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Abstract
Content-Centric Networking (CCN) is a candidate future Internet architecture
that gives favourable promises in distributed wireless environments. The latter
ones seriously call into question the capability of TCP/IP to support stable endto-end communications, due to lack of centralized control, node mobility, dynamic topologies, intermittent connectivity, and harsh signal propagation conditions. The CCN paradigm, relying on name-based forwarding and in-network
data caching, has great potential to solve some of the problems encountered by
IP-based protocols in wireless networks.
In this paper, we examine the applicability of CCN principles to wireless
networks with distributed access control, different degrees of node mobility and
resource constraints. We provide some guidelines for readers approaching research on CCN, by highlighting points of strength and weaknesses and reviewing
the current state of the art. The final discussion aims to identify the main open
research challenges and some future trends for CCN deployment on a large scale.
Keywords: Content Centric Networking, Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, Wireless
Sensor Networks, Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks
1. Introduction
Modern mobile devices such as smartphones, laptops, and tablets, enabled
with wireless Internet connectivity and sensing capabilities, are steadily growing
in popularity and market penetration. They can provide users with mobility
and flexibility in accessing and generating information anywhere (e.g., in home,
office, shops, cars) and at any time. Wireless networking is expected to play
a crucial role in the future Internet, not only to sustain direct interactions
between personal users devices, but also as a means to provide connectivity
on a large scale while involving resource-constrained devices like sensors and
smart objects. Conventional networking protocols designed to support stable
end-to-end communications between nodes that are uniquely identified through
an IP address, fail in wireless distributed environments due to dynamic changes
in the network topology caused by the node mobility, frequent link failures or
the presence of energy-constrained nodes running out of battery.
Preprint submitted to Computer Networks
June 3, 2014
When a Data packet is retrieved, its name is used to look up the PIT. If
a matching entry is found, then the node sends the packet to the interface(s)
where the Interest was received, it stores the data in the CS, and deletes the PIT
entry. So, Data packets follow the chain of PIT entries back to the requester(s).
If a match is not found in the PIT then the Data packet is considered unsolicited
and it is dropped.
For the sake of clarity, Figure 2 sketches CCN packets processing and forwarding. Upon receiving the Interest from node A, the intermediate node C,
not finding a match in its CS or in the PIT, forwards the Interest to the source
node D. Once receiving the Data packet from D, node C forwards it back to
A, and subsequently it serves directly the request for the same content coming
from B with its cached copy.
CCN achieves one-to-one flow balance by letting each Interest be consumed
by a single Data packet. Moreover, it permits to specify different transport
services at the Strategy Layer, depending on the application requirements (such
as reliability, delay-tolerance) and the network constraints (such as mobility,
channel quality).
3. Content-Centric Wireless Ad Hoc Networking
3.1. Main Features of Wireless Ad Hoc Networks
Wireless ad hoc networking can be regarded as a type of spontaneous infrastructureless networking, automatically activated when nodes are in line of sight
without the need of any centralized control. It can be characterized by different
degrees of node mobility, multihop communications, battery-powered devices,
and multifaceted possible deployments and use cases.
Mobile Ad hoc NETworks (MANETs) are self-organized multihop networks
that support exchange of information without relying on any pre-existing network infrastructure. Applications cover home/office environments, tactical networks, emergency services. A MANET can be used either as a stand-alone
4
MANETs
VANETs
WMNs
WSNs
Mobility
Medium
High
Low-to-Static
con-
Medium (devices
are
rechargeable)
No constraint
(energy
is
taken from the
engine)
Storage capabilities
Main reference
standard
Medium-toLow
IEEE
802.11a/b/g/n
Theoretically
infinite
IEEE 802.11p
Low-to-No
constraints
(nodes
are
mostly
plugged)
High
Medium-toStatic
High
Battery
straints
IEEE 802.11s
Low
IEEE 802.15.4
global conventions. As a consequence, application developers can choose a hierarchy of name components that fits their needs and lets name conventions to
be opaque to the network [47].
The CCN naming system is still under active research, and some naming
proposals in the context of wireless networks have recently started to appear.
In [17] the authors explore the benefits of hierarchical CCN naming in
VANETs. The following name structure is proposed for traffic information dissemination: /traffic/geolocation/timestamp/datatype, in which the name components identify the temporal and geographical scopes of traffic information,
and the application data type. For instance, the Interest with name /traffic/Road101/south/40,41/ could be used to request traffic information about
a specified region of Road 101 (southbound, kilometres 40-41). Similarly, in
[24], the interested road area is encoded in the name; e.g., /traffic/westwoodat-strathmore/ would refer to the traffic information from the area close to the
Westwood-Strathmore street intersection.
In [21], CCN names are customized to support sensor networking. In order
to fit into an IEEE 802.15.4 frame, the authors assume that the maximum
length of a content name is 50 octets and limited to five components with
maximum 15 octets each one. In [19] a naming scheme for WSNs is proposed
to describe the sensing task, thus allowing the sink to precisely ask for the
needed information, and the sensors to describe the sensed data. The name
structure task type/task location/task time period/nonce accounts for: the
sensing task (e.g., temperature, humidity); the geographic area in which the
task is performed, stated either in terms of logical names (e.g., a room) or
in geographical coordinates; the time period in which the task is performed
Table 2: Application domains and their requirements coupled with CCN benefits and related
literature.
Application domain
Main requirements
CCN benefits
Works
High
security,
selfconfiguration, resiliency
[15], [16]
[26]
Scalable
delivery
of
local/spatial-relevant
information
[17],
[24],
[28],
[30],
[32],
Environment/Building
monitoring (WSNs)
[19], [20],
[21], [22]
Video
(MANETs,
WMNs)
Caching
[34], [35]
streaming
VANETs,
[18],
[27],
[29],
[31],
[33]
Table 3: Literature Addressing CCN on top of Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks.
Naming
Routing and forwarding
Transport
Caching
Security
Prototypes
Service models
MANETs
VANETs
WSNs
[11],
[37],
[41],
[25],
[25],
[15],
[39],
[17], [24]
[18], [27], [28], [29],
[30], [33]
[19], [21]
[19], [21]
[27], [31]
[27]
[32]
[24]
[26], [27]
[20], [21]
[21], [22], [23]
[20]
[49]. Nonetheless, the design specifics of the CCN forwarding fabric that fit
wireless networks and applications remain to be filled. Strategy modules could
be customized that sometimes violate the basic CCN forwarding rules.
We organize the remainder of this section in two parts. First, we scan simple
flooding-based solutions for data dissemination in content-centric wireless networks. Then, we examine enhanced techniques that introduce some selectivity
in the CCN forwarding decision process by leveraging additional (discovered)
information about the neighbourhood and the producer(s). We call blind and
aware the two forwarding approaches respectively.
5.1. Blind forwarding
CCN implementations in wireless environments may leverage the broadcast
nature of the radio channel to help data dissemination [11], [27], [37], [42].
Flooding is the easiest way to forward Interest packets on the wireless
medium. Such an approach has the virtue of simplicity and well faces situations in which end-to-end path set up and maintenance are difficult and costly,
such as in dynamic ad hoc environments and with resource-constrained devices.
Flooding facilitates content sharing in the network; in fact, a node overhearing
some data of interest requested by other nodes can access it without an explicit
request. This reduces the number of transmissions and saves the nodes energy. However, flooding on a broadcast medium must be handled with care and
controlled to avoid the broadcast storm [50].
To counteract packets redundancy and collisions, solutions in the literature
mainly rely on distributed packet suppression techniques. The basic idea is that
a node defers the packet forwarding while overhearing the channel and, eventually, drops the packet if it hears the packet transmitted by a neighbour [11, 15].
Distance-based, slotted random, or purely random defer strategies can be implemented. In [27] a set of timers is used to assist Data broadcasting in vehicular
environments. Specifically, a collision-avoidance timer is used by neighbouring cars that simultaneously receive an Interest for traffic jam information, to
reschedule Data broadcasting at different times. A similar approach is followed
in [18, 30], where different defer timers are used for Interest and Data forwarding
in order to minimize the collision probability and prioritize Data over Interests.
However, a blind controlled flooding based on the above mentioned simple
countermeasures does not always guarantee that (i) the best nodes are selected
to forward packets, and that (ii) overhearing avoids packet collisions. This is
why controlled flooding can be regarded as a baseline implementation of CCN
broadcasting in wireless networks, on top of which more sophisticated and aware
forwarding strategies can be deployed, as discussed in the following.
5.2. Aware forwarding
New awareness mechanisms have been included in the forwarding plane to
help in selecting the outgoing interface, the content provider(s), and the nexthop nodes, by leveraging new entries in (new) tables, additional packets and/or
additional fields piggybacked in Interest/Data packets.
10
caching in vehicular devices comes at a negligible cost, since on board units are
not limited by energy and storage constraints, the same consideration does not
hold for resource-constrained devices like sensors [21, 20]. The authors of [27]
propose a data muling service in VANETs where each vehicle caches overheard
data, even though it is not interested in, and then performs proactive data push.
Solutions where only selected nodes in the delivery path cache the content
may leverage the node betweenness centrality in a topology, according to which
some nodes have higher probability of getting a cache hit [52]. Centrality-based
decisions could be easily applied in static wireless scenarios (such as a mesh
backhaul), but they are more difficult to extend to mobile scenarios, where the
topology dynamically changes and the concept of node centrality is less intuitive.
7. Security
Despite the clear benefits of content-centric location-independent security,
many issues still need to be tackled. Some of them, including the possibility of
cache pollution and Denial of Service (DoS) attacks via Interest flooding, are
common to wired and wireless networks [16]; while others are strictly related to
wireless environments, e.g., the computational cost of data-security in presence
of resource-constrained devices, the absence of trusted third parties in infrastructureless scenarios. So far, CCN security in ad hoc and sensor networks has
been poorly investigated; most of the work is focused on (or at least tested
in) wired topologies, e.g., [53]. The main reason is that the wired environment
is easier to tackle until some robust solutions have emerged and matured. In
the following, we focus on the few fundamental security aspects that should be
considered in wireless-specific design.
The problem of key distribution and management in tactical and emergency
MANETs has been tackled in [15] and [16]. The authors assume that the conventional CCN security framework is enabled, but public and private keys must
be pre-assigned before nodes are dispersed in the field by using a pre-defined
key management tool. It is widely accepted, in fact, that several key management schemes (with fully or partially distributed certificate authority) designed
in past years for ad hoc networks [54] can be extended to CCN nodes.
A new alternative approach to verify the public-key and producer identity
binding in wireless networks is presented in [44], where a social network-based
security scheme is proposed that employs a trusted chain of friend relationships. Since the producer identity is included in the Data packet, the content
requester will first look up into the local Identity Bundle Table (consisting of
the identity-id and its public key). A match implies instant verification. If the
local table does not contain this binding relationship, the requester must send
out another Interest packet with the identitys name to retrieve the producers
identity bundle from the social trust graph. By doing so, both authenticity and
integrity problems are solved in a more flexible and distributed way.
In [32], a secure application is built for data collection from vehicles that
allows manufacturers to verify integrity and authenticity of incoming content
and to protect privacy of mobile users. Data packets originated by vehicles are
14
tagged with their signature and encrypted using the public key of the reference
database server. The authors assume that the data collector has access to each
mobiles public key. This is reasonable for vehicle manufacturers as they could
record public keys of vehicles and also store the public key of the database server
inside vehicles before release.
The burden of security support in memory-constrained devices has not been
considered in preliminary implementations of CCN in WSNs [20, 21, 22, 23],
where the Data packet is assumed to include only Payload and Content name
fields. Similarly, the cost of security operations in terms of time and energy
consumption has not been analyzed in presence of battery-powered ad hoc and
sensor devices. However, it would be worth exploring in depth security issues
in resource-poor wireless nodes to better figure out their actual impact on CCN
performance, which could heavily change when authentication and cyphering
procedures will be in place.
8. Transport
The CCN Strategy Layer may perform some functions that are typical of
the Internet transport layer, e.g., unacknowledged packet retransmissions and
rate regulation. Differently from the TCP, these functions are implemented by
CCN nodes hop-by-hop and not end-to-end.
Interest retransmissions. Due to the shared and lossy nature of the
wireless channel, Interests/Data packets may be lost or corrupted in transit, or
Data may be temporarily unavailable due to the provider mobility. To support a
reliable transport, if a pending Interest is not satisfied in a given period of time
with a returned Data packet, a new Interest must be retransmitted. The related
retransmission timeout (RTO) setting is critical to quickly recover packet losses
while limiting useless retransmissions.
Currently, a specific algorithm for the computation of the Interests RTO
in CCN networks has not been defined. In [27], where traffic information dissemination is VANETs is considered, every vehicle broadcasts a packet several
times with a pre-configured RTO. When the node hears that the packet has
been successfully re-broadcasted, it cancels subsequent retransmissions.
TCPs RTO estimation [55] has been extended to work also in content-centric
VANETs [31]. Each CCN node tracks the time when an Interest has been forwarded and records a Round Trip Time (RTT) sample when the requested Data
is received. Then, the average RTT is estimated as a moving average of RTT
samples, and the RTO is dynamically adapted to follow the average RTT variations. The problem is that the dynamics of ad hoc networks topologies coupled
with the channel unreliability and potential congestion may create fluctuations
in such estimation. In addition, different nodes can store the same content in
their caches; so a consumer could receive successive Data packets from different
nodes. As a consequence, the RTT fluctuations could be very high. To cope
with this issue, it is crucial for the consumer to know the identity of the content
source, in order to maintain separated RTT measurements and/or to perform
15
selective updates. In [37], for example, the RTT estimation is updated only if
the Data packet is sent from the selected provider.
Interest rate regulation. In CCN multiple Interests asking for successive
Data may be pipelined to maximize the bandwidth usage. By properly tuning
the Interests transmission rate, a node can control the traffic flow according
to the available network resources. Interest rate control is however still poorly
investigated in the literature for wireless ad hoc networks.
In [25], the Neighborhood-Aware Interest Forwarding (NAIF) uses local
statistics to adjust the fraction of Interests a node in a MANET should forward for a given name prefix. NAIF is based on the following intuition: the
more Data of the same name prefix a node overhears from its neighbors, the
more Interests corresponding to that name prefix it can drop.
In this way, the nodes cooperatively regulate the Interest forwarding rate
without congestion.
Another Interest rate control scheme is presented in [37], where a transport
function is defined for wireless multihop environments. The proposed mechanism adapts the Interest transmission at the consumer-side on the basis of the
observed Data arrival rate and an explicit feedback from intermediate nodes
that advertise the minimum sustainable data rate on a given path. The received Data rate at a consumer gives an indirect measure of global congestion
in the network; while the sustainable data rate gives information on the local
congestion in a node (the bottleneck) on the path. The Interest rate is regulated
so to be slightly higher than the received Data rate, while not overloading any
node in the path.
9. Overhauling the CCN philosophy
In the previous sections, literature solutions have been surveyed that propose enhancements to the main pillars of the CCN model, caching policies,
while keeping the main tenets of the paradigm, i.e., receiver-driven communication supporting both one (source)-to-one (consumer) and asymmetrical one
(source)-to-many (consumers) communication modes. However, for the sake of
completeness, it is worth observing that some works also proposed some revisions of the CCN philosophy to enable not natively supported service models.
With its Interest/Data exchange, CCN natively supports a pull (or ondemand) service model, where the consumer starts communication by declaring
the requested content and there is a 1-to-1 relationship between Interest and
Data. Nevertheless, with proper adaptations, push (or publish-subscribe) services, in which Data packets are sent without any Interest solicitation, could also
be supported by CCN [57]. This could be the case of media streams or real-time
notifications, such as sensors immediately reporting abnormal detected parameter values [21], [20], and cars transmitting safety messages [26] or gathering
data about surrounding environments (e.g., traffic jam, road closure) [27].
In addition to the addressed case where information is generated by a single
provider and requested by multiple recipients, some applications in the wireless
16
domain may involve more than one content producer. For instance, a sink node
may be interested to gather all temperature information from many sensors in
a place. In this case, a consumer sending the Interest may expect to receive
multiple content objects (with names that share some common parts) from
multiple sources.
Depending on the application domain, three major add-ons to CCN can be
identified to support the mentioned service models. Such modifications require
the CCN communication fabric to be properly re-engineered both in terms of
transport mechanisms and semantics of packet types.
1. Pushing via Unsolicited Data. In [26], unsolicited content packets called
Event packets are used to disseminate safety information in a VANET. The
Event Packet has the same structure as the CCN Data, but features an additional field called Expiry Time that indicates the time after which the packet
should be deleted. Similarly, in [27], unsolicited Data are published by a car at
the head of a vehicle sequence in the travelling direction and then disseminated
by other cars acting as data mules.
2. Pushing via Long-term Interests. The concept of long-term Interests has
been examined in [56], [57] and used in [58] to deliver multiple real-time content
packets with only one Interest. In this implementation, Interests are not deleted
after a matching Data is forwarded, but they remain in the PIT until users explicitly unsubscribe from a channel or their lifetime expires. Therefore, Interest
packets are extended with one more optional selector fields, which indicate the
packet type: long-term or normal. Such a concept could be also successfully
applied to support periodical (untriggered) data monitoring in WSNs.
3. Multiple Data via Continuous Interests. The notion of continuous Interest is used in [20] to handle many (sources)-to-one (consumer) communication
mode. Similarly to long-term Interest, the continuous Interests lifetime is set
for a long period of time and the packet must not be deleted after the solicited
data has been received, thus a node could receive the same kind of data from
different producers.
10. Evaluation tools
Several simulation and emulation tools are currently available to analyze the
CCN performance and its potential extensions to operate in wireless and mobile
ad hoc networks.
The majority of discussed works has used customized CCN modules as evaluation tools built on top of existing simulation platforms like ns-2 [37], Qualnet
[25], [36]. In order to incentivize studies on CCN a new software module for
the open-source ns-3 network simulator [59], namely ndnSIM [60], has been released in 2012. An official simulation environment that strictly follows the CCN
communication model, ensures more accurate results and the reproducibility
and the comparability of simulations conducted by the CCN research community. Under active development worldwide, ndnSIM supports the core features
of CCN in a modular way and can be the best environment to simulate large
17
scale wireless networks. In fact, ns-3 provides modules that reproduce mobility
and propagation models, and various access layer technologies such as IEEE
802.11g and 802.11s.
Due to its recent deployment, to the best of our knowledge, only a few papers
using ndnSIM for CCN performance evaluation in wireless networks have been
published, e.g., [19], [27].
CCNx [61] is an open source software reference implementation of the CCN
architecture and protocol, developed at Palo Alto Research Center. It is available for deployment on several operating systems such as Linux, Unix, MacOS
and Android. The core component of CCNx is the ccnd daemon, which supports the forwarding plane and the caching service; it currently can run as an
overlay on top of IP to take advantage of existing connectivity.
Recently, NDNBlue has been released [62], a cross platform proxy layer for
Linux and Android systems, which works between CCNx and Bluetooth stacks
to achieve CCN connectivity directly over Bluetooth links.
In [22], an extension of CCNx is presented to support a content-centric communication layer over Contiki, an open-source operating system for embedded
devices and WSNs that relies on IEEE 802.15.4 at the physical and MAC layers.
Another fully customizable and open source platform is the CCN-Java Opensource Kit EmulatoR (CCN-Joker) for wireless ad hoc networks [63]. It is an
application-layer platform, specifically tailored for wireless devices with limited
resources in terms of storage capability and computational load, which can be
used to build a CCN overlay and is suitable for both emulation-based analysis
and real experiments.
11. Open Challenges
From the literature overview in the previous Sections, it clearly emerges that,
despite the young age of the topic, several works have appeared addressing CCN
in wireless environments, due to its inherent potentialities. The main findings
from the scanned literature are summarized in Table 4 that shows the main
potential benefits of CCN for wireless networking and the research trends for
each of the main CCN pillars.
Despite the enhancements and modifications proposed in the CCN communication fabric to overstep challenges and constraints of wireless ad hoc networks,
research in this field is still at the beginning and some hints for future deployment can be provided as follows.
As regards naming schemes, there is a tight relationship between naming,
applications and access network constraints. Although CCN names can have
variable lengths without any a priori fixed upper bound, wireless technologies
such as IEEE 802.15.4 have very limited payload sizes and should work with
thin content names. It is mandatory for application designers to interact with
the CCN developers in order to converge on some standard application-specific
and access network-compliant naming definitions.
18
Table 4: CCN for wireless networking: main benefits and research prospectives.
CCN pillar
Main benefits
Research prospective
Naming
Security
Routing and
Forwarding
(i) Advanced controlled flooding and reactive schemes; (ii) Prioritization policies
for different types of contents; (iii) Network coding techniques to enhance multipath routing performance, (iv) Robust
packet suppression techniques
Caching
Transport
Connectionless communications
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