothing.

to

encirclingthe origin.

that

C vanishes

down

In

in its

fit closer

shrunk

203

VECTORS

break

and

be reducible ; C, irreducible.
it is true

OF

nothing without

up to

but

CALCULUS

be

it may

singular

any

continuity,that is, a
reducible,is said

to be

cyclic.

regions are

simple device

any

be

cyclicregion may

dered
ren-

closed
acyclic. Consider, for instance, the region (Fig.34) en-

between
cube
with

which

contains

those of the

of

the surface
the

cylinderand

cylinder and

cylinder.Such

whose

the surface
bases

region is realized

of

coincide
in

room

204

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

in which

column

the

around

/"
"

"^^

without

breaking

of the

surface

the

of

the

by

surface

of the
is

the

which

In

like

be drawn

manner

continuity.

If

of

sufficient

of the

device
hold

true.

true.

To

column

the

the

to

formed

thus

cylinder,the

the

sides

two

acyclic. Owing
it is

of

the

to

the

tion
inser-

longer possible

no

around

completely
Hence

it.

the

region

region

the

inder
cyl-

closed

every

is reducible

For
enter

them
which

or

the

cuit
cir-

and

the

rendered

results

contained

not

into
even

may

as

be

in
or

discussion

is

the

respect these

primary object
questions

are

of

similar

in

point

been

has

they

is

are

tions
ques-

the

to

exposition
to

hold

not

as

seq.

belong properly to

connection

employed

et

the

any

notation

be

79

going
fore-

than

methods

than

may

the

this

at

subject of integration itself, rather

which

diaphragm.

may

For

of

surfaces

Arts.

questions

They

bounding

acyclic by

superfluous.

ones.

The

of each

may

much

vector

concern

Cartesian

these

acyclic by

bounding

faces

two

regions

further

already

corresponding

of the

cyclic regions they

Indeed,

do

the

rendered

diaphragms.

consist

and

be

may

of

number

region

new

all

unnecessary.

which

from

reaching

region

cube, and

pass

in

any

acyclicregions

given

the

surface

prevents

given cyclicregion

In

to

acyclic.

inserting a

the

diaphragm
may

is

surfaces

contracted

cylinder or

diaphragm

shall

which

circuit

region

its

passes

84.

of the

"

be

It

ceiling.

which

inserted

cube

the

bounded

diaphragm

to draw

be

diaphragm

surface

FIG.

circuit

It cannot

now

-v

the

to

is irreducible.

nothing
x

cyclic.

is

region

this

that

is evident

floor

the

from

reaches

column

more

particular

the

with
here.

questions

of

it and
In

this

rigor.

THE

and

Hitherto

and

occurrence

For

sake

the

densityof
body

of

is

The

those

especially
frequent
especial

point

be

regarded as the
22). In a homogeneous

may

portionsof

varies

of the

In

from

space in which

no

tribution
non-homogeneous dis-

point

to

point; but

at

definite value.

from

assumed

any

point (#2,yv z2).

origin,may

other fixed

point of
T1

from

ra

the
ri

vector

drawn

0"2"Vv i?a)"As
in the sections

designate

to

Vi"

*i)

space,

x1i

represented
by

the vector

y1j + z1k

origin. Then

same

Oa

be used

Let

On

is the

which,
integrals
the differentiating

space

yv

zero.
identically

has

vector.

vector

drawn

be any

point(x 2,

In

of matter

point it

positionin

defmiteness

at the

matter

exists V

matter

of the

is constant.

with

and

that

Suppose

scalar function

drawn

scalar

to their

owing

line, surface,

great importance in physics,merit

consideration.

the

both

connection

and

operators V, V", Vx,

each

Potential

considered

functions

to their intimate

owing

been

205

VECTORS

exist,however, certain specialvolume

There

is

have

there

integralsof

volume

OF

IntegratingOperators. The

The

86.]

CALCULUS

INTEGRAL

*i)

Oa

i +

from

yi)J + Oa

the

this vector

*i) k

point (xv yv "j) to

occurs
a
largenumber

it will
immediatelyfollowing,
12

the

point

of times

be denoted

by

206

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

length of

The

r12

r12 and

is then

will

be

assumed

be

to

positive.
V ria

12

Consider

The
xv

r12

"

the

O2

tripleintegral

is performed
integration
y?flzi

tt*3^ k* with

"

with

respect

the

to

of

body

respect to the

variables

representsthe density (Fig.35).

the

integrationthe point (xv

fixed.

value

j,^

each

at

It is
FIG.

The

definite

function

integral/
of

be

The

of

mass

element
dm

body,

VII

^1

19

/
integral
a

dm

(xv

(xv

at

point.

divided

the

The
in

body

of

regarded as
V
set

is termed

limits of

either

is the

Zj).

yv

The

in-

sum

easy, if

is

matter

in space.

"2) is
Vdv.

of the elements
from

of

fixed

mass

point

is what
to the

yv

its distance

by

dmm

r*

due

densityof

z2) dxz dy^ dz%

yv

is therefore

each

the

regardedas

This

definite

35.

the function

in

mains
z^) re-

yv

has

terpretation of this integral/

The

During

point (xv

that

which

whose

potential at the point (xv yv

densityis

in
integration

two

density. This
On

In

ways.

coincident

of limits.

the

the

with

the

I may
integral

the
the

indeed
other

first

limits

place they

of the

might seem
hand

the

be looked
may

body of

the most

integral/

at

be

which

natural
may

be

THE

regarded
is the

taken

as

the function

outside

the value

of the

to consider
over

of

This

all.

symbol

regardto

the limits

that

V=

Pot

It may
been

such
no

of

extended

writing in special
Fof

to its

itself then

tically
vanishingiden-

matter.

the

of

the

V"

The

variables

xv

during

the

to

but

The

r12.

potential,
z2 with

yv

of the

point

function

different sets of variables.

that

note

although

has

hitherto

matter

V is

entirelytoo

restricted for convenience.

the

necessary

V,

no

to form

the

what

matter

potentialof

in

V.

The

space,

same

formal

law

as

the

such

an

integral

represents, that

reason

integralthe potentialeven in cases in

with
connection
physicalpotentialis that
the

(22)

integration. These

an

accordingto

for it.

density of

function

called

used

such

the

it becomes

scalar

potential of

expression for

have

necessary
as

of

d"z ^y*id%y

not

therefore

for
interpretation

integralis

convenient

most

integrationis performed

in

regarded

of any

augment

fla

is fixed

which

be

Whenever

not

specialsymbol, Pot, is

"the

the

enter

infinite

are

as
integral

owing

ill

is read

which

(*!"y\) 2i)
and

does

function

points unoccupied by

function

variables

the

The

JJJ

is

hence

integral

point (#2, yv z2)

It is found

particularcase.

Pot

Pot V,

limits

every

the trouble

saves

frequent occurrence

The

the

of the

operation of findingthe potentialis

The

87.]

and

207

VECTORS

value

when

infinite and

as

determines
practically
at all

body

integralat

all space.

The

at
identically

the

the limits

limits for each

For

cases.

vanishes

OF

all space.

over

both

in

same

situated

CALCULUS

INTEGRAL

true

for
which

calling
it has

it is formed

potentialand

208

which

types of integralsdo

other

Wfrf.
\*"S"

/"W

""

In

this

and

is

of

consequentlyitself a
function

vector

is

*,

*27

the

of

sum

Thus

to be

(z2,yv "2)

the

The

potentialof

sum

of the

potentialof

taken

over

instance, V

the

limits of

out

into space.
must

recedes
for

the

and

were

j Pot Y+

function

its three
scalar

is

the

potential

the

converges

everywhere

(xv

"2)

yv

""2,yv z2)

k Pot

Z.

equal

to

(24)
the vector

exists

at

Evidentlytherefore
as

A
indefinitely.

convergence

its limit
few

of the

to

definite

if the
as

limit

tegral
inas

farther
exist

point (#2, yv

za)

sufficient conditions

potentialmay
Let

the

is to
potential

the

If,

value.

in space

constant

important

transformingto polar cob'rdinates.

point

integral

greater and greater without

farther and
extended
integrationwere

zero

tion
posi-

components

become

approach

Z.
components X, I7",

function

only when

all space

would

vector

of
potentials

(#i"y\t *i")when

for

i PotX

k Z

Pot

potentialof

scalar function of

(#2,yv "2) + j

iX

quantities

vector

function,just as

seen

(23)

dx% dyz dzv

be resolved into its three

If W

in space.

The

function

vector

a,

yy

vector.

vector

F'was

scalar function

possess.

(Xn, 2/o,Za)

integralis

the

case

of operation

down.

be written

may

not

potentialof

to this idea the

Pursuant

simple rules

has certain

of that formation

virtue

by

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

be

obtained

by

210

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

that the

weakly

it become

if

finiteor

function V remain

the

If

so
infinite

product
Vr

finitewhen

remains
as

far

to the

regionsnear

as

then

approacheszero,

the

integralconverges
For

concerned.

originare

let

Vr"K
r=R

r=R

III
r

^r

s*n

" dr

d 0

d"f"

"

d"j".

C C C Kdr

Hence

dd

r=0

I Kd

the

dO

dd"

tripleintegraltaken

of radius R

(where
4

is less than

regions near

the

to

all space

over

supposed

now

and

TT

is

to be

inside
small

quantity)

consequently converges

originwhich

is the

sphere

far

as

point (xv

zj

yv

as

are

concerned.

If
i.

e.

point (x2,y2, z2)

at

any

the

point (x v yx,

weakly

that

the

(x2, y2, z2) by

are

integral
converges

before.

These

integralPot
The
It is however
under
show
to.
to

The

concerned.

are

as

far

as

proof of

0/V

at

origin,

infiniteso

point near

that

to

point from
then

converge

to
indispensable

more

Such, however, will

for the

They

not

know

when
whether

Unless

no

means

they

do

or

not

the

tests

stringentones

must

be discussed

theory of integrationin general

here.
rather

given
of the

convergence

by

are

point (x2,y2, z2)

is like those

this statement

conditions

converges.

to the

regionsnear

sufficient.

the convergence,

the

becomes

of the distance of

integralmay

discussion

the

Jiniteas that distance approaches zero,

three

x), the function V

the square

with

coincident

product of the value

(x2,y2, z2) remains

the

not

sary.
neces-

not
an

integral

given
be

hold.

above

resorted

They belong
than

to

the

INTEGRAL

THE

theory of
the

functions

and

potentialis

88.] The
which

the

derivative
first partial

The

function

of

duces
re-

scalar

are

above.
of the

variables xv y^ z1

respect to the integration.Let

potentialat

of the

as

discussion

components which

function

with

constant

are

value

be treated

may

The

vector

211

VECTORS

Pot.

potentialof

of the

to that of its three

once

OF

integratingoperator

the

convergence
at

CALCULUS

point (xv yv zj

of the

be denoted

the

by

with respectto
potential

x1

is therefore

The

of

value

device

potentialat

due

to

same

as

the

point

due

to the same

the

amount

due

to

T and

body

the

If both
in the
But

by

the

amount

changed

the

displacedin
in

are

body

now

and

space

the value
translated
of the

if T be

the

displacedin
of

pointP

of the

body

only their positions

direction the value

A #, the value

A xr

It is

point be

from

A xz

simple

negativedirection by

positionsin

determines

to

where

the

findingthe potentialat

immaterial.

other which

same

by

potentialat

the absolute

determined

This

T.

For

xr

be

point

body

point P

relative to each

amount

the

body

certain

may

Consider

(Fig. 36).

the

is the

this limit

V at each

of the

by

the

tial.
potensame

changed.
potentialis un-

negativedirection
point of

space

is

212

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Hence

[Pot FOa,^,^)]^

,M

[Pot

$[Pot H****.*.*-

LlM

Hence

[Pot FOa

+ A*,

)
^
=

found

It will be

integration. Let

convenient
the

body

after its translation

the

denoted

portion of

body

be

distance

overlap.
remainder

t As

Let

the

of M

all the

by

; and

be

regioncommon
m;

dropped.

let the

by

the

limits

of

filled by
originally

the

portion filled by

the

negative direction
M'.

The

to both

the remainder

followingpotentialsare

indices have been

introduce

space

in the

xl be denoted

to

for the

of M'

through

regionsM
be M
mr.
,

pointxv

and

and

M'

let the

Then

yit z^ the bracket

and

THE

INTEGRAL

(*(*(*(

CALCULUS

VT
-I- A
l^2+Ag2,y2,z2;
f

II

OF
\

213

VECTORS
T^V/n

f* f* f*
rrr

y^vy

ni

" JJJfi

LlM

Tja

Aa;2=o(

Az2

ru

a
la

or,
12

AA

a;

CCC

LIM
A*=0t/

rrr
X"QjJJx

LIM

"/

*"

^c^a^

"""

y^

when

approacheszero

A Xj

which

are

and

both

t There
are

taken

the

mazes

at

are

no

point thicker

approach M

cases

in which

must

diminish

than

to

This

a,

regionsmand

approach

of the order

is a

the

region T.

zero

in which

the two

questionof double limits and

'

limits

leads to

rigor.

exist at the surface

continuouslyto

zero

upon

bounding
the

T the values of the

surface.

suddenly from a finite value within the surface to a zero value

5 VI 3 *i would not exist and the tripleintegralwould
V is supposed to be finite and continuous
For
the same
reason
within

TO',

limit.

this reversal

mathematical

} If the derivative of Fis

function

as

gives incorrect results.

of modern

its limit the

as

If

Fchanged

outside
be
at

the

rivative
de-

meaningless.
every point

214

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

vanishes

5.//L

LlM

region

111

"-"

v^fl

finite and

Tis

that

bounding

surface

the

upon

the

that

assumed

if it be

Then

*"a"

#2'

~ay

7
"

V"

12

A"2

'

expression

the

Consequently
reduces

to

for the

of

derivative

the

merely

(26)

5%e
is

equal
The

to the

of the potential of

derivative

partial

of the derivative

scalar

of

of the potentialof^fis equal

derivative

potential of the partial

derivative

tial
poten-

V.

potential

to the

V.

VPotF=PotVr:

This
the

upon
to

the

upon
xv

follows

statement

yv
the

the

2j, it may

be

it

this

Vr

may

be

applies to

the

Pot

identityV

may

.3PotF
i

written

former.

to

the

set

In

like

written
variables

V2

L.

of

ables
varithe

call attention

to

scv yv

be expanded

As

manner

zz of

V.

(27)'

V2F!

.SPotF
L
*J

the

from

applies

PotF=

Vj
demonstrate

side

side

right-hand
fact that

(27)

immediately

left-hand

Then

To

function

in

terms

of

THE

INTEGRAL

As

i, j, k

the

sign of integrationand

by

of

means

The

constant

are

they

vectors

the terms

and

be

placed

under

be collected.

Then

may

may

divergenceV

of the potential
of a

"

to the potential
of
equalrespectively

are

of
divergence

that

Pot

Pot

V2

curl Pot

Pot

curl W

and

Vj

Pot

Pot

V2

or

div Pot
relations

above.

It is

the curl and

"

be

may

W,

"

Pot div W.

proved

in

analogousto

manner

and

go further

possibleto

even

W,

or

These

vector

function.

Vj

of

215

VECTORS

(26)

curl V

functionW

OF

CALCULUS

form

the

the
dels

higherorder
V

"

"

V
V

VV

"

VxV
The
show

dels upon

the

the

that the

the variables

xv

The

operator Pot

*89.]
region T
finite and
decreased

are

In the

Pot

"

Pot

Pot

Pot

Vx

Pot

left

W=

have

might
for

have

written

been

as

VF,

(30)

W,

(31)

W,

(32)

VxW.

(33)

"

subscript1

performed

are

y", zv and

similar
with

summed

be

up

attached

with

to

respect to

the dels upon

reason

operator V
differentiating

subscript2.
as

and

follows
the

The
:

integrating

commutative.

it has been

foregoingwork

continuous
so

"

finite and

was

of this article may

Theorem:

Pot

Pot

differentiations

rightmight

results

F=

Pot

to

that the
inside

approach

bounding that region.

These

of
zero

function
the

assumed

everywhere

Fwas

region T

and

continuouslyat
restrictions

are

that the

moreover

the surface

inconvenient

216

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

be

by making

removed

and

may

The

derivative

of the

surface

obtained

potentialwas

integral.

(page 213)

in

form

the
essentially
PPotF
otF
9 xl

sv

CCC

111

"

of

use

--

J J J

r12*"xz

Lra

LIM

1
9

Let

be

The

region M.
therefore

Hence

directed

element

of the surface

element

of volume

bounding

in the

dvz

the

region mr

equal to

_L f
A*2J

^('

ff
J J

m"

12

r r v"jx*
=

The

element

T12

d vz in the

of volume
d 02
1

rlenco

"

"

-7

a;,

'

9V

xz i
TT'f'v
\ v

/"/"/"

ill

"

is

region m
d

"

equal to

a.

"*

ti

is

"v

A Vn

r12

Consequently

"

-r

"

rlzdx^

dvi+l

r
"

r12

i.rfa.

(34)

is

218
this

point with

sphere

3PotF

9*i

region

5F

"

S denote

the

included

T not

"

dv2+

"

J*ru9xs

-i.

Js

r12

imposed upon

the conditions

Let

JR.

all the

/ / /

--

"

and

radius

Then

sphere.

the

within

sphere of

small

of this

surface

By

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Vr"K

f f

when

Consequently
and

smaller

Moreover

"i.rfa

ff

"

the

the surface

the volume

integral
may

and

may

J J

smaller.

Hence

the

limit when

at

which

product

Fr

remains

\Jv

and

the

product
surface

approaches

zero.

Fr

dx%
meaning

infinite in

at

point

such

of the

region

that

manner

the

finite.

If, however, F remains

that the

smaller

definite

becomes

becomes

5F
J.

dxl
a

l-*f\+

"

always

zero.

equation

"

not

become

not

may

smaller

5xZ

PPotF

has

becomes

PF

r!2

approach

not

or

integral

or

of radius

sphere

f* f* f*

may

dd

finite at

the

approaches zero,

integralbecomes
Moreover

the

///.

point

the

smaller
volume

in

question so

constant

and

smaller

integral

is

zero
as

THE

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS

definite limit

approaches a
the

as

OF

becomes

219

VECTORS

infinitesimal.

sequently
Con-

equation
5PotFPot5T

holds

neighborhood of

in the

finite

remains

that

Suppose

becomes

coincident

("2,y2, z2)not

laid upon

conditions

infinite

with

I is the

at

single point

some

to the

distance

Then

to it.

near

which

(a^,y", Zj). According

VI*
where

points at

it be discontinuous.

though

even

all isolated

of the

the surface

K,

"

point (xv

yv

"2) from

point

integral
V
.

r!2
need

become

not

and

zero

consequentlythe equation

PPotF
"

^
O

need

hold

not

if V becomes

5V

for any

Pot

#j

the

the

point (x^

infinite at #2, yv

surface

equation will

Finally
surface
In

this

Within
surface

z2 in such

the

region.

But

that

manner

"K,
as

its limit

and

hold.
function

the

bounding

this

z^) of

yv

integralwill approach zero

suppose

case

"

C'S'a

VI
then

"=

there
surface

the

remains

region jP,but

exists
V

surface

is finite ;

not

vanish

of discontinuities

without, it is

integral
"

does

i" da

the

finite upon

zero.

there.
of

V.

The

220

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

does

9V

PPotF
"

Pot

jr

d xl

dx%

hold.

cannot

with

partialderivatives
the results it is

Vj

Let

V be

Pot

to be finite

ceases

be

sphere
which

are

the

which

have

each

small

point

sphere.

granted that

of

at

surfaces

of

discontinuityof

surface
been

by

mentioned

the

integralis taken
designatedby S.
vanishes

become

when

which

the surface

V.

Let

formula

If

faces
sur-

(35)

holds

surfaces

integraltaken

the

the radii of the

spheres

then
infinitesimal,

V1PotF=PotV2F
This

of the

these

all the

over

surfaces

all those

in space

Then

8.

space

Let

S.

denoted

Draw

(35)

let it be

by

all these surfaces

above

and

denoted

also be
where

by

three

By combining

J- d".

ff

in space,

Surround

exists.

the

general
V2F

Pot

PotF=

function

any

of

respect to xv yv zr

that in

seen

each

applied to

be

reasoning may

Similar

over

equation

the

Hence

general.

not vanish in

(27)'

formula

V1PotF=PotV2F.
will

surely hold

finiteor

becomes

at

point (x1?yx, zx) if

infiniteat

product V 1 remains

finite,and

becomes infinite.1
In

applied to
or

the

more

For

ascertain

complicatedone
extensions

and

if

the

product V

other

whether

remains

point (x^ y2, z3)

and iffurthermore
discontinuity
as

the

cases

possesses

(35) must

surfaces of

no

r3 remains

(27)'

see

finite

must

be

can

be resorted

modifications of this theorem,

that the

so

specialtests

formula

always

to.

exercises.

be
used

THE

The

relation

(27) is

that
function

that

surface
to

in

to another

conception of

fact

should

F'but

be

to

which

formation
trans-

such

possesses

convenient

function

which

V which

instead

has

of possessing

merely changes very rapidly from

point (#2,yv 22) passes
device

renders

from

the

one

potential

probably conforms

closely than

more

the

to

exact

more

of

standpointof

the
that

where

mathematics

pure

exist surfaces

there

be understood

to the volume

'

the

of Pot V

surface

includingthe

as

it is

which

at

discontinuous, the full value

becomes

always

in addition

to

V.

from

amenable

discontinuity.This device practically

including the surface integral in the

to

better to state
function

so

frequentlyfound

and
analytically

surface

VECTORS

assumed

another

Such

treat

221

OF

in

cases

is

as

the

as

other.

amounts

In

In

physical states

symbol Pot

general be

values

same

simpler to

actual

in

replaced by

as

of S to the
V

simple

it
discontinuity
V

and

so

holds.

discontinuityat

value

side

will

(27)

generalthe
a

of

S of

consider

one

CALCULUS

INTEGRAL

integral

12

integral
VF

fff

12

In

like

similar
as

Pot V

manner

expressionsto

consistingnot

"

Pot V

W,

be met

only

of

surface
It is

formulse
in

New

in the future
volume

integralin addition,whenever
a

W,

"

must

integralbut

the vector

function

W
be
of
W

and

other

regarded
a

surface

possesses

of discontinuities.

preciselythis
which

general,and
operators an

convention

in

permits such simple

which

gives to

eleganceof

the

formulae

the treatment

treatment

interpretationof
as

(27)

of the

otherwise

to hold

ing
integrat-

unobtainable.

222
The

which
irregularities
into the

not

This

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

is the

90.]

arise

Gibbs's

into the interpretation,

of the

method

of the

first partialderivatives
under
by differentiating

be obtained

thrown

are

analyticappearance

of Professor

essence

The

may

the

formulae.

of treatment.

potentialmay

also

signof integration.1

"

V)

gotr
*-

*-

In like

for

manner

vector

function

'

c"Potr
~

\jr

"

"

"X1

and

III

"

^
"

"

g"
12

But

If

manner,

an

Pot

F=

^^H- J n0^ +

(a?a
-ajj) + j (ya-yj)

attempt
it would

were

be

seen

(38)'

dvv

"

made

to

Zj)

r12.

partialderivatives in the
no
longerconverged.
integrals

obtain the second

that the volume

("a

same

INTEGRAL

THE

Hence

III "^"3

V.PotW=
J

These

Each

physics.

separate

exist

integralsmay
must

looked

each

upon

upon
its

as

the

potentialby

great importance

has

its

own

Moreover
when

even

the

matical
mathe-

potentialeach
as

the

these

potential is divergent,
of it.

They

to

are

defined

integratingoperators

new

as

the

inasmuch

independent

three

in

the

quently
interpretation.Conse-

simply from

so

name.

merits

own

from

of

considered

be

(41)

dv*

12

are

obtained

although
given

(40)

dvv

fJfJf ^f"

integralsobtained

three

differentiating
operators

be

(39)

manner

and

they

223

VECTORS

* *r

VxPotW=

is

OF

fff Tjf~

Pot F=

In like

CALCULUS

defined.

potentialwas

Let, therefore,

(42)
'

r12x

12

(#2"y2"z2)^

""

Cv %n

12

'

32

"

Cv 30n Cv "/ n
*r
m
m

'

A"O

dxzdyzdzz

Ma,x.Vf.

(44)

12

If the potentialexists,then
Pot

V
V
V
The

first is written

New

"

F=

New

Pot W
Pot

F and

Lap
Max

read

(45)

W
W.

"

The

Newtonian

of F."

224
The

callingthis integralthe

for

reason

represent the densityof

of attraction
will

be

read

"

the

at

and
electricity

C in space

the

Laplacian of

point (xv

yv

zj due

Max

used
and
of

and

by

read

Maxwell.
For

To

show

the
that

accordingto
Let

dmz

be

(#2*y-K"zz)'

the

the
any
The

due
z-^)

Newtonian
of the

law

element
force at

The

third
This

of I
to the

current

the

is written

integralwas

gives the magnetic

magnetization.

the force of attraction

gives

of

represent the intensity

inverse

square

of the

situated

mass

(xv yv z^)due
d

to

frequentlyin electricity

if W

Maxwellian
yv

used

frequentoccurrence

of W."

occurs

instance

point (xv

and

represent the

current.

It, too,

magnetizationI, the

at
potential

the

to

Lap

This

gives the magnetic forceat

the Maxwellian

"

magnetism.

If W

magnetism.

body.

integralwas

It is of

by Laplace.

extent

to the

is written

This

is that if

integralgives the force

second

The

Newtonian

z^) due

yv

Laplacian of W."

the

the

body

point (xv

later.

proved

considerable
in

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

to dm

at

is

distance.
the

point

equal to

mn

12

in

magnitude

and

point (xv yv zj

has the direction of the vector

to the

point (xv yv 22).

Hence

r12 from

the

the force is

12

Integratingover
to the convention

where

the entire
here

V denotes the

body, or

adopted, the

densityof

over

all space

total force is

matter.

according

point (xv

zj

yv

total

the

all space,

Integratingover
the

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

226

upon

magnetic

force

actingat

positivepole is

unit

.3
12

integral
may

This

'12
The

2/2,za) =

O2,

("a

expanded in

be

"!"

i +

of

i,j, k components

J
(2/2 "/i)
-

Lap

J Y(xv

2/2"*a) +

-Xfyv

are

of i,j, k.

terms

("a

Let

2/2'^2)

respectively

(43)'
(200

Lap

"

In terms

of the

potential(ifone
Pot
i

"

Lap

exists)this
9 Pot

may

be writt

9zl

5PotF
=

To

show

point (xv
equal

to

that if I be the
^2, z
the

-^

dyl

intensityof magnetizationat

2),that is,if I
magnetic

9xl

moment

be

vector

per

unit

whose
volume

the

magnitude is
and

whose

INTEGRAL

THE

direction

is the direction

south

from

CALCULUS

of

north

pole to

magnetic potentialdue

pole,then

of the element

magnetic

The

potentialat (%vyv Zj)due

and

moment

divided

moment

multipliedby
of

by

and

magnetizationI

of

the

the

of I is the

of volume

of

square

angle

vector

d v% is I d
vz.

is
the

equal

to its

distance

between
The

rla.

d v2

magnetization.

to this element

of the

the cosine

the element

the Maxwellian

distribution

the

to

227

VECTORS

magnetizationof

The

magnetic

OF

the

r12

tion
direc-

potentialis

therefore

the
Integrating,

total

12

magnetic potentialis seen

'i2'1

-"?,,, Max

to be

I.

"*"

12

This

also be

integralmay

written

out

of x, y,

in terms

z.

Let

JA
If instead
xv

Vy

of xv

Max

given by

variables

x, y, z;
l

of

Maxwell.

instead

and

expressiontakes

the

i(f-f)+
/// {"a"f-")

According to

Max

f, ?/, ^ be used

variables

22 tne

the form

oil

z1 the

yv

(2/2

the notation

*
f f f (X*

employed for
~

the

C(S-z)

\^dv.

Laplacian

y'} Y+

fa

'-

(44)'
Maxwell

and Magnetism, Vol.

Electricity

II. p. 9.

228

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

of

Maxwellian

The

in

be written

It may

function

vector

of the

terms

is

scalar

quantity.

potential(if it exists)as

c"Potr
Max

form

upon

mathematical

function.

is

The

applied to

the

potentialfails to
9L]

Let

exist and

have

and

If

potential.
But

be

the

The

The

the

tonian
Newvector

function

vector

yieldsa

not

applied,as

yieldsa

sort.

same

integralsshould

to

be looked

space.

and

applied

function

derivatives.

its

are

of

should

be

may

function

is

should

particularphysical

positionin

of the

vector

Moreover, these
derivatives

of

Laplacian
function

yields a

ordinarytreatises

They

which

scalar

the

above.

functions

any

applied to

is

and

to them

integratingoperators

potentialis,to

in

(44)"

---

"

used

much

with
indissolubly

associated

as

Laplacian,and Maxwellian, however,

given
interpretations
upon

"5-

physics.

Newtonian,

be

not

--

expressionis

of

This

The

"

Maxwellian

scalar function.

looked

as

upon

the

potential exists they

they frequently exist

when

the

converge.

and

be

functions

such

general definite

in

that

their

Then

values.

potentials

by (27) and

(29)
V"VPotF=V.PotVF=Pot
But

by (45)

Pot V

and

V.Pot

Hence

V.

PotF

V.VF.
New

F,

VF=Max
V

"

W.

NewF

Max

Pot

By (27)and (29) VV
But

by (45)

and

by (45)

Pot

.Pot
"

Pot
V

"

W
W

VPot
Max
New

VF

V.

W,
V

"

W.

(46)

V.VF

Pot V

V.

W.

INTEGRAL

THE

Hence

By (28)

But

Pot

"

CALCULUS

by (45)
V

By (56),Chap.

Pot

Pot

And

Lap

"

by (52),Chap.

Pot

Pot

VV

Pot
V

Pot

Pot

W
"

W.

(47)

(48)

W.

0,

0.
W

0.

PotF=

Lap

W.

Max

Lap

Lap

Lap W,

New

229

VECTORS

III.

Pot

"

III.

or

Hence

Pot

Pot

Max

and
Hence

OF

(49)

0,

VxPotVF=0.

or

New

by (58),Chap.

III.

Hence
And

V.VW
Hence

or

These

"

"

formulae

div if desired.

New

be

may

"

Max

0.

(50)

VV-

Lap

"

written

W-

V-

VW,

out

W,

Lap

(51)

W.

in terms

of curl and

Thus
div New
Max

curl
div

Lap

Lap

"

V
W

curl New
V

VV.W-VxVxW.

Lap

New

div W

Lap

curl W

curl W

Lap

div W

(46)'

V F,

New

Max

Max

(47)'
(48)'
0

Lap

0
curl W.

(49)'
(50)'

(51)'

230

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Poisson's
Let V

92.]

Equation

function in

"beany

space such

that the potential

PotF
has in

value.
generala definite

Then

V.VPotF=-47rF,
c"2PotF
or

P2PotF

dx{

The

integralwhich

solution

of Poisson's

Pot F=

Vj

"

as

has

Poisson's

The

Max

F=

Equation.

defined

been

Equation.

New

-47rF.

902 9f

02
dy-f

equation is known

This

22PotF
+

"

(52)

V2

as

the

proofis

potentialis

follows.

as

^=
12

The

and

have

variables

with

subscripts1

clearlywhat
are

are

But

Vj

Vj

V2.

attached

to

respect to which

the

performed.

and

been

V2

C C

NewF=

"

"

=V2

C^7l

"

--

V2

V2

1"

V2F+

V2

V2

designate
tiations
differen-

THE

Hence

V2

CALCULUS

INTEGRAL

"

V2F

V2

OF

1
or

Vt

V2

231

VECTORS

V2/F V2

1
v

"

"

"

I- V

22

'12

12

:
Integrate

V2

But

V2

"

"

0.

*H

That

is to say

Hence

Vx

satisfies Laplace'sEquation. And

"

Vx Pot

"

the
taken
taken

region
"

of

over

be allowed

space."

sphere of

to increase

without

to

the

presence

T"" v2

(53)

"""*".

the surface which

over

the volume

integral.

the surface

R,

limit.

At

of the

12

the

bounds
This

integralmust

largequantity,and

however, the integrand of the surface

owing

V2

r12

Hence

radius

YI

integrationof

all

over

integralis taken

surface

"

--

ff

The

T T TVj

F=

by (8)

be

must

point (xv y^z^),

integralbecomes

term

is

finite
in-

232

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Hence

the surface

sphere

of radius

include

S must

only

not

also the surface

R" but

of

the surface

sphere of

of the
radius

jK',a small quantity,surroundingthe point (xv yv z^)and R

must

As

to

it has been

assumed

potentialhold.

Vr
Introduce

(xv

yv

Zj).

K, when

r12 becomes

simply

for the

as

the

largesphere of
1
--.da
r12

surface

its limit.

Hence

when

point

*
"

radius

jrrasin0d0

"

d".

r8
that

integralover

becomes

the small

sphere approaches

infinite the surface

as

zero

integralover

its limit.

sphere
1

r
"

"

--

integralover

r2 sin 6 d 0 dA.

r3

rla
the

the

zero

For

V,

Hence

originat

r
=

large sphere approaches

For

-V

large

the

Then

"

the existence

is small.

with

V,

Hence

coordinates

Then

is

polar

and

F" exists, it is

is

K, when

"

potentialof

given (Art.87) for

That

F"r3 "

its limit.

as

that the

that the conditions

assumed
of the

approach zero

be allowed

'

that

sphere becomes

Fsin0

de

d"f".

the

234
Theorem

and

IfVandW

that their
V

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

exist
potentials

points at

93.]

which

It

be

made

at

will

not

be

to

are

91 that

VPotF=V.NewF=Max
V

similar
V

New

"

it

manner

"

Pot

Hence

or

New

VF.

Max

was

Max

New
V

virtue of this

equalityW

LapVxW

-r"

Let

"

W2

"

(54)

W,

TT

?r

(54)'

W.

into two

parts.

NewV.W.

"

7"

Wj

(55)

W2,

-.

4?r

W.

Lap

-r"

"

is divided

1
=

Lap

4?T

Lap

"

91 that

"

Lap

Lap

"

(53)

Art.

(51)

seen

TT

4?rF.

"

"

4-7T

and

(52)'

W.

TT

discontinuous

MaxVF=

where

potentials satisfy

(52)

which

become

(46) Art.

seen

was

or

By

which

here.

Hence

this theorem

and

V-

In

points at

F=-47rF,

Pot

"

in

modifications

up

those

continuous

VPot

V.

taken

all

space

Equation,

Poisson's

The

functions of positionin

then for
general,

in

finiteand

are

such

are

"

Lap curl

(56)

4?r

New

"

"

"

New

div W.

(57)

THE

INTEGRAL

Equation (55)
4

by

is

TT

and

equal

W,

"

that

states

of the

the

V.LapV

divergenceof

the curl of

V.W1
Wo

"

-r"

New

W2

"

Consequently
may

be divided

and

of which

two

such

In

and

As

vector

of

(58)
Max

VxV

-r"

scalar function

curl

W2

function

W2

the other has

curl.

no

is

W2.

zero.

0.

(59)

which

parts of which

into two

has

function

vector

three

into

has
has

one

This

potential

divergence

no

division

of W

potentialbut

no

parts of which

both

function

vector

into

the first has

LapVxW-^-NewV"W

"

be

divergence;

no

curl.

(55)'

W3.

its curl
may

curl; the third,neither divergence nor

second, no

before

"

"

Lap V

"

New

"

divergence
W

Pot

are

^"

Pot

"

0.

4?r

4-7T

part of

"

"1

"

and

r"

4-7T

4?r

The

"

the
divergence possess potentials,

Let

zero.

is

parts is unique.

case

divided
the

any

function

vector

4-n-

the curl of the derivative

Hence

its curl

V-VxLapW,.

-r-

divW1

4?r
But

Laplacian of

4?r

Hence

multiplied

divergence. Furthermore

4?r
But

235

VECTORS

function

vector

any

of its

"

OF

difference

to the

Newtonian

the

CALCULUS

of the

therefore

first part and

zero.

the curl of the second

236

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

JLvxLapVxW

VxVxPotVxW

"

47T

47T

VV

"

Pot

"

4?r

VV

"

T-

Pot

"

W.

4?r

"

Pot

Pot

-:"

"

0,

4-7T

4-7T
V

for

Hence

"

"

VPot

"

0.

W.

4?r

Hence

Lap VxW

is

equal to

"

VxW

VxWr

47T
curl of W

The

Lap

"

into

which

the curl of the first part

is divided.

curl, the third part can

"

"

7T

Hence

have

New

part has

no

Moreover

none.

VW

second

the

as

V"W

V"W1.

4?r

Thus
the

the

divergence of

second

is

equal

to

the

divergence of

part
-

New

"

"

W.

4"7T

into which

is divided.

divergencethe
has

part W8

third

neither

can

curl

Hence

have
nor

as

the

first

part has

Consequently

none.

no

the third

divergence.

This

proves

the

be

any

function

W3

statement.

By
which

means

of Art. 96 it may

possesses

neither

curl

nor

seen

that

divergence, must

either

THE

vanish

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS

all

throughout
functions

divided

into

other

the

which

:
94.] Definition

the

function

vector

point

every

general a

of space

curl

be

may

divergenceand

no

the

divergenceof

is said

of which

which

to be solenoidal.

vanishes

into

two

point of

at every

have

With

all been

respectto

in the

and

one

and

tional.
irrotawhich

only

is solenoidal

one

may

one

and

be stated.

foregoingsections.
the operators

functionWj,

Lap

"

in

nor

function

followingtheorems

The

solenoidal

divided

of which

proved

solenoidal

that any vector

be

parts Wls W2

the other irrotational.

They

is neither

shown

potentialmay

possesses

function

vector

it has been

But

way

phenomena

has

one

infinity.

at

is said to be irrotational.

space
In

at

function

vector

represent actual

at

zero

curl.

no

vanishes

become

not

generally vanish

parts, of which

two

237

VECTORS

must

or

space

infinity. In physics functions

Hence

OF

curl

or

4?r
are

inverse

operators. That

Lap

"

Wj

is

(60)

Wr

4?r

Applied

to

irrotational

an

That

giveszero.

respectto

New

"

irrotational

an

either

function W2

of these operators

is

Lap W2

"

With

Lap Wx

?"

4?r

and

W2

0.

function W2,
v

"

or

"

"

the operators

div

4-7T
are

inverse

JL
_

7T

operators. That
New

W2

is

"

4: 7T

New

W2

W2.

(62)

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

238

With

respectto

"

functionV

scalar

or

"

and

div

"

the

operators
New,

4?T

also

and

"

and

Max

~r"

4-7T

inverse

are

operators. That

is

(63)

=F
4-7T

-J-MaxVT=F.

and

4?r

JFtYA

respectto

Pot

"

solenoidal

awo* V

tf^eoperators

functionWj
V

curl curl

or

4?r
inverse operators. That

are

Pot

"

Wj

is

4-7T

Pot

"

fF^A

respectto

irrotational

an

Pot

"

functionW2

aw(i

"

Wi

Wr

(64)

7T

VV

the

operators

"

4"7T
are

inverse operators. That

With

Pot

VV

W2

respect to any

is

VV

scalar

Pot

vector

or

operators
"r"

Pot

and

4?r
are

mwrse

operators. That

is

"

"

W2

W2. (65)

function V,

the

THE

INTEGRAL

-"Pot

CALCULUS

V-

VF=-

OF

V.

and

4?r

Pot

"

"

Pot

"

4-7T
With

PotF=F

"

4?r

239

VECTORS

W.

47T

respect to

solenoidal

operators of the second

the

function Wj

(66)

differentiating

order
V

"

and

"

equivalent

are

With

respect to

"

Wj

irrotational

an

(67)

Wr
the

function W2

ing
differentiat-

operators of the second order

V

equivalent.That

are

"

and

"

is

V"VW2

VV"

(68)

W2.

the equations
By integrating
47rF=and

by

of the

means

Hence

TT

TT

Pot

Pot

47T Pot

Pot

for

scalar

Lap

"

Max

Pot
potentialintegral

F=

TT

V.NewF

Pot

New

"

Lap

Lap Lap

functionsand

"

Max

"

Pot
New

New
V

Max

irrotational vector

New

"

F=

Max
W.

(69)
W

(70)

functions

Max

4?r
is

an

operator which

is equivalent
to Pot.

functionsthe operator

..

7T

Lap Lap

For

solenoidal

vector

240

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

givesthe potential.For any vector function the firstoperator

gives the potentialof the irrotational part; the second, the
the solenoidal

potentialof

There

*95.]

of such

are

to merit

to

any

all scalar

integralsare
The

in

positionin

convenience

over

vanishing identicallyoutside
for all

they

Given
The

practicalpurposes
scalar

two

of the two

have

not

but

of certain
the

These

are

all space.

limits

them

be

will

double

tions
scalar func-

single value.
for

considered
functions

The

finite limits
of

by

mine
deter-

integrationin

finite.

are

mutual

theory of

expressions may

extended

as

They

physics as

extent.

quantities. They

the

integrationsin

case

the

considerable

space.

integralswhich

mathematical

passing mention, although

of

of double volume

number

frequent occurrence

developed

be

not

are

part.

functions

?7, V

of

position in

potentialor potentialproduct, as it may

functions

is the

space.

be called,

sextuple integral

Pot

(71)
One

of the

integrations
may

Pot

( U, F)

be

performed

=fff PX*!,

yi, *i)Pot

Vd

Vl

(*2,yv *2) Pot Udv2.

In

similar

of two

manner

the mutual

functions W,

vector

W"

(72)

potentialor potentialproduct
is

(71)'
This

is also
out

scalar

quantity. One

integration
may

be

ried
car-

242

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

yields
integration

One

r)=

Max(W,

(78)
By (53)

4
V

"

U PotF=

TT

"

New

PotF=

U)

(V

[NewZ7PotF] =(V

(V

93.

Art.

U) Pot

New

"

*7) PotF.

New

"

(New Z7)

New

[New Z7PotF]+

Pot F.
New

U"

V.

Integrate:

f f fv- [Ne

f f CuPotYdv=:-

47r

4-7T Pot

f f fNewZ7

(Z7,F)

f f
surface

bounding
As

this

integralis to

the

upon

F New

Pot

taken

be

CT

the

surface

and

V vanish

as

If the functions

of certain finite

"

all

of

the

over

region of integrationof

regionof integrationis

be looked

civ.

T r fNewZ

The

NewF

"

the

(79)

a.

entire
volume

integral.

surface

space,"the

largesphere of

for
identically

all

surface

S may

radius

E.

side
points out-

limits,the surface integralmust

vanish.

Hence
4

TT

Pot

( U, F)

f f fNew

New

"

Vdv.

By (54) Art. 93,

47r W".

PotW

Lap W"

Max

W"

"

"

Pot

Pot

W'.

(79)'

INTEGRAL

THE

But

[Lap

"

W"

Pot

W]

Pot

Hence

W"

[Max

"

Pot

W"

Lap

W]

Pot

Max

Pot

"

Max

Hence
4

W"

W'

Pot

"

W"

"

Max

W"

Lap

W"

Pot

Max

W"

Pot

"

W"

W',

W.
Pot

W]

Lap W,

"

W"

[Max

"

"

Lap W"

"

[Lap

"

W"

Lap

and

243

VECTORS

Lap W"

and

OF

CALCULUS

Max

Pot

W]

W.

substituting:

TT

W"

"

Pot

Lap

[Lap

"

"

[Max

-V-

W"

Pot

Pot

Max

Max

W"

W]

W].

Integrating:
4

TT

Pot

(W, W")

f f f Lap

If

f f PotW'

W'

W"

exist

over

now

and

integralstaken
and
4

Lap W"

da-

f f

only

in finite space

largesphere

Max

W"

Pot WW

of radius

a.

these

surface

must

vanish

then

TT

Pot

(W',W")

W'
=ff /Lap

W'dv

Lap

f f fMaxW'MaxW"rfv (80)

W'.

96.]

There

theoretic nature

are

which

"

Lap W"

W"

v.

W'
ff|*Max

Max

number
may

of useful theorems

perhaps be

mentioned

of

(80)'

function-

here

owing

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

244

in

and

of
applications

If

of

function

scalar

purely

position

definite derivative

generala

in

infinite but necessarily

space, finite or
V is
derivative vanishes, then the function

throughout that portionof

space.

VF=0.

Given
To

be

(x,y, z)

possesses

continuous, that
constant

in

as

portionof

if in any

and

given

practical

in

well

analysisto physics as

vector

which

in space

often useful

are

be

instances

some

of

work.

mathematical
Theorem

theorems

The

not.

some

will in

them

proofsof

The

vectors.

integralcalculus

the

with

connection

intimate

their

to

F=

show

Choose

fixed

const.

point (xv yv zj

in the

region. By (2)

page

180

fxt*
J

V V* d

Ffa

y,

*)

fa, yv *,)"

*u Vi, *i

But

F(#,

Hence

Theorem

If

y, z)

(xv yv Zj)

(#, y, 2) be

scalar

const.

of

function

position
'

which

in space

if the

divergenceof

continuous

; and

surface

in

vanishes

that

if furthermore

throughout

to

term

constant

exists and

that derivative

region or
the

infinite

or

the
or

region

but

of any

and

the

V ;

necessarily
F

finite
the

out
through-

is zero

derivative

bounding it, then

all that

by

definite derivative

general a

point of any finite volume

at every

The

in

region of space,1finite

any

possesses

vanishes

portionof
derivative

function

duces
re-

precedingtheorem.

be regarded as includingthe
throughout
must
any regionof space
well
the region itself.
as
region as

boundaries of the

INTEGRAL

THE

Given

VF=

and

CALCULUS

VF"=

"

0 for

show

To

F=

VF

Since

0 for

finite

vanishes
in S.

constant

region T,

for the

surface

not

the

through
the

surface

portionof

small

surface

be

S cannot
be

$, it must

to

of

the

The

of

but

surface

the

sphere

which

For,

as

nearlyparallelto

in the

surface

cancel

each

that

integralall

other

portionof
vanishes

integralof

which

because

F taken

over

segment which

constant

the

given
have

one

upon

side of S

relation V
been

but in all

"

incorrect

portionsof

and
space

to the

Hence

the

portion

the terms

integral of
the

is not

The

over

surface

spherical

zero.

0.

0.

supposition that

F must
near

VF

of the

leads to results which

0.

cannot

face
sphericalsur-

f f fv" VFd0

the

and

sign

same

the entire surface

that

appears

over

normal

Consequentlythe

zero.

f fvF'da

therefore

VF"

is in the main

surface

projectsthrough S

Hence

little

projectsthrough

interceptedby

most

projectsa

the normal

the

have

F is

f f VF.""a

But

It

is

lies for the

rfa

The

out.

integralof

consideration.
VF.

in the

upon
of the normal
to

which

The

certainly

of S and

derivative

which

sphere

S.

under

side

one

the direction

zero.

sphericalsurface

S.

portionof surface S, Fis

side

outer

surface

const.

constant.

Consider

S.

part upon

region T,

Suppose that,upon

were

245

VECTORS

portionof

this side of S has in the main

the

OF

contradict

suppositionmust
be constant

to $ in the

is not

not

fore
there-

only in

region T.

By

246

the

throughout
Theorem

the

entire

If V

be

derivative

T of space, finite

is zero, and

exists and

value

constant

and

V(x,

recedes

then
infinity,

to

function

has

the

as

if

of that

out
through-

the

the

and

the

region

point (x,y, z)

entire
c

derivative
V possesses

bounding

value

constant

positionin

region T

the

the derivative

vanishes.

VF

The

follows

Tlieorem
in space

be any

If

V(x, y, z) be any

finite

exists and

is

infinity
;

at

function

equal
Theorem

in space

[U

of

and

if furthermore

(#,y, z)
tive
posiof

boundaries

at

discontinuous; if

and

of T

equal

infinity
; then

the entire

region T

the
and

c.

If

(x,y, z) be

any

possessingin general a

scalar

the normal

and

if in all the

component

infinite distances
1

The

in
region

or

F;

(if

if

position
out
through-

of this derivative

derivative
such

of

infinite,continuous

bounding surfaces

of the
T

function

derivative

"

zero

and

throughout

region T of space, finite

the divergence
V
V
discontinuous,
is

position

is either

V be constant

of T

any

and

the
or

if U

V;

positionwhich
upon

of

is constant

to

be generalized

F] of the product of U and

throughout and upon the boundaries
"

all the boundaries

upon

given

one

may

function

derivative

infinite,continuous

or

zero

theorem

scalar

negative throughoutand

divergenceV

The

the

other scalar function

region T,

to

from
essentially

possessingin generala

or

and

differ

not

of the last theorem.

case
as

the

does

proof

the

in

at

and

limit when

of

the function

throughout

same

constant

continuous
infinite,

or

surfaces

all the

z) approaches c

y,

"

if furthermore

in

be

to

seen

scalar function

discontinuous, the divergence V

or

is

T.

region

(x,y, z)

region1

certain

reasoning

possessingin generala

space

is

of

extension

an

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

there

includes its boundaries.

be)

of the

exists

region

vanishes
the

or

and

product

THE

rz 9

V/

from

INTEGRAL

vanishes, where

fixed

any

derivative

the
of T

this constant
This

theorem

statements

when
If

0 for

The

borne

portion

portions

"

preceding

( U V F)

r29V/9r

the

language is
will

one

0 for

0.

foregoing theorems

following

not

perhaps

so

precise

be

stood
under-

in mind.

F, then

the

relation V

themselves, but

they are

region T

different continuous

of the

made.

theorems

entire

continuous

generalized as

the

be

may

the

in

as

of

corollaries

the

measured

same.

Urz9V/9r

V-VF=Oand
As

be

may

substitution

the

by

was

be the

distance

each

in

although for

not

may

and

247

VECTORS

the

throughout

vanishes

VF

OF

denotes

then

origin;

is constant,

CALCULUS

and

differ

at

by

most

constant.

V"V?7=V.VF

If

and

portion of surface
differs from
If

of the

If V

"

the

then

"

the

Theorem

27 and

for any

the curl of W'

the

is

two

in T

or

of the

is

and

all the

equal
the

functions

W'

possess

curls

infinite but

/9 r

are

finite volume

in

W'

and

"

pointsof

extend

surfaces
V

are

V/9 r)
the

functions
and

is

region

is

position

divergences;

and

equal
T

of

if

continuous,
necessarily

divergence of W";

then

bounding

bounding
V

to the curl of W"

and

all the

of

all

vector

W"

bounding it;
region T.

or

points and

constant.

two

are

general

finite

any

"

rz(9

equal at
a

finite

equal.

components

only by

and W

in

Fare

if in

Fare

all

at

infinity(ifthe region

at

normal

to

equal

point of

every

in

region T,

of W'

any

at most.

points "7"and

F
'

If W

which

space

and

VFin

if at infinite distances

U differs from

and

in

"7

region
and

equal
zero,

VZ7

if U=

and

region

at all

constant

V.VF

thereto),then
of

only by

V"VZ7=

surfaces

$, then

if

or

equal

the

and
to

of any
to W"

divergence

if

moreover

each

other

at

finite surface
at

every

point

248
Since

of

Then

The

Theorem

owing

which

in

W"

region

the

then W' is

If W'

if

W"

and

in

and

W";
normal

W"

and

of the device

in

If

certain

and
is

W'

at

the

The

divergenceof
surfaces

of the

W"

equal;

are

functions

vector

definite

of W'

is

equal

equal

to

the

is

bounding

surfaces

W"

and

W'

theorems

W"

and
V

"

region T,

of the

The
A

curls

and

the

to

curl

region T

the

tions
the func-

then

carried

are

have

finite

out

by

means

in

bounding

throughoutthe

functions

such

general definite

values

vector

continuous
infinite,

or

the functions W'

infinity
W"

two

are

W"

if in all the

of W'

tion
posi-

divergence of

equal ;

are

of

finite but not

and

entire

surfaces

W"

are

region T

and

may

region which

tic. If it encloses

no

tinuous
discon-

or

of the

equal;

region

then

W'

region T.

proof is given by treatingseparatelythe

not

the curl of

to

the

and

possess

curl

W'

these two

and

and

equal to

tion
posi-

suggested before.

Theorem:
that V

to

of

equal throughoutthe regionacyclicT.

are

proofsof

The

general

of W'

components

divergences.

divergences;

equal

W'

W".

finite but

bounding

two

are

divergenceof

if in all the

W'

equal

preceding one.

throughoutany acyclicregion T,

necessarilycontinuous,
the

the

definite curls and

is

derivative

functions

vector

is

tor
vec-

region T.
throughoutthe aperiphractic

which

space

and

two

in all the

equal to W"

divergences;
W"

corollaryof

are

VF=W'-

tangentialcomponents

Theorem,:
in

Let

the curl of W'

if furthermore

and

W";

to the

equalityof

divergenceof W'

the

equal

0.

aperiphractic2region T,

any

continuous,
necessarily
and

is

W")

the

generalpossess

throughout

W"

to

becomes

and

If W'

(W

(page 197).

therefore

theorem

curl vanishes

V"

"

W",

function

scalar

whose

function

if

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

three

ponents
com-

W".

hare

to

be made

encloses within

acyclicby

itself another

regionit is aperiphractic.

the insertion of

region is said

diaphragms.
to be periphrac-

250

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

'

'

'

3y

dz +

[X dy

dz

dx

dx

dy~],

(8)

components of the

if X, I7,^ be the three

function

vector

integralof
surface.
function
of

curl

taken

over

converselyif

And
TJ taken

function

over

any

ff V

if

JJJJ

surface

is

the

equal
line

the

to

line

bounding the

integralof

vector

the line

equal to

of

curl

boundary, then

integral
U

is the

equationsof
facts due

to

Gauss

vector

scalar

the

=J

the

"

theorem

dr, then U

of

Stokes

field from
electro-magnetic

the

proof that

function

is

function

is

(11)

Jo

Faraday. Applicationof
to

Formulae

f W"rfr,

W-da=

"

Application of

and

the

surface

the

is

the

W.

of W.

J J

and

around

around

taken

surface

any

taken

the function

integralof

surface

The

Theorem:

Stokes's

function

vector

and

zero

the
the

to

deducing

divergenceof
of the

the

experimental

two

the theorems

curl

(12)

W.

of Stokes
the

curl

derivative

of
of

zero.

analogous to integration
by parts

/u

v'd"

"

-Tv^U'dr,
[u v"fr

=fo

uv'

(14)

ff*-Jj^"VXY"rfl
dr,

(16)

THE

fw

ff

Green's

II

INTEGRAL

dv

"

CALCULUS

/ /

VM

vrfa

IV

"

dv

CCv

Kelvin's

da

"

uVvd""

I f Cv V

"

dv=

vV^Vw)

"

vdv.

(18)

iu

"

MwVv

"

dv

(19)

Vudv,

"

Vw)^a.

(20)

generalization:

| I I wVu*Vvdv=

the

I I I^U'vdv, (17)

"

f f TV**- V

If

Vw

C C C(uV'Vv

by

d"

"

251

VECTORS

Theorem:

The

OF

I fvw

I I I

I uw*7v"d""

Vu*da,"

integratingoperator

I Cv V"

known

as

u*

V[wVv]

c?v

dv.

(21)

[w VM]

the

potentialis defined

equation
Pot

Pot

f f

=f
J

V(X*

Vv

Zz)

dxz dy, dzv

-a;2y2^2

"**2^2/2^^2-

V
V

"

(23)
(27)

VPotF=PotVF;
V

(22)

(28)

Pot

Pot

Pot

Pot

W,

(29)

Pot

"

Vr,

(30)

Pot

V=

W,

252
V

"

VV
V

"

Pot

Pot

Pot

Pot

Pot

Pot

operator Pot
integrating

The
V

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

are

and

three

additional

TIT

Lap

MaxW

(32)

the

(33)

W.

differentiating
operator

i/2'

2x

the

(42)

^12

/-Af"\
(43)

^^2 *ir

"

-a

these

"

related

integralsare

Pot
x

New

F=

Pot

Pot

assumption

body,of

the

that

Lap W;

Max

Laplacian

is the

the

on

flux, of the Maxwellian

of magnetization.The
intensity

components in

lows:
fol-

W.
of the Newtonian

densityof

expressionof
z

attracting

an

is electric

that W

assumption

of #, y,

terms

as

(45)

assumption

the

on

to it

F,

of the physical
interpretation
meaning

their

as

"**2dy, dz2.

"

potentialexists

the

known

the Maxwellian.

VT

I I

or

W,

"

F=ri2F*2)

New

on

(31)

integratingoperators

Newtonian, the Laplacian,and

The

W,

commutative.

The

If the

"

that

these

; formulae

is the

integrals

(42)',(43)',

(44)'and (42)",(43)",
(44)".
V

"

Max

V
V

New

Lap

Max

F=
W

New

Lap

(46)

F,

"

W,
W,

(47)
(48)

INTEGRAL

THE

Lap

"

The

"

CALCULUS

potentialis

New

Max

(49)

0,

Lap

Lap

"

0,

V-

"

253

VECTORS

of Poisson's

(50)
W

(51)

W.

That

Equation.

-47rF,

F=

Pot

"

"

VPotF

Lap

solution

V-

and

Max

New

OF

TT

(52)
(52)'

W.

F=^V.NewF,
4

-.

Lap

"

-.

"

solenoidal
In

exists.
must

and

be

the

case

other

the

list of

both

not

the

Let

which

theorems

function, and W2

j"

Lap

"

"

47T

New

be

Lap W2

"

exist

W2

Vx

"

New

"

7T

curl
from

certain

solenoidal

function.

W2

that

W3

differentiating

certain

LapWj

the

state

to

and

which

j"

0,

third term

immediately

scalar function, W,

Wt

is

one

follow

irrotational vector

an

inverse

are
a

which

divergence

(53),(55) and
equations (52),(52)',
operators.

(55)

W.

"

parts of

two

potentialdoes

integrating operators

7T

irrotational,provided the potential

of which

added

vanish.

into

New

"

is divided

(53)

IT

4-7T

Hence

is,

(60)

(61)

W2

Then

Wr

vector

W2. (62)

254

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

-^NewF=

V.

(63)
Max

VF

F.

47T

Pot

--

Wi

Pot

Wj

(64)

Wx

47T

_-Lp0t VV.W2
4

V.V--PotW2

_i

Pot

4-Tr

4-7T
1

"

"

-V.VW1
V

4
4

be.

Formulae
The

of

theorems

inferred

from

have

Among
The

W.

Pot

W2
V

VV

(67)

VxVxW1

(68)

W2

"

New

Max

Lap Lap

are

New

"

(69)

Max

(71) to (80) inclusive

the

certain

facts

Newtonians, Laplacians,and
does not exist. These

are

functions

grals.
inte-

number
of

means

may

be

conditions.

number

But

of

By

nature.

these

Laplace'sequation
satisfy

6 is

in the text has

potentialexists.

tions
integra-

but the firstthree

the enunciation

that

boundary
done

Maxwellians

deal with

concerning

conditions

the exercises
work

with

function-theoretic

certain

(70)

W.

sextuple integrals.The

performed immediately ;

chapter closes

of theorems

that the

"

They

all be

cannot

and

TT

Pot W

TT

be formed.

these

Newtonians, Laplacians,and
potentials

Mutual

may

Pot

"

4?r

4?r

may

(66)

-"Pot

W2. (65)

4-7T

7T

many

worthy
for
of

Maxwellians

taken

of

tion.
especialatten-

part assumed

the most

the

formulae connecting
hold

when

up in Exercise

the

tial
poten-

6 referred to.

THE

INTEGRAL

CALCULUS

EXEKCISES

I.1 If F" is

of

255

VECTORS

CHAPTER

ON

scalar function

OF

IV

positionin

the

space

line

integral

"/"""
is

Show

quantity.

vector

that

c r
v

Jo

That

"/

is

closed

the

of the
the contour

integral of

line

is

curve

integralaround

if the

over

any

surface

any

closed

ative
the deriv-

spanned
and

zero

is

curve

into

that if V is constant

is

curve

around

integralof

further

closed

any

function

surface

Show

curve.

integralaround

the

taken

function

tjs

scalar

the skew

equal to

of the

i/

zero

conversely

the function

is constant.
Hint
it

Instead

of

(with a dot) by

reduce
2.

treatingthe integralas

it to the line

If W

is

arbitraryconstant

an

integralof
function

vector

vector

the line

~Jc W

it stands

unit vector

multiply
and

thus

function.

integral

di

is

vector

of the
the

integralbe

The

well'sche

W.

function

first four

Theorie

taken

If

is any

around

exercises

der

be called

It may

quantity.

are

taken

Electricitat where

the skew

constant

closed

from

they

line

vector, show

that if

curve

Foppl'a Einfiihrung in
are

integral

worked

out.

die Max-

256

and

In

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"

the

case

surface

S is

that

when

of V

taken

"

any

VF"

taken
That

conclude
vanishes

and

over
integral

any

the

over

plane
the

vanishes

curve

integralover

any

scalar function

V is

Show

that

the

surface

surface

is

equal

throughout

the

volume

integral

the

to

volume

bounded

by

is

that

if V

a)

closed

over

that surface.

Hence

(W

be constant.

quantity.

vector

integralof

must

"

Jj

of
integral

surface

is

converselyif

and

vanishes

This

integraltaken

is constant

The

"

ffa[

the

plane curve
3.

a
plane curve
integralis taken over
the portionof plane included
by the curve

Show

|Jjs

"

the

be

surface

constant

closed surface

integralover

converselyif

and

vanishes

closed

face
sur-

the surface

the function

V must

be constant.
4.

If W

be

function,the

vector

may

be

called

quantity.

Show

the

skew

that

the

/ I

da.

surface
skew

surface

integral

integral.
surface

It

is

integralof

a
a

vector
vector

258

By exercise
It

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

small

and

when

becomes

function

integraltaken

exists,then this surface

radius

is such

if F

that

shown

be

can

"

of

sphere

over

approaches

and

indefinitelygreat;

R', indefinitely

NewF=PotVF.

or

in

similar

of

(85),(86), (87)
V

Lap

V"New

Pot

it is

possibleto

Lap

(86)

W,

W,

W.

"

prove
/*

/""

VxLapW=/

and

/"

/"

l.plaVV.W

f C

Lap

"

Max

fpnVV"W
W

dv,

If

"

"*"

Hence

An

Lap

used by
integral

"

Max

Helmholtz

is

/j

c/ t/

"/

VMaxW=

Hence

dv2

s*

s+

t/ *J

t/

7.

that

prove

VF,

New

(87)

W.

"

F=Max

Max

V
Then

Pot

Max

means

(85)

that

manner

Lap

By

zero

Hence

small.

Prove

New

largesphere of

R'

radius

that

Vdva.

V
rPi"
I
14

IT

"

V W

rf"*

-*"

W.

-*

(88)

if W

or

be

function

vector

259

VECTORS

OF

CALCULUS

INTEGRAL

THE

(90)

zWdVr

Show

that the

if F" diminishes

integralconverges

rapidly

so

that
K

when

becomes

VJ2"

"

"

"

(W)
JT

(V

(V

New

W)

"

Max

W)

H(y

(r2 W),

( F)

2 Pot

Pot

(93)

2 Pot

W)

Pot

=-

(92)

Lap (r2 W),

"

(91)

(r2 F),

VF)=Max(r2VF)

"

(W)

(V F)

(V

(W)

( F)

( F)

indefinitelygreat.

C94)
(95)

W.

F:

(96)

W.

(97)

7T

JET(W)

Pot

Pot

VV.J5"

Give

8.

the

upon

proof

of Gauss's

physical interpretationof

fluid.

The

reasoning

and

the

first

proof

that

the

in

Show

9.

is

Theorem

is similar
of

to

Stokes's

division

which

does

function

as

that

(98)

(W).
not

the

employed

depend
flux of

in Art.

51

Theorem.

of W

into

two

parts, page

235,

upon

220,

unique.
10.

the

Treat, in

case

in

which

analogous

manner

has

curves

of

to

that

discontinuities.

page

CHAPTER

the definitions of

97.] AFTER
and

applied,two

differential and
in the

The

paths

theory of

of the

treatment
new

and

vector

of

advance

symbols

to the

"

were

linear

of

novelty both

in

function, the

the

One

was

substitutions.

homogeneous
topics led

to

new

ideas

derivative,divergence,curl,scalar

the

and

Laplacian,and

second

concept and

dyad, and

laid down

open.

that is,to V, V", Vx,

potential,

treatment

been

other, higher algebra

the

first of these

the Newtonian,
auxiliaries,
The

products had

integralcalculus

of the

sense

and

FUNCTIONS

VECTOR

LINEAR

the

notation

the

"

with

dyadic

the

the Maxwellian.

likewise

topic will
in

Pot with

introduce

linear vector

their

appropriate

symbolization.
The

of

simplest example
of

product

scalar

and

constant

r'
is

may

linear

function

be obtained
Let

of

r.

linear

function

vector

The

vector.

vector

r'

(1)

cr

general

more

system of

axes.

The

function

linear
of

by consideringthe components

i,j, k be

is the

ually.
individ-

components

of

are

i
Let

each

may

be

of these
different

"

be

r,

r,

multiplied by

for the

Cji.r,

"

different

caj.r,

"

r.

scalar

constant

components.
c3 k

"

r.

which

LINEAR

Take

these

r'

The

the

as

(CiiTj+j

always equal

multipliedby
Such
and

function

has
for

strain and

cv

r'

becomes
'

or

This

sort

and

in

of

c2, c3, the

i cx

i cl i

of

each

etry
geomof

axes

along these
elongations

function

But

in

becomes

the

case

body

"?2j

kv kv k3.
E

linear

vector

phenomena

of

of

linear

For

and
electricity
function

of

constant

will be

axes

the

isotropicbodies

the components
non-isotropic,

multipliedby

of the

different

Thus

ik1i"'D

theory
is

r.

"

theory of elasticity

in the

dielectric.

merely

be

k c3 k

"

the
E

k cs 2,

y +

occurs

in

different

along the

constants

electric force

the

displacement D

the

j c2

In

kz

-f

"

hydrodynamics.

electric

the

Its components

instance, i,j, k be the

linear function

magnetism,

The

r.

(2)

r).

in
applications

numerous

r=ri#+J7/

force

of

"

point

axes,

(c8 k

corresponding components

physics. If,

homogeneous

r'

definite scalar constant.

linear

vector

new

(c2j.r) +

the

to

linear function

261

FUNCTIONS

components of

r' is then

vector

are

VECTOR

j"2 j .D

function

k"gk.D.

indispensablein dealingwith

is

electricity,
magnetism,

and

opticsin

non-

bodies.
isotropic

98.]
been
The

It is

done
most

possibleto

above, by

define

means

general definition

linear vector

of the
would

function,as has

components
be

of

vector.

262

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

:
Definition

of another

vector

linear

tion
func-

vector

of r'

components

along

expressiblelinearlywith scalar

are

of the

coefficients in terms

the

when

non-coplanarvectors

three

to be

r' is said

vector

of

components

those

along

same

vectors.

If

r'

and
and

x'

if

yb

#a

x'

"

[abc]

y'b

z'c,

b"y

c^z*

a1x

where

zc,

0,

-"

(3)

r' is

then

etc.,have
to

Another

i,j,k.)

and

Definition: A
said

to

sum

of any

be

from

it the

is the

sum

function

is, the function

of

the

the

is found
be

of

b,

a,

foregoing may
when

be

linear

If

be

deduced.

function, then

the function

of

the

functions

of the
of those

/is linear if

of

scalar

times

and

is

if /
times

(5)

a/(r).

hence

/Oi*i
"i/(*i)

The

obvious
use

function

(4)

r.

/(ar)
And

is

vector

function

positive or negative

any

allel
par-

to be

)"
Theorem

Jj,cv

a15

of

however

vector

function

vector

constants

components

definition

vectors

That

vectors.

(The

r.

the

continuous

linear
two

of

with

connection

no

convenient

more

function

linear

proof of
is

this

trifle

of relation

"2r2

a3r3+

"2/(r2)+

theorem

long.
(4).

It

""")

"8/(r8)

which

depends

appears
upon

more

(5)'
or

less

making repeated

LINEAR

VECTOR

Hence

/(2r)

like

In

where

Let

w/(r)

is any

positiveinteger.

be any

2/(r).

/ (nr~)

manner

263

FUNCTIONS

other

positiveinteger.

Then

by

the relation

just obtained

and

Hence

is, equation (5) has been

That
is

rational

To

show

the

relation

Hence

for

note

that

0)=-2/(0).

/(O) =/(r-r)

0.

=/(r

+(-r)) =/(r)

+/(-r).

/(r)=-/(-r).

To

(5)

prove

a, it becomes

function

/.

for incommensurable

That

approach

through

of the

values
of the

use

constant

continuityof

the

is

J
x=

make

to

necessary

LIM

Hence

the constant

case

negative numbers

/(O)

Hence

Let

in

positivenumber.

/(0)=/(0

But

proved

'

_
~~

incommensurable

the

suite of commensurable

LlM
CC

/ (x r)
CL

_.

number
values.

f (r)

Then

by passing

264

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Lm
/""

"

""

(ar)=ar.
fm

tt

/(ar)

Hence
which

a/(r)

the theorem.

proves

Theorem

i-

determined
/ (r) is entirely

non-coplanarvectors

for three

its value

when

function

linear vector

b, c

a,

are

known.
Let

l=/(a),

m=/(b),
"*=/(")"
Since

is any

Hence

/ (r)
In Art. 97

99.]

it

whatsoever,

vector

1 +

expressedas

+ z~ft

of

particularcase

be

may

function

linear

was

expressedas
r'

For

the

which

sake

of

be

written

each
in

r/
In like

b3,

"

"

"

another
r'

is

set

aj

linear vector

character
relation

of

(4).

to

the

r.

the

in

vector

same

way

this

symbolic form

"

"

"

kc3k).r.

be any

a2b2-r

function

of

the

scalar

For

the sake

of

and

br b2,

expression

a3b3

; for

product

given vectors,
the

equal in number,
bj "r

repeating the

terms

(ic1i+ jc2j

k c3 k

"

save

of these

if ap a2, a3

manner

j c2 j

brevityand

in

occurs

may

i Cj i

"

owing

"

distributive

to the

this function

brevityr' may

(6)

""

of

satisfies

be written

bolically
sym-

in the form
r'

(axbj

aa

b2

a3

ba

""")'r.

(6)'

266

multipliedinto
of

order

into

"P

r.

r.a1b1

0, 0 is said

determines

another.

one

The

thus

in

postfactor

The

general

"

a3b8

bj ^

b2 a2

b3 a3

be

may

obtained
and

fact that

0a

dyadic

from

"

"

to

from
tions.
func-

vector

dyadic

"

"

other

changing
inter-

by

called

are

gate
conju-

conjugate of

is the

to either.

as

as

two

a
a

postfactor

gives

prefactor. That
0C

the

is

(9)

r.

dyadics

same

and

said

are

equal

when

or

when

0
r

"

0="c.

"

the

consequents,
one

used

100.] Definition
:
Any

or

as

"""

a subscriptC
by affixing

conjugateused

when

r,

linear

two

different

conjugate linear

be

as

multipliedin

as

aab2

"

its

or

is denoted

as

r.

are

called

(9)

...

function of r.

obtained
are

general different.

is

a1b1

Thus

result

direct

'

multipliedinto

"P =

dyadics. The

Theorem:

to

vector

the antecedents

another

The

dyadics

two

of which

each

in

pref actor

as

linear

They

#-

and

either

is

When

r.

post/actor

functions

vector

to

""")

r"a3b3

dyadic 0

prefactor

used

a3b3

r.a2b2

the

to be

dyadic 0

The

important.

^" r_andjr^_i?are

vectors

is

r-(si1l)1+ a2b2

0 is said to be

vector

and

multiplication.

is

Definition: When

scalar

or

Evidently the

"

direct

by

factors

the
of

product

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"

"

for all values

of r,

for all values

of r,

for all values

of

"

and

(10)
r.

to

LINEAR

third

The

vectors
vector

"

"

Theorem

be

must

and

any

it may

to the

equal,the

are

second.
A

And
s

For, if the

products

of any

conversely if

into the vectors

vectors

be

must

the

equal.

"

In

that the third relation is equivalent

all three

first.

scalar

equal.

those

Hence

dyadic

the

every vector

be shown

267

FUNCTIONS

equivalent to

equal, then

are

manner

is
r

"

them

into

""!

like

and

product of

scalar
and

relation

"

VECTOR

is

are

equivalent.

completely determined

when

the

values

*..,
where

a,

This
a

b, c

are

follows

function.

hold

for

non-coplanarvectors
by

which
The

dyadic
is the

Then

to be used

to be used

as

vectors

and

three

function
a

/ may

be

prefactorand

by

to be used

as

represented
a

dyadic ",

postfactor.

completely determined

is

when

(say i,j, k)

are

Let

/ is equivalent to the

function

ai

bj + ck,

postfactor
; and
"=

equal provided equations

are

non-coplanar vectors

0
as

as

function

givenby

dyadic defines

s.

three

linear

and

non-coplanar

conjugate of 0,

(page 264).

the

three

0 to be used

for

the fact that

known.

are

If

linear vector

linear vector

its values
known

Any

non-coplanarvectors,

dyadics 0

consequently two

Theorem

three

any

immediately from

linear vector

(10)

"z".b, "/".",

00

to the

ia +

jb

dyadic
+

prefactor.
/ (r)

"

"

0^

kc,

"

dyadic

268
of linear

study

The

that scalar,or

when

the antecedent

and

(a b)

dyadic

each

of its

b is said

the

or

be

to

If

is said
is

be

to

(a b)

is

in any

the consequent.

(a a) b

multipliedby

consequent

is distributed

dyads

is identical

dyadics.

antecedent

the

therefore

functions

vector

dyad

:
Definition

when

of

study

the

with

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

scalar

multiplied by
between

manner

a'a"

(a'a) (a" b).

the

multiplied by

multiplied by

that

scalar

scalar.

when

The

product

is written
0

The
as

dyadic a
a

applied to

postfactoryields a

obtained

by applying

0a.

or

vector

equal

vector

0 to

(a 0)

either

to

as

prefactoror

times

the

vector

that is

"

a($.r).

V
Theorem

The

That

is

combination

and

This

follows

"

(b + c)

in

is distributive.

dyad

immediatelyfrom

dyadics(10).
[(a+ b) c]

of vectors

the definition of

equalityof

For

(a + b) c

a(b

"

a c

"

-f b

"

(a c

c)

"

and

[a(b + c)J "r

Hence
each

it follows

of which

multiplied out
"

c)

that

is the

sum

ab"r

dyad
of

according to

except that the order

maintained.

.r

which
a

number

the

law

ac"r

consists of two

factors,

of vectors, may
of

be

ordinary algebra

of the factors in the dyads

must

le

LINEAR

VECTOR

269

FUNCTIONS

(11)'

...

cl +

The
which

it is

law

products

for

writing

the

"

cn+

product of the
it

as

distributive
with

dyad

inasmuch

composed,

the

...

two

the characteristic

law.

This

is

antecedent

and
of

case

cation
justifiquent
conse-

products

ordinary algebra.

From

lOL]

obtained

Form

Nonion

the

three

unit

by combining

If all the

i,j, k nine

at

time.

ii,

ij,

ik,

ji"

jj,

jk,

kj,

kk.

and

antecedents

if the

dyads

These

may

are

(12)

consequents in

of i,j,k, and

in terms

of a Dyadic

vectors

two

ki,

dyadic 0

be

distributive

(11)'and

law

be reduced

0 may
scalar

if the terms

to the

multipleof

one

of nine

sum

of the nine

pressed
ex-

resultingexpressionbe

simplified
by performingthe multiplications
accordingto

of

vectors

obeys

is customary in the

juxtapositionas

The

be

as

appears

of

in

in

therefore

dyad

cm

be

the

collected,the dyadic

dyads

each

fundamental

of which

is

dyads given

above.
0

This

"

anii

Theorem

dyadicsd"

The

and

ik

"23

a82kj

a33kk.

a31ki

be

ij +"13ik
+

aal

form

necessary
"

a12

j i + a22 jj

is called the nonion

(13)

of 0.

and

sufficient condition

equal is that,when

that two

expressedin

nonion

270

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

scalar coefficients of the

form, the

corresponding(?ads be

equal.
equal,then obviously

If the coefficients be

of

value

for any

and

dyadics by (10)

the

Conversely,if the dyadics 0

s

of

for all values

and

"

"

Let

r.

and

"

equal,then by

are

"

and

be

must

"

each

take

the vlues

on

i,j,k. Then
i. #.i

"P.i

k.

But

14)

i.

gr.i

i" 0

k.

^.i,

k"

these

coefficients

dyadics 0

the

equal

are

be used

to

(10)

defininga

linear vector
:

based

of which

r.j,

k.^.k^k.^k.

W.

coefficients in ;he

nine

Hence

the

theorem

equalityof

the
a,

be

may

corresponding

proved.1 Thu

is

dyadics can

two

times
some-

fundamental

more

conception of

the

b, c and

antecedent

may

the

dyadic

as

are

three

any

sum

of nine

given

non-

consequents any three given

n.

be

consequent, in

the

expressedas

antecedents

1,m,

then be reduced

the

i.".k

function.

non-coplanarvectors

every

k.

the

upon

dyadic 0

coplanarvectors,

and

i-"Z".k

greater advantagethan the

definition

Every

?F.

and

and

of the

analyticstatement

dyads

"Z".j

i"

are
preciselythe
quantities

expansion of

Theorem

"

expressedin

terms

of 1,m,

n.

terms

The

of a, b,

dyadic may

to the form

"21 bl +

a23 bm

"23 bn

a318l+

a32

cm

a33

(15)

en.

9^
1

As

of
corollary
None

the theorem

of them

may

it is evident

be expressed

that the nine

in
linearly

terms

dyads (12) are

of the others.

dependen
in-

LINEAR

VECTOR

expression of

This

a, b,

and

1,m,

Theorem

but not

with
0

in

of vectors

set

reduced

be

may

chosen
arbitrarily

be

given

i,j,k.

either the antecedents

which

that

each

expressionwhen

dyadic

both, may

than

general

more

coincides

Any

dyads of

three

to that

It reduces

(13).

is

271

FUNCTIONS

the

to

of

sum

the consequents,

or

provided they

be

non-

coplanar.
Let

it be

of which
three

b,c

a,

the

are

(P

express

of three

sum

Let

1, m,

then

be

(a21 1

" may

dyads

be any

other

expressed as

in

Hence
1 +

(au

ala

n)

als

+
+

or

In like
three

the

as

consequents.

non-coplanar vectors.

(15).
0

required to

if -itbe

manner

dyads

of which

aA

bB

required

the three

(a31 1

a32

n)

a23

n),

a32

cC.

to

"22

(16)

express

the

as

non-coplanarvectors

of

sum

1,m,

are

the consequents
0
where

L
M
N

The

Ll

Mm

au

azl b +

a31 c,

al2

aZ2 b +

"32 c,

"18

"23 b +

"33

c.

are

unique.

for
expressions(15), (16), (16)'

dyadics

which
a,

however
which
have

have
the

have

b, c, have

need

not

the

same

(16)'

Nn,

be
same

the
the

three

same

non-coplanar.
three

And

or
a

cross

and

b.

cedents,
ante-

these

"

equal dyadics

two

non-coplanarconsequents 1,m,

n,

three antecedents.

102.] Definition:The symbolicproduct formed

of two

equal

non-coplanar

consequents A, B,

same

Two

vectors

a, b without

is called the indeterminate

by

the

the intervention

product of

the two

of

position
juxtaa

dot

vectors

272

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

The

reason

products

"

and

and

symbolic
used

(11) and

certain

scalar

product

is

the other

hand

it is

"

does

purely

scalar

as

obey

not

distributive

the

obey

far

as

One

physical meaning only

however

law

two

multiplication

(Art 100).

TJieorem

product

indeterminate

The

b of

two

vectors

is

multiplication is

scalar

which

in

general product

most

On

nor

The

The

meanings.

determinate

It does

law.

is this.

vector.

vector

the associative

is concerned

the

operator.

an

the commutative
law

definite

have

acquires a

as

indeterminate

term

is neither

ab

product

when

the

scalar,the other

certain
the

for

associative.
The

property that when

also known.
Inasmuch

the

product

scalar

as

be

to be

be transferred

this

possible transference

other

words

Theorem

If the

are

equal, the

the

product

Let

of

associative,that is

(a'a) (a"b),

the vectors

determine

Any

vector

to the

other.

scalar
when

are

general.

more

given.

known

are

scalar

the

product

factor
from

Apart

factor, the vectors

indeterminate

two

vectors

of the

posing
com-

is known.

and

a',b and

lengthsof

and

products
b' must

or

of the

opposite directions

lengthsof
a

a' and

al i +

aa

b'.

as

k,

b and

be collinear

and

to a' and

(takinginto

negative sign according as

equal
product

one

be

the

factors

two

b is

to have

In

"

positive or

product
from

(ab)

completely

to

may

product

(aa)

the

the

multiplicationis

and

their

is known
could

impossible

when

ought

product

Certainly no

a(ab)
it will

conceivable

general product

most

account

have

a' b'
and
the

tively
respec-

b')is equal

to the

274

the vectors

b, being

and

The

b.

also the

into themselves

and
The

"

nine

"

ixi
and

The

"

i, j

the indeterminate

and
are

if

the

known

is

ab

a'b',

hold

"

given,a

a'

"

fundamental

of it.
notation

Their

as

functional

of the dot and

0.

either

k.

the most

"

"

from
respectively

dot and

cross.

product.

determined.

are

b and

"

b and
a

is

and

b, all of which

and

tween
be-

cross

a'

b'.

(17)

are

known

impose upon

imposes five.

general product but

The

nature

for

is

if

togethera

the

products

the directions of

That

b' and

product.

b and

"

length of

converselythat

only

not

they

of i,j,k

of the indeterminate

of the

which

different.

i"k

b obtained

only four conditions, whereas

b appears

most

j,

is known.

ab

b is fixed ; for taken

vectors
a

"

b and

"

product

when

It does not
a

and

kxk=:0,

productsdepend solelyupon

upon

ab

plane of

scalar

are

upon

quantity,

vector

independent

not

functions

are

is to say, when

For these

condition

nine

product by insertinga

the factors
That

The

k"j=k"i

jxj

products a

two

"

product

products (12)

of them

two

products are

vector

scalar

upon

fixed and

are

parallelogramof

independent.

are

The

to the

indeterminate

independent. Only

not

are

normal

of the

area

nine

The

the side.

b, being

The

conditions.

b is fixed and

lengths.

product a

vector

imposes three

are

of their

and

quantity,imposes only one

scalar

of

directions

The

b.

product

the

likewise
"

and

imposes Jiveconditions

product a

indeterminate

The

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

others

are

brought

merely
out

the

Hence
as

the

functions

clearlyby

the

LINEAR
: A
Definition

dot

by insertinga
of each

by

subscript$

0S
like

ax

manner

obtained

by insertinga
of each

a2b2

a2

0.

in

attachinga subscriptcross
0X
If 0 be

bj

at

0s

"Px

023

Or

0S
"px

(j

^32) *

equations (20)

expressed in
in

the

vector

From

",

this it appears

uniquely determined
be obtained

more

(18) and (19),and

1

and

b3

(18)

of 0 may

is

and

(k

"

"

that

when

the

(ai2

a2i)k- (21)

k"

0-k,

(20)'

"

scalar

if

equal

"

"

"

k) j

0S
is

0
to

and
and

and

vector

when

"

and

are

the scalar of

0*

of

are

expanded
two

equal

" and

0X

"x.

are

given. They

convenientlyfrom
sometimes

(21)'

the

of ".

"3

by

(20)

coefficients of

sequent
con-

(19)

"

a^

the vector

0S

be

of i, j, k,

in terms

ais)3

Hence

equal to

If

of the

scalar of

of 0 is

(21)

form.

nonion

dyadics,the

and

terms

will be denoted

a3

aZ2 +

j) i

"

(i.0.j-J-0'i)k-

In

"

b3

the antecedent

+j.0.j

+
-

i. 0-i

...

the vector

form

("si

vector

b2

a2

an

quent
conse-

0.

to

a3

as

This

in nonion

expanded

between

cross

dyad

b2

"

and

scalar will be denoted

a3b3

known

vector

This

be obtained

bx

0.

to

a1b1

the antecedent

dyadic.

of 0 may

the scalar

as

between

attached

In

in

dyad

If

known

scalar

275

FUNCTIONS

VECTOR

(20)

and

(22)

functions
may

of

sometimes

(21)than

from

not.

subscriptdot might be used for the scalar

free from liability
to misinterpretation.

of * if it were

distinct
sufficiently

276

VECTOR

ANALYSIS

Products

of Dyadics

giving the definitions and proving the theorems

lying
concerning productsof dyadics,the dyad is made the underIn

103.]

principle.What

to the

dyadic in general owing

Definition:The
dyad
and

of

distributive law

obey the

(ab).(cd)

second

dyad

are

of
respectively

product

scalar

of

dyad

dyad (b c)

ab

the

into

a4. 1

b-c

the

(23)

consequent of the

antecedent
the

"

for the

the

dyadics

and

whole

is

consequent

multipliedby

consequent of the first and

the

of the second.

antecedent
Thus

the

product and

the

and

,.

a(b.c)d

taken

dyads

for the

(cd)

"

of the first and

is,the antecedent

That

the

,,

equal to

definition

by

fact that

is true

multiplication.

(a b)
is

dyad

product of the

direct

d is written

for the

is true

the two

vectors

which

stand

togetherin

the

product

(ab) (cd)
"

are
a

multipliedas they stand. The other two are left

new
dyad. The direct product of two dyadics

defined

as

the formal

law) of

the

and
"P.

of

sum

products of dyads.

Thus

...)

^=(a1b1

+a2b2

+a3b3

^=(01*1

+c2d2

W=(^l^l

+a2b2

+a3b3

""")"

(cjdj +c2d2

+c3d3

""")

c3

be

may

the distributive

to
expansion (according

product into

to form

d3 +

"

"

")

a1b1"c1d1 4-a1b1-c2d2

a1b1

a2b2.c1d1 +a2b2.c2d2

a2b2.c3d3

a3ba.c1d1 +a3b3"c2d2

a3b3

"

"

C3d3

c8d3

+
+
+

"

"

"

(23)'

...

"

"

"

+
1

The

parentheses
may

he omitted

in each of these three

expressions.

LINEAR

bx

277

FUNCTIONS

axdj +b1"c2

cl

VECTOR

axd2 +b1"c3

a1d3

t"2 "1 a2dl

1"2'C2 "2d2

1"2

C3 *2

b3

b3

b3

c3

'

dx

Cj a3

"

d2

c2 a3

'

d3

a3d3

---

'

'

"

"

'

"

(23)"

The

of two

product

Theorem

The

regarded

as

to the

dyadics 0

show

Let

be any

ab

(ab
b

"

d)

"

(c d r)

the distributive

vector

of

third

0 defines

pointsP'.
pointsP'

over

go

0 carries P
into

such

"

"

"

"

(c d

"

r).

drawn
r

the

from

will be the

That
the

virtue

assumed

an

origin

positionvector
be

will

the

is to say, W defines

points P

pointsP".

of

dyadics in general.

$"("""*)

that

The

a,

"

(b c) (d r) a,

transformation

into

into P".

"

for

true

point P".

of space

of ".

(b c) (d r)

(24)

dyads. Consequently by

r"

and

point P\

r)

"

"

dyad

d any

positionvector

in space, r'

point P

another

for

"

prefactoris equivalent

r),

(d r)

W when

and

"/".(r.r).

it holds

law

the

denote

"

d)

"

is true

theorem

W.

"

the operator 0.

("

"

b'c (a d

"

(a b

The

If

"

W.

"

of 0 and

dyad

Hence

"

dyadic

dyadics 0

as

by

("Z".?F).r

or

to

W of two

"

operator W followed
Q

W is

be used

to

operator

an

Let
To

product

and

go

of space

singleoperation0

position
a

formation
trans-

over

into the

such

that the

" followed

Hence
"

of

"

by

also carries

P".
Direct

Theorem:

law.

That

multiplicationof dyadicsobeys
is

the

tributive
dis-

278

VECTOR

""("
($'

and
in

Hence

be

"

"P)

"

"P. " +

"'

"

"

00

"p" +

0"

"'
".

"'+

+...). ("+

expanded formallyaccording to

Theorem

That

tive,

"'}

(25)

generalthe product

(0+
may

ANALYSIS

The

of three

product

""+..")

the distributive

dyadics "P,",

is associa-

is

(^.^.Q=0.(".^
and

consequently

either

proof

three

dyads ab, cd,

written

without

(26)'

demonstration
taken

ef

of the

theorem

respectivelyfrom

the

"ef

ab.(cd.ef)

(b"c) ad*

(d-e)

be

also

may

ef

{("? V)
"

ab"cf

(d"e) (b"c)

af.

given by considering"#,",

Q\

Let

"

\(0. W)*Q\
{(?.(?T. ")}

for all values of

r.

W)

"

(Q

r).

r'

r'

r",
0.i"

.r=

{((^.?F) j2|.r
.

(". ").i'="l". (""!').

Let

(0

".r

{($"")""}.*

Hence

three

(b"c) (d" e) af,

operators

Again

for

Q.

(ab.cd)

as

in the

consists

proof

be

may

$.?."

dyadics 0, ",

The

(26)

product

parentheses,as
The

law.

T'".

"^".[(?T.J2).r].

{#. (?F.

Consequently

.r

and

LINEAR

The

theorem

the

to

of any

case

of any

number

be inserted
It

of

the

theorem

and

also when

But

the

the

dyadic is

dyadics and

number

product

b be

dyad

of

"

r)

"

(r

(a b
ab

"

"

Hence

The

of any

or

end

when

the

of

d)

omitted

ab

"

(a

cd

is not

dyadics
may
made

be
to

it will be
a

the

dyadics

greater than

two.

between

occurs

vector, and

another

assume

at
a

the
form

(b r) (a c) d,

"

"

that

end

"

"

(r c) a
"

(r"cd).

ab"

of any

with

(27)

of W.

be summed

number

distributive

and
be

may

product
other

some

of

factor

vector

follows

as

up

dyadics
at

either

associative
inserted

of any

number

positionthan

parentheses are

or

necessary

at
to

meaning.
by making

factor which

vector

placed

"

factor at

definite

seen

(r c)

the direct

associative

give the expressiona

d)

parentheses

But

vector

"

the

obeys

pleasure.

dyadics with

Later

is associative.

vector

dyad

"

dyadics

ends

product

"

end

(24)'

"P.(r. ").

"

"

multiplication
at

either

of

both

of

W*r.

is

dyadic,a

"P,and

direct

number

at

or

laws

of

dyadics

(ab"r)

Theorem:

result.

precedes

of

results of this article may

The

may

associative.

not

(0.r).
Let

product

the
altering

vector

the vector

case

is untrue

The

dyadics.

direct

Parentheses

0.

".(".T)=

induction

that

(24)

of two

the

The

dyadics.

pleasurewithout

at

in

279

mathematical

is associative.

is true

theorem

by

dyadics

above

product

The

extended
of

(0. T).r
Hence

FUNCTIONS

number

omitted

or

shown

was

be

may

VECTOR

in which

of the

between

occurs

and

use

hence

the

conjugate

other

product

it is associative.

dyadics
may

be

280

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

104.] Definition:The
and

of

by
respectively

the

vector

vector

dyad.

obvious

The

Theorem:

to

ajbj

direct

positionthan

the end

(rx

$)

(r x
r

(0

but

the

s)

s)

(r 0)

"

(r x

".(TX

Furthermore

the

no

other

0)

"

0 and

"

d"

"

"

"

(0

V.

"

(r x $),
x

r)

"P"s,

than

meaning

is

"

...

dyadics
whether
dot

any

is

other

That

is,

"!""",

rx

(?T.r)x

at

associative.

=r

or

occurs

vector

of

cross

expressions
s

have

0)

not

(0-s)

end

asbg

by

with

vector

number

ends

rx(0"?r)

any

product is

0).s

(0

of

both

the

case

?F

"

at

or

a2b2

a3b3

xr

performed

in

But

either

at

dyadics is

product

multiplicationbe

associative.

denned

are

r),

vector

a2b2

either end

multipliedat

can

extension

the

and

a1b1

ab

into

ab

(r x a)b.

dyad

product of

The

dyad

a(b

rx(ab)
skew

into

dyad

equations
(ab)

The

of

products

skew

s,

"P

s,
x

a,

(29)

282

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Degreesof Nullityof Dyadics

It

105.]
be reduced

or

the

be

to

or

singleterm

If 1, m,

other

"P =

dyadic has

they all vanished

Theorem

If

three

let

be

may

expressed

bm

ayn

b) m

4-

n.

(ay

cn,

c)n.

to two

terms.

dyadicwould

reduce

to

the

of two

sum

cn.

reduced

been

all collinear the

(ax

as

(P^azm

Then

bm

of the

two

to

Thus

zero.

al +

coplanar one

are

of the

in terms

to

or

The

most, and this reduction

at

dyadic further

the

reduce

possibleto

terms

of three terms

sum

dyadic could always

accomplished in only one way when the antecedents

it may
consequents are specified.In particularcases

be

can

to

(Art.101) that

shown

was

dyadic would

dyadic 0

singleterm

were

and

if

vanish.
the

expressedas

be

If 1,m,

of three

sum

terms

d" =
of which

the antecedents

then

the

dyadic may

when

and

only when

The

proof of

given.
could

To

be

prove

reduced

a,

be
the

the

This

that

the

be the

mx

of two

sum

to

dp
1,

of

contradiction.

That

n.

just been
the

that

dyadic

terms

~jTmn]'

For

1 x
n

non-coplanar.

were

let

is,

_
"

[Imn]'

has

eq
n

m,

dyads

coplanar.

are

of two

sum

part suppose

to 1,m,
system reciprocal

the

to

non-coplanar,

part of the theorem

consequents

supposition leads

to be

known

are

second
a

en

consequents

"P =
and

b, c

reduced

first

the
to

bm

al +

,
_

m
g
'

[Tmn]

1',m', n'

VECTOR

LINEAR

The

vectors

1,m,

been

"p.r

(al

But

and

"

m'

1'

By giving to
equal to

any

But

"

take

can

plane of
coplanar

on

d and

e.

leads

to

coplanar and
Theorem

that

"

n'

1,

yb

value

1' =

"

n'

"

0.

zc.

the vector

"

only

those

Thus

the

be

must

"

q)

(p

is

dyadic 0

"

r)

"

be made

may

values

vector

assumption

(q

"

d and

coplanarwith

contradiction.

the theorem
If

"

in space.

(dp

zn,'

m'

(x\* + ym' + zn').

"

xa

suitable

vector

"

shows

n'

"

0"r

m'

"

vector

as

ym'

en)

Hence

This

bin

1' =

"

"

x\' +

non-coplanar. Any

of them

terms

non-coplanar because

are

to be

assumed

expressedin

be

may

1',m', n' exist and

have

283

FUNCTIONS

r).

which

lie in

that 1,m,

Hence

1,

expressed as

the

m,

Hence

e.

n
n

the
non-

are

must

be

proved.

be

sum

of three

terms

of which
the

the antecedents

dyadic 0

when
The

the

can

a,

of the

first

?F=al

to
n

xp

part

en,

known

are

to be

singledyad

non-coplanar,

when

and

only

collinear.

are

0 could

part suppose

W"0

bm

b, c

be reduced

consequents 1,m,

proof

the second

Let

"l +

given above.

was

be

dp

bmxp

expressedas

dO

+ cnxp.

0,

To

prove

284

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

second

the

From

for
postfactor

?r=iclxp

Hence

be

for every

zero

to a, b,

gives

2nxp.

0.

znxp
value

of r, that is,for every

value

of #,

Hence

2.

lxp
1, m, and

been

demonstrated.

If the three

0,

Hence

the theorems
words

all

are

of the

would

antecedent

theorem

three

consequents of 0

the

sum

of fewer

dyadic which

may

be reduced
the

are

the

case

non-

of

by interchangingthe

Then

is

ther
fur-

antecedents

both

in which

case

coplanar.

than

three

be

reduced

to

when

dyads, the dyadic

which

to be

consequent throughout. There

is reducible

to

may

be reduced

the antecedent

the

singledyad
the

to

and

the

to

be

to

complete. A
dyads, but

of two

sum

is said

and

reduced

be

to be

planar.

plane of

dyadic is expressed as

is said
to

cannot

is said to be

dyads

plane of the antecedents

coincide

two

known

has

of two

sum

case

0.

the theorem

been

altered

dyads.
106.] Definition: A dyadic which

cannot

and

had

antecedents, the statement

to be

dealing with

and

parallelto

have

and

0,

consequents 1, m,

coplanar instead

In

as

20',

2/inxp

zlxp+ymxp

must

the

used

the first expression

From

y,

y b' +

a; +

a',b',c' is the reciprocal

system
r.

vector

any

where

that

it is evident

equation

the

the

sum

In
sequents
con-

of

uniplanar.

dyadic

is said

be

linear.

singledyad

to

consequent of that dyad

are

col-

LINEAR

VECTOR

285

FUNCTIONS

linear,the dyadic is said to be unilinear.

so

expressed that

be

zero.

In

The

this

in

expressed

all of its terms

the

case

vanish

nine

form

nonion

If
the

dyadicmay

dyadic

coefficients of the

be

is said to

dyadic as

vanish.

must

properties of complete, planar,uniplanar,linear,and

unilinear

dyadics when

regarded

operators

as

are

follows.

as

Let
s

If "
value

is

In like

the

If

is

vector

; but

used

as

in the

no

and

of the

The

zero.

vector

of

0.

is

to

uniplanar the
If 0

with

of

is linear

the antecedent

those

every

the

used

as

of 0

and

vector

have

20.

zn.

give

cannot

on

value

any

zero

vector

In

may
t any

in the

plane

plane of the consequents

0 when

dyadic

in space

to

particularany

vector

vector

consequents of 0 is reduced
a

postfactorreduces
plane of

to

In

zero.

every

the consequents

perpendicularto

statements
s

planes. The

in the

vector

the vector

x\

take

is reduced

same

hence

yb

ica

value in the

vector

particulara
of

desired

any

zero.

may

plane of

dyadic

the antecedents

"

antecedents.

the

in space
In

t any

values out

perpendicularto
to

itself is

prefactorreduces

plane

on

a',b',c'.
system of reciprocals

applied to

the vector

the antecedents

of 0

za')

possess

planar

to take

n'.

(xa.1+ y\"'+ zc')

complete dyadic

unless

of

b, c

a,

0.

"

non-coplanar and

are

(xlf + ym'

"

manner

be made

t may

reciprocalsystem 1',m',
=

suitable value.

complete 1,m,

and

and

complete s

by giving r

As

is

case

the

plane of

the

dyadic

hold.
take
value

on

any

value

collinear

collinear with the

con-

286

sequent of "P ;

but

of

0.

particularany

of

are

zero

is

dyadic

the value

what

the

of

nullity. A

to

107.]

Theorem

planar;

of

Theorem

and

The

product
plane of

the

product

linear

is

The

as

consequent
the antecedent

loth

are

possess

zero

no

degreeof

one

degreesof

two

three

to possess

degreesof

lity
nul-

and

"

the consequent
the

In this

"'b

ab

W.

takes

"

planar

the

dyadic

of the

dent
antece-

product

reduces

plane

case.

2,

all values

on

is

of the first

case

dyadic, linear.

planar dyadics

two

this

planar dyadic,

linear

only in

"

complete dyadics

two

and

and

dyadic

vector

in the

plane of

c0

vector

s'

B' =

possess

product of

of

dyadic.

and

to

perpendicularto

Let

The

to

complete dyadic

of the second
to

is said

complete dyadic

except when
the

sequent
con-

be.

may

direct

The

of

complete;

in

zero.

vectors

is said

dyadic

zero

as

complete nullity.

or

is

dyadic

linear

0 used

line of the

Definition: A planar dyadic is said

nullity. A

dyadic

the

perpendicularto

vectors

reduced

thus

The

to the

"P used

perpendicularto

zero.

vector

any

In

If $
matter

to

dyadic

line of the antecedent

the

to

vectors

reduced

are

reduces
postfactor
of

vector

any

particular
any

In

0.

The

other values.

no

prefactorreduces
of

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

B'

J* (bj -oj) +

"

takes

on

the values

(bj c:) ax

0"2 Cl) a2

2^ (b2

'

(bj c2)}ax
"

(bj

"

'

C2) at
C) a2"

{x (b2 Cl)+
"

(b, c2)}:
"

LINEAR

VECTOR

Let

s'

where

x'

and

y'

These

desired

values

any

desired

value

JT'E!+ y'aa,

(bx c^

(bj c2),

a?

(b2 cx) +

(ba c2).

"

equations may

any

287

FUNCTIONS

"

be

always

x' and
in

y' are

the

"

"

solved

given
of

plane

for

and

when

that is,when

"

a^ and

a2

s' has

unless

"

the

determinant

b2
But

by (25),Chap. II.,this
(b!
x.

The

".

Their

vectors

is

b,)

j.

and

scalar

cx

unless

ax and

the

If however

planes

of

bj and

b2,Cj

in

only values

hence

(P

"

the

product

is

Theorem

The

except

and

"

when

the

of

In

this

case

the

ax and

first factor
In

plane

of

is

linear

the

case

case.

the

is

linear
of

consequents

zero

"

is

the

of the linear

the antecedent

product

a^, and

is perpendicular

this

planar dyadic into

take

proved.

dyadics

second.

this

planar dyadic is perpendicularto

dyadic.

the

the

planar dyadic

plane of

linear

two

of

in the

perpendicular.

are

of

of

pendicula
per-

perpendiculars' can

are

only in

product

c2

is therefore

consequent

value

any

of
the

planes are

theorem

The

antecedent

zero

c2

only when

the
on

and

sequents
con-

the antecedents

is therefore

b2,Cj

and

product

the

when
to

linear

The

"

"

certain line of the

is linear.

Tlieorem

except

take

of the

plane

and

Bf may

and

bx

when

is,when

a2 and

the

that

"

0.

plane of

vanishes

product

product

" /

c2, to the

perpendicular

are

of

j.

Consequently
plane

the

merely

(c, X Co)

"

c,

"

bj x b2 is perpendicular to

vector

of 0

on

b2

Cj

"

and

only

in

this

case.

Theorem:

dyadic

The

is linear

product

of

except when

linear
the

dyadic

into

planar

consequent of the linear

288
is

dyadic

this

in

only

reduce

they can
similar

to

to

the

to

only

those

given

above

in

left to

are

If

108.] Definition:
postfactorto

dyadic is said

to be

if

for

there

Theorem

the

zero

and

"

"

"

"P

the

the

of

the

reader.

prefactor

That

of r,
is used

capitalI

idemfactor

is

in which

"

form

nonion

as

or

the

vector

is

for all values

expressed in

planar

two

Conjugatesof Dyadics

The

that

proofsare

proof

to

of r,

direction

When

The

for all values

be

no

of

case

The

can

The

cases.

reader.

idem/actor.

the

quite so apparent

always yields that

idemfactor.

is

of

mentioned

dyadic applied as

idemfactor.

an

an

an

d"

is

antecedents

cases

286, is also left

vector

any

if

For

in

Idemf actor;1 Reciprocalsand

the

product

It is not

stated, page

first theorem

then

the

case

that in the

zero.

zero

one

dyadics. They

The

of

plane

case.

reduce

products do

or

this

In

immediately evident

It is

the

perpendicularto

planar dyadic.

the

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the symbol

as

complete dyadic.
r

vanishes.

the idemfactor

is

(33)
Hence
To

all idemfactors
prove

merely

that

the
to

necessary

are

equal.

idemfactor

apply

the

takes

the

idemfactor

form

(33)

I to the

it is

vectors

i,j, k respectively.Let
I

In the

ii +

an

a21ji

a12

ij + "13

"22jj

theory of dyadicsthe idemfactor

ordinaryalgebra. The notation is intended

I
to

ik

"23jk

plays a

role

analogous to unity in

suggest this analogy.

290

the first place since 0 is the idemfactor, it is

In

dyadic.
a

possess

antecedents

the

Hence
set of

a;

By hypothesis
Then

"

for all values

x\

"

"

is

when

the

equal

to

equal

taken

are

"

(0

?T) 0

This

relation holds

must

take

"

F)

(r

all desired

product of

two

of

I.

That

the

is,

c'.

if the

the

product

product

reversed

=r.I
"

"

"

0,

"

order, is also

"

of

values.

r,

0)

*0,

(V
r.

(?)

"

As

Hence

0 is

by

"

#.

complete r

"

definition

I.

an

to

two

idemfactor, that product

the

dyadics

are

incomplete dyadics is incomplete and

to be

hence

related

so

idemfactor, they

necessitates both the dyadics * and

idemfactor.

Hence

z.

in either order.

product is equal

This

two

!.

dyadicsis

109.] Definition: When

their

for all values

"

be taken

zc

idemfactor.

r"(0.

may

the

in

r"("P. ")

If the

of #, y,

idemfactor;1 then

show

on

dyadics,and

two

0 ""

yV

equal.

b',

" be any

the

to

factors

"c'.

#a' +

be

non-coplanarand

are

Let

must

complete

r.

zn

Let
To

"

ym

a',

If 0 and

the

y V

of r, that is,for all values

a' +
r

correspondingcoefficients

Theorem

b,

a,

a',b', c'.
reciprocals
r

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

complete.
could

said

are

not

For
be

the

that
to be

product

equal

to

the

LINEAR

reciprocals^The

VECTOR

notation

algebrais employed

291

FUNCTIONS

used

for

reciprocalsin ordinary
reciprocal
dyadics. That is,

to denote

=0-i

Theorem:

Reciprocalsof

the

same

(35)

equal dyadics are

or

equal.
0

Let
their

and

"

be

given equal dyadics, 0~l

two

defined

as
reciprocals

above.
0=

and

""
show

To

0.0-^
As

0=
0-1

1=

0-1

reciprocalof

reciprocalsystem
are

If

the

0~i

complete dyadic 0

For

0~i

(al +

Theorem

into two

bm

cn)

If the

dyadics "
1

An

I. "~i

"~\
antecedents

to the antecedents

are

(l'a'+

bm

products
are

no

of 0.

n' c'.

n'c')=aa'
of

(36)
+

bV

cc'.

complete dyadic

equal as dyadicsthen

incompletedyadic has

quents
conse-

en,

m' b' +
n'V

the

in the form

be written

!'"' +

direct
and

"~i.

dyadic whose

al +

"

"~\

1,

reciprocalsystem

is
reciprocal

"~\

consequents of 0 and whose

the

"P =
its

0.

=0-1.0.

0-i

0 is the

to

"~i.

W.

0.0-i=

Hence
The

I.

"~i.

0-1.0
I.0-i

By hypothesis

W,

W~l

",

"~i

0-i

and

(finite)
reciprocal.

" and

0
Q

292

That

"

O.

and

if

and

if

"
0

This

be

may

vectors

any

vector,

"

s,

then

s,

then

0
r

last

"~l

0"1

Hence

t x

vector,

is

canceled

from

scalar

were

dyadic is
a

zero

110.]

"

either

what

end

is

of

admissible.

taken

in the

"

"P

"

as

s,

s.

follows.

Let

s.

s.

equivalentto

an

the law

of

if

expressionjust as
of

cancelation

It

t be

be

they

incomplete

an

the

corresponds to

can-

cancelation

ordinaryalgebra.

Theorem:
of

equations

complete dyadics. Complete dyadics may

factor in

number

t x

quantities. The

not

of the

t.

equal to

Equations (37) give

for

s.

t"Ixs,

celation

(37)

s,

"

equation proceed
t-Ixr

t is any

Q,

reciprocalof 0,

the

"=

by multiplyingeach

reduce

seen

To

then

0*8,

"

the

through by

The

reciprocalof

dyadics is equal

to the

the

product

product of

the

of

any

reciprocals

oppositeorder.

It will be sufficient to
the

two

is,

if

of

into

As

dyadic

be performed with a dot

(whether the multiplication
equal, then the vectors r and s are equal.
cross) are

and

or

product of

If the

equal.

are

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

productconsists

give the proof for

of two

dyadics.

To

the

show

case

in which

LINEAR

VECTOR

3F-i.

(0. ST)-i

W~l

"

0-1

"

Hence

(0
0

Hence

("

2T)

"

W and

"

5F"1

0"1

"

proof

same

for any

manner

obtained

or

Definition: The
of times,
the

number

customary

of

The

of 0 and

number

any

denoted

in

0 is the power

of

are

02

03^

(0-i)"

The

theorem.
nth

power

the

nth

of

the

be

reciprocalof

corollaryof

be

may
0

interpretedas
of space,

the

an

or

inverse

The

the identical transformation

The

at

all.

be

denned.

single-valued.For
"

I.

transformations.

They

are

seldom

the

idemfactor

in addition

system of square
0

"

and

But

roots

-ii

of 0

idemfactor

that is,no

formation
trans-

irrational powers

to

used

these

of the
+

correspond to

The

fractional

instance

formation
trans-

negative powers

correspondsto

infinite

the

reciprocalof

the

of 0

positivepowers

the

roots

interpretedas

as

correspond to

square

ing
preced-

the

operator determining

repetitionsof the transformation.

not

(37)

of 0.

power

0~"

symbol

0-".

proof follows immediatelyas

The

of

power

0.

(0")-i

will

taken

02,

reciprocalof

reciprocalof

If

in the

given

induction.

dyadic 0,

be

may

forth.

so

TJieorem
the

is,

manner.

and

dyadics

called powers

are

I.

reciprocals.That

mathematical

by

0-1

I.

be

sr-i. 0-i.

products of

itself

by

0-i

0-1)

must

(0. ?T)-i=
The

0-i,

"~l)

"

( ST"1

"

293

FUNCTIONS

kk.

form

of 0

and

are

has

the

it has

not
two

doubly

294

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Geometricallythe transformation
r'=

is

in the

reflection of space

replaceseach

figureby

situated

the

upon

oppositeside

of the

called

perversion. The

r' =

"

This

rotated

about

of 180".
roots

roots

but

idemfactor

in addition

and

111.]
the

it will be

The

the i-axis

thus possesses

infinite

doubly

seen

(Art. 129)

replaceseach

through an

angle

only two

square

systems of

square

not

two

conjugateof

dyadic obtained

consequents of
G has been

that

these

been

given dyadic and

employed.

The

demonstrated.

conjugatesare
Theorem

by

are

no

to the

been

defined

(Art. 99)

antecedents

the notation

of

and

subscript

equation
0

The

0C

(9)

followingtheorems

concerning

useful.

The

conjugate

dyadicsis equal to

Theorem

dyadic has

the
by interchanging

has

of the form

roots

all.

means

as

equal

The

idemfactor

transformation

is a reflection in thei-axis.
its

formation
trans-

transformation

the
Geometrically

figureby

transformation

j k-plane. The

system of square

infinite

doubly

j k-plane. This

symmetrical figure,symmetrically

is sometimes
has also

"P-r

The

product of

the

sum

conjugate
the

of the
or

of

sum

or

difference

difference

of the

in the

two

conjugates,

product of dyadics

conjugatestaken

of

is

equal

oppositeorder.

LINEAR

It will be
the

product

VECTOR

sufficient
contains

demonstrate

to

factors.

two

295

FUNCTIONS

the

theorem

in

show

To

(0.T)C=VC.0C,
(0. 8%.r

Hence

(0

Theorem

of the

power

The

r-(0.

"

is

conjugate

conjugate of

corollaryof

be

0nc may
Theorem

equal to

the

interpretedin
:

the

The

the nonion

is its

the

of the

(41)
The

expression

reciprocalof
the

dyadic

dyadic.

0^.

conjugate

i i +

(42)

as

may

be

from

seen

jj+ k k

"

4"c

expression"c~l

may

equivalentways

"

( 0~^0

the

"

(0-%

therefore
as

I.

be

interpretedin

reciprocalof

the

to be

either

conjugate

conjugate of the reciprocal.

it
Definition: If a dyadic is equal to its conjugate,
as

is

((^c)-1

Hence

or

the

equal ways.

conjugate of

(0

dyadic is

**

either of two

own

((P^"1

of two

dyadic.

(0c)-i.0c

The

of

form.
I

Hence

4"c"

foregoingtheorem.

(0-% *"PC
idemfactor

The

(r.Q). V,

power

(0-i)c=(00)-i
For

(40)

"

of the

the

conjugate

reciprocalof

Wc

")c=

(*"%=
This

W)

case

the

self
-conjugate.If

it is

equal

to the

negative of

is said

its

con-

296

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

For
anti-self-conjugate.

is said to be

jugate, it

se"/-conjugate

dyadics.
r

For

r,

0C.

anti-self-conjugate
dyadics
r

Theorem
way

into

Any

0.

"

dyadic

00.

"

and

one

only

one

and
self-conjugate

is

one

in

the

anti-self-conjugate.

other

For

0=(0+0C}

But

(0

and

(0
the

Hence

|(0"

0c)c

0C

0CC

0C-

0CC

0c-0.

the

Thus
0C), anti-self-conjugate.
in

one

(0

it

"2"c)

Suppose

the

division

part

has

been

0' +

in another

way

*'

0".

possible to decompose

were

and

Let

way.

0,

0C+

^s self-conjugate;

^c)

(43)

(0-0C\

0C-)C

part |(0

accomplished

into

be divided

may

parts of which

two

r,

self-conjugate and

anti-self-conjugate
part.

an

Let

then

Where

(0'

Hence

if

Hence

(0'

")

is
,12)

(0" -Q)=
if

conjugate.

(0"

(0'

self-con

(0"
"

")

is

J2)c

0'c

jugate,Q

")c

0"c

is

Qc

0' +

self-conjugate.
J2e

J2
anti-self-conjugate

0"
is

^
anti-self-

298

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

(0-0*)

"

"2"xX

-3

dyadic $" possesses one

Any anti-self-conjugate
degree of nullity. It is a uniplanar dyadic the plane of
is perpendicularto "PX",
whose
consequents and antecedents
Theorem

of 0.

the vector

Theorem

of which
minus

follows

theorem

This

as

Any dyadic

d"

0'

symbolically
113.] Any

vector

be

it must
This

dyadic.
antecedents

be found

follows

By (31)

o)

"

and
This

may

will

be

(45)

X.

multiplicationdefines

the

uniplanar

parallelto

(c

Hence

in vector

r,

operator

with

consequents perpendicular to

all vectors

\ 0X

equivalent to

(c

"

I)

{ (I
"

For

dyadic

will reduce

(I

"

parts

two

multiplication.

cross

possibleto represent

and

as

used

function.

linear vector

Hence

0'

"

other

"PX X

or

in

into

up

the

of "P used

half the vector

one

equations(44).

be broken

0 may

self-conjugateand

is

one

corollaryfrom

o)

I)

(I

(I

"

be stated in words.

to

(I

1}

"

c)
x

"

"

c)

c,

of
that

so

{I (o
"

(c
"

I)

I)

(c

I)}

"

r.

"

"

r,

I).

its
it

dyadicmay

"

r=

plane

as

c) I,

(c

The

zero.

c x

(46)

LINEAR

Theorem
vector

The

is

VECTOR

vector

the

equal

to

multiplicationwith

r.

used
I

prefactors
;

as

and

In

operator

follows

is

unit

vector

any

in

right angle
of

lying out
I

is

parallelto
to

If the
r

or

line

as

and

c)3

(c

(c

that

of
c

I)3

I)2

vector

of

dyadic
which

is perpendicular

reversed

are

turned
x

back

or

in

through
c

to its

I four

original

therefore

(I
c

were

perpendicularto

they are

about

axis.

as

is

through

which

the vectors

times

component

dyadic are

the

is a unit vector

the effect of the

the operator I

of the

c)2

If

axis.

an

perpendicular to

powers

rightangles. They

two

vector

(I

dyadics

applicationof

where

rightangle about

appliedthree

If it be

position. The

(I

that component

turn

through

brings a

to be

positiverightangle

be to annihilate

rightangles. Applying

times

in direct

dyadics are

the

plane perpendicularto

the

perpendicular to

dyadic be applied twice

direction.
three

the

through

rotated

are

about

vector

any

I would

or

dyadic c

turns

I used

plane perpendicular to

the axis
therefore

or

vector

The

postfactors.The

r, as

equivalentto turning r through

c.

precedes r

with
multiplication

vector

anti-self-conjugate.

are

to

in

dyadic I

If

if

the vector

case

used

299

FUNCTIONS

c),

I,

(47)
(I
(I
It thus
law

far

as

"

1 in

The
vectors
as

an

appears
as

c)4

c)5

(c

I)5

I)4

dyadic I

that the

its powers

(c

concerned

are

or
as

c,

I.

obeys the

the scalar

same

imaginary

algebra.

dyadic

Ixc

perpendicular to
annihilator.

To

quadrantalversor

cxlisa

or

c.

avoid

For
this

vectors

effect

parallelto
and

obtain

only
c

for

it acts
a

true

300

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

for all vectors

quadrantalversor
to add

the

dyad

to the

in space

dyadic I

it is
c

or

sary
merely neces-

I.

If

(48)

The

idemfactor.

imaginary V
and

1 of

"

and

If i,j, k

scalar

of

three

are

I
into

i, j, and

ixl

annihilators

when

used

ii +

about

an

the

along

in direct

ji

k k is

"

to

the

is

plete
com-

is anti-self-

jk,

(49)

i j,

kk

These

expressions represent

those

They

an

for the
an

vectors

idemfactor

axes.

to i
multiplication,

annihilator

dyad

the

respectivelycombined

expression (I x k)4 is

j, but

of

the axis i,j,k

(IXk)"=(kxI)"

The

dyadic X

ik-ki,

jj

successively.

quadrantal versors
with

The

kj"

by multiplyingthe

seen

analogous

perpendicularunit

xj=j

I x

be

algebra.

root

c, self-conjugate.

may

is

versor

parts of which

two

Ixi

as

fourth

as

appears

quadrantal

consists

conjugate;
114.]

therefore

dyadic

The

respectively,

-(ii+jj),

idemfactor
direction

idemfactor

jx,

x,

equivalent,

are

for the

plane of

In

similar

k.

for the

direction

i and
ner
man-

k, but

an

LINEAR

annihilator

for

idemfactors

are

If

b, c

a,

the

VECTOR

301

FUNCTIONS

plane perpendicular

These

k.

to

partial

frequently useful.

are

three

any

a',V, c' the reciprocal

and

vectors

system,
aa' +

used

as

plane

of

prefactor

and

b, but

Used

c.

in the

as

plane

annihilator
is

postfactorit

b', but

like

In

idemfactor

an

an

of a' and

c'.

direction

is

bb'

for vectors
idemfactor

an

the

in the

in the

tion
direc-

for all vectors,

for vectors

annihilator

an

manner

for all vectors

in the

expression

cc'

used

as

for vectors

c, but

Used

as

in the

c',but

and

are

(a

b)

two

(a

in the direction

b it is

for

for vectors

annihilator.

an

the

in

vectors

in the

perpendicularof

vectors

any

and

idemfactor

an

annihilator

an

b',that is,for

If

is

for vectors

of

plane

postfactor it

direction
and

idemfactor

prefactoris an

plane

af

of

c.

vectors

b)

(a

b)

(50)

ab.

For

{(a
The
the

b)

I}"r

vector

dyadic (b

is used

as

X
a

b in
a

"

in direct

the

is

(a

symmetrical

formula

for

abT

"

b)

and

expanding

easy
a

be

must

(b a

(ba

therefore

"

"

(b a

form

so

b)

"

ab)"r.
equal

used.

r,

(51)

ab).

in which

triplevector

"

to

If the vector

multiplication.

prefactorthe dyadic
(a xb)

This

ba"r

multiplicationis

cross

b)

to

product.

remember

302

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Reduction
0 be

115.]Let

with
of

its

continuouslyand

varies

Theorem
a

of

sum

three

and

themselves

"P =

reduce

demonstrate

This

complete dyadic

antecedents

the

themselves

the theorem

ally
mutu-

are

ck'k.

Jj'j +

among

form of 0.

is called the normal

ai'i

surface.

r'

vector

ellipsoid.1

an

of which

This

the

"

describes

tent
consis-

the terminus

sphere,

consequents among

perpendicular.

To

unit

its terminus

terms

the

unit

all values

on

that is,when

"

always possibleto

It is

takes

of

It is fact

is closed.

surface

When

r.

surface

the

be

0-r

unit vector

being a

describes

to

of

linear function

let

r'
r'=

is

Form
and

complete dyadic

any

the vector

Then

vector.

to Normal

of Dyadics

described

the surface

consider

by
r'=0-r.
As

this is

which
a

the
any

as

be

surface

r'

maximum

called

i,and

This

may

be

proved
*

Hence

as

to

follows
*"*

r'.

r"r=l=

By expressingV
degree. Hence
is the

r' takes

plane owing

on

r' describes

ellipsoid.

Let

on.

at least

all the

values

The

i.

as

of

great

this direction

value

next

of r'

as

great

of

"

as

which

correspondingvalues

fact that 0

"

is

linear vector

*-L

(*c~1'*

in nonion form, the

gives r'

rate

any

direction

some

correspondingdirection

plane perpendicularto

of r' lie in

be

r' to take

Consider

a.

at

or

let the

in which

be called

"

there must

possiblefor

it is

direction

lie in

closed

makes

value

of

r'srUe-i.
~l)'i'

equationr'

quadricsurface.

"

"

r'

The

r'

"

V-r'.

1 is

seen

to

be of the second

only closed quadric surface

LINEAR

Of

function.
as

of

Call this b and

be called

upon

the

value

of r' which

into a, b,
"P

It remains

dr'
r'. dr'

is

r'

perpendicularto

is

to

is

i and

i and

to

Let

j.
Since

k.

be

the

the
0

dyadic

in the form

expressed
ck.

vectors

a,

b,

as

determined

'

is

and

(ai

-f- bj

dr

is

plane of

b and

c.

rr'dr'

hence

is

takes

is

is

r'"b

is

Let

be any

(bj

r'''b

the value

ck)

dr

j, r' is

perpendicularto

dr'.

if

when

perpendicular

j and

of

But

is

and

plane of j

the

and

k.

ck)"r,

"

when

c.

is

in the

vector

(bj

b and

plane

the

next

always

Hence

Hence

a.

is

vanishes, and

r'"c

vanishes.

parallelto

be

must

dr

to
parallel

both

dr.

hence

and

unit vector

a
r

r'" ck"

maximum

perpendicular to

dr'

dr

"

perpendicular to j,

r'

When

bj

"

when

Hence

ck) .dr,

r'

Since

Consider

c.

bj +ck)"r,

ai"

"

r.

parallelto i, r'

the

perpendicular to k,

parallelto i, r
r

bj

(ai

dr'.

is

dr

further

dr

be

"i +

parallelto i,r'

perpendicularto

If

it may

that

to show

r'

perpendicular

mutually perpendicular.

are

When

great

as

correspondingdirection

positive side of plane of

changes i,j, k

above

let the

corresponds to

be at least

must

one

Finally choose

j.

303

FUNCTIONS

of r'

these values

other.

any

VECTOR

"

r'

dr,
c

"

dr.

in this

maximum
Since

"

is

plane and

unit vector

it is

304

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

when

Hence
to dr.
perpendicular
to j, and
is perpendicular

r'

Hence
value

is

"

Consequentlyb

b.

of 0

antecedents

Then

0
where

J, c

a,

reduced
whose
of

ai'i

Theorem:

The

to

of

116.]

sum

and

vectors

positiveor

all

made

of

proof
on

other

axes

negative.

are

the

reversed

Hence
the

in

one

the
the

(52)

be

always

may

coefficients

If two

either

are

all

coefficients

are

or

three

of

vectors

resultingsystem

is

two

vectors

the

the

Then

coefficients in

positiveor

to

all

right-handed

left-handed,but

the
are

If then

directions

of the

coefficients

all the

(52) are

to which

reduction

statements

right-handed.

the
(52) is negative,
reversed.

(53)

the

upon

of the coefficients in

then

case

depends

system remains

be

may

and
any

ck'k,

positiveor negative.

scalar

theorem

the directions of the

be

the form

(ai'i+ "j'j + ck'k).

"

be reversed

two

0 takes

be

may

antecedents
and
dyads whose
right-handedrectangularsystem

of the coefficients in

one

dyadic

+6j'j

whose

system be reversed
if two

three

three

20 that if

page

Consequentlythe

negative.
"

The

b and

complete dyadic

consequents form

unit

the

scalar constants

are

c.

the

perpendicularto

is

dr

c.

mutually perpendicular. They

are

by i',j',k'.

denoted

that

perpendicularto

b is

that

parallelto j,r' takes

is

parallelto j,

perpendicularto

is

shown

been

It has therefore
c, and

when

But

zero.

is

negative,

they belong
0

all

are

form

in

may

positive.

which

negative has

all
been

performed.
As
are

all

limitingcase
positiveand

between

that

that in which

in which

they are

all

the

coefficients

negativecomes

306

VECTOR

4"."P0

ANALYSIS

a*i'i' +

"P0*0

a2ii

j +kk
-a2

If i and

i' were

a2

"

this

dyadic is not

be

k'

k and

are

it is

a,

c
Z",

like

by

double

The

dot

researches

printedfor

shown

that

therefore

of

Professor

the first time.

are

i and

plane.

different
i' must

j and

j ',

takes the form

ckk
constants.

product of

product

a"c

product evidentlyobeys the

ab:cd

J, c

Hence

by insertingtwo

ab:cd
This

a,

by multiplyingthe

the scalar

is denoted

in their

Multiplication^

quantityobtained

product

Jjj

annihilate

degrees of nullity

two

be

dyadic 0

would

I)

positiveor negativescalar

of the antecedents

k'k',

vector

planar.

it may

aii

: The
117.] Definition

The

possess

manner

Double

the scalar

a2

every

It is

parallel. The

are

+j'j

apparent that if

linear.

0=
where

hence

therefore

But

parallel.In

i'i'

"

i' and

I) would

be linear.

"t"m

parallel("P2

not

and

c2kk.

(62-a2) j'j' + (e2-a2)k'k',

i and

vectors

(02

c2k'k',

62jj

"P =

Since

two

"2j7

Gibbs

of the
dots

two

scalar

dyads

is

product

consequents.
between

the

(56)

b"d.
commutative

law

cd:ab,
upon

Double

are
Multiplication

here

LINEAR

and

distributive

the

with

regard

to

of two

product

the

of

of double

If

"P

and

"

a1b1

the

c2

dyads

distributive
of

a3b3

c3d3

the

law

"

"

into

a1b1:o8ds

a2b2:c1d1

a2b2:c2d2

a2b2:c3d3

agbgZCjdj

a3b3:c2d2

a3b3 :c3d3

"""

(56)'

...

"

Definition: The

the vector

product

double

cross

antecedent

the
the

product
is

(56)"

...............

of

the

"

ajb^Oadg

antecedents

uct
prod-

...

which

dot

dyads.

a1b1:c1d1

of

and

double

by multiplying

products

d2

The

dyads.

the

a2b2

the

to

dyad

to

dot

c1^.1+

regard

is obtained

dyadics

number

with
in

vectors

307

FUNCTIONS

both

law

formally according

out
sum

VECTOR

two

dyads

of the

denoted

of

product
is the
and

consequent

by inserting

of

product

vector

of which

is the

dyads

two

the consequent

of the two

dyads.

crosses

between

two

the
is

The
the

dyads
ab^cd^axc
This

product

also

evidently obeys

bxd.

(57)

the commutative

law

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

308
the

and

distributive

with

regardto

The

double

product of
into

law

distributive

of

double

and

dyads

composed.

are

therefore

defined

product according

the

sum

the

dyads

dyadics is

two

of

expansion

formal

the

as

the

of which

the vectors

cross

regard to

with

both

law

the

to

of

products

cross

dyads.
a3b3

(57)'

bgXdi

+ a3xc8
+

(57)"

...............

Theorem
two

double

The

dyadics obey

the

multiplication.But

dot

and

associative

double
and

commutative
the

double

dyadics (whenever they have

distributive

products

any

products

cross

of

meaning)

more

do

not

than

obey

theorem

is

W=
x

two

the

W 10
=

"

evident
sufficiently

without

of
of

laws

law.
0:

The

b3

bgXdj +a3xc3

+a3xc2

demonstration.

LINEAR

Theorem

dyads

is

dyads

are

The

VECTOR

double

equal
equal

dot

unity

to

The

double

dyads (12) is equal

consequents

taken

dyads
That

to

j "i

There
which

exists

the

three

if neither

But

product
with

ik

is

to

positive or

The

scalar

must

the

or

nor

sequents
con-

of the fundamental

one

negative sign.

three

the

double.

jk.
of

the

dot

double

product of

dot

multiplicationwith

first.

This

in which

the

and

be

factors
Let

the

is

product

crosses.

I cd:ef

in

any

are

double

dependen
entirelyin-

arrangedor

ab, cd, and

[ace] [bdf].

is

equal

be

ef

three
follows.

if the

of the

factors

tripleproductsare

and

dots

not

be

the

crosses

double

the scalar

the scalar

this

From

consequents.
For

by

(59)

by

product of

to the

the three antecedents

if the order

scalar

"P,W, Q

Let

is, the productof three dyads united

above

dyads

dyads,
ab

That

three

WiQ

The

performed

positionof

expression

quantity.
be

tripleproduct

are
multiplications

of the order

or

antecedents

equal

jxi

scalar

dyadics.

cross

of

fundamental

two

antecedents

and

of

if either the

ij*ki=ixk

the

two

is
ij

is

the

0.

product

zero

the

equal

are

according as

zero

i"k

cross

equal.

are

to

fundamental

two

different.

or

ij:ki
Theorem:

of

product

or

309

FUNCTIONS

cross

triple

product
triple

statement

be

interchanged

permuted cycliclythe

altered.

If the

made

two

cyclicorder

of

310

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

0 may

118.] A dyadic

tripleproduct changes

scalar

therefore

product

Their

sign.

each

is reversed

factors

the

altered.

is not

itself with

multipliedby

be

Let

cross.

0
0

The

$"P

in

"P*0

bm

(al +

bxa

mxl

cxa

nxl

(bxc

If a, b, c and

1,m,

bm

(al

en)

the

pairs.

"l +

en

bm

en)

Ixn

Ixm+axc

Ixl+axb

products in

equal

bxb

cxb

nxm

others

axb

non-coplanarthis

may

mxn

are

nxl

cxa

0 is

of 0

square

speciesof
The

"

notation

be written

c'n'"

of 0.

power

(60)

Ixm).

(60)'

It may

02 will

be

represent this product after the scalar factor

stricken

are

Hence

product 0 $
a

nxn.

The

as

mxn

cxc

diagonal vanish.

main

.(a'l' +b'm'
[abe] [Imn]

The

0*0=-__A

to

double

be

garded
re-

employed

2 has

been

Ixm)

(61)

out.

0*0

0%

"%-

(b x

mxn

nxl

cxa

axb

3S

The
three

tripleproduct

dyads

with

of

dyadic

itself twice

0$0:0

0Z:

In

(b

(al +

expanding this product

repeated vanishes.

For

expressed as

the

sum

of

repeated is
=

mxn

nxl

cxa

bm

every

scalar

0^:0

Ixm)

axb

en).
term

in

which

tripleproduct

letter is

of three

vec-

LINEAR

tors

of

two

reduces

which

three

to

VECTOR

[mnl]

"P2:0

or

[cab] [nlm]

"P*0:"Z"
The

six times

equal to

multipliedby
The

of

tripleproduct

product

after the

is

scalar

the

product

scalar

[abc] [Imn].

dyadic by

itself twice

tripleproduct of

tripleproduct

species of cube.
factor

[abc] [Imn]

[abc] [Imn]

the scalar

the

Hence

zero.

only

terms

02:"P=[bca]

is

equal

are

311

FUNCTIONS

6 has

of

It will

been

repeated is

its antecedents

its consequents.
be denoted

stricken

by 03

out.

d" X0"0

0.
If

119.]
0, the
seconds

and

the

[abc] [Imn].

---

be called the second

following theorems

Theorem
to the

02

thirds
The

and

03,the

stated

be

may

of the

conjugate of
of that

the second

conjugate is equal to

the

products.

dyadicis equal

dyadic.

the third of the

of

third

concerning

and
conjugates,reciprocals,

of

second

conjugate of

of 0

(62)

The

third of

dyadic.

"*"""= W"
(63)

4", (*"-),"
=

Theorem:

dyadic are
and

The

second

of

third

and

equal respectivelyto

the

the

reciprocalof

of
reciprocals

the second

third.

"*-'),

(*,)-'=*,-*

("^-1)3 W1

Let

0
"-i

"VJ

al

V a.'+

m'b'+n'c'

pi
[abc]

(36)

812

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

[abc] [Imn] (la

(0a)-i
=

mb

la +
j

nc

[1'm'n'][Imn]

and

(0,)'1

Hence

nc)

;2~[a'b'c']
[1'm'n']'

[a'Vc'][abc]

But

mb

(0"1).

1.

"^-

[abc] [Imn]

(0-i)3=[a'b'c'][1'm'n'].
Hence

The

Theorem:

to
respectively

and

second

third

product of

the

of

the seconds

product
and

equal

are

the

product

of

the thirds.

(0-^2

="V^2

(*.*),"*.*,.
Choose

any three

of 0 and

let

non-coplanarvectors

(0.?P)2=bxc
cP2
=

^2
Hence
Hence

n'

exf

^2"?T2

+
+

al +

bxcmxn
m'

of

1',
m',n' be the antecedents
0

f +

bxc

exf

(0

V)^

((P. F)3=

nxl

d +

"

consequents

axb

axb

fxd

cxa

as

W.

fxd

1'

cn,

cxa

cxa

n'

1,m,

Vz*

[abc] [def]

dxe,

Ixm,

1' x

m'

+ axb

dxe.
dxe.

314

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"P2

al +

mxn

03
The

Theorem:

dyadic 0

cxa

cn,

nxl

1 x

axb

m,

[abc] [Imn].

and

necessary

complete is

be

sufficient

condition

that the third of 0

be

that

different from

zero.

For

it

shown

was

consequents of

the
Hence

the

cannot

vanish.
The

dyadic 0
second
It

be

vectors

But

non-coplanar.
nxl,

linear.

But

and

linear.

Theorem:

this is

The

if 0

Hence

be

impossiblesince

0Z vanish.
be

must

The

zero

If

linear the

and

hence

vanishingof

of

03

that

but

the

dyadic 0

the

c,

each

that is,1, m,

"

second

a,

a,

of the
are

is

condition

the

planar

Since

vectors

quents
conse-

col-

planar
that

of

0, and

0, vanishes.
consequents 1, m,

these

the

for

vanishes

0%

the

vanish.

sufficient

products vanish

vanishingof

in

sequents
planarits con-

Hence

and

conversely0Z vanishes, each

of the second
The

and

be

converselyif

linear is that
of

third

their vector

if

vanishes

necessary

consequentlythe

occur

condition

dyadic 0

"P2cannot

Hence

Ixm

non-vanishingdyadic be
For

if a

non-coplanar,the

assumed

mxn,

not

sufficient

planar and

vanish.

must

been

are

which

coplanarthe dyadic is planar.

dyadic 03
b, c have

be

must

non-coplanar.

are

vanish.

(Art.106) that

1, m,
be

and

and

the antecedents

that the third of 0 shall vanish

planar is

shown

was

tripleproducts

necessary

of 0 shall not

that both

complete dyadic

scalar

two

Theorem:

(Art.106)

n,

the

are

collinear.

consequents

of

of its consequents

consequents of 0

are

collinear.

ing
third,unaccompanied by the vanish-

dyadic,implies one

the second

impliestwo

degree of nullity.
degreesof nullity.

LINEAR

The

vanishingof

results

be

may

VECTOR

the

dyadic itself

put in tabular

"P3 0,

02

03
It follows

0,

"/"2 0,
=

immediatelythat
but

dyadic vanishes;

dyadicis planar but

Nonion

121.]

:"

the

is

complete.

0,

0 is

planar.

"P *

0,

0 is linear.

the third of any

second

does

If 0 be

(69)

anti-self-conjugate
For

not.

such

any

be linear.

cannot

Determinants}-

Form.

complete nullity.The

form.

0 is

03 ^ 0,

315

FUNCTIONS

Invariants
form

expressedin

nonion

"P

"12ij + "i3ik

OII ii +

a21ji+a22jj

a31 ki +

(13)

"23jk

kj

a32

of a Dyadic

a33 k k.

scalar coefficients
conjugateof 0 has the same
they are arranged symmetricallywith respect to
The

0, but

as

the

main

diagonal. Thus

second

The

"12 j i +

"13ki

Let

it be

What

terms

in 0

The

ij?

the vector

vector

must

These

are

terms

be

The

of

cross

instance,one

determinants

higher orders

is through

must

the

ij in "P2.

product equal

the antecedents

only for

results hold

determinants

double

k ; and

"33 kk

for

find the coefficient of

consequents

j and

computed. Take,

product of
the

(70)

"32 j k,

"23Jk + "33kk-

requiredto
can
yielda

productof

antecedents

be

of "P may

term.

"22 jj +

must

be

be

j. Hence

to

i and

the

consequents, k and

i.

aai a33 i J

of the third order.

MultipleAlgebra.

The

extension

to

316

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"P2is

in ij in

the term

Hence

(a3la23

a21

~~

of alz in the determinant

is the first minor

This

a8s)iJ'

'11

"13

(23
"88

This

is taken

minor

coefficient

coefficient of
the

as

the

of any
the

of

the

dyad

in

generally by large

The

is

0.

in

even

The

That

of the

is

merely

negative sign
the

term

odd.

or

to

is, the

cofactor

cof actor

subscripts of

the

"P2is easilyseen

term

the

positive or

consideration

corresponding

An

with

sum

is under

first minor

is termed

determinant.

taken

first minor

according

the

in

ij

negative sign.

what

"P2is

of i j in

the

with

whose
The

efficient
co-

be the cofactor

cofactors

are

of

denoted

letters.

is the cofactor

*M

is the cofactor

of

of

a11(

12-

*33
612

a21
With

this notation

is the cofactor

of

a-,.
32'

a2
X23

the second

of "P becomes

(71)
Asl

The
as

value

the

sum

of the third
of three

ki

^32

of 0

may

dyads

(ani+a21j

a31k)i

j+
be

^33

kk.

obtained

by writing

VECTOR

LINEAR

[Oil1

"21J + *81k)
j

This

is

to be

easilyseen

equal

(a2li + "22J

a33k)] [ijk]

to the

'21

determinant

(72)

'22
(32

For

this

and

is written

03

reason

is

idea

regarded
unless
the

of

be

most

in

determinant

is very

that

(72)'
natural

form.
form

of

On
the

when

the other

conception

is

hand
of

"P3,

natural.

more

reciprocalof

the

I0 I

nonion

in

expressed
0, is

determinant

expressed

as

third of

The

the

33

frequentlycalled
03

The

317

FUNCTIONS

easilyby making

dyadic in
of the

use

nonion

form

may

be found

identity

0^0o=^sl

(68)

or

or

Hence

0~l

(73)
31

318

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

be denoted

If the determinant

If " is

second

product

form

nonion

as

631ki + "32kj + 633kk,

" of the

"

dyadicgiven in

the

by

readilybe

dyadics may

two

found

by actuallyperforming the multiplication

a!3

32

a21

"11+

a22

a23

"32)JJ

a31

"11+

a32

a33

"21+
+

J21+

a!2

ll

13

a23

J3l)J i

(a21J13+
"33

^82)k J + Ca31"12+

i+

a32

33

(a21"12+

a22

"3l)k

a!3

23

J23+

tt23"3s

(a31"12+

"28+

a2

a83

a3

"3s)

31

Since

product

the third
of the

determinants

or

determinant

of

determinants, the

follows

from

product is equal

law

of

(65) and (74).

to the

multiplicationof

LINEAR

VECTOR

319

FUNCTIONS

"12

"13
"

'23

22

'32

31

C21

[31

The

f31

"33

"u

rule

12

22

32

be

may
form

with

and

row

elements
column

#]

'13

a2

as

"0

the
nth

column
with

of

To

"31

a33

^31

(76)

the

the

element

of the

sum

minants
deter-

multiply two

of which

is the

row

"23

32

in words.

determinant

23

"M

stated

the

in

^22

21

in the

products of

first determinant

and

the
nth

of the second.

If

"P

02

bxc

al +

mxn

bm

cn,

nxl

cxa

Ixm.

axb

Then

(02)3= [b xc

[mxn

axb]

cxa

nxl

Ixm]

Hence
Hence

The

-12

L13

an

aiz

21

L22

L23

a21

*22

a"

L31

L32

L33

a31

a3"

determinant

the third order is

122.]

0 is

equal to

the square

three

has

quantitieswhich
expressed.

the scalar of
or

cofactors

dyadic

three scalar
which

of the

determinant

quantitiesare

These

are

of

scalar

If 0 be

determinant

of

given determinant.

invariants

independent of

that

"

the

form

is
in

are

0, the scalar of the second

of 0.

33

given

of the

(7T)

of

expressedin

0, and
nonion

the
form

third
these

320

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

(78)

(22

''32

'31

No

of these unit
the

in the main

coefficients.

The

expressed these quantitiesare

cofactors

or

three

dyadic

of the three coefficients

sum

scalar of the

of

third

These

important that
Theorem

The

first minors

diagonal

main

be

may

diagonal.

the

right-handedrectangularsystem

scalar of 0 is the

The

of

vectors

same.

sum

of what

in terms

matter

the three

-xl\

"

(0

far

by

are

as

(0
be

may

(0
This

(0

x.

dyadic 0

But

08

the

most

"

of which

II

"22

of

I)3

the

"

a;

"2
x

02S + x20s

x*

"

by actuallyperforming the expansion.

seen

xl\

equation

scalar

That

"

in

the

equation

"

Hence

terms

the coefficients.

xT)c

"

(0-xl)s

is the

determinant

cubic

Any

By (68)

the

of 0

possesses.

dyadic satisfies a
invariants 0S, 0ZS,08 are
:

of

is the

invariants

second

"

(0

is

"

"

holds, if

depends

upon

in

xz

023 +

identityholding for

an

It therefore
which

I)c, 03

"

xs.
of the

all values

place of

nine

0S

scalars

the
be

scalar

a?,

the

substituted.

is

the terms

upon

the left

0*

08

0* +

are

zero.
identically

02S

0"I

0.

Hence

(79)

322

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

dyadicsare

Two

all vectors

upon

or

equal

equal

when

they

upon

three

non-coplanar vectors.

are

operators

as

That

is,when
0

"

or

"

"

"

for all values

coplanar values

of r,

W for all values

or

g"0"r

of

coplanar values
linear vector

Any

Dyads

regardto

obey

function

the

the two

vectors

non-

s.

representedby

law

of

composing

the

distributive

non-

for three

or

and

be

may

(10)

for three

for all values

s"?r"r

non-

of r,

coplanarvalues
or

for three

or

----

dyadic.

multiplicationwith

dyad

al +

bl

am

an

"

bm

bn

"f cl +

cm

en

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

(11)'
Multiplicationby
two

by

laws
means

scalar is associative.
be

dyadicmay

into

expanded

of the fundamental

In virtue
a

of nine

sum

ik,

(12)

ji, Jj, jk,

ki,
0

If two
their

anii
Ji

kj, kk,
+

a12 ij +

"22

"2i

a31ki+

dyadics are

equal

expansions into nonion

terms

dyads,

ii, ij,

as

of these

jj

(13)

"23 J k"

"32kj
the

a13 ik,

a33 kk.

correspondingcoefficients

form

are

equal

and

in

conversely.

LINEAR

Any dyadic

be

may

the

given non-coplanar

the

or

323

FUNCTIONS

expressed as

antecedents

the

which

VECTOR

consequents

This

vectors.

of three

sum

are

dyads

of

three

any

expression of the dyadicis

unique.
The

symbolic product
of two

general product

determined

vector

the

by

of

functions

are

and

directions

between

and

vector

cross

0a

the

"PX

ax

aj

0j

bj

a2

bx

a2

i.0.i

+
=

The

""23
-

direct
and

first

dyad

product of
the

product

the

scalar

the

antecedent

of

direct

according

to

the

b2

b2

are

j.0.j

a3

b3

b3

(18)
(19)

"

k.0"k

(20)

(21)

0.i)k

a13"J + Ol2

a'

'

a3

dyads

two

of the

is the

respectivelythe

"2l) k"

dyad

whose

antecedent

cedent
ante-

of the

multipliedby

consequent of the first dyad and

second.

the

product of

scalar and

product.

are

products

vector

consequent of the second

(ab)
The

""31

consequent
and

(i. 0.j-j

"32) i

lengths

any

~^~a

their

and

dyadic by insertinga dot

in each
vectors
dyad. This scalar
of the dyadic.
from

functions

are

of

product.

the vectors

scalar and

indeterminate

the

most

multiplicationby

upon

product
The

product.

be obtained

may

and

the

is the

dyad

the indeterminate

five conditions

product imposes
Their

b.

as

in which

vectors

It is called

scalar is associative.
The

known

ab

"

(cd)

two

dyadics

distributive

(23)

(b.c)ay.
is the

law, of the

formal

expansion,

product

into

the

324

dyadics and

of

such

be

may

at

In

product.
the end

at

the

by

the vector

the

product

is

of

product

Q.W.Q

(24X26)

altering the

and

of

the

positions than

associative.

longer

dyad

value

other

at

occurs

no

vector

be

may

defined

equation
(ab)

skew

formal

and

that vector.

associative law
connected

the

r,

b.

and

vector

product

The

for direct

with

dyadic

of that

expansion

dyads

of

product

(ab)

The

obeys

parentheses; for parentheses may

pleasure without

case

skew

The

ends

sequently
multiplication.Con-

s.tf.r.r,

without

written

inserted

be

at both

expressionsas
"."P.",

0.V.T,

or

of

laws

associative

and

the distributive

at either end

vector

multiplication of dyadics

Direct

productsof dyads.

of

sum
or

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

into

equal

of

sum

holds

skew

dyadics in

is

made

statement

products

(28)
to the

products of

concerning the
the

when

is

vector

multiplication.The

expressions
r

"P

may

?F,

"

4"."xr,

be written

inserted at

without

"P

"

s,

"

parentheses and

pleasurewithout

s,

(29)

parentheses may
value

alteringthe

of the

be

product.

Moreover
s

(r x "P)

(s x r)

0
But

the

The

(r x

necessary

reduced

to

zero

is

to

and
the

the

( d" x r)
("P x r)

sum

"

"

(r x s),

".

(31)'

be omitted.

sufficient condition

that, when

of which

0,

5T)

parenthesescannot

be

dyads

"

of two

dyads

expressed

antecedents

or

as

that
to

the

dyadic may

single dyad
of

sum

(or consequents)

are

or

three
known

LINEAR

VECTOR

to

be

be

respectivelycoplanar

non-coplanar,the consequents
is

dyadic
reduced

to

which

just two
to

complete dyadic
in

direction

no

planardyadic
direction

prefactorand

dyadic

used

as

postfactor. A

products of

The

linear

or

The

dyadic

products of

as

of

in space

for which

nullity.

respectively
planar or linear,except

are

relations

of

between
perpendicularity
the antecedents

first dyadic and

degree

more

linear
case

of

nullityinto

dyadic by

the

linear

dyadicby
dyadic

equal and

the

which

when

linear

dyadic
where

cases

of the

introduce

The

reducible

Or

product of

any

to

one

product

general linear
The

of

but in

cedent
ante-

product of

zero.

applied to

is called

The

is in

linear.

the consequents

product vanishes.

dyadic is

zero

that vector
are

dyadic

as

space.

consequent of the first is perpendicularto the

of the second

any

used

in

in certain

product.

two

are

complete,planar,

of the second

the

as

degrees of nullity

planaror

one

annihilator

an

vector

every

planardyadic with

three

possesses

linear

respectivelycomplete,planar,or

are

one

used

There

directions when

two

is

when

it is

complete dyadic and

dyadic is

postfactor. A

It annihilates

complete nullity.

or

be

can

annihilator.

an

annihilator

degrees

dyadic

zero

linear

it is

an

used

prefactorand

which

one

of fewer

sum

degreeof nullity.There

no

it is

when

two

possesses

is

degreeof nullity. There

one

for which
one

to

complete

singledyad.

for which

space

independent directions
when

zero.

reduced

dyads.

possesses

possesses

in space

or

planar dyadic

be reduced

can

of

sum

be

cannot

dyads.

three

than

is

which

one

(or antecedents)shall

collinear

or

325

FUNCTIONS

an

any

vector

idemfactor.

in space

produces
re-

All idemfactors

the form
ii +

aa' +

dyadicand

(33)

jj + kk.
bb' +
an

cc'.

idemfactor

(34)
is that

dyadic.

326
If the
factor

product of

the

canceled

completedyadicsis equal to

two

dyadics

reciprocalof

the

other.

the

either end

from

the

multiplicationby
dyadics possess
the

of

for the

complete dyadic

cancelation

reciprocalof

The

that

reciprocalof

taken
reciprocals

conjugate of

sr-i.

dyadic is

taken

is

product

in the

0-i.

conjugateof

the

conjugate.

one

way

the
A

(38)
by

of the

product

changing
interThe

consequents.

"c. 4"c.

")"=

reciprocalis equal
be

dyadic may

into

the

conjugate and

the

other

^(0+ 0c) +

of

sum

the

the

order.

and

to

in

zero

jugates
con-

oppositeorder.
(0.

The

equal

vectors

equivalent to

dyadic obtained

the

be

may

product is equal to

the order of the antecedents

of

is

called

dyadic. Incomplete

in inverse

conjugate

is

product of dyadics and

(0. gr)-i
The

either

the idem-

reciprocals.They correspond to

no

ordinaryalgebra.
product of

and

commutative

are

ordinaryalgebra;

in

as

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

(40)

to

divided

the
in

reciprocalof

parts of which

two

and

one
one

only

is self-

anti-self-conjugate.

2L(0-0c)-

(43)

"

Any

dyadic
anti-self-conjugate

the

or

anti-self-conjugate

is equivalent
part of any dyadic,used in direct multiplication,
to

minus

one-half

the

vector

of that

dyadic

used

in

skew

multiplication.

]r.(0-0ff)=-lrx0x.
A

dyadic of

the form

used

in

direct

used

in

skew

or

is

and
anti-self-conjugate

multiplicationis equivalent to
multiplication.

(44)

the

vector

LINEAR

Also

The

dyadic c

rantal

4"

vector
x

the

dyadic

may

coefficients

the

constants

a,

the

b)=r

of these

true

dyadics

1, as

"

may

to

the

b)

reduced

be

unit

three

all

-(49)

(50)

ab

"

"

(51)

(ba-ab).

"

each

of

"

themselves

to

form

all

form

normal
be reduced

right-handed

of which

and

6,

but

reduction

is

different.

are

be

may

the

(53)

dyadic.

to this form

The

zero.

are

the

negative.

the

of

three

and

themselves

vectors

positiveor

of

sum

(ai'i + "j'j + ck'k).

reduction

Any

(b a

may

b)

among

are

the

the

In

one

or

they

case

may

An

unique

accomplished

self-conjugatedyadic

in

be

plete
incomof

more

in
are

case

not

than

more

reduced

to

form
"

in which

is

cc

j k, etc.

"

antecedents

among

is called

(a

(ax

0="

normal

annihilator

an

quad-

multiplicationis equivalent to

b)

scalar coefficients

the

kj

b)

of which

way.

and

imaginary unit V

(a

rectangular system

one

skew

complete dyadic

different

is

vector

powers

multiplication.

consequents

This

The

I in direct

dyads

unit

0.

"

dyadic Ixc

of the

in

(a

The

c.

I)

geometric interpretation.Applied

b)

is

for all vectors.

the

(c

(46)

r,

"

i,j, k

unit vectors

"

I)

perpendicularto

parallelto

from

seen

(o

==

c, where

like the powers

behave

(a

"

c)

327

FUNCTIONS

o)

(I

or

quadrantalversor

The

(I

for vectors

versor

for vectors

be

VECTOR

the constants

aii

a,

", c

6jj
are

not

ckk,

(55)

positive.
necessarily

328

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

is defined

the

by

double

and

dot

double

The

equations
b

the distributive

double

double

dot and
but

One-half
is called

10x0

of

is called

bxc

tripleproduct

tripleproduct of

The
The

second
third

of

al +

of the
the

bm

mutative
com-

product of

and

is

of the

the second

equal

to the

antecedents

of

the
The

the seconds

second
second
and

product of

0 and

the

[1m n].

and
and
and

the

to

third of the
third

0
the

scalar

(62)
the second.

third

of

the

are
reciprocal

of the

third of

second

product are

and
the

thirds.

(0.3r),= 0a.JTa

(*"

of 0 and

of 0.

0=[abc]

second

(61)

Ixm.

axb

conjugateis the conjugateof

The

itself

cn,

conjugate is equal

dyadic.

productsof

dot

dyadic 0 by

nxl

\0* 0:

reciprocalsof

third of

The

If

the consequent

originaldyadic.
the

products of dyads.

product of

mxn+cxa

of

the third

0Z

of

of dyadicsis
multiplication

0.

of the double

One-third

scalar

of dyadics
multiplication

product formally,
according to

cross

"P =

02

(57)

bxd.

sum

cross

double

second

the

(56)

associative.

not

the

b.d,

cross

the

law, into

"

axc

by expanding

is obtained

double

and

dot

double

: c

ab"cd
The

of dyads
multiplication

cross

").!-"",

(65)

330

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

6.

Prove

the

of the

statements.

that if Q is

Show

7.

"P and

"

equal.

are

dyadics that

is to say, two

homologous. Show
from

proof by

commutative

are

that if any

of

number

to each

other and

""

then

theory

dyadics are

neous
homoge-

be obtained

may

direct

multiplication

given dyadics.

to the

Justify the
equal,be

called

if

that

statement

"~l

"

quotient of

that

"

said to be

are

"

reciprocalsof homologous dyadics are

also that the

verse
con-

"

of

that """=

by addition, subtraction, and

them

"

means

another, any other dyadics which

one

homologous

are

the

"

the

dyadics such

Definition: Two

to

Give

if "P

and

complete

and

106

Art. 109.

developed priorto
8.

in Art.

made

statements

Show

gous.
homolo"~l

or

"

by 3F,then

0,

which

are

rules

governing addition, subtraction, multiplicationand

the

division of

homologous dyadics are

governing

these

understood
and

the

incomplete dyadics

that

10.

Show

that whether

being

to

zero,

algebraand higher

the

with

(I x c)

"

not

or

" and

c x

a,

(c x

I)

"P =

"

c x

0.

b, c be coplanar
b

[a b c]

bxca+cxab+axbc=[abc]I.
If a,

11.

the law

b, c

are

normal
What

triangleand

coefficients which

This

may

be done

to the

plane of

is the condition

coefficients in the

the above

coplanar use

of sines for the

scalar

vectors.

12.

it

practicallyidentical

is

abxc+bcxa+c

unit

rules

quantities.

Show

with

analogous

are

idemfactor,to unity. Hence

9.

and

the
"

that

of scalar

with

operations in ordinary algebra

analysisof homologous dyadics

that

identical

the

exists

to

relation to prove

obtain

between

the

three

relation

coplanar

by multiplyingthe equation by
a,

b, and
which

expansion of

c.

must

dyadic

subsist between
into nonion

form

the
if

LINEAR

the

be

dyadic

self

self

Prove

the

number

of

normal

form.

14.

15.

in

What,

if

in

Art.

made

which

dyadic

shall

be

Show

that

dyadic

the

be

dyadic

be

anti-

be

that

the

concerning
reduced

condition
is

zero

116

may

sufficient

and

necessary

self-conjugate
dyadic

-conjugate?

statements

ways

The

331

FUNCTIONS

-conjugate

13.

VECTOR

that

the

its

to

anti-

an

of

vector

the

zero.

if

be

the

dyadic

any

product

"PC

"

is

self-conjugate.
Show

16.

how

demonstrate

that

17.

Show

by

Show

itself

if

for

Show

20.

Show

21.

Show

by

the

linear

that

that

that

the

f)3

")3
scalar

cyclic permutation

" V

03
of
of

02

to

self-

"P2

"

"

dyadic

the

0.

f.

of

dyadics.

of

obtain

"PZ : "PZ

product
the

of

Hence

form

4"3 +

"P

product

the

Wy

vanishes.

in

dyadic

"P

"PX

116).

4"*

dot

dyadic

(0

(0

"P2

double

the

vanishes,

condition

19.

that

relation

consequents

(Art.

same

W\

the

and

4"z $ 0Z
("P

18.

the

are

that

and

of

use

antecedents

the

dyadic

conjugate

make

to

Vz

dyadics
That

"s.
is

is

changed
un-

VI

CHAPTER

IN

123.]

the

has

dyadics
There

themselves

of
then

is

nearly

old

some

the

Moreover

objectof

it

develop,as

to

analyticaltheory
That

the

of space

as

the time.
drawn

as

from

into

remains

Consider
the

same

point

extended
and

strains

necessary,

the

further

transformation

from
Let

origin.

fixed

origin,and

r'

b 40

"

of r'. The

terminus

regionsof

b -f

"

formation
trans-

at the terminus

Any point upon

needed

now

situated

at the

not

was

regardedas defininga

be

in the finite

r'

of the

knowledge

0-r.

of space

pointsP
Points

It is

rotations

to denote

drawn

as

appear

tions
applica-

developed.

was

mentioned.

the finite regionsof

space.

becomes

of the

chapter to supply an

used

be

may

point P', situated

fixed.

applied to physics

sake

them

present

present themselves
is

theory of

equation therefore may

the

practicalpurposes.

of this transformation, however,

of the
r

for the

of

state

of

dyadics.

r'
This

was

may

alreadybeen

precisenature
at

of

dyadic $

has

dyadic

the

to

questionswhich

new

the

the present

far

brought

final for

theory of

the

applicationof dyadics to
and

analyticaltheory

questionswhich

when

dyadics that

and

of

number

form

new

geometry.

or

with

which

and

dealt

however,

are,

under

foregoingchapter the

been

completeness

STRAINS

AND

ROTATIONS

a.

space
a

line

of

origin

remain

in

ROTATIONS

straightlines

Hence

the

parallelto
lines

into

over

go

the

Such

planes

the

and

transformation

instance, the deformation

is

(Art. 76)

called
known

of such

y'
z'
Theorem

124.]

points of

of the
the
"P2,

strain

strain.

In

by

with

the

physics.

For

fluid

geneous
geometry the homo-

different

It

names.

origin fixed.

transformation.

Or

The

is

it is
tions
equa-

are

asix

If the

that

dyadic

is due

which

"33".

gives the
to

all volumes

$3, the

transformation

homogeneous strain,

of

transformation

strain and

in the ratio of

a^y

third

or

plane

areas

magnified by

are

of

determinant

unity.

to

"p

Let

The
the

1',m', n'

vectors

planes determined

and

The

b.

(ft,
=

Hence
due

bm

al +

changed by

are

by

m'

en

into

a,

the

mxn

Hence

b, c.

n', n' and 1',1' and

and

by b and
plane determined
dyadic which accomplishes this

into

transformed
a

homogeneous strain.

space

to

invariant.

sphere in

of "P,gives the

second
is due

which
that

planes

manner

of the infinitesimal

transformation
=

like

in

homogeneous

linear

as

into

frequent occurrence

affine collineation

an

the transformation

as

generallyknown

is

lines

qualityof parallelismis

homogeneous

strain

and

In

a.

"

is known

is of

strain

Homogeneous

by

line 0

same

straight lines

over

go

333

STRAINS

into

over

go

line

same

parallelto

AND

nxl

cxa

axb

c,

result

m'

are

and
is

Ixm.

if

to 0

denote

any

replacess by

in space, the

plane area
the

area

s'

s' such
0

"

s.

that

transformation

a,

334

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

It is

important

transformed

is not

area

be if it denoted
the latter

line.

0 acts

case

that the

notice

to

on

vector

into

the

This

is evident

s'

vector

same

from

in the

whereas

denoting a plane

it would

as

the fact that in

former

02

case

acts

s.

upon

that

show

To

unity

choose

volume

of

which

The

volumes
three

any

the

the

reciprocalsystem

Hence

b,

above

the volume

f into a,

unless

[d

d,

f ] is

to

b,

0 with

d, e, f

"#3to

equal

the

the

tors
vec-

consequents.

as

(which

e, f are

changed

ratio of
determine

parallelepiped [d e f]. Express

form

a,

the

in

d, e, f which

vectors

dyadic 0 changes d, e,

from

magnified

are

different

are

to

1',m', n').

into the volume

[a b c].

[d'e'f]

Hence

[a be]

The

ratio of the volume

But

the

vectors

[a b cj

d, e, f

the action of 0 in the

125.] Theorem

dyadic represent

reducible

to the

about

The

Let

vectors

all volumes

03

Point.

and

about

is to

unity.

which

are

this ratio is

Fixed

necessary

as

mine
deter-

changed by
as

$3

is to 1.

Versors

sufficient condition
some

axis

is that

that
it be

form
0

i',j',k' and

systems of unit

three

any

rotation

[d e f] is

to

ratio and

same

dotations

where

were

parallelepiped. Hence

[def] 3"y

i'i+j'j +

i,j, k

are

two

k'k

right-handed rectangular

vectors.

a"i +

(1)

2k

ROTATIONS

Hence

if 0

is reducible
into

changed

are

changed

from

relative

suffers

to

i',j',k'.

Hence

is effected.

The

rotation.

The

shape

strain

i',j',k'.

The

dyadic

reduces

to

no

rotation

it

the

subjected

be carried into another

of unit

Let

vectors.

therefore

may

tion
posi-

same

Conversely suppose

i, j, k must

vectors

is

transformation

that is,suppose

"

right-handedrectangularsystem
be

the

by

i,j, k

vector

any

i,j, k into the

to

i',j',k'.

of

change

the vectors

i',j',k' and

positionrelative

no

form

given

vectors

carries i,j, k into

body
to

the

the

to

335

STRAINS

its

change of shape
which

AND

be

reduced

these
to

the

form
0

i'i +

Definition: A dyadic which

i'i +
and

which

j'j

k' k.

to the form

is reducible

j'j + k'k

consequently represents

is called

rotation

versor.

Theorem:

The

equal, and

conversely if

dyadic

equal

are

multipliedby

and

conjugate

the

Let

the

dyadic

conjugate
reduces

i'i+j'j

0c

second

part let

0c

i'i' +

ai

"Pc

If
Hence

are

reciprocalof

versor

or

versor

k'k'

j'j'+

ia +

is

proved.

ck,

b +

kc,

0-0c
bb

0c.

fl-^00
aa

kk',

first part of the theorem

the

versor

k'k,

ii'+jj'

0-*=
Hence

to

and

negativesign.
"P =

0.

the

reciprocalof

cc

I.

To

prove

the

336

the antecedents

(Art. 108)

Hence
a,

b, c

be

must

sign

to

to

or

third

unity;

that of the

Hence

the

-(i'i

the

it is

0C=I,

j'j

due

to

transformation

reflection in the
rotation about

sign then

reverses

the

system
but

the

0C

one.

in the form

is

(2)
plus

minus

or

one

that if

to state

(2)'

the transformation

03

I0 I

(3)

-(i'i + j'j + k'k).

due

to 0 is

origin.

it is

"

direction

the

of rotation combined

one

dyadic i'i+j'j +

The

definite axis

dyadic takes

minus

that

the
=

of every

causes

negative
and

respect

of i' and

j' the

rectangular,

form

i'i+j'j -k'k,
"

it with

right-handed and

(i'i'
+ j'j'-k'k')

with

in space

vector

directions

k'k
The

versor.

figuresymmetrical to

i',j',k' still remains

be stated

of 0

origin. By reversing the

evidentlyequal to

versor.

0
or

is

03=I0I"0,

such

replaceseach figureby
to

negative

08=I0I=1.

only necessary

"

be

may

k'k).

negative sign,to

determinant

0
The

may

I,

dyadic 0
0

rectangular

system

of
geometricinterpretations

two
a

left-handed

versor

versor

0 is
are

a
a

0.0C=I,

There

(page 87) they

k'k,

j'j

of

0.0C=

if 0.

Hence

the consequents

by prefixingthe

with

versor

criterion for

as

and

left-handed

i'i +

determinant

or

inasmuch

b,

Then

vector.

The

The

vectors.

right-handedone

each

right-handed or

system of unit

changed

a,

reciprocalsystems.

either

be

must

Or

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

(i'i+j' j + k'k).

338
"P =

ii +

cos

(jj

jj

Hence
If

ii +

dyadic 0

show

apply it to

for all vectors

to
r

a;

be

The

a.

the

to

suffers

is rotated
vector

Let

were

about

is therefore
a

be

"

given

dyad

but

"

if

as

by

"?,

(6)

a.

is

an

the

for vectors

idemfactor
for vectors
idemfactor

an

The

a.

and

accomplish

is

denoted

denoted

annihilator

an

aa"r

a;

but

an

dyadic

perpendicular

parallelto

a.

If then

been

any

vector

rotated
in terms

a2

sin q

an

perpendicularto
x

in its
its

r.

plane through
component

degrees.

through

of i, j,k
a2

that

as

ij +

"3k,
0

the

parallel

perpendicularto

component

angle of

of

(or components

in space

about

aa

is

rotated

ax i +
ii +

If

a.

but its

through

r.

all vectors

has

aa=

The

for vectors

cos

change ;

no

axis

sin q I

parallelto

parallelto

are

the vector
If

(5)

is

rotation

a)

dyadic

unchanged

d"

angle q.

i.

leaves

vectors)which

i-axis any

that axis be

(Art. 113)

"^"r
0

(4)

plane perpendicular to

annihilator

an

parallelto

Hence

a;

j k).

the axis of rotation

"

r.

for all vectors

but

Hence

of the

dyadic actually does

quadrantal versor

sin q I

i) +

"

(I

vector

in

all vectors

annihilator
is

"

i.

about

parallelto

perpendicular to
for

cos

this

that

accomplishesthe

a a

(k j

I-ii,

as

rotation

which

"P =

rotation

(I

be taken

angle of

before the

To

jk

sin q

generallyin place

more

the unit vector

the

k)

kk

"

cos

kj

by

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"

ik

The

angle.

whole

ROTATIONS

AND

"2al

J*

azal

ki

I
I

"22 JJ+

+
+

0ii

"3Ji

"2ik,

"JJ-"iJk,

-"2ki

"32 kk,

kk,

"3ij

"

J*

"2a3

kj

a3a2

ii+jj

339

STRAINS

^kj

Okk.

Hence
0

the

0X

{a^ (1

{a1"2 (1

{a1a3 (1

{"2ai (1

(a22(1

{#2as (1

{agffj(1

(as a2 (1

(a32(1 -f-cos q)

If 0

127.]
and

i+

of

cos

"

i +

"

cos

the
The

axis of rotation

negative of
direction

(j j
"

of the

depends

on

the

be reduced

i is

vector

axis
of

invariant
to the form

3.1*k

in

q} jj

?} j k

ai sin

~~

a2 sin

"

ax sin

^) +

q}

cos

q}

ki

q} kj
(7)

k k.

equation (4)

of 0

the vector

found.
k

-f sin q

k)

(k

j x k)

"

2 sin q i

"

kk)

cos

1 +
to

seen

vector

of the

negative

may

the

^)

0a
The

cos

be

0X
Qs

#)

as

g-}i j

"2 sin

cos

cos

cos

"

may

q) +

cos

"3 sin

"

ji
2) + a3sing-}

cos

"

"" i i

cos

#)

cos

"

"

q)

cos

"

be written

scalar

j)

cos

"

of

sin q

The

"

j k),
"

of

the direction
is true

This

of rotation
0.

"

q.

have

0.

(k j

of

proof

property of

any

versor

of this

"#x. Any

(4) by taking the

in

"

"PX,

general.
is the

statement
versor

direction

0
of i

340

of 0

reduction

rotation altered

made

of

negative

the

any

by

such
is

the direction
But

"PX.

reduction.

negative of

the

with

tangent of one-half

determined

when

..

cos

the

the values

the

completely
in the

direction

Q, be

equal

of

"PX,the

"

tion
direc-

q is

of

0X and

@s

is therefore
known.

are

of

invariants

are

0.

"

version

Let

ft be

axis of rotation.

the

to

direction

0s

of

angle

versor

of the

of

"

1 +

0X and the scalar 4"s,which

vector

axis

1 +

of

Hence

the

by

is the

nor

seen

of "#.

the vector

sm

is

altered

not

"

coincident

always

After

of the axis

tangent of one-half the angle of version

The

The

"Py is

particularform

to

the axis of rotation

of the

of the axis of rotation.

direction

been

has

this reduction
be

the

with

coincident

to

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Let

the

tangent of one-half

mine
$, deter-

vector

the

The

drawn

magnitude
angle

of

version.

The

ft determines

vector

called the vector

By (6)

the

of
semi-tangent
0

versor

versor

version.

expressed in

was

ft will be

completely.
of

terms

unit vector

parallelto the axis of rotation.

0

Hence

is

of the vector

space.

The

(I

if ft be the vector

cos

There

cos

a)

sin q I

expression for
version.

'

versor

Let

represented by ft carries
"

ft

into

ft

a.

version

sin

semi-tangentof
version

semi-tangentof

compact

more

"

c.

be any

in terms
vector

in

ROTATIONS

AND

It will be sufficient to show

For

ft.

if

result of
would

(c

ft

C'C

Since

of the two

vectors

c) (c

ftxc)"

ftXC"ftXC

"

ft and

term

second

"

"

into

ftxc.ftxc

"

ft X

vanishes.

ftxc).(c
c2

(1

the statement

For

ftxc'ftxc

ft.ft

c2

C"C

"

ft"C

"

c2

(1

the

the two

"

ft x

ft"C.

tan2

"

In

the

equal to

is

q.

ftxc"ftxc

"

c2

equality.

vectors

ftxc)_c"c

\q}

tan2

tan2 i q)

(1+

Hence

place the angle between

(c

and

ft the

In the first place the magnitudes

C"C

perpendicularto
parallelto

zero

equal.
c"c

it)were
be

c.

are

is

by hypothesisperpendicular

are

c"c

The

is carried

case

of

ft x would

multiplyingby

be that

"

this in

(or any component

341

STRAINS

(1

tan2

\q)

q)

'-

COS

c2

(1

tan2

i q)
40

(c

ft x

"

c) x (c +

ft x c)

(ftx c)

c2

(1

tan2

1 q)

2 c2 tan

c2

(1

and
the
must

the
+ ft x

angle q

cosine
c

are

and

and

sine

tan2

I q)

sin q.

Hence

of

the

angle

to
equal respectively

the

between

cosine and

consequentlythe angle between

equal the angle q.

Now

"

ft x

sine of

the vectors

342

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

and

ft

"

(c +
1

(i +

a), (i

Multiplyby

c)

the

the

a)-1 (c
"

ft x

(I +
c

"

of

value

due

The

"

ft)

"

c)

ft

c.

dyadic

carries the vector

version

(I +

ft)

"P =

what

"

a)-1- (i -ixft)=i+ixft.

(i + ixft)"(i-ix
Hence

(I

I+ 1

the

the

ft carries

ft x

dyadic

semi-tangentof

(10)'

ft)-1

into the vector

Hence

c.

to the vector

dyadic

ft) (I

no

matter

"P determines

version

vector

the

ft.
ft x

"

into

(I + ft-ft)c.
(I + Ixft)"(c
I

(I +
Hence

the

ftxc)

"

ft).(c-ft

to ft as

ftxc

c)=c

ft x

"

has been

into

ft-ftc

rotation

the

the result is not

I

ftx(ftxc)

"

(l

ft"ft)c.

Ixft)2

1 +

ft-ft

of all vectors

equal

ft) (I + I
"

to

be

dicular
perpen-

in the
a

plane perpendicular

vector

ft

parallelto

ft.

ft)
xQ,

1+ft-ft

c, if

vector

If, however, it be applied to

to ft.

ftxc

"

supposed. Consequently the dyadic

(I

(I +

dyadic

carries the vector

produces a

(I +
=

ft)
n
-ft

1+ft-ft

xQ,
=

1+ft.ft

ft

ROTATIONS

obviate this

To

for all vectors

AND

the dyad
difficulty

versor

(i
Hence

This

ft) (i +

ft) (i

ft)

"

is

annihilator

an

added

to

the

merator.
nu-

written

ixtt)*

ft-ft

i +

ft) x ft

be

be

1 +

(i

(i

a)

then

may

^=aa
(i +

Q,Q, which

perpendicularto ft,may

The

343

STRAINS

ft +

(i

ft ft

ft).(i x Q)

ft ft i.

:
substituting

may

be

expanded

1 +

ft.ft

in nonion

form.

Let

-(11)
0

128. ]

If

is

unit vector

*
is

Mquadrantal

points of
This

be

may

0
it may

or

The

be

every
Theorem
versor

seen

cos

vector

(I

"

directlyfrom

leaves

The

axis

right angles.

through two
to

in

TT

the

turns

the

general

versor

a a

dyadic

is, the dyadic 0

That

the

the form

(12)

by setting q equal

seen

expression for

dyadic of

2aa-I

versor.

about

space

vector

a)

the axis of which

is

of

sin " I

parallelto
two

a,

geometrical considerations.

perpendicularto
product

unchanged

but

verses
re-

in direction.

biquadrantal versors

perpendicularto

the

axes

is

of the

344

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

b be the

and

to the axis

of two

axes

of which

angle

the axis of the second

angle from
Let

the

and

biquadrantal versors

is twice

the

of the first.
The

biquadrantalversors.

product
"=(2bb-I).(2aa-I)
certainlya

is

is

brings

Hence

2 b

the

from

angle of

this

the

perpendicular

versor

and

sequently
con-

(b a)2
.

is

as

the
b

changed.
un-

axis.

is

"

and

this line

cos

(b,a).

the

to twice

equal

the

them

between

given

let Q be the

angle

angle

given

from

resolution

by

compounding

two

W be two

to

the

given

versor

half

one

axes

the

equal

I) (2
.

into

the

immediate

finite rotations

given

to

and

b be unit vectors

Furthermore

versor.

half

one

the

angle

of

foregoingtheorem

versors
an

J?x of this

"

to b be

the

Let

versor.

(2bb

of

axis

affords

versors

of the

the axis

expressed

of which

angle equal

an

be

may

versor.

the

Then

versor

biquadrantalversors,

two

0 and

plane perpendicularto

versor.

The

"

about

Conversely any given

perpendicularto
let the

"

angle of

include

For

b.

originalposition. Hence

to Q

and

it in direction

rotation

angle from

product of

lie in the
and

"

this

reverses

perpendicularto

common
a

versors

to b.

Theorem
the

"

its

to

is therefore

cosine of the

The

as

the

leaves
Q

"

it back

two

any

perpendicularto

(2bb" I) again reverses

in direction.

product Q

a a

of

product

common

biquadrantalversor

The

the

Consider

versor.

the

for

versor;

versors.

aa

product
and

about
Let

of two

simple
a

be

(14)

I).

rantal
biquad-

method

for

fixed

point

Let

unit

vector

per-

346

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

0s
F

?FX

?F

"P =

"

("
(?F

$)x

"

0)^

"

ca

"

QJ

~^r

Ho

y
A

c c

"

"

"

"

c)

1.
axe

~~

(a

" "

"

fa b c]

b)

Hence

[abc]b

bxc

"

ft

[a be]

"

"

a"b

"

a"r

bxc

b"r

cxa

ft,

"

Q,,

"

axb

c"r,

axbc.b.

axe

b b

"

"

ft2H

"

-b

axb

"

"

cxab"b

ft2 x

"

"

bxc

Hence

"
"
"

"

But

I,

a,

"

"

Hi

bxc
Q.

I,

b,

(c a)2

"

(b
O

"

"

axb
HfillCfi

-2cc

-2bb

cb

"

4(a.b)2-l,

"

ftQ

"~-

"

bb"

a.e
a

"

b b"

_(axb)"(bxc)_a"bb.c
a

Hence

"

Q!
Q

"

g2

"

"

ft2 + ft,

"

"

b
b

"

"

ROTATIONS

formula

This

AND

gives the composition of

If the rotations

of the

Neglecting infinitesimals
reduces

infinitesimal

combine

rotations

addition.

This

velocities.

angular

second

The

the

law

the

from

treated

subject was

of
for

different

60.

129.] If the dyadic "P be

Cyclotonics
be written

it may

versor

in the

(4)
0

ii +

cos

axis of rotation

axis is q.

Let

angle of

an

mula
the for-

parallelogramlaw

Cyclics,
Eight Tensors, Tonics, and

The

order

according to

demonstrates

Arts. 51 and

standpointsin

form

mal.
infinitesi-

Q,j+ Q,2.

vector

both

to

Q,3
The

finite rotations.

two

ftjand Q,2are

infinitesimal

be

347

STRAINS

(jj

is i and

be

k)

the

another

equal to q'.

ii +

q' (jj +

(k j

j k).

"

of rotation
the

with

versor

sin q

angle

rotation
cos

sin

(2

?') (jj

that

axis and

same

q' (k j

k)

about

j k).

"

Multiplying:
0

"

ii

cos

kk)

(16)

kj-jk).
This

is the result which

two

versors

the

same

of which
axis

angles of
If

the

and

considerations
02
and

0n

with

axes
an

are

expected
coincident

angle equal

"

the
is

product of
with

versor

to the

multipliedby itself,geometric

alike make

ii +
ii +

the

be

of the

sum

given versors.

two

be

versor

to

was

cos

cos

it evident

and

analytic

that

2q (jj + kk)

sin 2 q

(kj -jk),

(jj+ kk)

sin nq

(kj

nq

"

j k).

348
On

hand

other

the

let

4"*
The

product of

i i.

Hence

0n=

(ii

"

The

raised
dyadic "/"1

The

dyadic 02
raised

"!

and

kk;

02 equal

0l

"P2is

or

to any

the

01 ;

The

(Art.114).

raised

into itself is

02)n
(Pj"-1 02 +

"

reproducesitself. 0^

power

gives

power

third power,

power,

and

zero

sin q

cos""1*?sin

$2)n.

sin q

raised to the second

to

to the fourth

cos

(cos q "Pl+

ii +

cosn"? $!* +

ii +

$! ;

ii into either

Qn

on

0l equal jj

Then

kj-jk.

of

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the

fifth power,

dyadic 01 multipliedby $2

"

"Pr

negative

negative of "PZ;

the

to

the

"

raised

"P2and
is

so

equal

to

Hence

02.

0n

ii +

cosn

01

sin q

cosn~1q

"PZ

n(n"~L)
cos"-2

q sm2

2!
But

0"

Equating

ii +

cos

coefficients of

01

(n

01

and

sin

in
tf"2

$2 +
71

these

"

"

"$v
expressions

two

for "Pn
cos

cos*

"

--

1)
^-^-.
"

cos""2

q sm2

q +

"

"

"

"

Thus

the

ordinary expansions

obtained

in

they

generallyobtained.

are

The
Let

a,

manner

versor

cos

be

may

Consider

the

cc')

sinnq
in

manner

generalizedas

b, c be any three non-coplanarvectors

reciprocal
system.

and

nq

similar to the

very

expression for

for

and

are

which

follows.

a',V, c',the

dyadic
+

sin q

(cb'-bc')- (IT)

dyadic leaves

This
in

the

of b and

plane

to
parallel

vectors

suffer

349

STRAINS

AND

ROTATIONS

similar

change

Vectors

unchanged.

rotation.

to

Let
r

r'

variable

and

unit

circle
f

the

into

The

such

circle.

Thus

geometrical
is

regarded

ellipseof

an

which

(page 117).

Let

the

parallelprojectionof

the

i +

sin q

the

circle

j.

radius

and

(p

i +

b of the

same

ellipse.

the radius vector

r' in the

radius

the

j of the circle project

i and

vector
a

from

cut

are

ellipse
projectsinto

projectsinto
cos

the vector
of 0

is rotated
This

as

in the

through

statement

an

may

definite constant

which
ellipse

r' in the circle

vector

of the whole

then

describes
area

be

which

that vector

given
The

sector

as

projectionf
neater

a
are

through a

the

tion
applica-

in the unit circle

form

q is to 2

sector

the

ellipse. The

the

radius

vector

area

of

which

is to the

area

vector

of this sector
Hence

TT.

in

conjugate semi-diameters
the

circle may

radius

area

q is to

use

changed in

unit

The

TT.

ellipseas

by making

are

of which

sector

prefactor to
two

f in

vector

of the

of the whole

and

changed by

so

parallelprojectionareas

circle

dyadic 0 applied as

its

(jp+ q) j.

angle q.

ratio.

area

sin

is
ellipse

regarded as describinga

is to the

q)

prefactorthat

of the fact that in

of

The

c.

that
f'

be

in the

"#" r,

to

r, when

vector

semi-diameters

two

radius vector

equal

cos

q)

definite

conjugate semi-diameters

f in the unit

is

as

ellipseand

The

(p

parameter, describes

ellipsebe regarded

cylinder.

sin

conjugate semi-diameters

two

is, the

c,

given

The

this

That

be

may

scalar

are

(j? + q) b

follows.

as
interpretation

sin p

b +

cos

transformation

This

as

cos

an

the

ellipse

advances

is to the

area

of

350

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the whole

2-Tr.1
q is to

as
ellipse

radius

vector

sector

q from

it is the

its

called

be

may

displacement of

of which

ordinary rotation

an

the

through a

rotation
elliptic

an

similarityto

projection.
of the form

: A
dyadic 0
Definition

Such

a' +

is called

cos

(b V

4-

The

cyclicdyadic.

(c V

sin q

c')+

is

versor

c') (17)

"

of

specialcase

cyclicdyadic.
of

the powers
versor

the

0n

cos

If the scalar q is

(b V

nq

c')+

(c b'

sin nq

sub-multipleof
integral

an

the power

by

be raised.

dyadic is to

a' +

"

of

the powers

as

formed, by multiplying the scalar

were

to which

formed,

cyclicdyadic are

that

geometric or analyticconsiderations

from

It is evident

"

2 TT, that

c').
is,if

2?r
m,

"

9.

it is

namely, the

0 may

then

In like

manner

to raise 0

factor and
0

power

to such

in

the idemfactor

the rath root

which

differs

Hence

any

by

as

idemfactor.
it is

little as

power

of

pleasesfrom

one

be

cyclicdyadic may

possible

the idem-

equal to

incommensurable

are

TT

of the

commensurable

are

that it becomes
2

that

fixingthe
fixes it
ellipsepractically

an

TT

power

if q and

even

It is evident

vector

the

integralpower,

an

regardedas

of the idemfactor.

root
1

to such

that it becomes

if q and

the idemfactor.
a

m,

regarded as

be

be found

may

dyadic 0

raise the

possibleto

in

that

ellipse.

plane

may

be

result

of the

for all vectors

regarded

as

of
application
in the

scalar

plane

4" to all

of

multipleof

b and
a

radii vectors
c.

radius

For
vector

any

of

AND

ROTATIONS

transformation

The
130.] Definition:

d?adic
where

", c

a,

aii

dyadic itself is called

A

righttensor

0=

(aii+jj

The

order

The

strain.

pure

into three factors

kk) +(ii+jj

these factors

in which

(18)

is called

be factored

+ "j
kk"(-(ii

the

righttensor.

may

representedby

Jjj+Ckk

positivescalars

are

351

STRAINS

ckk).

is immaterial.

occur

The

transformation
p'

that the i and

is such

but

the

of

j components

is altered

k-component

transformation

The

(ii + jj + ckk)

in the ratio of

therefore be described

may

elongationalong the direction

than unity the elongationis a

remain

vector

as

is

: but
elongation

true

to 1.

stretch

If the constant

k.

altered
un-

if

or

greater

is less

unity the elongationis reallya compression,for the

these two
elongationis less than unity. Between

than

ratio

of

cases

the

of the

k-components are

the

as

case

successive
of

to

1, b

1, c

Their

compression.

The

one

or

directions
a,

If

are

not

are

",

a,

are

lengths
regarded

that

or

those

of the

more

or

are

called the

principalaxes

altered

the strain

by

the

as

the

ponents
com-

the ratios

of the constants

more

known

be

in
respectively

", c be different,
every other

scalars

The

elongationof

one

may

parallelto that direction

directions i,j,k

constants

If

to 1.

unity,components
The

simultaneous

or

unity.

dyadic 0

unity the elongationin

is less than
becomes

the

to

is

altered.

not

parallelto i,j, and

to

then
due

transformation

The

the constant

in which

comes

a,

", c

directions

constants
not

of

altered.

the strain.

whereas, if the

direction is altered.

principal ratios of

elongation.
In

Art.

reducible

115

it

to the

was

seen

normal
0=

"

that

any

complete dyadic was

form

(ai'i

is

Jj'j + ck'k)'

352
where

Z",c

a,

the

(a i/i/

"

0=

or

j'j'+

"

is the

which

the

It turns
versor

ii +

(a

"

6jj

ckk).

k'k

factoringis

of

i,j, k into

the

vectors

representedby

its

vector

vectors

be

may

version

k'k)

either method

in

same

(19)

i'i+j'j

factor

The

k'k') (i'i+j'j + k'k),

(i'i+j'j

"

be

This expressionmay
positiveconstants.
product of two dyadics.

are

into

factored
0

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

versor.

i ',j ',k'.

This

semi-tangent

of

as

i
"/"

i/j

v/

TT

*' +

k/

"l + i.i'+j.j' + k.k''

The

other factor
i'i' +

is

and

right tensor

the

case

has

strain

the same,
before

the

associated
space

"

with

that

Theorem
and

versor

product
them

the

reversal

Any

righttensor

version

accompanied by
order.

in

principalaxes:

elongationare

strain

of directions

taken

about
a

In the two

pure

have

must

of all vectors

in

cases

the

according as

product
and

of the

product

through

either with

or

of

without
in

and

the ratios of

but

the

it is

principalaxes

performed

before

or

tion
rota-

angle

sion.
perver-

the rotation
same

definite

performed

may

positive

be

strain

of

general transformation

most

consists

strain

the

to

either order

definite axis

and

are

in

the

dyadic

rotation

differ

first

negativesign occurs

pure

is reducible

dyadic

of the strain
strain

the

is,a perversion. Hence

representable
by

The

If the

and

version

negative sign. Hence

or

to 1.

In

strain.

pure

the ratios of

cases

1, c

to

lines i',j',k' for

both

In

1, "

to

"

represents
the

the second, i,j, k.

or

ii

or

j'j'+ ck'k',

either

tion
elongaof the

after the

354

components
If

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

of the

more

or

one

direction

tonic

stretches the
but

well

as

into

three

the

1, c

" to

in

a,

b,

are

of

versed
re-

The

which

each

of the vectors

parallelto

components

ponents
com-

magnitude.

factors
one

to 1.

negative the

are

changed

as

components parallelto

unchanged

leaves

6, c

a,

1,

to

correspondingvector

factored

be

may

ratios

the

constants

the

parallelto
in

in

stretched

are

a,

the

b,

other

two.

The

three

any

of

value

But

are

of

the

expressiblein
one

if the constants

way

constants

with
in

5 and

say

the

reduces

to

and

product of
is

with
the

and

commutative

scalar coefficients

is

The

"=

V.0

a' +
=

cos

aaa'

az

a' +

q
+

the

(b V

KbV

If two

be

substituted

equal the

are

the

of the two

"2b

b' +

tonic
three

Any

c.

axes

with

tonic

of the

coplanar

vectors

may

b,

a,

these
the

axes

are

the
and

products

of

dyadics.

c2 c c'

aiaza"' + J^bb'

of
generalization
a

two

to
equal respectively

correspondingcoefficients

0.

is

expressiblein only

so

for a, b,

of which

tonics

ejCaCc'. (22)

cyclicdyadic
c

c')+

stituted,
sub-

which

dyadic

the idemfactor.

be taken

may

is

and

be

b,

reciprocal
system a',b',c'.

different.

are

multipleof

two

is

Z",c

them

a,

corresponding changes

change,

tonic

place of

with

If all the constants

c.

constant

if in

equal, any

are

non-coplanarvectors

same

a,

this

corresponding vectors

place of

The

of

form

the

in the

exception of

the

altered

that

course

be made

necessary

with

is not

respectivelycollinear

vectors

provided
which

tonic

sin q

cc') +

(c b'

(cb'-W),

c')
(23)

a,

is the

reciprocalsystem

are

into

always

where

and

the

negative scalar

cos

',b ',c

That

is,

and

are

changed

the

positive

(which

may

TT)so that

(24)

c=psinq.

and

'

be

dyadic may

the limits "

quantitiesa, J, c,

by determining

positiveor
between

be chosen

the

This

form

convenient

more

scalar p

and

negative scalars.

positiveor

of which

non-coplanarvectors

three

where

b, c

355

STRAINS

AND

ROTATIONS

tan

(24)'

2=.

Then
(P =

This

a' + p

cos

be factored

may
0=

(aaa'

{a a' +
The

leaves
those

negative

the

unchanged
plane

of b

semi-diameters

as

Other

scalar

in

Vectors
in the

of the vector

TT.

parallelto

and

are

vectors

factor

second

vectors

radii vectors

(cV

the

rotated
is to

the

in the

but

which

through
plane

first is

and

to

1.

tonic.

1.

The

and

of the whole

the radii vectors

If

of the

but
a

It leaves
in
is

but

conjugate

are

that

ellipseas

may

is

reversal

third

such

vector

of b and

unchanged ;

remain
b

tonic

all vectors

stretches
to

"

c')}.

accompanied by

ratio p

area

The

is also

parallelto

ellipseof

multiplesof

"

ratio of

be

dyadics

+pcc')

parallelto

in the

c'). (25)

"

three

bb'

sin q

vectors

stretchingmust
The

cyclicfactor.

area

c')+

parallelto

direction.

the

product of

"

(cV

sin q

cc') (aa' +p

unchanged

stretches

in

(b b'

c')+

into the

bb' +

cos

of these factors is immaterial.

order

which

(b V

be

the
q to

regarded

ellipse.

356

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

is reducible

: A
dyadicwhich
Definition

"P =

a' + p

owing

cos

fact

the

to

product of

vectors, a, b,

that

it combines

al

a' + p1

cos

"

az

a' + p2

cos

"

"

third

d" =

(b V

(b V

q2

Theorem

either to

tonic

the reduction
which

be

may

proof

of

the

and

of

left

If

plane in

to the

(cb'

only one
which

"

mutative.
com-

c')

c')

"

(q1+ qz) (bb'+

cos

o1)-

c')

(26)

Forms
be

may

reduced

for which

dyadics

regardedas limitingcases
desired degree of approximation

importance of

the

as

the

the

be

a,

direction

the vectors
the

suffer

all the
tedious.

somewhat

is

generalhowever

in

be

b, c may

The

seen.

of

discussion

theorem

tonic
cyclo-

generalizationsof

natural

applicationof

such

tonic and

cyclic dyadic may

directions

cyclotonicand

the

arise,is long and

may

unchanged by

tonic.

p2 sin qz

any

treated

proving

If three

is

c')+

theorem, including a

The

patent.

cyclotonicand

(cb'

be

three

same

reciprocalsystem

cyclotonic. The

the

been

that

the

pl sin q1

the

cyclotonics.

or

special cases
method

represented to

right tensor

the

(ft+ 2a)(cb'

impossiblemay

have

have

general any dyadic 0

to

this theorem
which

the

In

or

tonics

by
From

is

propertiesof

of Dyadics to Canonical

c'), (25)

c')+

ax a2 aa' + p^p2

Reduction

"

cyclotonic.

+ Pi PZ sin

132.]

the

and

antecedents

as

(cV

sin q

which
cyclotonics

two

a', b', c' for consequents is

c')+

the tonic is called

cyclicdyadicand
The

(b V

to the form

found

are

then

can

be

found, there exists

change

dyadic indeed

which

such

proves

must

as

to

be

that due
be

such.

AND

ROTATIONS

question is

The

applicationof

the

by

find the

to

If the direction

the

dyadic

d"

(0

or

dyadic 0

The

direction

the

in

aside

"

al).a

unchanged

are

0.

planarsince

In

zero.

(27)

it reduces

be

vectors

which

special cases,

present, the dyadic may

for the

linear

or

set

are

In

zero.

dyadic

if the

case

any

to

which

0.

"

I is therefore

"

directions

unchanged,then

is

357

STRAINS

0-al

reduces

degree

one

collinear with

vectors

of

nullityand

to

third

the

it possesses

zero
or

least

at

determinant

of

"P

vanishes.

(0-aI)8
Now

(3"+

(page 331)
(4"

Hence

al)3

")3

"P8

I,

Hence

the

value

of

a2

+
ffia

which

cubic

W +

I3

a2 0

d" :

12

"2

a3

"3.

18

1.

ffi

solution

of

cubic

4"zS-4"z

0.

satisfies the condition

0

is

1 +

"2 :

(28)

equation becomes
a3

The

0.

"P3+ "P2:

I and
0

But

"

(29)
that

aa

equation.

Let

replace a.

The

equation becomes

(29)'

358

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

of

value

Any

which

satisfies this

will

equation

be

such

that

(0-sI)8
That

say, the

is to

its

to

leaves

such

has

of

133.

three

or

has
to

three
a

real

vector

Hence

zero.

the

tonic

cubic

discussion

further
of

pendicula
per-

or

cycle-

equation

in

equation

"Z3 -0S=0

dyadic 0

(29)'
in

may

general

be reduced

tonic.

For

let

be the three

in

vectors

of these

a,

of the

roots

are

03
the

roots

The

roots.

x*

to

the form

If the cubic

xs

is reduced

whether

upon

(28)'
planar.

unchanged.

real

Theorem

I is

"

dyadic to

depends merely
one

consequents

direction

of the reduction
tonic

dyadic

0.

"

",

"P

I,

Let

perpendicular to

the

dyadics

b,

a,

The

bl,

"

"

cl

be

planes

respectivelythree
of the consequents

dyadics.
b

(0-cI).c
Then

0.b
0
If the

equation.

general planar.
drawn

roots

coplanar.

a,

For

Z",c

are

"

Jb,

C C.

the

suppose
c

ma

(30)

0.

a,

distinct

0,

Ttb

(30)'

vectors

a,

b,

are

non-

(P

a,

"

0.a

But
Hence

(a

and

(a

c) a
c)

"

Consequently

if the vectors

distinct; and

not

vectors

a,

a, b

b, c

c,

b,

a,

c)b

"

(b

0,

c)

"

or

0.

c.

coplanar,the

are

if the

it is still

(30) hold.
a,

0,
=

This

b,

b,

a,

roots

such

In

the

dyadicwhich

are

the roots

case

choose
that

manner

there exists

being so,

and

roots

distinct, the

are

always possibleto

in

0.

necessarily
non-coplanar.

non-coplanarvectors
reciprocalto

("

ft

therefore

are

distinct

not

are

b, c

or

?i c

"

"P.b="b.

Hence

"P "})

"a,

"

c a

"

359

STRAINS

AND

ROTATIONS

three

the equations

system a',b',c'

carries a, b,

into

is the tonic

ccc.

Theorem

If the cubic
xs

has
a

real root

one

equation

x2

the

+
tf"s

dyadic

"P2S "P3

in

may

(29)'

generalbe

reduced

to

cyclotonic.
The

cubic

equation has

one

real root.

This

must

be

tive
posi-

negative according as "P8is positiveor negative. Let

be a.
root
Determine
a
perpendicularto the plane of
or

the

the consequents

of 0

"

I.

(0-aI).a
Determine

and

let the

This

cannot

a' also

so

0,

that

lengths of
be

and

a' be

accomplished in

so

the

adjusted that
specialcase

a'

"

in which

l.
a

360
a'

and
the

mutually perpendicular.Let

are

a'.

perpendicularto
0"1

"

In

The

thus

the cubic

would
0

dyadic

["P

"P b

more

changes

a, 0

a'.

Hence

0"b

is

$2"

b, "03"b,and

lie in

vectors

("P2 b)

"

"02 b, 0
"

products are

as

and

b3

~l
=

4"

(b2 + b)
b2

vectors

b and

bx

b2
b3

b1

2?ib2

"

(31)'

b.

plane.
other.

(31)"

sign,let

same

(32)

0~2

$*
"

"

b,

b,

etc.

(33)

etc.

b2,

bj

Their

Hence

0"bxb.

=^

0.

parallel. Let

are

spectively
re-

(31)

b].

same

to each

08

bj^bj

"

b2 =p~*

b^

b2

b, "P b

a-i08.

b_1=^2^-1-b

or

"

the

"

a, "PZ "

a
("P b)
tf"3

a' and

"P3have

"

a.

(0-b)

*"
also

b)

parallelto

and

"P8[a

"

and

unchanged

real root.

one

b, b all lie in the

"

b)
Inasmuch

("

"

"

parallelor

parallelepiped

b]

"

as

b, b into 4"

"

02

be

cannot

than

of the

"

well

as

volume

Hence

Then

have

But

The

in

0.

manner

and

"

direction

The

Let

"

similar

vectors

the

have

vector

vector

"

would

The

any

b, CP"2 b, etc., will all be perpendicularto a' and

plane.

The

I)

perpendicularto

is

(0" al)"b

Hence

("P

"

b be

a'.

to
plane perpendicular

a'

one

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

b1

(34)

br

b2

27ib3

etc.,

(35)
b

b_

2wb

b.

b_r=2wb_

etc.

362
There

134.]
is

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

remain

as
impossible,

be

can

two

cases1

seen

by looking over

the first place if the constant

form

used

1 the reduction

be "

place if the plane of

which

in

the
the

reduction
In

proof.

in the reduction

tonic
cyclo-

to

falls through. In the second

of

the antecedents
0-al

the

and

vectors

plane

perpendicularand
a

a' shall be

"

the

a' used

and

of

consequents

are

in the reduction

to

it is

The

"

1,

If

Let

reduction

b_j

b_i

Choose

c^bj

Consider

the

"
Hence
The

"

"

=p

transformation

it
factoring
order

or

"

dyadic

"

a' + p

into three

In

these
which
and

case

(a

cases

a' +

it will
them
be

of the roots

distinct.

imaginary part
two

of

two

dyadics may
two

b_r

"

a' + p

to this

(b b'

J9 b

"

(b b'

2 b.

2 b.
b

that

through.

"

a' such

are

c')+

dyadic

factors which

"

cbr

b'

C.

be

(37)
best

by

independent of

the

may

are

c')-f-p

seen

arrangement

In these

one

bx

b b' +

c') {a a/

(a a'

"

"

falls

=p'b1

due

bj

cyclotonicform

determine

impossibleto

unity.

perpendicular the

of the roots

The

be

seen

equal

limit

of the two

and

the

cubic

in the

(bb'

bb' +

lying between
limitingcases
and
the
tonic
in which
all
imaginary

the

as

be

regarded
imaginary roots of

may

of the tonic

as

approaching each

cb').

three
of

case

c')}

cc' +

equation has

other

three

are

regarded
are

that

the

either

real

them.

Thus

in
cyclotonic
roots

other.

real

are

by
taking place
cyclotonicbecoming zero

the

roots.

the

pure
or

by

ROTATIONS

first factor

The
ratio

factor

second

The

of b

The

(I +
(I +

unaltered.
c

b')

the

plane of
in

vector

"

"

"

and

fixed

remains

that

b and

in

c.

parallelto

b is increased

the
a

point but

tor
vec-

other

that the
the

points

distance
and

of the

plane

in

c.

to the form

cb'
and

shearer

shearing dyadic or
it

for

In

is such

space

and

the

by

b to b.

shifted in the direction

plane are

I +

which

The

c,

vectors

point

proportionalto

transformation

b +

pointsin

they lie from the plane of

: A
dyadic reducible
Definition

#a,

the ratio of the vector

which

is called

parallelto

of

x"

leaves

transformation

amount

an

is undisturbed.

in

cb'.

V)

I + cb'

planes parallelto

by

the form

multipliedby

words

V)

(I +

dyadicof

last factor takes the form

I +

and

the direction

representsa stretchingof the plane of

to 1.

the ratio p

plane

363

STRAINS

in
elongation

representsan

1.

to

AND

is called

causes

the

geometrical

shear.

The

more

general dyadic

cc')+
will also be called
which

to

elongationsin
If
The

"1

shearingdyadic or
it

gives

the direction of

instead

dyadicthen

of

rise is
a

and

oV

(37)
The

shearer.

combined

shear

is in the

plane of

+1, the result is much

(a aa'

bV

with
b and

the

c.

same.

becomes

cc')-cV
0

formation
trans-

cc') {aa'-p
.

(bV

(37)'

cc')} (I + cV).
"

364
factors

The

the

are

0 then

combined
c, and

Suppose

with

The

is

With

new

This

taken

i and

coefficient B

on

case

The

j k.

the antecedents
"#" al

For

+ B

is

Square
Hence
The

Then

"

dyadic "

and

the

of

plane of

perpendicular.

the

plane of j
takes

and

form

of

arises.

Let

k and

the form

the

dyadic

of the cubic

root

Nothing new

follows

as

e'

"

be

chosen
then

may

W*
must

plane

But

equation.

tonic
if B

may

be

vanishes

Let

in the

otherwise

the

to

to the form

ab' +
a

tion
elonga-

an

a,

are

dyadic then

the reduction

be reduced

where

with

shearingdyadic

of direction

vanish.

must

occurs.

may

sents
repre-

combined

the direction

respectivelyas

before.

as

The

dyadic

the scalar

this root

carried

plane.

plane of

of the

planes be

planar and

in that

reversal

that the

plane of

now

shear.

the consequents
these

of b and

elongationin

represents an

which

plane

the

of all the vectors

reversal

b and

except the second

same

stretchingof

the

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"

be'

e' =
D

0
ki

and

parallelto

k ; and

be transformed

k,

b'

into

A
O

"

b'

1.

ac'.

Ci+Di
=

c',parallelto i.

AND

ROTATIONS

this choice

With
desired

0
0

or

This

aaa'

of which

order

directions

representswhat

If
r

is

is

IT

is

which

be called

the

proportionalto

the

".zb
""a;c

of two

dyadicsthe

it is
is

to

of

ab'.r

the

b and

magnitude of

in

which

bc')" #b

#b

(I +

ab'

bc')"#c

xc

be reduced

ab' +

term

tional
propormanner

of

term

r.

ab' -f

al

If

magnitude is

in

(I +

like

In

addition

the

the vector

may

of

magnitude

r.

r.

dyadic Q.

the

bc'"

addition

vector

changed by
to

by

and

the

equal

For

complex shear.
=

in all

space

factor

second

changed by

equal

+
+

x"

#b.

to the form

bc'

(38)

complex shearer.

complex
before

dyadics.

to

be'.

stretchingof

: A
Definition
dyadicwhich

The

aV

it is left unaltered

magnitude

direction

0 is reduced

the

(38)

product

bc'^r

it is

parallelto

is called

to

bc'
+

The

to 1.

is in direction

in

into the

ab'.r

parallelto

to

ace'

represents

may

parallelto

which

if

al

in the ratio

r'=

dyadic

ab' +

abb'+

the

reduces

is immaterial.

first factor

The

al

be factored

may

V, c' the dyadic

of a, b,

ab'+ be' and hence

form

365

STRAINS

are

shearer

as

well

limitingcases

as

the

of the

simple

shearer

cyclotonicand

tioned
men-

tonic

366

135.]

of the

systematic treatment

more

dyadicswhich

of

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

may

arise may

be

various

given by

kinds
of the

means

Hamilton-Cayley equation
03
the cubic

and

0g 0z+

equation in

If a, ", c

the

are

equation may

be

03I

"P23x" 03

of this cubic

roots

written

the

In

(29)'

Hamilton-Cayley

as

If,however, the cubic has only

(39)

0.

=0.

(0-aI).(0-"I).(0-cI)

equation takes

"Paxz

x3"

0_

0zs

root

one

the

(40)

Hamilton-Cayley

the form

I). (02 -2^?

cos

"

"P+p*I)

=0.

general the Hamilton-Cayleyequation which

of the third

which

is satisfied

equations and

II.

is the

equation of

general therefore

In

which

of lower

be satisfied

may

equation.

The

("P-aI
a

I).("P-" I)2

IV.

(0-

!)"("/"- 61)

VII.

by

("P-aI)3

0.

(0-aI)2

0.

0-aI

tion
equa-

degree

the

That

tonic

the

0.

0.

=0.

or

dyadic

equation

dyadic is

called

occur.
followingpossibilities

(0-

VI.

to

degree.

an

of the above

specialcases, however,

III.

V.

is

lowest

one

corresponding reductions
equation

degree

its characteristic

(P. In

hold.

satisfyan

of lowest

by

the

cyclotonicform
0 may

degree in

(41)

0
In

second

the

aaa'

aaa'

the

case

+ p

In the third

Jbb'

is

dyadic

ccc'.

cyclotonicand

may

be

cos

dyadic is

the

case

simple

(cV

p sin q

(bb' + cc') +

be').

"

and

shearer

may

be

to the form

reduced

"P
fourth

In the

ratios of

aaa'

dyadic is again a

the

case

the

elongation are

"P
fifth

In the

"

dyadicis

the

case

of ways.

infinite number

an

(bb'

of the

Two

tonic.

followingreduction

The

same.

aaa'

cb'.

(bb' + cc') +

accomplished in

be

may

reduced

be

may

to the form

reduced
0

tonic and

form

the

to

is

dyadic

the

first case

In the

367

STRAINS

AND

ROTATIONS

cc').

complex

shearer

and

may

be

expressed that

so

0=
In the

sixth

be reduced

may

al

In the seventh
reduced

in

the

case

seven

dyadic may
kinds

of
are

one

ab'

bc'.

dyadic is again a simple

the

case

doubly
=

al

take.

+cc')

dyadic is again a

infinite number

the

are

which

shearer

(a a'

are

then

all different,two
three

shearer.

alike,or

only seven
all

may

be

to the form

cc').

three tonics in which

"

tonic which

of ways
bb'

cV.

different
only essentially

There

dyadics

complex

-4-bb'

cb'=a(aa'

togetherwith
the

to the form

"p
These

al

forms

which

reallydifferent

the ratios of

equal,and

limitingcases,

the

two

the

tion
elongatonic
cyclo-

simple and

368

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

of Chapter VI

Summary
due

transformation

The

pointsin

of

volumes

The

third

of the

of the

the

formation
trans-

dyadic gives the

v'=0av.

sufficient condition

rotation about

dyadicgives

s'=02"s,

and

necessary

homogeneou

changed.

are

r'=0"r,

linear

transformation

the

of the

The

plane areas.

ratio in which

gives

second

The

space.

dyadic is

itself

dyadic

The

strain.

to

that

dyadicrepresent

definite axis is that it be reducible

to

the form
4"
or

that

d"

or

that

The

and

necessary
a

rotation

which

by

i'i +

"

"PS

sufficient condition
with

(2)

"P3"

(1)

"PC

combined

each

"PC

"

k'k

j'j+

that

dyadic represent

transformation

of reflection

figureis replaced by

symmetrical

one

to it is

that
0

"p."pc

or

that

or

that

dyadic of

(1)',a

"P
the form

==

ii +

"P3"

is called

(1)

"

0.

(3)

versor

of the

; one

form

cos

axis of the

ii +

be

chosen

sin q

(kj

versor

the i-axis

or

to

unit vector
0

The

I,

of rotation of

axis

reduces
0

If any

d"3

(1)'

perversor.

versor

or

"PC

"

j'j + k'k)

I,

If the
the

-(i'i

cos

(I

kk)

versor

cos

(I

sin q I

i i) +

"

is directed

(jj

along the
"

coincides

a)

j k)

(5)

i.

(4)

axis of rotation

sin q I

in direction

with

(6)

"

"PV.

370

cyclicdyadics which

of two

duct

b,

a,

and

dyadic reducible

0
where

a,

", c

represents
ratio

to

1, b

righttensor,

and

linear

or

unaccompanied by
immediate

to

in

the

principalratios
strain.

product

of

versor,

k'k') (i'i+ j'j+ k'k)

homogeneous

rotation and

ckk).

strain may

be

strain

pure

(19)

regarded

accompanied

perversion.

of
generalizations

cyclicdyadic is

It

right tensor.

pure

the

expressed as

(i'i+ j'j+ k'k).(aii+Jjj

as

The

is

"

of

of the

root

(18)

called the

are

(ai'i'+ Jj'j'+

combination

their

positiveor. negativesign.

Consequently any

as

ckk

"

0=

or

be

by adding

principalaxis i,j, k

transformation

This

may

is called

the

to 1 which

1, c

to

antecedents

same

regarded

"jj

stretchingalong

Any dyadic

aii

the

to the form

positivescalars

are

elongation.

be

cyclicdyadic may

idemfactor.

have

a' b' c' is obtained

consequents

angles q.

of

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the

the

righttensor

and

the

tonic

(21)
and

cyclotonic
cc')+ c(cb'-bc)

or

"P

aaa'

where

+ .p

cos

*/ 52

(bb' + cc')+^sin

C2 and

tan

(eb'-bc') (25)

therefore
tonic

is that

cyclotonic.
the

cubic

The

reduced
to

the

condition

(24)'

Any dyadic in general may be

(21),and is therefore a tonic, or

(23)

either
form
that

to

the form

(25), and
a

is

dyadic be

equation

(29)'

AND

ROTATIONS

shall

have

three

reduction
the

only
the

dyadic
it

be

cannot

be

may

is

is
to

their

(0

"

it

or

al

I)

"

("P2

("P
(0

"

the

ab'

which

in

cases

form.

In

these

cb'

(37)

form

bc'

(38)
be

may

cos

!)"($
al).

(0
(0
("P

"

"

"

("Z"

61).

"

"

"

have

classified

ing
accord-

equations

aI).("P

"

takes

cc')

Dyadics

characteristic

("P

(bb'

+p

shearer.

complex

that
shall

equation

cyclotonic

to

arise

one

condition

limiting

two

occur

=aaa'

and

cubic

the

as

shearer,

simple

The

which

than

ways

more

this

reduced

written

and

There

in

cases

roots.

that

is

root.

in

equal

cyclotonic

real

one

cases

has

equation

be

dyadic

Special

roots.

accomplished

be

may

when

real

371

STRAINS

"P

("P

b
"

I)3

I)2

I)

I)
0

p2 1)

I)2

"
"

cl)

"

tonic

=0

cyclotonic
simple

shearer

special

complex

special

simple
special

tonic

shearer

shearer

tonic.

CHAPTER

YII

MISCELLANEOUS

APPLICATIONS

Surfaces

Quadric
$

If

136.]

be

is

in

quadratic

be
the

divided

The

r.

into

the

dyadic

equation
(1)

const.

case

it be

hence

the

in

constant,
and

not

zero,

equation

may
takes

form

or

The
W

0.i

the

dyadic

constant

any

dyadic
is

be

may

"

1,

(1)'

"

"

0.

(2)

assumed

be

to

anti-self-conjugate dyadic,

an

identically zero
is left

as

for

all

an

exercise.

is reducible

dyadic

of

values

the

product

The

proof

116

Art.

By

the

to

r.

self-conjugate.

any

of

"

this

""

bz""
7

yj

ici +

represents
The

signs
sign

equation
a

quadric

different
are

is

all

surface
which

cases

positive, the

negative

it is

"

an

"

7/2

real

zz

(4)

imaginary.

or

arise

zk,

r.,.r="_"|i"_i.
the

ment
state-

\.

")

c2

#2

Hence

is

(3)

"*"

a29

"

form

-1-

if

self-conjugate

*="-"y""
If

For

are

quadric

hyperboloid

is

four
a

real

of

one

number.

in

If the

ellipsoid.
sheet;

If

if two

one

are

negative,a hyperboloidof

is

If the three

sheets.

two

negative the quadric

all

373

SURFACES

QUADRIC

like

In

imaginary.

signsare
the

manner

equation
r.0.r
is

to

seen

represent

the

imaginary according as
Thus

the

which

cone

different

signs are

"

"

in

the

case

quadric surface

be

may

surfaces

"

from

"

the

surface

the

the

central

form.

62

const.

"

c2
0

"

"

which

represents
r

where

a,

"

(r

"

of the second

the

last,independent of

order

sorts of terms

scalar

in

expressionwhich

is
r

"

"

equal to

The

"

which

ones

quadraticin
r

"

"

"

r,

"

r.

"

r.

stant
con-

like

c,

first two

the third, of the first order

only

quadraticin

terms
d

c,

vectors.

(r a) (b r)
"

is

"%-

c2

Moreover, it is evident

r.

the

are

But
and

)r,

"

constant

are

are

four

a) (b

"

"

bz

set

quadric surface,contains

r,

b, c, d,

consequentlywhen

k k

jj
"

general scalar expression which

and

axe

zz
"

"

a2

self-

quadric

They

i i

the vector

to

central

suitablychosen

normal

corresponding dyadic 0 is

most

reduces

const.

y2
"

"

a2

The

all alike.

or

Conversely any

zero.

equations of

to

x2
"

The

or

in the form

reduced

when

The

representedby

is evident

is

constant

conjugatedyadic 0

This

real

const.

represents a central quadric surface.

cone

either

equation
r

be

may

can

terms
;

and

that these
occur

in

374

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

be reduced

generalquadraticexpressionmay

the most

Hence
to

r.0.r
0

where
a

is

scalar.

constant

The

dyadic

be rid of the linear term

by replacingr by

(r' t)
-

r'

vector, and

constant

be

may

regarded

self-

as

desired.

conjugate if
To

(7:=0,

dyadic,A

constant

r.A

"

r'

r'

"

A, make

"

change

of

origin

t.

"

(r' t) + (r' t)
-

"

"

r'

"

r'

"

"

"P

"

t +

"

"

"

-fr'.A-t.A+C'^O.
Since

equal.

the
self-conjugate

is

"

$ is

now

r' +

"

the

2 r'

case

is

"

of 0

as

the

case

The

unless

discussion

quadrics is
here.

the
A

quadric surface

The

The

or

"

and

is

is not

"

C'

t) +

t may

terms

are

that

so

A.

form

const.

lies in the

or

wmlinear

plane of

because
in the line

or

equation

situated
a

to central

form

the reduction

central

is still possible.
is

impossible.

surface.

classification of the various

It will not
exercise.
interesting
present objectis to developso much
an

0.

be chosen

l 0-1-

wm'planar

reduction
so

4"

to the central

r'

is

be the

may

is soluble for t and

But

incomplete it

0 is self-conjugate. If A

vector

quadric is reducible
r'

In

(|A

"

complete the

^A=
Hence

third

and

Hence
r'

If

second

non-central
be taken
of the

up

theory

of

quadric surfaces

will be useful

as

375

SURFACES

QUADRIC

in

physicswith especialreference
Hereafter

therefore

will
ellipsoid

137.]

The

the central

"

"

is

the surface

this normal

be denoted

by

tangent plane,
from
"

p.

the

Hence

r.

"

"P

the vector

be

is

Let
n.

(6)

"

"

r.

let the unit normal

"

($

drawn
is

the

"

r.0-r
inasmuch

as

p and

0.r

perpendicular

the square

"

root

of

"

p.

p2.

"

p.

l.

p.p

p.p

But

The

n.

tangent plane is the square

r._Z_

LH

Or

originperpendicularto

(r,p) p

cos

Hence

the

parallelto

equal to

r)

"

from

originto

It is also

Hence

(5)

equal and

are

0.

differentiation.

Let p be the vector

of p

particularthe

0.

terms

and

r)

root

by

extremity of

at the

d"

distance

dr

"

two

the

perpendicularto

to

in

1.

"

these
self-conjugate

increment

normal

be found

dT'0
The

media.
non-isotropic

to

quadrics and

tangent plane may

dr
0 is

matical
mathe-

be discussed.

Since

to
applications

are

r.H

l.

parallel,
they are
N="

p.p

equal.

(7)

376
On

108

page

it was

of the normal

be taken

may

plane and

the

extremity

The
found

of the

equation of

from
( r

Hence

"

the

originto

is not

plane.

merely

the

to

plane
Hence

normal

of the

reciprocalof

the

to

plane.

distance

ellipsoidat

r.

ellipsoidin plane

the

magnitude equal

of that

plane tangent

vector

by eliminatingr

Hence

is in

has the direction

coordinate

is the

"

which

the

"

the

is also

the

origin to

that

is,the length of 0

from

from

coordinate

the vector

tangent plane,but

That

which

the distance

equation shows

the above

the

as

that the vector

seen

to

reciprocalof

to the

the

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

the two
0

"

coordinates

be

may

equations.
1,

d"

the desired

equation is
H.^-I-H

I.

^-U^jj4.kk
"I
+

Tf

--

(8)

c2kk.
Let

and

where

plane
written

w, v,

upon
in

are

the

either

a?i +

yj

ui

vj

the

k,

reciprocalsof
i,j, k.

axes

of

zk,

the

two

the

interceptsof

the

the

ellipsoidmay

be

Then
forms

familiar

in

Cartesian

geometry.
/y"

or

N.

Q-i.

a2 u* +

77

bzvz

c2wz

l.

(10)

378
The
the

vectors

"P

b'

a,

"

a'

"

a"b/

and

a"0"b

dyadic0

0"1

and

system

of

may

three

of 0.

volume

constant

and

of

For

let a, b,

b'V

three

determinant
of the

1,

"

"

0,

the forms

c'c',

bb

"

(12)

cc.

directions

obtained

a,

and

from

b,

c, be

if in

infinite number
which

form

similar

number

of

interpretingthe
vectors

of ways.
three

concurrent
vectors

is

rectangularparallelepiped

the three semi-axes

be any

or

to the

be called

system of three conjugateradii

upon

called

conjugate radii

of
parallelepiped

a
a

doubly

c.

0.

system of three

of the

ellipsoid.

system of three conjugate axes.

0-J
The

expressed in

equal in magnitude

constructed

c'

4"

"

b,

a,

1,

"

"

be

may

in

edges constitute

"

conjugate tangent planes,a

A

be obtained

The

c.

"

tangent planesat their extremities

geometric theorems
invariants

a'a' +

"

b'

"

conjugate radii vectors,

the three

manner

"

0,

the

If for convenience

system of three

be therefore

may

a'

"

"P

system reciprocalto

c' =

b,

"

1,

c' =

The

"

the

a',b',c' form

vectors

0"a,0*b,"P*eby

into

changed

are

Let

dyadic "P.

For

b,

a,

a' =
The

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

third

aa

bb

of 0~l

in which

cc.

is
is

an

invariant

expressed.

08-i=[abc]2.

and

pendent
inde-

0-1

if

But

a2 ii +

Z"2jj +

03-i

a2 bz c2.

the

demonstrates

The

of the

sum

in
ellipsoid

radii vectors

that:
drawn

of the

is
ellipsoid,

of

in

three

concurrent

constructed
parallelepiped

planes
to the

equal
the

upon

system

magnitude equal

those

and

constant

an

is constant

perpendicularsupon

distances

the

to

of the semi-axes.

conjugate tangent planes and

of the

of the

show

whose
parallelepiped,

of the

reciprocalsof

center

of the

preting
inter-

by

manner

possibleto

of the squares

sum

in the directions

of three
the

the

volume

edges are

it is

squares

like

In

system of three conjugate directions

equal to

The

0"

c2 kk,

ale.

theorem.

and

"P3,^V"1,

and

[a b c]

Hence

This

379

SURFACES

QUADRIC

from

to

the

reciprocal

semi-axes

of the

ellipsoid.
The

of the squares

sum

of the

from

dropped

the

conjugate tangent planes is

of the

the squares

0a
4"a-i
Let

a,

b,

be

"p

0-i

i.

and

constant

the three perpendicula

system of three

to the

equal

i +

i +

radii

three

sum

of

the semi-axes.

mutually perpendicularunit

origin upon

of
reciprocals

If i,j, k be three

of
reciprocals

0-i

in

vectors

"

"

"

vectors

k,

0-1

the

"

k.

ellipsoiddrawn

respectivelyparallelto i,j, k.
0

a.

Hence

"

"

ffia
"

the three terms

"P

"

"

0
"

"

in this

0-

"

"

0
k

the radii vectors

k directions.

Hence

"

1.

expressionare

of
reciprocals

"

\-

But

drawn

"

0"

the squares

in
respectively

of the
the

i,j,

380

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

The

of the

of the squares

sum

in

radii vectors
perpendicular
in

similar

the

manner:

an

of three mutually
reciprocals
is constant.
And
ellipsoid

of the squares

sum

of the perpendiculars

dropped from the originupon three mutuallyperpendicular

is
constant.
tangent planes
mined
139.] The equationof the polarplaneof the point deterby the vector a is 1
s

For

let

of

be the vector

of any

vector
s

of

"

i/

_J-

(13)
the

polarplane. The
joinsthe terminus of

is

sa

pointlies upon

1.

point in

ys +

If this

the line which

pointupon

and the terminus

the surface
a

/v"

i/

_I_

"""""

y)2

If the terminus
of the ratio
in

of

x :

magnitude

and

+ y
X

xy

g.0.8+

n.0.i

2/)2

a.0.a

l.

2/)2

polarplaneof a the two values

determined
by this equationmust be equal
oppositein sign. Hence the term inxy
s

lies in the

vanishes.
Hence

is the
of

desired

"

equationof

"P

"

the

polarplane of

the

terminus

a.

Let

or

be

replacedby z

a.

"

The

d"

"

polarplanebecomes

"

z
1

real

It is
or

immaterial whether the central quadricdetermined

evidently
or
imaginary,
ellipsoid
hyperboloid.

by

be

When

increases

the

In

Hence

the

is the

the limit when

as

is

polarplane of

same

statement

vector

z a

infinite

The
which

"

is

If

important.

(r

equation

represents

or

radius

identical

The

equation

"

is

becomes

a.

of

In like

with

of

other

In

points.

equationswhich

are

"

Q and
case

and

and

1)

"

and

plane P

(r

"

"

is

this

linear in

"

curves

those

0'

which

and
of

to

given,

are

the

curve

Q along that

1)

"

given,

through

the

Q and

cuts

is factorable

which

curves

Q' at
into

no

two

consequentlyrepresent

intersection

two

Q' are

and

"

passes

equation
r,

C)2

tangent

(r

standpoint

through

passes

which

Q' and

lie into

quadrics Q

1) +

"

another

0,

which

if two

planes,the

plane

"

quadric surface

of intersection

two

Q and

"

from

quadric Q

"

manner

(r

equation

represents

"

obtained

quadric surface

intersection

become

the vector

case

of

be

polar plane may

curve.

In

polarplane

This

a.

the definition of the diametral

terminus

"

the direction

represents the tangent plane.

and
the

0.

as

a.

the

tangent plane at the

therefore

the

of

becomes

plane conjugatewith

frequentlytaken

of

terminus

in
point at infinity

the diametral

of the surface

"

the

plane conjugate with

the

the

polarplane becomes
s

of

polar plane

approaches the origin.

the

381

SURFACES

QUADRIC

planes.

of

Q and

Q'

382
If A

This

cone.

the

plane of

For

let

pass

through A

cone

touches

the

If this

which

conditions

with

comparison

The

polarplane with

(r
If this passes

(a
Hence

(r

"

"

"

d"

4"

"

"

cone

is

equation

140.]

the

if its

Hence

tangent

plane

to be

"

(0

the

the

a)

"

1 which

polar plane

of A.

of intersection

curve

given quadric and

which

touches

is
+

Jfe(a

1) (a

any

1.

seen

be

a.

"

"

I)2

0.

I)2

0.

point A,

1)

vertex

Let

by

by

1,

through

the

whose

"

"

(a

"

By transformingthe origin to
a

satisfied

lie in

1)

curve

through

satisfied

equation is

passes

quadricalong that

to be

point A.

1.

be

(13)

quadric which

of this
the

the

are

therefore

pointsr

must

The

The

point A.

the

to

its

plane contains A,

plane passes through

on

polar plane of

the

"

tangent plane to the quadric is

of any

the

tangent

quadric along a plane curve

the

drawn

be the vector

if all the

drawn, these planesenvelop

are

being

curve

quadric and

of the

pointoutside

is any

planes which
a

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

ffi

"

1)

(a

point A

the

is at that

"

"

this is

I)2

0.

easilyseen

point.

dyadic.
self-conjugate

It is expressible

in the form

0
where

A" B, C

ii +

^jj

tfkk

negative scalars.

positive or

are

let
A

Bl

"B

"

((7- J5) kk

0
-

(B

Ay

ii.

more
Further-

Let

Then

"I

"

Then

dyadic

multipleof

Bl

been

has

and

This

expression for

sections of the

the
Substituting

of

value
B

"

have

the

from

is that of

of the

curves

"

that

the

"

lying in

"

and

the

p.
q

the

-4, B, G

zero.

"

"

to

"

the

1 becomes

1.

By

substitution

"

circular

the

the

"

0.

of

terms

the

"

all

given quadric,the resulting

through

passes

w)

"

The

the intersection
difference

0.

quadric

and

order

equation of this sphere

intersect

planes
"

second

given quadric.

the

(r

If the

of

sphere and

sphere

quadric which

Hence

the constants

1.

"

"

coefficient B.

same

subtracted

equation

sphere because

from

plane perpendicularto

is

constant

sum

closelyrelated

"

"P,

be

"

Let

This

of

sum

quadric surface
r

be any

the

qp.

and
is

j.

(14)

qp).

tacitlythat

each other

a.

q.

half the

one

has assumed

different from

are

"

expressed as

the idemfactor

reduction

|-(p
q +

"

a)(c-a)+(c-a)(c+a)

and

pq

The

V B

and

cc-aa=^ j(c+

Let

The

383

SURFACES

QUADRIC

n.

in

two

plane

384

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Inasmuch

these

as

lie upon

curves

Hence

planes perpendicularto

In like

manner

the

q cut

follows

circles.

quadric hi

is

of the

radius

"

the vector

is of constant

section.

The

convenience

be reduced

then

hi

1.

q, the term

p q

"

"

ishes.
van-

equation

section is therefore
is

quadric be

positive.

equal

hi

circular

length

to the

ellipsoid. The

an

stants
con-

reciprocaldyadic 0~l

The

manner.

k k

i i

"

ti

0-1

"

ff

dd

Jo

\\(f +
*

d) (f

f +

0-i

i
=

and

I +

d)

(.

(f-d)(f

Then

the center

satisfies the

plane

Let

"

section

similar

or

ii

Let

as

quadric.

0-1

Then

circles.

be conducted

may

plane passed through

The

let the

are

"

r-r

of the

of the

A, B, G
may

in

planes perpendicularto

proof

in this

length.

radius

semi-axis
For

in the

vector

mean

The

quadric perpendicularto
Hence

and

that

quadric

circles.

.Z? r

If

the

cut

be shown

it may

sphere they are

(u v

d)j

v.

u).

(15)

386

the section is

the

rotation

the

projectionor
the

parallelto
from

which

the

about

axis is

axis of the

some

stage of the rotation

by

and

necessary

minor

Differentiate

"

be

is to be

three

major

or

the

or

"

the

major

through

and

value

and

chosen

that

the

changes
hence

at

equal

to

projecting

be the

r
ellipsoid

and

center

"

vector

"

"

d"

major
"

perpendicularto

0.

0,

"

0.

"

0,

"

minor

axis of the

and

equations show

Converselyif
be

perpendicular

other axis

stage the shadow

mininum

to the same

may

is

coplanar.

Furthermore

dr

The

section of the

and

These

axis.

axis

sufficient condition

maximum

plane of projection

projectingcylinderhave

it passes

this

Let

the

the

positionin

the

to
ellipsoid

of the

semi-axis

is that a, r, and

if

the

minor

one

plane passing through

axis, from

it. As

circular.

cylinderare
The

At

axis.

infinite distance

an

the

and

as
ellipsoid

plane

upon

perpendicularto

mean

which

the minor

mean

at

perpendicularto

from

the

point

its

shadow

plane,the

by

consider

manner

ellipsoidcast

direction

positionhi

axis of the

mean

in

rotated

major

to the
to that

axis

mean

like

In

circle.

of the

shadow

plane and

that

is
ellipsoid

or

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

hence

is

Hence

d"

"

r]

0.

[a

"

r]

0,

perpendicular

to

Then
d

"

they are

[a

0.

for

perpendicularto

that a, r, and

dr.

section

"

are

is

dr.

gonal
all ortho-

coplanar.
(16)

their

common

plane.

QUADRIC
Hence

is

maximum

It is

141.]
of

This

of

is

one

perpendicularto

a.

advantageto

"*

be done

may

"

dyadic such

square

root

that

W* is

that

of

the

write

cipal
prin-

equation

and

there

1,

(17)

1.

k k

jj
h

--

"

--

of the

if

ii
"

"

because

is

and

the form

instead

mininum

frequentlyan

in
ellipsoid

an

or

of the section

semi-axes

387

SURFACES

0.

equal to

written

W may

$*.

as

other

are

'

be

But

square

regarded as
be

it must
of

roots

"

"

membered
re-

for

example,
i i

kk

jj
*

i
__

__

and

"

"

'

For

this

reason

which

root

denoted

been

"P* is that

that the square

particularone

which

has

by ".

equation of

The

by

in mind

to bear

it is necessary

is meant

the

or
.

Let

r' be the radius

the

sphere is

be written

ellipsoid
may
.

"

"

vector

of

r'

"

r'

unit

1,

(?T.r). (?F.r)

1.

in the form

l.

sphere.

The

equation of

388

into

transformed

radius

each

W~l
a

into

vice

r, and

r'.

vector

system of three conjugate radii

a.

the

"

"

2P2

"

Wz

"

"

"2

operator "

unit

sphere may
inverse
if a,

Furthermore
in

vectors

"2

an

ator
oper-

b, c

are

ellipsoid

5F2

"

"2

"

respectivelyW

a',b',c' denote

If for the moment

the

versa,

be

ellipsoidmay

an

ellipsoid
by applying the

an

radius

each

to

that

sphere by applying

unit

vector

be transformed

evident

becomes

^'rit

If r''=

to

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"

a,

"

b,

r.c,
a'

a'

"

b'

a'

"

b'

"

c' =

Hence

the three radii vectors

which

three

the

by
form

conjugateradii

perpendicularunit
Theorem

ellipsoid
by
Let the

equationsof

the

be transformed

of the

0
W

"

"

strain 0*

changed into

"

of the

means

sphere are
of the
into

into any

other

strain.

1.

radii vectors

r'T'
the

in like

of the
unit

first

sphere

l.

radii vectors

r' of this unit

into the radii vectors

manner

ellipsoid.Hence

r' of

the radii vectors

W~*

strain

transformed

second

formed
trans-

1,

the

r'=0*T,

By

ellipsoidare

be
ellipsoids
"

are
ellipsoid

0.

system of three mutually

homogeneous

and
means

a'

mutually orthogonal. They

are

left-handed

By

1,

vectors.

of

means

"

c' =

in the

vectors

Any ellipsoid
may

c'

a',b',c' of the unit sphere into

operator "~l

right-handedor

c'

the

by

product r

is

changed

r.

V-*

0i

r.

(19)

transformation

The

than

transformed
without

in the

Hence

by

suitable

strain is then
be

can

sphere

strain into

142.]

The

of

sphere

in

of

equation

be

may

and

three

any

or

others.

be carried

of the

semi-axes

only one

ways

rotation with

into

changed

the

more

mutually orthogonal unit

completely determined

performed

unit

means

three

be

may

the

of the first ellipsoid

may

the semi-axes

by

perversion. Any

in

accomplished

r' of

themselves

among

vectors

be

may

radii vectors

The

one.

389

SURFACES

QUADRIC

second.

the

over

The

transformation

way.

of confocal

family

quadric

faces
sur-

is

az

If

"

b'2

"

and

"

"

c'2

"

"

"

surfaces

two

are

of

the

family,
i i

jj

i i
nr

k k

jj
*

L_

"

"*

"
".

a2"

k k

62"

","

"

j:

^tt

0-1

Hence

"

T2/

y-i=

The

necessary

and

72.

"

"

"

1 1

"^~ ( C

K.

kk)

"

"

that the two

quadrics

confocal, is that the reciprocalsof 0 and

multipleof

71

---"

wi) T-

"

"

n^ (ii + j j

sufficient condition

and

be

~f" Cb

(%

n*

"

"

(wa
=

c2

7i"

"

"

differ

by

the idemfactor
0-i

y-i

a.i.

(21)

390

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Let

they do
quadricsintersect,

confocal

If two

quadricsbe

the

and

"

Let

the

Then

"

"

1,

"

1.

and

0-1

where

by

the confocal

quadricsintersect
0

is that the normals

"-1

at

s'

In like

a? s

Add

s'

y-1

"

"

W-*

s'

a; s

"

and

s' as

l,

l,

s'

xit

5P-1

"

perpendicularity

perpendicular.

( y~l

"

for

That

is,

0.

"

be

"

s'

"~l

s' =

"

s'

0-1

"

Hence

(0-1-

"

"

s'

If the

is

parameter

resultingconfocal
one

is

"

(0~J
s

the theorem

which

of

I)

"

8,

s'=

SF-1

"

s'.

manner

CM

and

.s

0-1
=

s'.

"

the condition

and

"

s' =

W~l
in terms

yr-i

But

r,

property,
0-i

If the

s'. ?T-i.s'

and

and

be written

quadrics may
s

*'

and

"

0-1

rightangles.

at

so

"

0-1

"

"

"

s'

"

0-1

JP"-1)sr

"

s'

I)

aj

"

a; s

"

0-1

"

"'

"

a;

s'

s'.
1.

"

s'.

0,

proved.
n

be allowed

vary

from

consist

of

to

quadrics will

"

oo

three

ellipsoids
; another, hyperboloids of

the third, hyperboloidsof two

sheets.

to

oo

families
one

the
of

sheet

By the foregoing

theorem

surface

each

of the

other

of

family cuts

one

any

The

orthogonally.

two

(say the family of

one-sheeted

hyperboloids)cut

orthogonallythe

of

called

are

the

radius

through

of

vector

that

form
of two

family of

other

are
ellipsoids

two

point

point

the

are

the

to

for any

same

family
cut

the two

the

by

soids.
ellip-

components

of

axes

triply

families

the

"

the ratios of the

that

two-sheeted

family

correspondingpointsupon

be shown

It may

the

which

points in

ellipsoids.The

these lines

and

surface

every

surfaces

lines of intersection

The

orthogonal system.

391

SURFACES

QUADRIC

of

ellipsoid

corresponding

two

points.
For

be given by
ellipsoid

let any

neighboringellipsoidin
dyadic

the

The

U
*^

n-"

as

dyadics they
Therefore

"

and
be

may

two

family is representedby
kk
""

c2

By (19)

than

higher

(0

dn)

(0

dn)~*

(I +

4"

1,

"

0*

"

dn)-1*

(I

i
_

dn)

"

r,

r,

1.

n
,

"

-~

8, p. 330)
in

algebra.

first in dn

the

then

d"

Ex.

Idn.

I dn.

are
neighboringellipsoids

and

ordinary scalars

as

V=*

"

homologous (see

are

the

,
*^

dn

"

0-1

of order

if terms

treated

omitted,

The

bz

dn

"

JF-i=
Inasmuch

dyadic

JJ

W=
a?

the

r.

be

392

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

The

f and

vectors

differ

by

multipleof

(P. Hence
to the ellipsoid
perpendicular
points,for they lie
r are
corresponding
which

of

f in the direction i

and

are

"

"

r '-x-

-"- -^

is

of the

--""
"

2 a2

Va2

dn

"

"

dn

2 a2

dn

"

manner

Vc2

andj

only

differ at most

ratios of

the

immediatelythat
drawn

by
by

of the

terms

of the

Thio

completesthe

143.]

The

treat

hence

two

parameter
from

in dn

follows

of the vectors

ellipsoids,
rated
sepan,

only

differ at

the ratios of the

be identical with

electromagnetic
equations of

may

order in d

ellipsoids.It

any

and

them.

Propagationof Light in Crystals1

which

be written

followingdiscussion
the

second

of the

must

demonstration.

medium
isotropic

waves

To

The

-.

neighboring ellipsoids

two

those

in the

firstorder

and
ellipsoids

The

of

axes

finite variation

z
=

the ratios of the components

axes

infinite

terms

correspondingpointsupon

to

most

by

the

dn

"

of the vectors

correspondingpoints upon

to

the ratios of the components

Hence

from

and

-i

by

drawn

dn

"

dn

"

V"2

like
In v,

"

"

Va2

are

ratio is

Their

a.

the direction i

in
ellipsoids

"

TL

(7

-=!
x

axes

"

Of

The

ponents
com-

and

dn
i.

"

ratio of these components

The

of the lines

one

upon

"

is

the termini of f and

dn
m

which

"

orthogonally. The
family of ellipsoids

the

cut

"P

subjectfrom

the

must

the ether

is transparent to

or

of any

netic
electromag-

in the form
be

regarded

as

mathematical

standpointof physicswould

be out

not

of

physical.

placehere.

394
Then

where

and

represents
the

quotientof
is

wave

considered

it must

Substitute

the value

The

value

obtained

x.

The

is

the

"

then

"

D, and

"

to

(m

cos

of the vector

in

the

medium

that medium.

"

"

which

"

may

be

equal

to

Hence

t)

"

is

in D.

longer occur

no

of that advance

the direction i to be coincident

reduces

variables y and

in

place

equations.

easilyby assuming

m.

magnitude

equationsof

of D in those

D, V

take

velocityv

electromagneticwave
two

scalar

constant

plane polarized. The

The

m,

vibrations

m.

by

an

"

and

wave

satisfythe

of V

most

with

is,the

")

"

The

waves.

That

"

vectors

in the direction

advances

If this

(m

cos

constant

are

A.

is the
m.

train of

direction

wave

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

5D
V

"

"

-="

Hence

"

"

"

"

"

"

m2

"

m2

"

i i

"

"

sin (m

(m

"

f)

"

"

cos

sin

VV."P.D

"

"

"

"

"

nf).

t~)

"

"P

"

(mx

cos

(m

"

-mm."P.D.

d2D
Moreover

"

nz D.

"

d t*

Hence

(4)

if the

harmonic

D is to

satisfythe

tions
equa-

of the medium
w2 D

and

vibration

"P

"

"

0.

"

"P

"

(5)
(6)

THE

The

PROPAGATION

latter

equation states

be transverse

The

OF

at

of

IN

that

once

the direction

to

former

LIGHT

395

CRYSTALS

the

vibrations

propagationof

the

must
waves.

be put in the form

equation may

0.D.

Introduce

(5)'

The
of

vector
s

is in the direction of advance

quotientof

is the

velocityof

the

by

The

wave.

This

n.

vector

The

m.

of
reciprocal

is the

magnitude

therefore

may

the

called

be

the wave-slowness.
D

This

Dividingby

(s x

that

phrase of

upon

the

The

motion

of

Let

displacementand

or

are

rather

drawn

directions in

of

slowness
a

"

"

"

so

"

determined

(9)

1.

(8)

may
"

of the

ss.0"a

propagationof

by

plane polarized.

the discussion

which

all

to the form

0.a

at

(8)

reduced

"

not

its direction.

direction

be

(7)

1.

medium
non-isotropic
a

A.

be discussed

are

in the

s.s

equationsby

the

"

becomes

sx(0-a)xs

the

depends

only upon

of

s.

88.0.

"

which

waves

magnitude

These

but

"),

plane polarizedmay

then

"

D)

"

"

slowness

vector

that

D.

"

(0

s"s

into

let the

equation (7)

(m

cos

wave

not

"

the vibration

wave

be

D)

"

the

wave

the

decomposing
144.]

sx(0.A)xs

s s

"

as

"

the scalar factor

It is evident

The

"

also be written

may

wave

of the

in different

be carried
s

"

s.

velocity

on.

(10}

396

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Hence

the

direction
radius

due

to

displacement in

equal in magnitude (but not

is

slowness

wave

drawn

vector

the

in

in

ellipsoida

direction)to
0

"

the

"

1 in

the
that

direction.
axa

"

direction

a
ellipsoid

to

"

"

and

the

wave

The

along that

line.

By

to be the condition

formed
ellipsoid

the

perpendicularto
there

are

of the

principalaxes
by

of

minateness
such
"P

"

these

when

are

as

s may
parallel

This

happens

axes

of the

when

is

advance

is likewise

circular sections of the

the

and

obvious

is

the

of advance

These

a
ellipsoid

"

the

are

"

perpendicularto
when

is

along

one

the

deter-

and

perpendicularto
of the

perpendicularto
have

given just

geometrically. If

direction

a may
ellipsoid

ellipsoid

concerning the
of

of

principalaxes

given direction

center

any

pletely
com-

in either direction

of the

one

from

the

line of

displacementis

displacement.

is directed

ellipsoid.If

plane of the section.

of

given

have

is perpendicular

386, equation (11) is seen

statements

are

to the

displacement the

advance

for any

cut
ellipse

exceptionsoccur
a

Since

by passing a plane through

To
s

of

shall be

plane passed through

line of advance.

drawn

the

with

the direction

to page

possiblelines

two

(11)

regardssign when

may

Hence

s.

Hence

pletely
evidentlycom-

the

"

a.

"

it is

to

velocityof

that

"

plane

a.

the

reference

"

0.

the normal
of

vanishes.

a]

compatiblewith
however

wave

"

lies in

direction

determined, the
known.

as

and

magnitude

in

except

Given

of the

advance

twice

1 at the terminus

equal

axs."P"a

[a

"

therefore

determined
is known.

"

displacementand

of

"

wave-slowness

The

"

contains

s.s(ax0"a)'0"a

the first term

But

s"s

one

a.

principal
of

the

any direction in the

THE

PROPAGATION

When

direction of

the

slowness

be eliminated

must

from

(I

or

dyadic in

The

"

"

"P +

"

ss

"

s s

The

third

s.s"P

a.

to

the

vary

of s,

equation

allowed

the locus of the terminus

the
"

397

CRYSTALS

"

"P)

"

"

"

0.

(12)

parenthesisis planar because

the

parallelto

vectors

IN

displacementis

obtain

To

varies.

LIGHT

OF

determinant

or

it annihilates
is

This

zero.

gives immediately
(I"

(tf-i-s.

or

This
the

is

scalar

extremity of

number

(0

when

is

of transformations
+

0B

f )3 =

I +

the

in

equation

ss."P)3

"

locus

possibledirections.
Ex.

By

03

(13)
It is the

s.

be made.

02

"

all

0.

vector

given

may
e

ss)3

0,

0^1

"

of
A

19, p. 331,
"

"P3.

Hence

Dividing out

the

factor and

common

remembering

that 0 is

self-conjugate.
1 +

(0-l-""

s.

\- 8

Hence

0.

"

"

"

Let

"

"

1-8.

8-8

1.8

S.

si)-1*

-=
"

"

0.

(14)

398

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

i-.

?/
Let

i +

equation of

the

Then

ic

"2/

and

s2

the surface

\--

I
x2 +

c2
z2.

y2 +

in Cartesian

coordinates

"

~~cf

(14)'

l-fl

The

in

equation

is

Cartesian

coordinates

be

may

obtained

directlyfrom

(0-1
determinant

The

a2

By

"

xz

Z"2

ss)3:=0.

s2 +

"

y2
cz

relation s2

of the

means

1 +

dyadic is

of this

s2 +
x

_8.

xz +

0.

(13)'

assumes

the

s2 +

"

z2 this

y2 +

forms
z

x2

z
_

a2 ic2
9

s'5

o
"

c2 z2

Z"2yz
*

I
I

a*

sz

", 9

"

_i
T

o'2

==
9

s'5

0
**i

c^

"

This

equation appears
of

only the

to be of

fourth.

The

the

terms

sixth

degree.

It is however

of the sixth order

cancel

out.

The

vector

plane wave

represents the wave-slowness.

polarizedin

the direction

passes

that

originat

Suppose
the

PROPAGATION

THE

OF

instant of time

certain

unit of time

it will have

the

equal to

be in this

the

plane at

upon

the

the

plane by

connected

of time.

reciprocalof

cuts

reciprocalsof

u,

coordinates

plane

of the

polarizedin

waves

surface

to

the

surface

distance

plane will

off
v,

intercepts

w.

These

the

plane.

of

pointsin

the

in

and

slowness

of the

locus

the

of

wave-surface.

u,

v,

equation of

is identical with

terminus

of the

v2

w^

unit
The

is the

gives the velocitywith

The

the

origin at

tangent plane of the wave-surface

plane coordinates

the

possibledifferent

at the end

the

as

travels in that direction.

wave

all

through

pass

is known

which

the

wave-

the equation

slowness

vector

B.

equation is
uz
^o^o^o

s2

forms

given previously.

Wave-Surface.
397

The

w*.

In

of
an

This
The

vector

"

(15)
\/

may

be written

be

in any

is known

surface

equations in

if the variable

plane instead
145.]

vz +

o*

where

u2 +

72

~T""*"

"*

a4

page

(page 108).

the unit tune

they will envelop a

perpendicularupon

The

of

end

wls.

the coordinates

supposed

This

for

The

s.

the vector

vj

the

with

plane

be

instant

surface

the

the relation

directions

the

At

of

magnitude

the

to

therefore

If different

same

ui

equal

quantitiesare
are

the

expirationof

axes

399

CRYSTALS

this slowness.

positionrepresentedby
*

IN

travelled in the direction s,

of
reciprocal

If

They

with

LIGHT

form

vector

FresneVs

as
are

of the

given

on

regardedas determining a

point.

isotropicmedium

light is perpendicularto
the direction of the wave's

the

direction

the wave-front.
advance.

The

of

It is the

velocityof

ray
same

of
as

the ray

400

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

equal

is

this is

medium

velocity of

the

to

And

advance.

wave-front

travels off

ray travels

along

of

gency

the

Thus

the radius

direction

and

direction

velocityof

the

the

surface the surface which

slowness

wave

the

upon

the

the condition

of the

In

s.

the

the

like

plane

v' may

"

d v'

be

0,

2a

Multiplyby
0

it.

dicular
perpen-

"

"

0 and

"p

a_s

da

"

"

"

"P

"

"

"

s s

take account
a

"

perpendicular

of

the

ray.

v'

"

by

the

1 because

Moreover

s.

"

"

ads
"

Then

of the

Hence

(16)

0, s'
0

"

0,

a,

d"

follows.

as

"

"

"/" da
"

da..

of the relations
s.

v' perpendicula

the condition

1,

s s

slowness

1 and

v.

the

the

of a, s, and

terms

s'

wave-

the radius vector

denoted

s'

0, v'

ds

and

1 and

of the

and

if s' be

the wave,

d s'

"

"

v'

"

expressed in

d"

the

point of tangency gives d

manner

velocityof

the

upon

extremity of

Then

ray.

tangency gives d "' perpendicularto

and

and

ray

that

seen

wave;

the

v' lies in the

that v' be

to

it is

velocityof

extremityof

ray and

tan-

represents in magnitude

of the

is the locus

slowness

the

situated

are

tangent plane, the slowness

v' be

Let

envelop

If instead

wave.

be considered

represents the

point of

to the

vector

velocity of

the

wave-surface, the

wave-planes

the radius

the

the ray travels

fact,whereas

to the

rays

of the

tangent plane representsin magnitude and

the

upon

The

of the

in the wave-surface

In

drawn

vector

termini

the

travel perpendicula

not

which

wave.

always tangent

wave-plane.

wave-surface;

of

velocitywith

the

does

ray

non-isotropic

that is,in the direction

"

greater than the velocityof the

is

In

wave.

The

longer true.

no

to the wave-front

wave's

the

"

0 and

402
and

normal

the

~l

0
ellipsoid

It

146.]

the wave-slowness,
ellipsoid,

the

to

that if

seen

was

in the

direction

of that

instead of at

curve

the

in which

curve

directions

two

called the

are

In like

v'

last

the

center

which

is

v'

of

that

states

"

have

however

regard v'

to

wave

to

the surface.

the

of

elements

The

of

axes

this

of 0

equal

"

and

a']

"

0.

perpendicularto v', then

if

of two

one

plane be passed through

Hence

as

along one

ray is to take

directions.

It is

cipal
prin-

definite

a
more

venient
con-

determininga plane.

vector

of the

a'

first equation

[0
states

that

radius

is the

point of tangency

of

element

is meant

of

major

the

of that

an
or

one

element

minor

axes

cylinder. Hence

possibledirections

v'

a]

of the
0

in the

v' : if

passing through
of

0
ellipsoid

principalelements

to
parallel

given the
of

==

drawn

vector

about

cylindercircumscribed

two

if

0~l

will be directed

of the section.

direction a' may

the

[a' v'

if

velocities.

ray

ellipsoid@~l

the

equal to

a]

the

to the surface

wave-surface

are

in

singular

to the circular sections

These

any

and

Hence

touches

being coplanarwith

equation

axes

The

normal

unequal

has

along the

of the

center

are

direction

same

the ray travels

placein

all directions

plane is tangent

primary opticaxes.

manner

For

singlepoint.

the

which

["P
The

the

singularplane

velocities but

wave

from

drawn

cone

the

of the circular

one

take

wave-surface

This

s.

travels in the direction

the

the

to

could

section.

had

Hence

plane perpendicularto
along a

normal

was

displacementa

plane

magnitude.

same

wave-slowness

plane the

and

the other.

on

sections of 0 the

this

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

by

to

of the

principal

the extremities

orthogonal plane

sections

direction v' of the ray, the

displacementare

those

radii vectors

circumscribed

the

about

cylinderis

If the

be circumscribed

about

may

be any

direction

in the

cylinderwith

of the

direction

point there
a

are

direction to the

any

of these

the directions of

surface

and

are

along one
along

Variable

the

the

to

elements

The

the

secondary optic

of

one

ellipsoid0

are

For

constants.

in

of variable

the
If

axes.

the

wavea

ray

planes

wave

Integral Calculus
have

the

up

expansion

the elements
constant

dyadics,however,

of the

been
and

constant.

the scalar
form

in nonion

theory and

dyadics suffice.
leads to

for
The

simplification
unification of the differential and integral
calculus of
and furthermore
variable dyadics become
a necessity

more

of the

of the two

cone.

into their make

elementary applicationsthese

in the

dyadics considered

occurred

vectors,

singukr

originto

singularpointsof

and
Differential

coefficients which

introduction

one

magnitude

the

axes

the

secondaryoptic axes

entered

and

of the

of the

which

been

in

from

the

Dyadics.

vectors

to

this

equal

called

Hitherto

147.]

and

ing
tangent planesenvelopbe

directions

At

all

but unequal wave-velocity.

equalray-velocity

the radii drawn

are

travel

line drawn

about
cylinderscircumscriptible

circular

travels

The

tangency

direction

the wave-surface.
of

the center

of

same

perpendiculardrawn

planes.

displacement

for
ray-velocity

the

wave-velocitymay

and

of

curve

It is therefore

infinite number

an

The

cone.

common

der
cylin-

cylinderswhich

plane passed through

ellipsoid.The

singularpointsof

of the

They

the

magnitude.

same

body

the

displacement has

directions of

these

have

circular

and containingthe
ellipsoid

of the

The

two

the

v'.

to
ellipsoid
parallel

of the

one

may

the

principalplanes of

lie in the

which
ellipsoid

of the

403

DYADICS

VARIABLE

advanced

curvature

applications
"

of surfaces

point of which

and

4s fixed.

for instance,in the

in the

dynamics

of

theory
a

rigid

404

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

be

Let W

from

drawn

the vector

dr

fixed

dxi

positionin

of

function

vector

originto

dy j

^"

9W

d W

\i

"

(
The

expression enclosed

appears

and

change

of

the consequents
of #, 2/,z.

analogousto

The

del and

-7".
"y z

9W
i- j

--

9W)
h k

--

in the

braces
is

dz

is

antecedents

found

in

It thus

dyadic.

the first partial

derivatives

expressionis

linear function

The

position.

"

"

d y

dx

that the diiferential W

differential

space.

be

k,

--

ax

Hence

point in

9W

dz

Let

9W

9W
d W

any

space.

will in fact be denoted

of d r, the

of W

with

spect
re-

precisely

manner

by

i, j,k,

are

W.

(1)
Then

"2W

This

equation

function

is like the

one

may

nonion

(2)

for the differential of

be
form

regarded
VW

as

scalar

VF.

"

definingVW.

If

expanded

becomes

dx

Qx

Qx

9Y

3y
9Y
+

9Z

iT-+kj^-+kk^r-,
oz

if

F.
dV=dr

It

dr.VW.

dz

into

VARIABLE

The

operators V

function

become

now

For

standpoint.
scalar and

and V

"

are

of the

divW

dyadic
V

VW
may

In the second

other

from

hand

W
W

be

function

(5)

of the

the

as

placestaken

On

W.

is to

terpreta
important in-

divergenceand
the

by

curl

analyticidea

of VW.

function

be

derivative

the

of

scalar

VVF=

ii

VVT,

Qzy
+

^r
d x*

ij

="

Qzy

^-

ik

d y 3

d x

~f~ fcj

result of

dyadic.
;

3n

^J

twice

to

n
o

"

V is

(VV

'

z*

scalar function
vector

evidently
92V

52 Y
V=

'

dyadic is self-conjugate. Its

its scalar V

V.V

V
n

dz

dz

dy

v.

do

applying
This

J k

dy*

7:"=-,

dy

zero

dyadic V

be lost if the

J J

is

and

"

standpointof physicsnothing

32 y

ator
operscalar

V,

where

be

place the
justas to a

operators V

two

=dT'

The

of the variable

the first

function

may

the

(V W)x.

functions

their

vector

vector

less than

nor

(4)

In

place the

and

purely analytic

the introduction

much

forgottenand

of the scalar and

the

"

vector

(VW)^

vector

the

indeed
of V

If

W.

positionsas

to

gained and

of W

dyadic V

these.

applied to

be

reduced

be

therefore

are

function.

the

more

analyticadvantages of

The

applied to

were

nothing

V.

curl W

are

which

superfluous from

they

the vector

405

DYADICS

V)a

-=-j
5 xz

.-s-j
d2

52F
+

-^-T.
3 zz

is
V

to

seen
X

406
If

attempt

an

to

made

were

cally
apply the operator V symboli-

to

V three times, the result would

scalar function

of twenty-seven

sum

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

"

93T

9s V
""

This

is

without
not

be discussed

be

applied twice
of

the limits set

and

"

"

^-

placed in juxtaposition

are

similar

be

a dyadicand
respectively

90
i

where

n, v,

and

"

"P

Or if

here.

operators
0 to

yield

vj

90
k

-r-

(8)

-r-.

wk,

of

positionin
Vx

"

(7)

kx-r-,
3

Vxvj

i +
i

hence

90
+

dy

i +

"

^3 x

"

functions

The

dyadic

90

ui

vector

are

Vx

"

triadic and

90

lx-5-r jx3-d
=

tion
dyadic func-

vector.

ax

to

once

If

or

applied to

90

Vx0

if the operator V

discussion

the

to

expressions will

manner

function,

however

may

etc.

dz

space, the result will be

positionin

outside

In

vector

vectors

here.
to

"

multiplication.Such

of

sign

any

*
a

x*

Three

triadic.

j k

r,

+
k

"

space,

wk,

(7)'

k.

(8)'

w,

9y
and

V.0

^
d

In
may

similar
be

manner

d y

^.

The

(8)"

dz

the scalar operators

appliedto 0.

like

terms

1 1 1

be

(a

result is in each

"

V) and
case

(V

"

V)

dyadic,

(V
The

operators
are

no

The
the

"

"

9 x2

and

applied to

as

individual

be carried

out

W,

steps may

when

V)

V)

"

applied to
made

The

without

of

confusion

of

danger
a

Formulas

similar to

by

of

means

W.

steps without

just as

those

the

in

that

case

removed
of the

may
the

use

be removed

were

176

page

upon

making

may

they

be interpreted

cannot

before the introduction

differentiating
products
to

parentheseshowever

function

vector

"

operators

successive

of two

up

the

dyadic

(V W)

"

0.

be

in

dyadic.

given for

differentiation

dyadics.
(u v)

(v

w)

==

(v

"

Vx
V

"

"

(v w)

(v w)
"

principlein

"

0
these

before,namely

"

+
+

"

"

"

"

"

"

v,

v,

w.

vxVw,

0 +

"

"

"

"

"

(u 0~)

VxVx

"

v,

Vwxv,

"

w)

V(vxw)=Vvxw

The

regarded as singleoperators.

(V W)

"

of the triadic V

Vx

tions
func-

vector

dyadic VW.

as

lead

"

9 z2

?/2

be

(V

case

to
longer necessarily

(a

But

V)

"

and

all similar

The

operator V may

cases

0,
etc.
"/",

is that
be treated

ciated
enun-

sym-

408

bolicallyas
which

it is
V

[V

[V
[V
Hence
V

Again

(v

w)

[V (v

Hence

w)]v

["

It

of the
is

function

at

and

of

"

v)]v

w)]^

w.

v.

denote

curve

"

v^xv.

if C

that

point is r

scalar function

w,

the final

difference

the

to

w,

"

(Art. 79)

derivative

equal

product

(vw)]^

[V (v

Vvxw

seen

was

(w

the initial point is r0 and

which

implies

vxVw.

"

w)]v

w]v

w)]w

V(vxw)

148.]

curve

[V

Vxvw

[V (v
[V (v

[v

"

(vw)

Vx

(vw)]v

(v w)]w

(v w)]v

factor of

each

upon

it

applied. Thus

(vw)

in turn

out

which

differentiations

The

vector.

carried

be

must
to

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

between

the line integral

taken

along

values

the

of

the

of that

r0.

f"Zr.VF=F(r)-F(r0).
*"

In like

idr.VW

manner

W(r)"

"

(r0),

id

and

"

0.

"/o

It may

be well to note

that the

fdr.VW
are

by

vector

no

means

cannot

the
be

same

and

integrals

fvw

thing.

VW

placed arbitrarily
upon

"

dr

is

dyadic.

The

either side of it.

410

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

surface

The

taken

integralsare

region throughout

surface of the

the

over

which

complete bounding

the volume

integrals

taken.

are

250

page

added.
cian and

other

to

functions

The

The

for himself.

also be extended
vector

integrationby parts like

be added.

might

obtainingthem
and

of

formulae

Numerous

of

Maxwellian

Lap

integratingoperators
To

the

The

'"

fff

of its

sum

the

these

natural

most

which

as

way

in which

expressed with

will be

matters

occur

be

vector

developed

as

the demonstrations
function

the

as

components,

dyadic 0

upon

Lapla-

12

integralsmay

i,j, k and variable antecedents

These

the

and

"""

Zk

Yj +
and

be

given is by consideringthe

be

may

scalar

be denned.

dyadics may

fff

analytictheory of

before.

may

dyadic may

function

vector

The

potentialsof

potential,Pot "P,of
of

in
difficulty

no

'-///

Pot

New

The

cases.

the

Newtonian

reader will find

those upon

them
when

differ

so

at all

n, v, w,

left at this
was

variable

the constant

dyadics are
the

vice versa,

point.

to indicate

slightlyfrom

or

consequents

The

objectof

the natural
considered.

simple cases

tering
en-

extensions
These
which

tensions
ex-

have

CURVATURE

THE

OF

411

SURFACES

before that it is far better to leave the details to be worked

gone
out

assumed

or

than

rather

to

from

analogy whenever

merely to

mention

what

the

The

Curvature

may

in advance.

develop them

to

attempt

they

extensions

be

It is sufficient

and

are

needed

how

they

be treated.

may

There

149.

In

of surfaces.
form

metic

by

different methods

two

are

three

curvature

and

In

second

the

method

the

dyadicslead naturallyto
the

Let

surface

origin to

radius

lies in the surface

at the terminus

of

or

vector

Much

true
especially

single

of
simpleapplication

dyadics. Moreover,

the

connected

surfaces.
drawn

the

from

surface.

arbitraryfixed

an

The

increment
to the

surface

VF=Q.

V.Fis

collinear with

Moreover, inasmuch
of what

made.

thus

"

tangent plane drawn

in the

method

was

expressed by

importantresults

the most

dealing

r.

the derivative

surface.

para-

0.

affords

dF=dr*
Hence

z)

in

it is the

reference

x,y,z

of variable

point of

variable

is

variables

elementarytheory of
be

and

curves

of treatments

differential calculus

with

vature
cur-

(w" v)"

(Art.57)

to which

latter method

expressed in

=/8

followed

book

the

equation connecting the

The

is

treatingthe

(u,t").

of

torsion
in the

Fehr

the method

analogous to

employed by

surface

=/a O' *0"

y
r

with

of

equations

or

is

the

one

=fi "X *0"

This

of Surfaces1

as

and

free from
follows is practically

of the treatment

of

Arts.
geodetics,

the
the

the normal

negativeof
use

155-157.

of

to

the

F when

dyadics.

This

is

412

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

equated

to

considered
the

case

give

zero

the

as

surface

the

normal

normal

increases.

Let

which

may

be

in the

direction

the

(#,

y,

denoted

by N,

of N.

z)

of the

defined

be

may

In

surface.

by

const.

side

which

upon

represented by

be

family

that

lies upon

to

belongs

side

either

upon

the

geometric surface, V

same

and

let

be

the

unit

the

constant

of

magnitude
normal

drawn

Then

(1)

If

"

is the

drawn

vector

the terminus

of r,

the

of the

equation

s"

to

and

in like

or

translated

150.]
plays

an

is

into
The

variable

of the

V^=0,

kV

form
of

dn

important part

in

because

and

normal

These

give

the

unit

the

theory

is

unit

"

line is

parameter.

variation

Cartesian

perpendicular to

at

V^=0.

equation

(s-r)

where

tangent plane

tangent plane is

the

manner

in the

perpendicular. Consequently

are

(s-r).
and

point

any

equations

the

familiar

normal
of

vector.

to

curvature,

may

be

results.
a

surface
dn.

is

THE

CURVATURE

413

SURFACES

OF

-/v

The

dyadic
to

"

and

is

idemf actor

an

annihilator

an

for all vectors

for

dicular
perpen-

parallelto

vectors

n.

Hence
dn

and

(I

"

n)

"

d n,

F*

(I

V^.(I-nn)=0,

Hence

dn

"

VV

"

nn).

"

N
But

dr

di

(I-nn)

Hence

dn

nn).

"

VV.F.

"

dr"-

(I

"

(I-nn)

"

Let

tfi

(I-nn).'.-

N
Then

In the
the

of
vicinity

unit

normal

radius vector
The

Evidently (I
is
a

0 is

0.

the variation d

surface

variation

of the

of

of the

For
self-conjugate.

(I
n)c

to
parallel

planar and
antecedents

"

function

linear

n),

(I

self-conjugate.Hence
vector

r.

dyadic
N

point upon

any

is

and

n, the

in fact

the

(VV

"

F)c

n) and

0C is equal

"

(I

by (6) Art.
to 0.

When

dyadic 0 produces zero.

uniplanarbecause

consequents

n) 0.
147

appliedto
It is therefore

self-conjugate.The

lie in the

tangent plane

to

414

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

It is

surface.

the

possible(Art. 116)

reduce

to

the

to

form
0

i' and

where

j'are

and

dn

The

of the surface.
The

151.]

the

"

b have

be

is

regarded as
with

tangent plane and

it.

is

result

pair

of the conic.
if

of

If

they are

directions.
with

directions

the

indicatrix

known

are

specialcase

of

surface which

If

of the indicatrix
the

surface

is convex,

and

are

"

These

to
parallel

the

equal

totes
asymp-

called

are

surface

directions

cide
coin-

i',j' of

They

the

are

the

an

In

ellipseand

case

the

imaginary.

are

dyadic 0

equal.

may

may

be
then

such
be

that

cients
the coeffi-

reduced

to

the

form
0

of the asymptotes

asymptoticdirections.
is

jugate
con-

which

directions upon

The

zero

hyperbola;

an

principalaxes

indicatrix

to

the

principaldirections.
the

curve

the surface which

on

the

the

are

of the conic
on

and

to

be set

at

convex

The

real the conic is

the

as

the

the

specialcases
a

with

known

are

asymptotic directions
In

"

conjugatedirections.
coincide

ellipse,

an

surface is

plane drawn

directions

of

the

as

point

to

approximately equal

directions

The

is

concavo-convex.

to conjugatediameters
parallel

are

point

If this conic

straightlines.

ellipse.Two

imaginary,an

from

hyperbola,that is,if

an

intersection of the surface

the

j'j').

sign,the

same

to

the

1 is called the indicatrix of the

surface

near

lying in

is variable.

but if the conic is

1 may

"

"

the

oppositesignsthe
.

(5)
vectors

a, b vary

point in question.

and

point;

have

i'i' +

(a

"

dyadic 0

conic

j'j'

positiveor negativescalars.

are

dr

The

surface at the
that is,if

i',j'and the scalars

vectors

perpendicularunit

two

tangent plane and

i'i' +

a(i'i'+j'j')

(5)'

in

of ways.

infinite number

an

give principaldirections
called

an

umbilic

is

umbilic.

The

convex.

The

In another

surface

dyadic 0

"

indicatrix consists of

to i'.

The

Such

further

point is

of

an

imaginary.

are

linear and

cible
redu-

(5)"

lines perpendicular
pairof parallel

called

parabolicpoint of

other

of these and

discussion

point is

neighborhood

becomes

circle

i'i'.

this

Such

asymptoticdirections
the

specialcase

the

in

to the form

The

of

surface.

the

upon

be

indicatrix becomes

The

pair of perpendicular diameters

Any

circle.

j'may

directions i' and

The

perpendiculardirections.

two

any

415

SURFACES

OF

CURVATURE

THE

the surface.
will be

specialcases

omitted.
The
of

quadric

points.

are

of
of any

point

umbilics.
is

it is

points upon
a

upon

The

in

have

and
hyperbolic,
parabolic,
A

which

curve

axes

lines

of

curvature

of

divide

rectangles. An
which

has at each

indicatrix.
one

of the

point the

of the

point. Through

The

points of

dicatrix
in-

indicatrix

The

cone

or

all

cylinder

parabolic. A
all

face
sur-

elliptic,

types

"

The

of

direction

principalcurvature

point the
direction

direction
of the

asymptoticdirections

of the

is

cipal
prinat

curve

the surface at

surface

two

Thus

the

pendicula
per-

lines

mal
system of infinitesia

upon

surface is

curve

of the asymptotes of the

curve

upon

one

on

pass.

into

asymptoticline

surface

of the

direction

given point upon

surface

upon

principaldirections

any

the

ellipse.

an

umbilical.

of the indicatrix.
one

is

points are

are

principalcurvature

has at each

pointis always
that

of

line

points
it

sheets

The

The

circle.

point upon

The
upon

kinds

two

concavo-convex.

hyperbola.

an

indicatrix of any

generalmay

152.]

is

sphere is

lines.
pair of parallel

them

points upon

sheet

one

of the various

hyperboloidof

the

indicatrix of

The

hyperboloidof

The

examples

and
ellipsoid

The

convex.

afford

surfaces

at

the

point is always

surface.

Through

416

any

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

given point of

lines

surface

imaginary if the

are

they do

in

not

and

necessary

surface be

along that
surface is

line of

which

sufficient condition

""

dr

Then
dt

evidentlyd
is

It is
The

and

i' or

to
parallel

frequentlytaken
differential

The

the

surface
is

of statement

increment

an

lie in

element

of

as

one

advances

and

line of curvature

to the

when

only

proved.

is

Q.

(6)

is that the normal

of the normal, and

line of

upon

is therefore

statement

plane when

one

curve

the definition of lines of curvature.

as

equation of

method

For

when
parallel

are

dnxdr

Another

point.

yj'.

i' +

j7.

by

angle

(a i'i'+ I j'j') dr

dr

The

of d n, the unit normal

increment

the line of advance.

to
parallel

dn=

that

is that

principalcurvature

the

curve,

that

real

is bisected

point

any

through

pass

when

rightangles.

at

These

pass.

Even

convex.

at

asymptotic lines

the lines of curvature

The

surface is

general intersect

the two

between

asymptoticlines

two

and

the

element

only when

the

of the

element

differential

The

curvature.
principal

surface,

to the

equation then becomes

[n
The
surface
that

and

necessary
be

dn

the increment

perpendicularto

"

is

zero

asymptotic direction.

"

that

as

one

of the unit normal

dn

If then

that

the line of advance.

dn

(7)

sufficient condition

asymptotic line,is

an

curve

dr]=0.

dt
d

The

dr

"

dr

"

statement

curve

advances
to the

upon

along

surface

is

For
0

"

"

0
r

"

is

dr.

zero.

Hence

is therefore

is

proved.

an

It

418

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

(J

n
d

"=.

"

,
-f-

"

"

dr

dr

dr

dr

"

Hence

cos2

(i',d r) +

" cos2

(j',d r),

or

cos2

(i',dr)

J sin2

(i',df).

The
normal

from

section varies

through
passes

follows

as

through

the

of the

P, there

normal

actual

one

section is

01
and

another

one

position of

the

Hence

which

those

cos2

in the section at

Cz

These

sin2

(i',dr)

C1+C2
proves

njinimum
If

and

of

curvature

normal

and
For

sections.

5 sin2

right anglesto

values

concavo-convex

the

in two

is constant

(i',c?r)+

The

it

sections

independent of

the

curvature

(i',dr),

this

" cos2

b=0s

that the invariant

of the curvatures

(i',dr).
(11)

and

02Sis equal to

b of the lines of

the product

ature.
principalcurv-

"Pzs=ab
the

in

the statement.

It is easy to show

Hence

asymptoticdirections.

the

are

passes

" when

of curvature.

for which

about

plane

value

is

C of the

and

surface

of the curvatures

sum

the

the

of

turns

curvature

when

principallines

directions

exist two

rightangles to

at

j',the

i', to

signs,that is,if the

The

plane p

principaldirection j '.

section vanishes.

154.]

i' to

(10)

curvature

a maximum
algebraically

in the directions

unlike

the

the value

other

have

at

When

principaldirection

the

of the curvature

6 have

surface from

to the

the normal

plane

is

for the

this formula

of
interpretation
section

equation

xz

"

4"sx

"zs

(12)

THE

is the

CURVATURE

which

quadraticequation
and

equation

the

OF

determines

b at any

point of

scalar

quantitiesa

the

surface.

the

419

SURFACES

and

b may

atures
principalcurv-

By

of this

means

be found

in

terms

oiF(x,y,z).
(I-nn)

VVJF.

"

(I-nn)

VV^-2_
N

(nn

"

VV

nn)5

"

"a

Hence

(nn

"

nn

nn:

0S

These

expressionsmay

"PZSare
as

even

VV^=n.

VVJ?7.

n.

V..

V.V.P

Hence

they are

(nn

(nn" VV^)5

but

VV^T)5=

"

(13)

-"

"^-

be written

extremely long.
longer.

The

in Cartesian

out

Cartesian

The

expressionsfor

expressionmay

vector

coordinates,

be

obtained

follows:

(I-nn)2.(VVJQ2.(I-nn)2

(I

"

nn)2

nn.

Hence

155.]
tangent

Given
to

the

any

curve

curve,

upon
a

surface.

unit normal

Let

t be

to the surface

and

unit
m

420

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

defined

vector

as

The

i, j, k system.

an

Hence

(m

"

n)

"

Hence

Moreover

Hence

t x

The
a

0.

"

"

of

increments

line of
A

each

geodeticline

smooth

surface

acting under
along
stringis
that

surface

elastic

and of

at

must

and the

curve

The

vectors

that

is

(16)'
are

its

all parallel
in

of

case

the

two

lie in the

t and

In

surface

lie in the

to

it.

The

be drawn

can

string

upon

Inasmuch

the normal

at every

and

brium
positionof equili-

given points.

as

Hence

curve.

point of

the

of the

reactions

the

the

the

curve

geodeticline.

d t lie in the
case

the

osculatingplane lies in

perpendicularto

will take

following

be smooth

pointsof

the

between

the

surface

osculatingplane of

to the

itself is

from

seen

the

That

be drawn

is constrained

the surface

upon

osculating

the surface.
can

which

curve

whose

curve

any two

tensions

own

plane.

Let

between

the shortest

rest

be

may

stringwhich

plane is normal

to the

Q.

of mechanics.

between

surface

(16)

0,

surface

upon

be stretched

surface

dm.

"

0.

is the shortest line which

considerations
let

0.

r.

becomes

point is perpendicularto

points upon

two

of

principalcurvature.

geodeticline

plane at

and

element

(15)

dn

"

constitute

the

parallelto

dmxdn

or

n, t,

line of curvature

t x

t is

vector

for

the condition

Hence

three vectors

The

t.

the normal

n.

osculatingplane and

curve

is

the surface
Hence

geodetic,the
and

mine
deternormal

consequently is

OF

CURVATURE

THE

or

differential

The

equation of
d

the differential

the

The

surface
of

system

or

covered

along

turning

be any

not

along

that

that

is,along

form

the

term

dt

156.]

as

the

order.
infinite
surface

is curved.

there

is

There

left. If

rightor

one

and

may

to be

possibleroute

is in fact the

straightline

the

right or

down, it is

shortest

is

advances

the

turning to

no

Such
a

surface

down, that is, around

The

case.

is d t.

Since

n,

mm.

of

to

case

the

this
the

mm"dt.

the first term

of
In

nn

nn"dt

amount

amount

measure

turning

and

up

left.

right or

part of the
is

curve

The

vanishes.

second

down;

Hence

deviation

"

the
d t is

from

geodetic this

term

expected.

was
curve

or

sphere by the method

assumed, from

tt +

unit vector

straightestline.
vanishes

from

tt"dt

represents the

proper

i, j,k system

third term, the

the

doubly

upon

along the

geodetic.

t is

second

pointsof

two

turning up

is

of deviation

an

Hence

of the

with

curve

there

that the advance

total amount

Since

(18)

the lines of curvature

over

and

up

turning to

such

curve

expected

t, m

0.

any

any

left,but only the unavoidable

"

r]

to the fact that the surface

due

may

d*

is therefore

be drawn.

advances

one

m,

0.

geodeticline

geodetics. Through

some
necessarily

axis

(17)

equations of

is therefore

geodeticmay
As

asymptotic line,this equation is

and

one

0,

d t

"

d t

"

[n
Unlike

d t

t X

"

421

SURFACES

which

surface
of
the

may

be

mapped
A

normals.
parallel
unit

normal

at

the

upon
fixed

unit

originis

point P

of

422

VECTOR

is laid off.

given surface

the surface of

upon

pointsP
sphere.

This

like

mapped

upon

the

sphere has

the surface.

be

element
corresponding

02

da!

Hence

The
its

ratio of

is

hodogram
at P

curvature

is

was

"

total

seen

to

to the

or

given

region T'

upon

of the

region T

upon

the surface

upon

the

surface,the

where

sponding
corre-

(Art.124).

j'j'

ab

nn

the

ab

nn.

(19)

da..

"

at

product of

of
reciprocal

to the

point P
the

the

of

area

principalradii

product of

the

of

cipal
prin-

at P.

curvatures

It

equal

of surface

element

an

of the

The

the

j' i'xj'

unit

(Pi*da..
i'i'+

i' x

ab

of

sphere is

upon

arc

sphere is da!

da!

surface

dr.

"

area

the

upon

of

of

element

element

hodogram

origin,

same

may

sphere.

the unit

upon

the

at all

of the surface

region T

element

an

the

lies

surface

sphericalimage

the

called the

to

from

upon

whole

region T'

been

an

curve

manner

If d

If da. be

If the normals

is called the

curve

In

curve.

trace

P' of this normal

terminus

constructed

thus

are

will

The

sphere.

curve

points P'

the

be

of

ANALYSIS

that the

d t.

If then

amount

of

of

measure

C is any

curve

turning to
drawn

the

rightor

left

surface

the

upon

turning in advancing along

the

is the

curve

integral.
(20)
For
manner

of

any

closed

curve

analogous to

Stokes's

theorem.

this
that

integralmay

evaluated

be

employed (page 190)

Consider

two

curves

in the

and

C'

in

proof
near

THE

The

together.
the

of

curve

CURVATURE

variation

which

Cm"dt=

Cs

Cm-

(m

taken

when

idemf actor

The

for t

"

d t and

m"

St)

the

dt"

(m

"

5t).

t) vanishes

dm

Sk

"

similar transformation

St.

"

relations

the
By differentiating

c"

(m

nn

/(Sm"n

dt=

Cd

Hence

"

vanish.

the term

Bt

"

Bt +

"

curve.

Cm.Bdt

dt+

"

St +

Sm

I^tt

"

Sm

C dm

closed

C to C' is

perfect differential

is

from

dm*

m"^t=

be effected upon

integralundergoes when

d t.

"

Bm*dt-

around

(m. dt~)=

"

dt=

integralof

The

the

integrationis changed
8

423

SURFACES

OF

Then

dt

"

may

"

dm

"

0 and

n"8t).

"

"

0 it is

that

seen

Sm"n=:
dm

Hence

Cm

"

"

"

\m*dt=\

dt=

"

"

Bn

"

Bt

"

"

dn

"

dt

"

(m"Sn

t"dn"

|(mxt"Snxdn)="

8n"t
dn

"

In

"

dn

"

t.

t"Sn)

Bnx

dn.

424
differential 8n

The
the

hodogram

the unit

surface

which

desired
in

TT.

size.

if H

But

The

denote

of the

closed

plus the

curve

equal to

upon

the

surface

sphere will

is

so

described

hodogram
above.

appear
must

be

taken

Let

the

spread out
which
the

to

is

quired
re-

point is

dt

"

of

hodogram.

(22)

dt,

region enclosed

question is

the

curve

upon

the
area

appears

matter

area

of the

any

curve

convex

the

into account

by

turningalong that

concavo-convex

This

TT.

2ir.

of the

in

H9

"

Cm

negative.

and

"

positivewhen

is

C'.

turning

dt

that the enclosed

If,however, the surface

sphere will

"

?r

total amount

appear

stripof

the

circuit about

If the surface

?r.

of

and

surface

hodogram

of the

area

Cm

H+

area

TT

da!

"

of

in

area

integral

curves

dt=

d t

of

integralis

hi the

"

The

hodogram

the

upon

"

H=

or

is

The

the

the total

or

the

infinitesimal

Hence

"

total amount

an

of

area

total variation

point

making

The

"

sphere.

between

lies

C start at

curve

total

represents the

represents the element

dn

upon

any

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

area

the

positive.
upon

the

sign of

the

in the statement

made

426

VECTOR

Harmonic

The

158.]

ANALYSIS

Vibrations

differential

integralof

choice

this

of the constants

the

point x

place of

0.

The

x.

Consider

is

be

sin

back

Let

reduced

by

and

the

i A

displacement

along the

entire

of

axis

denoted

by

t.

cos

At

x.

JT-axis

be written

merely

not

along the

displacement be

sin

sin

forth

x.

the

near

point
2 k

but

suitable

t.

equation may
D

This

harmonic

to the form

represents a vibration

in

rectilinear

"

equation may

about

of

equation

dt*

This

Bivectors

is

motion

The

and

points

TT

where

Te is

times

positiveor negativeinteger,the displacement is

equal
with

wave

these

the

equation
axis

The

The

zero.

nodes

at these

wave

has

be

of the

plane

is likewise

plane

along the

direction

vibration.

variables

of which

#,

is

the

y,

If the
it represents

perpendicularto

cos

equation
(m

"

vibration

i with

is

(1)

f)
the

perpendicular to

wave

stationary. The

between

x.

displacementgiven by
=

stationary

points midway

maximum

three

in

as

variable

At

points.

the

wave

Dj

not

equation represents

points of

regarded

plane

the

to

all

at

harmonic

velocityequal

axis of
and

to the

but

advances

quotientof

HARMONIC

by

If

m.

VIBRATIONS

be the

AND

velocity;
p

427

BIVECTORS

period; and

the

I the

wave

length,
2?r

The

-,
m

place in

direction j, not

before
This

the

the

in

vibration

it is

extension

direction

the

the wave-front.

"

is

for
A

of that
advances
the

the

much

for

(m

cos

the

discussion
The

advancing in

of

"

same

is the

waves

direction

The

A.

maximum
of A.

magnitude

the

motion.

The

ment;
displaceas

before.

monic
Elliptichar-

equation (p. 117).

wr.

"

obtained
cos

(3)

wave-length are
the

obliqueto

be obtained

may

oblique to

is

t).

"

advances

wave

vibration

direction

by

may

as

B sin

t +

is

t.

carried

be
of

general wave
the

The

A.

harmonic

as

f)

"

Then

x.

dt*

wave

velocity.
longitudinal.By a

be defined

The

i.

the

generalform

direction

generalintegralis

displacement takes

more

rectilinear

may

of

the

velocity,period, and

motion

The

Hence

displacement
in

the

with

direction

displacement in

nt)

direction

of

(m

cos

x.

still

The

(2)

-.

that

the

of

m
by substituting

So

"

instead

seen

displacement in

along

in the

is transverse

wave

particularthat

the direction

proceeds in

simple

amount

Azcos(mx

DJ

This

TT

displacement

differs from

D2=j

is

2
/

"

through

ellipticharmonic
seen

to be

as

viously.
pre-

motion

428

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

dV
=

]A

7i

"

(m

cos

dt

sin

velocityof

is the

in
ellipse

from
An

(m

the

"

(m

is of

"

any

f) \ (5)

"

the

in

moment

ent
entirelydiffer-

course

wave.

is obtained

divided

(4)

t).

"

by subtractingthe

velocitymultiplied by

the

1 and

This

the

result
interesting

"

B sin

t) +

"

(m

displacedpoint at

velocityof

the

"

"

B sin

f)

"

it vibrates.

which

from
unit

"

by

the

placemen
dis-

imaginary

n.

D-

The
is

an

"

sin

{A

(m

has been

one

is called

vector

bivector

ordinaryimaginary scalars
of bivectors

is found

harmonic
elliptic

plane
of
of the

wave

bivector

Indeed
be

may
and

an

the
or

of two

159.]

in

The

sign

and

divided

by

analytictheory of

vectors

very

differs from

that

much

as

the

in

character
distinguishing

real vectors

the

velocity of

1-

The

The

use

of

monic
harelliptic

above

any

of
"

discussion

undamped

the

by

duct
pro-

real part

The

point and

the

displacement

n.

bivectors

differs from

analytictheory

of real scalars.

concerned,

liscalars.

exponential factor.
the

is

}.
t~)

"

imaginary vector.

representedas

imaginary part gives

"

imaginary scalar V

called

any

(m

its form

convenient

very

motion.

sum

be

may

as

product gives the displacement of

reversed

any

far

multipliedby

B sin

t) +

"

It is the

imaginary vector.

Such

real

expressionhere obtained, as

which

pure

"

of

It is unnecessary

for bivectors

just as

that of
biscalars
to

have

it is need-

HARMONIC

less to have

of which

symbol i

usual

and

could

two

for the further

i differ

considerablyin

the small

The

vector
bi-

extension

real vectors

imaginary unit V"

V

for

with

the

used

1.

"

There

is

i for the

vector

in

!"

the

same

place

that the Italic i and

the Clarendon

Whenever

it becomes

have

separate alphabet for bivec-

German

or

be

may

of two

the

appearance.

to

Greek

bivector

inevitable

sum

hardly be

reason

especiallyconvenient
tors

for biscalars.

will be maintained
of confusion

429

BIVECTORS

and

natural

multipliedby

likelihood

that the

reason

as

It is the formal

has been

one

much

not

regarded

real vector.

of the

AND

notation
distinguishing

be

may

The

VIBRATIONS

letters may

expressedin

terms

be

called

of

i,j, k

Oi

upon.

with

plex
com-

coefficients.
If

and

Oi

rl

xl i -f yl

r2

#2 * +

"2)

or

bivectors

Two

parts

are

product
a

bivector

the

is

In

other

other

direction.

The

Let
Then
if

if

*2

(real or

it has

of

the

TJ +
=

s,

r||s

i r2

ri
r

bivectors

"i and
=

is the

imaginary).

complex

statements

a;s

one

or

If

real

imaginary

difference,direct, skew,

two

and

imaginary

it is said to have

sum,

These

their

parallelwhen

are

real vector

*a) k"

2k.

scalar

k"

is obvious

may

follows.

z^

their real and

products of

as

yj

cases

special definition.
analyticform

* y-i)J +

when

by

value

indeterminate

ra

bivectors

parallelto

direction.

and

Two

equal.
of

#i

2/2J +

(Vi +

equal

are

TJ +

s2 +
r2

(xl +

i sa.

s2

x^) B,

be

out
with-

put into

430

(rx + BJ) +

(T!

(rx X

B!

(rjBJ

rs

Two

bivectors

of

sort

product of

of the
statement

be made

may

Oi

"

Oi

"

r2" (ri

If the bivector
or

cyclicfactor

as

ra) X (rx

ra)

r2)

(riri

TJ +

i ra be

it is

ra)
+

BJ).

vector

or

the product

similar

differences.

rx + ra

r2)+

any

equal to

order.

2 i r2

ra

Sj)

conjugate when

and

r2

conjugate of

same

gj),

imaginary parts

The

TJ

"

s2 +

r2

biscalars is
the

r2

real scalar

itself.

in

pure

concerning sums

ra) ""!

(TJ+

their

and

conjugatestaken

(TI x

""! s2

s2 +

"

said to be

and

bivectors

s2) +

are

vector

or

(TJ

conjugate of

The

the scalar

equal to

sa) +

"

Ba)+

r2

equal

only in sign.

(r2 + sa),

r2

"

are

differ

ra

biscalars

real

parts

"!

"

or

their

is

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

ra,

"

rx,

02

multipliedby

ri

root

frequentlycalled,that is,by

ri

r2"-

of

unity

an

nary
imagi-

scalar of the form

cos

q +

where
the

i sin q

a2 +

"2

(7)

J,

1,

conjugateis multiplied by

"

J, and

hence

the

four

products
ri
are

Thus

'

ri +

*2

unaltered

r2"

*2

Tl r2 +

*H

by multiplyingthe

T2 r2"

bivector

r2 rl

by

such

if

r'

r/ +

ri' 'i'+
'

rz

ra' (a
=

'

'a'
=

TJ

"

5) (rx+

rj +

ra

"

ra),

ra, etc.

Tl f2

factor.

HARMONIC

160.]
bivector

VIBRATIONS

closer

by

examination

geometric results.

r/ +

r2' (cos q
"

ra'
=

to Art.

with
multiplication
would

0
used

as

their

of

and

conjugate

r2'are

also

are

of which

sector

q is to 2

as

cos

1 +

and

diameters
When

has

to

rotated

which

is considered
and
ellipse,

as

must

parts of

ellipse
they are
they are

bivector

the
a

which

two

vector

rx and

not

r2

are

ellipseof

the bivector

true

the

the

positivedirection

in

If the

known.

complex part
the

r2

directional

real and

if in the

Hence

ellipse

ellipse.The

positivedirection

in the

r.

the bivector

When

the real part TI to

said to be retarded.

an

pairof conjugatesemi-

ellipseis

said to be advanced

ellipse

q.

from

turn

r^

r2, by

called

real direction the directional

always be

of that

of the whole
been

in

are

that

appears

positionhas

directional

the

as

vectors

semi-diameters

in that direction.

bivector

same

from TI toward
ellipse

of

r2

is any

area

by

be')

"

be

It then

sector

TI and

direction

angular direction

r2.

is to the

change

(c V

supposed to

are

in the

area

rightline

complex

change produced

cyclicdyadic

sin q

pair of conjugate

is called

by

"

semi-diameters.

the bivector has

reduces

parts of

ellipseof

the

the

of
ellipse

that the

seen

c')

rx and

rotation through the

elliptic
The

(8)

ri si*1?"

those vectors

(bb' +

Such

TT.

"

it will be

upon

cos

r2).

cyclic factor,is preciselythe

Consider

ellipse.They
a

ra

with
respectively

plane.

pair

prefactor. b

collinear

a' +

cos

imaginary vector

produced

be

q) (TJ+

r2 sin #,

rx

129

in the real and

i sin

r/

reference

of the effect of

Let

Then

By

431

BIVECTORS

multiplyinga
and important
yields interesting

cyclicfactor

AND

nary
imagiin the

tion
negativedirec-

multiplication
of a

432

by

bivector

It is
factor
with

the

of the

axes

(cos q

"

bivector

and
ellipse

reduction

(cos 2

b)

where

cyclic

coincident

q) (a + i b)

"

follows

proceed as

i sin 2

q +

such

perpendicular.

are

(a +

by

become

imaginary parts

i sin q)

accomplish the
r

If

real and

the

that

ellipse
by

cyclic
factor.

always possibleto multiply a

To

the

angleof

the

it in its directional

retards

factor
cyclic

equal to

sector

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

Form

(a

"

0.

b).

0,

"

(cos 2

i sin 2

q +

Let

"

and

2 q

tan

q) (a

"

"

"

b).

b,

-.

With

of q the

this value

given by

the

i b

and

in

the real and

the

bivector whose

"

If

The

condition

is not

"

sufficient to

x2 +

0, which

ensure

direction

ellipseis
a

bivector

both

the
a

angle
A

circle.

circle is called

condition

lar
circu-

that

be circular is

"i

b of

Hence

sufficient

and

0,

r.

and

vanish.

"

is
ellipse

necessary

non-vanishingbivector

directional

directional

q)

perpendicularin

and

The

The

i sin

"

imaginary parts a

expression for

is indeterminate.

bivector.

(cos q

equal in magnitude

are

case

ellipseare

equation
a

In

directional

of the

axes

the

circular.

2/j + 2k,

y2 +

z2

0.

for real vectors

vanishing of

impliesr
bivector.

0,

The

434

ANALYSIS

VECTOR

that r2 and

first equation shows

The
hence

BI and

shows

that the

s2

are

of

that

and

for

conditions

planes coincide

whose

the

of the

axes

that

are

the

of those
hold

for real

Let
which

well

as

and

in both

The

nothing

as

conditions

for

coincide.

and

the

parallelto

r2

perpendicularto
stated above
is

apply.

plane of

Hence,

ellipseof
other
the

the

either

bivector

Consider

and

It should
same

form

as

into

ponents
com-

the

plane
of rx

r' which

bivector

two

components

and

the

ellipseof

directional

bivectors

positionvector
1

planes of

the

plane contribute

that
the

this bivector

if two

is

conditions

the bivector

of
ellipse

the directional

perpendicularthe

are

and

the

the

plane

bivector
D

where

therefore

perpendicularto

r'

upon

are

of

be noted

of the

are

their

bivectors

point in

and

space.

the

similar, have

major

axes

pendicula
per-

type

(9)

Ae,i(m'r-n()'
n

is

biscalar.

It is therefore

to be

is the
con-

is not
of major axes
perpendicularity
of perpendicularity
of real parts and imaginary parts.

that the condition

the condition

have

one

directional

ellipseof

directional

of that

angular direction, and

162.]

the perpendicula

s.

projectedupon

same

r2 each

Hence

of

evidentlythe projectionof

the

the

both vectors

conditions

The

rx and

s.

"

plane
The

and

same,

degenerate into

perpendicularto

To

s.

the

imaginary vectors.

Resolve

of

the value

is

perpendicularbivectors

components

to

ellipses

are
ellipses

perpendicular.1If

directions.

be two

do not

s.

sl to

bivectors

two

their directional

paralleland
respectively
of

from

i^ to r2 and

of
perpendicularity

are
ellipses

real directions

have

second

of the directional

axes

similar,the angular direction

major

the

proportional.

are

the

Hence

from

angular directions

the same,
and

perpendicular. Moreover,

are

s2

perpendicularand

are

s2

of