Mechanical and Metal

Trades Handbook

Europa-No 1910X

uj(/-?JLEHRMITTEL

Ulrich Fischer
Roland Gomeringer

Max Heinzler
Roland Kilgus

EUROPA-TECHNICAL BOOK SERIES

for the Metalworking Trades

Friedrich Naher
Stefan Oesterle

Heinz Paetzold
Andreas Stephan

Mechanical and
Metal Trades
Handbook
2nd English edition

Europa-No.: 1910X

VERLAG EUROPA LEHRMITTEL Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG

Dusselberger StraBe 23 42781 Haan-Gruiten Germany

Original title:

Tabellenbuch Metall, 44th edition, 2008

Authors:

Ulrich Fischer
Roland Gomeringer
Max Heinzler
Roland Kilgus
Friedrich Naher
Stefan Oesterle
Heinz Paetzold
Andreas Stephan

Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Dipl.-Gwl.
Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Dipl.-Gwl.
Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Dipl.-lng.
Dipl.-lng. (FH)
Dipl.-lng. (FH)

Reutlingen
MeBstetten
Wangen im Allgau
Neckartenzlingen
Balingen
Amtzell
Muhlacker
Kressbronn

Editor:

Ulrich Fischer, Reutlingen

Graphic design:

Design office of Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, Germany

The publisher and its affiliates have taken care to collect the information given in this book to the best of their ability.
However, no responsibility is accepted by the publisher or any of its affiliates regarding its content or any statement
herein or omission there from which may result in any loss or damage to any party using the data shown above.
Warranty claims against the authors or the publisher are excluded.
Most recent editions of standards and other regulations govern their use.
They can be ordered from Beuth Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstr. 6, 10787 Berlin, Germany.
The content of the chapter "Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL" (page 386 to 400) complies with
the publications of the PAL Priifungs- und Lehrmittelentwicklungsstelle (Institute for the development of training and
testing material) of the IHK Region Stuttgart (Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Stuttgart region).

English edition: Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook

2nd edition, 2010
6 5 4 3 2 1
All printings of this edition may be used concurrently in the classroom since they are unchanged, except for some
corrections to typographical errors and slight changes in standards.

ISBN 13 978-3-8085-1913-4
Cover design includes a photograph from TESA/Brown & Sharpe, Renens, Switzerland
All rights reserved. This publication is protected under copyright law. Any use other than those permitted by law
must be approved in writing by the publisher.
2010 by Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG, 42781 Haan-Gruiten, Germany
http://www.europa-lehrmittel.de
Translation: Techni-Translate, 72667 Schlaitdorf, Germany; www.techni-translate.com
Eva Schwarz, 76879 Ottersheim, Germany; www.technische-uebersetzungen-eva-schwarz.de
Typesetting: YellowHand GbR, 73257 Kongen, Germany; www.yellowhand.de
Printed by: Media Print Informationstechnologie, D-33100, Paderborn, Germany

The Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook is well-suited

for shop reference, tooling, machine building, maintenance
and as a general book of knowledge. It is also useful for educational purposes, especially in practical work or curricula
and continuing education programs.
Target Groups
Industrial and trade mechanics
Tool & Die makers
Machinists
Millwrights
Draftspersons
Technical Instructors
Apprentices in above trade areas
Practitioners in trades and industry
Mechanical Engineering students

2 Physics

p
33-56

3 Technical
drawing

TD
57-114

Notes for the user

The contents of this book include tables and formulae in
eight chapters, including Tables of Contents, Subject Index
and Standards Index.
The tables contain the most important guidelines, designs,
types, dimensions and standard values for their subject
areas.
Units are not specified in the legends for the formulae if several units are possible. However, the calculation examples
for each formula use those units normally applied in practice.
Designation examples, which are included for all standard
parts, materials and drawing designations, are highlighted
by a red arrow (=>).
The Table of Contents in the front of the book is expanded
further at the beginning of each chapter in form of a partial
Table of Contents.
The Subject Index at the end of the book (pages 417-428) is
extensive.
The Standards Index (pages 407-416) lists all the current
standards and regulations cited in the book. In many cases
previous standards are also listed to ease the transition from
older, more familiar standards to new ones.
We have thoroughly revised the 2nd edition of the "Mechanical and Metal Trades Handbook" in line with the 44th edition
of the German version "Tabellenbuch Metall". The section
dealing with PAL programming of CNC machine tools was
updated (to the state of 2008) and considerably enhanced.

4 Material science

MS
115-200

5 Machine
elements

ME
201-272

6 Production
Engineering

PE
273-344

7 Automation and
Information Technology
345-406

8 International material
comparison chart,
Standards 407-416

Special thanks to the Magna Technical Training Centre for

their input into the English translation of this book. Their
assistance has been extremely valuable.
The authors and the publisher will be grateful for any suggestions and constructive comments.
Spring 2010

Authors and publisher

Table of Contents
9

1 Mathematics
1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

Numerical tables
Square root, Area of a circle
Sine, Cosine
Tangent, Cotangent
Trigonometric Functions
Definitions
Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent . . . .
Laws of sines and cosines
Angles, Theorem of intersecting
lines
Fundamentals of Mathematics
Using brackets, powers, roots
Equations
Powers often, Interest calculation . . . .
Percentage and proportion
calculations
Symbols, Units
Formula symbols, Mathematical
symbols
SI quantities and units of
measurement
Non-SI units

1.5
10
11
12
1.6
13
13
14
14

1.7

15
16
17
18

19

1.8

1.9

20
22

Lengths
Calculations in a right triangle
Sub-dividing lengths, Arc length
Flat lengths, Rough lengths
Areas
Angular areas
Equilateral triangle, Polygons,
Circle
Circular areas
Volume and Surface area
Cube, Cylinder, Pyramid
Truncated pyramid, Cone,
Truncated cone, Sphere
Composite solids
Mass
General calculations
Linear mass density
Area mass density
Centroids
Centroids of lines
Centroids of plane areas

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

Motion
Uniform and accelerated motion
Speeds of machines
Forces
Adding and resolving force vectors . . .
Weight, Spring force
Lever principle, Bearing forces
Torques, Centrifugal force
Work, Power, Efficiency
Mechanical work
Simple machines
Power and Efficiency
Friction
Friction force
Coefficients of friction
Friction in bearings
Pressure in liquids and gases
Pressure, definition and types
Buoyancy
Pressure changes in gases
Strength of materials
Load cases, Load types
Safety factors, Mechanical
strength properties
Tension, Compression,
Surface pressure
Shear, Buckling

26
27
28
29
30
31
31
31
31
32
32

33

2 Physics
2.1

23
24
25

34
35
36
36
37
37
38
39
40
41
41
41
42
42
42
43
44
45
46

2.7

2.8

Bending, Torsion
Shape factors in strength
Static moment, Section modulus,
Moment of inertia
Comparison of various
cross-sectional shapes
Thermodynamics
Temperatures, Linear
expansion, Shrinkage
Quantity of heat
Heat flux, Heat of combustion
Electricity
Ohm's Law, Conductor resistance . . . .
Resistor circuits
Types of current
Electrical work and power

47
48
49
50

51
51
52
53
54
55
56

Table of Contents

57

3 Technical drawing
3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

Basic geometric constructions

Lines and angles
58
Tangents, Circular arcs, Polygons . . . . 59
Inscribed circles, Ellipses, Spirals
60
Cycloids, Involute curves, Parabolas .. 61
Graphs
Cartesian coordinate system
62
Graph types
63
Drawing elements
Fonts
64
Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales
65
Drawing layout
66
Line types
67
Representation
Projection methods
69
Views
71
Sectional views
73
Hatching
75
Entering dimensions
Dimensioning rules
76
Diameters, Radii, Spheres, Chamfers,
Inclines, Tapers, Arc dimensions
78
Tolerance specifications
80
Types of dimensioning
81
Simplified presentation in drawings .. 83

3.6

Machine elements
Gear types
84
Roller bearings
85
Seals
86
Retaining rings, Springs
87
3.7 Workpiece elements
Bosses, Workpiece edges
88
Thread runouts, Thread undercuts . . . 89
Threads, Screw joints
90
Center holes, Knurls, Undercuts
91
3.8 Welding and Soldering
Graphical symbols
93
Dimensioning examples
95
3.9 Surfaces
Hardness specifications in drawings .. 97
Form deviations, Roughness
98
Surface testing, Surface indications .. 99
3.10 ISO Tolerances and Fits
Fundamentals
102
Basic hole and basic shaft systems .. 106
General Tolerances, Roller
bearing fits
110
Fit recommendations
111
Geometric tolerancing
112
GD&T (Geometric
Dimensioning & Tolerancing)
113

115

4 Materials science
4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

Materials
Material characteristics of solids
116
Material characteristics of liquids
and gases
117
Periodic table of the elements
118
Designation system for steels
Definition and classification of steel . 120
Material codes, Designation
121
Steel types, Overview
126
Structural steels
128
Case hardened, quenched and tempered, nitrided, free cutting steels . . . 132
Tool steels
135
Stainless steels, Spring steels
136
Finished steel products
Sheet, strip, pipes
139
Profiles
143
Heat treatment
Iron-Carbon phase diagram
153
Processes
154
Cast iron materials
Designation, Material codes
158
Classification
159
Cast iron
160
Malleable cast iron, Cast steel
161

4.7

4.8

4.9

4.10

4.11

4.12

4.13
4.14

Foundry technology
Patterns, Pattern equipment
162
Shrinkage allowances,
Dimensional tolerances
163
Light alloys, Overview of Al alloys .. 164
Wrought aluminum alloys
166
Aluminum casting alloys
168
Aluminum profiles
169
Magnesium and titanium alloys
172
Heavy non-ferrous metals,
Overview
173
Designation system
174
Copper alloys
175
Other metallic materials
Composite materials,
Ceramic materials
177
Sintered metals
178
Plastics, Overview
179
Thermoplastics
182
Thermoset plastics, Elastomers
184
Plastics processing
186
Material testing methods,
Overview
188
Tensile testing
190
Hardness test
192
Corrosion, Corrosion protection . . 196
Hazardous materials
197

Table of Contents

201

5 Machine elements
5.1

Threads (overview)
202
Metric ISO threads
204
Whitworth threads, Pipe threads
206
Trapezoidal and buttress threads
207
Thread tolerances
208
5.2 Bolts and screws (overview)
209
Designations, strength
210
Hexagon head bolts & screws
212
Other bolts & screws
215
Screw joint calculations
221
Locking fasteners
222
Widths across flats, Bolt and
screw drive systems
223
5.3 Countersinks
224
Countersinks for countersunk
head screws
224
Counterbores for cap screws
225
5.4 Nuts (overview)
226
Designations, Strength
227
Hexagon nuts
228
Other nuts
231
5.5 Washers (overview)
233
Flat washers
234
HV, Clevis pin, Conical spring washers . 235
5.6 Pins and clevis pins (overview) . . . 236
Dowel pins, Taper pins, Spring pins . 237

Grooved pins, Grooved drive studs,

Clevis pins
5.7 Shaft-hub connections
Tapered and feather keys
Parallel and woodruff keys
Splined shafts, Blind rivets
Tool tapers
5.8 Springs, components of jigs
and tools
Springs
Drill bushings
Standard stamping parts
5.9 Drive elements
Belts
Gears
Transmission ratios
Speed graph
5.10 Bearings
Plain bearings (overview)
Plain bearing bushings
Antifriction bearings (overview)
Types of roller bearings
Retaining rings
Sealing elements
Lubricating oils
Lubricating greases

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

Quality management
Standards, Terminology
274
Quality planning, Quality testing
276
Statistical analysis
277
Statistical process control
279
Process capability
281
Production planning
Time accounting according to REFA . 282
Cost accounting
284
Machine hourly rates
285
Machining processes
Productive time
287
Machining coolants
292
Cutting tool materials, Inserts,
Tool holders
294
Forces and power
298
Cutting data: Drilling, Reaming,
Turning
301
Cutting data: Taper turning
304
Cutting data: Milling
305
Indexing
307
Cutting data: Grinding and honing .. 308
Material removal
Cutting data
313
Processes
314
Separation by cutting
Cutting forces
315

239
240
241
242

244
247
251
253
256
259
260
261
262
263
265
269
270
271
272

273

6 Production Engineering
6.1

238

6.6

6.7

6.8

Shearing
316
Location of punch holder shank
317
Forming
Bending
318
Deep drawing
320
Joining
Welding processes
322
Weld preparation
323
Gas welding
324
Gas shielded metal arc welding
325
Arc welding
327
Thermal cutting
329
Identification of gas cylinders
331
Soldering and brazing
333
Adhesive bonding
336
Workplace safety and environmental
protection
Prohibitive signs
338
Warning signs
339
Mandatory signs,
Escape routes and rescue signs
340
Information signs
341
Danger symbols
342
Identification of pipe lines
343
Sound and noise
344

Table of Contents

345

7 Automation and Information

7.1

7.2

7.3

7.4

7.5

Basic terminology for control

engineering
Basic terminology, Code letters,
Symbols
346
Analog controllers
348
Discontinuous and digital controllers .. 349
Binary logic
350
Electrical circuits
Circuit symbols
351
Designations in circuit diagrams
353
Circuit diagrams
354
Sensors
355
Protective precautions
356
Function charts and function diagrams
Function charts
358
Function diagrams
361
Pneumatics and hydraulics
Circuit symbols
363
Layout of circuit diagrams
365
Controllers
366
Hydraulic fluids
368
Pneumatic cylinders
369
Forces, Speeds, Power
370
Precision steel tube
372
Programmable logic control
PLC programming languages
373
Ladder diagram (LD)
374
Function block language (FBL)
374

8.2

International material
comparison chart
DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards

Subject index

7.6

7.7

7.8

Structured text (ST)

374
Instruction list
375
Simple functions
376
Handling and robot systems
Coordinate systems and axes
378
Robot designs
379
Grippers, job safety
380
Numerical Control (NC) technology
Coordinate systems
381
Program structure according to DIN .. 382
Tool offset and Cutter compensation . 383
Machining motions as per DIN
384
Machining motions as per PAL
(German association)
386
PAL programming system for turning . 388
PAL programming system for milling . 392
Information technology
Numbering systems
401
ASCII code
402
Program flow chart, Structograms .. 403
WORD-and EXEL commands
405

407

8 Material chart. Standards

8.1

407
.412

417

Standards and other Regulations

Standardization and Standards terms
Standardization is the systematic achievement of uniformity of material and non-material objects, such as components, calculation methods, process flows and services for the benefit of the general public.
Standards term

Example

Explanation

Standard

DIN 7157

A standard is the published result of standardization, e.g. the selection of certain fits
in DIN 7157.

Part

DIN 30910-2

The part of a standard associated with other parts with the same main number. DIN
30910-2 for example describes sintered materials for filters, while Part 3 and 4
describe sintered materials for bearings and formed parts.

Supplement

DIN 743
Suppl. 1

A supplement contains information for a standard, however no additional specifications. The supplement DIN 743 Suppl. 1, for example, contains application
examples of load capacity calculations for shafts and axles described in DIN 743.

Draft

E DIN 6316
(2007-02)

A draft standard contains the preliminary finished results of a standardization;

this version of the intended standard is made available to the public for comments. For example, the planned new version of DIN 6316 for goose-neck
clamps has been available to the public since February 2007 as Draft E
DIN 6316.

Preliminary
standard

DIN V 66304
(1991-12)

A preliminary standard contains the results of standardization which are not released
by DIN as a standard, because of certain provisos. DIN V 66304, for example, discusses a format for exchange of standard part data for computer-aided design.

Issue date

DIN 76-1
(2004-06)

Date of publication which is made public in the DIN publication guide; this is the
date at which time the standard becomes valid. DIN 76-1, which sets undercuts
for metric ISO threads has been valid since June 2004 for example.

Types of Standards and Regulations (selection)

Type

Abbreviation

Explanation

Purpose and contents

International
Standards
(ISO standards)

ISO

International Organization for

Standardization, Geneva (O and S
are reversed in the abbreviation)

Simplifies the international exchange of

goods and services, as well as cooperation
in scientific, technical and economic areas.

European
Standards
(EN standards)

EN

DIN

DIN EN
German
Standards
(DIN standards)

DIN ISO

DIN EN ISO

DIN VDE

Technical harmonization and the associated

reduction of trade barriers for the advancement of the European market and the coalescence of Europe.
Deutsches Institut fur Normung e.V., National standardization facilitates rationalBerlin (German Institute for
ization, quality assurance, environmental
Standardization)
protection and common understanding in
European standard for which the
economics, technology, science, manageGerman version has attained the sta- ment and public relations.
tus of a German standard.
European Committee for Standardization (Comite Europeen de
Normalisation), Brussels

German standard for which an international standard has been adopted

without change.
European standard for which an
international standard has been
adopted unchanged and the German
version has the status of a German
standard.
Printed publication of the VDE, which
has the status of a German standard.
Verein Deutscher Ingenieure e.V.,
These guidelines give an account of the curDusseldorf (Society of German
rent state of the art in specific subject areas
Engineers)
and contain, for example, concrete proceduVerband Deutscher Elektrotechniker ral guidelines for the performing calculations
or designing processes in mechanical or
e.V., Frankfurt (Organization of Gerelectrical engineering.
man Electrical Engineers)

VDI Guidelines

VDI

VDE printed
publications

VDE

DGQ publications

DGQ

Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Qualitat e.V., Recommendations in the area of quality

technology.
Frankfurt (German Association for
Quality)

REFA sheets

REFA

Association for Work Design/Work

Structure, Industrial Organization and
Corporate Development REFA e.V.,
Darmstadt

Recommendations in the area of production and work planning.

Table of Contents

1 Mathematics
d

id

1
2
3

1.0000
1.4142
1.7321

1.1
A

0.7854
3.1416
7.0686
opposite side
hypotenuse

sine
cosine
tangent
cotangent

1.2

adjacent side
hypotenuse
opposite side
adjacent side
adjacent side
opposite side

1.3
- + - = - ( 3 + 5)
X X X

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

Numerical tables
Square root, Area of a circle
Sine, Cosine
Tangent, Cotangent

10
11
12

Trigonometric Functions
Definitions
Sine, Cosine, Tangent, Cotangent
Laws of sines and cosines
Angles, Theorem of intersecting lines

13
13
14
14

Fundamentals of Mathematics
Using brackets, powers, roots
Equations
Powers of ten, Interest calculation
Percentage and proportion calculations

15
16
17
18

Symbols, Units
Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols
SI quantities and units of measurement
Non-SI units

19
20
22

Lengths
Calculations in a right triangle
Sub-dividing lengths, Arc length
Flat lengths, Rough lengths

23
24
25

Areas
Angular areas
Equilateral triangle, Polygons, Circle
Circular areas

26
27
28

Volume and Surface area

Cube, Cylinder, Pyramid
Truncated pyramid, Cone, Truncated cone, Sphere
Composite solids

29
30
31

Mass
General calculations
Linear mass density
Area mass density

31
31
31

Centroids
Centroids of lines
Centroids of plane areas

32
32

10

Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables

Square root, Area of a circle

ri

i/T

r!
Li

lId
1ia

rj

lId

1
2
3
4
5

1.0000
1.4142
1.7321
2.0000
2.236 1

3.1416
7.0686
12.5664

51
52
53
54

19.6350

55

7.1414
7.2111
7.2801
7.3485
7.4162

8011.85
8171.28
8332.29
8494.87
8659.01

151
152
153
154

12.2882

155

12.4499

6
7
8
9
10

2.4495
2.6458
2.8284
3.0000
3.1623

28.2743
38.4845
50.2655
63.6173
78.5398

56
57
58
59
60

10.2956
10.3441
10.3923
10.4403
10.4881

8824.73
8992.02
9160.88
9331.32
9503.32

156
157
158
159
160

12.4900
12.5300
12.5698
12.6095
12.6491

19359.3
19606.7
19855.7
20106.2

11
12
13
14
15

3.3166
3.4641
3.6056
3.7417
3.8730

95.0332
113.097
132.732
153.938
176.715

61
62
63
64

111
112
113
114
115

10.5357
10.5830
10.6301
10.6771
10.7238

9676.89
9852.03
10028.7
10207.0
10386.9

161
162
163
164
165

12.6886
12.7279
12.7671
12.8062
12.8452

20358.3
20612.0
20867.2
21124.1
21382.5

16
17
18
19
20

4.0000
4.1231
4.2426
4.3589
4.4721

3421.19
3525.65
3631.68
3739.28
3848.45

116
117
118
119
120

10.7703
10.8167
10.8628
10.9087
10.9545

10568.3
10751.3
10935.9
11122.0
11309.7

166
167
168
169
170

12.8841
12.9228
12.9615
13.0000
13.0384

21642.4
21904.0
22167.1
22431.8
22698.0

21
22
23
24
25

4.5826
4.6904

8.4261
8.4853
8.5440
8.6023
8.6603

3959.19
4071.50
4185.39
4300.84
4417.86

121
122
123
124
125

11.0000
11.0454
11.0905
11.1355
11.1803

11499.0
11689.9
11882.3
12076.3
12271.8

171
172
173
174
175

13.0767
13.1149
13.1529
13.1909
13.2288

22965.8
23235.2
23506.2
23778.7
24052.8

76
77
78
79
80

8.7178
8.7750
8.8318
8.8882
8.9443

4536.46
4656.63
4778.36
4901.67
5026.55

126
127
128
129
130

11.2250
11.2694
11.3137
11.3578
11.4018

12469.0
12667.7
12868.0
13069.8
13273.2

176
177
178
179
180

13.2665
13.3041
13.3417
13.3791
13.4164

24328.5
24605.7
24884.6
25164.9
25446.9

81
82
83
84
85

9.0000
9.0554
9.1104
9.1652
9.2195

5153.00
5281.02

11.4455
11.4891
11.5326
11.5758
11.6190

13478.2
13684.8
13892.9
14102.6
14313.9

181
182
183
184
185

13.4536
13.4907
13.5277
13.5647
13.6015

25730.4

5410.61
5541.77
5674.50

131
132
133
134
135

1017.88
1075.21
1134.11
1194.59
1256.64

86
87
88
89
90

9.2736
9.3274
9.3808
9.4340
9.4868

5808.80
5944.68
6082.12
6221.14
6361.73

136
137
138
139
140

11.6619
11.7047
11.7473
11.7898
11.8322

14526.7
14741.1
14957.1
15174.7
15393.8

186
187
188
189
190

13.6382
13.6748
13.7113
13.7477
13.7840

27171.6
27464.6
27759.1
28055.2
28352.9

6.4031
6.4807
6.5574
6.6332
6.7082

1320.25
1385.44
1452.20
1520.53
1590.43

91
92
93
94
95

9.5394
9.5917
9.6437
9.6954
9.7468

6503.88
6647.61
6792.91
6939.78
7088.22

141
142
143
144

11.8743
11.9164

191
192
193
194

145

11.9583
12.0000
12.0416

15614.5
15836.8
16060.6
16286.0
16513.0

195

13.8203
13.8564
13.8924
13.9284
13.9642

28652.1
28952.9
29255.3
29559.2
29864.8

6.7823
6.8557
6.9282
7.0000
7.0711

1661.90
1734.94

96
97

12.0830
12.1244

14.0000
14.0357

30171.9

148
149
150

12.1655
12.2066
12.2474

16741.5
16971.7
17203.4
17436.6
17671.5

196
197

98
99
100

7238.23
7389.81
7542.96
7697.69
7853.98

146
147

1809.56
1885.74
1963.50

9.7980
9.8489
9.8995
9.9499
10.0000

198
199
200

14.0712
14.1067
14.1421

ri

lId

2042.82
2123.72
2206.18
2290.22
2375.83

101
102
103
104
105

10.049 9
10.0995
10.1489
10.1980
10.2470

7.4833
7.5498
7.6158
7.6811
7.7460

2463.01
2551.76
2642.08
2733.97
2827.43

106
107
108
109
110

65

7.8102
7.8740
7.9373
8.0000
8.0623

2922.47
3019.07
3117.25
3216.99
3318.31

201.062
226.980
254.469
283.529
314.159

66
67
68
69
70

8.1240
8.1854
8.2462
8.3066
8.3666

4.7958
4.8990
5.0000

346.361
380.133
415.476
452.389
490.874

71
72
73
74
75

26
27
28
29
30

5.0990
5.1962
5.2915
5.3852
5.4772

530.929
572.555
615.752
660.520
706.858

31
32
33
34
35

5.5678
5.6569
5.7446
5.8310
5.9161

754.768
804.248
855.299
907.920
962.113

36
37
38
39
40

6.0000
6.0828
6.1644
6.2450
6.3246

41
42
43
44

45
46
47
48
49
50

4
0.7854

Table values of id and A are rounded off.

12.3288
12.3693
12.4097

17907.9
18145.8
18385.4
18626.5
18869.2
19113.4

26015.5
26302.2
26590.4
26880.3

30480.5
30790.7
31102.6
31415.9

Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables

Values of Sine and Cosine Trigonometric Functions

sine 0 to 45

degrees

sine 45 to 90

degrees

Co

0'

15'

30'

45'

60'

0
1
2
3
4

0.0000
0.0175
0.0349
0.0523
0.0698

0.0044
0.0218
0.0393
0.0567
0.0741

0.0087
0.0262
0.0436
0.0610
0.0785

0.0131
0.0305
0.0480
0.0654
0.0828

0.0175
0.0349
0.0523
0.0698
0.0872

89
88
87
86
85

45
46
47
48
49

0.7071
0.7193
0.7314
0.7431
0.7547

5
6
7
8
9

0.0872
0.1045
0.1219
0.1392
0.1564

0.0915
0.1089
0.1262
0.1435
0.1607

0.0958
0.1132
0.1305
0.1478
0.1650

0.1002
0.1175
0.1349
0.1521
0.1693

0.1045
0.1219
0.1392
0.1564
0.1736

84
83
82
81
80

50
51
52
53
54

10
11
12
13
14

0.1736
0.1908
0.2079
0.2250
0.2419

0.1779
0.1951
0.2122
0.2292
0.2462

0.1822
0.1994
0.2164
0.2334
0.2504

0.1865
0.2036
0.2207
0.2377
0.2546

0.1908
0.2079
0.2250
0.2419
0.2588

79
78
77
76
75

15
16
17
18
19

0.2588
0.2756
0.2924
0.3090
0.3256

0.2630
0.2798
0.2965
0.3132
0.3297

0.2672
0.2840
0.3007
0.3173
0.3338

0.2714
0.2882
0.3049
0.3214
0.3379

0.2756
0.2924
0.3090
0.3256
0.3420

20
21
22
23
24

0.3420
0.3584
0.3746
0.3907
0.4067

0.3461
0.3624
0.3786
0.3947
0.4107

0.3502
0.3665
0.3827
0.3987
0.4147

0.3543
0.3706
0.3867
0.4027
0.4187

25
26
27
28
29

0.4226
0.4384
0.4540
0.4695
0.4848

0.4266
0.4423
0.4579
0.4733
0.4886

0.4305
0.4462
0.4617
0.4772
0.4924

30
31
32
33
34

0.5000
0.5150
0.5299
0.5446
0.5592

0.5038
0.5188
0.5336
0.5483
0.5628

35
36
37
38
39

0.5736
0.5878
0.6018
0.6157
0.6293

40
41
42
43
44

0'

30'

45'

60'

0.7102
0.7224
0.7343
0.7461
0.7576

0.7133
0.7254
0.7373
0.7490
0.7604

0.7163
0.7284
0.7402
0.7518
0.7632

0.7193
0.7314
0.7431
0.7547
0.7660

44
43
42

0.7660
0.7771
0.7880
0.7986
0.8090

0.7688
0.7799
0.7907
0.8013
0.8116

0.7716
0.7826
0.7934
0.8039
0.8141

0.7744
0.7853
0.7960
0.8064
0.8166

0.7771
0.7880
0.7986
0.8090
0.8192

39
38
37
36
35

55
56
57
58
59

0.8192
0.8290
0.8387
0.8480
0.8572

0.8216
0.8315
0.8410
0.8504
0.8594

0.8241
0.8339
0.8434
0.8526
0.8616

0.8266
0.8363
0.8457
0.8549
0.8638

0.8290
0.8387
0.8480
0.8572
0.8660

34
33
32
31
30

74
73
72
71
70

60
61
62
63
64

0.8660
0.8746
0.8829
0.8910
0.8988

0.8682
0.8767
0.8850
0.8930
0.9007

0.8704
0.8788
0.8870
0.8949
0.9026

0.8725
0.8809
0.8890
0.8969
0.9045

0.8746
0.8829
0.8910
0.8988
0.9063

29
28
27
26
25

0.3584
0.3746
0.3907
0.4067
0.4226

69
68
67
66
65

65
66
67
68
69

0.9063
0.9135
0.9205
0.9272
0.9336

0.9081
0.9153
0.9222
0.9288
0.9351

0.9100
0.9171
0.9239
0.9304
0.9367

0.9118
0.9188
0.9255
0.9320
0.9382

0.9135
0.9205
0.9272
0.9336
0.9397

24
23
22
21
20

0.4344
0.4501
0.4656
0.4810
0.4962

0.4384
0.4540
0.4695
0.4848
0.5000

64
63
62
61
60

70
71
72
73
74

0.9397
0.9455
0.9511
0.9563
0.9613

0.9412
0.9469
0.9524
0.9576
0.9625

0.9426
0.9483
0.9537
0.9588
0.9636

0.9441
0.9497
0.9550
0.9600
0.9648

0.9455
0.9511
0.9563
0.9613
0.9659

19
18
17
16
15

0.5075
0.5225
0.5373
0.5519
0.5664

0.5113
0.5262
0.5410
0.5556
0.5700

0.5150
0.5299
0.5446
0.5592
0.5736

59
58
57
56
55

75
76
77
78
79

0.9659
0.9703
0.9744
0.9781
0.9816

0.9670
0.9713
0.9753
0.9790
0.9825

0.9681
0.9724
0.9763
0.9799
0.9833

0.9692
0.9734
0.9772
0.9808
0.9840

0.9703
0.9744
0.9781
0.9816
0.9848

14
13
12
11
10

0.5771
0.5913
0.6053
0.6191
0.6327

0.5807
0.5948
0.6088
0.6225
0.6361

0.5842
0.5983
0.6122
0.6259
0.6394

0.5878
0.6018
0.6157
0.6293
0.6428

54
53
52
51
50

80
81
82
83
84

0.9848
0.9877
0.9903
0.9925
0.9945

0.9856
0.9884
0.9909
0.9931
0.9950

0.9863
0.9890
0.9914
0.9936
0.9954

0.9870
0.9897
0.9920
0.9941
0.9958

0.9877
0.9903
0.9925
0.9945
0.9962

9
8
7
6
5

0.6428
0.6561
0.6691
0.6820
0.6947

0.6461
0.6593
0.6724
0.6852
0.6978

0.6494
0.6626
0.6756
0.6884
0.7009

0.6528
0.6659
0.6788
0.6915
0.7040

0.6561
0.6691
0.6820
0.6947
0.7071

49
48
47
46
45

85
86
87
88
89

0.9962
0.9976
0.9986
0.9994
0.99985

0.9966
0.9979
0.9988
0.9995
0.99991

0.9969
0.9981
0.9990
0.9997
0.99996

0.9973
0.9984
0.9992
0.9998
0.99999

0.9976
0.9986
0.9994
0.99985
1.0000

4
3
2
1
0

60'

45'

30'

15'

0'

60'

45'

30'

15'

0'

minuies
cosine 45 to 90

degrees

15'

minuies
cosine 0 to 45

Table values of the trigonometric functions are rounded off to four decimal places.

41
40

t
degrees

12

Mathematics: 1.1 Numerical tables

Values of Tangent and Cotangent Trigonometric Functions

tangent 0 to 45

degrees

0'

111111 u ic;
30'
15'

tangent 45 to 90

degrees

45'

60'

0'

1 1 III IUICC
30'
15'

60'

45'

1.0088
1.0446
1.0818
1.1204
1.1606

1.0176
1.0538
1.0913
1.1303
1.1708

1.0265
1.0630
1.1009
1.1403
1.1812

1.0355
1.0724
1.1106
1.1504
1.1918

44

48
49

1.0000
1.0355
1.0724
1.1106
1.1504

84
83
82
81
80

50
51
52
53
54

1.1918
1.2349
1.2799
1.3270
1.3764

1.2024
1.2460
1.2915
1.3392
1.3891

1.2131
1.2572
1.3032
1.3514
1.4019

1.2239
1.2685
1.3151
1.3638
1.4150

1.2349
1.2799
1.3270
1.3764
1.4281

39
38
37
36
35

0.1944
0.2126
0.2309
0.2493
0.2679

79
78
77
76
75

55
56
57
58
59

1.4281
1.4826
1.5399
1.6003
1.6643

1.4415
1.4966
1.5547
1.6160
1.6808

1.4550
1.5108
1.5697
1.6319
1.6977

1.4687
1.5253
1.5849
1.6479
1.7147

1.4826
1.5399
1.6003
1.6643
1.7321

34
33
32
31
30

0.2820
0.3010
0.3201
0.3395
0.3590

0.2867
0.3057
0.3249
0.3443
0.3640

74

73
72
71
70

60
61
62
63
64

1.7321
1.8040
1.8807
1.9626
2.0503

1.7496
1.8228
1.9007
1.9840
2.0732

1.7675
1.8418
1.9210
2.0057
2.0965

1.7856
1.8611
1.9416
2.0278
2.1203

1.8040
1.8807
1.9626
2.0503
2.1445

29
28
27
26
25

0.3739
0.3939
0.4142
0.4348
0.4557

0.3789
0.3990
0.4193
0.4400
0.4610

0.3839
0.4040
0.4245
0.4452
0.4663

69
68
67
66
65

65
66
67
68
69

2.1445
2.2460
2.3559
2.4751
2.6051

2.1692
2.2727
2.3847
2.5065
2.6395

2.1943
2.2998
2.4142
2.5386
2.6746

2.2199
2.3276
2.4443
2.5715
2.7106

2.2460
2.3559
2.4751
2.6051
2.7475

23
22
21
20

0.4716
0.4931
0.5150
0.5373
0.5600

0.4770
0.4986
0.5206
0.5430
0.5658

0.4823
0.5040
0.5261
0.5486
0.5715

0.4877
0.5095
0.5317
0.5543
0.5774

64
63
62
61
60

70
71
72
73
74

2.7475
2.9042
3.0777
3.2709
3.4874

2.7852
2.9459
3.1240
3.3226
3.5457

2.8239
2.9887
3.1716
3.3759
3.6059

2.8636
3.0326
3.2205
3.4308
3.6680

2.9042
3.0777
3.2709
3.4874
3.7321

19
18
17
16
15

0.5774
0.6009
0.6249
0.6494
0.6745

0.5832
0.6068
0.6310
0.6556
0.6809

0.5890
0.6128
0.6371
0.6619
0.6873

0.5949
0.6188
0.6432
0.6682
0.6937

0.6009
0.6249
0.6494
0.6745
0.7002

59
58
57
56
55

75
76
77
78
79

3.7321
4.0108
4.3315
4.7046
5.1446

3.7983
4.0876
4.4194
4.8077
5.2672

3.8667
4.1653
4.5107
4.9152
5.3955

3.9375
4.2468
4.6057
5.0273
5.5301

4.0108
4.3315
4.7046
5.1446
5.6713

14
13
12
11
10

35
36
37
38
39

0.7002
0.7265
0.7536
0.7813
0.8098

0.7067
0.7332
0.7604
0.7883
0.8170

0.7133
0.7400
0.7673
0.7954
0.8243

0.7199
0.7467
0.7743
0.8026
0.8317

0.7265
0.7536
0.7813
0.8098
0.8391

54
53
52
51
50

80
81
82
83
84

5.6713
6.3138
7.1154
8.1443
9.5144

5.8197
6.4971
7.3479
8.4490
9.9310

5.9758
6.6912
7.5958
8.7769
10.3854

6.1402 6.3138
6.8969 7.1154
7.8606 8.1443
9.1309 9.5144
10.8829 11.4301

9
8
7
6
5

40
41
42

0.8391
0.8693
0.9004
0.9325
0.9657

0.8466
0.8770
0.9083
0.9407
0.9742

0.8541
0.8847
0.9163
0.9490
0.9827

0.8617
0.8925
0.9244
0.9573
0.9913

0.8693
0.9004
0.9325
0.9657
1.0000

49
48

85 11.4301 12.0346 12.7062 13.4566

86 14.3007 15.2571 16.3499 17.6106
87 19.0811 20.8188 22.9038 25.4517
88 28.6363 32.7303 38.1885 45.8294
89 57.2900 76.3900 114.5887 229.1817

60'

45'

30'

15'

0'

0
1
2
3
4

0.0000
0.0175
0.0349
0.0524
0.0699

0.0044
0.0218
0.0393
0.0568
0.0743

0.0087
0.0262
0.0437
0.0612
0.0787

0.0131
0.0306
0.0480
0.0655
0.0831

0.0175
0.0349
0.0524
0.0699
0.0875

89
88
87
86
85

45
46

5
6
7
8
9

0.0875
0.1051
0.1228
0.1405
0.1584

0.0919
0.1095
0.1272
0.1450
0.1629

0.0963
0.1139
0.1317
0.1495
0.1673

0.1007
0.1184
0.1361
0.1539
0.1718

0.1051
0.1228
0.1405
0.1584
0.1763

10
11
12
13
14

0.1763
0.1944
0.2126
0.2309
0.2493

0.1808
0.1989
0.2171
0.2355
0.2540

0.1853
0.2035
0.2217
0.2401
0.2586

0.1899
0.2080
0.2263
0.2447
0.2633

15
16
17
18
19

0.2679
0.2867
0.3057
0.3249
0.3443

0.2726
0.2915
0.3105
0.3298
0.3492

0.2773
0.2962
0.3153
0.3346
0.3541

20
21
22
23
24

0.3640
0.3839
0.4040
0.4245
0.4452

0.3689
0.3889
0.4091
0.4296
0.4505

25
26
27
28
29

0.4663
0.4877
0.5095
0.5317
0.5543

30
31
32
33
34

43
44

minuies

cotangent 45 to 90

47

46
45

degrees

47

60'

45'

30'

15'
minuies

cotangent 0 to 45

Table values of the trigonometric functions are rounded off to four decimal places.

14.3007
19.0811
28.6363
57.2900
00

0'

43
42
41
40

24

3
2
1
0
t
degrees

13

Mathematics: 1.2 Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions of right triangles

Definitions
Designations in a
right triangle
hypotenuse

<3 opposite
side of a

7
b adjacent side of

c hypotenuse

Application

Definitions of the
ratios of the sides

a adjacent
side of ft

for < 0

sine

opposite side
hypotenuse

sin a =

sin (i =

cosine

adjacent side
hypotenuse

cos a =

cos/3 =

tangent

opposite side
adjacent side

tan a = -=-

tan/8 =

adjacent side
opposite side

cot a =

cot/? =

cotangent

opposite side of fi

for < a

Graph of the trigonometric functions between 0 and 360c

Representation on a unit circle

Graph of the trigonometric functions

The values of the trigonometric functions of angles > 90 can be derived from the values of the angles between 0 and
90 and then read from the tables (pages 11 and 12). Refer to the graphed curves of the trigonometric functions for
the correct sign. Calculators with trigonometric functions display both the value and sign for the desired angle.
Example: Relationships for Quadrant II
Relationships

Example: Function values for the angle 120 (a = 30 in the formulae)

sin (90 + a) = +cos a

sin (90 + 30) = sin 120 =+0.8660

cos 30 =+0.8660

cos (90 + a) = - s i n a

cos (90 + 30) = cos 120 = -0.5000

-sin 30 = -0.5000

tan (90 + a) = -cot a

tan (90 + 30) = tan 120 = -1.7321

-cot 30 = -1.7321

Function values for selected angles

Function

90

180

270

360

Function

90

180

270

360

sin

+1

-1

tan

00

00

cos

+1

-1

+1

cot

00

00

00

Relationships between the functions of an angle

sin or

sin 2 a + cos 2 a = 1

tan a cot a = 1

tan a = sin a
cos a

cot a = cos a
sin a

cos or
Example: Calculation of tana from sina and cosa for a = 30:
tana = sina/cosa = 0.5000/0.8660 = 0.5774

14

Mathematics: 1.2 Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions of oblique triangles, Angles, Theorem of intersecting lines

Law of sines and Law of cosines
Law of cosines

Law of sines

a: b: c = sina : sin/3 : siny

a _ b _ c
sina sin/3 sin/

a2 = b2 + c2 - 2 b c cos a
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2 a c cos/3
c2 = a2 + b2 - 2 a - b cos y

Application in calculating sides and angles

Calculation of sides
using the Law of sines
using the Law of cosines
b-sina _
sin/3
a-sin/3 _
b=
sina
asiny _
c=
sina
a=

csina
sin/
c-sin/3
siny
bsiny
sin/3

a = jb2 + c2 - 2 b c cosa
b = yja2 + c2 - 2 a c cos /3
c = yja2 + b2 - 2 a b cos /

Calculation of angles
using the Law of sines
using the Law of cosines
a sin/3 _ a - s i n /
sina =
b
"
c
6-sina _ b-siny
sin/3 =
a
c
c-sina c - s i n ^
sin/ =

cos a =

b2+c2 -a2
2-b- c

a2 +c2-b2
cos/3 =
2 a- c
cos y =

a2 + b2-c2
2-ab

Types of angles
Corresponding angles
If two parallels g-\ and g2 are intersected
by a straight line g, there are geometrical
interrelationships between the corresponding, opposite, alternate and adjacent angles.

a = P
Opposite angles
p = d
Alternate angles
a = d
Adjacent angles
a + y = 180 c

Sum of angles in a triangle

Sum of angles
in a triangle
In every triangle the sum of the interior
angles equals 180.

a + /3 + y = 180 c

Theorem of intersecting lines

If two lines extending from Point A are
intersected by two parallel lines BC and
B-|C1( the segments of the parallel lines
and the corresponding ray segments of
the lines extending from A form equal
ratios.

Theorem of intersecting
lines

a
b~

b_

by

Cl

b
c

Cl

Mathematics: 1.

nts

Using brackets, powers and roots

I Calculations with brackets
Type

Explanation

Example

Factoring out

Common factors (divisors) in addition and subtraction are

placed before a bracket.

3 x + 5 x = x ( 3 + 5) = 8 x

A fraction bar combines terms in the same manner as

brackets.
Expanding
bracketed terms

!+I-!.<3+5)
X X X
a+b , .
.. h
-/? = (a + b 2
2

A bracketed term is multiplied by a value (number, variable, another bracketed term), by multiplying each term
inside the brackets by this value.

5 (b + c) = 5b + 5c
(a + b) (c - d) = ac - ad + be - bd

A bracketed term is divided by a value (number, variable,

another bracketed term), by dividing each term inside the
bracket by this value.

(a +b):c = a:c
a-b
a b
5 ~ 5~ 5

Binomial
formulae

A binomial formula is a formula in which the term (a + b)

or (a - b) is multiplied by itself.

(a + b)2 = a 2 + lab + b2
(a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2
(a + b)(a-b)
= a2 - b2

Multiplication/division and
addition/subtraction calculations

In mixed equations, the bracketed terms must be solved

first. Then multiplication and division calculations are performed, and finally addition and subtraction.

a ( 3 x - 5x) - b (My- 2y)

a base;

a* = y

+b:c

= a (-2x) - b 10 y
= -lax - 10by

Powers
Definitions

x exponent;

y exponential value

Product of identical factors

a a a a = a4
4 4 4 4 = 4 4 = 256

Addition
Subtraction

Powers with the same base and the same exponents are
treated like equal numbers.

3a 3 + 5 a 3 - 4 a 3
= a 3 (3 + 5 - 4 ) = 4a3

Multiplication
Division

Powers with the same base are multiplied (divided) by

adding (subtracting) the exponents and keeping the base.

a4 a2 = a a-a-a
a a = a6
I 4 I2 = 2 ( 4 + 2 ) = 2 6 = 64
3 2 -r 3 3 = 3 ( 2 - 3 ) = 3 _ 1 = 1/3

Negative
exponent

Numbers with negative exponents can also be written as

fractions. The base is then given a positive exponent and
is placed in the denominator.

=7

rrr
1

a-3 =
a3
4

Fractions in
exponents

Powers with fractional exponents can also be written as

roots.

Zero in
exponents

Every power with a zero exponent has the value of one.

(m + n) = 1
a4 + a4 = a ( 4 _ 4 ) = a 0 = 1
2= 1

Definitions

x root's exponent;

y/a = y or a 1 / x = y

Signs

Even number exponents of the root give positive and

negative values, if the radicand is positive. A negative radicand results in an imaginary number.

\/9 = 3

Odd number exponents of the root give positive values if

the radicand is positive and negative values if the radicand
is negative.

\/8 = l

Addition
Subtraction

Identical root expressions can be added and subtracted.

\la+3\la-l\[a=l\[a

Multiplication
Division

Roots with the same exponents are multiplied (divided) by

taking the root of the product (quotient) of the radicands.

a3=fc

Roots
a radicand;

y root value

= + 3i

yf-8=-l

ra

Ji"

16

Mathematics: 1.

nts

Types of equations, Rules of transformation

Equations
Type

Explanation

Example

Variable
equation

Equivalent terms (formula terms of equal value ) form relationships between variables (see also, Rules of transformation).

v = ji d n

Compatible units
equation

Immediate conversion of units and constants to an SI unit

in the result.
Only used in special cases, e.g. if engineering parameters
are specified or for simplification.

p_M-n

Single variable
equation

Calculation of the value of a variable.

x +3= 8
x =8- 3= 5

Function
equation

Assigned function equation: y is a function of x with x as

the independent variable; yas the dependent variable.
The number pair (x,y) of a value table form the graph of
the function in the (x,y) coordinate system.

y = f (x)

Constant function

y = f (x) = b

(a+ b)2 = a 2 + 2ab+ b2

jf

p jnkW

9550
n in 1/min and M in Nm

* real numbers

The graph is a line parallel to the x-axis.

Proportional function

y = f (x) = mx

The graph is a straight line through the origin.

y= 2x

Linear function

y = f (x) = mx + b

The graph is a straight line with slope m and y intercept b

(example below).

y= 0.5x+ 1

Quadratic function
Every quadratic function
(example below).

y = f (x) = X 2

example:

linear
function
y= mx+b

graphs

as

parabola

quadratic
function
y=x2

y = a 2 x 2 + a-|X+ a 0

\ t
\ I
-2

example:
~y= 0.5-x 2 /
2"

-1
-1 -

f^H
1
x

1
2

1
3

Rules of transformation
Equations are usually transformed to obtain an equation in which the unknown variable stands alone on the left side
of the equation.
The same number can be added or subtracted from both
sides.
In the equations X+ 5 = 1 5 and x + 5 - 5 = 15 - 5, x has the
same value, i.e. the equations are equivalent.

x +5
=15
x + 5 - 5 =15-5
x = 10
y-c
- d
y-c + c =d + c
y =d+c

Multiplication
Division

It is possible to multiply or divide each side of the equation

by the same number.

ax = b
ax
b
a
a
b
x =
a

Powers

The expressions on both sides of the equations can be

raised to the same exponential power.

Addition
Subtraction

|-5

|+c

| "r a

s/x=a + b

|()2

(Vx)2 =(a + b)2

x =a2 +2ab + b2

Roots

The root of the expressions on both sides of the equation

can be taken using the same root exponent.

x2=a
2

(\[x)

+b

= -Ja + b

x -\ja + b

\yf

Mathematics: 1.

nts

Decimal multiples and factors of units. Interest calculation

Decimal multiples and factors of units

cf. DIN 1301-1 (2002-10)

Mathematics
Power of

Name

ten
18

10
10 1 5
10 12
109
106
103
102
101
10
1

10"
10-2
10"3
10"6
10"9
10" 12
10-15
1 0

- 1 8

SI units
Prefix

Multiplication factor

Character

Unit

E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da

Em
Pm
TV
GW
MW
kN
hi
dam
m

10 1 8
10 1 5
10 1 2
109
106
103
102
101
10

dm
cm
mV
HA
nm
pF
fF
am

10~1 meters
10"2 meters
10"3 volts
10"6 ampere
10"9 meters
10- 12 farad
10" 15 farads
10" 18 meters

quintillion
quadrillion
trillion
billion
million
thousand
hundred
ten
one

1 000 000 000 000 000 000

1 000 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000
1 000 000
1 000
100
10
1

exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deca

tenth
hundredth
thousandth
millionth
billionth
trillionth
quadrillionth
quintillionth

0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000 001
0.000 000 001
0.000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 000 001

deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto

<1

values
- f -

1
1
1000 100
-Hh-

Examples

Name

d
c
m
Mn
P
f
a

Meaning
meters
meters
volts
watts
watts
newtons
liters
meters
meter

Numbers greater than 1 are expressed with positive exponents and numbers less than 1 are expressed with negative exponents.

>1

10 100 1000

Examples: 4300 = 4.3 1000 = 4.3 103

14638= 1.4638 104

1 0 " 3 1 0 - 2 1 0 " 1 10 101 10 2 10 3

0 0 7 =

i^o =

1 0 - 2

Simple interest
P
A

principle
amount accumulated

I
r

interest
interest rate per year

Interest

time in days,
interest period

1st example:
P = $2800.00; r = 6 - ; t= 1/2a;
a

/ =?

1 interest year (1 a) = 360 days (360 d)

360 d = 12 months
1 interest month = 30 days

$2800.00-6- -0.5a
-t=$84.00
100%

2nd example:
P = $4800.00; r =5.1 ,0 -\ t = 50d; / = ?
I

$4800.00-5.1 % 50d
^
= $ 34.00
100%-360 d
a

Compound interest calculation for one-time payment

P
A

principle
amount accumulated

I
r

interest
interest rate per year

n
q

time
compounding factor

Amount accumulated
A=P-<7n

Example:
P = $8000.00; n = 7 years; r = 6.5%; A = ?
6.5%
= 1.065
q =1 +
100%
A = P- qn = $ 8000.00 1.0657 = $ 8000.00 1.553986
= $12431.89

Compounding factor

18

Mathematics: 1.

nts

Percentage calculation, Proportion calculations

Percentage calculation
Percent value

The percentage rate gives the fraction of the base value in hundredths.
The base value is the value from which the percentage is to be calculated.
The percent value is the amount representing the percentage of the base value.
P r percentage rate, in percent

P v percent value

v base value.

1st example:

100%

Percentage rate

Workpiece rough part weight 250 kg (base value); material loss 2%

(percentage rate); material loss in kg = ? (percent value)
% _ 250 kg 2%
100%
100%
2nd example:
Rough weight of a casting 150 kg; weight after machining 126 kg;
weight percent rate (%) of material loss?

Pr =

Pm * r\r\ n/
150kg-126kg
100% =
100% = 16%
B,
150 kg

Proportion calculations
Three steps for calculating direct proportional ratios
Example:

|bow pjpe
35 elbow pipes?

6Q e

s w e

j g h 330 kg. What is the weight of

1 elbow pipe weighs

100
200 kg 300
weight

3rd step:

330 kg
60

Calculate the total by multiplying

35 elbow pipes weigh

330 kg 35
bO

= 1 9 2 5

R g

Three steps for calculating inverse proportional ratios

Example:

It takes 3 workers 170 hours to process one order. How many

hours do 12 workers need to process the same order?

It takes 1 worker 3 170 hrs

U 6 8 10 12 14
workers

3rd step:

Calculate the total by dividing

Ittakes12 workers

3- 170 hrs = 42.5 hrs

12

Using the three steps for calculating direct and inverse proportions
Example:
660 workpieces are manufactured by 5 machines in 24 days.
How much time does it take for
9 machines to produce
312 workpieces of the same
type?

1st application of 3 steps:

5 machines produce 660 workpieces in 24 days
1 machine produces 660 workpieces in 24 5 days
24-5
days
9 machines produce 660 workpieces in
2nd application of 3 steps:
9 machines produce 660 workpieces in - days
9 machines produce 1 workpiece in

24 5
days
9 660

9 machines produce 312 workpieces in

24 5 312
'
= 6.3 days
9 660

19

Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units

Formula symbols, Mathematical symbols

Formula symbols
Formula
symbol

Meaning

cf. DIN 1304-1 (1994-03)

Formula
symbol

Meaning

Formula
symbol

Meaning

Length, Area, Volume, Angle

/

w
h
s

Length
Width
Height
Linear distance

r, R
d,D
A, S
V

Radius
Diameter
Area, Cross-sectional area
Volume

F
F\n, IN
M
T
Mb
a
X

Force
Gravitational force, Weight
Torque
Torsional moment
Bending moment
Normal stress
Shear stress
Normal strain
Modulus of elasticity

Q
A

Planar angle
Solid angle
Wave length

Mechanics
m
rri
rri'
Q
J
P
Pabs
Pamb
Pg

Mass
Linear mass density
Area mass density
Density
Moment of inertia
Pressure
Absolute pressure
Ambient pressure
Gage pressure

G
M,f
W
I
W,E
Wp,Ep
Wk,Ek
P

Shear modulus
Coefficient of friction
Section modulus
Second moment of an area
Work, Energy
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Power
Efficiency

Time
t
T
n

Time, Duration
Cycle duration
Revolution frequency,
Speed

f,v
V, u
0)

Frequency
Velocity
Angular velocity
a

a
9
a
V, qy

Acceleration
Gravitational acceleration
Angular acceleration
Volumetric flow rate

Reactance
Impedance
Phase difference
Number of turns

Electricity
Q
E
C
I

Electric charge, Quantity of

electricity
Electromotive force
Capacitance
Electric current

L
R
Q

Inductance
Resistance
Specific resistance
Electrical conductivity

Heat, Quantity of heat

Thermal conductivity
Heat transition coefficient
Heat transmission
coefficient

y,x

z
<p
N

Heat
Thermodynamic
temperature
AT, At, Ad Temperature difference
Celsius temperature
Coefficient of linear
<*\,a
expansion
T,Q

a
k

0,Q
a
c
Hiet

Heat flow
Thermal diffusivity
Specific heat
Net calorific value

Luminous intensity
Radiant energy

Light, Electromagnetic radiation

E

Illuminance

f
n

Focal length
Refractive index

LP
I

Acoustic pressure level

Sound intensity

Q, W

Acoustics
P

Acoustic pressure
Acoustic velocity

N
Ln

Mathematical symbols
Math,
symbol

00

Spoken
approx. equals, around,
about
equivalent to
and so on, etc.
infinity

cf. DIN 1302 (1999-12)

Math,
symbol
a~n
"f f

equal to
not equal to
is equal to by definition
less than

Ix I

tt
U

less than or equal to

greater than
greater than or equal to
plus

Ax

minus
times, multiplied by
over, divided by, per, to
sigma (summation)

def
<

Loudness
Loudness level

_L

VI A AL

<
A

%
%0

Spoken

Math,
symbol

Spoken

proportional
a to the n-th power, the n-th
power of a
square root of
n-th root of

log
ig
In
e

logarithm (general)
common logarithm
natural logarithm
Euler number (e = 2.718281...)

absolute value of x
perpendicular to
is parallel to
parallel in the same direction

sin
cos
tan
cot

sine
cosine
tangent
cotangent

parallel in the opposite direction

angle
triangle
congruent to

(),[],{}

delta x (difference between

two values)
percent, of a hundred
per mil, of a thousand

AB
AB
a', a"
ava2

parentheses, brackets
open and closed
pi (circle constant =
3.14159...)
line segment AB
arc AB
a prime, a double prime
a sub 1, a sub 2

20

Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units

SI quantities and units of measurement

Sl 1) Base quantities and base units

cf. DIN 1301-1 (2002-10), -2 (1978-02), -3 (1979-10)

Base
quantity

Length

Mass

Time

Electric
current

Thermodynamic
temperature

Amount of
substance

Luminous
intensity

Base
units

meter

kilogram

second

ampere

kelvin

mole

candela

kg

mol

cd

Unit
symbol
1)

The units for measurement are defined in the International System of Units SI (Systeme International d'Unites). It
is based on the seven basic units (SI units), from which other units are derived.

Base quantities, derived quantities and their units

Quantity

Unit
Name
Symbol

Symbol

Relationship

Remarks
Examples of application

=10 dm = 100 cm
= 1000 mm
1mm = 1000 (jm
1km = 1000 m

1 inch = 25.4 mm
In aviation and nautical applications
the following applies:
1 international nautical mile = 1852 m

Length, Area, Volume, Angle

Length

Area

Volume

A S

1/

Plane
angle
(angle)

meter

1m

square meter

m2

1m2

are
hectare

a
ha

cubic meter

m3

liter

I, L

radian

rad

degrees

minutes
seconds
Solid angle

Symbol S only for cross-sectional

= 10000 cm 2
areas
= 1000000 mm 2
1a
=100 m 2
1 ha
= 100 a = 10000 m 2 Are and hectare only for land
100 ha = 1 km 2
1m3

= 1000 dm 3
= 1000000 cm 3
11 = 1 L = 1 dm 3 = 10 dl = Mostly for fluids and gases
0.001 m 3
1 ml
= 1 cm 3

1 rad = 1 m/m = 57.2957... 1 rad is the angle formed by the intersection of a circle around the center of
= 180%t
1 m radius with an arc of 1 m length.
1
=
rad = 60'
In technical calculations instead of
180
a = 33 17' 27.6", better use is a =
1'
=1760 = 60"
33.291.
1"
= 1760 = 173600

steradian

sr

1 sr

kilogram
gram

kg

1kg
1g

megagram
metric ton

Mg
t

=1 m2/m2

An object whose extension measures

1 rad in one direction and perpendicularly to this also 1 rad, covers a solid
angle of 1 sr.

Mechanics
Mass

= 1000 g
= 1000 mg

Mass in the sense of a scale result or a

weight is a quantity of the type of mass
(unit kg).

1 metric t = 1000 kg = 1 Mg
Mass for precious stones in carat (ct).
0.2 g
= 1 ct

Linear mass
density

m'

kilogram
per meter

kg/m

1 kg/m = 1 g/mm

For calculating the mass of bars, profiles, pipes.

Area mass
density

m"

kilogram
per square
meter

kg/m 2

1 kg/m 2 = 0.1 g/cm 2

To calculate the mass of sheet metal.

Density

kilogram
per cubic
meter

kg/m 3

1000 kg/m 3 = 1 metric t/m 3 The density is a quantity independent

of location.
= 1 kg/dm 3
= 1 g/cm 3
= 1 g/ml
= 1 mg/mm 3

21

Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units

SI quantities and units of measurement

I Quantities and Units (continued)
Quantity

Unit
Name

Symbol

Remarks
Examples of application

Relationship

Symbol

I Mechanics
Moment
of inertia, 2nd
Moment of
mass

kilogram x
square
meter

kg m 2 The following applies for a

homogenous body:
J =e - r 2 . V

Force

newton

newton x
meter

N m

Weight
Torque
Bending mom.
Torsional

Fg,G
M
Mb
T

The force 1 N effects a change in vel_iM_m_i J

ocity of 1 m/s in 1 s in a 1 kg mass.
s^
m
1 MN = 103 kN = 1000000 N
1 N - m is the moment that a force of
1 N effects with a lever arm of 1 m.
s^

1N

Momentum

kilogram x
meter
per second

kg m/s 1 kg m/s = 1 N s

Pressure

pascal

Pa

Pressure refers to the force per unit

area. For gage pressure the symbol p g
is used (DIN 1314).
1 bar = 14.5 psi (pounds per square
inch )

1 m 4 = 100000000 cm 4

Previously: Geometrical moment of

inertia

1 J = 1 N m = 1 W- s
= 1 kg m 2 /s 2

Joule for all forms of energy, kW- h

preferred for electrical energy.

Power describes the work which is

1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N m/s
= 1 V A = 1 m 2 kg/s3 achieved within a specific time.

O, T

newton
per square
millimeter

N/mm 2

Second
moment of
area

meter to the
fourth power
centimeter
to the fourth
power

m4

E, W joule

cm 4

P
<P

watt

Time,
Time span,
Duration

seconds
minutes
hours
day
year

s
min
h
d
a

1 min = 60 s
1 h =60 min = 3600 s
1 d = 24 h = 86400 s

Frequency

f,v

hertz

Hz

1 Hz = 1/s

Power
Heat flux

The momentum is the product of the

mass times velocity. It has the direction
of the velocity.

1 Pa = 1 N/m 2 = 0.01 mbar

1 bar = 100000 N/m 2
= 10 N/cm 2 = 105 Pa
1 mbar = 1 hPa
1 N/mm 2 = 10 bar = 1 MN/m 2
= 1 MPa
1 daN/cm 2 = 0.1 N/mm 2

Mechanical
stress

Energy, Work,
Quantity of
heat

The moment of inertia (2nd moment of

mass) is dependent upon the total
mass of the body as well as its form
and the position of the axis of rotation.

I Time

Rotational
speed,
Rotational
frequency

Velocity

Angularvelocity
Acceleration

CD

3,9

1 Hz = 1 cycle in 1 second.

1 per second

1/s

1 per minute

1/min

= 60/min = 60 m i n
1
1/min = 1 m i n - 1 = 7^
60 s

meters per
second
meters per
minute
kilometers per
hour
1 per second
radians per
second

m/s

1 m/s

m/m in

1 m/min =

meters per
second
squared

m/s 2

km/h
1/s
rad/s

3 h means a time span (3 hrs.),

3 h means a point in time (3 o'clock).
If points in time are written in mixed
form, e.g. 3 h 2 4 m 1 0 s , the symbol min
can be shortened to m.

1/s

= 60 m/min
= 3.6 km/h
1

The number of revolutions per unit of

time gives the revolution frequency,
also called rpm.
Nautical velocity in knots (kn):
1 kn = 1.852 km/h

miles per hour = 1 mile/h = 1 mph

1 mph = 1.60934 km/h

60s

1 km/h = 1
3.6 s
a) = 2 tc n

1m/s 2 = \ m /
1s

-1

For a rpm of n = 2/s the angular velocity a) = 4 JI/S.

Symbol g only for acceleration due to
gravity.
g = 9.81 m/s 2 10 m/s 2

22

Mathematics: 1.4 Symbols, Units

SI quantities and units of measurement

Quantities and units (continued)
Unit
Name

Symbol

Quantity

Symbol

Remarks
Examples of application

Relationship

Electricity and Magnetism

Electric current
Electromotive
force
Electrical
resistance
Electrical
conductance
Specific
resistance
Conductivity

I
E

ampere
volt

A
V

1 V = 1 W/1 A = 1 J/C

ohm

1 Q = 1 V/1 A

siemens

1 S = 1 A/1 V = 1/Q

ohm x
meter
siemens
per meter

Q m 10"6 Q m = 1 Q mm 2 /m

Y,

The movement of an electrical charge is

called current. The electromotive force
is equal to the potential difference between two points in an electric field. The
reciprocal of the electrical resistance is
called the electrical conductivity.

Q =

1 . Q mm 2
in
x

S/m

1 .
= in

Q mm 2
Frequency of public electric utility:
EU 50 Hz, USA/Canada 60 Hz
x

Frequency

hertz

Hz

1 Hz
= 1/s
1000 Hz = 1 kHz

Electrical energy

joule

1J
= 1 W s = 1 N m In atomic and nuclear physics the unit
1 kW h = 3.6 MJ
eV (electron volt) is used.
1 W h = 3.6 kJ

Phase
difference

<P

for alternating current:

C 0 S ( p =

The angle between current and voltage

in inductive or capacitive load.

ih

Elect, field strength

Elect, charge
Elect, capacitance
inductance

E
Q
C
L

volts per meter

coulomb
farad
henry

V/m
C
F
H

Power
Effective power

watt

1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N m/s
= 1 V-A

In electrical power engineering:

Apparent power S in V A

OK = -273.15C

degrees
Celsius

0C =273.15 K
0C = 32 F
0F = -17.77 C

Kelvin (K) and degrees Celsius (C) are

used for temperatures and temperature differences.
t= T- T0; T0 = 273.15 K
degrees Fahrenheit (F): 1.8 F = 1 C

joule

1J = 1 W s = 1 N m
1 kcal s 4.1868 kJ
1 kW-h = 3600000 J = 3.6 MJ

joule per
kilogram
Joule per
cubic meter

J/kg

1 MJ/kg = 1000000 J/kg

J/m 3

1 M J / m 3 = 1000000 J/m 3

1 C = 1 A 1 s; 1 A h = 3.6 kC
1 F = 1 C/V
1 H = 1 V s/A

Q=1 t

Thermodynamics and Heat transfer

Thermodynamic
temperature
Celsius
temperature

T,e kelvin

Quantity of
heat
Net calorific
value

Kiet

Thermal energy released per kg fuel

minus the heat of vaporization of the
water vapor contained in the exhaust
gases.

Non-SI units
Length

Area

1 inch = 25.4 mm
1 foot = 0.3048 m
1 yard = 0.9144 m
1 nautical
mile = 1.852 km
1 mile = 1.609 km

Volume
2

Mass

1 sq.in = 6.452 cm 1 cu.in

1 sq.ft = 9.29 dm 2 1 cu.ft
1 sq.yd = 0.8361 m 2 1 cu.yd
1 US gallon
1 Imp. gallon
Pressure
1 barrel
1 bar = 14.5 psi

=16.39
= 28.32
= 764.6
= 3.785
= 4.536
=158.8

cm
dm 3
dm 3
dm 3
dm 3
dm 3

Energy, Power

1 oz
1 lb
1 metric t
1 short ton
1 carat

= 28.35 g
= 453.6 g
= 1000 kg
= 907.2 kg
= 0.2 g

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

PSh
PS
kcal
kcal
kpm/s
Btu
hp

= 0.735 kWh
= 735 W
= 4186.8 Ws
= 1.166 Wh
= 9.807 W
= 1055 Ws
= 745.7 W

Prefixes of decimal factors and multiples

Prefix

pico

nano

micro

milli

centi

deci

deca

hecto

kilo

mega

giga

tera

M
10-6

da

Prefix symbol
Power of ten

1 0

- 1 2

10-

10"

10"

io-

Factor
3

1 mm = 10" m = 1/1000 m,

1 km = 1000 m,

10

10

10

10

10

10 12

Multiple
1 kg = 1000 g,

1 GB (Gigabyte) = 1000000000 bytes

Mathematics: 1.

23

en

Calculations in a right triangle

The Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle the square of the hypotenuse is equal
to the sum of the squares of the two sides.
Square of the
hypotenuse

a
b

side
side

hypotenuse

c 2 = a2 + b2

1st example:
c = 35 mm; a = 21 mm; b = ?
2

b = >/c -a

= 7(35 mm) -(21 mm) = 28 mm

Length of the
hypotenuse
c = \la2

+b2

2nd example:
CNC program with R= 50 mm and 1= 25 mm.
K=?
c2
=a2+b2
2
2
R = I + K2
K = Vfl 2 - 1 2 = V502 mm 2 - 25 2 mm 2
K = 43.3 mm

P2

Length of the sides

a = yjc2

-b2

\lc2

-a2

b =

Euclidean Theorem (Theorem of sides)

The square over one side is equal in area to a rectangle
formed by the hypotenuse and the adjacent hypotenuse
segment.
sides

hypotenuse

Square over the side

p, q hypotenuse segments

b2

Example:

a2 = c p

= c q

b/
f

a, b

A rectangle with c = 6 cm and p = 3 cm should be

changed into a square with the same area.

c
C'P

c-q

How long is the side of the square a?

a2 = c p
a = yjc p = V6cm -3 cm = 4.24 cm

Pythagorean theorem of height

The square of height h is equal in area to the rectangle of
the hypotenuse sections p and q.
h
height
p, q hypotenuse sections

/
/

Example:

q
P
p.q

Right triangle
p = 6 cm; q = 2 cm; h = ?
h2 = p q
h = Vp Q = 76 cm 2 cm = Vl2 cm 2 = 3.46 cm

Square of the height

h2 = p q

24

Mathematics: 1.

n t s

Division of lengths. Arc length. Composite length

Sub-dividing lengths
Edge distance = spacing
P

- A
i

n number of holes

Spacing

P=

Example:

n +1

1 = 2 m; n = 24 holes; p = ?
/
2000 mm
= 80 mm
P = n +1
24+1

Edge distance ^ spacing

P

I total length
p spacing

/ total length
p spacing

n
number of holes
a, b edge distances

Spacing
P =

Example:

eeeee

l-(a + b)
n-1

/ = 1950 mm; a = 100 mm; b = 50 mm;

n = 25 holes; p = ?
p=

Subdividing into pieces

l-(a + b) 1950 mm -150 mm

1:
n-1 : =
25-

_
75 mm

/ bar length
s saw cutting width
z number of pieces / r remaining length
/ s piece length

/
Ir

Number of pieces

Example:
/ = 6000mm; l s = 230 mm; s = 1.2 mm; z = ?; / r = ?
z =

/
6000 mm
_ _
.
=
= 25.95 = 25 pieces
/ s + s 230 m m + 1.2 mm

Remaining length

| /r = / - z - ( /

l r = l - z (/s + s) = 6000 m m - 2 5 (230 mm + 1.2 mm)

= 220 mm

Arc length
Example: Torsion spring

a angle at center
d diameter

l a arc length
r radius

Arc length

Example:
r = 36 mm; a = 120; L = ?
n-r-a
x- 36 mm -120

'a =

180

180

= 75.36 mm

Composite length
D
dm
/i, l 2
a

outside diameter
mean diameter
section lengths
angle at center

d inside diameter
t thickness
L composite length

Example (composite length, picture left):

D = 360 mm; t = 5 mm; a = 270; 12 = 70 mm;
dm = ?;L = ?
dm= D-t
L

=360 mm - 5 mm = 355 mm
=

+ /o

360
ji 355 mm 270+ 70 mm = 906.45 mm
360

Composite length
L = lA

+ l 2 + ...

25

Mathematics: 1.5 Lengths

Effective length, Spring wire length. Rough length

Effective lengths
Circular ring

D
d

dm
t

I
a

outside diameter
inside diameter
mean diameter
thickness
effective length
angle at center

Effective length
of a circular ring

/=nd
m
Effective length of a
circular ring sector
l =

j i - d

- a

360
Circular ring sector

Example (circular ring sector):

D = 36 mm; t = 4 mm; a = 240; dm = 1)1 = 1

d m = D - f = 36 mm - 4 mm = 32 mm
7x-dm-a
jt-32 mm -240
/ = =
= 67.02 mm
360
360c

Mean diameter
drn

dm

t
d+t

Spring wire length

Example: Compression spring

/
effective length of the helix
D m mean coil diameter
/
number of active coils

Effective length
of the helix

I = JT D /
2 n D,
m
M

(1 + 2)

1=71- Dm.

Example:

D m = 16 mm; /'= 8.5; / = ?

D,

I = ji D m /' + 2 it D m
= 71-16 mm 8.5 + 2 Jt 16 mm = 528 mm

Rough length of forged parts and pressed parts

When forming without scaling loss the volume of the rough
part is the same as the volume of the finished part. If there
is scaling loss or burr formation, this is compensated by a
factor that is applied to the volume of the finished piece.
Va volume of the rough part
volume of the finished part
addition factor for scaling loss or loss due to burrs
cross-sectional area of the rough part
cross-sectional area of the finished part
initial length of the addition
length of the solid forged part
Example:
A cylindrical peg d = 24 mm and I2 = 60 mm is pressed
onto a flat steel workpiece 50 x 30 mm. The scaling
loss is 10 %. What is the initial length ^ of the forged
addition?

scaling loss
Av I, = A 2

'1 =

(1 + q)
/ 2 - f l + g)

/ 2 - d + g)
A

jt (24 mm)2 60 mm (1 +0.1)

= 20 mm
4 50 mm 30 mm

Volume without scaling loss

Va-Ve
Volume with scaling
loss

Va=Ve

va=ve

(1 +

A| /<| =^2

q
q)
H + q)

26

Mathematics: 1.

Angular areas
Square
d

A area

/
/

/
/ '

length of diagonal

Area

length of side

A = l2

Example:

/ '

Length of diagonal

/ = 14 mm; A = 7; d=?
A =l2 = (14 mm) 2 = 196 mm 2
d = / 2 / = {2 14 mm = 19.8 mm

/t

d=fZ

Rhombus (lozenge)
A
/

area
length of side

Area

w width

A=l w

Example:
/ = 9 mm; w= 8.5 mm; A = ?
A = I w= 9 mm 8.5 mm = 76.5 mm 2

Rectangle
A
I

w width
d length of diagonal

area
length

Area

A=I w

Example:
Length of diagonal

/ = 12 mm; w = 11 mm; A = ?; d=?

A =1- w = 12 mm 11 mm = 132 mm 2
2

d = v / + w = V(12 mm) + (11 mm)

= 16.28 mm

\~l~7i

+ w2

Rhomboid (parallelogram)
A
/

area
length

Area

w width

A=I w

Example:
/ = 36 mm; w= 15 mm; A = ?

A =1 -w= 36 mm 15 mm = 540 mm 2

Trapezoid
A
/I
l2

area
longer length
shorter length

/ m average length
w width

Area
>1

Example:
/-i = 23 mm; l2 = 20 mm; w= 17 mm; A = 7
A.bk

23 mm + 20 mm
w=

+ /

'm

17 mm

Triangle
w width

Example:
ly = 62 mm; w = 29 mm; A = ?
U-w 62 mm 29 mm
_
M
A=J
=
899 mm 2
2
2

Average length

= 365.5 mm 2

>4 area
I
length of side

A = -2

Area

1 +

Mathematics: 1.

27

rea

Triangle, Polygon, Circle

Equilateral triangle
A
d
/
h
D

area
diameter of inscribed circle
length of side
height
diameter of circumscribed
circle
Example:
I = 42 mm; A = 7;

Diameter of
circumscribed circle

Area

D = yj3 I = 2- d
3
Diameter of
inscribed circle

A =--V3-/2=-V3-(42mm)2
4
4
- 763.9 mm 2

Triangle height

Regular polygons
Diameter of
area
inscribed circle
length of side
diameter of circumscribed
d = ^D2-12
circle
diameter of inscribed circle
Diameter of
no. of vertices
circumscribed
circle
angle at center
vertex angle

A
/
D
d
n
a

Example:

Area

>4 =

n-l-d

Length of side

Angle at center

Hexagon with D = 80 mm; / = ?; d = ?; A = 7

/ = D sin

f180 ^

a=

(180 ^
= 80mm-sin^ J = 40 mm

360c
n

Corner angle

= V D

- /

A/6400 m m 2 -1600 mm 2 - 69.282 mm

n - l - d 6 40 mm 69.282 mm
,
>4 = - =
4156.92 mm 2

P=

180-a

Calculation of regular polygon using table values

No. of
Vertices n

0.325 D2
0.500 D2

10
12

Diameter of
circumscribed circle D

Area A

0.595
0.649
0.707
0.735
0.750

2
1.299 d
2
1.000 d

0.433 I 2

D2 0.908 d2

1.721 / 2
2.598 I 2
4.828 I 2
7.694 / 2
11.196-1 2

D
D2
D2
D2

0.866

d
0.829 d2
0.812 d2
0.804 d2

1.000 - I 2

1.154
1.414
1.702

Diameter of
inscribed circle d

Length of side I

2.000
1.414

0.578 /
1.000 /

0.500
0.707

0.867
0.707

1.732
1.000

1.236
1.155
1.082
1.052
1.035

1.376
1.732
2.414
3.078
3.732

0.809

0.588
0.500
0.383
0.309
0.259

0.727
0.577
0.414
0.325
0.268

2.000

2.614
3.236
3.864

Example: Octagon with / = 20 mm

A = ?; D = ?
A * 4.828 I 2 = 4.828 (20 mm) 2 = 1931.2 mm 2 ;

/
/
/
I
/

0.866

0.924
0.951
0.966

D 2.614 / = 2.614 20 mm = 52.28 mm

Circle
A
d

area
diameter

circumference

Area

Example:
d = 60 mm; A = ?; C = ?
. ji-d2
A=
4
C = JI d =

JT (60 mm) 2
= 2827 mm 2
4
60 mm = 188.5 mm

Circumference

C=K- d

28

Mathematics: 1.

Circular sector, Circular segment. Circular ring. Ellipse

Circular sector
A
d
la

area
diameter
arc length

/
r
a

chord length
radius
angle at center

Area

Example:
d= 48 mm; a = 110; la = ?;A = ?
,
n-r-a
JI- 24 mm -110
L =
=
= 46.1 mm
180

L r
A = Ji=
2

180

46.1 mm-24 mm
_
- = 553 mm 2
2

Circular segment
Circular segment with a < 180c

A area
d diameter
/ a arc length
/ chord length
Example:

w width of segment
r radius
a angle at center

r = 30 mm; a = 120; / = ?; w=?;A

Area

=?

. a 0
. 120
/ =2-r-sin- = 2-30mm-sin
= 51.96 mm
2

/
a 51.96 mm
120 ^ ^
w = - - t a2 n - =
tan
14.999 mm = 15 mm
ji-d 4 a l-(r-w)
2
4
A =2
""4~ 360
2
2
n (60 mm) 1203 _ 51.96 mm (30 mm - 15 mm) Height of segment
4
360
2
I
a
= 552.8 mm2
w = - tan
Radius

Arc length
w

I2

r = +

JI

r-a

w = r-

180

8-w

I * - * -

Circular ring
A

area

outside diameter

d m mean
diameter

inside diameter

Area

A = n-dm w

width

Example:

A = -- (D2 - d2)
4

D= 160 mm; d= 125 mm; A = ?

A = - (D2 - d2) = - (1602 mm 2 -125 2 mm 2 )
4
4
2
= 7834 mm

Ellipse
A area
D length
Example:

d
C

diameter
Circumference

D = 65 mm; d = 20 mm; A = ?
D

. n-D d n 65mm 20mm

A=
=
4
4
= 1021 mm 2

Area

Jt D-d
Circumference

D+d
C Jt

29

Mathematics: 1.7 Volume and Surface area

Cube, Square prism, Cylinder, Hollow cylinder. Pyramid

Cube
/

V volume
>4S surface area

JL_

Volume

length of side

V=l3

Example:
1 = 20 mm; V=?;AS

Surface area

=?

As = 6 I2

V = / 3 = (20 mm) 3 = 8000 mm 3

As = 6 I 2 = 6 (20 mm) 2 = 2400 mm 2

Square prism
V volume
As surface area
/
length of side

Volume

h height
w width

V= I w h
Surface area

Example:

/ = 6 cm; w=3 cm; h = 2 cm; l / = ?

V= I w h = 6 cm 3 cm 2 cm = 36 cm 3

Ar = 2 [I w + I h + w h)

Cylinder
V volume
d diameter
As surface area
h height
Ac cylindrical surface area

Volume

Example:

Surface area

d= 14 mm; h = 25 mm; V= ?

jt-(14mm) 2

TC-d2
= Ji d /l + 2
Cylindrical surface area

25 mm

Ac = J I d h

= 3848 mm 3

Hollow cylinder
V volume
As surface area

D, d
diameter
h
height

Volume

Example:
D = 42 mm; d = 20 mm; h = 80 mm;
V=?
V=
-(D2-d2)
4
re 80 mm ( J _ 0
0
0.
=
(422 mm 2 - 2 0 2 mm 2 )
4
= 85703 mm 3

Surface area

A; = n-(D + d)

-(D-d)

+h

Pyramid
V volume
h height
hs slant height

/ length of base
li edge length
w width of base

Volume
v =

Edge length

Example:
/ = 1 6 m m ; w = 2 1 mm;/? = 45 mm; V= ?
V =

l-w-h

l-w-h
3

hs 2

16 mm 21 mm 45 mm

= 5040 mm 3

Slant height

, 2 I2
s=y h h
4

30

Mathematics: 1.7 Volume and Surface area

Truncated pyramid. Cone, Truncated cone, Sphere, Spherical segment

Truncated pyramid
V
volume
ly,l2 lengths of
base

>4i area of base

surface
A2 top surface

hs
slant height
h
height
w 1( w2 widths

Volume

Example:
/i = 40 mm; l 2 = 22 mm; w-\ = 28 mm;
w2 = 15 mm; h = 50 mm; V=?
Slant height
3
50 mm

(1120 + 330 + 71120-330) m m 2

= 34299 mm

=Jh2+l

'-'

Cone
V
Ac
d

volume
conical surface area
diameter

height
slant height

Volume

V=

n-d2

Conical surface area

Example:

=n-d-hs

d = 52 mm; h = 110 mm; V= ?

2

V =

Ti-d
h
4 *3
^(52 mm) 2 110 mm

Slant height

"s=JT

= 77870 mm 3

"2

Truncated cone
V
Ac
D

volume
conical surface area
diameter
of base

diameter
of top
height
slant height

Volume

.(D2+d2+D-d)

V =
12

Conical surface area

Example:
D = 100 mm; d= 62 mm; h = 80 mm; V= ?
2

V = --(D +d
12
tt 80 mm
12

Ac=K'h*.

(D + d)

c
2
Slant height

+ Dd)
0

(1002 + 62 2 +100 62) mm 2

= \jh

hs

= 419800 mm 3

+j

i2

Sphere
V
As

volume
surface area

diameter of sphere

Volume

Example:
d =9 mm; V=?
y_Tc-d3

jt-(9mm) 3

Surface area
= 382 mm 3

A, = Jt d2

Spherical segment
V volume
A\ lateral surface area
A s surface area
Example:

d
h

= 226 mm 3

Volume

V = ii-h2- d_h
2

Surface area

d = 8 mm; h = 6 mm; V= ?
o?
? ( 8 mm
= it 6 Z m m z

diameter of sphere
height

6 mm
3

I As = 7i h (2 d - h)
Lateral surface area

A\ = k d h

Mathematics: 1.

31

Volumes of composite solids, Calculation of mass

Volumes of composite solids
V total volume
V-\, V2 partial volumes

Total volume
V= V, +

V2+...-V3-Vt

Example:
Tapered sleeve; D = 42 mm; d= 26 mm;
d-i = 16 mm; h = 45 mm; V= ?
tt =

7
J.(D*+d2+Dd)
12
jt 45 mm ( J _ 0 __0 t n
0
(422 + 262 + 42 26) mm 2

12

..

= 41610 mm 3
JI -DF

Vj =

JI-16 2 m m 2

45 mm = 9048 m m J

2
4
4
V = Vy-V2 = 41610mm 3 -9048 mm 3 = 32562mm 3

Calculation of mass
Mass, general
m
V

mass
volume

density

Mass
m = V q

Example:
Workpiece made of aluminum;
V= 6.4 dm 3 ; e = 2.7 kg/dm 3 ; m = ?

Values for density of

solids, liquids and gases:
pages 116 and 117

kg
m = V g = 6A dm 3 2.7 3
dm
= 17.28 kg

Linear mass density

m mass
/
m' linear mass density

length

Linear mass density

m=

m' I

Example:
Steel bar with d = 15 mm;
m' = 1.39 kg/m; / = 3.86 m; m = ?
ka
= r 39 -3.86m
m = m'.l

Application: Calculating
the mass of profile sections, pipes, wires, etc.
using the table values for
m'

= 5.37 kg
Area mass density
m mass
A area
m" area mass density

Area mass density

m= m" A

Example:

<

Steel sheet
f =1.5 mm; m" = 11.8 kg/m 2 ;
A = 7.5 m 2 ; m = ?
m = m"->4 = 11.8 ^ -2- 7 . 5 m 2

- 88.5 kg

Application: Calculating
the mass of sheet metal,
foils, coatings, etc using
the table values for m"

32

Mathematics: 1.

n t s

Centroids of Lines and Plane Areas

Table of Contents

33

2 Physics
30

m
20
10

2.1

A/JI
L// J
A

Motion
Uniform and accelerated motion
Speeds of machines

34
35

Forces
Adding and resolving force vectors
Weight, Spring force
Lever principle, Bearing forces
Torques, Centrifugal force

36
36
37
37

Work, Power, Efficiency

Mechanical work
Simple machines
Power and Efficiency

38
39
40

Friction
Friction force
Coefficients of friction
Friction in bearings

41
41
41

Pressure in liquids and gases

Pressure, definition and types
Buoyancy
Pressure changes in gases

42
42
42

Strength of materials
Load cases, Load types
Safety factors, Mechanical strength properties ..
Tension, Compression, Surface pressure
Shear, Buckling
Bending, Torsion
Shape factors in strength
Static moment, Section modulus, Moment of inertia .
Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes ..

43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

Thermodynamics
Temperatures, Linear expansion, Shrinkage
Quantity of heat
Heat flux, Heat of combustion

51
51
52

Electricity
Ohm's Law, Conductor resistance
Resistor circuits
Types of current
Electrical work and power

53
54
55
56

0
1

2
time t

4 s 5

2.2

7><7i

2.3

F = Fr

2.4

Fu
fR

'

1 E
2.5

2.6

2.7

/1

A/

2.8

34

Physics: 2.1 Motion

Uniform motion and uniformly accelerated motion

Uniform motion
Linear motion
Displacement-time diagram

30

1m
1 20

to
1
cz 10
QJ
E
ai
CJ
u
"a. 0(
XJ

h
j t

>

v
t

velocity
time

displacement

S
V =

t
Example:

v = 4 8 km/h; s = 12 m; t= ?
_
km 48000 m 0 0 0 m
Conversion: 48 =
= 13.33
h
3600 s
s
12m
t=* =
= 0.9 s
v 13.33 m/s

vl*

1
2
time t

Velocity

4 s 5

-m
m o c km
1 =60
=3.6
s
min
h
1k m
ic cc-7 m
1 = 16.667
h
min
= 0.2778
s

Circular motion
v

circumferential velocity,
cutting speed

a) angular velocity

rotational speed
radius

diameter

Circumferential
velocity
ji d n

Example:
Pulley, d = 250 mm; n= 1400 m i n - 1 ;
v = ?; a) = ?
1400
Conversion: n = 1400 min - 1 =
= 23.33 S"1
60s
v

m
=ji . d n = n 0.25 m 23.33 S"1 = 18.3

to =2 x n = 2 it -23.33s~1 -146.6 s" 1

For a cutting speed of a circumferential velocity
see page 35.

V = co r

Angular
velocity

... 2 ii
1

= min-1 =

min

60 s

Uniformly accelerated motion

Linear accelerated motion
Velocity-time diagram

tl
*

t M
n
ia = 3 -.2
/
s

The increase in velocity per second is called acceleration; and a decrease is deceleration. Free fall is
uniformly accelerated motion on which gravitational
acceleration g is acting.

\ \V

t^r-

V
2
time t

4 s 5

1st example:

Terminal or initial
velocity
V =a-t
V = ^'2-a-s

Object, free fall from s = 3 m; v= ?

Displacement-time diagram

s
a

terminal velocity (acceleration),

or initial velocity (deceleration)
displacement
t time
acceleration
g gravitational
acceleration

The following applies

to acceleration from
rest or deceleration to
rest:

12

m
a = g = 9.81
s2
2
V = V2 a s = yjl 9.81 m/s 3 m = 7.7
s

Displacement due to
acceleration/
deceleration

1
2

2nd example:

1
2
time t

Vehicle, v= 80 km/h; a = 7 m/s 2 ;

Braking distance s = ?
__ km 80000 m m
Conversion: v = 80 =
= 22.22
h
3600 s
s
v =V22 a s
v
(22.22 m/s)2 o c ,
s =
=
- r - = 35.3 m
2 a
2 - 7 m/s 2

1
S =

f 2

2
V2

s =

2 a

Physics: 2.1 Motion

Speeds of machines
Feed rate
Feed rate
for drilling, turning

Vf feed rate
n rotational speed

Turning

Milling

feed

fx
N
P

feed per cutting edge

number of cutting edges, or
number of teeth on the pinion
thread pitch

pitch of rack and pinion

Vf = n f

Feed rate
for milling

1st example:
Cylindrical milling cutter, z= 8; ft = 0.2 mm;
n = 45/min; v f = ?
0.2 mm 8 = 72
v . =rr t N = 45
min
min

Screw
drive

2nd example:
Feed drive with threaded spindle,
P = 5 mm; n = 112/min; v f = ?
__ .
1 n
.
mm
v< n P 112
5 mm = 560
min
min

Threaded spindle
with pitch P
Rack and
pinion

vf = n ft N

Feed rate
for screw drive
= n -P

3rd example:
Feed of rack and pinion,
n = 80/min; d = 75 mm; v f = ?
1
Vf = Ji d n = ji 75 mm 80
min
m
= 18850
=18.85
min
min

Feed rate for

rack and pinion
Vf = n N- P

Vf = 71 'd n

Cutting speed, Circumferential velocity

Cutting speed

vc cutting speed
v circumferential velocity
d
n

Cutting speed

diameter
rotational speed

vc = n d

Example:
Turning, n = 1200/min; d= 35 mm; vc = ?
1
vc = n-d n = it 0.035 m 1200
min
= 132 m
min

Circumferential
velocity

Circumferential
velocity
v= it d n

Average speed of crank mechanism

va average speed
n number of double strokes
s stroke length
Example:
Power hacksaw,
s = 280 mm; n = 45/min; va = ?
1

va = 2 - s n= 2 - 0.28 m 45
min
= 25.2 m
min

Average speed
Va = 2 S n

36

Physics: 2.

Types of forces
Adding and resolving forces
Chosen for the following
examples /ty = 10

Fy, F2 component forces

Fr
resultant force

vector magnitude
(length)

Vector magnitude

/=

s c a l e o f f o r c e s
Representing forces
Forces are represented by vectors.
The length / of the vector corresponds to the
magnitude of the force F.

Adding collinear forces acting in the same direction

F:
Fr

Sum

Example: F 1 = 80N; F 2 = 1 6 0 N ; Fr = ?
Fx = ^ + F2 = 80 N + 160 N = 240 N

Fr=F1

Subtracting collinear forces acting in opposite directions

Addition and resolution of forces

whose lines of action intersect

Addition

Example of graphical addition:

v-11fto c
^ = 120 N; F 2 = 170 N; y = 118;
M f = 10 N/mm; F r = ?; measured: / = 25 mm
F r = / /V7f = 25 mm 10 N/mm = 250 N
Resolution
Example of graphical resolution:
F r = 260 N; a = 90; =15; M f = 10 N/mm;
Ft = ?; F 2 = ?; measured: /t = 7 mm; l 2 = 27 mm
Ft = /t /Wf = 7 mm 10 N/mm = 70 N
F 2 = / 2 M f = 27 mm 10 N/mm = 270 N

F2

Difference

Example: F 1 = 240 N; F 2 = 90 N; F r = ?
Fr = ^ - F 2 = 240 N - 90 N = 150 N

Fr

X V

M<

Fr=F,-F2

Solving a force diagram by

adding or resolving
(force vectors)
Shape of
the force
diagram

Required
trigonometric
function

Force diagram sine,

with right
cosine,
angles
tangent
Force diagram Law of sines,
with oblique
Law of
angles
cosines

Forces of acceleration and deceleration

A force is required to accelerate or decelerate a mass.
F acceleration force
a acceleration
m mass
Example:
m = 50 kg; a = 3m
;
s2

F=?

Acceleration force
F= m a
4 H 4 1
m
1 N = 1 kg

F = m a = 50 k g 3 ^ = 150 k g ^ = 150 N
s2
s2

Weight

m =1kg

Gravity generates a weight force on a mass.

Fw weight
g gravitational
m
mass
acceleration
Example:
I-beam, m = 1200 kg; Fw = ?

' F w = 9,81 N

F w = m g = 1200 kg 9.81 ^ = 11772 N

Weight
|

Fw=

m ~

~ rn m
<7 = 9.81r10r-2
s2
s
Calculation
page 31

of

mass:

Spring force (Hooke's law)

The force and corresponding linear expansion
of a spring are proportional within the elastic range.
F spring force
s spring displacement
R spring constant

Spring force
F = R S

Example:
Compression spring, R = 8 N/mm; s = 12 mm; F = ?
0 10 20 mm 40
spring
displacement s

F = R s= 8 12 mm = 96 N
mm

Change in spring force

AF= /? As

Physics: 2.

37

orce

Torque, Levers, Centrifugal force

Torque and levers
Single-ended lever

The effective lever arm is the right angle distance Moment

between the fulcrum and the line of application of
M= F I
the force. For disk shaped rotating parts the lever
arm corresponds to the radius r.
M
moment
F force
Lever principle
/
effective lever arm
2M\ sum of all counter-clockwise moments
DM, = l M r
lMr
sum of all clockwise moments
Example:
Angle lever, Fy = 30 N; l<\ = 0.15 m; l 2 = 0.45 m;
F2 = ?
F,-/-, 30 N -0.15 m
= 10 N
F,=
0.45 m
U

Lever principle with

only 2 applied forces
F,-h

F2- l:

Bearing forces
Example of bearing forces

A bearing point is treated as a fulcrum in calculating

bearing forces.
F A , Fb bearing forces
/, / l f l2 effective
F 1 f F2 forces
lever arms

Lever principle
|

2My = !Mr

Example:

TF

Overhead travelling crane, F| = 40 kN; F2 = 15

kN; /, = 6 m; l 2 = 8 m; / = 12 m; F A = ?
Solution: B is selected as fulcrum point; the
bearing force F A is assumed on a singleended lever.
Ft A, +F2 I2 40 kN 6 m + 15 kN 8 m
FA =
= 30 kN
I
12 m

Bearing force at A

Torque in gear drives

The lever arm of a gear is half of its reference diame- Torques
ter d. Different torques result if two engaging gears
Ft1 di
do not have the same number of teeth.
M-| =
2
Driven gear
Driving gear
F t 1 tangential force
F t 2 tangential force
Ft2-d2
M1 torque
M 2 torque
m2 =
di reference diameter
d2 reference diameter
2
Zy number of teeth
z2 number of teeth
n-1 rotational speed
n2 rotational speed
m2 = i- M<\
/ gear ratio

m2

m2

Example:
Gears, /'= 12; M^ = 60 N m; M2 = ?
M2 = / M-i = 12 60 N m = 720 N m

MI

m
n2

For gear ratios for gear drives see page 259.

Centrifugal force
Centrifugal force F c when a mass is made to move
along a curvilinear path, e.g. a circle.
Centrifugal force
F c centrifugal force w angular velocity
m mass
v circumferential velocity
Fr= m r o):
r radius
Example:

m v'
Fc =

Turbine blade, m = 160 g; v= 80 m/s;

d = 400 mm; F c = ?
c

0.16 kg (80 m/sP = ^

0.2 m

kg_m
s2

38

Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency

Work and Energy

Mechanical work, lifting work and frictional work
Work is performed when a force acts along a distance.
F
force in direction of travel W
work
Fw weight
s
force distance

Work

Fr
Fn

Lifting work

friction force
normal force

s, h height of lift
/j
coefficient of
friction

1st example:

W= Fw h

Frictional work

F= 300 N; s = 4 m; W = ?
W= F- s=300 N - 4 m = 1200 N m = 1200 J

Krl
I

W= F s

F = FR
FR

2nd example:

1J=1 N 1 m
kg m 2
= 1W s=1

Frictional work, F N = 0.8 kN; s = 1.2 m; /x = 0.4; W= ?

W= n FN s = 0.4 800 N 1.2 m = 384 N m = 384 J 1 kW h = 3.6 MJ

Energie of position
Energy of
position

Wn

FG

Spring energy

Energie of position is stored work (energy of position,

spring energy).
E, Wp energy of position
Fw
weight
F
force

R
spring constant
s, h travel, lift or fall
height, spring
displacement

Example:

Energy of position
|

Wp-fw-s'

Energy of the spring

Drop hammer, m = 30 kg; s = 2.6 m; Wp = ?

m

W 0 = F W s = 30 kg 9.81 2.6 m = 765 J

Kinetic energy
Linear motion
m

Rotational motion (rotation)

Kinetic
E, l/l/k
co
J

energy is energy of motion.

kinetic energy or work
v velocity
angular velocity
m mass
mass moment of inertia

Kinetic energy
of linear motion

Example:
Drop hammer, m = 30 kg; s = 2.6 m; W k = ?
v = j2-g-s
m,

'

= yj2-9.81 m/s 2 2.6 m = 7.14 m/s

v 2

30kg-(7.14m/s)2

W^ = =

= /bo J

Kinetic energy
of rotational motion
l/K =

J-co2

Golden Rule of Mechanics

"What is gained in force is lost in distance".
W,
Fy
s^
Fw
h

input work
input force
displacement of
force Ft
weight
height of lift

W 2 output work
F 2 output force
s 2 displacement of
force F 2
rj
efficiency

Example:
Lifting device, Fw = 5 kN; h = 2 m; F= 300 N; s = ?
F w -/7
s=

5000 N 2 m
= 33.3 m
300 N

"Golden Rule"
of Mechanics
W<\

W2

^ ST = F 2 . s2
FT St = F\N h
Allowing for
friction
W2
ri

39

Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency

Simple machines
Movable pulley11

Fixed pulley1)
F-\ = Fw

Fi =
c

s-i = h

St = 2 h

i o)
W2 =

Block and tackle

FSN-h

11

Fi~-F

wi

Inclined plane
n

W2 = Fw h

11

no. of load-bearing
ropes, pulleys

a angle of inclination
F2=Fvj
Ft ST = Fw h

[
F 2 = Fw L . U

s<\ = n h
w2 =

Wedge 11
F2=FW

Bolt 11
P thread pitch
/ lever arm
For 1 full turn

angle of inclination
tan/3 incline

jy* 'Vi

iy xi
., i

q|K

[
|

Wo = Fo h

w 2 = F2 P

Gear winch 11

Hoisting winch 11
/
d
nD

crank length
drum
diameter
number of turns
of the drum
Fi / =

fw-d

h = j i d Hp

l
d
/

crank length
drum
diameter
gear
ratio
Fi / / =

F^-d

/ =

F2 = F w
W2 =

1)

St = 2 jt /

W i = Fi 2 j i /

s 2 = s-i tan/?

II

Fi 2 j i / = Fo P

FSN-h

W2 = F\m h

The formulae apply to a hypothetical frictionless condition, wherein the output work 14/-! is equal to the input work
W2.

40

Physics: 2.3 Work, Power, Efficiency

Power and Efficiency

Power in linear motion
Power

Power is work per unit time.

P
power
s
W

work

velocity

displacement in
the force direction
time

1st example:
Forklift, F = 15 kN; v= 25 m/min; P= ?
P = F v - 15000 N-

60s

= 6250

= 6250 W = 6.25 kW

2nd example:
Crane lifts a machine, m = 1.2 t; s = 2.5 m;
f = 4.5 s; P = ?

J
1 W =1 s
Nm

Fw = m g = 1200 kg 9.81 m/s 2 = 11772 N

filLf.11772N.Z5m
P =
t
4.5 s

=1

1 kW = 1.36 PS

For power in pumps and cylinders see page 371.

Power in circular motion

P
M
F
v

power
torque
tangential force
velocity

s
t
n
cu

displacement in the force direction

time
rotational speed
angular velocity

Power
F> =F- V
P= F- 7i d - n

Example:
Belt drive, F= 1.2 kN; d= 200 mm; n = 2800/min; P= ?

P=

M 2-:rc

P = F-n-d-n
= 1.2 k N . * . 0 . 2 m - ^ = 3 5 . 2 ^ = 35.2 kW
60s
s
Numerical equation:
Enter > M in N m, n in 1/min
Result > P in kW

P = M w
or:
Power
P =

For cutting power in machine tools see pages 299 and 300.

M-n

9550

Efficiency
input
power

output
power
PQ2 = P2

-ffl-

Efficiency refers to the ratio of power

power or work input.
Pi input power
P2
Wi input work
W2
rj total efficiency
?7i, rj2

or work output to the

output power
output work
partial efficiencies

'1
n1 =

gearbox

motor

Efficiency

Example:
Belt drive, Py = 4 kW; P 2= 3 kW;

12

1 =

rj = rjvi72

P22 3 kW
_
=
= 0.75,
Pi 4kW

T/o =
2

n
^

= 85%; rj = ?;rj2 = ?
=

0.75

_
=0.88

0.85

Fotal efficiency
1
M7 = ^71 -V2-V3---

Efficiencies 7 (approximate values)

Brown coal power station
Coal power station
Natural gas power station
Gas turbine
Steam turbine (high pressure)
Water turbine
Cogeneration

0.32
0.41
0.50
0.38
0.45
0.85
0.75

Gasoline engine
Automobile diesel engine (partial load)
Automobile diesel engine (full load)
Large diesel engine (partial load)
Large diesel engine (full load)
Three phase AC motor
Machine tools

0.27
0.24
0.40
0.33
0.55
0.85
0.75

Screw thread
Pinion gear
Worm gear,/'= 40
Friction drive
Chain drive
Wide V-belt drive
Hydrostatic transmission

0.30
0.97
0.65
0.80
0.90
0.85
0.75

Physics: 2.

41

ricin

Types of friction. Coefficients of friction

Friction force
Static friction, sliding friction

IF*

'N

Static friction, sliding friction

Fn

The resulting friction force is dependent on the normal

force F N and the
Friction force for static
type of friction, i.e. static, sliding or rolling friction
and
sliding friction
frictional condition (lubrication condition):
dry, mixed or viscous friction.
Ff = ^ F,
N
surface roughness
material pairing (material combination)
These effects are all incorporated into the experimentally
determined coefficient of friction /z.
Friction force
Fn normal force f coefficient of rolling friction
for rolling friction1'
Fp friction force fi coefficient of friction
r radius
f Ft
N
Fc =
1st example:
Plain bearing, F N = 100 N; \x = 0.03; F F = ?
/=p = M . F n = 0.03 100 N = 3 N

Rolling friction
2nd example:
Crane wheel on steel rail, Fn = 45 kN; d = 320 mm;
f = 0.5 mm; F F = ?
f F n 0.5 mm -45000 N
Fc =
= 140.6 N
r
160 mm

1)

caused by elastic
deformation between roller body
and rolling surface

Coefficients of friction (guideline values)

Material pairing

Example of application

steel/steel
steel/cast iron
steel/Cu-Sn alloy
steel/Pb-Sn alloy

Coefficient of static friction /jl Coefficient of sliding friction n

dry

lubricated

dry

vise guide
machine guide
shaft in solid plain bearing
shaft in multilayer plain bearing

0.20

0.10

0.20

0.15

0.20

0.10
0.10

0.15
0.18
0.10
0.10

0.10-0.05
0.10-0.08
0.06-0.03 2 '
0.05-0.03 2 '

steel/polyamide
steel/PTFE
steel/friction lining
steel/wood

shaft in PA plain bearing

low temperature bearing
shoe brake
part on an assembly stand

0.30
0.04

0.15
0.04
0.30

0.55

0.10

0.30
0.04
0.55
0.35

0.12-0.03 2 '
0.04 2)
0.3-0.2
0.05

wood/wood
cast iron/Cu-Sn alloy
rubber/cast iron
rolling element/steel

underlay blocks
adjustment gib
belts on a pulley
anti-friction bearing3', guideway 3 '

0.50
0.28
0.50

0.20

0.30

0.10

0.16

0.20

0.20-0.10

2>

3)

0.15

0.60

lubricated

0.003-0.001

The significance of the material pairing decreases with increasing sliding speed and presence of mixed and viscous
friction.
Calculation performed in spite of rolling movement, because it is typically similar to calculations of static or sliding
friction.

Coefficients of rolling friction (guideline values)41

Material pairing

Example of application

steel/steel
plastic/concrete
rubber/asphalt

steel wheel on a guide rail

caster wheel on concrete floor
car tires on the street

Coefficient of rolling friction f in mm

0.5
5
8

4)

Data on coefficients
of rolling friction can
vary considerably in
technical literature.

Friction moment and friction power in bearings

M
FN

friction moment
normal force
friction power

coefficient
of friction
diameter
rotational speed

Example:
Steel shaft in a Cu-Sn plain bearing, /x = 0.05;
F N = 6kN; d= 160 mm; M= ?
FF = /Y-FN

M=

fx-FN-d

0.05 6000 N 0.16 m

= 24 N m

Friction moment
d
2
Friction power
d-n

42

Physics: 2.5 Pressure in liquids and gases

Types of pressure
Pressure
p
F

Pressure

area

P =

Example:

5 2 1

pressure
force

F= 2 MN; piston 0 d = 400 mm; p = ?

F 2000000N ^
N
P = ^r= ^ ^ = 1 5 9 1 ? = 1 5 9 1
A JI (40 cm) 2
cm 2

Units of pressure
b a r

r
For calculations on hydraulics and pneumatics see page 370.

1 Pa

= 1-^=0.00001
bar
2

1 bar

=10 r- = 0.1 r-

mm"

cm'

1 mbar = 100 Pa = 1 hPa

Gage pressure, air pressure, absolute pressure

pe

gage pressure (excedens, excess)

' pressure (ambient, surroundings)
absolute pressure

+1

bar

bar

Q.

pabs

<D

i-

gj

O) m

(0 t0 _ o) a

air
pressure

W
qj
> a>

0-L-1

Gage pressure

a r

Pamb

Pe ~ P a b s

The gage pressure is

positive, if p a b s > p a m b and
negative, if p a b s < p a m b (vacuum)
Pamb =

Example:

~ Q- Ci.P a m b
O) O)
cu to 3
CO)t/3 -vacuum

Pamb

-013 bar 1 bar

(standard air pressure)

Car tires, p e = 2.2 bar; p a m b = 1 bar; p a b s = ?

Pabs = Pe

+ Pamb

= 2.2 bar + 1 bar = 3.2 bar

Hydrostatic pressure, buoyancy

p e hydrostatic pressure,
inherent pressure
q density of the liquid
g

F B buoyant force
V displaced volume
h depth of liquid

Hydrostatic pressure

Pe = 9- Q- h

gravitational acceleration
IBuoyant force

Example:

density q
pressure

p.= g e- /I =9.81
= 98100

kg

22

1000 39 10 m
m
m

F* = 9 e V

_ _ m
m
g = 9.81 - r 10-r-

= 98100 Pa 1 bar

m s"

For density values, see page 117.

Pressure changes in gases

Condition 1

Compression
condition 1

condition 2
Pabs 2
l/ 2
T2

Pabsi

Pabsi

7"i

Condition 2

absolute pressure
volume
absolute
temperature

Pabs2

V2
T2

absolute pressure
volume
absolute
temperature

dm3 5

T2

| Pabsi

What is the pressure

constant volume

Pabs2 "
1 2 3
volume V

T-,

A compressor aspirates V^ = 30 m 3 of air at

1
Pabsi =
bar and f-| = 15C and compresses
it to V2 = 3.5 m 3 and t2 = 150C.
pabS2?

Calculation of absolute temperatures (page 51):

r n = f n + 273 = (15 + 273) K = 288 K
T2 = t2 + 273 = (150 + 273) K = 423 K

>

P a b s 2 ' V2

Pabsi '

Special cases:
constant temperature

Example:

Boyle's Law
5
bar
i 4

Ideal gas law

Pabsi - V r

T2

TVV2
1 bar 30 m 3 423 K
= 12.6 bar
288 K 3.5 m 3

= P a b s 2 V2

Pabsi

Pabs2

T,

T2

constant pressure

T,

T2

Physics: 2.

43

o e r i

Load cases, Types of loading, Material properties, Stress limits

Load cases
static loading

dynamic loading
pulsating

alternating

Load case II
The load increases to a maximum
value and then falls back to zero,
e.g. for crane cables and springs.

Load case III

The load alternates between a positive and a negative maximum value
of equal magnitude, e.g. for rotating
axles.

stationary

time

Load case I
Magnitude and direction of the load
remain the same, e.g. for a weight
load on columns.

Types of loading, material properties, stress limits

Type of load

Tension

'///////<

Stress

tensile
stress

Material properties
Limit values
Deformation
Strength
for plastic
deformation
tensile
strength
Rm

M
Compression

compression
stress
Or

yield strength

elongation

Re

0.2%-yield
point
R,p0.2

elongation
at fracture

compression
strength

natural
compression
yield point

cB

cF

Y77777Z
Bending

bending
stress

bending
strength

m .

tfb

ObB

compression set

0.2%-offset compressive
yield strength
failure

OcO.2
cB
bending
deflection
limit

Standard stress limits <7|;m

for load case

II

III

material
ductile brittle
(steel)
(cast
iron)
Rn
Ra
Rp0.2

pulsating
tensile
fatigue
strength

alternating
tensile
fatigue
strength

material
ductile brittle
(steel)
(cast
iron)

pulsating
compression
fatigue
strength

cB
tfcO.2

bending
limit

t>F

^tpuls

alternating
compression
fatigue
strength

^cpuls

pulsating
bending
fatigue
strength
a

alternating
bending
fatigue
strength

bpuls

tfbA

pulsating
torsional
fatigue
strength

alternating
torsional
fatigue
strength

m
Shear

shear
stress

shear
strength

shear
strength
T

sB

rSB

Torsion

torsional
stress

torsional
strength

torsional
limit

*tF

angular
deflection

torsional
limit

*tF

tpuls

Mt
Buckling

buckling
stress

buckling
strength

^bu

buB

buckling
strength

rtA

44

Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials

Mechanical strength properties, Allowable stresses, Safety factors

Mechanical strength properties in static and dynamic loading11
Type of load
Load case
Stress
limit or Hm

Tension, Compression
I

II

Rp0.2
cF> c0.2

Shear

III

Bending

^tpuls

tfbF

cpuls

Torsion

II

III

b puis

bA

*tF

III

II
T

tpuls

tA

Stress limit a|j m in N/mm 2

Material
S235
S275
E295
E335
E360

235
275
295
335
365

235
275
295
335
365

150
180
210
250
300

290
340
390
470
550

330
380
410
470
510

290
350
410
470
510

170
200
240
280
330

140
160
170
190
210

140
160
170
190
210

120
140
150
160
190

C15
17Cr3
16MnCr5
20MnCr5
18CrNiMo7-6

440
510
635
735
835

440
510
635
735
835

330
390
430
480
550

600
800
880
940
960

610
710
890
1030
1170

610
670
740
920
1040

370
390
440
540
610

250
290
360
420
470

250
290
360
420
470

210
220
270
310
350

340
490
580
650
800
900
1050

340
490
580
630
710
760
870

220
280
325
370
410
450
510

400
560
680
720
800
880
1000

490
700
800
910
1120
1260
1470

410
520
600
670
750
820
930

240
310
350
390
440
480
550

245
350
400
455
560
630
735

245
350
480
455
510
560
640

165
210
240
270
330
330
375

GS-38
GS-45
GS-52
GS-60

200
230
260
300

200
230
260
300

160
185
210
240

300
360
420
480

260
300
340
390

260
300
340
390

150
180
210
240

115
135
150
175

115
135
150
175

90
105
120
140

EN-GJS-400
EN-GJS-500
EN-GJS-600
EN-GJS-700

250
300
360
400

240
270
330
355

140
155
190
205

400
500
600
700

350
420
500
560

345
380
470
520

220
240
270
300

200
240
290
320

195
225
275
305

115
130
160
175

C22E
C45E
C60E
46Cr2
41Cr4
50CrMo4
30CrNiMo8

1)

Values were determined using cylindrical samples having d < 16 mm with polished surface. They apply to structural steels in normalized condition; case hardened steels for achieving core strength after case hardening and
grain refinement; heat treatable steels in tempered condition.
The compression strength of cast iron with flake graphite is o c b 4 R m .
Values according to DIN 18800 are to be used for structural steelwork.

Allowable stress for (pre-)sizing of machine parts

For safety reasons parts may only be loaded with a portion of the stress limit <7|jm which will
lead to permanent deformation, fracture or fatigue fracture.
fallow allowable stress
v
safety factor (table below )

C7|jm stress limit depending on

type of loading and load case

Allowable stress
(preliminary design)

Example:
What is the allowable tensile stress fallow for a hexagonal bolt ISO 4017 - M12 x 50 10.9, if a safety factor of 1.5 is required with static loading?
N
N
a|im
a m - / ? e - 1 0 . 9 . 1 0 - - = 900
- ; a,f,allow =
mm'
mm'
v
v

allow

900 N/mm 2
N
= 600 3
1.5
1.5
mm

For mechanical strength properties for bolts see page 211.

Safety factors v for (pre-)sizing machine parts

Load case
Type of material
Safety factor v
1)

1 (static)
ductile materials,
e.g. steel
1.2-1.8

II and III (dynamic)

brittle materials,
e.g. cast iron
2.0-4.0

ductile materials,
e.g. steel
3-4 1 >

brittle materials,
e.g. cast iron
3-61)

The high margins of safety in part sizing relative to the stress limits are intended to compensate for yet unknown
strength-reducing effects due to part shape (for shape-related strength factors see page 48).

Physics: 2.

45

o e r i

Tensile stress, Compressive stress, Surface pressure

Tensile stress
The calculation of allowable stress only applies to static Tensile stress
loading (Load case I).
F
0[
tensile stress
R e yield strength
F
tensile force
Rm tensile strength
S
cross-sectional area
v
safety factor
fallow allowable tensile stress F a n o w allowable tensile force Allowable tensile force
Example:
Round bar steel, <7t,allow = 1

3 0

N/mm 2

Allowable tensile stress

(S235JR, v = 1.8); Faiiow = 13.7 kN; d= ?

s

13700N

=
a

t , allow

130 N / m m

m m 2
2

for
steel

t , allow

Re

c =12 mm (according to table, page 10)

for
For mechanical strength properties Re and R m see pages 130 cast
iron
to 138. For calculation of elastic elongation see page 190.

t , allow

Compressive stress
The calculation of allowable stress only applies to static
loading (Load case I).
compressive force
tfcF compression yield point F
^aiiowallowable comp. force
compressive stress
cross-sectional area
fallow allowable comp. stress S
R m tensile strength
v
safety factor

Compressive stress

Allowable
compressive force

Example:
Rack made of EN-GJL-300; S= 2800 mm 2 ;
=
?
v = 2.5; F.
allow
Fallow

c, allow " ^

4-a S

4-300N/mm 2
2800 mm 2 =1 344000 N
2.5
For mechanical strength properties see page 44 and pages 160-161

Allowable
compressive stress
for
steel
for
cast
iron

"cF
c, allow

4-a
c, allow

Surface pressure
A'l-b

force

surface pressure

contact surface,
projected area

Example:
Two metal sheets, each 8 mm thick, are joined with a
bolt DIN 1445-1 Oh 11 x 16 x 30. How great a force may
be applied given a maximum allowable surface pressure of 280 N/mm 2 ?
N
F = p. A = 280
8 mm 10 mm
mm'
22400 N

Surface pressure

Allowable surface pressure for joints with pins and bolts

made of steel (standard values)
Assembly type
Load case
Component material
S235
E295
cast steel
cast iron
CuSn, CuZn alloy
AlCuMg alloy
For reference values for allowable

Sliding fit smooth

Fit with notched piece
Press fit smooth pin
I
I
II
II
III
I
II
III
allowable surface pressure in N/mm 2
25
30
25
100
70
35
70
50
30
30
25
40
75
55
105
75
25
60
45
20
30
60
30
85
40
30
25
50
35
20
70
50
30
10
40
30
30
15
20
40
15
45
35
15
20
45
25
65
specific bearing load of various plain bearing materials see page 261.

bolt
III
10
10
10
15
15
10

46

Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials

Shear and buckling stress

Shear stress
Shear stress
The loaded cross-section must not shear.
rs
shear stress
Fallow allowable shear force

allow allowable shear stress S

rsB

shear strength

cross-sectional area
safety factor

Example:

Allowable
shear stress

Dowel pin 0 6 mm, single-shear loaded,

E 295,v = 3; Fallow =?
__ r s B _ 390 N/mm 2
N
T

s,allow

singleshear

allow

doubleshear

v
Ti-d2
=S T

sB

s, allow

-130

3
mm'
jt (6 mm) 2
= 28.3 mm 2
= 28.3 mm 2 -130 N

s, allow

= 3679 N

mm"

For mechanical strength properties r s B and safety factors see page 44.

Allowable shear force

fallow ~~ S ' 7 s , allow

Cutting of materials
The loaded cross-section must be sheared.
T

sB max max. shear strength

Rm m a x max. tensile strength

k\\\\y

Punching a 3 mm thick steel sheet S235JR;

d= 16 mm; F= ?

sBmax ~ 0-8- /?,mmax

Example:

S3

V\KV

S shear area
F
cutting force

Maximum
shear strength

Cutting force

flmmax = 470 N/mm 2 (Table page 130)

^sBmax * 0.8 H m m a x = 0.8 470 N/mm 2 = 376 N/mm 2

S=C-s

F= S r sBmax

S = ji d s = ji 16 mm 3 mm = 150.8 m m 2
F = S r sB max = 150.8 m m 2 376 N/mm 2 = 56701 N
= 56.7 kN

f = nI'd

For mechanical strength properties Rm

max1or

steel, see pages 130 to 138

Buckling stress (Euler columns)

Calculation for buckling of Euler columns applies only to
thin (profile) parts and within the elastic range of the
workpiece.
Allowable buckling
F b u aiiow allowable buckling force E Modulus of elasticity force

Load case and free buckling

lengths (Euler columns)
Load case

II

III

IV

/
/bU
v

length
/ Moment of inertia
free buckling length
safety factor (in machine construction 3-10)

Example:
Beam IPB200, / = 3.5 m; clamped at both ends;
v = 10; F b u a i i o w = ?; E = 210000 N/mm 2 = 21 106 N/cm 2
(table below); 71* = 2000 cm 4
2
21 106 -ilL 2000 cm 4
n 2 o i rc
c

b u , allow

cm'

(0.5 350 cm) 2 10

= 1.35 - 10 6 N= 1.35 MN

MJ

free buckling lengths

"

/gu v

1)

for moments of inertia of an area (2nd moment), see pages

and 146-151. Special calculation methods are stipulated
for structural steel according to DIN 18800 and DIN 4114.

/bu=2-/ / bu =/ lbu=0.1-l /bu=0.5-/49

Modulus of elasticity Ein kN/mm 2

steel

EN-GJL150

EN-GJL300

EN-GJS400

GS-38

EN-GJMW350-4

CuZn40

Al alloy

T1 alloy

196-216

80-90

110-140

170-185

210

170

80-100

60-80

112-130

Physics: 2.

47

o e r i

Bending and torsional stress

Bending stress
Tensile and compressive stresses occur in a member
during bending. The maximum stress is calculated in
boundary areas of the member; they may not exceed
the allowable bending stress.
<7b bending stress
Mb bending moment
W

F
f

bending force
deflection

Bending stress

axial section modulus

Example:
Beam IPE-240, W= 324 cm 3 (page 149); clamped at
one end; concentrated load F= 25 kN; / = 2.6 m; a b = ?
(^

N
200
*NUI
mnr

* jf l r tu n

324 cm 3

Allowable bending
stress a b anow
from page 44

cm"

Bending load cases in beams

Beam loaded with a concentrated load

Beam with a uniformly distributed load

fixed at one end

fixed at one end

F -F' I

/Wk=F-/

f =

F /3

Mk =

F /3

f =

3 EI

F /

E I

supported at both ends

supported at both ends

5 F I3
f =
384 E I
fixed at both ends

fixed at both ends

F /

Mk =

r =r i

F -/3
f =
192 E /

y W j i yJJ

fI

F /
12
/3

384 E /

E Modulus of elasticity; values: page 46 / 2nd moment of inertia; formulae: page 49; values: pages 146 to 151.
F' Distributed load (load per unit length, e.g. N/cm)

/ Length of distributed load

Torsional stress
Mt torsional moment
Wp polar section modulus

r t torsional stress
Torsional stress

Example:
Shaft, d =32 mm; Mt = 420 N m; r t = ?
3

rc-d

Wn

n-(32 mm)
= 6434 mm 3
16
16
N
_ M t _ 420000 N mm _
= 65.3
6434 mm 3
mm"
For polar section moduli see pages 49 and 151

Tt =

Allowable torsionalstress r t a n o w from page

44 or page 48

48

Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials

Shape factors in strength

Shape-related strength and allowable stress for dynamic loading
Shape-related strength is the fatigue strength of the cross-section of a dynamically loaded member with an additional allowance for the strength reducing effects of the component's shape. Important factors include
the shape of the component (presence of stress concentration)
machining quality (surface roughness)
stock dimensions (member thickness).
When compensating for the required safety factor this yields the allowable stress needed to verify the strength of a member which is dynamically loaded.
crs shape-related strength
/?1
surface condition factor
<7|jm stress limit of the unnotched
b2
size factor
cross-section, e.g. o b a or r t p u | S (page 44)
pk
stress concentration factor
vf
safety factor for fatigue fracture
a ( r ) a M o w allowable stress
Example:

Shape-related strength
(dynamic loading)

^ w b

b 2

280NW.0.8.0.8

^allow ~

1 0 5 N / m m 2

allow

Is

1 7

Pk
v

b2

lim

Allowable stress
(dynamic loading)

Rotating axle, E335, transverse hole, surface roughness Rz= 25 pm,

rough part diameter d = 50 mm, safety factor v F = 1.7; cts = ^aiiow = ?
<r b w = 280 N/mm 2 (page 44);
Q8 (flm = 570 N/mm 2 , diagram below);
b2
= 0.8 (diagram below); y3k = 1.7 (table below)

b2

^s

"allow = s ' F = 05 N/mm /1.7 = 62 N/mm 2

vp for steel 1.7

Stress concentration and stress concentration factors /3k for steel

Example: Stress distribution
for tensile loading
engineering
stress in
unnotched part

Unnotched cross-sections have an uninterrupted distribution of forces and therefore a uniform stress distribution. Changes in cross-sections lead to concentrations
of lines of force where stresses are concentrated. The ensuing reduction of strength
is primarily influenced by the notch shape, but also by the notch sensitivity of the
material.
Notch shape

Material

Shaft with shoulder

Shaft with semicircular notch
Shaft with retaining ring groove

S185-E335
S185-E335
S185-E335

1.5-2.0
1.5-2.2
2.5-3.0

1.3-1.8
1.3-1.8
2.5-3.0

S185-E335
C45E+QT
50CrMo4+QT

1.9-1.9
1.9-2.1
2.1-2.3

1.5-1.6
1.6-1.7
1.7-1.8

Woodruff key way in shaft

Spline shaft

S185-E335
S185-E335

2.0-3.0

2.0-3.0
1.6-1.8

Shaft interface to snug fit hub

S185-E335

2.0

1.5

Shaft or axle with transverse

through hole

S185-E335

1.4-1.7

1.4-1.8

S185-E335

1.3-1.5

tensile loading
1.6-1.8

Key way in shaft

*
F T

stress
concentration in
notched part

Stress concent ration factor

torsion
bending

Flat bar with hole

Surface condition factor b^ and size factor bz for steel

\
\

t"
I 0.9
(SI
-Q
o 0.8
t_)

ro

ension, cornpres sion

.t )endirig/to rsion

0.7
0.6

400
600
800
1000 1200 1400
tensile stength Rm in N/mm2
*

25

50 75 100 125 150 mm 200

stock diameter d

Physics: 2.

49

o e r i

Moments of area and Polar section moduli1'

Bending and Buckling
Area moment of
Axial section
inertia I
modulus W

Shape of the
cross-section

-4-4- ^

/=

ji-d4
64

W =

jt-(P4-d4)
64

/=

W =

Torsion
Polar section
modulus l/Vn

ji-d3
p

32

ji-(D 4 - d 4 )
32 D

16

16 D

1=0.05 D 4 - 0.083 d D 3

W=0.1 D 3 - 0.17 d D2

W p = 0.2 D3 - 0.34 d D2

1= 0.003 (D+ d) 4

W= 0.012 (D+ d) 3

W p = 0.2 d

/= 0.003 (D+ d) 4

W = 0.012 (D+ d) 3

W n = 0.024 (D+ d) 3

also applies for more keys

x -c:
x

1 2

Wz =

M
x\

5-V3-S4

I
4 -j

/ x

/ y

X ~tD

Wy

-X -c

144
5 V3 d 4
"
256

w-h3
x =

5 s3 = 5-V3-d3
48 ~
128
5 s3
5 -d3
Wyv =
24-V3
64

Wy =

B H3 -w-h3
=
12

m
1)

= 0.123 d 3

Wp = 17 w2 h

/7-W2

Values for rj
see table below

B H3 - w h3

Wx =

6H

t-(H + h)-(B + w)

%=

H B3 - h w3
Wy =
6 B

H-B -h-w
/
y =
12

W p = 0.188 s 3

12

12

h
Wx =w6

/7-W3

4 \-x
4

Wp = 0.208 h 3

V2-/73

Wx =

x-1

h3
6

2nd moments of inertia and axial section moduli for profiles see pages 146 to 151.

Auxiliary value i] for polar section moduli of rectangular cross-sections

h/w

1.5

0.208

0.231

0.246

0.267

0.282

0.299

10

0.307

0.313

0.333

50

Physics: 2.6 Strength of Materials

Comparison of various cross-sectional shapes

Cross -section

Shape

Standard
designation

Linear
mass (tensity
nn'
kg/m factor11

Slection nmoduli or static moments for type of loadin g

Ben ding
Buclding
Tonsion
VYy

V
cm

factor

11

cm

Innin
1

factor '

cm

factor

11

U"P
cm
factor11
3

y,
x-r

j-*

V
-ti

round bar
EN 10060100

61.7

1.00

98

1.00

98

1.00

491

1.00

196

1.00

square bar
EN 10059100

78.5

1.27

167

1.70

167

1.70

833

1.70

208

1.06

pipe
EN 10220114.3x6.3

16.8

0.27

55

0.56

55

0.56

313

0.64

110

0.56

hollow
structural
section
EN 10210-2
100 x 100x6.3

18.3

0.30

67.8

0.69

67.8

0.69

339

0.69

110

0.56

hollow
structural
section
EN 10210-2
120x60x6.3

16.1

0.26

59

0.60

38.6

0.39

116

0.24

77

0.39

flat bar
EN 10058100 x 50

39.3

0.64

83

0.85

41.7

0.43

104

0.21

T-section
EN 10055T100

16.4

0.27

24.6

0.25

17.7

0.18

88.3

0.18

U-Channel
section
EN 1026U100

10.6

0.17

41.2

0.42

8.5

0.08

29.3

0.06

I-beam section
DIN 10251100

8.3

0.13

34.2

0.35

4.9

0.05

12.2

0.02

I-beam section
DIN 1025IPB100

20.4

0.33

89.9

0.92

33.5

0.34

167

0.34

<v

+i - I - X

+
X--

-X

t
-h
X- i
i

c=
X

)V
xJr
J/
c
x -

-X

)rP
)t

cz

" p x
X

1=
J
11

Factor referenced to round bar EN 10060-100 (cross-section in first row of table)

Physics: 2.

Effects of changes in temperature

51

52

Physics: 2.7 Thermodynamics

Heat for Melting, Vaporizing, Combustion

Heat of fusion, Heat of vaporization
Heat energy is necessary to transform substances from Heat of fusion
a solid state to a liquid state or from a liquid state to a
Q= q
gaseous state. This is known as the heat of fusion or heat
of vaporization.

Heat of vaporization

heat of fusion
heat of evaporation
specific heat of fusion

specific heat
of evaporation
m mass

Heat of vaporization

Q = r- m
Example:
kJ
Copper, m = 6.5 kg; qr = 213 ; Q = ?
kg
Q = q m = 213 6.5 kg = 1384.5 k J * 1.4 MJ
kg

quantity of heat Q

For specific heat of

fusion and heat of
evaporation see
pages 116 and 117.

Heat flux
The heat flux <Z> continually occurs within a substance Heat flux with
thermal conduction
with movement from higher to lower temperatures.
The heat transmission coefficient k also compensates,
along with the thermal conductivity of a part, for the heat
transmission resistance on the surfaces of the part.
<P heat flux
A thermal conductivity
k heat transmission
coefficient
/*2< t\

<Z>

Af, A# temperature difference

s
component thickness
A
area of the component

Example:

Heat flux with

heat transmission

(p = k - A At

W
Heat protection glass, k = 1.9 2
; 4 = 2.8 m 2 ;
m C
Af = 32C; <Z> = ?
W
2.8 m 2 32C = 170 W
<P = k - A At = 1.92
m C

For thermal conductivity values A see

pages 116 and 117.
For heat transmission
coefficients k see
below.

Heat of combustion
The net calorific value H n e t (H) of a substance refers
to the heat quantity released during the complete
combustion of 1 kg or 1 m 3 of that substance.
heat of combustion
Q
^net' H net calorific value
mass of solid and liquid fuels
m
volume
of fuel gas
V

Example:
MJ
Natural gas, V = 3.8 m 3 ; Hnet=3b

m-

Q = Hnet
Net calorific value Hnet

Heat of combustion of
solid and liquid substances

Q=Hnet-m
Heat of combustion of
gases

Q=?

Q=H, net V

MJ
l/= 35 ^ 3.8 m 3 = 133 MJ
m3
Heat transmission coefficients k
for construction materials and parts

(H) for fuels

Solid
fuels

MJ/kg

Liquid
fuels

MJ/kg

Gaseous
fuels

MJ/m 3

Construction
elements

s
mm

wood
biomass (dry)
brown coal
coke
pit coal

15-17
14-18
16-20
30
30-34

alcohol
benzene
gasoline
diesel
fuel oil

27
40
43
41-43
40-43

hydrogen
natural gas
acetylene
propane
butane

10
34-36
57
93
123

outer door, steel

sash window
brick wall
intermediate floor
heat insulating board

50
12
365
125
80

Qnet

Qnet

Qnet

* m 2 C
5.8
1.3
1.1
3.2
0.39

Physics: 2.

53

ericiy

Quantities and Units, Ohm's Law, Resistance

Electrical quantities and units
Quantity
Name

Unit
Symbol

Name

Symbol

electrical voltage

volt

electric current

ampere

electrical resistance

ohm

electrical conductance

Siemens

electrical power

watt

Ohm's Law
Electric current

E voltage in V
/ electric current in A
R resistance in Q

Example:
R = 88 Q; E = 230 V; / = ?
E 230 V
1 = - = ^ = 2.6A
R 88 Q

For circuit symbols see

page 351.

Electrical resistance and conductance

Resistance

R resistance in Q
G conductance in S

\
ce

Example:
R = 20 Q; G = ?

'<QJ
/> 0

0.5

1.5

2 S 2.5

G = = - = 0.05 S
R 20 Q

conductance 0 -

Electrical resistivity, electrical conductivity, conductor resistance

g electrical resistivity in Q mm 2 /m
y electrical conductivity in m/(Q mm 2 )
R resistance in Q
A wire cross section in m m 2
/ wire length in m
Example:

Electrical resistivity

Copper wire, / = 100 m;

A = 1.5 mm 2 ; g = 0.0179

m m

m
100m

0.0179
R =V ' _
m
A
1.5 mm 2

;R = ?

Conductor resistance
R =

= 1.19 a

g-l

For electrical resistivities, see pages 116 and 117.

Resistance and Temperature

Material

Tk value a in 1/K

aluminum

0.0040

lead

0.0039

gold

0.0037

copper

0.0039

silver

0.0038

tungsten

0.0044

tin

0.0045

zinc
graphite

0.0042
-0.0013

constantan

0.00001

AR
R2o
Rt
a
At

change in resistance in Q
resistance at 20C in Q
resistance at the temperature t in Q
temperature coefficient (7"k value) in 1/K
temperature difference in K

Change in resistance
AR

a /?2o Af

Resistance at
temperature t
Example:
Resistance of Cu; R20 = 150 Q; t = 75C; Rx = ?
a =0.0039 1/K; At = 75C - 20C = 55C = 55 K
Rx= R20 (1 +a At)
= 150 Q (1 + 0.0039 1/K 55 K) = 182.2 n

RT = R2Q + A R
Rt = R20.(

1 +cc-At)

54

Physics: 2.8 Electricity

Current density, Resistor circuits

Current density in wires
| ^ allowable current density

Current density

J current density in A/mm 2

I
electric current in A
A conductor cross section in m m 2
Example:

j - L

- A = 2.5 mm ; / = 4 A; J = ?
A
j_l _
4A
= 1.6
2
A 2.5 mm
mm'

conductor (cross-sectional) area A

Voltage drop in wires

Rline

Ed/2
E

Ez

'I

Voltage drop

voltage drop in wire in V

voltage at terminal in V
Ec voltage across load in V
electric current in A
I
Aline resistance for feed or
return line in Q

Ed
E

Ed/2

Eri = 2 / line
/?,i

Voltage at load

EC = E-EC

Rline

Series resistor circuit

R1

R
total resistance, equivalent resistance in Q
I
total current in A
E
total voltage in V
R-\, R2 individual resistances in Q
/i, / 2 partial current in A
E-i, E2 voltage drop across Ry & R2 in V

Total resistance

/?=/?! + R 2 +
Total voltage
= Ei + o +

Example:
/?! = 10 Q; R2 = 20 Q; E =12 V;/7 =?; / = ?;
Ei= ?; E 2 = ?

Total current
/=/i

=/,=

R =Ry + R2= 10Q + 20Q = 30 il

R-

Voltage drops
/?

30 Q
=
-/ = 10n-0.4A= 4 V
E 2 = / ? 2 . / = 20Q0.4A = 8V

fl
ff2

Parallel resistor circuit

ft
total resistance, equivalent resistance in Q
/
total current in A
E
total voltage in V
ff-i, R2 individual resistances in Q
/I, / 2 partial current in A
E 1 f E 2 voltage drop across
& R2 in V
Example:

Total voltage

fl, = 15 Q; R2 = 30 Q; E = 12 V; R = ?; I = ?;
=?;/2 = ?

/?i

15Q-30Q
/?,+/?2

'

15Q + 30Q

-1011

E = Ei = E? =.
Total current

/ = /-, + / 2 +

- I - S S -
12V
Ro

1)

Total resistance

30 n

= 0.4 A

Partial currents

/1 _r2
Use this formula if there are only two parallel
resistors in the circuit.

/2

Physics: 2.8 Electricity

Types of current
Direct current (DC; symbol -), DC voltage
Direct current flows in one direction only and main- Electric current
tains a constant level of current. The voltage is also
constant
constant.
/ electric current in A
E voltage in V
Voltage
t time in s

constant
Alternating current (AC); symbol

AC voltage

Cycle duration and Frequency

While the voltage is continuously changing in a sinu- Cycle duration
soidal pattern, the free electrons are also continuously alternating their direction of flow.
7= 1
f frequency in 1/s, Hz
f
T period in s
Frequency
o) angular frequency in 1/s
/ electric current in A
E voltage in V
' f
t time in s
Angular frequency
Example:

0) = 2 n f

Frequency 50 Hz; T = ?
T = = 0.02 s
50 1
s

(0 =

2 71
T

1 Hertz = 1 Hz = 1/s =
1 period per second

Maximum value and effective value of current and voltage

i
max maximum value of the electric current in A
4ft effective value of the electric current in A
^max maximum value of the voltage in V
^eff effective value of the voltage in V (voltage
that produces the same power as an identical
DC voltage across an ohmic resistor),
electric current in A
voltage in V
time in s

Example:

Maximum value of the

electric current
Jmax = / 2 ' 4 f f

Maximum value of the

voltage
max

{2E( eff

Eeff = 2 3 0 V ; E m a x = ?
f m a x = / 2 230 V = 325 V

Three-phase current
120

Y
Uj

120

120

LI

/13

L2
X

T (360)

Three-phase current is created from three

AC voltages each offset by 120.
E
T
L1
L2
L3
eff

voltage in V
period in s
phase 1
phase 2
phase 3
effective voltage between phase wire and
neutral wire = 230 V
Eeff effective voltage between two phase wires
= 400 V

Maximum value of the

voltage
max

= 1(2-E,eff

56

Physics: 2.8 Electricity

Electrical Work and Power, Transformers

Electrical work
W electrical work in kW h
P electrical power in W
t time (power-on time) in h

fF
10000HH
A
I

>

Electrical work

W = P t

Example:
Hot plate, P= 1.8 k W ; f = 3 h ;
W= ? in kW h and MJ

C^D CZJ CD
No i
1

W= P-t = 1.8 kW 3 h = 5.4 kW h = 19.44 MJ

1 kW h = 3.6 MJ
= 3600000 W - s

Electrical power with direct current and alternating or three-phase current with non-reactive load1)
Direct or alternating current

P
E
/
R
1st

electrical power in W
voltage (phase-to-phase voltage) in V
electric current in A
resistance in Q
example:

Power with direct

or alternating current

P= E I
P=I2-R

Light bulb, E = 6 V; / = 5 A; P = ?; R = ?

2nd example:

Csl m
I i

Ry

ff
I

/? = - = = 1.2ft
/ 5A

Three-phase current

p=

P = E / = 6 V 5A=30W

Annealing furnace, three-phase current,

E = 400 V; P = 12 kW; / = ?

'

R
1)

12000 W

73 E

73 400 V

= 17.3 A

Power with
three-phase current

E-I

P = / 3 -

i.e. only with heating devices (ohmic resistors)

Electrical power with alternating and three-phase current with reactive load component l 2 )
Alternating current

P
E
I
cos<p

electrical power output in W

voltage (phase-to-phase voltage) in V
electric current in A
power factor

Electric power output

with alternating current

P= E I cos(p

Example:
Three-phase current

Three-phase motor, E = 400 V; / = 2 A;

cos^? = 0.85; P = ?

CNI

P = fi E I cos^ = /3 400 V 2 A 0.85

= 1178 W 1.2 kW

Electric power output

with three-phase current

P=F3-E-I-cos

<p

2) ii.e. in electric motors and generators

Transformers
Input
side
(primary coil)

/i

Output
side
(secondary
coil)

/V1f N2 number of turns

E 2 voltages in V

/-i, I 2 current level in A

Example:

Voltages

E2

N2

/V, = 2875; N2 = 100; E, =230 V; /, = 0.25 A; E 2 = ?; I2 = ?

A/i

A/,
2

Ey

j
2

E r A / 2 = 230V.100
N,
2875
_/1/Vl_0.25A.2875_7OA
N2
100

Electric current
/1_/v2

N,

Table of Contents

57

3 Technical drawing
3.1

3.2
temperature

3.3

3.4

3.5

A
/ /

17

20

3.6

3.7

Flare-V
groove
weld

3.8

))))))))))

3.9

h-tolerance zone
\

h-tolerance zone
es=0
zero line
\

El=0
c

.2 <32(0
E.E

E .5
- pE
T3
E
hole

shaft

Basic geometric constructions

Lines and angles
Tangents, Circular arcs, Polygons
Inscribed circles, Ellipses, Spirals
Cycloids, Involute curves, Parabolas

58
59
60
61

Graphs
Cartesian coordinate system
Graph types

62
63

Drawing elements
Fonts
Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales
Drawing layout
Line types

64
65
66
67

Representation
Projection methods
Views
Sectional views
Hatching

69
71
73
75

Entering dimensions
Dimensioning rules
Diameters, Radii, Spheres, Chamfers, Inclines,
Tapers, Arc dimensions
Tolerance specifications
Types of dimensioning
Simplified presentation in drawings

78
80
81
83

Machine elements
Gear types
Roller bearings
Seals
Retaining rings, Springs

84
85
86
87

Workpiece elements
Bosses, Workpiece edges
Thread runouts, Thread undercuts
Threads, Screw joints
Center holes, Knurls, Undercuts

88
89
90
91

Welding and Soldering

Graphical symbols
Dimensioning examples

93
95

Surfaces
Hardness specifications in drawings
Form deviations, Roughness
Surface testing, Surface indications

97
98
99

3.10 ISO Tolerances and Fits

Fundamentals
Basic hole and basic shaft systems
General tolerances
Roller bearing fits
Fit recommendations
Geometric tolerancing

76

102
106
110
110
111
112

58

Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions

Line segments. Perpendiculars and Angles

4

Parallels to a line
Given: Line segment AB and point P on the desired parallel line g'
1. Arc with radius r about A results in intersecting point C.
2. Arc with radius r about P.
3. Arc with radius r about C results in intersecting point D.
4. Connecting line segment PD is parallel line g' to AB.

Constructing a vertical line at point P

Given: Straight line g and point P
1. Arc 1 about P with any radius r results in intersecting point A.
2. Arc 2 with same radius r about point A results in intersecting point B.
3. Arc 3 with equal radius r about B.
4. Construct a line from A to B and extend it (to intersecting point C).
5. Construct a line from point C to point P to obtain the vertical at P.

Bisecting an angle
Given: Angle a
1. Any arc 1 about S yields intersecting points A and B.
2. Arc 2 with radius r about A;

AB.

3. Arc 3 with equal radius r about B results in intersecting point C.

4. The line joining intersecting point C with S is the desired
bisected angle.

Dividing a line
Given: Line AB should be divided into 5 equal parts.
1. Construct a ray from A at any desired angle.
2. Mark 5 equal lengths with a compass on the ray from A.
3. Construct a line from point 5' to B.
4. Construct parallels to 5' B through the other division points 1'-4'.

Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions

Tangents, Circular arcs. Polygons

Tangent through point P on a circle
Given: Circle and point P
1. Construct line segment MP and extend it.
2. Arc about P gives intersecting points A and B.
3. Arcs about A and B with the same radius yield intersecting points C
and D.
4. The line passing through C and D is perpendicular to PM.

Tangent from a point P to a circle

Given: Circle and point P
1. Bisect MP. A is the midpoint.
2. Arc about A with radius r = AM yields intersecting point P. T is the
tangent point.
3. Connect T and P.
4. MT is perpendicular to PT.

Rounding an angle (arc tangent to two straight lines)

Given: Angle ASB and radius r
1. Construct parallels to AS and BS of distance r. Their intersection M is
the desired center of the circular arc of radius r.
2. The intej^ection of the perpendiculars from M to the line segments
AS and BS are the transition points C and D for the arc.

Connecting two circles by arcs

Given: Circle 1 and circle 2; radii R\ and R0
1. Circle about Mt with radius R\ + r-\.
2. Circle about M 2 with radius R\ + r2 intersects with 1 to yield
intersecting point A.
3. Connecting Mt and M 2 with A yields contact points B and C
for the inside radius R{.
4. Circle about Mt with radius R0 - r v
5. Circle about M 2 with radius R0 - r2 combined with step 4 results
in the intersecting point D.
6. D connected to M-] and M 2 and extended gives the contact points E
and F for the outside radius R0.

Circumscribed regular polygon (e.g. pentagon)

Given: Circle of diameter d
1. Divide AB into 5 equal parts (page 58).
2. An arc centered at A with radius r= AB yields points C and D.
3. Construct lines from C and D to 1, 3, etc. (all odd numbers).
The intersecting points on the circle yield the desired vertices of the
pentagon.
For polygons with an even number of angles C and D are connected
to 2, 4, 6 etc. (all even numbers).

Circumscribed hexagon, dodecagon

Given: Circle of diameter d
1. Arc centered at A with radius r = y
2. Arc with radius r about B and A.
3. Construct line segments connecting the intersecting points to yield
the hexagon.
For a dodecagon find intermediate points
including intersections at C and D.

60

Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions

Inscribed and circumscribed circles for triangles, Circle center point, Ellipse, Spiral
Circle inscribed in a triangle
Given: Triangle A, B, C
1. Bisect angle a.
2. Bisect angle ft (intersecting at point M).
3. Inscribed circle about M.

Circle circumscribing a triangle

Given: Triangle A, B, C
1. Construct the perpendicular bisector of line segment AB.
2. Construct a perpendicular bisector on line segment BC (intersecting
at point M).
3. Circumscribed circle about M.

Finding the center of a circle

Given: Circle
1. Choose any straight line a that intersects the circle at A and B.
2. Straight line b (approximately perpendicular to straight line a) intersects circle at C and D.

3. Construct perpendicular bisectors on line segments AB and CD.

4. Intersecting point of the perpendicular bisectors is the center M of
the circle.

Constructing an ellipse from two circles

Given: Axes AB and CD
1. Two circles about M with diameters AB and CD.
2. Construct several rays through M which intersect both circles
(E, F).
3. Construct parallels to the two principle axes AB and CD through E
and F. Intersecting points are points on the ellipse.

Constructing an ellipse in a parallelogram

Given: Parallelogram with axes AB and CD
1. A semi-circle with radius r = MC about A yields point E.
2. Subdividing AM (or BM) into halves, quartersjind eighths yields
points 1, 2 and 3. Construct parallels to axis CD through these points.
3. Dividing EA in halves, quarters and eighths yields points 1, 2 and 3
on the axis AE. Parallels to axis CD through those points give intersecting points F on the circular arc.
4. Construct parallels to AE through intersection points F to the semi-circle axis, from there construct parallels to axis AB.
5. Parallel intersection points of matching numbers are points on the ellipse.

Spiral (approximate construction using a compass)

Given: Rise a

na| -j-

1. Construct square ABCD with a/4.

2. A quarter circle of radius AD centered at A yields E.
3. A quarter circle of radius BE centered at B yields F.
4. A quarter circle of radius CF centered at C yields G.
5. A quarter circle of radius DG centered at D yields H.
6. A quarter circle of radius AH centered at A yields I (etc).

Technical drawing: 3.1 Basic geometric constructions

Cycloid, Involute, Parabola, Hyperbola, Helix

auxiliary
circle 5

intersection point of
auxiliary circle 5 with
parallel line 5

^ l ^ U 5.

Cycloid
Given: Rolling circle of radius r
1. Subdivide the pitch circle into any number of equal sized parts, e.g. 12.
2. Divide the base line (= extent of the pitch circle = n d) into equal parts,
in this case 12.
3. Vertical lines from segment points 1-12 on the base line to the extended vertical center line of the rolling circle yield the midpoints
M-|-M 1 2 .
4. Construct auxiliary circles about the midpoints M-|-M 1 2 with radius r.

rolling
circle

base line
C-n-d

extended
horizontal
center line

5. The intersecting points of these auxiliary circles with the parallels

through the points on the rolling circle having the same numbers give
the points of the cycloid.

Involute
4n

12

s/\.

1. Subdivide the circle into any desired number of equal sized parts,
e.g. 12.
2. Construct tangents to the circle at each section.

1
\

Given: Circle

3. Mark off the length of the developed circumference on each tangent

from its contact point.
4. The curve through the endpoints forms the involute.

- " " m o

Parabola
Given: Orthogonal parabola axes and parabola point P
1. Parallel g to vertical axis through point P gives P'.
2. Divide distance OP' on the horizontal axis into any desired number of
parts (e.g. 5) and construct parallels to the vertical axis.
3. Subdivide distance PP' into the same number of segments and connect
to origin at 0.
4. Intersecting points of the lines with the matching number yield points
on the parabola.

Hyperbola
92
Given: Orthogonal asymptotes through M and point P on the hyperbola.

p2

/
r

9i
p,

1. Construct lines g-i and g 2 parallel to the asymptotes through point P on

the hyperbola.
2. Construct any desired number of rays from M.
3. Construct lines through the intersections of the rays with g-| and g 2
parallel to the asymptotes.
4. Intersecting points of the parallel lines (P-|, P 2 ( ...) are points on the
hyperbola.

Heliocoidal line (Helix)

Given: Circle of diameter d and pitch P
1. Divide semicircle into equal sections, e.g. 6.
2. Divide the pitch P into twice the number of equal segments, e.g. 12.
3. Extend the same number of horizontal and vertical lines to intersection. The intersecting points yield points on the heliocoidal line.
10/|p109 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 of
pitch P
2

62

Technical drawing: 3.

ra

Cartesian coordinate system

din 46i (1973-03)

Coordinate axes
abscissa (horizontal axis; x-axis)
ordinate (vertical axis; y-axis)

P1 (x4,y2)
o

Values to be plotted
positive: from the origin towards the right, or up
negative: from the origin towards the left, or down
Marking the positive axis direction with
arrow heads on the axes, or
arrows parallel to the axes
Formula symbols are entered in italics on the
abscissa below the arrow point
ordinate to the left next to the arrow point

P2(x-2.y-1)

or in front of the arrows parallel to the axes.

Scales are normally linear, but sometimes they are divided logarithmically.
units

200

N/mm2
150

characteristic
curve

Magnitudes of values. They are placed next to the scale

ticks. All negative values have a minus sign.
Value units are placed between the two last positive
numbers on the abscissa and ordinate or after the formula symbol.

-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 - 0 . l 7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 % 0.4

-50

Grid marks simplify plotting of the values.

Lines (curves) connect the values that have been plotted
on the graph.

200
N/mm2
150

Line widths. Lines are drawn in the following proportion:

Gridlines : axes : curves = 1 : 2 : 4 .
Graph sections are constructed if values are not to be
plotted in each direction from the origin. The origin may
also be hidden.

curve

| 100
o

\ g r i c I lines
50

/
0.2

0.1

0.4 % 0.5

0.3

Example (spring characteristic curve):

The following disk spring values are known:
Spring displacement s in mm

0.3

0.6

Spring force F
in N

600

1000 1300 1400

1.0

1.3

What is the spring force F with a spring displacement of s = 0.9 mm?

Solution:
The values are plotted on a graph and the points are
connected by a curve. A vertical line at s = 0.9 mm
intersects the curve at point A.
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

spring displacement s

1.0

1.2 mm 1.4

With the help of a horizontal line through A, a spring

force of F 1250 N is read from the ordinate.

Graphs are used to represent value-based relationships between changing variables.

63

Technical drawing: 3.2 Graphs

Polar coordinate systems, Area graphs

Cartesian coordinate system (continued)

cf. DIN 461 (1973-03)

Graphs with multiple curves

1600

When measured values are highly scattered, a different special

symbol is used for each curve, e.g: O, X ,

N/mm2
_ Re

1200
1000

\
kv

800

600

400
200

Marking the curves

\
Ni

when the same type of line is used, by using the names or

formula symbols of the variables or by using different colors
for the curves
by different types of lines

100 200 300 400 C 600

temperature

Polar coordinate system

cf. DIN 461 (1973-03)

Polar coordinate systems have a 360 division.
Origin (pole). Intersection of horizontal and vertical axis.
Angle layout. The angle 0 is assigned to the horizontal axis to
the right of the origin.
Angle position. Positive angles are plotted counter-clockwise.
Radius. The radius corresponds to the magnitude of the value to
be plotted. Concentric circles may be drawn about the origin to
simplify plotting of the values.

Example:
Using a measuring machine, the roundness of a turned bushing is checked to see if it lies within the required tolerance.
The out-of-roundness found was probably caused by clamping the bushing forcefully in the chuck.

Area graphs
Bar graphs
In bar graphs the quantities to be represented are drawn as horizontal or vertical columns of equal width.

E **
a .

Pie charts
2005

2006

2007

2008

Percent values are normally represented by pie charts. In these

the circumference of a circular area corresponds to 100%
(= 360).
Central angle. The percentage xto be plotted determines the corresponding central angle:
a=

360 x %
100%

Example:
What is the central angle for the percentage of lead in the
alloy CuPb15Sn8?
_ 360 15%
Solution:

1 0 0

/ o

= 54

64

Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of drawing

Fonts
Lettering, fonts

cf. DIN EN ISO 3098-0 (1998-04) and DIN EN ISO 3098-2 (2000-11)

The lettering of technical drawings can be done using type style A (close-spaced) or type style B. Both styles may be
drawn vertical (V) or slanted by 15 to the right (I = italics). To ensure good legibility, the distance between the characters should be two line widths. The distance may be reduced to one line width if certain characters are together,
e.g. LA, TV, Tr.

Font style B, V (vertical)

JHttt

Font style B, I (italic)

cf. DIN EN ISO 3098-0 (1998-04)

Dimensions

am

H k

>i with diacritic 1 ' characters

>2 without diacritic characters
b3 with upper case letters and
numbers

<;n i n Q f f

R!h~

MH6
Ml

BTT

Ecrifure

Character height h or height of upper

case letters (nominal size) in mm

1.8

2.5

1)

10

3.5

Ratio of dimension to character height h

a

Type style

b.

25

19 .
10

2 1

14
15 .
10

bs

20

14

cf. DIN EN ISO 3098-3 (1998-04)

b2

diacritic = used to further differentiate, especially for letters

17

C2
10 .
14*

13 .
10

C3

> >

>
>

^10

Greek alphabet

6
10

>

cf. DIN EN ISO 3098-3 (2000-11)

A
B

a
p

alpha
beta

Z
H

gamma

A
E

6
e

delta
epsilon

e
i
K

lambda

mu

n
p

JI

ri

zeta
eta

Pi
rho

ft

theta

nu

sigma

iota
kappa

Z!

xi

omicron

X
V

tau
upsilon

<t>

cp

phi
chi

to

omega

psi

Roman numerals
I

=1

X = 10
C = 100
M = 1000

n
=2
XX =20

=3

IV = 4
XL = 40
CD = 400

CC = 200

XXX = 30
CCC = 300

MM = 2000

Examples: MDCLXXXVE

V =5
L = 50
D = 500
1687

VI = 6

vn

LX = 60

LXX = 70
DCC == 700

DC = 600

=: 7

MCMXCIX = 1999

vm

=8

LXXX = 80
DCCC = 800
M M V m = 2008

IX = 9
XC = 90
CM = 900

Technical drawing: 3.

eents

65

drawing

Preferred numbers, Radii, Scales

Preferred numbers and series of preferred numbers1'

cf. DIN 323-1 (1974-08)

R5

R 10

R 20

R 40

R5

R 10

R 20

R 40

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

4.00

4.00

4.00

4.00

1.06

1.12

4.25

1.12

4.50

4.50

1.18
1.25

1.25

4.75

1.25

5.00

5.00

5.00

1.32
1.40

5.30

1.40

5.60

5.60
6.00

1.50
1.60

1.60

1.60

1.60

6.30

6.30

6.30

6.30

1.70
1.80

6.70

1.80

7.10

7.10

1.90
2.00

2.00

7.50

2.00

8.00

8.00

8.00

2.12

2.24

8.50

2.24

9.00

9.00

2.36
2.50

2.50

2.50

9.50
10.00

2.50
2.65

2.80

Series

3.15

3.15

3.35
3.55

Multiplier

R 5

q5

= /TO - 1.6

R 10

Q10 =

R 20

920

R 40

q40

10

/ T o * 1.25
20

= /To * 1.12

3.55
3.75

40

= /To

Radii

1.06

cf. DIN 250 (2002-04)

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.6

10

12

16

18

20

22

160

180

200

Values shown in bold font in the table are preferred values.

100

10.00

2.80

3.00
3.15

10.00

10.00

110

125

140

2.5
25

28

32

36

40

45

50

Scale factors21

63

70

80

90

cf. DIN ISO 5455(1979-12)

Actual size
1: 1

56

Reduction factors
1:2
1:5
1 : 10

1 : 20
1 : 50
1 : 100

1 : 200
1 : 500
1 :1000

Enlargement factors
1 : 2000
1 : 5000
1 : 10000

2: 1

5: 1

20: 1

50 : 1

10: 1

1)

Preferred numbers, e.g. for length dimensions and radii. Their usage prevents arbitrary graduations. In the series
of preferred numbers (base series R 5 to R 40), each number of the series is obtained by multiplying the previous
number by a constant multiplier for that series. Series 5 (R 5) is preferred over R 10, R 10 over R 20 and R 20 over
R 40. The numbers of each series can be multiplied by 10, 100, 1000, etc. or divided by 10, 100, 1000, etc.

2)

For special applications the given enlargement and reduction factors can be expanded by multiplying by whole
multiples of 10.

66

Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of drawing

Drawing layout
Paper sizes (ISO)
Format
Format
dimensions 1 ' in mm
Drawing area
dimensions in mm
1)

cf. DIN EN ISO 5457 (1999-07) and DIN EN ISO 216 (2002-03)
AO

AI

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

841 x1189

594 x 841

420 x 594

297 x 420

210x297

148x210

105x148

821 x1159

574x811

400 x 564

277 x 390

180x277

The height: width aspect ratio of the drawing papers are 1 : f2 (= 1 : 1.414).

Folding for DIN A4 format

o
c>
'c

3:
o o

cf. DIN 824(1981-03)

A3 297x420

1st fold: Fold right side (190 mm wide)

toward the back.
2nd fold: Fold the remainder of the sheet
so that the edge of the 1 st fold is
20 mm from the left edge of the
paper.

A2 420x594

1st fold: Fold the left side (210 mm wide)

towards the right.
2nd fold: Fold a triangle of 297 mm height
by 105 mm width towards the
left.

CO <o

EI5 H
TJ
O
2! CMC
\J

190

20

title block

2nd fold

^ 4th fold
title block

3rd fold: Fold the right side (192 mm wide)

towards the back.
4th fold: Fold the folded packet of 297 mm
height toward the back.

Title block

cf. DIN EN ISO 7200 (2004-05), Replacement for DIN 6771-1

The width of the title block is 180 mm. The sizes of the individual data fields (field widths and heights) are no longer
stipulated, in contrast to the previous standard. The table at the bottom of this page has examples of possible field sizes.
Example of a title block:
Resp. dept.

AB 131

Created by

Technical reference

11

Susan Miller

12

Approved by

Kristin Brown

13

John Davis

14
10

John Smith Co.1

15

Document status

Type of document

Assembly drawing

released

Title, additional title

A225-03300-012

Circular saw s h a f t /

Changes Release date

complete with bearing

L.
7

2008-01-^5 de

Sheet
8

1/3

Drawing specific callouts, such as scale, projection symbol, tolerances and surface specifications should be indicated
on the drawing outside of the title block.

Data fields in the title block

Field
no.

rieio name

1
2
3

Owner of the drawing

Title (drawing name)
Additional title

4
5
6
7
8
9

Max. no. of
characters

Field name
required
optional

not specified
25
25

yes
yes

Drawing number
Change symbol (drawing version)
Issue date of the drawing

16
2
10

yes

Language identifier (de = German)

Page number and number of pages
Type of document

4
4
30

10
11
12

Document status
Responsible department
Technical reference

20
10
20

13
14
15

Drawing originator
Authorizing person
Classification/key words

20
20
not specified

yes
-

yes
-

yes
yes
-

yes
-

yes
-

yes
yes
-

yes
yes
yes
-

yes

Field size (mm)

width
height
69
60
60

27
18
1o

51
7
25
10
9
60
51
26
43
44
43
24

Technical drawing: 3.

eents

67

drawing

Line types
Lines in mechanical engineering drawings
No.

Name, representation

01.1

Solid line, thin

cf. DIN ISO 128-24 (1999-12)

Examples of application

dimension and extension lines

leader and reference lines
root of thread
hatching
position direction of layers
(e.g. lamination)
outline of hinged section
short center lines
imaginary intersections from
penetrations

origin circles and dimension line

terminators
diagonal crosses to mark plane
surfaces
framing details
projection and grid lines
deflection lines on rough and
machined parts
marking for repeated details (e.g.
root diameter of toothed gear)

Free-hand line, thin 1 )

preferably hand-drawn representing border of partial or broken views

and sections, provided that the border is not a line of symmetry or a
center line

Break line, t h i n 1 )

preferably automated drawing representing border of partial or broken views and sections, provided that the border is not a line of symmetry or a center line

'V

01.2

Solid line, thick

02.1

Dashed line, thin

hidden edges

02.2

Dashed line, thick

identifies allowable areas for surface treatment (e.g. heat treatment)

04.1

Dot-dash line
(long dash), thin

center lines
lines of symmetry

partial circle in gears

hole circle

04.2

Dot-dash line
(long dash), thick

marking areas of (delimited)

required surface treatment
(e.g. heat treatment)

marking section planes

05.1

Two-dot dash-dot line

(long dash), thin

1)

visible edges and outlines

crests of threads
limit of the usable thread length
cross-section arrow lines
surface structures
(e.g. knurls)

main representations in graphs,

edges and flowcharts
system lines (steel construction)
mold parting lines in views

hidden contours

outlines of adjacent parts

final position of movable parts

centroidal axes

contours of the shape

portions in front of the cutting plane

outlines of alternative designs

contours of finished parts within

rough parts
framing special areas or fields
projected tolerance zone

Free-hand and break line types should not be used together in the same drawing.

Lengths of line elements

cf. DIN EN ISO 128 20 (2002 12)

Line element

Line type no.

Length

long dashes

04.1 and 05.1

24 d

gaps

short dashes

02.1 and 02.2

12 d

Example: Line type 04.2

points

04.1, 04.2 and

05.1

Line element

<0.5 -d

Line type no.

Length

02.1,02.2, 04.1,
04.2 and 05.1

3 d

2W
m

3-d^ IJL40.5-d
mff | ^

3.d

68

Technical drawing: 3.3 Elements of drawing

Line types
Line thicknesses and line groups

cf. DIN ISO 128-24(1999-12)

Line widths. Normally two line types are used in drawings. They are in a ratio of 1:2.
Line groups. The line groups are ordered in a ratio of 1:
(1: 1.4).
Selection. Line thicknesses and line groups are selected corresponding to the type and size of drawing, as well as to
the drawing scale and the requirements of microfilming and/or method of reproduction.
Associated line thicknesses (dimension in mm) for
Thin lines

Thick lines

Line group

Dimension and tolerance

callouts, graphical symbols

0.25

0.25

0.13

0.18

0.35

0.35

0.18

0.25

0.5

0.5

0.25

0.35

0.7

0.7

0.35

0.5

0.5

0.7

1.4

1.4

0.7
1.4

Examples of lines in technical drawings

cf. DIN ISO 128-24(1999-12)

dimension line (01.1)

end position of the

moving part (05.1)
line of symmetry
(04.1)

identification of
section plane (04.2)

dimension line

(01.1)

visible contours

(01.2)

extension
line (01.1)

A-A

crests of threads

(01.2)

hatching
line (01.1)

visible
contour (01.2)

center line
(04.1)

root of
threads (01.1),

root of
thread (01.1)
border
lines (01.1)
imaginary
intersections

(01.1)

line of symmetry (04.

of an adjacent part
(05.1)

border line (01.1)

short center line (01.1)

frame of
detail (01.1)

surface structure
(knurl)
(01.2)

hidden
edge (02.1)

fully
v ^ hardened
hole circle
(04.1)

visible contours
(01.2)

hidden
contour (02.1)

designation
of (heat) treatment (04.2)

edge in front of section plane (05.1)

69

Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings

General principles of presentation. Projection methods

General principles of presentation

cf. DIN ISO 128-30 (2002-05) and DIN ISO 5456-2 (1998-04)

Selection of the front view. The view that is selected for the front view is the one which provides the most information regarding shape and dimensions.
Other views. If other views are necessary for clear representation or for complete dimensioning of a workpiece, the
following should be observed:
The selection of the views should be limited to those most necessary.
Additional views should contain as few hidden edges and contours as possible.
Position of other views. The position of other views is dependent upon the method of projection. For drawings based
on the first- and the third-angle projection methods (page 70) the symbol for the projection method must be given in
the title block.

Axonometric representation11

cf. DIN ISO 5456-3(1998-04)

Isometric projection

Diametric projection
X : Y : Z = 0,5:1:1

X : Y :Z = 1 : 1 : 1
circle as an
ellipse

circle as an ellipse

Approximate construction of the ellipse:

1. Construct a rhombus tangential to the hole. Bisect the
sides of the rhombus to yield the intersecting points
M 1 # M 2 and N.
2. Draw connecting lines from M-i to 1 and from M 2 to 2
to yield the intersecting points 3 and 4.
3. Construct circular arcs with radius R about 1 and 2
and with radius r about 3 and 4.

circle as an
ellipse

ellipse as a circle

Construction of ellipses:
1. Construct an auxiliary circle with radius r= d/2.
2. Subdivide height d into any desired number of equal
segments and construct grids (1to 3).
3. Subdivide the diameter of the auxiliary circle into the
same number of grids.
4. Transfer the segment lengths a, b etc. from the auxiliary circle to the rhombus.

auxiliary circle
Cavalier projection

Cabinet projection

X : Y : Z = 0.5:1:1

X : Y : Z = 1:1:1
circle as an
ellipse

ellipse as
a circle

Ellipse construction identical to that on page 60 (ellipse

construction in a parallelogram).
11

circle as an
ellipse

ellipse as a circle

Ellipse construction identical to that of the diametric projection (above).

Axonometric representations: simple, graphical representations.

70

Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings

cf. DIN ISO 128-30 (2002-05)
and DIN ISO 5456-2 (1998-04)

Projection methods
Arrow projection method

At

Marking the direction of observation:

with arrow lines and upper case letters
Marking the views:
A

1
i

with upper case letters

Locations of the views:
any location with respect to front view
Layout of upper case letters:

_r

above the views

vertical in reading direction
above or to the right of the arrow
lines

First-angle projection
Locations with respect to front view F:

1_
RS

top view

below F

LS

view from
the left side

right of F

RS

view from
the right side

left of F

bottom view

above F

rear view

left or right
of F

LS

Symbol

Third-angle projection11
Locations with respect to front view F:

LS

top view

above F

LS

view from
the left side

left of F

RS

view from
the right side

right of F

bottom view

below F

rear view

left or right
of F

RS

Symbol

Symbols for projection methods

Symbol 2 ' for
first-angle projection

Germany and most

European countries
1)
2)

Symbol for first-angle projection

third-angle projection

Application in
English speaking countries,
e.g. USA/Canada

h font height in mm (page 64)

H = 2h
d = 0.1h

Second-angle projection is not provided.

The symbol for projection method is included in the drawing layout (page 66).

71

Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings

Views

cf. DIN ISO 128-30

and -34 (2002-05)

Partial views
Application. Partial views are used to avoid unfavorable
projections or shortened representations.
Position. The partial view is shown in the direction of the
arrow or rotated. The angle of rotation must be given.
Boundary. This is identified with a break line.

Application. It is sufficient to represent just a portion of

the whole workpiece, for example if space is limited.
Marking. With two short parallel solid lines through the
line of symmetry on the outside of the view.

Application. If the representation is clear, a partial view is

sufficient instead of a full view.
Representation. The partial view (third-angle projection)
is connected with the main view by a thin dot-dash line.

Adjacent parts
Application. Adjacent parts are drawn if it aids in understanding the drawing.
Representation. This is done with thin two-dot dash-dot
lines. Sectioned adjacent parts are not hatched.
housing

Simplified penetrations

-Sl

Application. If the drawing remains clearly understandable, rounded penetrating lines may be replaced by
straight lines.

-a

*FP5zzz3J)

Representation. Rounded penetrating lines are drawn

with thick solid lines for grooves in shafts and penetrating holes whose diameters significantly differ.

J
T9l

Implied penetrating lines of imaginary intersections and

rounded edges are drawn with thin solid lines at the
location at which the (circumferential) edge would have
been with a sharp edged transition. The thin solid lines
do not contact the outline.

n_r

Broken views

-LO

i
f

rir^

Application. To save space only the important areas of

long workpieces need to be represented.
Representation. The boundary of the remaining parts is
shown by free-hand lines or break lines. The parts must
be drawn close to each other.

72

Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings

Views

cf. DIN ISO 128-30

and -34 (2002-05)

Repeating geometrical elements

t01O

Application. For geometric elements which repeat regularly, the individual element only needs to be drawn
once.
Representation. For geometric elements which are not
drawn,
the positions of symmetrical geometric elements are
shown with thin dot-dash lines.
asymmetrical geometric elements of the area in which
they are found are drawn with thin solid lines.

12
r /

The number of repeated elements must be given in the

dimensioning.

Parts at a larger scale (details)

Application. Partial areas of a workpiece which can not
be clearly represented may be drawn at a larger scale.

Z (10:1)

Representation. The partial area is framed with a thin

solid line or encircled and marked with a capital letter.
The partial area is represented in an enlarged detail view
and is identified with the same capital letter. The enlarged scale is additionally given.

Minimal inclines

~L

fX

\I

Application. Minimal inclines on slopes, cones or pyramids which cannot be shown clearly, do not have to be
drawn in the corresponding projection.
Representation. The edge representing the projection of
the smaller dimension is drawn with a thick solid line.

\ f

Moving parts

Application. Depicting alternative positions and limits of

movement of parts in assembly drawings.
Representation. Parts in alternate positions and limits of
movement are drawn with two-dot dash-dot lines.

Surface structures

Representation. Structures such as knurls and embossing are represented with thick solid lines. Partial representation of the structure is preferable.

73

Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings

Sectional views

cf. DIN ISO 128-40,

-44 and -50 (2002-05)

Section types
full section

view

Section. The interior of a workpiece can be shown with

a section. The front part of the workpiece, which hides
the view to the interior, is perceived to be cut out.

V////

In a section it is possible to represent:

'/////.
half section

the cutting plane and additional workpiece outlines

lying behind the cutting plane or
only the cutting plane.

partial section

Full section. The full section shows the conceptualized

workpiece sectioned in a plane.
Half section. In a symmetrical workpiece one half is
represented as a view, the other half as a section.
Partial section. A partial section shows only part of the
workpiece in section.

1/

Definitions
section
line

Cutting plane. The cutting plane is the imaginary plane

with which the workpiece is sectioned. Complicated
workpieces can also be represented in two or more cutting planes.
Cross-section area. It is formed by the theoretical sectioning of the workpiece. The cross-section area is
marked with hatch lines (see below and page 75).
Section line. It marks the position of the cutting plane;
for two or more cutting planes it marks the cutting path.
The section line is drawn with a thick dot-dash line.
For two or more cutting planes the path of the section
line is emphasized on the ends of the corresponding
plane using short thick solid lines.
Marking the section line. It is done with the same upper
case letters. Arrows drawn with thick solid lines indicate
the direction for viewing the cutting plane.
Marking the section. The sectional view is marked with
the same upper case reference letters as the section
lines.

Hatching of sections
Hatching. The hatching is drawn with parallel solid lines,
preferably at an angle of 45 to the centerline or to the
main outlines. The hatching is interrupted for lettering.
Hatching is used for
individual parts - all hatch lines for cross-section areas
should be in the same direction and at the same spacing.
parts adjacent to each other - hatch lines for the different parts should be in different directions or at different spacing.
large cross-section areas - hatching preferably only
near boundaries or edges.

74

Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings

Sectional views

cf. DIN ISO 128-40,

-44 and -50 (2002-05)

Special sections
Profile sections. They may be
drawn rotated in a view (revolved section).
The contour lines of the section are represented with
thin solid lines and are drawn within the interior of the
part.
taken out of a view (removed section).
The section must be connected with the view by a thin
dot-dash line.

/ / / / /

Sections with intersecting planes. If two planes intersect, one cutting plane may be rotated in the projection
plane.

Details of rotated parts. Uniformly arranged details outside of the cross-section area, e.g. holes, may be rotated
in the cutting plane.

Outlines and edges. Contours and edges lying behind

the cutting plane are only drawn if they add clarity to the
drawing.

Parts that are not sectioned

Not sectioned in the lengthwise direction:
parts that are not lx>llow, e.g. screws, bolts, pins,
shafts
areas of an individual part which should protrude from
the base body, e.g. ribs.

Notes on drawing
circumferential
edges

/
V////

edge on the

w
Y

A
/Vl

/ /'.J

//////.

.J

/ / / w i

Tool edges
Circumferential edges. Edges exposed by sectioning
must be represented.
Hidden edges. In sections the hidden edges are not
represented.
Edges on the center line. If an edge falls on a centerline by sectioning, it is represented.
Half-sections in symmetrical workpieces
Section halves of symmetrical workpieces are preferably
drawn in relation to the center line,
below, with horizontal center lines
to the right, for vertical center lines.

75

Technical drawing: 3.4 Representations in drawings

Hatching, Systems for entering dimensions

Hatching

cf. DIN ISO 128-50 (2002-05)

Section areas are generally marked with basic hatching without consideration of the material.
Parts whose material should be emphasized can be identified using specific section lining.
Basic hatching (without considering the material)

Liquids

Gases
foo o o 6~o~o 61
loooooooo;
[ooooooooj
Natural materials

Plastics

Metals
Ferrous
metals

Non-ferrous
metals
water

^yZTf/Ty//1
light alloys

wooc
_y //////

oil
Iooo

//A

l-oooor

glass

{.A
alloyed steel

ceramic

cast iron

WA
heavy metals

jooo|
thermoset plastics

grease

elastomers, rubber

Systems for entering dimensions

cf. DIN 406-10 (1992-12)

The dimensioning and tolerancing of workpieces can be
based on
function,
manufacturing or
testing.
Several systems of dimensioning may be used within a
single drawing.

012 d9

m l

Dimensioning based on function

Characteristic. Selection, entry and tolerancing of the
dimensions is done according to design requirements.

Characteristic. Dimensions which are necessary for

fabrication are calculated from functional dimensions.

012 H8
55 0.01
20 0.01
Dimensioning based on fabrication

i
012 H8

i H H

!
i

+0.04
47 -0.01

+0.01
14 -0.02^
I
m
012 H8

m m
-0.01
23 -0.02

i
j
i

Dimensioning based on testing

Characteristic. Dimensions and tolerances are entered
in the drawing according to the planned testing.

76

Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions

Dimensioning drawings
Dimension lines, dimension line terminators, extension lines, dimension numbers cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-12)
Dimension lines
extension line dimension number ^ dimension line

Design. Dimension lines are drawn as thin solid lines.

Entry. Dimension lines are used for:
length dimensions parallel to the length to be dimensioned
angle and arc dimensions as a circular arc about the
center of the angle or arc.

dimension line terminator

65
extended to the outside using extension lines
entered within the workpiece
drawn to the edges of the part body.

20
i
Ln

Spacing. Dimension lines should have a minimum distance of

10 mm from the edge of bodies and
7 mm between each other.

00

Dimension line terminator

10 * d
5

Dimension arrowheads. Generally arrowheads are

used to delimit the boundaries of dimension lines.
arrowhead length: 10 x dimension line width
angle of lateral side: 15

xd

Dots. Used if space is limited.

diameter: 5 x dimension line width
Extension lines
15

35

Design. Extension lines are drawn perpendicular to the

length to be dimensioned with thin solid lines.

012

010

Special features
Symmetrical elements. Centerlines may be used as
extension lines within symmetrical elements.
Breaks in extension lines may be used e.g. for entering dimensions.
Within a view the extension lines may be drawn to
spatially separate elements of the same or similar
shape.

16

extension line passing

through part

50

Extension lines may not be extended from one view to

another view.

Dimension numbers
Entry. Dimension numbers are entered
35

in standard lettering according to DIN EN ISO 3098

with a minimum font size of 3.5 mm

20

above the dimension line

so that they are legible from below and from the right
oo

2.5 2 2.5
(10) 6 \

[L&

40

11

for multiple parallel dimension lines - separated from

each other.
Limited space. If there is limited space, the dimensioning numbers may be entered
on a leader line
over the extension of the dimension line.

Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions

77

Dimensioning drawings
Dimensioning rules, leader and reference lines, angle dimensions,
square and width across flats

cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-12) and

DIN ISO 128-22 (1999-11)

Dimensioning rules
Entering dimensions
oo

7,5

12

-J5 ^

50

Chained dimensions. Series of chained dimensions

should be avoided. If chained dimensions are required
for reasons related to manufacturing, one dimension of
the chain must be in parentheses.

70
(15)

10

15

15

Each dimension is only entered once. If two elements

have identical dimensions but different shapes, they
must be dimensioned separately.
If multiple views are drawn, the dimensions should be
entered where the shape of the workpiece is best
recognized.
Symmetrical workpieces. The position of the center
line is not dimensioned.

Flat workpieces. For flat workpieces that are only drawn

in one view, the thickness dimension may be entered
with the reference letter t

t =5

in the view or
near the view.

Leader and reference lines

Leader lines. Leader lines are drawn as thin solid lines.
They end
with an arrowhead, if they point to solid body edges
or holes.
with a dot, if they point to a surface.
without marking, if they point to other lines.

leader line

Reference lines. Reference lines are drawn in the reading direction with thin solid lines. They may be connected to leader lines.
Angular dimensions
Extension lines. The extension lines point toward the
vertex of the angle.
Dimension numbers. Normally these are entered tangentially to the dimensioning line so that their lower
edge points to the vertex of the angle if they are above
the horizontal center line and with their upper edge if
they are below it.

Square, width across flats

Square
Symbol. For square shaped elements the symbol is set
in front of the dimensioning number. The size of the
symbol corresponds to the size of the small letters.
Dimensioning. Square shapes should preferably be
dimensioned in the view in which their shape is recognizable. Only the length of one side of the square should
be entered.
WAF17
Width across flats
WAF17

Symbol. For widths across flats the upper case letters

WAF are placed in front of the dimensioning number, if
the width between flats cannot be dimensioned.

78

Technical drawing: 3.

Dimensioning drawings
Diameters, radii, spheres, chamfers, inclines, tapers, arc dimensions

cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-12)

Diameter, radius, sphere

vO
nO LO

Diameter
Symbol. For all diameters the symbol 0 is placed before the dimension number. Its overall height corresponds
to the height of the dimensioning number.
Limited space. In the case of limited space the dimension references the workpiece feature from the outside.
Radius
Symbol. For radii the lower case letter r is placed before
the dimensioning number.
Dimension lines. Dimension lines should be drawn
from the center of the radius or
from the direction of the midpoint.
Sphere
Symbol. For spherical shape workpiece features the
capital letter S is placed before the diameter or radius
symbol.

Chamfers, countersinks
45 chamfers and countersinks of 90 can be simply
dimensioned by indicating the angle and the chamfer
width. Both drawn and undrawn chamfers may be
dimensioned using an extension line.

2x45 o

Other chamfer angles. For chamfers with an angle deviating from 45 the
angle and the chamfer width or
the angle and the chamfer diameter

0.6x45

are to be entered.

Inclines, tapers

t ^

Incline
Symbol. The symbol C^ is entered before the dimension numbers.
Orientation of the symbol. The symbol is oriented so that
its incline matches the incline of the workpiece. Preferably
the symbol is connected to the inclined surface with a
reference line or a leader line.

30%

1:10

Taper
Symbol. The symbol O is entered before the dimension numbers on a reference line.
Orientation of the symbol. The orientation of the symbol
must match the direction of the workpiece taper. The
reference line of the symbol is connected to the outline
of the taper with a leader line.
Arc dimensions

r\32

32

Symbol. The symbol ^

is entered before the dimension numbers. For manual drawing the arc may be
labeled with a similar symbol over the dimension number.

Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions

79

Dimensioning drawings
Slots, threads, patterns

cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-12) and DIN ISO 6410-1 (1993-12)

Slots

10P9

10N9
Csji
<=>
1

n-

J k
(h + 4\

Slot depth. The slot depth is measured

from the slot side for closed slots
from the opposing side for open slots.

Cvl 1

032h9
closed slot

open slot

open slot

10N9x5+0.2

/? = 5+0.2

I
Qs .

z
o

>H

s.

>
>

tQli ii

36+0.3

^ II
II

36+0.3
1.1 H13x023 H11

1.3 H13x021h11
f / /

A/

-UJL.

U-

Simplified dimensioning. For slots represented only in

the top view, the slot depth is dimensioned
with the letter h or
in combination with the slot width.
With slots for retaining rings the slot depth may also be
entered in combination with the slot width.
Limit deviations for tolerance classes JS9, N9, P9 and
H11: page 109
Slot dimensions
for wedges see page 239
for fitted keys see page 240
for retaining rings see page 269

Threads
Code designation. Code designators are used for standard threads.
V/
'1

/////,

Left hand threads. Left hand threads are marked with

LH. If both left hand and right hand threads are found on
a workpiece, the right hand threads get the addition RH.

/ / / / / .

Multiple screw threads. For multiple screw threads the

pitch and the spacing are entered behind the nominal
diameter.

vt
//
17

20

Length specifications. These give the usable thread

length. The depth of the basic hole (page 211) is normally not dimensioned.
Chamfers. Chamfers on threads are only dimensioned if
their diameters do not correspond to the thread core or
the thread outside diameter.

Radial and linear patterns

20 x 16 (= 320)
Identical design elements. The following data is given
for spacing of identical design elements having the
same distance or angle between them
the number of elements
the distance between the elements
the overall length or overall angle (in parentheses).

80

Technical drawing: 3.

Dimensioning drawings
Tolerance specifications

cf. DIN 406-12 (1992-12), DIN ISO 2768-1 (1991-06) and DIN ISO 2768-2 (1991-04)

Tolerance specifications using deviations

CM
C+D C
+D

cd
+

LTl

+0.15
35-0.10

Entry. The deviations are entered

after the nominal size
if there are two deviations, the upper deviation is
shown above the lower deviation

CD

20 0J

LTl

for equally large upper and lower deviations by a

mark before the number value, which is only entered
once
for angle dimensioning with units specified.

40 -0.1/-0.3
+0 30'
30+0 15'

+ 0 0' 45'
30+0 0' 30'

Tolerance specifications using tolerance classes

Entry. Tolerance classes are entered for

single nominal sizes: after the nominal size
parts shown inserted: the tolerance class of the interior
dimension (hole) is before or over the tolerance class
of the outer dimension (shaft).

Tolerance specifications for specific areas

7777777
Csl 1
Si

r
L
1

zn

Is

///
Cy

r*-

cd"' '

C +1 - CQ
D

CD

Area of application. The area to which the tolerance

applies is bounded by a thin solid line.

Tolerance specifications using general tolerances

checked by:

scale:

drawn by:

date:

company:

sheet no.:

1:1
ISO 2768

10

DIN 509 - E 0.8x0.3

5x 45

Ra 3.2

NO

LTl
m
S

2x45(

cn

LTlCsl
Si

16

40
53

bolts
10 SPb 20
ISO 2768-m

Application. General tolerances are used for

linear and angular dimensions
form and position.
They apply to dimensions without individual tolerance
entry.
Drawing entry. The note for general tolerances (page
110) can be located:
near the individual part drawings
for title blocks according to DIN 6771 (retracted):
in the title block.
Entries. Given are:
the sheet number of the standard
the tolerance class for linear and angular dimensions
the tolerance class for form and positional tolerances,
as needed.

Technical drawing: 3.5 Entering dimensions

81

Dimensioning in drawings
Dimensions

cf. DIN 406-10 and -11 (1992-12)

Types of dimensioning
basic dimension
positional
dimensions

Basic Dimensions. The basic dimensions of a workpiece

are the
total length
total width
total height.
Shape dimensions. Shape dimensions establish, e.g. the
dimensions of slots
dimensions of shoulders.

shape
dimensions

basic
dimensions

Positional dimensions. These are used to specify the

location of
holes
slots
elongated holes, etc.

Special dimensions
Rough dimensions
Function. Rough dimensions might be used to give
information about, for example, the dimensions of cast
or forged workpieces before machining.

Labeling. Rough dimensions are put in brackets.

Auxiliary dimensions

Function. Auxiliary dimensions give additional information. They are not necessary to geometrically define the workpiece.
Labeling. Auxiliary dimensions are
put in parentheses
entered without tolerances.

30
[35]

rough dimension

Dimensions not drawn to scale

Labeling. Dimensions not drawn to scale might be used
for drawing changes, for example, and they are marked
by underlining.

t =2
25

Prohibited are underlined dimensions in computer aided

(CAD) drawings.

20
Control dimensions
Function. It should be noted that these dimensions are
especially checked by the purchaser. If necessary a 100%
check will be performed.
Labeling. Control dimensions are set in frames with
rounded ends.

W////////A

z:
(42-0.1100%

Theoretically precise dimensions

Function. These dimensions give the geometrically ideal
(theoretically precise) position of the shape of a design
feature.
Labeling. The dimensions are placed in a frame without
tolerance specifications and correspond with geometric
tolerancing.

82

Technical drawing: 3.

Types of dimensioning
Parallel dimensioning, running dimensioning, coordinate dimensioning1* cf. DIN 406-11 (1992-12)
Stack dimensioning

Dimension lines. Several dimension lines are entered

together for
stacked linear dimensions
concentric angular dimensions.

t = 12

Running dimensioning

Origin. The dimensions are entered outwards from the

origin in each of the three possible directions. The origin
is indicated by a small circle.
Dimension lines. The following applies for the entries:
As a rule only one dimension line is used for each
direction.
If there is limited space two or more dimension lines
may be used. The dimension lines may also be shown
broken.
Dimensions
must be provided with a minus sign if they are entered
from the origin in the opposite direction.
may also be entered in the reading direction.

Coordinate dimensioning
Item X
Y
d
1
50 50 040
2 180 190 030
3 220 115 075
4 325 50

Cartesian coordinates (page 63)

Coordinate values. These are
entered in tables or
entered near the coordinate points.

X = 180 - f
X = 220
Y = 190 1
i Y = 115
030
X = 50 i 075
X = 325
_l_ Y = 50
040 t = 12 ' Y = 5 0
X

Item r
d
V
1* ' 140 0 030
140 30 030
2
3 I 100 60 030
140 90 030
4
1)

Point of origin. The point of origin

is entered with a small circle
can lie at any location of the drawing.
Dimensions. These must be provided with a minus sign
if they are entered from the origin in the opposite direction to the positive direction.

Polar coordinates (page 63)

Coordinate values. The coordinate values are entered in
tables.

Parallel dimensioning, running dimensioning and coordinate dimensioning may be combined with each other.

83

T e c h n i c a l d r a w i n g : 3.5 E n t e r i n g d i m e n s i o n s

Simplified presentation in drawings

Simplified representation of holes

cf. DIN 6780 (2000-10)

Hole base, line widths for simplified representation

Full scale representation, full scale
dimensioning

Full scale representation, simplified dimensioning

010

Simplified representation, simplified dimensioning

01Ox14U

01Ox14U
z:

010x1411

01Ox14U

01Ox14U

Hole base
The shape of the hole base is given by a symbol
if necessary.
The symbol U for example means a flat hole
base (cylindrical end bore).
Line widths
For holes depicted in simplified form, the positions of holes should be drawn as:
simply the intersecting axes in the top view
the position of the holes in thick solid lines in
parallel axis representation.

Stepped holes, countersinks and chamfers, internal threads

,011.

011x6.5U

011x6.5U

06.6

06.6

A1

011x6.51)
06.6

Stepped holes
For holes with two or more steps the dimensions
are written under each other. Here the largest
diameter is written on the first line.

011x6.5U
06.6

v
012.4x90

012.4x90

06.6

06.6

/ X

'A Ya
M10x15/20

M1Qx15/20
V

Internal threads
The thread length and the hole depth are separated by a slash. Holes without depth specification are drilled through.

012x90
01OH7

012x90
01OH7

01OH7

Countersinks and chamfers

For countersinks and hole chamfers the largest
countersink diameter and the countersink angle
are given.

Hole 0 10H7
Through hole
Chamfer 1 x 45c

2
M10-LH

M10-LHx12

M10-LHx12
4L

08x0.3
08x90
04.3

08x0.3
08x90
04.3

Left hand thread M10

Thread length 12 mm
Drilled through core hole

Cylindrical countersink 0 8
Bore depth 0.3 mm
Through hole 0 4 . 3 with
cone shaped counterbore 90
Countersink diameter 0 8

84

Technical drawing: 3.

a c e

nts

Gear types
Representation of gears

cf. DIN ISO 2203 (1976-06)

Spur gear

Bevel gear

Worm gear

EZZ

External helical gear

Internal spur gear

left-hand

zzzz

77Z
righfy hand

Rack and Pinion

c
Worm and worm gear

Bevel gear set (shaft angle 90)

Sprockets

L___r
Positive drive belts

Technical drawing: 3.

a c e

nts

Roller bearings
Representation of roller bearings
Representation
simplified

Elements of a detailed simplified representation

explanation

graphical

cf. DIN ISO 8826-1 (1990-12) and DIN ISO 8826-2 (1995-10)

element

Long, straight line; for representing

the axis of the roller bearing elements for
bearings that cannot be adjusted.

For general purposes a

roller bearing is represented as square or rectangular with a free-standing upright cross.

If necessary, the roller

bearing can be represented by its outline
and a free-standing
upright cross.

explanation, application

Long, curved line; for representing the axis

of the roller bearing elements for bearings
that can be adjusted (self-aligning bearing).
Short straight line; used to represent the
position and number of rows of roller
bearing elements.

Circle; for the representation of roller bearing elements (balls, roller, needle rollers)
which are drawn perpendicular to their axis.

Examples of detailed simplified representation of roller bearings

Representation of single-row roller bearings
detailed
-
designation
.... .
graphical
simplified

Z2l

Radial-deep
groove ball
bearings,
cylindrical roller
bearings

Representation of double row roller bearings

d e t a i l e d

simplified

Angular-contact
ball bearing,
tapered roller
bearing
/ /

Needle bearing,
needle roller
assembly

FR

f-

Spherical roller
bearing, radialspherical
roller bearing

Angular-contact
ball bearings

Needle bearing,
needle roller
assembly

Axial-deep grooved
ball bearing,
axial-roller bearing

Axial-deep grooved
ball bearing,
dual action

Axial-spherical
roller bearing

Axial-deep grooved
ball bearing with
spherical seating,
dual action

Combined ball bearings

H

designation
Radial-deep
groove ball
bearings,
cylindrical roller
bearings

++

Radial spherical
roller bearing
(barrel-shaped
bearing)

graphical

Combined
radial-needle
bearing with
angular-contact
ball bearing
Combined
axial-ball bearing
with radial needle
bearing

Representation perpendicular to the rolling element axis

Roller bearing with

any desired type of
roller element
shape (balls,
rollers, needles)

86

Technical drawing: 3.

a c e

nts

Representation of seals and roller bearings

Simplified representation of seals

cf. DIN ISO 9222-1 (1990-12) and DIN ISO 9222-2 (1991-03)

Representation
simplified

graphical

Elements of a detailed simplified representation

explanation

element

Long line parallel to the sealing surface;

for the fixed (static) sealing element.

For general purposes a

seal is represented by a
square or rectangle and a
separate diagonal crossmark. The sealing direction can be given by an
arrow.

explanation, application

Long diagonal line; for the dynamic sealing element; e.g. the sealing lip. The
sealing direction can be given by an
arrow.
Short diagonal line; for dust lip seal,
scraper rings.
Short lines pointing to the middle of the
symbol; for the static parts of U-rings
und V-rings, packing.

If necessary, the seals can

be represented by the outline and a free-standing diagonal cross-mark.

f=

Short lines, which point to the middle of

the symbol; for the sealing lips of Urings und V-rings, packing.

T and U; for non-contact seals.

Examples of detailed simplified representation of seals

Shaft seals and piston rod seals
detailed
simplified

graphical

Profile gaskets, packing sets, labyrinth seals

designation for
rotation
linear
motion
Shaft seal
without dust
lip seal

Rod seal
without
stripper

Shaft seal
with dust lip
seal

Rod seal
with stripper

Shaft seal,
dual action

Rod seal,
dual
action

detailed
simplified

detailed
simplified

graphical

>-

Examples of simplified representation of seals and roller bearings

Deep grooved roller bearings and
radial shaft seal with dust lip seal 11

Packing set2*

Dual row deep grooved roller bearings

and radial shaft seal 2 '

1)
2)

Top half: simplified representation; bottom half: graphical representation.

Top half: detailed simplified representation; bottom half: graphical representation.

>

graphical

Technical drawing: 3.

a c e

nts

Representation of retaining rings. Slots for retaining rings,

Springs, Splines and serrations
Representation of retaining rings and slots for retaining rings

t n
\

Retaining
rings for
shafts
(page 269)

Deviations

Assembly dimension

Representation

<i

reference plane
for dimensioning 1 '

___
_

mH13

i
m

a = roller bearing
width + retaining
ring width

im
reference plane
for dimensioning 1 '

Retaining
rings for
holes
(page 269)

1)

Deviations for d 2 :
upper deviation: 0 (zero)
lower deviation: negative
Deviations for a:
upper deviation: positive
lower deviation: 0 (zero)

Deviations for d2.

upper deviation: positive
lower deviation: 0 (zero)
Deviations for a:
upper deviation: positive
lower deviation: 0 (zero)

For functional reasons the reference plane for the dimensioning of slots is the locating face of the part to be secured.

Representation of springs
Representation
section
view

Name

cf. DIN ISO 2162-1 (1994-08)

Symbol

Name

Cylindrical
helical compression
spring (round
wire)

Cylindrical
helical tension spring

Cylindrical
helical tension spring

Cylindrical
helical compression
spring (square
wire)

Disk spring
(simple)

Representation of splines and serrations

Hub

Shaft

Symbol:

Symbol

cf. DIN ISO 6413(1990-03)

Splines or
spline hubs
with straight
flanks.

Joint
J~L

- S b

JT

Toothed shafts
or toothed
hubs with
involute
splines or
serrations.

section

Disk spring
assembly
(disks layered
in alternating
directions)

Disk spring assembly (disks

layered in the
same direction)

Symbol:

Representation
view

IP*

ir _n

s\\\\l
Splines ISO 14-6 x 26 f7 x 30: Spline profile with straight flanks according to ISO 14, number of
splines N = 6, inner diameter d= 26f7, outer diameter D= 30 (page 241)

88

Technical drawing: 3.

o r e

nts

Bosses on turned parts, Workpiece corners and edges

Bosses on turned parts
Boss
VworkPiece
dimensions

cf. DIN 6785(1991-11)

boss

Largest diameter of the finished part in mm

Boss
dimen- up to 3 over 3 over 5 over 8 over 12 over 18 over 26 over 40
sions
to 8
to 26
to 40
to 5
to 12
to 18
to 60

r- 00.5

in mm

/r
Example

max

0.3

0.5

0.8

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.5

0.2

0.3

0.5

0.6

0.9

1.2

2.0

3.0

0.3
Drawing
entry

'max
in mm

1> 00.5x0,3

Workpiece corners and edges

Workpiece edge/corner lies in reference to the ideal geometrical form

inside
outside
in area

Edge or
corner
outer
edge

burr

material removal
a.
a

sharp edged
J

<0

13

fa

material removal

inner
edge
LL
u r

cf. DIN ISO 13715 (2000-12), replacement for DIN 6784

transition
a

ft, '

Dim. a (mm)

]/

OJ

-0.1;-0.3;-0.5;-1.0;-2.5

Symbol for
labeling workpiece
edges/corners

Symbol
element

1)

\II

'

|\

+0.1;+0.3;+0.5;+1.0;+2.5
Meaning for

outer edge
Burr allowed,
material removal
not allowed

field for entering

dimension

sharp edged

-0.05;-0.02;+0.02;+0.05

Burr and material removal direction

inner edge
Transition allowed,
material removal not
allowed

Specification
allowed
for

Removal required, Removal required,

burr not
transition not
allowed
allowed

Example

Burr or transition
allowed

Meaning

Material removal or
transition allowed

outer edge

inner edge

Burr

Material
removal

+1
L

only allowed with a dimension callout

Labeling of workpiece corners and edges

Examples

Collective indications

t0.3
^0.5
- t U
Collective indications apply to all edges for which an
edge condition is not given.
Edges for which the collective indication does not
apply must be marked in the drawing.
The exceptions are placed after the collective indication
in parentheses or indicated by the base symbol.
Collective indications which are
only valid for outside or inside
edges are given by the corresponding symbols.

J=+0.3
XL

-0.1

L05

XKT
[0.02

IKT

Outside edge without burr.

The allowable material removal
is between 0 and 0.3 mm.
Outside edge with allowable
burr of 0 to 0.3 mm
(burr direction specified).
Inside edge with allowable
material removal between 0.1
and 0.5 mm (material removal
direction not specified).
Inside edge with allowable
material removal between 0 and
0.02 mm or allowable transition
up to 0.02 mm (sharp edged).

Technical drawing: 3.

o r e

nts

Thread runouts, Thread undercuts

Thread runouts for metric ISO threads
External thread

Pitch
1)

ISO
standard
thread

--t
-

J
r

0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35

0.4
0.45
0.5
0.6

M2
M2.5
M3

0.7
0.75
0.8
1

Internal thread

1)

2)

Ml
-

M1.6

M4
-

M5
M6

cf. DIN 76-1 (2004-06)

Thread runout 2 '
a

Pitch
1)

ISO
standard
thread

max.
0.5
0.6
0.75
0.9

i
max.
0.6
0.75
0.9
1.05

1.3
1.5
1.8
2.1

1.25
1.5
1.75
2

1
1.1
1.25
1.5

1.2
1.35
1.5
1.8

2.3
2.6
2.8
3.4

1.75
1.9
2
2.5

2.1
2.25
2.4
3

3.8
4
4.2
5.1

Thread runout 2 '

M8
M10
M12
M16

*1
max.
3.2
3.8
4.3
5

max.
3.75
4.5
5.25
6

6.2
7.3
8.3
9.3

2.5
3
3.5
4

M20
M24
M30
M36

6.3
7.5
9
10

7.5
9
10.5
12

11.2
13.1
15.2
16.8

4.5
5
5.5
6

M42
M48
M56
M64

11
12.5
14
15

13.5
15
16.5
18

30 min

Internal thread
form C and form D

Lx!

x / / / V

/ ,

18.4
20.8
22.4
24

For fine threads the dimension of the thread runout is chosen according to the
pitch P.
As a rule; applies if no other entries are given.
If a shorter thread runout is necessary, this applies:
x2 0.5 x-|," 32*0.67-3-,; e2 0.625 e^
If a longer thread runout is necessary, this applies:
a3 1.3 ay, e3 *> 1.6

Screw thread undercuts for metric ISO threads

External thread
form A and form B

ei

Pitch
1)

ISO
standard
thread

cf. DIN 76-1 (2004-06)

External threads
Form A 2 ' Form B 3 )
9^
92
01
92
min. max. min. max.
0.45 0.7 0.25 0.5
0.55 0.9 0.25 0.6
0.75
0.6 1.05 0.3
0.7 1.2 0.4
0.9

Internal threads
Form C 2 ' Form D 3 '
01
92
01
92
H13 min. max. min. max.
d + 0.1
0.8 1.2 0.5 0.9
1
1.4 0.6 1
d + 0.1
1.2 1.6 0.75 1.25
d+0.1
d+0.2
1.4 1.9 0.9 1.4

d
Q
h13

0.1
0.12
0.16
0.16

d-0.3
of-0.4
d-0.5
d-0.6

0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4

d-0.7
d-0.7
d-0.8
d- 1

0.8
1
1.1
1.2

1.4
1.6
1.75
2.1

0.5
0.5
0.5
0.6

1
1.1
1.25
1.5

d+0.2
d+0.2
d+0.3
d+0.3

1.6
1.8
2
2.4

2.2
2.4
2.7
3.3

1
1.1
1.25
1.5

1.6
1.7
2
2.4

M5
M6

0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6

d-1.1
d- 1.2
d-1.3
d-1.6

1.5
1.6
1.7
2.1

2.45
2.6
2.8
3.5

0.8
0.9
0.9
1.1

1.75
1.9
2
2.5

d + 0.3
d + 0.3
d+0.3
d+0.5

2.8
3
3.2
4

3.8
4
4.2
5.2

1.75
1.9
2
2.5

2.75
2.9
3
3.7

1.25
1.5
1.75
2

M8
M10
M12
M16

0.6
0.8
1
1

d-2
d-2.3
d - 2.6
d-3

2.7
3.2
3.9
4.5

4.4
5.2
6.1
7

1.5
1.8
2.1
2.5

3.2
3.8
4.3
5

d+0.5
d+0.5
d+0.5
d+0.5

5
6
7
8

6.7
7.8
9.1
10.3

3.2
3.8
4.3
5

4.9
5.6
6.4
7.3

2.5
3
3.5
4

M20
M24
M30
M36

1.2
1.6
1.6
2

d-3.6
d - 4.4
d-5
d - 5.7

5.6 8.7
6.7 10.5
7.7 12
14
9

3.2
3.7
4.7
5

6.3
7.5
9
10

d+0.5
d+0.5
d+0.5
d+0.5

10
12
14
16

13
6.3 9.3
15.2 7.5 10.7
17.7 9
12.7
14
20 10

4.5
5
5.5
6

M42
M48
M56
M64

2
2.5
3.2
3.2

d - 6.4 10.5 16
6-1
11.5 17.5
d-7.7 12.5 19
d-8.3 14
21

5.5
6.5
7.5
8

11
12.5
14
15

d + 0.5
d + 0.5
d + 0.5
d+0.5

18
20
22
24

23
26
28
30

0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35

0.4
0.45
0.5
0.6

M2
M2.5
M3

0.7
0.75
0.8
1

M1
-

M1.6

M4
-

11
12.5
14
15

16
18.5
20
21

DIN 76-C: Screw thread undercut shape C

1)

30 min.

2)
3)

For fine thread screws the dimension of the thread undercut is chosen according
to the pitch P.
as a rule; always applies if no other entries are made
Only in cases where a shorter thread undercut is required.

90

Technical drawing: 3.

o r e

nts

Representation of threads and screw joints

Representation of threads

cf. DIN ISO 6410-1 (1993-12)

Internal thread

V/s

V T V

T/

-f+4-

e^ accord, to DIN 76-1. Thread runout is normally not shown.

Bolt thread

Bolts in internal thread

Thread undercut
graphical

Pipe threads and pipe screw joints

symbolic

DIN76-D

DIN76-A

Representation of screw joints

Hexagonal bolt and nut
detailed

simplified

h2
h3
e
s
d

Screw joint w i t h
cap screw

bolt head hight

nut height
washer thickness
diagonal between corners
width across flats
thread nominal 0

Screw joint with

hexagonal screw

h 2 0.8 t/
e
*2-d
s ^ 0.87 e

Screw joint with

countersunk head screw

Screw joint
w i t h stud

Technical drawing: 3.

o r e

nts

Center holes. Knurls

Center holes
form R

cf. DIN 332-1 (1986-04)

Nominal sizes

form A
Form

,!

2.12

2.5
1.25 1.6
2
2.65 3.35 4.25 5.3

1.9

2.3

d,
d2

CM
"ta

2.9

4.6

3.7

3.15 4
6.7
8.5
7.4

5.8

1.9

2.3

2.9

3.7

4.6

5.9

7.4
11

'min

2.2

2.7

3.4

4.3

5.4

3.5

4.5

5.5

6.6

8.3

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.8

6.3

3.15
^mir

Form

10

1.9

2.3

2.9

3.7

4.6

3.5

4.5

5.5

6.6

8.3

0.4

0.6

0.7

0.9

0.9

4.5

5.3

6.3

7.5

7.1

8.5

12.7
1.2

12.5

5.9
10

7.4
12.7

1.1

1.7

9.2

11.4

14.7
22

18
11.5

14.8

14

18

22

10.8

12.9

16.4

15.6 20
1.6

16
9.2

1.6

1.4
18

22.4

11.5

14.8

15.6 20
1.7

25

25

2.3

14

18

22.4 28

12.5 16

20

25

11.2

10

8.6

0.9
10

31.5

curved bearing surface, without protective countersink

straight bearing surface, without protective countersink
straight bearing surface, conical protective countersink
straight bearing surface, truncated conical protective counter
sink

Drawing callout for center holes

A center hole is
required on the finished part

6.8

9.2
14

11

6.3 8
5
10.6 13.2 17

cf. DIN ISO 6411 (1997-11)

A center hole may not be present
on the finished part

A center hole is allowed

on the finished part
ISO 6411 -A4/8.5

ISO 6411 -A4/8.5

K ' S O 6411 -A4/8.5

< ISO 6411 - A4/8.5: center hole ISO 6411: a center hole is required on the finished part.
Form and dimensions of the center hole according to DIN 332: form A; d-\ = 4 mm; d2 = 8.5 mm.

Knurls

cf. DIN 82 (1973-01)

Letter
symbol

Representation

RAA

dy nominal diameter
d2 initial diameter
t
spacing
Standard spacing values
f: 0.5; 0.6; 0.8; 1.0; 1.2; 1.6 m m

RBR

RBL
RGE

Drawing entry (example):

DIN 82-RGE 0.8

RGV
RKE
RKV

-30(

i i

Name

Point
shape

Initial
diameter d2

Knurls with
axially parallel
grooves

do = d^ - 0.5 t

Right-hand
knurl

d2 = d<l- 0.5 t

Left-hand knurl

do = di - 0.5 t

Left-hand/righthand knurls
Axial and circumferential
knurl

raised

do = di - 0.67 t

recessed

d? = d-i- 0.33 t

raised

do = d^- 0.67 t

recessed

d2 = dy- 0.33 t

DIN 82-RGE 0.8: Left-hand/right-hand knurls, raised points, t = 0.8 mm

92

Technical drawing: 3.

o r e

nts

Undercuts
Undercuts1}

cf. DIN 509 (2006-12)

form E
for cylindrical surface to
be further machined

form F
for shoulders and cylindrical
surfaces to be further machined
z

form G
form H
for small transition for planar and cylindrical surfaces
(for low loading)
to be further machined
z

Zv Z 2 = machining allowances
Undercut DIN 509 - E 0.8 x 0.3: form E, radius r= 0.8 mm, undercut depth f, = 0.3 mm
Undercut dimensions and countersink dimensions
2)

Form

:i 0.1

t2

Correlation tc> diameter d-\3)

for workptieces with

normal
loading

Series Series + 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.2

1
0
0
2
0
R0.2

R0.4

2)
3)

(0.9)

> 0 1.6-03

0.2x0.1

0.2

> 0 3 - 0 18

0.4x0.2

0.3

R0.6

0.2

0.1

> 0 1 0 - 0 18

0.6x0.2

0.5

0.15

R0.6

0.3

0.2

2.5

(2.1)

> 0 1 8 - 0 80

0.6x0.3

0.4

> 0 1 8 - 0 80

0.8 x 0.3

0.6

0.05

1.0x0.2

0.9

0.45

1.0x0.4

0.7

1.2x0.2

1.1

0.6

1.2x0.4

0.9

0.1

1.6x0.3

1.4

0.6

0.3

0.2

2.5

(2.3)

R1

0.2

0.1

2.5

(1.8)

R1

0.4

0.3

(3.2)

0.2

0.1

2.5

(2)

> 0 1 8 - 0 50

> 0 80

> 0 1 8 - 0 50

0.4

0.3

(3.4)

R1.6

0.3

0.2

(3.1)

> 0 5 0 - 0 80

R2.5

0.4

0.3

(4.8)

> 0 8 0 - 0 125

2.5 x 0.4

2.2

1.0

R4

0.5

0.3

(6.4)

> 0 125

4.0x0.5

3.6

2.1

R0.4

0.2

0.2

(0.9)

(1.1)

R0.8

0.3

0.05

(2.0)

R1.2

0.3

0.05

(2.4)

(1.1)
(1.5)

> 0 80

> 0 3 - 0 18

0.4x0.2

> 0 1 8 - 0 80

0.8 x 0.3

0.35

1.2x0.3

0.65

> 0 1 8 - 0 50

4)
1)

Fo rm
F
G

R1.2

0.1

R1.2

0.1

Undercut
r x f-|

(1.1)
(1.4)

R0.8
E
and
F

0.1
0.2

increased
fatigue strength

Minimum dirnensi on a f: or coijntersink on tl"le opp>osingI piece;4)

All forms of undercut apply to both shafts and holes.

Undercuts with Series 1 radii are preferred.
The correlation to the diameter area does not apply with curved shoulders and
thin walled parts. For workpieces with differing diameters it may be advisable
to design all undercuts for all diameters in the same form and size.

Countersink dimension a on
opposing piece
l

o I
CN

Drawing entry for undercuts

Normally undercuts are represented in drawings as a simplified entry with the designator. However they can also be
completely drawn and dimensioned.
Example: Shaft with undercut DIN 509 - F1.2 x 0.2

Example: Hole with undercut- DIN 509- E1.2 x 0.2

simplified entry

simplified entry

DIN 509-F 1.2x0.2

77m

DIN 509-E 1.2x0.2

0.1+0.05 2.5+0.2
complete entry

complete entry

93

Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering

Symbols for Welding and Soldering

Positioning of symbols for welding and soldering in drawings

cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)

Basic terms

solid reference line

arrow line

weld symbol

tail

Reference line. This consists of the solid reference line

and the dashed reference line. The dashed reference line
runs parallel to the solid reference line and above or
below it. The dashed reference line is omitted for symmetrical welds.
Arrow line. It connects the solid reference line with
the joint.

joint
(e.g. butt joint)

Tail. Additional entries can be given here as needed for:

method, process
working position
evaluation group
additional material
Joint. Orientation of the parts to be joined to each other.

Weld information
symbolic

Symbol. The symbol identifies the form of the weld. It is

preferably placed normal to the solid reference line, or if
necessary on the dashed reference line.

V P *

a3 17"

a
a4

"arrow side"

/
//

"other
side"

I7I

arrow line

>

Arrangement of the weld symbol

position of the
weld symbol

position of the weld

(weld surface)

solid reference line

"arrow side"

dashed reference line

"other side"

For welds represented in section or view, the position of

the symbol must agree with the weld cross section.
Arrow side. The arrow side is that side of the joint to
which the arrow line refers.

'other side'

Other side. The other side of the joint that is opposite the
arrow side.

arrow line
"arrow side'

Supplemental and auxiliary symbols

Weld surface hollow (concave)

Weld all around

Weld surface flat (planar)

Field weld (weld is made on

the construction site)

/
,

cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)

<^23

jf

Entry of the welding

process in the tail

Weld surface curved (convex)

JO

Weld surface notch free

Representation in drawings (basic symbols)

Weld type/
symbol

graphical

Representation
symbolic

cf. DIN EN 22553(1997-03)

Weld type/
symbol

graphical

Representation
symbolic

I
iiiiiiiiiiiii

SL

Butt
weld

II
jTT

V groove
weld

V
R

94

Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering

Symbols for Welding and Soldering

Representation in drawings (basic symbols)
Weld type/
symbol

Representation
graphical

Weld type/
symbol

symbolic

Flare-V
groove
weld

cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)

graphical

Representation
symbolic

f * -

j/

J/

TV

T\

X.

Bevel
groove weld

Plug
welding

I f

Si-

Y-butt
weld

Frontal
flush weld

Steepflanked weld

\L

r>r\

AL

\i
Build-up
weld

[77

IMmI I

Fold weld

J-groove
weld

= = = =

U-groove
weld

ar

1
f

HY-weld

aB
Weld all
around

b-

Spot weld

Fillet weld

Line weld
5BM03SB

aB

Field weld
with 3 mm
seam
thickness

aBjs^
Surface weld
r ~ i
alb,

Vssss/A

95

Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering

Symbols for Welding and Soldering

Composite symbols for symmetrical welds 1) (examples)
Weld type

Representation

Symbol

D(ouble)V-weld
(X-weld)

D(ouble)bevel weld

Weld type

Symbol

D(ouble)HY-weld

D(ouble)U-weld
1)

D(ouble)Y-weld

cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)

The symbols are located symmetrical to the

reference line.
Example:

Application examples for auxiliary symbols

Weld type
Flat
V-weld

Convex
double
V-weld
Y-weld
with
backing run

symbolic

Weld type

Symbol

Flat
reworked
V-weld

Representation

Flat
V-weld with
flat backing
run

Hollow fillet
weld, weld
transfer
unnotched

Dimensioning examples

cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)

Representation and dimensioning

graphical
symbolic

Weld type

graphical

cf. DIN EN 22553 (1997-03)

Representation

Symbol

Representation

Meaning of the symbolic

dimension entry

s4
l-weld
(penetrating)

(7

Butt weld, penetrating,

weld seam thickness s = 4 mm

7 K
s3

l-weld
(non-penetrating)

Flare-V
groove
weld

V-weld
(penetrating
weld) with
backing run

/ /.

\
-S2_JL

31

111/IS0 5817-C/
w
- V - < ( ISO 69A-7-PA/
EN 499-E 42 0 RR12

-Zl

1)

Supplementary requirements can be entered in a tail at the end of a reference line.

Butt weld, non-penetrating,

weld seam thickness s = 3 mm,
running over the entire
workpiece
Flare-V groove weld,
not completely melted down,
weld seam thickness s= 2 mm

V-weld (penetrating weld)

with backing run, fabricated by
manual arc welding (code 111
accord, to DIN EN ISO 4063),
required evaluation group C
accord, to ISO 5817; flat welding position PA accord, to ISO
6947; electrode E 42 0 RR 12
accord, to DIN EN 499

96

Technical drawing: 3.8 Welding and soldering

Symbols for Welding and Soldering,

Representation of adhesive, folded and pressed joints
Dimensioning examples (continued)
Weld type

Representation and dimensioning

graphical
symbolic
J3jv
/ J

Meaning of the symbolic

dimension entry
jiK.

Fillet weld
(continuous)

Fillet weld,
weld leg thickness z = 4 mm
(side length of the isosceles
triangle)

/
^30

^30

Fillet weld
(interrupted)

')))))] mmi
20

Fillet weld (interrupted),

weld leg thickness a = 5 mm;
2 single welds each with
/ = 20 mm length;
weld spacing e = 10 mm,
end distance v = 30 mm

a5|\2x20(10)

20
\

(10)

Double
fillet weld
(interrupted)

a4|\ 3x30(10)
/ aA-^j x30 (10)

>)))))) ))))))) ))))))'

Double fillet weld

(interrupted, symmetrical),
weld leg thickness a = 4 mm;
single weld length / = 30 mm,
weld spacing e = 10 mm,
without end distance

>))))); )))))). mr.

30 10 30 10 30
25 20

Double
fillet weld
(interrupted,
staggered)

30

I))))

30

z5 k 2 X 2 0 " 7(30)
' z5 ^ 3 x 2 0 / -(30)

25

i)))):

))))).

')))).
20

20

20

))).
30

20

Symbolic representation of adhesive, folded and

pressed joints (examples)
Type of
joint

Weld type/
symbol

Meaning/
drawing entry

Type of
joint

Fillet weld,
weld leg thickness a = 3 mm
(height of the isosceles triangle)

Double fillet weld

(interrupted, staggered),
weld leg thickness z = 5 mm;
single weld length / = 20 mm,
weld spacing e = 30 mm,
end distance v=25 mm

cf. DIN EN ISO 15785 (2002-12)

Weld type/
symbol

Meaning/
drawing entry

20

Surface
seam 1 )

Folded
seam

6x7<?

5x20=

e>

Adhesive
bondedseams

7
05

Slant
seam 1 )

z :
Pressed
seam

Pressed
seam
5 x4H
Z S
$

1)

1
u
NO

Folded
seam

The adhesive media is not shown for adhesive seams.

97

Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces

Heat treated parts - Hardness specifications

Presentation and indication of heat treated parts on drawings

cf. DIN 6773 (2001-04)

Heat treatment specifications

Term(s) for
material condition
Examples:
quenched and
tempered
hardened
hardened and
tempered

hardness
value

HRC
HV
HB

rockwell hardness
vickers hardness
brinell hardness

Measuring points. Entering and dimensioning in the drawing with symbol

hardness
indentation

Eht
Nht
Rht

case hardening thickness

nitriding depth
effective hardening depth

Heat treatment diagram. Simplified, usually reduced scale representation of the

part near the title block.

carburizing depth
nitride white layer thickness

Minimum tensile strength or microstructure. If it is possible to test a part

treated in the same batch.

HTA
WL

annealed

All entries are made with plus tolerances.

nitrided

Possible additions

Measurable parameters of the material condition

Identifying areas of the surface to undergo localized heat treatment

y/'//)/ \
V / / / / / \

y , , , , ,
v / / / / / \

Area must be
heat treated.

Intermediate area may

Area may be
heat treated.

\Z////y\

n o t b e

h e a t

treated.

Heat treatment specifications in drawings (examples)

Heat treatment of the entire part
same requirements
different requirements

Method
Quenching
and tempering,

3K

Hardening,
Hardening
and
tempering

TTi
'
J
60

quenched and tempered

350 + 50 HB 2.5/187.5

Heat treatment
localized
T|

r
75 + 10
hardened and tempered
58+ 4 HRC 4 0 + 5 HRC

" "rTo + 5
hardened and entire
part tempered 60 + 3 HRC

Nitriding,
Case
hardening

1_
nitrided
>900 HV 10
Nht = 0.3+ 0.1

Surfaced
hardening
surface hardened
620 + 120 HV 50
Rht 500 = 0.8 + 0.8

case-hardened and tempered

6 0 + 4 HRC Eht = 0.5 + 0.3
(D <52 HRC

case-hardened and
tempered 700 + 100 HV 10
Eht = 1.2 + 0.5

surface hardened
and entire part tempered
5 4 + 6 HRC = 35 HRC
<30 HRC

surface hardened
and tempered
6 1 + 4 HRC Rht 600 = 0.8 + 0.8

Hardening depths and tolerances in mm

Case-hardening depth Eht

0.05+0.03

0.1+0.1

0.3+0.2

0.5+0.3

0.8+0.4

1.2+0.5

1.6+0.6

Nitriding depth Nht

0.05+0.02

0.1+0.05

0.15+0.02

0.2+0.1

0.25+0.1

0.3+0.1

0.35+0.15

Induction hardening depth Rht

0.2+0.2

0.4+0.4

0.6+0.6

0.8+0.8

1.0+1.0

1.3+1.1

1.6+1.3

Laser/electr. beam hardening depth Rht

0.2+0.1

0.4+0.2

0.6+0.3

0.8+0.4

1.0+0.5

1.3+0.6

1.6+0.8

Control limit hardnesses at the specified hardening depths

Case-hardening depth Eht

550 HV 1

Nitriding depth Nht

core hardness + 50 HV 0.5

Effective hardening depth Rht

0.8 minimum surface hardness, calculated in HV

98

Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces

Form deviations and roughness parameters

Form deviations

cf. DIN 4760 (1982-06)

Form deviations are deviations of the actual surface (surfaces ascertainable by measurement) from the
geometrically ideal surface, whose standard shape is defined by the drawing.
Degrees of form deviation (Profile secExamples
tion repres. with vertical exaggeration)
1st degree: form deviation

Possible causes

deviation in
straightness,
roundness

Deflection of the workpiece or the machine during fabrication of the part, malfunction or wear in the guides of the
machine tool.

2nd degree: waviness

waves

Vibrations of the machine, runout or shape deviation of a

milling machine during fabrication of the part.

3rd degree: roughness

grooves

Geometry of the cutting tool, feed or depth of cut of the

tool during fabrication of the part

4th degree: roughness

scoring,
scales,
bumps

Sequence of chip formation (e.g. tearing chip), surface

deformation due to blasting during fabrication of the part.

5th and 6th degree: roughness

Cannot be represented
as a simple profile section

matrix
structure,
lattice structure

Crystallization cycles, matrix changes due to welding or hot

working, changes due to chemical effects, e.g. corrosion,
etching.

zi

Surface texture profiles and parameters

cf. DIN EN ISO 4287 (1998-10) and DIN EN ISO 4288 (1998-04)

Surface profile

Parameters

Explanations

Primary profile (act. profile , P profile)

Total height of
the profile Pt

The primary profile represents the foundation for calculating the parameters of the primary profile and forms the
basis for the waviness and roughness profiles.
The total height of the profile Pt is the sum of the height of
the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough 2V within the evaluation length / n .

Waviness profile (W-profile)

Total height of
the profile Wt

The waviness profile is obtained by low-pass filtering, i.e. by

suppressing the short wavelength components of the profile.
The total height of the profile Wt is the sum of the height of
the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough Zvwithin the evaluation length / n .

Total height of
the profile Rt

The roughness profile is obtained by high-pass filtering, i.e. by

suppressing the long wavelength components of the profile.
The total height of the profile Rt is the sum of the height of
the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest profile trough Zvwithin the evaluation length / n .

Rp, Rv

Height of the highest profile peak Zp, depth of the lowest

profile trough Zv within the single evaluation length / r .

Highest peak
of the profile

The highest peak of the profile Rz is the sum of the height

of the highest profile peak Zp and the depth of the lowest
profile trough Zv within the single evaluation length / r .

Arithmetic
mean of the
profile ordinates fla1)

The arithmetic mean of the profile ordinates Ra is the

arithmetic mean of all ordinate values Z(x) within the single evaluation length / r .

Material ratio
of the profile
Rmr

The material ratio of the profile expressed as a percentage,

Rmr, is the ratio of the sum of the contributing material
lengths at a specified section height to the total evaluation
length / n .

Center line
(x-axis) x

The center line (x-axis) x is the line corresponding to the

long wavelength profile component which is suppressed
by profile filtering.

in
Roughness profile (R-profile)

o/ 100

Rmr in %
Z(x) height of the profile at any position x; ordinate value
/n
/r

evaluation length
single evaluation length

1) For parameters defined over a single evaluation length, the arithmetic mean of 5 single
evaluation lengths to DIN EN ISO 4288 is used for determining the parameters.

99

Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces

Surface testing, Surface indications

Measuring sections for roughness
Periodic
profiles
(e.g. turning
profiles)

Non-periodic
profiles
(e.g. grinding and
lapping profiles)

Limit
wavelength

cf. DIN EN ISO 4288 (1998-04)

Non-periodic
profiles
(e.g. grinding and
lapping profiles)

Single/
Periodic
total
profiles
evaluation (e.g. turning
length
profiles)

Limit
wavelength

Single /
total
evaluation
length

Groove width
RSm mm

Rz
pm

Ra
pm

pm

'n
mm

groove width
RSm mm

Rz
pm

Ra
pm

pm

/r,/n
mm

>0.01-0.04

up to 0.1

up to 0.02

0.08

0.08/0.4

>0.13-0.4

>0.5-10

>0.1-2

0.8

0.8/4

>0.04-0.13

>0.1-0.5

>0.02-0.1

0.25

0.25/1.25

>0.4-1.3

> 10-50

>2-10

2.5

2.5/12.5

Indication of surface finish

Symbol

cf. DIN EN ISO 1302 (2002 06)

Additional marks

Meaning

All manufacturing processes

are allowed.

Material removal specified, e.g.

turning, milling.

\ /

v-/

a surface parameter11 with

numerical value in pm, transfer characteristics/individual
evaluation length in mm

b secondary surface finish

requirement (as described
for a)

D
Material removal not allowed
or the surface remains in delivered condition.

_/
V

eVd

c manufacturing process
d symbol for the required
groove direction
(table page 100)

All surfaces around the contour

must have the same surfacefinish.

/
V

e machining deviation in mm

Examples
Symbol

Meaning

10

material removing machining

not allowed
Rz= 10 pm (upper limit)
standard transfer
characteristic3'
standard evaluation length 41
"16% rule" 5 1

/ Ra 3.5

Machining can be done as

desired
standard transfpr
characteristic31
. Ra = 3.5 pm (upper limit)
standard evaluation length 41
"16% rule" 5 1

^/Rz
V

r/ Rzmax
^

11
21

31

41
51
61

0.5

material removal machining

Rz= 0.5 pm (upper limit)
standard transfer
characteristic31
standard evaluation length 41
"max. rule" 6 1

Symbol

^
P Ra

Meaning
material removal machining
Ra = 8 pm (upper limit)
standard transfer
characteristic31
standard evaluation length 41
"16% rule" 5 1
applies all around the contour

ground
/0.008-4/Ra
0.5 Vl0.008-/f/Ra

1.6
0.8

material removal machining

manufacturing process
grinding
Ra = 1.6 pm (upper limit)
Ra = 0.8 pm (lower limit)
for both Ra values:
..16% rule" 5 1
transfer characteristic
each 0.008 to 4 mm
standard evaluation length 41
machining deviation 0.5 mm
surface grooves vertical

surface parameter, e.g. Rz, consists of the profile (here the roughness profile R) and the parameters (here: z).
transfer characteristic: wavelength range between the short wavelength filter As and the long wavelength filter
Ac. The wavelength of the long wavelength filter corresponds to the single evaluation length / r . If no transfer characteristic is entered, then the standard transfer characteristic applies 31 .
standard transfer characteristic: the limit wavelength for measurement of the roughness parameters is dependent
upon the roughness profile and is taken from tables.
standard evaluation length / n = 5 x single evaluation length / r .
"16% rule": only 16% of all measured values may exceed the chosen parameter.
"max. rule" ("highest value rule"): no measured value may exceed the specified highest value.

100

Technical drawing: 3.

races

Surface finish symbols

Indication of surface finish

cf. DIN EN ISO 1302 (2002-06)

Symbols for groove direction

Representation
of groove
direction

EZI

JU

rai

Symbol
Groove
direction

1
parallel
to the
projection
plane

perpendicular to
the projection plane

crossed
in two
angular
directions

multidirectional

approximately concentric to
the center

non-grooved
surface, nondirectional or
troughs

approximately
radial to
the center

Sizes of the symbols

Letter height h in mm
2.5

3.5

10

14

20

0.5

0.7

1.0

1.4

2.0

0.25 0.35

Hi

3.5

10

14

20

28

H2

11

15

21

30

42

60

Layout of symbols in drawings

Rz 5

Legibility
from below or from the right

Layout
directly on the surface or with reference and
leader lines

Examples of drawing entries

Ra 6
A-A
i / / 0.05 A

Ra 3.5

s/

Rz 10
Rz 1.5

El

Rz 6.5

x/7
Rz 6

101

Technical drawing: 3.9 Surfaces

Roughness of surfaces
Recommended assignment of roughness values to ISO tolerance specifications1'
Nominal size
range
from-to
mm

Recommended
values of
Rz and Ra
pm

ISO tolerance girade

Rz

1-6

Ra
Rz
Ra
Rz

6-10
10-18
18-80
80-250
250-500

10

11

2.5
0.4

6.3
0.8

6.3

10

25

1.6
10
1.6
10

1.6
16
3.2
16
3.2

16
3.2

0.8
4

2.5
0.4
4

0.8
4
0.8
6.3

6.3
0.8
6.3
0.8
10

Ra
Rz

0.8
4

Ra
Rz

0.8
10

1.6
16

Ra
Rz

0.8
6.3
0.8
6.3

1.6
10

1.6
16

Ra

0.8

1.6

1.6

1.6
16
3.2
25
3.2
25
3.2

16
3.2
25
3.2
40
6.3

25
6.3
25
6.3
40

6.3
40
12.5
40
12.5
63

6.3
40
6.3
63

12.5
63
12.5
100

12.5

25

Achievable roughness of surfaces *

Rz in pm for type of manufacturing Ra in pm fc>r type of mai nufacturing
normal
normal
fine
rough
rough
fine
max.
from-to
max.
min.
min.
from-to

Cutting operations

Forming

Primary forming

Manufacturing process
Casting:

Die casting

10-100

160

10
25
-

25-160
63-250
2.5-10
1.6-7

250
1000

Sintering:

Permanent mold casting

Sand casting
Sinter smooth

Extrusion

25-100

0.8

3.2-12.5

25

Closed-die forming
Rod extrusion

10
4

63-400

400
1000

0.8

25-100

400

0.4

16
10

Material
removal:

0.8

4-10
0.5-6.3
2.8-10

2.5-12.5
3.2-12.5
1-3.2

25
25

Deep drawing sheet metal

Rolling:
Burnishing

0.8
0.2
0.025
0.1

0.06-1.6
0.4-1

1.5
16

5-10

31

0.2

40-100

1000

3.2

0.45
8-16

Calibrated smooth

0.1

Wire EDM
Diesinking

Cutting
Oxyacetylene cutting
operations: Laser cutting
Plasma cutting
Shearing
Water jet cutting

Machining Drilling: Drilling in solid

operations:
Boring
Countersinking
Routing
Turning: Longitudinal turning
Facing
Milling: Peripheral, face milling
Honing: Super finishing
Long-stroke honing
Lapping
Polishing
Grinding

1)

10-100
6-280
10-63

16-100
40-160
2.5-25
10-25
4-10

400

2.5

4-63
10-63

250
250

1.6
0.04
0.04

10-63
0.1-1
1-11

0.04

0.25-1.6
0.04-0.25
1.6-4

16
0.1
6.3
0.4
1

0.1

6.3
2
3.2
6.3
50

1-10
1-10
1.6-12.5

1.6
1.6
0.05
0.8
0.2

6.3-25
6.3-12.5
0.4-3.2
1.6-6.3
0.8-2
0.8-12.5
1.6-12.5

160

0.2
0.4
0.4

2.5

0.006

15
10
0.4

0.006
0.006

25

0.012

250
40
40
25

3.2-50
12.5-50
0.4-1.6
0.3-0.8

16

0.8-30

50
25
12.5
12.5
6.3
50
50

1.6-12.5
0.02-0.17

25
0.34

0.13-0.65
0.025-0.2
0.005-0.035

1.6
0.21
0.05

0.2-0.8

6.3

Roughness values, as long as they are not contained in DIN 4766-1 (cancelled) are according to specifications of the industry.

Read-out example:
reaming (for surface
characteristic Rz)

fjnjshjng

^min = 0A

Rz =
^

=1 0 .
\
.
conventional timshing

r o u g h
o c

/?z m a x = 25

finishing

102

Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and Fits

ISO system of limits and fits

Terms

cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)

Hole
N
nominal size
Guh hole max. dimension
G
\H hole min. dimension
hole upper deviation
ES
hole
lower deviation
El
hole tolerance

to
kj
hole

zero line
/

\9 .C r

shaft

lo

TH

Z Z Z " shaft tolerance zone

I
02OH7

nominal dimension
tolerance class

rz

tolerance grade
fundamental deviation
Designation

shaft
N
Gus
G\s
es
ei
Ts

hole tolerance zone

02Os6

Explanation

Designation

I!

nominal dimension
shaft max. dimension
shaft min. dimension
shaft upper deviation
shaft lower deviation
shaft tolerance
nominal dimension
tolerance class
tolerance grade
fundamental deviation

Explanation

Zero line

It represents the nominal dimension that is Fundament. A group of tolerances assigned to same
referenced by the deviations and tolerances. tolerance
level of precision, e.g IT7.
grade

Fundamental
deviation

The fund, deviation determin. the position of Tolerance

the tolerance zone with resp. to the zero line. grade

Number of the fundamental tol. grade, e.g. 7

for the fundamental tolerance grade IT7.

Tolerance

Difference between the max. and the min. Tolerance

dimension or between the upper and lower class
deviation.

Name for a combination of a fundamental deviation and a tolerance grade, e.g.

H7.

Fundamental
tolerance

A tolerance assigned to a fundamental tole- Fit

rance grade, e.g. IT7 and a nominal dimension
range, e.g. 30 to 50 mm.

Planned joining condition between hole

and shaft.

Limits, deviations and tolerances

cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)

Hole
-Uj
<o

to

Shaft
GUH=N+ES

GuS

Gih =N+EI

Gis

Tu

= ES - El

TH =

GuH - GIH

Ts

ei

= Gus -

is

Example: Shaft 02Oe8; G,s = ?; 7"s = ?

For values for ei and es see page 107.
ei = -73 |jm =-0.073 mm; es = -40 pm =-0.040 mm
G|S = N+ ei= 20 mm + (-0.073 mm) = 19.927 mm
Ts = es - ei = -40 pm - (-73 pm) = 33 (jm

G u H = N + ES= 50 mm + 0.3 mm = 50.30 mm

Th = ES-El= 0.3 mm - 0 . 1 mm = 0.2 mm

Fits

cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)

Clearance fit
Fcmax max. clearance
Fc m j n min. clearance

= N + ei

7~q = es-

to

Example: Hole 0 5 0 + 0.3/+ 0.1; G u H = ?; TH = ?

= N + es

'((((({

LJ

U.

Transition fit
^cmax max. clearance
F | m a x max. interference
'
X

Interference fit
F | m a x max. interference
F| m j n min. interference
1

ur

E
UF
1
LU

UT

c
2
ur

LC

VZZ/ZA
| fCmin = Qh ~ GuS

| ^Cmax = ^uH ~ QIS

= ?;

Example: Fit 0 3 0 H8/f7; Cmax

FCmin = ?
For values for ES, El, es, ei see page 107.
G u H = N + ES = 30 mm + 0.033 mm = 30.033 mm
G|H = N + El = 30 mm + 0 mm = 30.000 mm

| ^Imax = G\H ~ ^uS

| ^Imin = ^uH ~ Q s

G u H = N + ES = 30 mm + (-0.020 mm) = 29.980 mm

G,h = N + ES= 30 mm + (-0.041 mm) = 29.959 mm
Cmax
uH
S = 30.033 mm - 29.959 mm = 0.074 mm
GIH - uS = 30.000 mm - 29.980 mm = 0.02 mm

F
= G - G|
Fcmni =
G

Technical drawing: 3.

l n

and

103

ISO system of limits and fits

Fit systems

cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)

Fit system: basic hole system (all hole dimensions have the fundamental deviation H)
Examples for nominal dimension 25,
Fundamental deviations for shafts
tolerance grade 7
IJ

H hole

jm

l r ^ j h
I T

clearance
A
fits

+40
pm

Hzb
_za

+20
+10

T y
v

25n6

-zero line

25H7

25s6
25H7

25H7

0
-10
-20

-30
-40

interference
fits

transition
fits

25f 7
transition
fit

clearance
fit

interference
fit

Fit system: basic shaft system (all shaft dimensions have the fundamental deviation h)
Examples for nominal dimension 25,
Fundamental allowances for holes
tolerance grade 6
+50
pm
+30

UU
zero line

25F8

+20
+10

25h6

-10

h-shaft

-20

JKMN^il||||zAzB

clearance
fits

-30
-40
-50

Bra
interference
'
fits

transition
fits

up to 3

IT1 | IT2 | IT3

30-50

1.5

250-315
315-400
400-500

2.5
3.5
4.5
6
7
8

500-630
630-800

9
10
800-1000 11
1000-1250
1250-1600

interference
fit

cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)

I T 4IT5

IT6

Fundamental tolerance grade

IT7 | IT8 | IT9 | IT10 | IT11 | IT12 |I IT13 I IT14 | IT15 I IT16 j| IT17 | IT18
mm

pm

10-18
18-30
50-80
80-120
120-180
180-250

transition
fit

clearance
fit

Fundamental tolerance5S
0.8
1
1
1.2
1.5

3-6
6-10

25h6
25S7

Fundamental tolerances
Nominal
dimension
range
over-to
mm

25h6
25N7

1.2

1.5

2.5
2.5

1.5
2

2.5
2.5
3
4
5
7
8
9
10
11
13
15

13
15

18
21

1600-2000 18
2000-2500 22
2500-3150 26

25
30
36

3
4

10
12

6
j8
9
11

9
11
13

15
18
21

16
19
22
25
29
32

25
30
35
40
46

3 | r ,5
4
6
4
7
5
6
8
10
12
13
15
16
18
21
24
29
35
41
50

"8
10
12
14

13
15
18
20

16
18

23

20
22

25
27
32

25
28

36
40

33
39

47
55

46
55
68

65
78
96

36
40
44
50
56

52
57
63
70
80
90

14

25

40

18
22
27
33
39

30
36
43
52

48
58
70
84
100

81

62
74
87
100
115
130

210

89
97

140
155

230
250

110

175
200

280
320

230

360

260
310
370
440
540

420
500
600
700
860

46
54
63
72

125
140

66 105 165
78 125 195
92 150 230
110 175 280
135 210 330

120
140
160
185

60 0.1 0.14 0.25

75 0.12 0.18 0.3
90 0.15 0.22 0.36
110 0.18 0.27 0.43
130 0.21 0.33 0.52
160 0.25 0.39 0.62
190
220
250
290
320

0.3 0.46 0.74

0.35 0.54 0.87
0.4 0.63 1
0.46 0.72 1.15
0.52 0.81

360 0.57 0.89

400 0.63 0.97
1.1
440 0.7

1.3
1.4

0.4

0.6

0.48

0.75

0.58
0.7
0.84

0.9
1.1

1
1.2
1.4

1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2

1.6
1.85
2.1

2.5
2.9
3.2

2.3

3.6
4
4.4

1.55 2.5
1.75 2.8
3.2
500 0.8
1.25 2
1.4 2.3 3.6
560 0.9
660 1.05 1.65 2.6 4.2
780 1.25 1.95 3.1 5
6
920 1.5 2.3 3.7
1100 1.75 2.8 4.4 7
5.4 8.6
1350 2.1 3.3

5
5.6
6.6
7.8
9.2
11
13.5

1
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.6
5.2
5.7
6.3
7
8

1.4
1.8
2.2
2.7
3.3
3.9
4.6
5.4
6.3
7.2
8.1
8.9
9.7
11
12.5
14

9
10.5 16.5
12.5 19.5
15
23
17.5 28
21
33

The limit deviations of the tolerance grade for the fundamental deviations h, js, H and JS can be derived from the
fundamental tolerances: h: es = 0; ei = - IT js: es = + IT/2; ei = - IT/2 H: ES = + IT; El = 0JS: ES = + IT/2; / = - IT/2

104

Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and its

ISO fits
Fundamental deviations for shafts (selection)

cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)

Fundamental
deviations

Fundamental
tolerance
grade

IT9
to
IT13

IT8
to
IT12

IT5
to
IT13

IT5
to
IT10

IT3
to
IT10

IT3
to
IT10

IT1
to
IT18

IT5
to
IT8

IT3
to
IT13

IT3
to
IT9

IT3
to
IT9

Table
applies to

all fundamental tolerance grades

Nominal
dimension
over-to mm
up to 3

IT7

IT4
to
IT7

over
IT7

Upper deviation es in pm
-270

3-6

IT3 to IT10

all fundamental tolerance grades

Lower deviation ei in pm

-60

-20

-14

-6

-2

-4

+2

+4

+6

+10

+14

-70

-30

-20

-10

-4

-4

+1

+4

+8

+12

+15

+19

-80

-40

-25

-13

-5

-5

+1

+6

+10

+15

+19

+ 23

6-10

-280

10-18

-290

-95

-50

-32

-16

-6

-6

+1

+7

+ 12

+18

+ 23

+ 28

-65

-40

-20

-7

-8

+2

+8

+15

+ 22

+ 28

+ 35

-80

-50

-25

-9

-10

+2

+9

+ 17 + 26

+ 34

+ 43

-100

-60

-30

-10

-12

+2

+11

+ 20 + 32

+ 41

+ 53

+ 43

+ 59

-120

-72

-36

-12

-15

+3

+13

+ 23 + 37

+ 51

+71

+ 54

+79

+ 63

+ 92

+ 65

+ 100

18-30

-300

-110

30-40

-310

-120

40-50

-320

-130

50-65

-340

-140

65-80

-360

-150

80-100

-380

-170

100-120

-410

-180

120-140

-460

-200

140-160

-520

-210

160-180

-580

-230

+ 68

+108

180-200

-660

-240

+ 77

+122

200-225

-740

-260

+ 80

+130

225-250

-820

-280

+ 84

+140

250-280

-920

-300

+ 94

+158

280-315

-1050

-330

+ 98

+170

315-355

-1200

-360

+108

+190

355-400

-1350

-400

+114

+ 208

400-450

-1500

-440

+126

+ 232

450-500

-1650

-480

+132

+ 252

-145

-170

-85

-100

-43

-14

-50

-15

-18

-21

+3

+4

+15

+17

+ 27 + 43

+ 31 + 50

-190

-110

-56

-17

-26

+4

+ 20

+ 34 + 56

-210

-125

-62

-18

-28

+4

+ 21

+ 37 + 62

-230

-135

-68

-20

-32

+5

+ 23

+ 40 + 68

Calculation of limit deviations

Limit deviations for fundamental tolerance grades given in the table row "Table applies to" (above and page 105) can
be calculated using tables on this page and page 105 and the formulas below. The values necessary for the fundamental tolerances IT are found in the table on page 103.
Formulas
for shaft deviations

ei = es - IT
es = ei + IT

Example 1: Shaft (outside dimension)

0 40g5; es= ?; ei= ?

Example 2: Hole (inside dimension)

0 100K6; ES = ?; EL=?

es (table above) = - 9 pm
IT5 (table page 103) = 11 pm
ei = es - IT = - 9 pm - 11 pm = -20 pm

ES (table page 105) = - 3 pm + A

(Value A for fundamental tolerance grade
IT6 acc. to table, bottom of page 105:7 pm)
S = - 3 p m + 7 p m = 4 pm
IT6 (table page 103) = 22 pm
EL= ES-IT = 4 p m - 2 2 pm = -18 pm

for hole deviations

zero line

40
EI=ES-IT
ES=EI+

es
ei

IT

tolerance
zone for shaft

100
IT
(fundamental
tolerance
= tolerance T)

i ^ zero line

ESi
EL

tolerance
zone for hole

IT
" (fundamental
tolerance
' ^tolerance T)

Technical drawing: 3.

l n

105

and i

ISO fits
Fundamental deviations for holes (selection)1'
Fundamental
deviations

Fundamental
tolerance
grade

IT9
to
IT13

IT8
to
IT13

IT6
to
IT13

IT5
to
IT10

cf. DIN ISO 286-1 (1990-11)

IT3 IT3 IT1

to
to
to
IT10 IT10 IT18

Table
applies to

all fundamental tolerance grades

Nominal
dimension
over-to; mm

Lower deviation EL in pm

up to 3

+270

3-6

IT6
to
IT8

IT3
to
IT10

IT3
to
IT10

IT3
to
IT11

IT8

P,R,
S

IT3 to IT10
to
IT7

IT3 to IT8

IT 8 to IT10

Upper deviation ES in pm
-6

-10

-14

-12

-15

-19

-15

-19

-23

-18

-23

-28

-22

-28

-35

-26

-34

-43

-41

-53

-43

-59

-51

-71

-54

-79

-63

-92

-65

-100

-68

-108

-77

-122

-80

-130

-84

-140

-94

-158

-98

-170

-108

-190

-114

-208

-126

-232

-132

-252

250
to
315

315
to
400

400
to
500

+60

+20

+ 14

+6

+2

+6

-2

-4

+70

+30

+20

+ 10

+4

0 + 10

-1 +A

-4 + A

-8 + A

-6 + A -10 + A cK_o
u>
-7 + A - 1 2 + A 03
O
c
-8 + A - 1 5 + A CI_D

6-10

+280

+80

+40

+25

+ 13

+5

0 + 12

- 1 +A

10-18

+290

+95

+50

+32

+ 16

+6

0 + 15

-1 +A

18-30

+300

+ 110

+65

+40

+ 20

+7

0 + 20

-2+A

03
"O

CD

30-40

+310

+ 120
+80

40-50

+320

+ 130

50-65

+340

+ 140

+50

+360

+9

0 + 24

-2+A

-9 + A -17 + A

O
03

c
03

+ 100
65-80

+ 25

+60

+ 30

+ 10

0 + 28

-2+A

+ 150

-11 + A - 2 0 + A E
03
T3

-32

80-100

+380

+ 170
+ 120

100-120

+410

120-140

+72

+ 36

+ 12

0 + 34

-3+A -13+A -23+A

+ 180

+460

V.> V)
03
-37
CD Q_
3

03 O

+ 200

C/3

cut
140-160

+520

160-180
180-200

+660

+ 240

200-225

+740

+ 260

+820

250-280

+85

+ 43

+920

+ 330

315-355

+1200

+ 360

+ 170 + 100 + 50

+ 15

0 + 47

+ 17

+ 18

0 + 55

0 + 60

-50

Q_
Q.
D

-56

CD
-->
C

o
>+
- 4 + A - 2 1 + A -37 + A V)
03

-62

2
+ 230 + 135 + 68

+ 20

0 + 66

- 5 +A - 2 3 + A - 4 0 + A

-68

+480
Values for A

3
to
6

6
to
10

10
to
18

18
to
30

IT3
IT4
IT5

1.5
1

1.5
2

1
2
3

1.5
2
3

1.5
3
4

IT6
IT7

3
4
6

3
7
9

IT8

3
6
7

5
9
14

8
12

For examples of calculations see page 104.

1)

in pm

Nominal dimension over-to in mm

120
180
30
50
80
to
to
to
to
to
250
50
80
120
180

Fundamental
tolerance
grade

1)

-4 + A -20+A -34+A

+440

+1650

V)
c.
o
C
D
- 4 + A -17+A -31 + A >
03
CD

+400

+1500

-43

T3

+ 210 + 125 + 62
+1350

LU

+ 300

+1050

450-500

-3 + A -15+A -27+A

+ 280

280-315

400-450

0 + 41

c>j oo

+ 190 + 110 + 56

355-400

+ 14

+ 230

+580

225-250

+ 145

+ 210

2
3
5
6
11
16

2
4
5

3
4
6

3
4
6

4
7

5
7

5
7

7
15
23

9
17

9
20

26

29

11
21
32

13
23
34

13
19

106

Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and its

ISO fits
Basic hole system

cf. DIN ISO 286-2(1990-11)

1

Limit deviations in pm for tolerance classes *

Nominal
dimension
range
over-to
mm

up to 3
? FI
6-10
10-14
14-18
18-24
24-30
30-40
40-50
50-65
65-80
80-100
100-120

for shafts

for
hole

OICAI AI ^C,
II II AI LAIUUI I, II IICI
ICI CI IOC
m
LIIJJ
h5
k6
n5
r5
j5

(fa

(ft

315-355
355-400
400-450
450-500
1)

ge

h6

j6

k6

m6

fit

I
n6

r6

s6

+14
+10
+20
+15
+25
+19

+ 10
0
+12
0
+15
0

-6
-16
-10
-22
-13
-28

-2
-8
-4
-12
-5
-14

0
-6
0
-8
0
-9

+4
+6
+8 +10
-2
0
+2
+4
+6
+9 + 12 +16
-2
+ 1 +4 + 8
+7 +10 + 15 +19
-2
+ 1 +6 +10

+ 16
+ 10
+23
+ 15
+28
+19

+20
+14
+27
+19
+32
+23

+11
0

0
-8

+5 +12 +20
+1 +12
-3

+31
+23

+18
0

-16
-34

-6
-17

0
-11

+8 + 12 + 18 +23
-3
+ 1 +7 +12

+34
+23

+39
+28

+13
0

0
-9

+5 + 15 +24
-4
+2 +15

+37
+28

+21
0

-20
-41

-7
-20

0
-13

+9 + 15 +21 +28
-4
+2
+8 +15

+41
+28

+48
+35

+16
0

0
-11

+6 + 18 +28
+2 +17
-5

+45
+34

+25
0

-25
-50

-9
-25

0 + 11 +18 +25 +33

-16
-5
+2
+9 +17

+50
+34

+59
+43

+19
0

0
-13

+6 +21 +33
-7
+2 +20

+30
0

-30
-60

-10
-29

0 + 12 +21 +30 +39

-19
-7
+2 +11 +20

+22
0

0
-15

+6 +25 +38
-9
+3 +23

+35
0

-36
-71

-12
-34

0 + 13 +25 +35 +45

-22
-9
+3 +13 +23

+25
0

0
-18

+7 +28 +45
-11
+3 +27

+40
0

-43
-83

-14
-39

0 + 14 +28 +40 +52

-25 -11
+3 +15 +27

+29
0

0
-20

+ 7 +33 +51
+4 +31
-13

+46
0

-50
-96

-15
-44

0 + 16 +33 +46 +60

-29 -13
+4 +17 +31

+32
0

0
-23

+7 +36 +57
+4 +34
-16

+52
0

-56
-108

-17
-49

0 + 16 +36 +52 +66

-32 -16
+4 +20 +34

+36
0

0
-25

+7 +40 +62
-18
+4 +37

+57
0

-62
-119

-18
-54

0 +18 +40 +57 +73

+4 +21 +37
-36 -18

+40
0

0
-27

+7 +45 +67
-20
+5 +40

+63
0

-68
-131

-20
-60

0 +20 +45 +63 +80

-40 -20
+5 +23 +40

+60
+41
+62
+43
+73
+51
+76
+54
+88
+63
+90
+65
+93
+68
+106
+77
+109
+80
+113
+84
+126
+94
+130
+98
+144
+ 108
+150
+114
+ 166
+126
+172
+132

+72
+53
+78
+59
+93
+71
+101
+79
+117
+92
+125
+100
+133
+108
+151
+122
+159
+130
+169
+140
+190
+ 158
+202
+170
+226
+190
+244
+208
+272
+232
+292
+252

225-250

280-315

f7

interference

+6
+8
Z.
+4
0
+3
+9 + 13
-2
+1
+8
+4 + 10 +16
-2
+1 +10

180-200

250-280

transition
fit

clearance
fit

0
-4
0
-5
0
-6

160-180

200-225

for shafts
Paired with an H7 hole
results in a

+6
0
+8
0
+9
0

120-140
140-160

for
hole

Paired with an
H6 hole results in a

+54
+41
+56
+43
+66
+51
+69
+54
+81
+63
+83
+65
+86
+68
+97
+77
+100
+80
+104
+84
+117
+94
+121
+98
+133
+ 108
+139
+114
+153
+126
+ 159
+ 132

The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.

Technical drawing: 3.

l n

107

and i

ISO fits
Basic hole system

cf. DIN ISO 286-2 (1990-11)

Limit deviations in pm for tolerance classes1'

Nominal
dimension
range
mm

up to 3
3-6
6-10
10-14
14-18
18-24
24-30
30-40
40-50
50-65
65-80
80-100
100-120

for
hole

Paired with an H8 hole

results in a
ft

315-355
355-400
400-450
450-500
1)
2)

+34
+20
+46
+28
+56
+34
+67
+40
+72
+45
+87
+54
+97
+64
+119
+80
+136
+97
+168
+122
+192
+146
+232
+178
+264
+210
+311
+248
+343
+280
+373
+310
+422
+350
+457
+385
+497
+425
+556
+475
+606
+525
+679
+590
+749
+660
+837
+740
+917
+820

f7

h9

+ 14
0
+18
0
+22
0

-20
-45
-30
-60
-40
-76

-14
-28
-20
-38
-25
-47

-6
-16
-10
-22
-13
-28

0
-25
0
-30
0
-36

+32
+18
+41
+23
+50
+28

+27
0

-50
-93

-32
-59

-16
-34

0
-43

+60
+33

+33
0

-65
-117

-40
-73

-20
-41

0
-52

+39
0

-80
-142

-50
-89

-25
-50

0
-62

+46
0

-100
-174

-60
-106

-30
-60

0
-74

+54
0

-120
-207

-72
-126

-36
-71

0
-87

+63
0

-145
-245

-85
-148

-43
-83

0
-100

+72
0

-170
-285

-100
-172

-50
-96

0
-115

+81
0

-190
-320

-110
-191

-56
-108

0
-130

+89
0

-210
-350

-125
-214

-62
-119

0
-140

+97
0

-230
-385

-135
-232

-68
-131

0
-155

225-250

280-315

x8 )

e8

180-200

250-280

fiit

d9

160-180

200-225

for shafts
Paired with an H11 hole
results in a

fiit

120-140
140-160

for
hole

for shafts

u8 >

+74
+41
+81
+48
+99
+60
+109
+70
+133
+87
+148
+102
+178
+124
+198
+144
+233
+170
+253
+190
+273
+210
+308
+236
+330
+258
+356
+284
+396
+315
+431
+350
+479
+390
+524
+435
+587
+490
+637
+540

a11

c11

d9

d11

h9

h 11

+60
0
+75
0
+90
0

-270
-330
-270
-345
-280
-370

-60
-120
-70
-145
-80
-170

-20
-45
-30
-60
-40
-76

-20
-80
-30
-105
-40
-130

0
-25
0
-30
0
-36

0
-60
0
-75
0
-90

+110
0

-290
-400

-95
-205

-50
-93

-50
-160

0
-43

0
-110

+130
0

-300
-430

-110
-240

-65
-117

-65
-195

0
-52

0
-130

-310
-470
-320
-480
-340
-530
-360
-550
-380
-600
-410
-630
-460
-710
-520
-770
-580
-830
-660
-950
-740
-1030
-820
-1110
-920
-1240
-1050
-1370
-1200
-1560
-1350
-1710
-1500
-1900
-1650
-2050

-120
-280
-130
-290
-140
-330
-150
-340
-170
-390
-180
-400
-200
-450
-210
-460
-230
-480
-240
-530
-260
-550
-280
-570
-300
-620
-330
-650
-360
-720
-400
-760
-440
-840
-480
-880

-80
-142

-80
-240

0
-62

0
-160

-100
-174

-100
-290

0
-74

0
-190

-120
-207

-120
-340

0
-87

0
-220

-145
-245

-145
-395

0
-100

0
-250

-170
-285

-170
-460

0
-115

0
-290

-190
-320

-190
-510

0
-130

0
-320

-210
-350

-210
-570

0
-140

0
-360

-230
-385

-230
-630

o
-155

0
-400

+160
0

+190
0

+220
0

+250
0

+290
0

+320
0

+360
0

+400
0

The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.
DIN 7157 recommends: nominal dimensions up to 24 mm: H8/x8; nominal dimensions over 24 mm: H8/u8.

108

Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and its

ISO fits
Basic shaft system

cf. DIN ISO 286-2 (1990-11)

Limit devlations in pm for tolerance classes1*

Nominal
dimension
range
over-to
mm

for
shafts

3-6
6-10
10-18
18-30
30-40
40-50
50-65
65-80
80-100
100-120

for
shafts

Paired with an h5
shaft results in a

for holes
Paired with an h6 shaft
results in a
n l o o r o n r o
a i a u v y

t r o n o i t i r v n
i i a u c >1 I H J I 1

i n f n r f o r o n r Q
I h o i i t< 1 C I I w C

fiit

fiit

0
-4
0
-5
0
-6
0
-8
0
-9

a nee
fit
H6
+6
0
+8
0
+9
0
+11
0
+13
0

0
-11

+ 16
0

+10
-6

-4
-20

-12
-28

-21
-37

0
-16

+64 +34 +25 +14

+7
0
-8
+9
+25
0 -11 -18 -25 -33

0
-13

+19
0

+13
-6

-5
-24

-14
-33

-26
-45

0
-19

+76 +40 +30 +18

+30 +10
0 -12

0
-15

+22
0

+16
-6
- 6 -28

-16
-38

-30
-52

0
-22

+90 +47 +35 +22 + 10

0 -10
+36 + 12
0 -13 -25 -35 -45

0
-18

+25
0

+18
-8
- 7 -33

-20
-45

-36
-61

0
-25

+ 106 +54 +40 +26 +12

+43 + 14
0 -14 -28

0 -12
-40 -52

0
-20

+29
0

+22
-7

-8
-37

-22
-51

-41
-70

0
-29

+122 +61 +46 +30 +13

+50 +15
0 -16 -33

0 -14
-46 -60

0
-23

+32
0

+25
-9
-7 -41

-25
-57

-47
-79

0
-32

+137 +69 +52 +36 +16

+56 +17
0 -16 -36

0 -14
-52 -66

0
-25

+36
0

+29
-7

-10
-46

-26
-62

-51
-87

0
-36

+151 +75 +57 +39 + 17

0 -16
0 -18 -40 -57 -73
+62 +18

0
-27

+40
0

+33
-7

-10
-50

-27
-67

-55
-95

0
-40

+165 +83 +63 +43 + 18

0 -17
+68 +20
0 -20 -45 -63 -80

0
up to 3

for holes

ft
J6

ft
M6

N6

P6

+2
-2
-4
-8
+5
-1
-3
-9
+5
-3
- 4 -12
-4
+6
- 5 -15
-4
+8
- 5 -17

-4
-10
-5
-13
-7
-16
-9
-20
-11
-24

-6
-12
-9
-17
-12
-21
-15
-26
-18
-31

fit

F8

G7

H7

J7

0
-6
0
-8
0
-9
0
-11
0
-13

+20
+6
+28
+ 10
+35
+13
+43
+16
+53
+20

+12
+2
+ 16
+4
+20
+5
+24
+6
+28
+7

+4
+10
0
-6
+12
+6
0
-6
+15
+8
0
-7
+18 +10
0
-8
+21 + 12
0
-9

K7

M7

N7

R7

S7

0
-10
+3
-9
+5
-10
+6
-12
+6
-15

-2
-12
0
-12
0
-15
0
-18
0
-21

-4
-14
-4
-16
-4
-19
-5
-23
-7
-28

-10
-20
-11
-23
-13
-28
-16
-34
-20
-41

-14
-24
-15
-27
-17
-32
-21
-39
-27
-48

-25
-50

-34
-59

-30
-60
-32
-62
-38
-73
-41
-76
-48
-88
-50
-90
-53
-93
-60
-106
-63
-109
-67
-113
-74
-126
-78
-130
-87
-144
-93
-150
-103
-166
-109
-172

-42
-72
-48
-78
-58
-93
-66
-101
-77
-117
-85
-125
-93
-133
-105
-151
-113
-159
-123
-169
-138
-190
-150
-202
-169
-226
-187
-244
-209
-272
-229
-292

+9
-21

0
-9
-30 -39

120-140
140-160
160-180
180-200
200-225
225-250
250-280
280-315
315-355
355-400
400 -450
450-500
1>

The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.

Technical drawing: 3.

l n

109

and i

ISO fits
Basic shaft system

cf. DIN ISO 286-2(1990-11)

Limit deviations in pm for tolerance classes'"

Nominal
dimension
range

for
shafts

for holes

bis 3
3-6
6-10
10-18
18-30
30-40
40-50
50-65
65-80
80-100
100-120

0
-25
0
-30
0
-36
0
-43
0
-52
0
-62

0
-74

0
-87

120-140
140-160

0
-100

160-180
180-200
200-225

0
-115

225-250
250-280
280-315
315-355
355-400
400-450
450-500
1)
2)
3)

0
-130

0
-140

0
-155

Pairing with an
h 11 shaft results in a

tra nsition f it

cle arance fit

mm

for holes

for
shafts

Pairing with an h9 shaft

results in a

2)

N9

3)

cleara nee fit

P9

C11

D10

E9

F8

H8 J9/JS9

+ 120
+ 60
+ 145
+ 70
+ 170
+ 80
+ 205
+ 95
+ 240
+ 110
+ 280
+ 120
+ 290
+ 130
+ 330
+ 140
+ 340
+ 150
+ 390
+ 170
+ 400
+ 180
+ 450
+ 200
+ 460
+ 210
+ 480
+ 230
+ 530
+ 240
+ 550
+ 260
+ 570
+ 280
+ 620
+ 300
+ 650
+ 330
+ 720
+ 360
+ 760
+ 400
+ 840
+ 440
+ 880
+ 480

+ 60
+ 20
+ 78
+ 30
+ 98
+ 40
+ 120
+ 50
+ 149
+ 65

+ 39
+ 14
+ 50
+ 20
+ 61
+ 25
+ 75
+ 32
+ 92
+ 40

+ 20
+ 06
+ 28
+ 10
+ 35
+ 13
+ 43
+ 16
+ 53
+ 20

+ 14
0
+ 18
0
+ 22
0
+ 27
0
+ 33
0

+ 12,5
-12,5
+ 15
-15
+ 18
-18
+ 21,5
-21,5
+ 26
-26

-4
-29
0
-30
0
-36
0
-43
0
-52

-6
-31
-12
-42
-15
-51
-18
-61
-22
-74

0
-60
0
-75
0
-90
0
-110
0
-130

+ 180
+ 80

+ 112
+ 50

+ 64
+ 25

+ 39
0

+ 31
-31

0
-62

-26
-88

0
-160

+ 220
+ 100

+ 134
+ 60

+ 76
+ 30

+ 46
0

+ 37
-37

0 -32
- 7 4 -106

0
-190

+ 260
+ 120

+ 159
+ 72

+ 90
+ 36

+ 54 + 43,5
0 -43,5

0 -37
- 8 7 -124

0
-220

+ 305
+ 145

+ 185
+ 85

+ 106
+ 43

+ 63
0

+ 50
-50

0 -43
-100 -143

0
-250

+ 355
+ 170

+ 215
+ 100

+ 122
+ 50

+ 72 + 57,5
0 -57,5

0 -50
-115 -165

0
-290

+ 400
+ 190

+ 240
+ 110

+ 137
+ 56

+ 81
0

+ 65
-65

0 -56
-130 -186

0
-320

+ 440
+ 210

+ 265
+ 125

+ 151
+ 62

+ 89
0

+ 70
-70

0 -62
-140 -202

0
-360

+ 480
+ 230

+ 290
+ 135

+ 165
+ 68

+ 97 + 77,5
0 -77,5

0 -68
-155 -223

0
-400

A11

C11

D10

+ 330
+ 270
+ 345
+ 270
+ 370
+ 280
+ 400
+ 290
+ 430
+ 300
+ 470
+ 310
+ 480
+ 320
+ 530
+ 340
+ 550
+ 360
+ 600
+ 380
+ 630
+ 410
+ 710
+ 460
+ 770
+ 520
+ 820
+ 580
+ 950
+ 660
+ 1030
+ 740
+ 1110
+ 820
+ 1240
+ 920
+ 1370
+ 1050
+ 1560
+ 1200
+ 1710
+ 1350
+ 1900
+ 1500
+ 2050
+ 1650

+ 120
+ 60
+ 145
+ 70
+ 170
+ 80
+ 205
+ 95
+ 240
+ 110
+ 280
+ 120
+ 290
+ 130
+ 330
+ 140
+ 340
+ 150
+ 390
+ 170
+ 400
+ 180
+ 450
+ 200
+ 460
+ 210
+ 480
+ 230
+ 530
+ 240
+ 550
+ 260
+ 570
+ 280
+ 620
+ 300
+ 650
+ 330
+ 720
+ 360
+ 760
+ 400
+ 840
+ 440
+ 880
+ 480

+ 60 + 60
+ 20
0
+ 78 + 75
+ 30
0
+ 98 + 90
+ 40
0
+ 120 + 110
+ 50
0
+ 149 + 130
0
+ 65

H11

+ 180 + 160
+ 80
0

+ 220 + 190
+ 100
0

+ 260 + 220
+ 120
0

+ 305 + 250
+ 145
0

+ 355 + 290
+ 170
0

+ 400 + 320
+ 190
0

+ 440 + 360
+ 210
0

+ 480 + 400
+ 230
0

The tolerance classes in bold print correspond to row 1 in DIN 7157; their use is preferable.
The tolerance zones J9/JS9, J10/JS10 etc. are all identical in size and are symmetrical to the zero line.
Tolerance class N9 may not be used for nominal dimensions ^ 1mm.

110

Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and Fits

General tolerances, Roller bearing fits

General tolerances11 for linear and angular dimensions

cf. DIN ISO 2768-1 (1991-06)

Linear dimensions
Tolerance
class

f
m
c
v

0.5
to 3
0.05
0.1
0.2

(fine)
(medium)
(coarse)
(very coarse)

Tolerance
class

f
m
c
v

L mit deviatioris in mm for nominal dim ension range

over 3
over 6
over 30
over 120
over 400
over 1000
to 6
to 120
to 2000
to 30
to 400
to 1000
0.05
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.5
1
Radii and chamfers

Limit d eviations in rnm for

nominj3l dimension ranges

(fine)
(medium)
(coarse)
(very coarse)

0.2
0.5
1.2
2.5

0.15
0.3
0.8
1.5

0.3
0.5
0.8
1.2
2
3
4
6
Angular dimensions

2
4
8

L.imit deviatio ns in degree;5 and minutes

)iminal dimerision ranges (shorter angl
for nc
e leg)
over 10
over 50
over 120
to 120
to 50
to 400
to 10
400

0.5
to 3

over 3
to 6

0.2

0.5

0 30'

0 20'

0 10'

0 5'

0.4

1 30'
3

1
2

0 30'
1

0 15'
0 30'

0 10'
0 20'

General tolerances1' for form and position

cf. DIN ISO 2768-2(1991-04)

Tolerances in mm for
perpendicularity
symmetry
nomin al dim. ranges in mm nomin al dim. ranges in mm
(silorter ingle le>g)
(ishorter feature 3)
over over
over over over
over over over
300 1000 up to 100
300 1000 up to 100
300 1000
to
to
to
to
to
100
100
to
to
to
300 1000 3000
1000 3000
300 1000 3000
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.8
1
0.6
0.8
1
1
1
1.2
1.6
0.6
1.5
2
0.6
2
1.5

straightness and flatness

nonlinal di mensic)n rangies in n"im

Tolerance
class

up to
10
0.02
0.05
0.1

H
K
L
1)

over 2000
to 4000

over
10
to
30
0.05
0.1
0.2

over
30
to
100
0.1
0.2
0.4

over
100
to
300
0.2
0.4
0.8

run

0.1
0.2
0.5

General tolerances apply to dimensions without individual tolerance entry. Drawing entry page 80.

Tolerances for the installation of roller bearings

cf. DIN 5425-1 (1984-11)

Radial bearing
Inner ring (shaft)
Load
case
circumferential
loadx

Fit

Outer ring (housing)

Load

Fundamental deviations
for shafts1* with
ballbearing roller bearing

transition
or
interference
fit
required

low

h, k

k, m

medium

j, k, m

k, m, n, p

high

m, n

n, p, r

point load
clearance
fit
allowed

arbitrarily
large

j, h, g, f

Load
case

Fit

Load

Fundamental deviations
for housings1* with
ball bearing | roller bearing

point load
clearance
arbitrarily
fit
large
allowed
circumferential
loadt

transition
or interference
fit
required

J, H, G, F

low
medium

M, N

K, M

high

N, P

Thrust bearing
Load type

Bearing construction

Combined
radial/axial load

angular contact ball

bearing
spherical roller bearing
tapered roller bearing

Pure axial load

ball bearing
roller bearing

Shaft washer (shaft)

Housing plate (housing)
Fundamental deviat.
Fundamental deviations
for shafts1*
for housing1*
Load case
Load case
circumfer.
point
j, k, m
H, J
load
load
circumfer.
point
K, M
load
load
h, j, k

H, G, E

* Fundamental tolerance grades: for shafts typically IT6, for bores typically IT7. If the smoothness and accuracy of
running must satisfy increased requirements, also smaller tolerance grades are specified.

Technical drawing: 3.

l n

111

and i

Fit recommendations, possible fits

Fit recommendations11

cf. DIN 7157 (1966-01)

From row 1 C11/h9, D10/h9, E9/h9, F8/h9, H8/f7, F8/h6, H7/f7, H8/h9, H7/h6, H7/n6, H7/r6, H8/x8 or u8
From row 2

C11/h11, D10/h11, H8/d9, H8/e8, H7/g6, G7/h6, H11/h9, H7/j6, H7/k6, H7/s6

Possible fits (examples)

Basic hole 2 '

cf. DIN 7157 (1966-01)

Characteristic/application examples

Basic shaft 2 '

Clearance fits
Loose running fit

0j|H8_j

H8/d9

I d9
H8/e8

I e8
0 |H8 j

H8/f7

H7/f7

I n

E9/h9

Close running fit: Clearance allows for parts to be easily assembled by hand while maintaining location accuracy.

F8/h9

Sliding fit - free: Clearance allows accurate location and free

movement, including turning.

F8/h6

(i.e. piston valves in cylinders)

.
I
g6

H7/g6

Sliding fit - constrained: Clearance allows better locational

accuracy while still allowing sliding or turning movement.

H7 1

mm

H7/h6

h6

Minimal clearance fit: Allows locational accuracy and hand

force assembly without being a snug fit.

I h9 I

I E9 |
0

I h9 |

| F8 |
A

I h9 |

| F8 |
A

J G7 j
0
1 1
h6

H8/h9

n
I H8 I
0

H7/h6

(i.e. spacer sleeves)

Locational clearance fit: Allows snug fit of stationary parts that
may be assembled by hand force,
(i.e. punch in punch holder)

h6 |

G7/h6

(i.e. transmission gear on shaft)

I. H8 I
H8/h9
I h9 |

Free running fit (Medium running fit): Sufficient clearance is

allowed for ease of assembly.

(i.e. plain bearing of shaft)

0 - ^

nf

(i.e. collar on shaft)

I f?

D10/h9

(i.e. spacer sleeves on shafts)

q iHSSi

o-MHLd

1 D10 I

Clearance allows for loose fit of mating parts,

I H7 I

I h9 |

h6

Transition fits

H7/j6

J6

Locational transition fit - clearance: For accurate location allowing more clearance than interference.
(i.e. gears on shafts)
not specified

n6
H7/n6

Locational transition fit - interference: For accurate location

where interference is permissible.
(i.e. drill bushing in jigs)
Interference fits

t H? | rt

1
oFnn

H7/r6

Locational interference fit: For rigidity and alignment/accurate

location without special bore requirements.
(i.e. bushings in housings)

1
s6

H7/s6

Medium drive fit: For ordinary steel parts or shrink fits of light
sections. Tightest fit possible for cast iron,
(i.e. plain bearing bushings)

H8/u8

Force fit: For parts fitting that can withstand high mechanical
pressing force or shrink fitting,
(i.e. wheel on axle)

not specified

1 u8 |
0MJ

1x8 1
H8/x8
0

imJ

1)
2)

Extreme force fit: For parts that can only be assembled by stretching or shrinking.
(i.e. turbine blade on shaft)

Deviations from these fit recommendations should only be made in exceptional cases, e.g. installation of roller bearings.
The fits in bold print are tolerance combinations according to row 1. Their use is preferred.

112

Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and its

Geometric tolerancing
Tolerances of geometry, orientation, location and run-out

cf. DIN EN ISO 1101 (2006-02)

Structure of tolerance specifications

Datum

Toleranced element

Identification

datum letterbox

Identification

datum letter
Datum element
\

datum letter

Symbol of
tolerance type

datum line
datum base

Datum is the
A

feature control frame

tolerance value

toleranced
element

datum line
with datum
arrow

The tolerance applies to the

center plane

midplane
axis

axis

E=

I1
surface

surface
line

surface
+line

surface

E
Indications in drawings of datum specifications and toleranced elements
Datum

Simple datum

l P

Example

Multiple datum
(two or three elements)

Common datum
j

1A

zzzzzzzz

/ |0O.O21A-B
h
H B. -

EYZZZZZA
Datum in feature
control frame

Datum letters separated

with hyphens

Individual datum letter

Order of datum letters

according to their importance

Examples
16+0.3/+0.1

0.1

0.05

2 ^

01OH7

_L 00.04

USfl
The center plane of the slot
must run symmetrically
to the center plane of the
exterior surface (tolerance
value 0.1 mm).

The axis of the hole

must run perpendicular
(tolerance value 0.04 mm)
to the datum surface.

vO
cn''
-Jrsj
"Qi

"

o
l

v.*.,

II o
II CNI
SL

The cylindrical surface

024g6 must run true to the
axis 02Ok6 and the flat
surface must be planar
(tolerance value 0.05 mm).

Representation
in drawing
(examples)

wi

The slot must lie symmetrical (tolerance value

0.06 mm) and parallel
(tolerance value 0.02 mm)
to the axis 025h6.

Explanation

At all points across width b, the surface curve

must lie between two parallel lines spaced f =
0.1 mm apart

The toleranced axis of the shaft must lie within a

cylinder with diameter t = 0.04 mm.

Z7 0.03

0.06

0.02

cf. DIN ISO 1101 (1985-03)

Straightness

Flatness

//

025h6.

Geometric tolerances

CJ

A U

i k

Indication in drawings
Geometric
characteristic
symbols

18P9

The toleranced surface must be located between

two parallel planes spaced apart a distance of
t= 0.03 mm.

Tolerance zone

Technical drawing: 3.

l n

113

and i

Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing GD & T

Indications in drawings (continued)
Symbol and
toleranced
property

Representation
in drawing

cf. DIN EN ISO 1101 (2006-02)

Explanation

Tolerance zone

Tolerances of form (continued)

r \

The cone's circumferential line must lie between

two concentric circles spaced apart at a distance
of t = 0.08 mm in each point of the cone length /.

Circularity

Cylindricity

The shell surface of the cylinder must lie between

two coaxial cylinders, which are spaced apart at
a radial distance of f = 0.1 mm.

Profile
of
line

The profile line must lie between two enveloping

lines, whose gap is bounded by circles of diameter t = 0.05 mm in each point of the workpiece
thickness b.
The centers of these circles lie on a geometrically
ideal line.

Profile
of
surface

The surface of the sphere must lie between two

enveloping surfaces, whose gap t = 0.3 mm is
created by spheres. The centers of these
spheres lie on the geometrically ideal surface.

every cone
cross section

Orientation tolerances
//lo.oilA

The hole's centerline must lie between two

parallel planes spaced apart at a distance of
t = 0.01 mm. The planes are parallel to datum
line A and datum plane B and in line with the
defined direction (vertical in this case).

//

Parallelism

datum plane B

I//100.031A
0

The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder

of diameter t = 0.03 mm. The centerline of this
cylinder is parallel to datum line (axis) A.
datum
line A

zzzzz
- I - L | 00.11A

_L

Perpendicularity

The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder

of diameter t = 0.1 mm that is perpendicular to
datum plane A.

VZ&

'///*-fj_|0.03|A

The plane surface must lie between two planes

perpendicular to datum line A that are spaced
apart at a distance of t = 0.03 mm.

Angularity

The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder

of diameter t = 0.1 mm. The centerline of the
cylinder is parallel to datum plane B and inclined
at a theoretically exact angle of a = 45 with reference to datum plane A.
The inclined plane must lie between two parallel
planes spaced at a distance of t = 0.15 mm that
are inclined at a theoretically exact angle of
a = 75 with reference to datum line A.

datum
plane A

114

Technical drawing: 3.10 Tolerances and its

Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing GD & T

Indications in drawings (continued)
Symbol and
toleranced
property

Representation
in drawing

cf. DIN EN ISO 1101 (2006-02)

Explanation

Tolerance zone

Tolerances of location
]-$-|0O.O5|A|B|C~l

Position

The hole's centerline must lie within a cylinder

of diameter t = 0.05 mm. The cylinder's centerline
must coincide with the theoretically exact location of the hole's centerline in regard to the
datum planes A, B and C.

datum
plane A 0 / v

datum"

datum

^vO

The surface must lie between two parallel

planes spaced apart at a distance of t = 0.1 mm
that are symmetrical to the theoretically exact
location of the toleranced surface in regard to
datum plane A and datum line B.

rzzz

Concentricity

The center of the hole must lie in a circle of diameter t = 0.1 mm that is concentric to the datum
point A in the cross section.

The centerline of all diameters must lie within a

cylinder of diameter t = 0.05 mm. The centerline
of this cylinder must coincide with the common
datum axis A-B.

Coaxial ity

Symmetry

In every cross section, the circumferential line

must be perpendicular to the common datum line
A - B between two concentric circles in the same
plane having a radial distance of f = 0.1 mm.

Radial
circular
runout

In every cross section, the 120 circumferential

line must be perpendicular to datum line A and
lie between two concentric circles in the same
plane that have a radial distance of f = 0.1 mm.

/
/ 0.04 A
-T&

A
-

T&

I U 0.03 A-B

B
-T9L

In every diameter, the circumferential line must

lie in the plane surface between two circles that
have a radial distance of t = 0.04 mm. The centerline of each diameter must coincide with
datum line A.

datum line A - B
datum
plane A

zy o.i A

every
cross seci

every
cross section

every diameter

The shell surface must lie between two coaxial

cylinders having a radial distance of f = 0.03 mm.
The centerlines of these cylinders must coincide
with the common datum line A - B .

u
Total
axial
S E
runout

,datum
ine B

datum
point A

Runout tolerances

Total
radial
runout

'

datum
plane A

The midplane of the slot must lie between two

parallel planes spaced apart at a distance of
t = 0.05 mm that are located symmetrical to
datum plane A.

Axial
circular
runout

01

Bh

||0O.l|Ah

The plane surface must lie between two parallel

planes spaced apart at a distance of t = 0.1 mm
that are perpendicular to datum line A.

datum
line A

Table of Contents

Tungsten (W)
Zinc (Zn)
Tin (Sn)

19.27
7.13
7.29

3390
419.5
231.9

115

4.1

Materials
Material characteristics of solids
116
Material characteristics of liquids and gases . . . 117
Periodic table of the elements
118

4.2

Designation system for steels

Definition and classification of steel
Material codes, Designation

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

Steel types, Overview

Structural steels
Case hardened, quenched and tempered,
nitrided, free cutting steels
Tool steels
Stainless steels, Spring steels

120
121
126
128
132
135
136

Finished steel products

Sheet, strip, pipes
Profiles

139
143

Heat treatment
Iron-Carbon phase diagram
Processes

153
154

Cast iron materials

Designation, Material codes
Classification
Cast iron
Malleable cast iron, Cast steel

158
159
160
161

4.7

Foundry technology
Patterns, Pattern equipment
162
Shrinkage allowances, Dimensional tolerances . 163

4.8

Light alloys, Overview of Al alloys

Wrought aluminum alloys
Aluminum casting alloys
Aluminum profiles
Magnesium and titanium alloys

164
166
168
169
172

4.9

Heavy non-ferrous metals, Overview

Designation system
Copper alloys

173
174
175

4.10 Other metallic materials

Composite materials, Ceramic materials
Sintered metals

177
178

4.11 Plastics, Overview

Thermoplastics
Thermoset plastics, Elastomers
Plastics processing

179
182
184
186

4.12 Material testing methods, Overview

Tensile testing
Hardness test

188
190
192

4.13 Corrosion, Corrosion protection

196

4.14 Hazardous materials

197

116

Materials science: 4.

tels

Material characteristics of solids

I Solid material

Density
Material

Melting
temperature

Boiling
temperature

Latent
heat of
fusion

Thermal
conductivity

Mean
specific
heat

Specific
electrical
resistivity

Coefficient
of linear
expansion

at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar at 20 C at 0-100 C at 20C

0-100C
d
d
c
al
A
9
20
kg/dm-3
C
C
kJ/kg
W/(m- K) kJ/(kg K) Q mm2/m 1/C or 1/K
Aluminum (Al)
2.7
2467
659
204
356
0.94
0.028
0.0000238
Antimony (Sb)
6.69
630.5
1637
163
22
0.21
0.39
0.0000108
Asbestos
2.1-2.8 1300
0.81
Beryllium (Be)
1.85
1280
0.0000123
165
1.02
0.04
* 3000
Bismuth (Bi)
9.8
271
1560
59
8.1
0.12
1.25
0.0000125
Cadmium (Cd)
8.64
321
765
54
91
0.23
0.077
0.00003
_
Carbide (K 20)
14.8
* 4000
>2000
81.4
0.80
0.000005
Carbon (diamond)
3.51
* 3550
0.52
0.000001 18
Cast iron
7.25 1150-1200 2500
125
58
0.50
0.6-1.6
0.0000105
Chromium (Cr)
7.2
1903
2642
134
69
0.46
0.0000084
0.13
Cobalt (Co)
8.9
1493
2880
268
69.1
0.43
0.062
0.0000127
Coke
1.6-1.9
0.18
0.83
_
1.8-2.2
Concrete
1
0.88
0.00001
Constantan
8.89
1260
2400
23
0.41
0.49
0.0000152
Copper (Cu)
8.96
1083
2595
213
384
0.39
0.0179
0.0000168
_
_
Cork
0.1-0.3
0.04-0.06 1.7-2.1
Corundum (Al203) 3.9-4.0
2050
2700
12-23
0.96
0.0000065
CuAl alloys
7.4-7.7
1040
2300
61
0.44
0.0000195
CuSn alloys
7.4-8.9
900
2300
46
0.38
0.02-0.03 0.0000175
CuZn alloys
8.4-8.7 900-1000
2300
167
105
0.39
0.05-0.07 0.0000185
Foam rubber
0.06-0.25
0.04-0.06
1018
Glass (quartz glass) 2.4-2.7 520-5501)
0.8-1.0
0.83
0.000009
Gold (Au)
19.3
1064
2707
67
310
0.13
0.022
0.0000142
Graphite (C)
2.26
3550
4800
168
0.71
0.000007 8
_
_
_
Greases
0.92-0.94 30-175
0.21
300
Ice
0.92
0
100
332
2.3
2.09
0.000051
Iodine (I)
5.0
113.6
183
62
0.44
0.23
22.4
Iridium (Ir)
2443
>4350
135
59
0.13
0.053
0.000006 5
Iron oxide (rust)
5.1
1570
0.58 (pwdr) 0.67
Iron, pure (Fe)
7.87
1536
3070
276
81
0.47
0.13
0.000012
Lead (Pb)
327.4
1751
34.7
11.3
24.3
0.13
0.000 029
0.208
Magnesium (Mg)
1.74
650
1120
195
172
1.04
0.044 0.000026
Magnesium alloy * 1.8
630
1500
46-139
0.0000245
1244
Manganese (Mn)
7.43
21
2095
251
0.48
0.39
0.000023
Molybdenum (Mo) 10.22
2620
4800
287
145
0.26
0.054
0.000005 2
Nickel (Ni)
8.91
1455
2730
306
59
0.45
0.095
0.000013
Niobium (Nb)
4800
8.55
2468
288
53
0.273
0.217
0.0000071
Phosph., yellow (P)
1.82
44
280
21
0.80
Pit coal
1.35
0.24
1.02
_
_
Plaster
2.3
1200
0.45
1.09
Platinum (Pt)
21.5
1769
4300
113
70
0.13
0.098
0.000009
Polystyrene
1.05
0.17
1.3
0.000 07
10io
3
3
12
Porcelain
2.3-2.5 1600
1.6 )
1.2 )
0.000004
10
Quartz, flint (Si02) 2.1-2.5
1480
2230
9.9
0.8
0.000008
Selenium, red (Se) 4.4
220
688
83
0.2
0.33
Silicon (Si)
2.33
1423
2355
1658
83
0.75
2.3 109 0.0000042
Silicon carbide (SiC)
2.4 disintegrates into C and Si above 3000C 91)
1.051)
Silver (Ag)
10.5
961.5
2180
105
407
0.23
0.015
0.0000193
2)
3)
1)
cross
grain
at
800
C
I transformation temperature
e

Materials science: 4.

tels

Material characteristics of solid, liquid and gaseous materials

Solid materials (continued)
Density
Material
Q

Melting
temperature

Boiling
temperature

Latent
heat of
fusion

Thermalconductivity

at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar

Mean
specific
heat

Specific
electrical
resistivity

at 20 C at 0-100 C at 20 C
A
c
20
W/(m K) kJ/(kg K) Q mm2/m
126
0.04
1.3
48-58
0.14-0.18
0.49
14
0.7
0.51

Sodium (Na)
Steel, unalloyed
Steel, alloyed

C
kg/dm3
0.97
97.8
7.85 1500
7.9
* 1500

C
890
2500

kJ/kg
113
205

Sulfur (S)
Tantalum (Ta)
Tin (Sn)

2.07
16.6
7.29

113
2996
231.9

344.6
5400
2687

49
172
59

0.2
54
65.7

0.70
0.14
0.24

Titanium (Ti)
Tungsten (W)
Uranium (U)

4.5
19.27
19.1

1670
3390
1133

3280
5500
3800

88
54
356

15.5
130
28

0.47
0.13
0.12

1890

* 3380

343

907

101

0.50
2.1-2.9
0.4

0.2

419.5

31.4
0.06-0.17
113

Thermalconductivity

Specific
heat

Vanadium (V)
6.12
Wood (air dried) 0.20-0.72
Zinc (Zn)
7.13

Coefficient
of linear
expansion

0-100C
1/C or 1/K
0.000071
0.0000119
0.0000161

0.124 0.0000065
0.114 0.000023
0.42
0.055

0.0000082
0.0000045
* 0.000 042
0.000029

0.06

Liquid materials
Freezing
Ignition or melting
temp- temperature
erature

Density
Material

Boiling
temperature

at 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar

at 20C
Q
kg/dm3
Alcohol 95 %
0.81
Diesel fuel
0.81-0.85
Ethyl ether (C2H5)20
0.71

&

C
520
220
170

C
-114
-30
-116

78
150-360
35

Fuel oil EL
Gasoline
Machine oil

* 0.83
0.72-0.75
0.91

220
220
400

-10
-30- -50
-20

> 175
25-210
>300

Mercury (Hg)
Petroleum
Water, distilled

357
13.5
-39
> 150
0.76-0.86 550
-70
100
1.003)
0
2)
at boiling temperature and 0.013 bar

1)

above 1000C

d
C

Latent
heat of
vaporization^
r

kJ/kg
854
628
377

at 20C
A

at 20 C

Coefficient
of volume
expansion

W/(m- K) kJ/(kg K) 1/C or 1/K

0.17
2.43
0.0011
0.15
2.05
0.00096
0.13
2.28
0.0016

628
419

0.14
0.13
0.13

2.07
2.02
2.09

0.00096
0.001 1
0.00093

285
314
2256
3>
at4C

10
0.13
0.60

0.14
2.16
4.18

0.00018
0.001
0.00018

Gaseous materials
Density
Material

Specific

Melting

Boiling

Thermal

Coefficient

atOCand gravity1) temperature temperature conductivity of thermal

conducat 1.013 bar at 1.013 bar at 20C
1.013 bar
tivity 21

e/ei

Specific
heat

at 20C and 1,013 bar

cp3> I c/>
kJ/(kg K)
1.64
1.33
1.005
0.716
2.06
1.56

C
C
AMa
W/(m K)
-84
-82
Acetylene (C2H2)
0.905
0.021
0.81
3
Air
-220
-191
0.026
1.293
1.0
1.00
kg/m
0.024
0.77
-78
-33
Ammonia (NH3)
0.596
0.92
-0.5
0.016
0.62
Butane (C4H10)
2.70
2.088
-135
Carbon diox. (C02)
-57 5)
-78
0.016
0.62
0.82
1.98
1.531
0.63
Carbon monox. (CO)
-205
1.05
-190
0.025
0.96
0.75
1.25
0.967
Freon (CF2CI2)
5.51
4.261
-140
-30
0.010
0.39
Hydrogen (H2)
-253
0.09
0.07
-259
0.180
6.92
14.24
10.10
-162
Methane (CH4)
2.19
0.72
0.557
-183
0.033
1.27
1.68
Nitrogen (N2)
1.04
0.74
1.25
0.967
-210
-196
0.026
1.00
Oxygen (02)
1.43
1.106
-219
-183
0.026
1.00
0.91
0.65
Propane (C3H8)
2.00
1.547
-190
-43
0.018
0.69
1)
Specific gravity = density of a gas Q divided by the density of air QA.
2)
Coefficient of thermal conductivity
= the thermal conductivity
A of a gas divided by the thermal conductivity Aa of air.
3)
4)
5)
at constant pressure
at constant volume
at 5.3 bar
Q
1.17

Period

Main groups
IA

Main groups
Atomic number
(= proton number)

II A

1H

q a .
Relative atomic mass

Hydrogen
1.008
3

Letter symbols

Li

Lithium

O O O Q Q

22.989

Radioactive elements
.
0 0
in red, e.g. 0222
o . .
,
Synthetic elements
in parentheses, e.g. (261)

Be

III A

6.941

9.012

11 Na

12 Mg

liquid:
H
gaseous:
3

Sodium Magnesium
22.989

24.305

19 K
Potassium
39.102

20 Ca
Calcium
40.078

37 Rb
Rubidium
85.468
55

38

Sr

Strontium
87.620

Cs

56

Cesium

Ba

Barium

132.905 137.340
87 Fr
Francium
223

88

Ra

Radium
226.025

VB

VI B

22 Ti
23 V
Chromi- ManScanVanaTitanium
um
ganese
dium
dium
44.950 47.880 50.942 51.996 54.938
39

VIII B

VII B

Iron

Molyb- Techne- RutheZircoYttrium

Niobium denum tium
nium
nium
(98)
88.906 91.224 92.906 95.940
101.070

Light metals '

71 Lu 72 Hf

73 Ta

TantaHafnium
lum

Nickel

Copper

Zinc

Rhodium

Palladium

Silver

Cadmium

8O

Tungsten

RutheOsmium Iridium Platinum

nium

Gold

Lawren- RutherHah- Seabor- NielsHascium fordium* nium* gium* bohrium* sium*

/ 9ftn\ (261)
(265)
(262)
(263)
(264)

Meitne- * Element
rium* * Element
(266) * Element
* Element
* Element

Lanthanides
57-71

LanPraseo- Neody- PromeCerium

thanum
dymium mium thium
138.906 140.120 140.908 144.240 145

89 Ac 90 Th 91 Pa

Precious metals

Actinides
89-103

92 U

Samarium

10 Ne

Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine

Neon

10.811

12.011

14.007

15.999

18.998

20.179

13 Al
Aluminum
26.982

14

Si

15 P
Phosphorus
30.974

16 S

17

CI

18 Ar

Silicon
28.086

Gallium

GermaArsenic
nium
75.590 74.922

Indium

Tin

Sulfur

Chlorine

Mercury Titanium

Lead

Argon

35.453 39.948
32.066
34 Se 35 Br
36 Kr
SeleniBromine Krypton
um
78.960 79.904 83.800

52 Te
53 I
54 Xe
Antimo- TelluriIodine Xenon
ny
um
121.750 127.600 126.905 131.290

84 Po 85 At
PoloBismuth nium Astatine
208.980 210
210

174.967 178.490 180.948 183.850 186.207 190.200 192.200 195.080 196.967 200.590 204.383 207.200
103 Lr 104 Rf 105 Ha 106 Sg 107 Ns 108 Hs 109 Mt * Only name suggestions exist for elements 104 to 109.

Heavy metals1'

Noble gases

Cobalt

VIII A

Boron

86 Rn
Radon
222

104: also Kurtschatovium (Ku) or Dubnium (Db);

105: also Joliotium;
* Element 106: also Unilhexium (Unh);
107: also Bohrium (Bh) or Unilsptium (Uns);
108: also Hahnium (Hn) or Uniloctium (Uno);
109: also Unilenneadium (Une)

57 La 58 Ce 59 Pr 60 Nd 61 Pm 62 Sm 63 Eu 64 Gd 65 Tb

Metalloids

102.906 106.420 107.868 112.410 114.820 118.710

74 W 75 Re 76 OS 77 lr 78 Pt 79 Au 80 Hg 81 Tl 82 Pb 83 Bi

Nonmetals

Halogens

II B

6C

55.847 58.933 58.690 63.546 65.390 69.732

40 Zr 41 Nb 42 MO 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 Rh 46 Pd 47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb

Lutecium

IB

24 Cr 25 Mn 26 Fe 27 Co 28 Ni 29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As

21 Sc

VII A

4.002

Light metals e s 5 kg/dm3; Heavy non-ferrous metals e > 5 kg/dm3

IV B

VIA

Helium

black print
brown print
blue print

Transition elements
III B

VA

2 He

Beryllium
1)

IV A

Element name; state at

273 K(0C) and 1.013 bar:

Europium

66 Dy 67 HO

GadoDysprolinium Terbium sium

Holmium

68

Er

69 Tm 70 Yb

Erbium Thulium

Ytterbium

150.360 151.960 157.250 158.925 162.500 164.930 167.260 168.934 173.040

93 Np 94 Pu 95 Am 96 Cm 97 Bk 98 Cf 99 Es 100 Fm 101 Md 102 No

ActiProtacNepnium Thorium tinium Uranium tunium

227.028 232.038 231.036 238.029
237

Plutonium
244

Americium Curium
(243)
(247)

Berkelium
(247)

Califor- EinsteiniMendeFermium
levium
nium
um
(257)
(251)
(252)
(258)

Nobelium
(260)

Materials science: 4.

tels

Chemicals used in metal technology, molecular groups, pH value

Important chemicals used in metal technology
Technical
designation

Chemical
designation

Acetone

Acetone
(propanone)
Acetylene,
Ethane
Various
surfactants

Acetylene
Aqueous
cleaner

Carbonic acid Carbon dioxide

Formula

Properties

(CH3)2CO

Solvent for paint,

acetylene and plastics
Fuel for welding,
source material for plastics
Solvent, cleaning agentemulsifying and thickening
agent
Water soluble, non-combustible Shielding gas for MAG
welding, dry ice
gas, solidifies at -78C
as refrigerant
Solvent for fats, oils and
Colorless, non-combustible
paint
liquid, harmful to health
Solvent for fats and oils,
Colorless, sometimes lightly
cleaning agent
combustible liquids
Electroplating baths, pest
Blue, water soluble crystal,
control, for scribing
moderately toxic
Grinding and polishing agent,
Very hard colorless crystal,
oxide ceramic materials
melting point 2050 C
Solvent, cleaning agent,
Colorless, lightly combustible
liquid, boiling point 78C
for heating purposes, fuel additive
Etching and pickling of metals,
Colorless, pungent smelling,
manufacture of chemicals
strong acid
Very strong acid, dissolves met- Etching and pickling of metals,
manufacture of chemicals
als (except precious metals)
Colorless crystal, slightly water Degreasing and cleaning
baths, water softening
soluble, basic
Cleaning agent (fat solvent),
Colorless, pungent smelling
neutralization of acids
liquid, weak lye
Pickling of metals, electroplating
Colorless, oily, odorless
baths, storage batteries
liquid, strong acid
Colorless, crystalline salt,
Condiment, for freezing mixtures,
slightly water soluble
for chlorine extraction

C2H2

coooso3so 3 co2

Carbon
tetrachloride
Cleaning
agent
Copper vitriol

Carbon
tetrachloride
Organic
solvent
Copper sulfate

Corundum

Aluminum oxide Al 2 0 3

Ethyl alcohol

Ethyl alcohol,
denatured
Hydrochloric
acid
Nitric acid

C 2 H 5 OH

Na2C03

Spirits of
ammonia
Sulfuric acid

Sodium
carbonate
Ammonium
hydroxide
Sulfuric acid

Table salt

Sodium chloride I NaCI

Hydrochloric
acid
Nitric acid
Soda

CCI4
C n H 2 n +2

CuS04

HCI
HNO 3

NH 4 OH
H 2 SO 4

Use

Colorless, combustible, lightly

volatile liquid
Highly reactive, colorless
gas, highly explosive
Various water soluble
substances

Frequently occurring molecular groups

Moleculair group
Designation Formula

Carbide

=C

Carbonate

=co3

Chloride

-CI

Hydroxide

-OH

Nitrate
Nitride

-N0 3
=N

Oxide

=0

Sulfate

= S04

Sulfide

=S

Description

Carbon compounds; to some extent very hard

Compounds of carbonic acid, addition of heat
yields C02
Salts of the hydrochloric acids; usu. dissolve readily in water
Hydroxides are produced from metal oxides and water;
behave as basics
Salts of the nitric acids; usu. dissolve readily in water
Nitrogen compounds; some of them are very hard
Oxygen compounds; most commonly occurring
molecular group on earth
Salts of the sulfuric acids; usu. dissolve readily in water
Sulfur compounds; important ores, chip breaker
in free cutting steels

Example
Designation

Formula

Silicon carbide

SiC

Calcium carbonate

CaC03

Sodium chloride

NaCI

Calcium hydroxide

Ca(OH)2

Potassium nitrate
Silicone nitride

KN03
SiN

Aluminum oxide

AI2O3

Copper sulfate

CuS04

Iron(ll) sulfide

FeS

pH value

Type of aqueous
solution
pH value
Concentration
H+ in mol/l

<

neutral

increasingly acidic

10

10-1

IO- 2

10"3 IO" 4 10~5 10"6 10"7

>

increasingly basic

8
1 0

-8

9
10-9

10
1 0

-io

11

12

10- 11 10- 12

13
10"13

14
1 0

-14

120

Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system

Influenced by
Steel manufacture

Composition
-carbon content
- alloying elements

Classification

Degree of purity
- non-metallic
inclusions
- phosphorus and
sulfur content

Subsequent processing

For example:
Forming: rolling, stamping,
drawing, bending etc.
Heat treatment: quenching and tempering, surface hardening etc.
Annealing: normalizing,
spheroidizing, full annealing etc.
Joining: welding, brazing etc.
Coating: galvanizing etc.

Deoxidation
rimmed,
semi-killed or
killed
cast

Classification1'
Quality steels

High-grade steels

High-grade steels differ from quality steels due to:

- more careful production
- higher degree of purity
- improved deoxidation
- more exact composition
-improved hardenability

Table 1: Limit values for

unalloyed steels
Element

Al
Bi
Co
Cu
Cr

0.30
0.10
0.30
0.40
0.30

Element

Mn
Mo
Nb
Ni
Pb

1.65
0.08
0.06
0.30
0.40

Element

Se
Si
Ti
V
W

0.10
0.60
0.05
0.10
0.30

Main grades

Unalloyed quality steels

Alloy quality steels

Steel group (excerpt)

Example
Unalloyed structural steels S235JR
Unalloyed steels for
C45
quenching & tempering
Free cutting steels
10S20
Weldable unalloyed
S275N
fine-grain steels
Unalloyed press, vessel steels P235GH

Steel group (excerpt)

Rail steels
Magnetic steel sheet
and strip
Microalloyed steels with
high yield strengths
Phosphorus alloyed steels
with high yield strengths

Unalloyed high-grade steels

Alloy high-grade steels

Steel group (excerpt)

Example
Unalloyed steels for quenching C45E
and tempering
Unalloyed case hard, steels
C15E
Unalloyed tool steels
C45U
Unalloyed steels for flame
C60E
and induction hardening

Steel group (excerpt)

Alloy steels for quenching
and tempering
Case hardening alloy steels
Nitriding steels
Alloy tool steels
High-speed steels

Example
R0900Mn
M390-50E
H400M
H180P

Example
42CrMo4
16MnCr5
34CrAINi7
X40Cr14
HS6-5-2-5

' The main grade "Basic steels" was omitted. All previous basic steels are produced as quality steels.
The stainless steels have their own group. They are alloy steels, so they are not classified as quality or high-grade
steels.

2)

Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system

Designation of steels using material numbers

cf. DIN EN 10027-2 (1992-09), replaces DIN 170071)

Material numbers

Steel designations (page 122) or material numbers are used to identify and differentiate steels.
Material number
Designation
Designation of
steel (examples):

42CrMo4+N

(with additional symbol +N)

or

1.7225+N

The material numbers consist of a 6-character number (five numeric characters and a decimal point). They are better suited for data processing than designations.

1)
2)

The material numbers remained unchanged with the conversion from DIN 17007 to DIN EN 10027-2.
C carbon, R m tensile strength
Values for tensile strength R m and for carbon content C are mean values.

122

Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system

Designation system for steels

*. DIN EN 100271 <2005-10

Designation by application
The codes for steels are composed of main and supplemental symbols. Main symbols reflect the application or
chemical composition. Supplemental symbols depend on to the steel or product group.
Example: Pinion shaft
Main
symbol

Suppl.
symbol

S355JR+AR

Material

flIB

(examples)

Unalloyed structural steel

Designation
1
DIN EN 10027-1

Steel group
DIN EN 10025-2

42CrMo4+N
Designation
according to the
chemical composition (page 124)

Material blank

Hot-rolled round steel bar

DIN El\I 10060

Main symbols for the designation by application

Main symbol1'

Application

Steels for steel construction

Steels for machine construction
Steels for pressure vessel construction
Steels for pipes and tubes
Concrete reinforcing steels
Packaging steel, sheet and strip
1)

2)

235

360 2)

265 2)

360 2 '

500 2)

S550 2)

Application

Main symbol1'

Prestressing steels
Y
17703'
Flat rolled products for cold working
D
X52 4 '
Rail steels
R
260 5 '
Flat products of high-strength steels
H
C4006'
Magnetic steel, sheet and strip
M
400-50 7 '
To identify cast steel, the main symbol is preceded by the letter G.

The main symbol is composed of the code letter and

a
number and may include an additional letter.
2)
Yield
strength Re for the smallest product thickness
3)
Nominal
value for minimum tensile strength flm
4)
As-rolled
condition C, D, X followed by two symbols
5)
Minimum hardness in accordance with Brinell HBW

6)

As-rolled condition C, D, X and minimum yield

strength Re or as-rolled condition CT, DT, XT and
minimum tensile strength Rm
7)
Maximum magnetic hysteresis loss in W/kg x 100
and nominal thickness x 100 separated by a hyphen

Steels for steel construction

=> S235JR+N:

Steel-construction steel Re = 235 N/mm2, notch impact energy 27 J at-20C, normalized (+N)

Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system

Designation system for steels

cf. DIN EN 10027-1 (2005-10)

Steels for machine construction

Designation example:
I
Code letter for
machine construction

E 355 +AR

J
Yield strength for the
smallest product thickness

Product group (selection)

Standard

Hot-rolled unalloyed
structural steels
Steels for bright
steel products

DIN EN
10025-2
DIN EN
10277-1,2

Supplemental symbols

Supplemental symbols

GC special cold workability

+AR delivered in as-rolled condition +N normalized
GC special cold workability
+C drawn
+PL polished
+SH peeled
+SL ground
Pipes and tubes, seamless,
+A annealed
+C bright-drawn/hard +LC brigth-drawn/soft
DIN EN
cold-drawn
+N normalized +SR bright-drawn and stress relieved
10305-1
Seamless tubes made of
J2 notch impact energy values at -20 C
DIN EN
K2 notch impact energy values at -40 C
unalloyed and alloyed steel
10297-1
+AR delivered in as-rolled condition +N normalized +QT quenched
and tempered
2
E355+AR: machine construction steel, yield strength Re = 355 N/mm , delivered in as-rolled condition (+AR)
Flat products for cold working

Product group (selection)

Standard

Supplemental symbols
Surface type and finish

Cold-rolled flat products

made of soft steels
for cold working

DIN EN
10130

Continuously hot-dip finished

strip and sheet made of soft
steels for cold working

DIN EN
10327

A Faults not affecting workability and adhesion of surface coating

are permissible.
B The better face must be flawless to the extent that the look of
quality lacquer finish or coating is not affected,
b particularly smooth
g smooth
m dull
r rough
D hot-dip coating
Coating (followed by coating mass in g/m2, e.g. Z140)
+AS aluminum-silicon alloy
+AZ aluminum-zinc alloy
+Z zinc +ZA zinc-aluminum alloy +ZF zinc-iron alloy
Coating finish:
M small zinc flower with +Z
N typical zinc flower with +Z R typical finish with +ZF
Type of surface:

B improved finish
=> DC04 - A - m:

A typical finish
C best finish

Flat product for cold working (D), cold-rolled (C), steel type 04 (page 141), surface type A,
surface finish dull (m)

Flat products made of high-strength steels for cold working

Product group (selection)

Standard

Supplemental symbols

Cold-rolled strip and sheet

made of micro-alloy steels

DIN EN
10268

B bake-hardening steel Y high-strength I-F steel I isotropic steel

P phosphor-alloy steel LA low-alloy/micro-alloy steel
Surface type and finish

for rolling width < 600 mm as with DIN EN 10139

for rolling width > 600 mm as with DIN EN 10130
=> HCT500 - B - g: Cold-rolled flat product made of high-strength steel (H), cold-rolled (C), minimum tensile strength
Rm = 500 N/mm2 (T500), surface type B, smooth surface (g)

124

Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system

Designation system for steels

<*. DIN EN 10027-1 <2005-10)

Designation by chemical composition

The main symbols reflect the chemical composition and are created on the basis of four different designation
groups. The supplemental symbols depend on the steel group or product group.
Example: Pinion shaft

Main
symbol

Suppl.
symbol

Material

EB

(examples)

42CrMo4+N

Quenched and
tempered steel

Designation

Steel group

DIN EN 10027-1

DIN EN 10083-1

S355JR+AR
Designation
according to the
application
(page 122)

Material blank

Hot-rolled ro und steel bar

DIN EN 10060

Designation groups, examples and application of the main symbols11

Unalloyed steels

Alloy steels, free-

Alloy steels

cutting steels
manganese content < 1 %
average content of
except
unalloyed steels with a individual alloying element
free-cutting steels
manganese content > 1 %
above 5%
C15i
42CrMo4
X12CrNi18-8
Application examples:

Application examples:

unalloyed case-hardening
steels,
unalloyed quenched and
tempered steels,
unalloyed tool steels

free-cutting steels,
case-hardening alloy steels,
quenched and tempered
alloy steels,
tool alloy steels,
spring steels

1)

Application examples:
Stainless steels

corrosion-resistant,
heat-resistant, hightemperature steels
Tool steels:

cold work steels

hot work steels

High-speed steels
HS 10-4-3-10
~ r

Code letter
for high-speed
steel
Content of alloying elements
in percent in the following
order W-Mo-V-Co
10 - 10% tungsten (W)
4 - 4% molybdenum (Mo)
3 3% vanadium (V)
10^ 10% cobalt (Co)

To identify cast steel, the main symbol is preceded by the letter G; to identify powder metallurgical steel, the
main symbol is preceded by the letters PM.

Unalloyed steels with a manganese content < 1 %, except free-cutting steels

C45E+S+BC: quenched

and tempered unalloyed steel, C content 0.45% , prescribed max. sulphur content (E), treated
for shearability (+S), blasted (+BC) (supplemental symbols on page 125, quenched & tempered steels)

Alloy steels, free-cutting steels, unalloyed steels with a manganese content > 1 %

Designation example:

18CrNiMo7-6 +TH+BC

Main symbols
18 code number for the carbon content
C m e d i u m = 18/100 = 0.18%
Cr, Ni, Mo alloying elements
(in the order of their mass portion)
7-6 Alloy contents
C r m e d i u m = 7/4 =1.75%
N i e d i u m = 6/4=1.5%
Mo = low content
m

=> 17CrNiMo6-4+TH+BC:

Factors for alloy contents

Alloying elements
Factor
Cr, Co, Mn, Ni, Si, W
4
Al, Be, Cu, Mo, Nb,
10
Pb, Ta, Ti, V, Zr
C, Ce, N, P, S
100
B
1000

Supplemental symbols
Refer to such aspects as special applications, heat treatment states, quenching
stress, surface finish, degree
of deformation. The definition
of the supplemental symbols
varies according to the steel
group (page 125).

Case-hardening alloy steel, C content 0.17% (17), Cr content of 1.5% (6), Ni content
1.0% (4), low Mo content, treated for quenching stress (+TH) and blasted (+BC)
(supplemental symbols on page 125, case-hardening steels)

Materials science: 4.2 Steels, Designation system

Designation system for steels

Steel group/
product group (selection)

Hot-worked casehardening steels

Standard

Supplemental symbols

DIN EN
10084

E prescribed maximum sulphur content

R prescribed sulphur content range
+H normal hardenability +HH restricted hardness tolerance, upper range
+HL restricted hardness tolerance, lower range
Treatment conditions:
+A soft-annealed
+S treated for shearability
+FP treated for ferrite-pearlite microstructure and quenching stress
+U untreated
+TH treated for quenching stress
Surface finish:
+BC blasted
+HW hot worked
+PI pickled

Hot-worked quenched
and tempered steels

DIN EN
10083-1
10083-2

Hot-worked freecutting steels

DIN EN
10087

DIN EN
Bright steel products made of
case-hardening steel, quenched & 10277-1
tempered steel, free-cutting steel 10277,3..5
Seamless steel tubes made of
case-hardening steels and
quenched & tempered steels

<*. DIN EN 10027-1 (2005-10)

DIN EN
10297-1

E, R as with care-hardening steels as per DIN EN 10084 (above)

Treatment conditions
+A soft-annealed +H normal hardenability +N normalized
+HL restricted hardness tolerance, lower range
+HH restricted hardness tolerance, upper range
+QT quenched and tempered +S treated for shearability +U untreated
Surface finish:
+BC blasted
+HW hot-worked
+P pickled
+RM hot-worked and pre-machined
Under normal conditions, no supplemental symbols provided (in
special cases for direct quenching types: +QT quenched and tempered)
+C cold-drawn
+SL ground

+SH peeled
+PL polished

+A soft-annealed
+AR as rolled
+N normalized
+FP treated for ferrite-pearlite microstructure and quenching stress
+QT quenched & tempered +TH treated for quenching stress

=> 16MnCr5+A: Case-hardening alloy steel, C content 0.16% (16), Mn content 1.25% (5), low Cr content, soft-annealed (+A)
Alloy steels, the content of at least one alloying element is above 5% (without high-speed steels)
| Designation example:
Main symbols

X4CrNi18-12 +2D
I
_JI
L

X code letter for the designation group

4 code number for medium carbon content
C m e d i u m = 4/100 = 0.04%
Cr, Ni main alloying elements (Cr > Ni)
18-12 alloy contents in %
chromium = 18%, nickel = 12%
- .
"i v
Steel group/
product group (selection)

Supplemental symbols

Specification of heat treatment conditions, the

rolling condition, the type of execution, the
surface finish.
The definition of the supplemental symbols
varies according to the product group.

Hot-rolled corrosion-resistant
sheets and strips

Cold-rolled corrosion-resistant
sheets and strips

Standard

DIN EN
10088-2

DIN EN
10088-2

Supplemental symbols (selection)

Treatment condition
Type of execution/surface finish
+A annealed
+1
+QT quenched &
1U
1C
tempered
1E
+QT650 quenched &
1D
tempered to
1G
Rm = 650 N/mm2
+AT solution annealed
+P precipitation
hardened
+2
+P1300
2C,
precipitation
2B
hardened to
2
ffm = 1300 N/mm 2R
2Q
+SR stress relieved
2H
annealed

hot-rolled products
not heat-treated, not descaled
heat treated, not descaled
heat treated, mechanically descaled
heat treated, pickled, smooth
ground

cold-rolled products
E, D, G as with hot-rolled products
like D but cold-rolled in addition
bright-annealed
hardened and tempered, scale-free
strain-hardened (with different
hardness stages), bright surface

=> X2CrNi18-9+AT+2D: Alloy steel, C content 0.02% (2), Cr content 18%, Ni content 9%, solution annealed (+AT),
cold-rolled (+2), hot-treated, pickled, smooth surface (D)

126

Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types

Steels - Overview
Subgroups,
delivery conditions

Standard Main characteristics

Areas of application

Product forms11
S | B | P | W

Unalloyed structural steels, hot-rolled

Steels for steel
and machine
construction

good machinability
weldable, except for S185
DIN EN cold and hot workable
10025-2 machinable
not weldable
cold and hot workable

Steels for
machine
construction

page 130
Welded constructions in steel
and machine construction,
simple machine parts

Machine parts without heat

treatment, e.g. by hardening,
quenching and tempering

Fine-grain steels suitable for welding

DIN EN weldable
10025-3 hot workable
Thermomechan- DIN EN weldable
ically rolled
10025-4 not hot workable
Normalized

page 131
Weldments with high toughness, resistance to brittle
fracture and aging stability
in machine and steel construction

Quenched and tempered structural steels with high yield strength

DIN EN weldable
10025-6 hot workable

Alloy steels

page 131

High-strength weldments in
machine and steel constructions

Case hardened steels

Unalloyed
steels

Small parts with wearresistant surface

Dynamically stressed
parts with wear-resistant
surface

Quenched and tempered steels

Unalloyed
quality steels

in spheroidized condition
DIN EN
good machinability
Unalloyed high- 10083-2 hot workable
grade steels
hardenable (uncertain
results with unalloyed
DIN EN
quality steels)
Alloy steels
10083-3

page 133
Parts with high strength,
which are not hardened

Parts with high strength and

good toughness
Highly stressed parts with
good toughness

Steels for flame and induction hardening

Unalloyed
steels

Alloy steels

DIN EN
10083-2,
DIN EN
10083-3

in spheroidized condition
good machinability
hot workable
directly hardenable; possible
to harden individual workpiece areas, e.g. tooth faces
quenching and tempering of
workpieces before hardening

page 134
Parts with low core strength
but hardening of specific areas

Larger parts with high core

strength and hardening of specific areas

Nitriding steels

Alloy steels

page 134
in spheroidized condition
good machinability

hardenable by nitride forming

DIN EN
elements, lowest quenching
10085
distortion
quenching and tempering of
workpieces before nitriding

Parts with increased fatigue

strength, parts subject to wear,
Parts subjected to temperatures up to 500 C

Spring steels
DIN EN
10270 cold or hot workable
Leaf springs, helical springs,
DIN EN high elastic formability
disc
springs, torsion bars
10089 high fatigue strength
Product forms:
S sheets, strips
B bars, e. g. flat, square and round bars
W wires
P profiles, e.g. channels, angles, tees

Unalloyed and
alloy steels
1>

page 132

in spheroidized condition
good machinability
DIN EN

hot workable
10084
after surface carburization
surface hardenable

Alloy steels

page 138

Materials science: 4. Steels,

t e

Steels - Overview
Subgroups,
delivery conditions

Standard

Main characteristics

Areas of application

Product forms11
S | B | P | W

page 134

Free cutting steels

Non-heattreatable steels

DIN EN
10087 optimal machinability
(short chipping)
DIN EN non-weldable
10087 might not respond uniformly
to heat treatment with case
hardening or quench
and tempering
DIN EN
10087

Free cutting
case hardened
steels
Free cutting
quenched and
tempered steels

Mass produced turned parts

with low strength requirements
Like unalloyed case hardened
steels;
better machinability
Like unalloyed quenched and
tempered steels; better
machinability, less fatigue
strength

page 135

Tool steels

Cold work
steels,
unalloyed

in spheroidized condition
good machinability
DIN EN non-cutting cold and hotISO 4957 workable
full hardening up to max.
10 mm diameter

Low stressed tools for cutting

and non-cutting forming at
operating temperatures up to
200 C

Cold work
steels,
alloy

in spheroidized condition
machinable

workable
DIN EN hot
larger
hardening depth,
ISO 4957 higher case
strength, more wearresistant than unalloyed cold
work steels

Highly stressed tools for cutting and non-cutting forming

at operating temperatures
over 200C

Hot work
steels

in spheroidized condition
DIN EN machinable
workable
ISO 4957 hot
hardens over the entire
cross section

Tools for non-cutting

forming at operating
temperatures over 200C

High-speed
steels

in spheroidized condition
DIN EN machinable
workable
ISO 4957 hot
hardens over the
entire cross section

Cutting materials for cutting

tools, operating temperatures
up to 600 C,
highly stressed forming tools

pages 136, 137

I Corrosion resistant steels

Ferritic
steels

DIN EN
10088-2,
DIN EN
10088-3

machinable
good cold-workable
weldable
heat treatment does not
increase strength

Low stressed rust-free parts;

parts with high resistance to
chlorine induced stress,
corrosion cracking

Austenitic
steels

DIN EN
10088-2,
DIN EN
10088-3

machinable
very good cold workability
weldable
no increase in strength
through heat treatment

Non-rusting parts with high

corrosion resistance,
widest application range of all
stainless steels

Martensitic
steels

machinable
DIN EN in spheroidized condition
10088-2,
cold-workable
DIN EN with low carbon content
10088-3
weldable
heat treatable

Highly stressed non-rusting

parts, which can also be
quenched and tempered

1>

Product forms:

S sheets, strip
W wires

B bars, e.g. flat, square and round bars

P profiles, e. g. channels, angles, tees

128

Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types

Materials science: 4.

Steels,

t e

Selecting structural steels by chemical composition

Unalloyed steels

Selection according to carbon content

Minimum
Steel group
requirements

Quenched and
tempered steels

Case hardened
heat
steels
treatment
with proven Quenched and
values
tempered steels

C10E
C15E
C35E
C60E

Case hardened
steels3'

no
or

Main properties are determined by

Composition
Purity grade
Deoxi carbon (C) manganese (Mn) phosphorus (P) dation
silicon (Si)
sulfur (S)
DO2'
other alloying elements (L)

Designation

C10
C15
C35
C60

heat
treatment

page 128

Heat treatment provided,

e.g. hardening or quench and tempering

yes

C in % Mn in % Si in % L1' in % P m a x i n %
0.10
0.45
0.15
0.45
0.40
0.045
0.35
0.65
0.63
0.60
0.75

Smax in

DO
FN
FN
FN
FN

0.10
0.15
0.35
0.60

0.45
0.45
0.65
0.75

0.045

FN
FN
FN
FN

0.40

0.035

0.035

0.63
Further requirements

1)
2)
3

L Maximum percentage (Cr + Mo + Ni)

DO Type of deoxidation: FN semi-killed cast
' The steels C10 and C15 are no longer included in the standard
case hardened steels DIN EN 10084. However, they are still
available from specialty dealers.

Effect of alloying elements

(selection)

Properties influenced
by alloying elements
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Impact toughness
Wear-resistance
Hot workability
Cold workability
Machinability
High-temperature strength
Corrosion resistance
Hardening temperature
Hardenability, temperability
Nitridability
Weldability

increase

Alloy steels

O decrease

Al

Cr

Ni

o
o
o

Alloying elements
V
Mo
Co

Si

Mn

o
o

o
o
o
o
o

o
o

o
-

- no significant effect

Example: Gears, case hardened, rough parts drop forged, reliable heat treatment is required
Wanted: Suitable steels
Solution: Heat treatment (case hardening) provided -> case hardened steel, C < 0.2 %
The properties of unalloyed quality and high-grade steels are insufficient -* alloy steels
Increase of hot workability: Mn, V; increase of hardenability: Cr, Ni
Steel selection: 16MnCr5, 20MnCr5, 15NiCr13 (page 132)

S
-

o
o

o
o

130

Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types

Unalloyed structural steels

Unalloyed structural steels, hot-rolled
Notch
imp>act
energy

Steel type
Material DO1'
Designation number

at
C

cf. DIN EN 10025-2 (2005-04), replaces DIN EN 10025

ElongaYield strength
I%
2
tion
in N/mim for
prodijet thiclkness in mm at frac- Properties,
application
ture
< 16 > 16 >40 >63
,43'
%
<40 <63 <80

Tensile
strength

KV

R 2)
M

N/mm2

Structural and machine construction steels

290-510

185

175

175

175

18

Non-weldable, simple
steel constructions

27

360-510

235

225

215

215

26

20
0
-20

27

410-560

275

265

255

245

23

Basic machine parts,

weldments in steel and
machine construction;
levers, bolts, axles,
shafts

FN
FN
FF

20
0
-20

27

470-630

355

345

335

325

22

FF
FF

-20
0

40
27

470-630
550-720

355
450

345
430

335
410

325
390

22
17

S185

1.0035

S235JR
S235J0
S235J2

1.0038
1.0114
1.0117

FN
FN
FF

20
0
-20

S275JR
S275J0
S275J2

1.0044
1.0143
1.0145

FN
FN
FF

S355JR
S355J0
S355J2

1.0045
1.0553
1.0577

S355K2
S450J0

1.0596
1.0590

Highly stressed weldments in steel, crane

and bridge construction

Steels for machine construction

E295

1.0050

FN

470-610

295

285

275

265

20

Axles, shafts,
bolts

E335

1.0060

FN

570-710

335

325

315

305

16

E360

1.0070

FN

670-830

360

355

345

335

11

Wear parts;
pinion gears, worms,
spindles

1)

DO Type of deoxidation: - manufacturer's option;

FF killed cast steel.
FN semi-killed cast steel;
2)
Values apply to product thicknesses from 3 mm to 100 mm.
3)
Values apply to product thicknesses from 3 mm to 40 mm and longitudinal test pieces with L0 = 5.65 ]SQ (page 190)
The steel types listed in the table are unalloyed quality steels acc. to DIN EN 10020 (page 120)
Technical properties
Hot workability

Weldability

Steels of grade groups JR - JO - J2- K2 are weldable

using all processes.
Increased strength and product thickness also increase
the risk of cold cracks.
Steels S185, E295, E335 and E360 are not weldable,
because the chemical composition is not specified.

The steels are hot workable. Only products which are

ordered and delivered in normalized (+N) or normalizing
rolled (+N) condition must meet the requirements of the
above table. The treatment condition must be specified
at the time of ordering.
Example: S235J0+N or 1.0114+N

Cold workability

The additional C or GC symbol is appended to the designation of a steel type suitable for cold working (edge folding, roll forming, cold-drawing), and these types are also assigned their own material number.
Steel types for cold working

Material
Designation number
S235JRC
S235J0C
S235J2C

1.0122
1.0115
1.0119

1.0533
E295GC
11
Forming process:

Suit:able 1:or1'
F

Material
Designation number
S275JRC
S275J0C
S275J2C

1.0128
1.0140
1.0142

E335GC
1.0543
F edge folding:
R roll forming:
-

Suiltable i:or1'
F

Material
Designation number
S355J0C
S355J2C
S355K2C

1.0554
1.0579
1.0594

E360GC
1.0633
C cold drawing:
well-suited
-

Suiltable for1'
F

-unsuitable

Materials science: 4.

Steels,

t e

Weldable fine-grain and quenched & tempered structural steels

Weldable fine-grained structural steels (selection)
No1ch imp>act
enerc y KV2^in J at Tensile
strength
1
Material DC ' tempejrature s in C
Am 2
Designation number
N/mm
+ 20 0 -20
Steel type

cf. DIN EN 10025-3 and DIN EN 10025-4 {2005-04),

replaces DIN EN 10113
YielcI strengi
th f?e Elongain N/mm2 for
tion
al thickilesses at frac- Properties,
nomin in mm
ture application
A
> 16 >40
%
< 16 <40 <63

Unalloyed quality steels

S275N
S275M

1.0490
1.8818

N
M

55

47

40

370-510
370-530

275

265

255

24

S355N
S355M

1.0545
1.8823

N
M

55

47

40

470-630

355

345

335

22

Alloy high-grade steels

S420N
S420M

1.8902
1.8825

N
M

55

47

40

520-680

420

400

390

19

S460N
S460M

1.8901
1.8827

N
M

55

47

40

550-720
540-720

460

440

430

17

High toughness,
brittle fracture and
aging resistant;
weldments in machinery, crane and bridge
construction, automotive manufacturing,
conveyors

1)
2)

DC Delivery condition:
N normalized/normalizing rolled
M thermomechanically rolled
Values apply to V-notch longitudinal test pieces.
Assignment of steels: DIN EN 10025-3 S275N, S355N, S420N, S460N
DIN EN 10025-4 S275M, S355M, S420M, S460M
Technical properties
Weldability

Hot workability

Cold workability

steels S275N, S355N,

The steels are weldable. Increased strength Only
S420N
and S480N are hot
and product thickness also increase the
workable.
risk of cold cracks.

Cold-bending or edge folding is guaranteed for nominal thicknesses up to

16 mm, if cold-workability is specified
in the order.

Quenched and tempered struc. steels with higher yield strength (selection) cf. DIN EN 10025-6 (2005-02),
replaces DIN EN 10137-2
th Re ElongaYielcI strengi
Notch impact energy
2
Steel type
Tensile
N/mm
tion
for
in
I
iW i n J ait
al
thicki
strength
at
frac- Properties,
nesses
nomin
eraturej
in mm
Desig- 1
Material temp
ture application
Am 2
> in C
nation '
number
A
N/mm
>3
>50 > 100
-20
%
<50 < 100 < 150
0
-40
S460Q
1.8908
40
30
550-720
460 440 400
17
S460QL
1.8906
50
40
30
High toughness, high
resistance to brittle
S500Q
1.8924
40
30
17
590-770
500 480 440
fracture and aging
40
S500QL
1.8909
50
30
stability;
S620Q
1.8914
40
30
highly stressed weld700-890
620
580 560
15
S620QL
1.8927
50
40
ments in machinery,
30
crane and bridge
S890Q
1.8940
40
30
construction, auto940-1100
890 830
11
S890QL
1.8983
50
40
30
motive manufacturing,
conveyors
1.8941
S960Q
40
30
980-1150
960
10
1.8933
S960QL
50
40
30
-

1>

Q quenched and tempered; QL quenched and tempered, guaranteed minimum values for notched bar
impact values to -40 C

Technical properties
Weldability

Hot workability

Cold workability

The steels are not weldable without limitations.

Professional planning of the welding parameters
is required. Increased strength and product thickness also increase the risk of cold cracks.

The steels are hot workable up

to the temperature limit for
stress relief annealing.

Cold-bending or edge folding

is guaranteed for nominal
thicknesses up to 16 mm, if
cold-workability is specified
in the order.

132

Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types

Case hardened steels, unalloyed and alloy

Case hardened steels (selection)
Steel tyfDe

HareJness HB in
delive
ry condition2'
Material
Designation1' number +A
+ FP

cf. DIN EN 10084 (2008-06)

=ter
Core properties a1
Handen0
i)
case hardening
I
ir>g
Elong. method Properties,
Tensile
Yield
A
applications
strength
strength at fracture

Re
A
D S
N/mm2
N/mm2
%

Unalloyed case hardened steels

C10E
C10R

1.1121
1.1207

131

90-125

49-640

295

C15E
C15R

1.1141
1.1140

143

103-140

590-780

355

700-900

450

16
-

Small parts with average

stress;
levers, pegs, bolts,
rollers, spindles, pressed
and stamped parts

Alloy case hardened steels

17Cr3
17CrS3

1.7016
1.7014

174

28Cr4
28CrS4

1.7030
1.7036

217

156-207

>700

16MnCr5
16MnCrS5

1.7131
1.7139

207

140-187

780-1080
780-1080

16NiCr4
16NiCrS4

1.5714
1.5715

217

156-207

>900

18CrMo4
18CrMoS4

1.7243
1.7244

207

140-187

>900

20MoCr3
20MoCrS3

1.7320
1.7319

217

145-185

>900

20MoCr4
20MoCrS4

1.7321
1.7323

207

140-187

880-1180

17CrNi6-6
22CrMoS3-3

1.5918
1.7333

229
217

156-207
152-201

>1100

15NiCr13
10NiCr5-4

1.5752
1.5805

229
192

166-207
137-187

20NiCrMo2-2
20NiCrMoS2-2

1.6523
1.6526

212

17NiCrMo6-4
1.6566
17NiCrMoS6-4 1.6569
20NiCrMoS6-4 1.6571
20MnCr5
20MnCrS5
18NiCr5-4
14NiCrMo13-4
18CrNiMo7-6
1)
2)
3>
4)

590
590

11
-

10
10

590

10

920-1230
>900

785

10

149-194

780-1080

590

10

229

149-201
149-201
154-207

> 1000
> 1000
>1100

1.7147
1.7149

217

152-201

980-1270

1.5810
1.6657
1.6587

223
241
229

156-207
166-217
159-207

>1100
1030-1390
1060-1320

685

785

10
8

Parts subject to
alternating stresses,
e.g. in gearbox;
gears, bevel and ring
gears, driving pinions,
shafts, propellershafts

Parts subject to highly

alternating stresses,
e.g. in gearbox;
gears, bevel and
ring gears,
driving pinion,
shafts, propellershafts

Parts subject to larger

dimensions;
pinion shafts, gears,
ring gears

Steel types with added sulfur, e.g. 16MnCrS5, have an improved machinability.
Delivery condition: +A spheroidized; +FP treated for ferrite-pearlite microstructure and hardness range
Strength values are valid for test pieces with 30 mm nominal diameter.
Hardening methods:
D Direct hardening: The workpieces are quenched directly from the carburizing temperature.
S Simple hardening: After carburizing the workpieces are usually left to cool at room temperature. For hardening they are reheated.
well-suited o conditionally suitable - unsuitable

For heat treatment of case hardened steels, see page 155

Materials science: 4.

Steels,

t e

Quenched and tempered steels, unalloyed and alloy

Quenched and tempered steels (selection)

Strengith values for rollied diarneter d in mm

Tensile!strength
Yield sitrength Elongsition at
2
2
Properties,
frac ture
Rm infM/mm
Re in J/mm
r
applications
EL in%
>40
> 16 >40 > 16 >40
> 16
< 100
<40 < 100 <40 < 100
<40

Steel typ)e
Designation

Material
number

cf. DIN EN 10083-2 and DIN EN 10083-3

T1'

Unalloyed quenched and tempered steels2'

C22E

1.1151

C35
C35E
C45
C45E
C55
C55E
C60
C60E

1.0501
1.1181
1.0503
1.1191
1.0535
1.1203
1.0601
1.1221

28Mn6

1.1170

+N
+QT
+N
+QT
+N
+QT
+N
+QT
+N
+QT
+N
+QT

410
470-620
520
600-750
580
650-800
640
750-900
670
800-950
600
700-850

cf. DIN EN 10083-2 (2006-10)

410
520
550-700
580
630-780
640
700-850
670
750-900
600
650-800

210
290
270
380
305
430
330
490
340
520
310
490

210
270
320
305
370
330
420
340
450
310
440

25
22
19
19
16
16
12
14
11
13
18
15

| Alloy quenched and tempered steels

25
19
20
16
17
12
15
11
14
18
16

cf. DIN EN 10083-3 (2007-01)

38Cr2
46Cr2

1.7003
1.7006

+QT

700-850
800-950

600-750
650-800

450
550

350
400

15
14

17
15

34Cr4
37Cr4

1.7033
1.7034

+QT

800-950
850-1000

700-850
750-900

590
630

460
510

14
13

15
14

25CrMo4
25CrMoS4

1.7218
1.7213

+QT

800-950

700-850

600

450

14

15

41Cr4
41CrS4

1.7035
1.7039

+QT

900-1100

800-950

660

560

12

14

34CrMo4
34CrMoS4

1.7220
1.7226

+QT

900-1100

800-950

650

550

12

14

42CrMo4
42CrMoS4

1.7225
1.7227

+QT

1000-1200

900-1100

750

650

11

12

50CrMo4
51CrV4

1.7228
1.8159

+QT

1000-1200

900-1100

780
800

700

10

12

30NiCrMo16-6
34CrNiMo6

1.6747
1.6582

+QT

1080-1230
1100-1300

1080-1230
1000-1200

880
900

880
900

10

10
11

36NiCrMo16
30CrNiMo8

1.6773
1.6580

+QT

1250-1450

1100-1300

1050

900

10

20MnB5
30MnB5

1.5530
1.5531

+QT

750-900
800-950

27MnCrB5-2
39MnCrB6-2

1.7182
1.7189

+QT

900-1150
1050-1250

1)

Parts subject to lower

stresses and small
quench and tempering diameters;
screws, bolts, axles,
shafts, gears

800-1000
1000-1200

600
650
750
850

700
800

15
13
14
12

Parts subject to higher stresses and larger

quenched and tempered diameters;
drive shafts, worms,
gears

Parts subject to high

stresses and larger
quenched and tempered diameters;
shafts, gears, larger
forged parts

Parts subject to highest stresses and large

quenched and tempered diameters

15
12

T treatment condition: +N normalized;+QT quenched and tempered

For unalloyed quenched and tempered steels the treatment conditions +N and +QT also apply to the quality and
high-grade steels, for example for C45 and C45E.

> Unalloyed quenched and tempered steels C35, C45, C55 and C60 are quality steels, steels C22E, C35E, C45E, C55E
and C60E are produced as high-grade steels.
For heat treatment of quenched and tempered steels, see page 156

134

Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types

Nitriding steels. Steels for flame and induction hardening, Free cutting steels
Nitriding steels (selection)

cf. DIN EN 10085 (2001-07), replaces DIN 17211

Steeltyp)e
SpherMaterial oidized
Designation number hardness
HB

Tensile
strength1'
Am
N/mm2

31CrMo12
31CrMoV9

1.8515
1.8519

248
248

980-1180
1000-1200

785
800

11
10

Wear parts up to 250 mm thickness

Wear parts up to 100 mm thickness

34CrAIMo5-10
40CrAIMo7-10
34CrAINi7-10

1.8507
1.8509
1.8550

248
248
248

800-1000
900-1100
850-1050

600
720
650

14
13
12

Wear parts up to 80 mm thickness

High-temperature wear parts up to 500C

Elongation1
Yield
strength1* at fracture ' Properties,
EL
applications
Re
N/mm2
%

Large parts; piston rods, spindles

1)

Strength values: The values for tensile strength flm, yield strength Re and elongation at fracture EL apply to material thicknesses from 40 to 100 mm in the quenched and tempered condition.
For heat treatment of nitriding steels, see page 157
cf. DIN EN 100831>

Steels for flame and induction hardening (selection)

Steel typ>e
Designation

Spheroidized
Material hardness
number
HB

C45E11)
C60E '

T2'

207
241

+QT

37Cr4
46Cr2

1.1191
1.1221
1.7034
1.7006

255

+QT

41Cr4
42CrMo4

1.7035
1.7225

255

+QT

YielcI strengith Re
Elonlominal gation at
in N/mim2 for n
thickrlesses iin mm fracture
Am
2
EL
< 16 > 16 >40
N/mm
%
<40 < 100
650-800
490 430 370
16
800-950
580 520 450
13
14
850-1000
750 630 510
800-950
650 550 400
13

Tensile
strength2'

900-1100
1000-1200

800
900

660
750

560
650

12
11

Properties,
applications

Wear parts with high

core strength and good
toughness; crank shafts,
drive shafts, cam shafts,
worms, gears

1)

The previous standard DIN 17212 was withdrawn without replacement. For flame and induction hardenable steels,
see quenched and tempered steels DIN EN 10083-3 (page 133). For unalloyed high-quality steels acc. to DIN EN
10083-2, hardness results are only assured if the steels are ordered with austenite grain size <; 5.
2)
T treatment condition: +QT quenched and tempered
For heat treatment of steels for flame and induction hardening, see page 156
Free cutting steels (selection)

cf. DIN EN 10087 (1999-01)

11SMn30
11SMnPb30

1.0715
1.0718

+U

11SMn37
11SMnPb37

1.0736
1.0737

+U

For product thicknesses from 16 to 40 mm

Yield Elongation Properties,
Tensile
Hardness
strength at fracture applications
strength
R
HB
EL
Am 2
e ,
N/mm
%
N/mm2
Steels unsuitable for heat
112-169
380-570
treatment
Small parts subject to low
112-169
380-570
stress; levers, pegs

10S20
10SPb20

1.0721
1.0722
1.0725
1.0726
1.0756
1.0762
1.0763
1.0727
1.0757

+U

107-156

360-530

+U
+U
+QT
+U
+QT
+U
+QT

128-178
154-201

430-600
520-680
600-750
630-800
700-850
590-760
650-800

Steel typ)e
Designation1'

15SMn13
35S20
35SPb20
44SMn28
44SMnPb28
46S20
46SPb20
1)
2

Material T2'
number

187-238
175-225

380

16

420

16

430

13

Case hardened steels

Wear-resistant small parts;
shafts, bolts, pins
Quenched and tempered
steels
Larger parts subject to higher
stress;
spindles, shafts, gears

Steel types with lead additives, e.g. 11SMnPb30, have better machinability.
' T treatment condition: +U untreated; +QT quenched and tempered
All free cutting steels are unalloyed quality steels. It is not possible to guarantee a uniform response to case
hardening or quench and tempering.
For heat treatment of free cutting steels, see page 157

Materials science: 4.

Steels,

t e

Cold work steels. Hot work steels. High-speed steels

Tool steels (selection)
Steel type
Designation

Material
number

cf. DIN EN ISO 4957 (2001-02), replaces DIN 17350

Tempering
Hardness
Hardening
HB1) temperature QM2' temperat. Application examples, properties
max.
C
C

Cold work steels, unalloyed

C45U

1.1730

190

800-830

180-300

Non-hardened mounted parts for tools,

screwdrivers, chisels, knives

C70U

1.1520

190

790-820

180-300

Centering pins, small dies, vise jaws, trimming press

C80U

1.1525

190

780-810

180-300

Dies with flat cavities, chisels,

cold extruding dies, knives

C105U

1.1545

213

770-800

180-300

Simple cutting tools, coining dies,

scribers, piercing plugs, twist drills

Cold work steels, alloy

21MnCr5

1.2162

215

810-840

150-180

Complex case hardened press forms for

plastics; easily polished

60WCrV8

1.2550

230

880-930

180-300

Cutters for steel sheet from 6 to 15 mm, cold

punching dies, chisels, center punches

90MnCrV8

1.2842

220

790-820

150-250

Cutting dies, stamps, plastic stamping

molds, reamers, measuring tools

102Cr6

1.2067

230

820-850

100-180

Drills, milling cutters, reamers, small cutting

dies, turning centers for lathes

X38CrMo16

1.2316

250

1000-1040

650-700

Tools for processing chemically aggressive

thermoplastics

40CrMnNiMo8-6-4 1.2738

235

840-870

180-220

Plastic molds of all types

45NiCrMo16

1.2767

260

840-870

X153CrMoV12

1.2379

250

X210CrW12

1.2436

255

950-980

55NiCrMoV7

1.2714

250

840-870

X37CrMoV5-1

1.2343

235

1020-1050 O, A 550-650

Die casting molds for light alloys,

extrusion tools

32CrMoV12-28

1.2365

230

1020-1050 O, A 500-670

Die casting molds for heavy non-ferrous

metals, extrusion tools for all metals

X38CrMoV5-3

1.2367

235

High-quality dies, highly stressed

1030-1080 O, A 600-700 tools for manufacture of screws

HS6-5-2C

1.3343

250

1190-1230 O, A 540-560

Twist drills, reamers, milling cutters, thread

cutters, circular saw blades

HS6-5-2-5

1.3243

270

1210-1250 O, A 550-570

Highly stressed twist drills, milling cutters,

roughing tools with high toughness

HS10-4-3-10

1.3207

270

1210-1250 O, A 550-570

Lathe tools for automatic machining,

high cutting capacity

HS2-9-2

1.3348

250

1190-1230 O, A 540-580

Milling cutters, twist drills and thread cutters, high

cutting hardness, high-temp, strength, toughness

O, A 160-250

1020-1050 O, A 180-250
O, A 180-250

Bending and embossing tools, shearing

blades for thick material
Cutting tools sensitive to breaking, milling
cutters, broaching tools, shearing blades
High-performance cutting tools,
broaching tools, stamping tools

Hot work steels

400-650

Plastic molds, small and medium sized dies,

hot shearing blades

High-speed steels

1)

2)
Delivery condition: annealed
QM Quenching medium; W water; 0 oil; A air
For designations of tool steels, see page 125; for heat treatment of tool steels, see page 155

136

Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types

Stainless steels
Corrosion-resistant steels (selection)
Steel type
Designation

D 1)

cf. DIN EN 10088-2 and 10088-3 (2005-09)

DC2) Thickness

Material
number

mm
S| B

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm2

ElongaYield
tion at
strength fracture Properties,
applications
EL
N/mm2
%

Austenitic steels
X10CrNi18-8

X2CrNi18-9

1.4310

1.4307

X2CrNiN19-11

1.4306

1.4311

1.4301

X6CrNiTi18-10

1.4305

1.4541

X5CrNiMo17-12-2

1.4303

1.4401

1.4435

1)

Household containers,
chemical and food industry

< 160

500-700

175

45

< 8
< 75

520-700
500-700

220
200

45

< 160

460-680

180

45

< 8
< 75

550-750
540-750

290
270

40

< 160

550-760

270

40

< 8
< 75

540-750

230
210

45

< 160
< 75
< 160

500-700
500-700
500-750

190
190
190

45
35
35

< 8
< 75

520-720
500-700

220
200

40

< 160
< 8
< 160

500-700
500-650
500-700

190
220
190

40
45
45

< 8
< 75

530-680
520-670

240
220

40
45

s 160

500-700

200

40

< 8
< 75

540-690
520-670

240
220

40

< 160

500-700

200

40

< 8
== 75

550-700
520-670

240
220

40
45

< 160

500-700

200

40

< 8
< 75

580-780

300
280

35
40

< 160

580-800

280

35

< 8
< 75

580-780

290
270

35
40

< 160

580-800

280

35

< 8
< 75

530-730
520-720

240
220

35

< 160

700-800

200

35

cp

cp

cp

cp

cp

2>

45

cp

X1 NiCrMoCu25-20-5 1.4539

220
200

X2CrNiMoN17-13-5 1.4439

520-700
500-650

cp

X2CrNiMoN17-13-3 1.4429

< 8
< 75

X2CrNiMo18-14-3

C
P

cp

X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 1.4571

Springs for temperatures

up to 300 C, automotive
manufacturing

X4CrNi18-12

40
40

X8CrNiS18-9

250
195

X5CrNi18-10

600-950
500-750

X2CrNi18-10

< 8
< 40

D Delivery forms: S sheet, strip; B bars, profile

DC Delivery condition: C cold-rolled strip; P hot-rolled sheet

Equipment and parts

exposed to organic and
fruit acids
Equipment for the dairy
and brewery industry,
pressure vessels
Deep-drawn parts in the
food industry, easily polished
Parts in the food and dairy
industry
Consumer goods used in
the household, parts in the
photo industry
Chemical industry;
bolts, nuts
Parts in the paint, oil and
textile industry
Parts in the textile,
synthetic resin and rubber
industry
Parts with improved
chemical resistance for the
pulp industry
Pressure vessels with
increased chemical resistance
Resistant to chlorine
and higher temperatures; chemical industry
Resistant to phosphoric,
sulfuric and hydrochloric
acids;
chemical industry

Materials science: 4.

Steels,

t e

Stainless steels
Corrosion-resistant steels (continued)
Steel type

D1)

DC 2)

Thickness

Material
number

Designation

cf. DIN EN 10088-2 and 10088-3 (2005-09)

mm
S| B

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm2

ElongaYield
tion at
strength fracture Properties,
applications
EL
N/mm2
%

Ferritic steels

X2CrNi12

1.4003

X6Cr13

1.4113

< 100

450-600

260

20

< 8
< 25

400-600

240
220

19

< 25

400-630

230

20

< 8
< 25

450-600

260
240

20

<
<
<
<

100
8
8
100

400-630
450-650
450-630
440-660

240
280
260
280

20
23
18
18

Automotive manufacturing; trim, hub caps

X6CrMo17-1

20
18

1.4016
1.4512

280
250

X2CrTi12

450-650

1.4000

X6Cr17

< 8
< 25

c
c

Automotive and container

manufacturing, conveyors
Resistant to water and
steam; household
equipment, fittings
Good cold workability,
able to be polished;
flatware, bumpers
Catalytic converters

X3CrTi17

1.4510

< 8

450-600

260

20

Welded parts in
food industry

X2CrMoTi18-2

1.4521

cp

< 8
< 12

420-640
420-620

300
280

20

Bolts, nuts,
heaters

1)
2)

D Delivery forms: S sheet, strip; B bars, profile

MF Mill finish: C cold-rolled strip; P hot-rolled sheet

Martensitic steels

Steel type
Designation

D1)
Mat.
no.

DC2) Thickness
d

mm

S B
X12Cr13

1.4006

X20Cr13

1.4021

X30Cr13

1.4028
1.4034

X39CrMo17-1 1.4122

X3CrNiMo13-4 1.4313
1)
2)
3)

450

20
12

650-850

450

15

A
QT750
QT800

<700
750-950

550

15
10

800-950

600

12

<740
800-1000

600

15
10

< 160

A
QT800
QT850

850-1000

650

10

< 8
< 160

A
QT800

<780
850-1000

245
650

12
10

Hardenable; table knives

and machine knives

< 8
< 60

<900
900-1100

280
800

12
11

Shafts, spindles,
armatures up to 600C

< 75

A
QT900
QT900

900-1100

800

11

< 160

A
QT900

< 1100
900-1100

320
800

12

High toughness;
pumps, turbine wheels,
reactor construction

< 160

C
P

< 8
- 75

< 160

Yield Elongational Properties,

strength fracture
applications
EL
N/mm2

<=600
650-850

< 8
< 75

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm2

A
QT650
QT650

C
P

cp

X46Cr13

H 3)

< 8
< 75

Resistant to water
and steam, food industry
Axles, shafts,
pump parts,
propellers
Bolts, nuts, springs,
piston rods

D Delivery forms: S sheet, strip; B bars, profile

DC Delivery condition: C cold-rolled strip; P hot-rolled sheet
H Heat treatment condition: A solution annealed; QT750-" quenched and tempered to minimum tensile strength
R m = 750 N/mm2

138

Materials science: 4.3 Steels, Steel types

Spring steel
Steel wire for springs, patented drawn
Wire
type
SL
SM
SH
DM
DH

Minimumi tensilei strenc}thfl m in N/miti 2 fori:he norninal diiameteir d in nlm

0.5

0.8

2200
2480
2200
2480

2050
2310
2050
2310

1.0
1720
1980
2330
1980
2230

Wire diameter d in mm

all
types,
except
SL1>
1)

cf. DIN EN 10270-1 (2001-12), replaces DIN 17223

0.30 0.75 2.10 5.00 -

0.32 0.80 2.25 5.30 -

1.5
1600
1850
2090
1850
2090

2.0
1510
1740
1970
1740
1970

2.5
1460
1690
1900
1690
1900

3.4
1370
1590
1790
1590
1790

3.0
1410
1630
1840
1630
1840

4.0
1320
1530
1740
1530
1740

4.5
1290
1500
1690
1500
1690

5.0
1260
1460
1660
1460
1660

6.0
1210
1400
1590
1400
1590

8.0
1120
1310
1490
1310
1490

10.0
1060
1240
1410
1240
1410

15.0 20.0
-

1110
1270
1110
1270

1020
1160
1020
1160

(selection)
0.34 0.90 2.40 5.60 -

0.36 - 0.38 - 0.40 - 0.43 - 0.48 - 0.50 - 0.53 - 0.56 - 0.60 - 0.63 - 0.65 - 0.70
1.00 - 1.10 - 1.20 - 1.25 - 1.30 - 1.40 - 1.50 - 1.60 - 1.70 - 1.80 - 1.90 - 2.00
2.50 - 2.60 - 2.80 - 3.00 - 3.20 - 3.40 - 3.60 - 3.80 - 4.00 - 4.25 - 4.50 - 4.75
6.00 - 6.30 - 6.50 - 7.00 - 7.50 - 8.00 - 8.50 - 9.00 - 9.50 - 10.00

Wire type SL is only supplied in diameters d = 1 to 10 mm.

Operating conditions, applications

Wire
type

Suitable for springs with:

Applications

SL
SM
SH
DM
DH

Low static loading

Moderate static or, less often, dynamic loading
High static or low dynamic loading
Moderate dynamic loading
High static or average dynamic loading

Tension springs,
compression springs,
torsion springs in equipment and
machine construction,
wire type DH is also suitable
for shaped springs.

Wire coatings, delivery forms

Designation
ph
cu

Wire
surfaces

Letter
symbol

phosphatize
copper coated

ZA

Wire
surfaces

Delivery forms

with zinc coating

with zinc/aluminum coating

Spring wire EN 10270-1 DM 3,4 ph: Spring

type DM, d = 3,4 mm, phosphatized surface (ph)

Hot-rolled steels for quenched and tempered springs

Spheroidized
+A
Material
number Hardness Hardness
HB
HB

Steel type
Designation
38Si7
46Si7
55Cr3
54SiCr6
61SiCr7
51CrV4
Explanation

Hotrolled

1.5023
1.5024
1.7176
1.7102
1.7108
1.8159
1)

240
270
>310
310
310
>310

217
248
248
248
248
248

in coils or on spools
straightened rods in bundles

cf. DIN EN 10089 (2003-04), replaces DIN 17221

In quenchied and teimpered

condition (+QT
Tensile
Yield Elongation
strength strength at fracture
EL
Am
N/mm2
%
N/mm2
1300-1600
1150
8
7
1400-1700
1250
1400-1700
1250
3
1450-1750
1300
6
1550-1850
1400
5.5
1400-1700
1200
6

Properties, applications

Spring screw locks

Leaf springs, helical springs
Larger tension and compression springs
Spring wire
Leaf springs, helical springs
Highly stressed springs

Strength values apply to test pieces with d = 10 mm diameter.

Round bar EN 10089 - 20 x 8000 - 51CrV4+A: Bar diameter d = 20 mm, bar length / = 8000 mm,
steel type 51CrV4, delivery condition spheroidized (+A)
Wire diameter d in mm

(selection)

5.0 - 5.5 - 6.0 - 6.5 - 7.0 - 7.5 - 8.0 - 8.5 - 9.0 - 9.5 - 10.0 - 10.5 - 11.0 11.5 - 12.0 - 19.0 - 19.5 - 20.0 - 21.0 - 22.0 - 23.0 - 27.0 - 28.0 - 29.0 - 30.0

Delivery forms

directional rods
wire coils

139

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Sheet and strip metal - Classification, overview

Classification according to

Delivery form
Type

Fabrication method
Commercial formats

Sheet
Usually rectangular plates in
small format: w x /= 1000 x 2000 mm
med. format: w x l = 1250 x 2500 mm
large format: w x l = 1500 x 3000 mm
Sheet thicknesses: s = 0,14-250 mm
Strip

Rolled (coils) continuous strip

Strip thickness s = 0,14-approx.
10 mm
Strip width w up to 2000 mm
Coil diameter up to 2400 mm
for feed stock at automatic
manufacturing plants or sheet
metal blanks for secondary
processing

Process

Remarks

Hotrolled

Sheet thicknesses up to approx.

250 mm, surfaces in rolled condition
or pickled

Cold rolled

Sheet thicknesses up to approx.

10 mm, smooth surfaces,
tight process tolerances

Cold-rolled
with surface
finishing

higher corrosion resistance,

e.g. from galvanizing, organic
coating
for decorative purposes, e.g. with
plastic coating
better workability, e.g. by textured
surfaces

Sheet metal types - Overview (selection)

Main characteristics

Designation, steel types

Standard

Delivery form 1 '

Sh

St | thickness range

Cold-rolled sheet and strip

cold workable
(deep drawing)
weldable
surface
paintable

Flat rolled products from soft steels

DIN EN 10130

0.35-3 mm

Cold strip from soft steels

DIN EN 10207

< 10 mm

Flat products with high yield strengths

DIN EN 10268

< 3 mm

Flat products for enameling

DIN EN 10209

< 3 mm

Hot-dip finished sheet and strip

DIN EN 10327

< 3 mm

Zinc electroplated flat products

from steel for cold working

DIN EN 10152

0.35-3 mm

Organically coated flat products

from steel

DIN EN 10169-1

< 3 mm

Black plate for manufacture of tinplate

DIN EN 10205

0.14-0.49 mm

Packaging sheet metal from electrolytically

tinned or chromed steel

DIN EN 10202

0.14-0.49 mm

Cold-rolled sheet and strip with surface finishing

higher corrosion
resistance
possibly better
workability

Cold-rolled sheets and strip for packaging

corrosion resistant
cold workable
weldable

Hot-rolled sheet and strip

Same properties
as the
corresponding
steel groups
(pages 126, 127)

Sheet and strip from unalloyed and alloy steels,

e.g. structural steels as per DIN EN 10025,
fine-grain structural steels as per DIN EN 10113,
DIN EN 10051
case hardened steels as per DIN EN 10084,
quenched and tempered steels as per DIN EN
10083, stainless steels as per DIN EN 10088

sheet up to
25 mm thickness,
strip up to
10 mm thickness

high
yield strength

Sheet metal from structural steels with higher

yield strength, quenched and tempered

DIN EN 10025-6

3-150 mm

cold
workability

Flat products of steel with high

yield strength

DIN EN 10149-1

1)

Delivery forms: Sh sheet; St strip

sheet up to
20 mm thickness

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Cold-rolled sheet and strip for cold working

Cold-rolled strip and sheet from soft steels
Steel typ e
Material
number

Designation

Type of
surface

cf. DIN EN 10130 (2007-02)

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm 2

Yield
strength
Re
N/mm 2

Elongation
at fracture
EL

Lack
of flowlines 1 '

Properties,
Application

DC01

1.0330

A
B

270-410

140
280

28

DC03

1.0347

A
B

270-370

140
240

34

6 months

DC04

1.0338

A
B

270-350

140
210

38

6 months

DC05

1.0312

A
B

270-330

140
180

40

6 months

DC06

1.0873

A
B

270-350

120
180

38

unlimited
time

Delivery forms
(standard
values)

Sheet thicknesses: 0.25 - 0.35 - 0.4 - 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.8 - 0.9 - 1.0 - 1.2 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0 mm
Metal sheet dimensions: 1000 x 2000 mm, 1250 x 2500 mm, 1500 x 3000 mm, 2000 x 6000 mm
strip (coils) up to approx. 2000 mm wide
1)

Explanation

Cold workable, e.g. by

deep drawing, weldable,
surface paintable;
worked sheet parts
in automotive,
general machine and
equipment manufacturing, in the construction
industry

In subsequent non-cutting processes, e. g. deep drawing, no flow lines appear within the given time
period. The time period begins at the agreed upon delivery date.
Surface finish

Type of surface
Description of the surface

Designation

3 months

Designation

Finish

Average roughness Ra

Defects, e.g. pores, scoring, may not influence the workability and the adhesion of surface coatings.

very smooth
smooth

Ra < 0.4 (jm

Ra < 0.9 Mm

One side of the sheet must be free of defects

so that its surface finish will not influence
quality painting.

m
r

matt
rough

0.6 |jm < fla< 1.9 pm

Ra > 1.6 |jm

Sheet EN 10130 - DC06 - B - g: Sheet metal from DC06 material, surface type B, smooth surface

=>

Cold-rolled strip and sheet

of high yield steels (selection)
Steel type

cf. DIN EN 10268 (2006-10)

Elongation
at fracture Properties,
EL
Application

Material
number

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm 2

Yield
strength
Re
N/mm 2

HC180Y
HC220Y
HC260Y

1.0922
1.0925
1.0928

340-400
350-420
380-440

180-230
220-270
260-320

36
34
32

Cold workability at high mechanical strength,

sophisticated deep-drawn parts

HC180B
HC220B
HC300B

1.0395
1.0396
1.0444

300-360
320-400
400-480

180-230
220-270
300-360

34
32
26

Good cold workability, increase of the yield strength

through heat treatment after the shaping process;
exterior parts of the vehicle body

HC180P
HC260P
HC300P

1.0342
1.0417
1.0448

280-360
360-440
400-480

180-230
280-320
300-360

34
29
26

Good cold workability, high impact resistance and

fatigue strength;
parts of the body skin, deep-drawn parts

HC260LA
HC380LA
HC420LA

1.0480
1.0550
1.0556

350-430
440-560
470-590

260-330
380-480
420-520

26
19
17

Good weldability and limited cold workability,

good impact resistance and fatigue strength;
reinforcing parts of the vehicle body

Designation

Forms of
delivery,
surface
finishes

Forms of delivery see DIN EN 10130 (table on top)

Surface finishes: The products are available with the surface finish types A and B in accordance with
DIN EN 10130. For LA types, e.g. HC380LA, only surface finish type A is available.
For rolling width > 600 mm, the surface finishes also comply with DIN EN 10130.
Sheet metal EN 10628 - HC380LA - A - m: Sheet metal of material HC380LA, surface finish A, matt (m)

141

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Cold-rolled and hot-rolled sheet

Hot-dip galvanized strip and sheet
from soft steels for cold working
Steel t/pe
Designation

Material
number

Guarantee
for strength
values 1 '

cf. DIN EN 10327 (2004-09)

replaces DIN EN 10142
Tensile
strength
N/mm 2

Yield
strength
Ke
N/mm 2

Elongation
at fracture
EL

Lack
of flow
lines 2 '

Cold working
grade

22

1 month

machine seamed
quality
drawing grade

DX51D+Z
DX51D+ZF

1.0226+Z
1.0226+ZF

8 days

270-500

DX52D+Z
DX52D+ZF

1.0350+Z
1.0350+ZF

8 days

270-420

140-300

26

1 month

DX53D+Z
DX53D+ZF

1.0355+Z
1.0355+ZF

6 months

270-380

140-260

30

6 months

deep drawing grade

DX54D+Z
DX54D+ZF

1.0306+Z
1.0306+ZF

6 months

260-350

120-220

36
34

6 months

extra deep
drawing grade

DX56D+Z
DX56D+ZF

1.0322+Z
1.0322+ZF

6 months

270-350

120-180

39
37

6 months

special deep
drawing grade

Delivery forms
(standard
values)

Sheet thicknesses: 0.25 - 0.35 - 0.4 - 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.7 - 0.8 - 0.9 - 1.0 - 1.2 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0 mm
Metal sheet dimensions: 1000 x 2000 mm, 1250 x 2500 mm, 1500 x 3000 mm, 2000 x 6000 mm
strip (coils) up to approx. 2000 mm wide

Explanation

1)

2)

Values for tensile strength ffm, yield strength Re and elongation at fracture EL are only
guaranteed within the given time period. The time period begins at the agreed upon delivery date.
In subsequent working, e.g. deep drawing, no flow lines appear within a given period. The time
period begins at the agreed upon delivery date.

Composition, properties and structures of the coating

Designation
+Z

+ZF

Composition, properties

Designation

Coatings of pure zinc, shiny flower patterned surface, protection against atmospheric corrosion
Abrasion resistant coating of a zinc-iron
alloy, uniform matt gray surface, corrosion
resistant like +Z

N
M
R

Structure
Zinc flowers in different sizes
Small zinc flowers, often not visible.
Uniform matt gray surface
(texture information only combined with
coating +ZF)

Type of surface
Designation
A
B
C

Meaning
No surface defects are allowed, e.g. dots, stripes
Improved surface compared to A
Best surface, high-quality painting must be assured on one side of the sheet
Sheet EN 10142 - DX53D+ZF100-R-B: Sheet of DX53D material, coating of
iron-zinc alloy with 100 g/m 2 , uniform matt gray (R) and improved (B) surface

Hot-rolled sheet and strip

cf. DIN EN 10051 (1997-11)

Hot-rolled sheet and strip according to DIN EN 10051 are manufactured

from steels of various material groups, for example:
Steel group, designation
Materials

Delivery forms
(standard values)

Standard

Page

Structural steels
Case hardened steels
Quenched and tempered steels

DIN EN 10025
DIN EN 10084
DIN EN 10083

130
132
133

Weldable fine-grain steels

Heat-treatable structural steels, high yield strength

DIN EN 10113
DIN EN 10137

131
131

Stainless steels
Pressure vessel steels

DIN EN 10088
DIN EN 10028

136

Properties and
applications of the
steels are given on
the pages for the
individual steel.

Sheet thicknesses: 0 . 5 - 1 . 0 - 1 . 5 - 2 . 0 - 2 . 5 - 3 . 0 - 3 . 5 - 4 . 0 - 4 . 5 - 5 . 0 - 6 . 0 - 8 . 0 - 1 0 . 0 - 1 2 . 0 - 1 5 . 0
18.0 - 20.0 - 25.0 mm. Sheet and strip dimensions see DIN EN 10142.
Sheet EN 10051 - 2,0 x 1200 x 2500: Sheet thickness 2,0 mm, sheet dimensions 1200 x 2500 mm
Steel EN 10083-1 - 34Cr4: Carbon quenched and tempered steel 34Cr4

142

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Tubes for machine construction, Precision steel tube

Seamless tube for machine construction (selection)
d
s
S
m'
Wx
/x

x-

outside diameter
wall thickness
cross-sectional area
linear mass density
axial section
modulus
axial geometrical
moment of inertia

- y ,
-x

VJ

dx s

cf. DIN EN 10297-1 (2003-06)

S
cm 2

m'
kg/m

Wx
cm 3

/x
cm 4

26.9 x 2.3
26.9 x 2.6
26.9 x 3.2

1.78
1.98
2.38

1.40
1.55
1.87

1.01
1.10
1.27

1.36
1.48
1.70

35 x 2.6
35 x 4.0
35 x 6.3

2.65
3.90
5.68

2.08
3.06
4.46

2.00
2.72
3.50

3.50
4.76
6.13

40x4
40x5
40x8

4.52
5.50
8.04

3.55
4.32
6.31

3.71
4.30
5.47

44.5 x 4
44.5x5
44.5 x 8

5.09
6.20
9.17

4.00
4.87
7.20

51 x 5
51 x 8
51 x 10

7.23
10.81
12.88

5.68
8.49
10.11

s
L1
Material,
annealing
condition

dx s

S
cm 2

m'
kg/m

cm 3

/x
cm4

54 x 5.0
54 x 8.0
54 x 10.0

7.70
11.56
13.82

6.04
9.07
10.85

8.64
11.67
13.03

23.34
31.50
35.18

60.3 x 8
60.3 x 10
60.3 x 12.5

13.14
15.80
18.77

10.31
12.40
14.73

15.25
17.23
19.00

45.99
51.95
57.28

7.42
8.59
10.94

70x8
70 x 12.5
70 x 16

15.58
22.58
27.14

12.23
17.73
21.30

21.75 76.12
27.92 97.73
30.75 107.6

4.74
5.53
7.20

10.54
12.29
16.01

82.5 x 8
82.5 x 12.5
82.5 x 20

18.72
27.49
39.27

14.70
21.58
30.83

31.85 131.4
42.12 173.7
51.24 211.4

7.58
10.13
11.25

19.34
25.84
28.68

88.9 x 10
88.9 x 16
88.9 x 20

24.79
36.64
43.29

19.46
28.76
33.98

44.09 196.0
57.40 255.2
62.66 278.6

Steel group

Steel type, examples

Machine construction unalloyed

steels
alloy

E235, E275, E315

E355K2, E420J2

Quenched and
tempered steels

Annealing condition1*
+AR or +N
+N

unalloyed C22E, C45E, C60E

alloy 41Cr4, 42CrMo4

Case hard, steel, unall., alloy

+N or +QT
+QT

C10E, C15E, 16MnCr5

+A or +N

Properties and applications of steels, see pages 126 and 127.

Precision steel tube, cold-drawn seamless (selection)

d
s
S
m'
Wx
/x

outside diameter
wall thickness
cross-sectional area
linear mass density
axial section
modulus
axial geometrical
moment of inertia

fex
L

f
KV

I
A~

I
S
d

-X

dx s

cf. DIN EN 10305 1 (2003-02)

S
cm 2

m'
kg/m

Wx
cm 3

/x
cm4

dx s

10 x 1
10x 1.5
10x2

0.28
0.40
0.50

0.22
0.31
0.39

0.06
0.07
0.09

0.03
0.04
0.04

12 x 1
12 x 1.5
12x2

0.35
0.49
0.63

0.27
0.38
0.49

0.09
0.12
0.14

15x2
15x2.5
15x3

0.82
0.98
1.13

0.64
0.77
0.89

20 x 2.5
20x4
20x5

1.37
2.01
2.36

25x2.5
25 x 5
25x6
30x3
30x5
30x6
Materials,
surface,
annealing
condition

S
cm 2

m'
kg/m

cm3

/x
cm4

35x3
35x5
35x8

3.02
4.71
5.53

2.37
3.70
4.34

2.23
3.11
2.53

3.89
5.45
3.79

0.05
0.07
0.08

40x4
40 x 5
40 x 8

4.52
5.50
8.04

3.55
4.32
6.31

3.71
4.30
5.47

7.42
8.59
10.94

0.24
0.27
0.29

0.18
0.20
0.22

50x5
50x8
50 x 10

7.07
10.56
12.57

5.55
8.29
9.87

7.25
9.65
10.68

18.11
24.12
26.70

1.08
1.58
1.85

0.54
0.68
0.74

0.54
0.68
0.74

60 x 5
60x8
60 x 10

8.64
13.07
15.71

6.78
10.26
12.33

10.98
15.07
17.02

32.94
45.22
51.05

1.77
3.14
3.58

1.39
2.46
2.81

0.91
1.34
1.42

1.13
1.67
1.78

70 x 5
70 x 10
70 x 12

10.21
18.85
21.87

8.01
14.80
17.17

15.50
24.91
27.39

54.24
87.18
95.88

2.54
3.93
4.52

1.99
3.08
3.55

1.56
2.13
2.31

2.35
3.19
3.46

80x8
80 x 10
80 x 16

18.10
21.99
32.17

14.21
17.26
25.25

29.68
34.36
43.75

118.7
137.4
175.0

Steel group

Surfaces

Unalloyed structural
steels, free cutting
steels, quenched and
tempered steels

Tubes with smooth interior

and exterior surfaces,
surface roughness
Ra < 0,4 pm

Annealing condition1'
+C or
+A or +N

Properties and applications of steels, see pages 126 and 127.

1>

Explanation

+ A spheroidized;
+C cold-rolled;

+AR condition after hot working;

+N normalized;
+QT quenched and tempered

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Hot-rolled steel profiles

Cross-section

Designation,
dimensions

Round steel bar

d = 8-200

Square steel bar

a=8-120

Flat steel bar

b x s = 1 0 x 5 to 150 x 60

Square
tube
a = 40-400

fO

Rectangular
tubes

Standard,
page

DIN EN
10060
page 144

DIN EN
10059
page 144

DIN EN
10058
page 144

DIN EN
10210-2

page 151

DIN EN
10210-2

ax b =
50 x 25 to 500 x 300

mbm

page 151

Circular tube
DIN EN
Dx s =
21.3x2.3 to 1219x25

Equal leg
tee
b=h = 30-140

-c:

Steel channel

b
1

Z profile steel
h = 30 200

Equal leg
steel angle
a = 20-250

Unequal leg
steel angle
ax b =
3 0 x 2 0 to 200 x 150

Narrow I-beam
I series
h = 80-160

Medium width I-beam

IPE series
h = 80600

Wide I-beam
IPB series 1 '

10210-1
h = 100-1000

DIN EN
10055
page 146

Wide I-beam
light duty
IPBI series 1 '
h = 1001000

DIN
1026-1

h = 30-400

Designation,
dimensions

Cross-section

Wide I-beam
reinforced design
IPBv series 1 '

page 146
h = 100-1000

' according to EURONORM 53-62: IPB = HE to B, IPBI = HE to A, IPBv = HE to M

143

144

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Steel bar, hot-rolled

Hot-rolled round steel bar

cf. DIN EN 10060 (2004-02), replaces for DIN 1013-1

Material:

Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025 or quenched and

tempered steel according to DIN EN 10083

Type of delivery: Manufactured lengths (M) > 3 m < 13 m, normal lengths (F) < 13 m 100 mm,
precision lengths (E) < 6 m 25 mm, > 6 m < 13 m 50 mm
Diameter d
in mm

10 - 12 - 13 - 14 - 15 - 16 - 18 - 19 - 20 - 22 - 24 - 25 - 26 - 27 - 28 - 30 - 32 - 35 - 36 - 38 - 40 42 - 45 - 48 - 50 - 52 - 55 - 60 - 63 - 65 - 70 - 73 - 75 - 80 - 85 - 90 - 95 - 100 - 105 - 110 - 115 120 - 125 - 130 - 135 - 140 - 145 - 150 - 155 - 160 - 165 - 170 - 175 - 180 - 190 - 200 - 220 - 250

Diameter d
in mm

Limit
deviations
in mm

Diameter d
in mm

Limit
deviations
in mm

Diameter d
in mm

Limit
deviations
in mm

Diameter d
in mm

Limit
deviations
in mm

10-15

0.4

36-50

0.8

105-120

1.5

220

3.0

16-25

0.5

52-80

1.0

125-160

2.0

26-35

0.6

85-100

1.3

165-200

2.5

250

4.0

Round bar EN 10060 - 40 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S235JR: Hot-rolled round steel bar,
d = 40 mm, normal length 6000 mm, made of S235JR

Hot-rolled square steel bar

cf. DIN EN 10059 (2004-02), replaces DIN 1014-1

Material:

Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025

Type of delivery: Manufactured lengths (M) > 3 m < 13 m, normal lengths (F) < 13 m 100 mm,
precision lengths (E) < 6 m 25 mm, > 6 m < 13 m 50 mm

Length of side a
in mm

8 - 10- 12- 13- 14- 15- 16- 1 8 - 2 0 - 2 2 - 2 4 - 2 5 - 2 6 - 2 8 - 3 0 - 3 2 - 3 5 - 4 0 - 4 5 - 5 0 - 5 5

60 - 65 - 70 - 75 - 80 - 90 - 100 - 110 - 120 - 130 - 140 - 150

Limit
Limit
Limit
Length of side a
Length of side a
Length of side a
deviations
deviations
deviations
in mm
in mm
in mm
in mm
in mm
in mm

Limit
Length of side a
deviations
in mm
in mm

8-14

0.4

26-35

0.6

55-90

1.0

110-120

1.5

15-25

0.5

40-50

0.8

100

1.3

130-150

1.8

Square bar EN 10059 - 60 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S235JR: Hot-rolled square steel bar,
a = 2.36 in, normal length 6000 mm, made of S235JR

Hot-rolled flat steel bar

Material:

w
Nominal width w
in mm
Nominal thickness s in mm

cf. DIN EN 10058 (2004-02), replaces DIN 1017-1

Unalloyed structural steel according to DIN EN 10025

Type of delivery: Manufactured lengths (M) > 3 m < 13 m, normal lengths (F) < 13 m 100 mm,
precision length (E) < 6 m 25 mm, > 6 m < 13 m 50 mm

1 0 - 1 2 - 1 5 - 1 6 - 2 0 - 2 5 - 3 0 - 3 5 - 4 0 - 4 5 - 5 0 - 6 0 - 7 0 - 8 0 - 9 0 - 1 0 0 - 120-150
5 _ 6 - 8 - 10- 12- 1 5 - 2 0 - 2 5 - 3 0 - 3 5 - 4 0 - 5 0 - 6 0 - 8 0

Allowable deviations to nominal width w

Nominal width w
in mm

Limit deviations
in mm

Nominal width w
in mm

Limit deviations
in mm

10-40

0.75

85-100

1.5

45-80

1.0

120

2.0

Nominal width w
in mm

Limit deviations
in mm

150

2.5

Allowable deviations to nominal thickness s

Nominal thickness s in mm

Limit deviations
in mm

Nominal thickness s in mm

Limit deviations
in mm

Nominal thickness s in mm

Limit deviations
in mm

5-20

0.5

25-40

1.0

50-80

1.5

Flat steel bar EN 10058-20 x 5 x 6000 F steel EN 10025-S235JR: Hot-rolled flat steel bar,
b = 20 mm, s = 5 mm, normal length 6000 mm, made of S235JR

145

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Steel bars, bright

Common dimensions of bright steel bars (selection)
Designation

Nominal dimensions
Width w, height h in mm
w
h
w
h

Flat steel bar

5
6
8
10

2-3
2-4
2-6
2-8

12
14
15
16

2-10
2-10
2-12
2-12

2-12
2-16
2-12
2-20

18
20
22
25

2-20
2-25
2-20
2-32

28
32
36
40

45
50
56
63

2-32
2-32
3-32
3-40

70
80
90
100

4-40
5-25
5-25
5-25

Nominal thicknesses h in mm: 2 - 2 . 5 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 8 - 1 0 - 1 2 - 1 5 - 1 6 - 2 0 - 2 5 - 3 0 - 3 2 - 3 5 - 4 0

Side length a in mm

Square steel bar

4
4.5
5

6
7
8

9
10
11

12
13
14

2
2.5
3
3.2
3.5

4
4.5
5
5.5
6

7
8
9
10
11

12
13
14
15
16

2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6

6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

36
40
45

50
63
70

80
100

27
30
32
36
38

41
46
50
55
60

65
70
75
80
85

90
95
100

38
40
42
45
48
50
52
55

58
60
63
65
70
75
80
85

90
100
110
120
125
130
140
150

Side length s in mm

Hexagonal bar steel

17
19
21
22
24
Diameter d in mm

round steel bar

(v j\
N

22
25
28

16
18
20

polished round steel bar

27
28
29
30
32
34
35
36

160
180
200

common delivered diameters

1 mm to 13 mm

> 13 mm to 25 mm

> 25 mm to 50 mm

common diameter gradation

0.5 mm

1 mm

5 mm
cf. DIN EN 10278(1999-12)
+SL
+PL

Delivery conditions
+C

+SH

cold drawn

peeled

Code
Finished condition

ground

polished

Round EN 10278 - 20 h9 x mill length 6000 EN 10277-3 - 44SMn28+C - Class 3: Round bright steel bar, d= 20 mm
Tolerance class h9, mill length 6000 mm, free cutting steel 44SMn28, cold drawn, surface quality class 3
Material groups and assigned delivery conditions

cf. DIN EN 10277-1 to -5 (1999-10)

Delivery conditions 1 '

Material groups
+SH

+C

+C+QT

+QT+C

+A+SH

+A+C

+FP +SH +FP +C

Steels for general engineering use

Free cutting steels
Free cutting case hardened steels
Free cutting quenched and temp, steels
Unalloyed case hardened steels
Case hardened alloy steels
Unalloyed quenched and tempered steels
Quenched and tempered alloy steels
1)

Explanation pages 124 and 125

cf. DIN EN 10278(1999-12)

Length types and length limit deviations

Length type

Length in mm

Manufactured length 3000-9000

Limit deviations in mm

Order information

500

length

Mill length

3000-6000

0/+200

e.g. mill length 6000

Precision length

up to 9000

by agreement, but min. 5

length and limit deviation

146

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Structural Teer Steel channel

Equal leg Tee, hot-rolled

cf. DIN EN 10055(1995-12)

S
/

cross-sectional area
second moment of inertia

Material:

W axial section modulus

m' linear mass density

Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025, e.g. S235JR

Delivery type: Lengths to order with a usual limit deviation of

100 mm or a reduced limit deviation 50 mm,
25 mm, 10 mm

r= s

Designation

Dimensions
in mm
b=h

30
35
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
140

S
cm2

s=t
4
4.5
5

30
35
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
140

m
kg/m
1.77
2.33
2.96
4.44
6.23
8.23
10.7
16.4
23.2
31.3

2.26

2.97
3.77
5.66
7.94
10.6
13.6
20.9
29.6
39.9

9
11
13
15

Distance
For the bending axis
of the
y - y
x- x
xaxis
e
x
cmc
cnr
cm
cm
cm
0.80
0.85
1.72
0.87
0.58
1.23
0.99
0.90
3.10
1.04
1.84
1.12
1.29
5.28
2.58
1.39
12.1
3.36
2.42
6.06
1.66
23.8
5.48
12.2
4.07
1.94
44.4
8.79
22.1
6.32
73.7
12.8
37.0
9.25
2.22
17.7
179
24.6
88.3
2.74
29.7
366
42.0
179
3.28
47.2
660
64.7
330
3.80

Tracing dimension
accord, to DIN 997
Wi
mm
17
19
21
30
34
38
45
60
70
80

di
mm
4.3
4.3
6.4
6.4
8.4

w2
mm
17
19
22
30
35
40
45
60
70
75

11

11
13
17
21

Tee profile EN 10055 - T50 - S235JR: Structural steel tee, h = 50 mm, from S235JR

Steel channel, hot-rolled

cf. DIN 1026-1 (2000-03)

S
I

cross-sectional area
second moment of inertia

Material:
*

U
30 x 15
30
40x20
40
50x25
50
60
80
100
120
160
200
260
300
350
400

Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025, e.g. S235J0

Delivery type: Manufactured lengths 3 m to 15 m; normal lengths up to 15 m

50 mm; slope angle at h < 300 mm: 8%; h > 300 mm: 5%

-c

r1

Designation

r ~ *

Dimensions
in mm
h
30
30
40
40
50
50
60
80
100
120
160
200
260
300
350
400

15
33
20
35
25
38
30
45
50
55
65
75
90
100
100
110

4.5
7
5.5
7
6
7
6
8
8.5
9
10.5
11.5
14
16
17.5
18

5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
7.5
8.5
10
10
14
14

W axial section modulus

m' linear mass density

12
10
18
11
25
20
35
46
64
82
115
151
200
232
276
324

S
cm 2
2.21
5.44
3.66
6.21
4.92
7.12
6.46
11.0
13.5
17.0
24.0
32.2
48.3
58.8
77.3
91.5

m'
kg/m
1.74
4.27
2.87
4.87
3.86
5.59
5.07
8.64
10.6
13.4
18.8
25.3
37.9
46.2
60.6
71.8

r 3 < 0,3 f

Distance
For the bending axis
to the
x- - X
/axis
y-- y
e
WX
/x
V
Wv
y
cm
cm 4
cm 3
cm 4
cm 3
0.52
2.53
1.69
0.38
0.39
1.31
6.39
4.26
5.33
2.68
0.67
3.97
1.14
7.58
0.86
14.1
1.33
7.05
6.68
3.08
0.81
16.8
6.73
2.49
1.48
26.4
1.37
10.6
9.12
3.75
0.91
31.6
10.5
2.16
4.51
19.4
1.45
106
26.5
6.36
41.2
1.55
206
29.3
8.49
364
60.7
1.60
43.2
11.1
1.84
925
116
85.3
18.3
2.01
1 910
191
148
27.0
371
317
2.36
4 820
Ml
2.70
8 030
535
495
67.8
734
2.40 12 840
570
75.0
102
2.65 20 350
1020
846

Channel DIN 1026 - U100 - S235J0: Steel channel, h = 100 mm, from S235J0

Tracing
dimensions
DIN 997
W-| c/i
mm mm
10
4.3
8.4
20
11
6.4
8.4
20
8.4
16
20 11
8.4
18
25 13
30 13
30 17
35 21
40 23
50 25
55 28
58 28
60 28

147

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Steel angle
Unequal leg steel angle, hot-rolled (selection)
t

S
/

cf. DIN EN 10056-1 (1998-10)

W axial section modulus
m' linear mass density

cross-sectional area
second moment of inertia

- "Cj
Material:

Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235J0

Delivery type: From 30 x 20 x 3 to 200 x 150 x 15, in manufactured lengths

> 6 m < 12 m, normal lengths > 6 m < 12 m 100 mm

5
W3

Designation

Dimensions
in mm
a
b
t

L
30 x
30 x
40 x
40 x
45 x
50 x
60 x
60 x
60 x
65 x
70 x
75 x
75 x
80 x
80 x
80 x
100 x
100 x
100 x
100 x
100 x
100 x
100 x
100 x
120 x
120 x
120 x
125 x
125 x
125 x
135 x
135 x
150 x
150 x
150 x
150 x
150 x
150 x
150 x
150 x
200 x
200 x

20 x
20 x
20 x
25 x

3
4
4
4

30
30
40
40
30 x 4 45
30 x 5 50
30 x 5 60
40 x 5 60
40 x 6 60
50 x 5 65
50 x 6 70
50 x 6 75
50 x 8 75
40 x 6 80
40 x 8 80
60 x 7 80
50 x 6 100
50 x 8 100
65 x 7 100
65 x 8 100
65x 10 100
75 x 8 100
75x 10 100
75x 12 100
80 x 8 120
80x 10 120
80x 12 120
75 x 8 125
75x 10 125
75x 12 125
65 x 8 135
65x 10 135
75 x 9 150
75x 10 150
75x 12 150
75x 15 150
90x 12 150
90x 15 150
100 x 10 150
100 x 12 150
100 x 10 200
100 x 15 200

20
20
20
25
30
30
30
40
40
50
50

3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
5
6
6
8
6
8
7

S
cm 2

m'
kg/m

1.43
1.86
2.26
2.46
2.87
3.78
4.28
4.79
5.68
5.54
6.89

1.12
1.46
1.77
1.93
2.25
2.96
3.36
3.76
4.46
4.35
5.41

Distances
to axes
e
e
x
y
cm
cm

8.77
9.94
12.3
10.6
13.0
15.4

8
10
12
8
10
12

15.5
19.1
22.7
15.5
19.1
22.7

65
65
75
75
75
75

8
10

15.5
19.1

9
10
12
15
12
15
10
12

19.6
21.7
25.7
31.7
27.5
33.9
24.2
28.7
29.2
43.0

12.2
15.0
17.8
12.2
15.0
17.8
12.2
15.0
15.4
17.0
20.2
24.8

3.83
3.92
4.00
4.14
4.23
4.31
4.78
4.88
5.26
5.30
5.40
5.52

21.6
26.6
19.0
22.5
23.0
33.8

5.08
5.21
4.81
4.89
6.93
7.16

90
90
100
100
100 10
100 15

0.44
0.55
0.60
1.16
2.05
2.51
2.63
6.11
7.12

0.88
0.96
1.52

44.9
57.6
59.0

8.73
11.4
10.7

7.59
9.61
28.4

1.05
1.13

89.9
116

13.8
18.2

15.4
19.7

3.89
5.08

1.51
1.55
1.63
1.87
1.95
2.03
1.87
1.95
2.03
1.68
1.76
1.84

113
127
154
133
162
189
226
276
323
247
302
354

16.6
18.9
23.2
19.3
23.8
28.0
27.6
34.1
40.4

1.34
1.42
1.57
1.61
1.69
1.81
2.12
2.23
2.34
2.42
2.01
2.22

291
356
455
501
588
713
627
761
553
651
1220
1758

37.6
42.2
51.0
64.1
77.6
90.2
80.8
98.1
114
67.6
82.1
95.5
45.2
54.7
77.9
85.6
99.6
119
171
205
199
233
210
299

0.68
0.97
1.01
1.25
1.25
1.21
1.29

11.2
12.7
15.6
13.5
16.6
19.7

0.62
0.81
1.42
1.47

40.5
52.0

3.59
3.89
5.78
9.36

8.71
11.4

cm 3

11.9
14.2
14.4
18.4

0.48
0.62
0.74
0.74

6
8
7
8
10
8
10
12

cm 4

1.91
2.86
4.07
4.25
5.03
5.14
7.01
8.01
10.4

1.25
1.59

50
50
65
65
65
75
75
75
80
80
80
75
75
75

6.89
9.01
9.38

cm 3

0.29
0.38
0.39
0.69
0.91
1.11
1.14
2.02
2.38
3.19
3.78
3.81
4.95
2.44
3.16
6.34

0.50
0.54

2.85
2.94
2.51
3.51
3.60
3.23
3.27
3.36
3.10
3.19
3.27

7.19
9.41

/x

cm 4

0.99
1.03
1.47
1.36
1.48
1.73
2.17
1.96
2.00
1.99
2.23
2.44
2.52

5.65
7.39
5.41
7.07
7.36
6.84
8.97

50
50
40
40
60

For the bending axis

x -- X
y- y

15.6
17.2
20.1
23.2
33.4

29.6
36.5
43.2
33.4
41.3
46.7
51.6
61.3
75.2
63.3
77.7
54.2
64.4
93.2
137

Tracing dimension
accord, to DIN 997
w-i
w2 w 3
di
mm mm mm mm
17
17
22
22
25
30
35
35
35
35
40

40
40

45
45
45

7.53
8.54
10.5
11.4
14.0
16.5
13.2
16.2
19.1
11.6
14.3
16.9

55
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
50
50
50
50
50
50

8.75
10.8

50
50

13.1
14.5
17.1
21.0

60
60
60
60

24.8
30.4
25.9
30.7

60
60
60
60
65
65

26.3
38.5

L EN 10056-1 - 65 x 50 x 5 - S235J0: Unequal leg steel angle, a = 65 mm, b = 50 mm,

t = 5 mm, from S235J0

80
80
80
-

105
105
105
105
105
105
105
105
150
150

12
12
12
15
17
17
17
22
22
30
30
30
30
22
22
35
30
30
35
35
35
40
40
40
45
45
45
40
40
40
35
35
40
40
40
40
50
50
55
55
55
55

8.4
8.4
11
11
13
13
17
17
17
21
21
21
23
23
23
23
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28

148

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Steel angle
Equal leg steel angle, hot-rolled (selection)

Designation

Dimensions
in mm

20 x 3
25 x 3
25 x 4
30 x 3
30 x 4
35 x 4
40 x 4
40 x 5
45x4.5

60 x 60 x 5
60 x 60 x 6
60 x 60 x 8

20
25
25
30
30
35
40
40
45
50
50
50
60
60
60

65 x 65 x 7
70 x 70 x 6
70 x 70 x 7

65
70
70

20 x
25 x
25 x
30 x
30 x
35 x
40 x
40 x
45 x

50 x 50 x 4
50 x 50 x 5
50 x 50 x 6

75 x
75 x
80 x
80 x
90 x
90 x
90 x
90 x
100 x
100 x
100 x
120 x

75 x 6
75 x 8
80 x 8
80x 10
90 x 7
90 x 8
90 x 9
90x 10
100 x 8
100 x 10
100 x 12
120 x 10

75
75
80
80
90
90
90
90
100
100
100
120

120 x
130 x
150 x
150 x
150 x
160 x
180 x
200 x
200 x

120 x
130 x
150 x
150 x
150 x
160 x
180 x
200 x
200 x

12
12
10
12
15
15
18
16
20

120
130
150
150
150
160
180
200
200

200 x 200 x 24
250 x 250 x 28

200
250

=>

t
3
3
4
3
4
4
4
5
4.5
4
5
6
5
6
8
7
6
7
6
8
8
10
7
8
9
10
8
10
12
10
12
12
10
12
15
15
18
16
20
24
28

S
cm 2
1.12
1.42
1.85
1.74
2.27
2.67
3.08
3.79
3.90
3.89
4.80
5.69
5.82
6.91
9.03
8.70
8.13
9.40
8.73
11.4
12.3
15.1
12.2
13.9
15.5
17.1
15.5
19.2
22.7
23.2
27.5
30.0
29.3
34.8
43.0
46.1
61.9
61.8
76.3
90.6
133

cf. DIN EN 10056-1 (1998-10)

For the bending axis

m'
kg/m

Distances
to
axes
e
cm

0.882
1.12
1.45
1.36
1.78
2.09
2.42
2.97
3.06
3.06
3.77
4.47
4.57
5.42
7.09

0.598
0.723
0.762
0.835
0.878
1.00
1.12
1.16
1.25
1.36
1.40
1.45
1.64
1.69
1.77

6.83
6.38
7.38

1.85
1.93
1.97

6.85
8.99
9.63
11.9
9.61
10.9
12.2
13.4
12.2
15.0
17.8
18.2

2.05
2.14
2.26
2.34
2.45
2.50
2.54
2.58
2.74
2.82
2.90
3.31

45.8
59.1
72.2
87.5
92.6
104

21.6
23.6
23.0
27.3
33.8
36.2
48.6
48.5
59.9

3.40
3.64
4.03
4.12
4.25
4.49
5.10
5.52
5.68
5.84
7.24

368
472
624

71.1
104

x - xand v- v
/x = /y
cm 4
0.39
0.80
1.02
1.40
1.80
2.95
4.47
5.43
7.14
8.97
11.0
12.8
19.4
22.8
29.2
33.4
36.9
42.3

116
127
145
177
207
313

737
898
1100
1870
2340
2850
3330
7700

Wx= Wy
cm 3
0.28
0.45
0.59
0.65
0.85
1.18

Tracing dimension
accord, to DIN 997
l/Vl
mm

w2
mm

di
mm

1.55
1.91
2.20
2.46
3.05
3.61

12
15
15
17
17
18
22
22
25
30
30
30

4.45
5.29
6.89
7.18
7.27
8.41

35
35
35
35
40
40

8.41
11.0
12.6
15.4
14.1
16.1
17.9
19.8
19.9
24.6
29.1
36.0
42.7
50.4
56.9
67.7
83.5
95.6
145
162
199
235
433

40
40
45
45
50
50
50
50
55
55
55
50
50
50
60

80

23
23
23
23
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25

80
90
105

25
25
28

60
60
60
65
65
65
70
75

105
105
115
135
150
150
150
150

28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28

LEN 10056-1 - 7 0 x 7 0 x 7 - S235J0: Equal leg steel angle, a = 70 mm, t = 7 mm,

from S235J0

4.3
6.4
6.5
8.4
8.4
11
11
11
13
13
13
13
17
17
17
21
21
21

149

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Medium width and wide I-beams

Medium width I-beams (IPE), hot-rolled (selection)
S
/

cross-sectional area
second moment of inertia

Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235JR

Delivery type:

Standard lengths, 8 m to 16 m 50 mm with h < 300 mm,

8 m to 18 m 50 mm with h > 300 mm

Dimensions in mm

IPE
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
270
300
360
400
500
600

s
4.1
4.4
4.7
5.0
5.3
5.6
6.2
6.6
7.1
8.0
8.6
10.2
12.0

b
55
64
73
82
91
100
120
135
150
170
180
200
220

W axial section modulus

m' linear mass density

Material:

Designation

100
120
140
160
180
200
240
270
300
360
400
500
600

cf. DIN 1025-5 (1994-03)

t
5.7
6.3
6.9
7.4
8.0
8.5
9.8
10.2
10.7
12.7
13.5
16.0
19.0

S
cm 2
10.3
13.2
16.4
20.1
23.9
28.5
39.1
45.9
53.8
72.7
84.5
116
156

r
7
7
7
9
9
12
15
15
15
18
21
21
24

For the bending axis

Tracing dimension
x-- X
accord, to DIN 997
y-- y
/x
w
w,
'y
x
cm 4
cm 3
cm 4
cm 3
mm
mm
8.4
171
34.2
15.9
5.8
30
27.7
8.4
318
53.0
8.7
36
44.9
40
11
541
77.3
12.3
44
68.3
16.7
13
869
109
22.2
50
1320
146
101
13
142
56
1940
194
28.5
13
324
284
68
17
3890
47.3
62.2
72
21
5790
429
420
604
80
8360
557
80.5
23
904
1040
90
16270
123
25
23130 1160
1320
146
96
28
2140
214
110
28
48200 1930
120
92080 3070
3390
308
28

m'
kg/m
8.1
10.4
12.9
15.8
18.8
22.4
30.7
36.1
42.2
57.1
66.3
90.7
122

I-profile DIN 1025 - S235JR - IPE 300: Medium width I-beams with parallel flange surfaces,
h = 300 mm, from S235JR

Wide I-beams light duty (IPEl), hot-rolled (selection)

S
I

cf. DIN 1025-2 (1994-3)

cross-sectional area
second moment of inertia

W axial section modulus

m' linear mass density

Material:

Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235JR

Delivery type:

Standard lengths, 8 m to 16 m 50 mm with h < 300 mm

3 s

Designation

For the bending axis

Dimensions in mm

x -

v-- y

IPBI
100
120
140
160
180
200

h
96
114
133
152
171
190

b
100
120
140
160
180
200

s
5
5
5.5
6
6
6.5

t
8
8
8.5
9
9.5
10

S
cm 2
21.2
25.3
31.4
38.8
45.3
53.8

m'
kg/m
16.7
19.9
24.7
30.4
35.5
42.3

'x
cm 4
349
606
1030
1670
2510
3690

wx
cm 3
72.8
106
155
220
294
389

cm 4
134
231
389
616
925
1340

Wv
cm 3
26.8
38.5
55.6
76.9
103
134

240
280
320

230
270
310

240
280
300

7.5
8
9

12
13
15.5

76.8
97.3
124.0

60.3
76.4
97.6

7760
13670
22930

675
1010
1480

2770
4760
6990

231
340
466

400
500
600
800

390
490
590
790

300
300
300
300

19
23
25
28

159.0
198.0
226.0
286.0

125.0
155.0
178.0
224.0

45070
86970
141200
303400

2310
3550
4790
7680

8560
10370
11270
12640

571
691
751
843

11
12
13
15

I-profile DIN 1025 - S235JR - IPBI 320: Wide I-beams light duty from S235JR
Designation according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 320 A

Tracing dimension
accord, to DIN 997
W-1
56
66
76
86
100
110

w2

w3

d-i
13
17
21
23
25
25

94
110
120

35
45
45

25
25
28

120
120
120
130

45
45
45
40

28
28
28
28

150

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Wide I-beams
Wide I-beams (IPB), hot-rolled (selection)
S
I

cf. DIN 1025-2(1995-11)

cross-sectional area
second moment of inertia

Material:

W axial selection modulus

m' linear mass density

unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235JR

Delivery type: standard lengths, 8 m to 16 m 50 mm at h < 300 mm,

8 m to 18 m 50 mm at h > 300 mm
R,

Designation
IPB
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
400
500
600
800

2 S

Dimensions in mm

100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
400
500
600
800

100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
300
300
300
300
300

s
6
6.5
7
8
8.5
9
10
10.5
11.5
13.5
14.5
15.5
17.5

t
10
11
12
13
14
15
17
18
20.5
24
28
30
33

S
cm 2
26.0
34.0
43.0
54.3
65.3
78.1
106
131
161
198
239
270
334

m'
kg/m
20.4
26.7
33.7
42.6
51.2
61.3
83.2
103
127
155
187
212
262

For the bending axis

x- - X
y- yw
k
V4
v
4
3
cm
cm
cm
cm 3
167
450
89.9
33.5
144
864
52.9
318
1510
216
550
78.5
111
2490
311
889
426
1360
151
3830
5700
570
2000 200
11260
938
3920 327
6590 471
19270
1380
1930
9240 616
30820
57680
2880 10820 721
107200
4290 12620 842
5700 13530 902
171000
359100
8980 14900 994

Tracing dimension
according to DIN 997
Wi
w3
vv2
dy
mm mm mm mm
56
13
66
17
21
76
86
23
100
25
110
25

35
96
25
110
45
25
45
28
120
45
28
120
120
45
28

45
28
120
130
40
28

I-profile DIN 1025 - S235JR - IPB 240: Wide I-beam with parallel flange faces, h = 240 mm, made of S235JR,
designation according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 240 B

Wide I-beams, reinforced version (IPBv) hot-rolled (selection)

S
/

HEEFT3

cross-sectional area
second moment of inertia

Material:
x

ttt

Designation
IPBv
100
120
140
160
180
200
240
280
320
400
500
600
800

unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025-2, e.g. S235JR

Wj

Dimensions in mm

120
140
160
180
200
220
270
310
359
432
524
620
814

106
126
146
166
186
206
248
288
309
307
306
305
303

W axial selection modulus

m' linear mass density

Delivery type: standard lengths, 8 m to 16 m 50 mm at h < 300 mm,

8 m to 16 m 50 mm at h > 300 mm

i>
i rrr
N W2

cf. DIN 1025-4(1994-03)

s
12
12.5
13
14
14.5
15
18
18.5
21
21
21
21
21

t
20
21
22
23
24
25
32
33
40
40
40
40
40

S
cm 2
53.2
66.4
80.5
97.1
113
131
200
240
312
319
344
364
404

m'
kg/m
41.8
52.1
63.2
76.2
88.9
103
157
189
245
250
270
285
317

For the bending axis

x-- X
y- y
Ix4
wx3
wv
'y 4
cm
cm
cm
cm 3
1140
190
399
75.3
112
2020
283
703
411
157
3290
1140
5100
568
1760 212
7480
748
2580 277
967
10640
3650 354
24290
1800
8150 657
2550 13160 914
39550
68130
3800 19710 1280
104100
4820 19340 1260
161900
6180 19150 1250
237400
7660 18280 1240
442600 10870 18630 1230

Tracing dimension
according
to DIN 997 in mm
Wi
di
w2 w3
60
13
17
68
21
76

86
23
100
25
110
25
25
100
35
45
25
116
47
126
28
47
28
126
45
28
130
45
28
130
42
132
28

I-profile DIN 1025 - S235JR - IPBv 400: Wide I-beam, reinforced version, made of S235JR, designation
according to EURONORM 53-62: HE 400 M

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

151

Tubes
Material:

Unalloyed structural steel DIN EN 10025

Delivery type: DIN EN 10210-2

manufactured lengths 4 m to 16 m, profile
dimensions a x a = 20 x 20 to 400 x 400
DIN EN 10219-2
manufactured lengths 4 m to 16 m, profile
dimensions a x a = 20 x 20 to 400 x 400
DIN EN 10210 and DIN EN 10219 also contain circular tubes,
along with square and rectangular tubes.

Hot worked square and rectangular tubes

Nominal
dimension
ax a
ax b
mm
40x40
50x50
60x60
50x30
60x40
80x40
100x50

Wall
thickness
s
mm
3.0
4.0
2.5
3.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
3.0
4.0
3.0
4.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
4.0
5.0

Linear
mass density
m'
kg/m
3.41
4.39
3.68
4.35
5.29
6.90
8.42
3.41
4.39
4.35
5.64
6.90
8.42
9.87
8.78
10.8

cf. DIN EN 10210-2 (1997-11)

Area moments and section moduli

Cross
section
S
cm 2
4.34
5.59
4.68
5.54
6.74
8.79
10.7
4.34
5.59
5.54
7.19
8.79
10.7
12.6
11.2
13.7

for the bending axes

Wx
cm 3
4.89
5.91
6.99
8.08
12.1
15.1
17.8
5.43
6.60
8.82
10.9
17.1
20.1
22.6
27.9
33.3

k
cm 4
9.78
11.8
17.5
20.2
36.2
45.4
53.3
13.6
16.5
26.5
32.8
68.2
80.3
90.5
140
167

for torsion

y-- y

X-- X

/p

crrr\
4.89
5.91
6.99
8.08
12.1
15.1
17.8
3.96
4.72
6.95
8.52
11.1
12.9
14.2
18.5
21.7

cm
9.78
11.8
17.5
20.2
36.2
45.4
53.3
5.94
7.08
13.9
17.0
22.2
25.7
28.5
46.2
54.3

c m 44
15.7
19.5
27.5
32.1
56.9
72.5
86.4
13.5
16.6
29.2
36.7
55.2
65.1
73.4
113
135

crrr
7.10
8.54
10.2
11.8
17.7
22.0
25.7
6.51
7.77
11.2
13.7
18.9
21.9
24.2
31.4
36.9

Tube DIN EN 10210 - 60 x 60 x 5 - :S355J0: Square tube, a = 60 mm, s = 5 mm,

made of S355J0

Cold worked, welded, square and rectangular tubes

Nominal
dimension
ax a
ax b
mm
30x30

40x40

80x80

40x20

60 x 4 0

80x40

100x40

Wall
thickness
s
mm
2.0
2.5
3.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
3.0
4.0
5.0

Linear
mass density
m'
kg/m
1.68
2.03
2.36
2.31
2.82
3.30
4.20
7.07
9.22
11.3
1.68
2.03
2.36
4.25
5.45
6.56
5.19
6.71
8.13
6.13
7.97
9.70

Cross
section
S
cm 2
2.14
2.59
3.01
2.94
3.59
4.21
5.35
9.01
11.7
14.4
2.14
2.59
3.01
5.41
6.95
8.36
6.61
8.55
10.4
7.81
10.1
12.4

cf. DIN EN 10219-2 (1997-11)

Area moments and section moduli

for the bending axes
for torsion
x-/x
cm 4
2.72
3.16
3.50
6.94
8.22
9.32
11.1
87.8
111
131
4.05
4.69
5.21
25.4
31.0
35.3
52.3
64.8
75.1
92.3
116
136

y-- y

Wx
cm 3
1.81
2.10
2.34
3.47
4.11
4.66
5.54
22.0
27.8
32.9
2.02
2.35
2.60
8.46
10.3
11.8
13.1
16.2
18.8
18.5
23.1
27.1

cm4
2.72
3.16
3.50
6.94
8.22
9.32
11.1
87.8
111
131
1.34
1.54
1.68
13.4
16.3
18.4
17.6
21.5
24.6
21.7
26.7
30.8

/ p

crrr
1.81
2.10
2.34
3.47
4.11
4.66
5.54
22.0
27.8
32.9
1.34
1.54
1.68
6.72
8.14
9.21
8.78
10.7
12.3
10.8
13.3
15.4

c m 44
4.54
5.40
6.15
11.3
13.6
15.8
19.4
140
180
218
3.45
4.06
4.57
29.3
36.7
42.8
43.9
55.2
65.0
59.0
74.5
87.9

Tube DIN EN 10219 - 60 x 40 x 4 - :S355J0: Rectangular tube, a = 60 mm, b = 40 mm,

s = 4 mm, madeofS355J0

crrr
2.75
3.20
3.58
5.23
6.21
7.07
8.48
33.0
41.8
49.7
2.36
2.72
3.00
11.2
13.7
15.6
15.3
18.8
21.7
19.4
24.0
27.9

Materials science: 4.4 Steels, Finished products

Linear mass density and area mass density

Linear mass density1} (Table values for steel with density g =7.85 kg/dm 3 )
d diameter

m' linear mass density

a length of side

SW widths across flats

Steel wire

Round steel bar

d
mm

m'
kg/1000 m

d
mm

m'
kg/1000 m

d
mm

m'
kg/1000 m

0.10

0.062

0.55

1.87

1.1
1.2

0.16

0.158

0.60

2.22

0.20

0.247

0.65

2.60

0.25

0.385

0.70

3.02

0.30

0.555

0.75

0.35

0.755

0.40

d
mm

m'
kg/m

d
mm

m'
kg/m

d
mm

m'
kg/m

7.46

0.055

18

2.00

60

22.2

8.88

0.099

20

2.47

70

30.2

1.3

10.4

0.154

25

3.85

80

39.5

1.4

12.1

0.222

30

5.55

100

61.7

3.47

1.5

13.9

0.395

35

7.55

120

88.8

0.80

3.95

1.6

15.8

10

0.617

40

9.86

140

121

0.986

0.85

4.45

1.7

17.8

12

0.888

45

12.5

150

139

0.45

1.25

0.90

4.99

1.8

20.0

15

1.39

50

15.4

160

158

0.50

1.54

1.0

6.17

2.0

24.7

16

1.58

55

18.7

200

247

Flat steel bar

Hexagonal steel bar

a
mm

m'
kg/m

a
mm

m'
kg/m

a
mm

m'
kg/m

SW
mm

m'
kg/m

SW
mm

m'
kg/m

SW
mm

m'
kg/m

0.283

20

3.14

40

12.6

0.245

20

2.72

40

10.9

0.502

22

3.80

50

19.6

0.435

22

3.29

50

17.0

10

0.785

25

4.91

60

28.3

10

0.680

25

4.25

60

24.5

12

1.13

28

6.15

70

38.5

12

0.979

28

5.33

70

33.3

14

1.54

30

7.07

80

50.2

14

1.33

30

6.12

80

43.5

16

2.01

32

8.04

90

63.6

16

1.74

32

6.96

90

55.1

18

2.54

35

9.62

100

78.5

18

2.20

35

8.33

100

68.0

Linear mass density of special profiles

Profile

Page

Profile

Page

Tee

EN 10055

146

Tubes

EN 10210-2

151

Angles, equal legs

EN 10056-1

148

Tubes

EN 10219-2

151

Angles, unequal legs

EN 10056-1

147

Aluminum round bars

DIN 1798

169

Steel channel

DIN1026-1

146

Aluminum square bars

DIN 1796

169

I-beams IPE

DIN 1025-5

149

Aluminum flat bars

DIN 1769

170

I-beams IPB

DIN 1025-2

149

Aluminum round tube

DIN 1795

171

DIN 1025-1

150

Aluminum channel

DIN 9713

171

I-beams, narrow
1

Area mass density ' (Table values for steel with density g = 7.85 kg/dm 3 )
Sheet
s sheet thickness

m'' area mass density

s
mm

m"
kg/m 2

s
mm

m"
kg/m 2

s
mm

m"
kg/m 2

s
mm

0.35

2.75

0.70

5.50

1.2

9.42

0.40

3.14

0.80

6.28

1.5

0.50

3.93

0.90

7.07

0.60

4.71

1.0

7.85

m"
kg/m 2

s
mm

m"
kg/m 2

s
mm

m"
kg/m 2

3.0

23.6

4.75

37.3

10.0

78.5

11.8

3.5

27.5

5.0

39.3

12.0

94.2

2.0

15.7

4.0

31.4

6.0

47.1

14.0

110

2.5

19.6

4.5

35.3

8.0

62.8

15.0

118

Table values can be calculated for a different material by taking a ratio of its density to the density of steel
(7,85 kg/dm 3 ).
Example: Sheet metal with s = 4.0 mm of AIMg3Mn (density 2.66 kg/dm 3 ). From the table: m" = 31.4 kg/m 2 for steel.
AIMg 3 Mn: m" = 31.4 kg/m 2 2.66 kg/dm3/7.85 kg/dm 3 = 10.64 kg/m 2

Materialscience: 4.

t e n

Iron-Carbon phase diagram

1600

C |A
1536(
1500
liquid (liquid iron with carbon in solution)

1300
liquid +
austenite crystals

liquid +
cementite

austenite
cu
3 1100

ro
CD
a
E 1000
0
~ 911
9001

austenite, grain boundary

cementite + ledeburite
(+ graphite)1'
austenite +
grain
boundary
cementite

aust.%^
+ferrite

723
700
/

g
ferrite + fe'
pear lite gl

ferrite

pearlite + grain
boundary
cementite

0.5
hypoeutectoid 0.8

723 C line
pearlite, grain boundary
cementite + ledeburite
(+ graphite)1'

hypereutectoid 2.06

cementite + ledeburite
(+ graphite)1'

4.3

5
%
6
carbon content -

I
eutectic mixture

eutectoid
steel
1)

ledeburite + cementite
(+ graphite)1'

cast iron

For iron types with a C content over 2.06% (cast iron) and additional Si content, a portion of the unalloyed precipitates in the form of graphite.
Heat treatment of steel

Microstructures of unalloyed steel

Carbon content and crystalline structure
Etchant: 3% nitric acid /alcohol solution
Magnification approx. 500 : 1

1100 I

homogenizing anneal

C '
1000 -

austenite

900
I
k_

.0

800

00

0.1 %C
ferrite

0.45% C
ferrite + pearlite

0.8 %C
pearlite

1.3% C
pearlite + grain
boundary cementite

CD

a
E 700
a)

temperature range:

temperature
ranges:

stress relief anneal

recrystallization anneal
i
ferrite + pearlite
pearlite pearlite + cementite
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2 % 1.4
carbon content

154

M a t e r i a l s c i e n c e : 4.

Heat treatment of steels - Overview

Illustration

Short description

Application, information 1 '

Heat and hold at annealing temperature

- structural transformation (austenite)
Controlled cooling to room temperature
-fine-grained normal structure

To normalize coarse grain structures

in rolled, cast, welded and forged
products

Normalizing
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ annealing ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

Spheroidizing
^annealing ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

Heat to annealing temperature, hold at tem- To improve cold workability, machinperature or cycle anneal
ability and hardenability;
- spheroidizing of the cementite
can be used for all steels
Cool down to room temperature

Stress relief anneal

stress a

b
<>
/
"TTTT => "
\j_jj annealinc

Heat and hold at annealing temperature

(below structure transition)
stress relief by plastic
deformation of the workpieces
Cool down to room temperature

To reduce internal stresses in welded,

cast and forged parts;
can be used for all steels

Heat and hold at hardening temperature

-> structural transformation (austenite)
Quench in oil, water, air
- brittle hard, fine structure (martensite)
Temper -> transformation of martensite,
higher toughness, working hardness

For parts subject to wear stress, e.g.

tools, springs, guideways, press
forms;
steels suitable for heat treatment with
C > 0,3%, e.g.
C70U, 102Cr6, C45E, HS6-5-2C,
X38CrMoV5-3

Heat and hold at hardening temperature

structural transformation (austenite)
Quench in oil, water, air
hard, brittle, fine-grain structure (martensite), for larger sized parts fine
core structure (bainite)
Temper at higher temperatures than for
hardening
martensite reduction, fine structure, high
strength with good toughness

Usually used for dynamically loaded

workpieces with high strength and
good toughness, e.g. shafts, gears,
screws;
quenched and tempered steels,
see page 133,
nitriding steels, see page 134,
steels for flame and induction
hardening, see page 134,
steels for heat-treatable springs,
see page 138

Carburize machined workpieces on the

surface layer
Cool to room temperature
- normal structure (ferrite, pearlite,
carbides)
Harden (for procedure see hardening)
surface hardening: heat to surface
hardening temperature
core hardening: heat to hardening
temperature of the core area

For workpieces with wear-resistant

surfaces, high fatigue strength and
good core strength, e.g. gears, shafts,
bolts;
surface hardening: high wear-resistance, low core strength
core hardening: high core strength,
hard brittle surface;
case hardened steels, see page 133,
free cutting steels, see page 134

Anneal usually finish-machined workpieces

in nitrogen-producing atmospheres
formation of hard, wear-resistant and
temperature-resistant nitrides
Cool in still air or in
nitrogen stream

For workpieces with wear-resistant

surfaces, high fatigue strength and
good temperature-resistance, e.g.
valves, piston rods, spindles;
nitriding steels, see page 134

Hardening
f \jc
/
I fD
n
3"
5
/ I tempering
i

t
<
c_b
ro
e_l
O
CL
e
<u

time

Quenching and tempering

t
Q
c3_J
o
trQ
_
CJL
E
<U /

/
o>/
sy

1 cz
I
IS tempering
F
time

Case hardening

t
OJ
OJ
Q.
QJ

carburizin g hardening

^^|tempering

time1

Nitriding
t
ai
3
n
o

aj_
CL
E>
a
1)

annealing

For annealing
and
time
tempering temperatures, quenching media and attainable hardness values, see pages 155 to 157.

M a t e r i a l s c i e n c e : 4.

Tool steels, Case hardened steels

Heat treatment of unalloyed cold work steels
Sphero idizing

Steel typ<
Designation

cf. DIN EN ISO 4957 (2001-02)

Material
number

Surlface hlardni3SS
in HF
after
after
Case
Full
Cooling
harden. harden, hard- temjDerincj2> at
medium
depth 1) up to 0 ening 100 200 300
mm
mm
C C C
Hardenii n g

TemperaHot
Tempe- Hardness
working
ture
HB
rature
temperature
max.
C
C
C

C45U
C70U

1.1730
1.1520

1000-800

680-710

207
183

800-820
790-810

water

3.5
3.0

15
10

58
64

58
63

54
60

48
53

C80U
C90U
C105U

1.1525
1.1535
1.1545

1050-800
1050-800
1000-800

680-710

192
207
212

780-800
770-790
770-790

water

3.0

10

64
64
65

64
64
64

60
61
62

54
54
56

1)
2)

For diameters of 30 mm.

The tempering temperature is set according to the application and the desired working hardness. The steels are
normally delivered spheroidized.

Heat treatment of alloy cold work steels,

hot work steels and high-speed steels
Steel type
Designation

Hot
Material
working
number temperature
C

cf. DIN EN ISO 4957 (2001 02)

Spheroidizing
tempe- Hardn.
rature
HB
max.
C

Hardening
tempecooling
rature1 > medium
C
water
air

68
63

64
61

56
59

48
58

40
58

36
56

96-980
780-800
830-850

oil

64
65
65

62
62
62

60
56
57

58
50
50

56
42
43

52
40
40

229
229

900-920
1010-1030

nil
Oil

62
53

60
52

58
52

53
53

48
54

46
52

269
302
277

1200-1220
1220-1240
1180-1200

oil,
hot
bath, air

64
66
66

62
61
62

62
61
62

62
62
61

65
66
68

65
67
69

105V
X153CrMoV12

1.2834
1.2379

incn

OCA

710-750
800-850

212
255

780-800
1010-1030

X210CrW12
90MnCrV8
102Cr6

1.2436
1.2842
1.2067

1050-850

800-840
680-720
710-750

255
229
223

60WCrV8
X37CrMoV5-1

1.2550
1.2343

1050-850
1100-900

710-750
750-800

HS6-5-2C
HS10-4-3-10
HS2-9-1-8

1.3343
1.3207
1.3247

1100-900

770-840

1)

2)

Surface hardness in HRC

after
after tempering 2 ' at
harden- 200 300 400 500 550
C
C
C
C
C
ing

The austenitizing time is the holding time at hardening temperature, which is approx. 25 min for cold work steels
and approx. 3 min. for high-speed steels. Heating is performed in stages.
High-speed steels are tempered at least twice at 540-570C. Holding time at this temperature is at least 60 min.

Heat treatment of case hardened steels

Steel type|1)

Material Carburizing Core harden, Surf, harden, Temper- Quenching

Temp.
ing
number temperature temperature temperature
medium
C max.2* 3 mm 5 mm 7 mm
C
C
C
C

C10E
C15E

1.1121
1.1141

17Cr3
16MnCr5

1.7016
1.7131

20MnCr5
20MoCr4

1.7147
1.7321

17CrNi6-6
15NiCr13

1.5918
1.5752

830-870
840-880

20NiCrMo2-2
18CrNiMo7-6

1.6523
1.6587

860-900
830-870

1)
2)

End <
quench test
Hardn(JSS HRC at dista nee of:

Hard<3ning

water

880-920

860-900
780-820

880-980

150-200
oil

880
870

47
47

44
46

40
44

33
41

870
910

49
49

49
47

48
44

46
41

870
880

47
48

47
48

46
48

45
47

920
860

49
48

00 00

Designation

cf. DIN EN 10084 (2008-06)

45
48

42
48

The same values apply to steels with controlled sulfur content, e.g. C10R, 20MnCrS5.
For steels with normal hardenability (+H) at a distance of 1.5 mm from the end face.

156

M a t e r i a l s c i e n c e : 4.

Quenched and tempered steels

Heat treatment of unalloyed quenched and tempered steels
Steel typ es 2)
Designation

NormalizMaterial
ing
number
C

End que nch test

Qijenching and temperi ng
Har dness HR C at
hardeni ng depth in m m 3 ) Hardening4' Quenching medium Tempering5'
1
3
5
C
C

C22E

1.1151

880-940

C35E1)
C40E
C45E1'

1.1181
1.1186
1.1191

860-920
850-910
840-900

870
870
850

48-58
51-60
55-62

33-55
35-59
37-61

C50E1)
C55E1'
C60E

1.1206
1.1203
1.1221

830-890
825-885
820-880

850
830
830

56-63
58-65
60-67

28Mn6

1.1170

850-890

850

45-54

860-900

water

550-660

22-49
25-53
28-57

840-880
830-870
820-860

water or oil

550-660

44-61
47-63
50-65

31-58
33-60
35-62

810-850
810-850
810-850

oil or water

550-660

42-53

37-51

840-880

water or oil

540-680

Heat treatment of quenched and tempered alloy steels ( s e l e c t i o n )

Steel typies2'
Designation

Surface
Material hardness 6 '
HRC
number

38Cr2
46Cr2 1)

1.7003
1.7006

54

34Cr4
37Cr4 1)
41Cr4 1)

1.7033
1.7034
1.7035

51
53

25CrMo4
34CrMo4
42CrMo41>

1.7218
1.7220
1.7225

50CrMo41>
51CrV4
39NiCrMo3

1.7228
1.8159
1.6510

1.6582
34CrNiMo6
1.6580
30CrNiMo8
36NiCrMo16 1.6773

C
850

cf. DIN EN 10083-2 (2006-10)1'

cf. DIN EN 10083-3 (2007-01

End queinch test

Qijenching and temperi ng
Hardness HR C at
hardeni ng depth in m m 3 ' Hardening4' Quenching medium Tempering5'
1.5
5
15
C
C
51-59
54-63

37-54
40-59

-35
22-39

830-870
820-860

oil or water
oil or water

850

49-57
51-59
53-61

45-56
48-58
50-60

27-44
31-48
32-52

830-870
825-865
820-860

water or oil
oil or water
oil or water

540-680

850

44-52
49-57
53-61

40-51
48-57
52-61

27-41
34-52
37-58

840-900
830-890
820-880

water or oil
oil or water
oil or water

540-680

850

58-65
57-65
52-60

57-64
56-64
50-59

48-62
48-62
43-56

820-870
820-870
820-850

oil
oil
oil or water

540-680

850

50-58
48-56
50-57

50-58
48-56
48-56

48-57
46-55
47-55

830-860
830-860
865-885

oil or water
oil or water
air or oil

540-660
540-660
550-650

53
58

540-680

38MnB5

1.5532

850

52-60

50-59

31-47

840-880

water/oil

400-600

33MnCrB5-2

1.7185

880

48-57

47-57

41-54

860-900

oil

400-600

1)

2)
3)
4>
5)
6)

DIN 17212 "Steels for flame and induction hardening" was withdrawn without replacement. More information about
steels for flame and induction hardening on page 133 and 134 in the section "Quenched and tempered steels".
Identical values apply to the high-grade steels C35 to C60 and steels with controlled sulphur content, such as C35R.
Hardenability requirements: +H normal hardenability
The lower temperature range applies to quenching in water, the higher range to quenching in oil.
The tempering time is 60 minutes minimum.
Minimum surface hardness of the steel after flame or induction hardening.

Hardenability and hardening depth of quenched and tempered steels (scatter bands)
^ C 3 5 E

37Cr4 + HH

51CrV4+HH

37Cr4 + HL

51CrV4 + HL

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
hardening depth

M a t e r i a l s c i e n c e : 4.

Nitriding steels, Free cutting steels, Aluminum alloys

Heat treatment of nitriding steels
Steeltyp >e

Designation
24CrMo13-6
31CrMo12
32CrAIMo7-10
31CrMoV9
33CrMoV12-9
34CrAINi7-10
41CrAIMo7-10
40CrMoV13-9
34CrAIMo5-10
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Material
number
1.8516
1.8515
1.8505
1.8519
1.8522
1.8550
1.8509
1.8523
1.8507

cf. DIN EN 10085 (2001-01)

>efore nitridiing
He<3t treatment fc
Quenchling and tem pering
Spheroid,
Hardiening
Tempering
temperature
Tempera- Quenching temperamedium
ture 2 '
ture3'4'
C
C
C
870-970
650-700
870-930
650-700
650-750
870-930
680-720
870-930
oil or
580-700
680-720
870-970
water
650-700
870-930
870-930
650-750
870-970
680-720
870-930
650-750

Nitri ding treatm<ant1>

Gas
nitriding

Nitrocarburizing

Hardness5'

HV1
-

800
-

800
500-600

570-650

950
950
-

950

The nitriding time is a function of the desired nitriding hardness depth.

Austenitizing time at least 0.5 hours.
Tempering time at least 1 hour.
The tempering temperature should not be less than 50C above the nitriding temperature.
Hardness of the nitrided surface.

Heat treatment of free cutting steels

cf. DIN EN 10087 (1999-01)

Free cutting case hardened steels

Steel typ>e
Designation
10S20
10SPb20
15SMn13

Material
number

Carburizing
temperature
C

1.0721
1.0722
1.0725

880-980

Quenching
medium 1 '

Core hardening Surface harden,

temperature
temperature
C
C
880-920

780-820

Quenching
medium 1 '

Quench, and
temp, temperat.
C

Tempering
temperature 2 '
C

water, oil,
emulsion

150-200

| Free cutting quenched and tempered steels

Steeltyp>e
Designation

Material
number

Hardness
temperature
C

1.0726
35S20
860-890
water
35SPb20
1.0756
or oil
36SMn14
1.0764
850-880
36SMnPb14
1.0765
540-680
38SMn28
1.0760
850-880
38SMnPb28
1.0761
oil or
44SMn28
1.0762
water
44SMnPb28
1.0763
840-870
46S20
1.0757
1)
The choice of quenching medium depends on the shape of the workpiece.
3)
Values apply to diameters 10 < d < 16.

Quenclned and tem pered 3 '

N/mm 2

Am
N/mm 2

A
%

430

630-780

15
14

460
460

2)

700-850

15

480

16

490

12

Tempering time at least 1 hour.

Hardening of aluminum alloys

Alloy EN /\W-

Solution
Artificic Jl aging
Type of age annealing temperature holding
2
hardening ' temperature
time
h
C
C

Natural
aging time
days

Designation

Material
number

Al
Al
Al
Al
Al
Al
Al

Cu4MgSi
Cu4SiMg
MgSi
MgSilMgMn
Zn4,5Mg1
Zn5,5MgCu
Si7Mg 1)

2017
2014
6060
6082
7020
7075
420001'

1)

Aluminum casting alloy EN AC-AI Si7Mg or EN AC 42000.

T4 solution annealed and naturally aged; T6 solution annealed and artificially aged.

2)

T4
T6
T4
T6
T6
T6
T6

5-8

500

525

100-300

8-24

5-8
-

470

525

Age ha rdened
Am
N/mm 2

A
%

390
420
130
280
210
545
250

12
8
15
6
12
8
1

158

Material science 4.6 Cast iron

Designation system for cast iron materials

Designations and material numbers

cf. DIN EN 1560 (1997-08)

Cast iron materials are referenced either with a designation or a material number.
Example:
Cast iron with flake graphite, tensile strength Rm = 300 N/mm 2
Designation
EN-GJL-300

Material number
EN-JL1050

Material designations
Material designations have up to six characters without spaces,
beginning with EN (European standard) and GJ (cast iron; I iron)
Designation example:
EN
EN
EN
EN
EN
EN
EN

GJ
GJ
GJ
GJ
GJ
GJ
GJ

L
L
S
M
M
M
L

350
HB155
350-22U
450-6
360-12
HV600(XCr14)
XNiCuCr 15-6-2

B
W
A

Cast iron with flake graphite

Cast iron with flake graphite
Cast iron with spheroidal graphite (ductile Iron)
Malleable cast iron - blackheart
Malleable cast iron - whitehead:
Wear-resistant cast iron
Austenitic cast iron

Material numbers
Material numbers have seven characters without spaces,
beginning with EN (European standard) and J (iron; I iron)
Designation examples:
EN
EN
EN

J
J
J

L
S
M

2
1
1

0 4
0 2
13

7
2
0

Cast iron with flake graphite and hardness as characteristic spheroidal

graphite casting with cast-on test specimen, characteristic /?m
Malleable cast iron without special requirements, characteristic Rm

159

Material science 4.6 Cast iron

Classification of Cast Iron Materials

Type

Examples/
Standard
material number

Tensile
strength
N/mm

Properties

Application examples

I Cast iron
with flake
graphite (gray
iron)

DIN EN
1561

EN-GJL-150
(GG-15)1>
EN-JL1020

100
to
450

Very good castability,

good compression strength,
damping capacity,
emergency running
properties, and good
corrosion resistance

For complex workpieces

with many contours;
very versatile in its applications.
Machine frames,
gear housings

with spheroidal
graphite

DIN EN
1563

EN-GJS-400
(GGG-40)1'
EN-JS1030

350

Very good castability,

high strength even with
dynamic loading,
surface hardenable

Wear stressed
workpieces;
clutch parts, fittings,
engine/motor construction

ISO
16112/JV/300

300

Very good castability, high

strength without expensive
alloying additions

Automotive parts,
engine/motor construction,
gear housings

Heat treatment and controlled cooling produce bainite and austenite for high
strength and good toughness

Highly stressed parts, e.g.

wheel hubs, gear rings, ADI
castings 2 '

with vermicular
graphite

ISO
16112

to

900

to

500
bainitic
cast iron

DIN EN
1564

EN-GJS-800-8
EN-JS1100

800
to

1400

wear-resistant
castings,
white cast iron

DIN EN
12513

EN-GJN-HV350
EN-JN2019

> 1000

Wear-resistant due to
martensite and carbides,
also alloyed with Cr and Ni

Wear-resistant cast iron,

e.g. dressing rolls,
dredging shovels,
impellers for pumps

Malleable cast iron

decarburized
(whiteheart)

DIN EN
1562

EN-GJMW-350
(GTW-35)1>
EN-JM1010

270
to
570

Decarburization of the surface by tempering. High

strength and toughness,
ductile

True to shape, thin-walled,

impact-loaded parts;
levers, brake drums

not
decarburized
(blackheart)

DIN EN
1562

EN-GJMB-450
(GTS-45)1'
EN-JM1140

300
to
800

Cluster graphite in entire

cross-section due to malleablizing. High strength
and toughness in larger
wall thickness

True to shape, thick walled,

impact stressed parts;
levers, universal joint yokes

for general
use

DIN EN
102933*

GE240
1.0446

380
to
600

Unalloyed and low alloy

cast steel for general use

Minimum mechanical values

from-10 C to 300 C

with improved
weldability

DIN EN
102934'

G20Mn5
1.6220

430
to
650

Lower carbon content with

manganese and microalloy

Welded assembly construction,

fine-grain structural steels with
larger wall thickness

quenched and
tempered
cast steel

DIN EN
102935>

G30CrMoV6-4
1.7725

500
to
1250

Fine quenched and tempered structure with high

toughness

Chains,
plating

for pressure
vessels

DIN EN
10213

GP280GH
1.0625

420
to
960

Types with high strength

and toughness at low and
high temperatures

Pressure vessels for hot or

cold media, high temperature resistant and tough at
low temperatures; rustproof

stainless

DIN EN
10283

GX6CrNi26-7
1.4347

450
to
1100

Resistant to chemical attack

and corrosion

Pump impellers in acids,

duplex steel

heat-resistant

DIN EN
10295

GX25CrNiSi18-9
1.4825

Resistant to scaling gases

Turbine parts,
furnace grates

I Cast steel

1)

400 to
550

2)
previous designation
ADI -Austempered Ductile Iron
4)
> Replaces DIN 1681
Replaces DIN 17182 5 ) Replaces DIN 17205

160

Material science: 4.

t o

Cast iron with flake graphite, Cast iron with spheroidal graphite
Cast iron with flake graphite (gray iron)

cf. DIN EN 1561 (1997-08)

Tensile strength R m as identifying characteristic

TyiDe
Designation

Wall
thickness

Material
number

Hardness HB as identifying characteristic

mm

Tensile strength
Rm
N/mm 2

Type
Designation

Material
number

Wall
thickness

Brinell
hardness

mm

HB30

EN-GJL-100
EN-GJL-150

EN-JL1010
EN-JL1020

5-40
2.5-300

100-200
150-250

EN-GJL-HB155
EN-GJL-HB175

EN-JL2010
EN-J L2020

40-80
40-80

max. 155
100-175

EN-GJL-200
EN-GJL-250

EN-JL1030
EN-JL1040

2.5-300
5-300

200-300
250-350

EN-GJL-HB195
EN-GJL-HB215

EN-JL2030
EN-JL2040

40-80
40-80

120-195
145-215

EN-GJL-300
EN-GJL-350

EN-JL1050
EN-JL1060

10-300
10-300

300-400
350-450

EN-GJL-HB235
EN-GJL-HB255

EN-JL2050
EN-JL2060

40-80
40-80

165-235
185-255

EN-GJL-100: Cast iron with flake graphite (gray

iron), minimum tensile strength /? m = 100 N/mm 2

EN-GJL-HB215: Cast iron with flake graphite (gray

iron), maximum Brinell hardness = 215 HB

Properties
Good castability and machinability, vibration damping, corrosion resistance, high compression strength,
good sliding properties.
Application examples
Machine frames, bearing housings, plain bearings, pressure-resistant parts, turbine housings.
Hardness as characteristic property provides information on the machinability.

Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite

cf. DIN EN 1563 (2005-10)

Tensile strength R m as identifying characteristic

Type
Designation

Material
number

Tensile
strength
Rm
N/mm 2

Yield
strength
ftp 0.2
N/mm 2

Elongation
EL
%

EN-GJS-350-22-LT1'
EN-GJS-350-22-RT2'
EN-GJS-350-22

EN-JS1015
EN-JS1014
EN-JS1010

350
350
350

220
220
220

22
22
22

EN-GJS-400-18-LT1)
EN-GJS-400-18-RT2'
EN-GJS-400-18
EN-GJS-400-15

EN-JS1025
EN-JS1024
EN-JS1020
EN-JS1030

400
400
400
400

250
250
250
250

18
18
18
15

EN-GJS-450-10
EN-GJS-500-7
EN-GJS-600-3

EN-JS1040
EN-JS1050
EN-JS1060

450
500
600

310
320
370

10
7
3

EN-GJS-700-2
EN-GJS-800-2
EN-GJS-900-2

EN-JS1070
EN-JS1080
EN-JS1090

700
800
900

420
480
600

2
2
2

1)

LT for low temperatures

2)

Properties,
application examples

Good machinability,
low wear resistance;
housings

Good machinability,
average wear resistance;
fittings, press frames
Good surface hardness;
gears, steering and clutch parts,
chains

RT for room temperature

EN-GJS-400-18: Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite, minimum tensile strength R m = 400 N/mm 2 ;
elongation at fracture EL = 18%
Hardness HB as identifying characteristic
Type
Designation

Material
number

Tensile
strength
N/mm

Yield
strength
Rp 0.2
N/mm 2

Brinell
hardness
HB

Rm2

EN-GJS-HB130
EN-GJS-HB150
EN-GJS-HB155

EN-JS2010
EN-JS2020
EN-JS2030

350
400
400

220
250
250

< 160
130-175
135-180

EN-GJS-HB185
EN-GJS-HB200
EN-GJS-HB230

EN-JS2040
EN-JS2050
EN-JS2060

450
500
600

310
320
370

160-210
170-230
190-270

EN-GJS-HB265
EN-GJS-HB300
EN-GJS-HB330

EN-JS2070
EN-JS2080
EN-JS2090

700
800
900

420
480
600

225-305
245-335
270-360

Properties,
application examples

By specifying hardness values the purchaser can better adapt process parameters to machining of the cast parts.
Applications as above.

EN-GJS-HB130: Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite, Brinell hardness HB 130, maximum hardness

161

Material science: 4.6 Cast iron

Malleable cast iron, Cast steel

Malleable cast iron 1)
Type
Designation

Material
number

cf. DIN EN 1562 (2006-08)

Tensile
strength
ftm
N/mm 2

Yield
strength
ftp 0.2
N/mm 2

Elongation
Brinell
at fracture hardness
EL
HB
%

Properties,
application examples

Decarburizing annealed malleable cast iron (whiteheart malleable cast iron)

EN-GJMW-350-4
EN-GJMW-400-5
EN-GJMW-450-7
EN-GJMW-550-4

EN-JM1010
EN-JM1030
EN-JM1040
EN-JM1050

350
400
450
550

220
260
340

4
5
7
4

230
220
250
250

All types have good castability and

good machinability.
Workpieces with low wall thickness,
e.g. levers, chain links

EN-GJMW-360-12 EN-JM1020

360

190

12

200

Especially well suited for welding.

=> EN-GJMW-350-4: Whiteheart malleable cast iron, Rm = 350 N/mm 2 , EL = 4%

Non-decarburizing annealed malleable iron (blackheart malleable cast iron)
EN-GJMB-300-6

EN-JM1110

300

EN-GJMB-350-10
EN-GJMB-450-6
EN-GJMB-500-5
EN-GJMB-550-4

EN-JM1130
EN-JM1140
EN-JM1150
EN-JM1160

350
450
500
550

EN-GJMB-600-3
EN-GJMB-650-2
EN-GJMB-700-2
EN-GJMB-800-1

EN-JM1170
EN-JM1180
EN-JM1190
EN-JM1200

600
650
700
800

-150

200
270
300
340

10
6
5
4

-150
150-200
165-215
180-230

390
430
530
600

3
2
2
1

195-245
210-260
240-290
270-320

High pressure tightness

All types have good castability and

good machinability.
Workpieces with high wall thickness,
e.g. housings, universal joint yokes
pistons

=s> EN-GJMB-350-10: Non-decarburizing annealed malleable cast iron, Rm = 350 N/mm 2 , EL = 10%
1)

Previous designations: page 159

cf. DIN EN 10293 (2005-06)1'

Cast steel for general applications (selection)

Designation

ftm
N/mm 2

ftp 0.2
N/MM 2

EL

Notch
impact
energy
Kv
J

Tensile
strength

Type
Material
number

Yield Elongation
strength

Properties,
application examples

GE2002)
GE2402'
GE3002'

1.0420
1.0445
1,0558

380-530
450-600
600-750

200
240
300

25
22
15

27
31
27

For workpieces with average

dynamic loading;
wheel spiders, levers

G17Mn5 3)
G20Mn5 2>
GX4CrNiMo16-5-13)

1.1131
1.6220
1.4405

450-600
480-620
760-960

240
300
540

24
20
15

70
60
60

Improved weldability;
composite welded structures

G28Mn6 2)
G10MnMoV6-3 3)
G34CrMo43)

1.1165
1.5410
1.7230

520-670
600-750
620-770

260
500
480

18
18
10

27
60
35

For workpieces with high dynamic

loading;
shafts

G32NiCrMo8-5-43)
GX23CrMoV12-13)

1.6570
1.4931

850-1000
740-880

700
540

16
15

50
27

For corrosion-protected workpieces

with high dynamic loading

11
2)

DIN 17182 "Steel cast types with improved weldability and toughness" was withdrawn without replacement.
3)
normalized
quenched and tempered

Cast steel for pressure vessels (selection)

Type
Designation

Material
number

cf. DIN EN 10213 (2004-03)

Elongation
Notch
Yield
Tensile
impact
Properties,
strength 1 ' strength1' at fracture
energy Kv application examples
EL
ftm
ftp 0.22
J
N/mm
%
N/mm 2

GP240GH
G17CrMo5-5

1.0619
1.7357

420
490

240
315

22
20

27
27

GX8CrNi12
GX4CrNiMo16-5-1

1.4107
1.4405

540
760

355
540

18
15

45
60

1)

Values for a wall thickness up to 40 mm

For high and low temperatures, e.g.

steam turbines, super heated steam
armatures, also corrosion resistant

162

Material science:

4.7 Foundry technology

cf D I N

Patterns, Pattern equipment and core boxes

^ooo oe)

Materials and grades

Materials

Characteristics

Wood

Plastic

Metal

Plywood, particle board or

sandwich board, hard and
soft wood

Epoxy resins or
polyurethane with
fillers

Cu, Sn, Zn alloys

Al alloys
Cast iron or steel

Recurring individual pieces

and smaller lots, low precision requirements;
normally hand molding

Moderate to large volumes

Jobbing work and volume
with high precision
production with higher precirequirements;
sion requirements;
machine molding
hand and machine molding

Max. production run

for molding

approx. 750

approx. 10000

approx. 150000

Quality classes1'

W1 2 ) , W2, H3

P1 2) , P2

M1 2 ) , M2

Surface quality

Sand paper
60-80 grit

Ra = 12.5 pm

Ra = 3.2-6.3 pm

Type of material

Application

11

Classification system for the manufacture and use of patterns, pattern equipment and core boxes, according to
their application, quality and service life: W wood; P plastic; M metal

2>

best grade

Mold draft for sand casting

Mold draf t Tin mm
Large draft surfaces

Small draft surfaces

Height h

mm

Hand nlolding
Molding sand
Molding sand
clay bonded
chem. bonded

Machine
molding

Hand nlolding
Molding sand
Molding sand
clay bonded
chem. bonded

Machine
molding

-30

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.5

1.0

1.0

> 30-80

2.0

2.0

2.0

2.5

2.0

2.0

>80-180

3.0

2.5

2.5

3.0

3.0

3.0

>180-250

3.5

3.0

3.0

4.0

4.0

4.0

>250-1000

+ 1.0 mm each 250 mm

>1000-4000

+ 2.0 mm each 1 000 mm

Paint and color codes on patterns

Surface or partial surface
Basic color for areas that
should remain unmachined
on the casting
Areas to be machined on the
casting

Cast steel

Nodular
cast
iron

Gray
cast
iron

Malleable
iron

Heavy
metal
castings

Light
alloy
castings

blue

purple

red

gray

yellow

green

red stripes

yellow stripes

blue

blue

yellow stripes yellow stripes yellow stripes yellow stripes

Locations of loose parts

and their attachments
Locations of
chill plates
Core marks

framed in black
red

red

blue

red

black
yellow stripes

Risers

Material science:

163

4.7 Foundry technology

Shrinkage allowances, Dimensional tolerances, Molding and casting methods

Shrinkage allowances

cf. DIN EN 12890 (2000-06)

Shrinkage
Other casting materials
allowance in %

Cast iron
with flake graphite

1.0

with spheroidal graphite, annealed

with spheroidal graphite, not annealed

Shrinkage
allowance in %

Cast steel

2.0

0.5

Austenitic manganese cast steel

2.3

1.2

Al, Mg, CuZn alloys

1.2

austenitic

2.5

CuSnZn, Zn alloys

1.3

malleable cast iron, decarburizing anneal

1.6

CuSn alloys

1.5

malleable cast iron, no decarburizing anneal

0.5

Cu

1.9

Dimensional tolerances and machining allowances, RMA

Examples of tolerance specifications in a drawing:

R
F
CT
T
RMA

1. ISO 8062-CT12-RMA6 (H)

Tolerance grade 12, material allowance 6 mm
2. Individual tolerances and machining allowances are given
directly after a dimension.

cf. DIN ISO 8062 (1998-08)

rough casting - nominal dimension
dimension after finishing
casting tolerance grade
total casting tolerance
material allowance for machining

/? = F + 2 RMA + 772

Casting tolerances
Nominal
dimensions
in mm

Tot,al cast ing tol erancei T in mm

i
for castir ig tole ranee grade CT
11
6
7
8
10
9

12

13

14

15

16

-10

0.09 0.13 0.18 0.26 0.36

0.52 0.74

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.8

4.2

> 10-16

0.10 0.14 0.20 0.28 0.38

0.54 0.78

1.1

1.6

2.2

3.0

4.4

> 16-25

0.11 0.15 0.22 0.30 0.42

0.58 0.82

1.2

1.7

2.4

3.2

4.6

10

12

> 25-40

0.12 0.17 0.24 0.32 0.46

0.64 0.9

1.3

1.8

2.6

3.6

11

14

>40-63

0.13 0.18 0.26 0.36 0.50

0.70

1.0

1.4

2.0

2.8

4.0

5.6

10

12

16

>63-100

0.14 0.20 0.28 0.40 0.56

0.78

1.1

1.6

2.2

3.2

4.4

11

14

18

>100-160

0.15 0.22 0.30 0.44 0.62

0.88

1.2

1.8

2.5

3.6

10

12

16

20

0.24 0.34 0.50 0.70

1.0

1.4

2.0

2.8

4.0

5.6

11

14

18

22

0.40 0.56 0.78

1.1

1.6

2.2

3.2

4.4

6.2

12

16

20

25

0.64 0.90

1.2

1.8

2.6

3.6

10

14

18

22

28

1.4

2.0

2.8

11

16

20

25

32

>160-250

> 250-400

> 400-630

>630-1000

1.0

Molding and casting methods

Relative dimenAchievable
sional accuracy1' roughness Ra
in mm/mm
in pm

Advantages and
disadvantages

Casting material

all sizes, expensive,

low dimensional
accuracy

GJL, GJS, GS,

GJM, Al and
Cu alloys

0.00-0.10

40-320

Machine
molding

small to medium
dimensionally accurate, GJL, GJS, GS,
GJM, Al alloys
sized parts, volume good surface

0.00-0.06

20-160

Vacuum
molding

medium to large
parts, volumes

dimensionally accurate, GJL, GJS, GS,

GJM, Al and
good surface,
Cu alloys
high investment costs

0.00-0.08

40-160

Shell
molding

small parts,
large volumes

dimensionally accurate, GJL, GS,

Al and Cu alloys
high mold costs

0.00-0.06

20-160

Investment
casting

small parts,
large volumes

complex parts,
high mold costs

GS, Al alloys

0.00-0.04

10-80

Die casting

small to medium
sized parts,
large volumes

dimensionally accurate
even with thin walls,
fine-grain structure,
high investment costs

hot chamber:
Zn, Pb, Sn, Mg
cold chamber:
Cu, Al

0.00-0.04

10-40

Method

Application

Hand
molding

large castings,
small lots

1)

The ratio of largest relative deviation to the nominal dimension is called the relative dimensional accuracy.

164

Material science: 4.

a l s

Aluminum, Aluminum alloys - Overview

Alloy
group

Material
number

Main characteristics

Main areas of application

Product shapes1'
S | B | T

Pure aluminum
Al
(Al content
>99.00%)

AW-1000
to
AW-1990
(Series1000)

page 166

very good cold workability

weldable and brazable
difficult for cutting machining
corrosion resistant
anodized for decorative
purposes

Containers, conduits and

equipment for the food and
chemical industry, electrical
conductors, reflectors, trims,
license plates in automotive
manufacturing

Aluminum, wrought aluminum alloys, non-heat treatable (selection)

AIMn

AIMg

AW-3000
cold workable
to
weldable and solderable
AW-3990
good machinability in
(Series 3000) work-hardened condition
Compared to Series 1000:
higher strength
improved lye resistivity

Roofing, siding, and supporting

structures in the construction
industry, parts for radiators and air
conditioning units in automotive
manufacturing,
drink and food cans
in the packaging industry

AW-5000
good cold workability with high
to
work hardening
limited weldability
AW-5990
(Series 5000) good machinability in work-hardened condition and with higher
alloy contents
weather and saltwater resistant

Lightweight material for superstructures of commercial vehicles,

tank and silo trucks,
metal signs, traffic sign,
rolling shutters and doors,
windows, doors, hardware in the
construction industry, machine
frames, parts in the construction of
jigs and fixtures and mold making

AIMgMn

good cold workability with high

work hardening
good weldability
good cutting machinability
saltwater resistant

AlCuMg

AlZnMgCu

1)
2)

page 166

Aluminum, wrought aluminum alloys, heat treatable (selection)

AIMgSi

page 167

AW-6000
to
AW-6990
(Series 6000)

good cold and hot workability

corrosion resistant
good weldability
good cutting machinability in
heat treated condition

Load-bearing structures in the

construction industry,
windows, doors,
machine beds,
hydraulic and pneumatic parts;
with Pb, Sn or Bi additions:
very good cutting machinable free
cutting alloys

2)

2)

2)

AW-2000
to
AW-2990
(Series 2000)

high-strength values
good high-temperature strength
limited corrosion resistance
limited weldability
good cutting machinability in
heat treated condition

Lightweight material in automotive

and aircraft construction;
with Pb, Sn or Bi additions:
very good cutting machinable free
cutting alloys

2)

2)

2)

AW-7000
highest strength of all Al alloys
to
best corrosion resistance
in artificially aged condition
AW-7990
(Series 7000) limited weldability
good cutting machinability in
heat treated condition

Product forms: S sheet; B bars; T tubes

Free machining alloys are only delivered as bars or tubes.

High-strength lightweight material

in aircraft industry, machine construction, tools and molds for plastic molding, screws, extruded parts

Material science: 4.

165

a l s

Aluminum, wrought aluminum alloys: Designations and material numbers

Designations for aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys

cf. DIN EN 573-2 (1994-12)

The designations apply to wrought products, e.g. sheet, bars, tubes, wires and for wrought parts.
Designation examples:

EN
AW

EN AW - Al 99,98
EN AW -AI MqISiCu - H111

Chemical composition, purity

European standard
Aluminum wrought products

Al 99.98
MglSiCu

pure aluminum, degree of purity 99,98% Al

1 % Mg, low percentage of Si and Cu
cf. DIN EN 515 (1993-12)

Material condition (excerpt)

Condition

Meaning of the
material conditions

Symbol Meaning of the symbol

manufactured
condition

Wrought products are manufactured without specifying mechanical

limits, e.g. tensile strength, yield strength, elongation at fracture

Wrought products
without secondary
operations

spheroidized

0
01
02

Spheroidizing can be replaced by hot working

Solution annealed, cooled slowly to room temperature
Thermomechanically formed, highest workability

To restore worka
bility after cold
working

Work
hardened

H12
to
H18

Work hardened with the following hardness grades:

H12
H14
H16
H18
3
4
1/4 hard
1/2 hard
/ 4 hard
/ 4 hard

H111
H112

Annealed with subsequent slight work hardening

Slight work hardening

To assure guaranteed mechanical

values,
e.g. tensile strength,
yield strength

Heat
treated

T1
T2
T3

Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally age hardened, not redressed
Quenched like T1, cold worked and naturally aged
Solution heat treated, cold worked and naturally age hardened

T3510
T3511

Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally aged

Like T3510, redressed to hold the limit deviations

T4
T4510

Solution annealed, naturally age hardened

Solution annealed, stress relieved and naturally age hardened, not redressed

T6
T6510

Solution annealed, artificially aged

Solution annealed, stress relieved and artificially aged, not redressed

T8
T9

To increase in tensile strength, yield

strength and hardness, reduction of
the cold workability

Solution annealed, cold worked, artificially aged

Solution annealed, artificially aged, cold worked

Material numbers for aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys

cf. DIN EN 573-1 (1994-12)

Material numbers apply to wrought products, e.g. sheet, bars, tubes, wires and for wrought parts.
Designation examples:

EN
AW

EN AW - 1050A
EN AW-5154

Indicates that country-specific limits deviate

from the original alloy.

European standard
Aluminum wrought products

Alloy groups
Number

Group

Number

Group

1
2

pure Al
AlCu

5
6

AIMg
AIMgSi

3
4

AIMn
AISi

7
8

AlZn
other

Alloy modifications

Type number

0
1-9

Within an alloy group, e.g.

AIMgSi, each type is assigned
its own number.

Original alloy
Alloys that deviate
from the original alloy

166

Material science: 4.

a l s

Aluminum, wrought aluminum alloys

Aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys,
non-heat treatable (selection)
Designation
(materialnumber) 1)

Deli very
forr ns2>
R

Al 99.5
(1050A)

Material
DC >
condition 4 '
3

cf. DIN EN 485-2 (2004-09),

DIN EN 754-2,755-2 (2008-06)

Thickness/
diameter
mm

Tensile
strength
firm
N/mm 2

Yield Elong. at
strength fracture Applications,
EL
Examples
N/mm 2
%

P
z
z

F, H112
O, H111
H14

< 200
<80
<40

> 60
60-95
100-135

> 20
>70

25
25
6

O, H111

0,5-1,4
1,5-2,9
3,0-5,9

65-95
65-95
65-95

>20
>20
>20

22
26
29

p
z
z

F, H112
O, H111
H14

<200
<60
< 10

>95
95-130
130-165

>35
>35
> 110

25
25
6

Equipment manufacturing,
pressure vessels,
signs,
packaging,
trim

O, H111

0.5-1.4
1.5-2.9
3.0-5.9

90-130
90-130
90-130

>35
>35
>35

19
21
24

p
z
z

F, H112
O, H i l l
H14

<200
<80
<40

>95
95-130
130-165

>35
>35
> 110

25
25
6

O, H111

0.5-1.4
1.5-2.9
3.0-5.9

95-135
95-135
95-135

>35
>35
>35

17
20
23

p
z
z

F, H112
O, H111
H14

<200
<80
<40

> 100
100-145
> 140

>40
>40
> 110

18
18
6

O, H111

0.5-1.49
1.5-2.9
3.0-5.9

100-145
100-145
100-145

>35
>35
>35

19
20
22

p
z
z

F, H112
O, H111
H14

< 200
<80
<30

> 160
150-200
200-240

>60
>60
> 160

16
17
5

O, H111

0.5-1.4
1.5-2.9
3.0-5.9

160-200
160-200
160-200

>60
>60
>60

14
16
18

p
z
z

F, H112
0, H i l l
H14

< 150
<80
<25

> 180
180-250
240-290

>80
>80
> 180

14
16
4

0, H111

0.5-1.4
1.5-2.9
3.0-5.9

190-240
190-240
190-240

>80
>80
>80

14
16
18

Al Mg5
(5019)

p
z
z

F, H112
0, H111
H14

<200
<80
<40

> 250
250-320
270-350

> 110
> 110
> 180

14
16
8

Optical equipment,
packaging

Al Mg3Mn
(5454)

F, H112
0, H111

<200

>200
200-275

>85
>85

10
18

0, H111

0.5-1.4
1.5-2.9
3.0-5.9

215-275
215-275
215-275

>85
>85
>85

13
15
17

Container construction,
including pressure vessels,
conduits,
tank and silo trucks

p
z
z

F, H111
0, H111
H12

<200
<80
<30

>270
270-350
>280

> 110
> 110
>200

12
16
6

Al Mn1
(3103)

Al MnlCu
(3003)

Al Mg1
(5005)

CO

cH>

Al Mg2Mn0.3
(5251)

Al Mg4.5Mn0.7
(5083)
1)
2)
3)
4)

Equipment manufacturing,
extruded parts,
vehicle superstructures,
heat exchangers

Roofing,
facades,
load-bearing structures
in metal working

Roofing,
facades,
windows, doors,
hardware

Equipment and devices for

the food industry

Equipment manufacturing,
aircraft industry,
body parts,
mold making

Mold making and

construction of jigs and fixtures, machine frames

For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without the addition "EN AW-".
Delivery forms: R round bar; S sheet, strip
DC Delivery condition: p extruded; z drawn; w cold-rolled
Material condition, see page 165

Material science: 4.

167

a l s

Wrought aluminum alloys

Wrought aluminum alloys,
heat treatable (selection)
Designation
(materialnumber) 1 '

Deli very
forr ns2>

Material
DC '
condition 4 '
3

cf. DIN EN 485-2 (2004-09),

DIN EN 754-2,755-2 (2008-06)
Thickness/
diameter
mm

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm 2

Yield Elong. at
strength fracture Application,
Examples
EL
ftp 0.2
N/mm 2
%

Al Cu4PbMgMn
(2007)

P
z
z

T4, T4510
T3
T3

<80
<30
30-80

> 370
>370
>340

> 250
>240
>220

8
7
6

Al Cu4PbMg
(2030)

P
z
z

T4, T4510
T3
T3

<80
<30
30-80

>370
>370
>340

> 250
> 240
> 220

8
7
6

Al MgSiPb
(6012)

p
z
z

T5, T6510
T3
T6

< 150
<80
<80

>310
>200
>310

>260
> 100
>260

8
10
8

p
z
z

O, H i l l
T3
T4

<200
<80
<80

<250
>380
>380

< 135
>290
>220

12
8
12

0.5-1.4
1.5-2.9
3.0-5.9

<220
<220
<220

< 140
< 140
< 140

12
13
16

p
z
z

O, H111
T3
T6

<200
10-80
<80

< 250
>425
>425

< 150
>290
>315

12
9
5

0.5-1.4
1.5-2.9
3.0-5.9

<220
<220
<220

< 140
< 140
< 140

12
13
13

Al MgSi
(6060)

p
z
z

T4
T4
T6

< 150
<80
<80

< 120
> 130
>215

<60
>65
> 160

16
15
12

Windows, doors, vehicle

superstructures, machine
beds, optical equipment

Al SilMgMn
(6082)

p
z
z

O, H111
T4
T6

<200
<80
<80

< 160
> 205
>310

< 110
> 110
>255

14
14
10

0.5-1.4
1.5-2.9
3.0-5.9

< 150
< 150
< 150

<85
<85
<85

14
16
18

Hardware, parts in mold

making and manufacturing
of jigs and fixtures,
machine beds, equipment
in the food industry

p
z

T6
T6

<50
<80

>350
>350

> 290
>280

10
10

0.5-1.4
1.5-2.9
3.0-5.9

<220
< 220
< 220

< 140
< 140
< 140

12
13
15

p
z

T6, T6510
T6

<80
<80

>490
>460

>420
>380

7
8

T6

3.0-12
12.5-24
25-50

>450
>450
>450

>370
>370
>370

8
8
7

p
z
z

O, H111
T6
T73

<200
<80
<80

<275
> 540
>455

< 165
>485
>385

10
7
10

0.4-0.75
0.8-1.45
1.5-2.9

> 275
>275
>275

> 145
> 145
> 145

10
10
10

Al Cu4SiMg
(2014)

Al Cu4Mg1
(2024)

Al Zn4.5Mg1
(7020)

Al Zn5Mg3Cu
(7022)

Al Zn5.5MgCu
(7075)

1)
2)
3)
4)

Free cutting alloys,

also good machinability
at high machining
outputs, e.g. for
turned parts, milled parts

Parts in hydraulic,
pneumatic,
automotive and aircraft
manufacturing,
load-bearing structures in
metal manufacturing
Parts in automotive and
aircraft manufacturing,
load-bearing structures in
metal working

Parts in automotive and aircraft manufacturing,

machine beds,
superstructures of rail cars

Parts in hydraulic,
pneumatic and aircraft
manufacturing,
screws

Parts in automotive
and aircraft manufacturing,
mold making and
manufacturing of jigs and
fixtures, screws

For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without the addition "EN AW-".
Delivery forms: R round bar; S sheet, strip
DC Delivery condition: p extruded; z drawn; w cold-rolled
Material condition, see page 165

168

Material science: 4.

a l s

Aluminum casting alloys

Designation of aluminum castings

cf. DIN EN 1780-1...3 (2003-01), DIN EN 1706 (1998-06)

Aluminum castings are identified by designations or material numbers.

Designation
examples:

Designation
EN AC - Al Mg5KF

Material number
EN AC - 51300KF
T .

EN
AC

European standard
Aluminum casting

K
casting method
F
material condition
(table below)

Chemical composition

K
casting method
F
material condition
(table below)

Alloy groups

Type number

Example

Alloy percentage

No.

Group

No.

Group

AIMg5
AISi6Cu

5% Mg
6% Si, additions of Cu

21
41

AlCu
AISiMgTi

46
47

AISi9Cu
AlSi(Cu)

AICu4MgTi

4% Cu, additions of
Mg and Ti

42
44

AISi7Mg
AISi

51
71

AIMg
AlZnMg

Casting method
Letter

Casting method

Letter
F
O

Sand casting
Permanent mold
casting
Die casting
Investment casting

Meaning
Casting condition, without subsequent processing
Spheroidized
Controlled cooling after pouring, naturally aged
Solution annealed and naturally aged

LO CO
I- I-

D
L

Material condition

I- I-

S
K

Within one alloy group each

type has its own number.

Controlled cooling after pouring, artificially aged

Solution annealed and artificially aged

Aluminum casting alloys

cf. DIN EN 1706(1998-06)

Strength values in casting condition (F)

Designation
(materialnumber) 1 '

C2>

Hardn. Tensile
M 3 ) strength strength
HB
ftm
N/mm 2

Yield
ftp 0,2
N/mm 2

Elongation
at fracture
EL
%

Properties4'
C

S
K

F
F

50
50

140
150

70
70

3
5

AC-AIMg5
(AC-51300)

S
K

F
F

55
60

160
180

90
100

3
4

AC-AIMg5(Si)
(AC-51400)

S
K

F
F

60
65

160
180

100
110

3
3

AC-AISi12
(AC-44100)

S
K
L

F
F
F

50
55
60

150
170
160

70
80
80

4
5
1

AC-AISi7Mg
(AC-42000)

S
K
L

CO CO CO

75
90
75

220
260
240

180
220
190

2
1
1

AC-AISi12(Cu)
(AC-47000)

S
K

F
F

50
55

150
170

80
90

1
2

AC-AICu4Ti
(AC-21100)

S
K

T6
T6

95
95

300
330

200
220

3
7

2)
4>

I-

1)

I- I-

AC-AIMg3
(AC-51000)

Application
Corrosion resistant,
polishable,
anodized for decorative
purposes; fittings,
household appliances,
ship building,
chemical industry
Resistant to weather
influences, for complex,
thin-walled and pressuretight parts;
pump and motor housings,
cylinder heads, parts in aircraft manufacturing

Highest strength values,

vibration and high temp,
resistance; simple castings

For simplification all designations and material numbers are written without "EN",
e.g. AC-AIMg3 instead of EN AC-AIMg3 or AC-51000 instead of EN AC-51000.
3)
C casting method (table above)
M material condition (table above)
C castability, P pressure tightness, M machinability; very good, o good, - conditionally good

Material science: 4.

169

a l s

Aluminum profiles - Overview, Round bars, Flat bars

Aluminum sections, Overview
Illustration

Fabrication,
dimensions

Round bars

Standard

Round tubes
extruded
d = 3-100 mm

DIN EN
755-3

seamless extruded
d = 20-250 mm

DIN EN
755-7

drawn
d = 8-320 mm

DIN EN
754-3

cold-drawn seamless
d= 3-270 mm

DIN EN
754-7

extruded
a = 15-100 mm

DIN EN
754-4

Square bars

Square tubes
extruded
s = 10-220 mm

DIN EN
755-4

drawn
s = 3-100 mm

DIN EN
754-4

Flat bars

Flat tubes

extruded
w = 10-600 mm
s= 2-240 mm

DIN EN
755-4

extruded seamless
a = 15-250 mm
b= 10-100 mm

DIN EN
755-7

drawn
w = 5-200 mm
s= 2-60 mm

DIN EN
754-4

cold-drawn seamless
a = 15-250 mm
b= 10-100 mm

DIN EN
754-7

Sheet and strip

L profiles
rolled
s = 0.4-15 mm

DIN EN
485

Channels

sharp corners or
round corners
h = 10-200 mm

DIN
17711>

sharp corners or
round corners
h = 15-100 mm

DIN
9714 1 '

Tees
sharp corners or
round corners
h = 10-160 mm

1)

Fabrication,
dimensions

Illustration

Standard

DIN
97131'

Standards were withdrawn without replacement.

cf. DIN EN 754-3, 754-4 (1996-01), DIN 17981>, DIN 17961)

Round bars, Flat bars, drawn

S cross-sectional area
m' linear mass
density
W axial section modulus
/
axial moment
of inertia

< 4 4 4 '

d, a
mm

m'
kg/m

/x =Jy
cm4

Wx =
cm 3

0.17
0.29
0.68

0.05
0.10
0.32

1.00
1.44
2.56

0.21
0.31
0.54

0.27
0.39
0.69

0.10
0.17
0.40

3.14
4.91
7.07

4.00
6.25
9.00

0.85
1.33
1.91

1.08
1.69
2.43

0.79
1.53
2.65

1.33
2.60
4.50

0.79
1.77
3.98

1.33
3.26
6.75

35
40
45

9.62
12.57
15.90

12.25
16.00
20.25

2.60
3.40
4.30

3.31
4.32
5.47

4.21
6.28
8.95

7.15
10.68
15.19

7.37
12.57
20.13

12.51
21.33
34.17

50
55
60

19.64
23.76
28.27

25.00
30.25
36.00

5.30
6.42
7.63

6.75
8.17
9.72

12.28
16.33
21.21

20.83
27.73
36.00

30.69
44.98
63.62

52.08
76.26
108.00

10
12
16

0.79
1.13
2.01

20
25
30

Materials
1)

S
cm 2

0.08
0.17
0.55

Wrought aluminum alloys, see pages 166 and 167.

DIN 1796 und DIN 1798 were replaced by DIN EN 754-3 or DIN EN 754-4. The
DIN EN standards contain no dimensions. However, dealers continue to offer DIN
1798 and DIN 1796 round and square bars.
O round bars;
square bars

170

Material science: 4.

a l s

Flat bars from aluminum alloys

cf. DIN EN 754-5 (1996-01), replaces DIN 17691)

Flat bars, drawn (selection)

S cross-sectional area
m' linear mass
density
e distance to edge
W axial section modulus
I
axial moment
of inertia

X
x

<u

Edge radii r
h
mm

'max

< 10

0.6

> 10-30

1.0

>30-60

2.0

mm

w* h
mm

S
cm 2

m'
kg/m

X
cm

e
y
cm

Wx
cm 3

/x
cm 4

Wy
cm 3

'y
cm 4

10x3
10 x 6
10 x 8

0.30
0.60
0.80

0.08
0.16
0.22

0.15
0.3
0.4

0.5
0.5
0.5

0.015
0.060
0.106

0.0007
0.018
0.042

0.033
0.100
0.133

0.016
0.050
0.066

15x3
15 x 5
15x8

0.45
0.75
1.20

0.12
0.24
0.32

0.15
0.25
0.4

0.75
0.75
0.75

0.022
0.090
0.230

0.003
0.027
0.064

0.112
0.225
0.300

0.084
0.168
0.225

20 x 5
20x8
20 x 10

1.00
1.60
2.00

0.27
0.43
0.54

0.25
0.4
0.5

1.0
1.0
1.0

0.083
0.213
0.333

0.020
0.085
0.166

0.333
0.533
0.666

0.333
0.533
0.666

20 x 15
25 x 5
25x8

3.00
1.25
2.00

0.81
0.34
0.54

0.75
0.25
0.4

1.0
1.25
1.25

0.750
0.104
0.266

0.562
0.026
0.106

1.000
0.520
0.833

1.000
0.651
1.041

25 x 10
25 x 15
25 x 20

2.50
3.75
5.00

0.67
1.01
1.35

0.5
0.75
1.0

1.25
1.25
1.25

0.416
0.937
1.666

0.208
0.703
1.666

1.041
1.562
2.083

1.302
1.953
2.604

30 x 10
30 x 15
30 x 20

3.00
4.50
6.00

0.81
1.22
1.62

0.5
0.75
1.0

1.5
1.5
1.5

0.500
1.125
2.000

0.250
0.843
2.000

1.500
2.250
3.000

2.250
3.375
4.500

40 x 10
40 x 15
40 x 20

4.00
6.00
8.00

1.08
1.62
2.16

0.5
0.75
1.0

2.0
2.0
2.0

0.666
1.500
2.666

0.333
1.125
2.666

2.666
4.000
5.333

5.333
8.000
10.666

40 x 25
40 x 30
40x35

10.00
12.00
14.00

2.70
3.24
3.78

1.25
1.5
1.75

2.0
2.0
2.0

4.166
6.000
8.166

5.208
9.000
14.291

6.666
8.000
9.333

13.333
16.000
18.666

50 x 10
50 x 15
50 x 20

5.00
7.50
10.00

1.35
2.03
2.70

0.5
0.75
1.0

2.5
2.5
2.5

0.833
1.875
3.333

0.416
1.406
3.333

4.166
6.250
8.333

10.416
15.625
20.833

50 x 25
50 x 30
50x35

12.50
15.00
17.50

3.37
4.05
4.73

1.25
1.5
1.75

2.5
2.5
2.5

5.208
7.500
10.208

6.510
11.250
17.864

10.416
12.500
14.583

26.041
31.250
36.458

50 x 40
60 x 10
60 x 15

20.00
6.00
9.00

5.40
1.62
2.43

2.0
0.5
0.75

2.5
3.0
3.0

13.333
1.000
2.250

26.666
0.500
1.687

16.666
6.000
9.000

41.668
18.000
27.000

60 x 20
60 x 25
60 x 30

12.00
15.00
18.00

3.24
4.05
4.86

1.0
1.25
1.5

3.0
3.0
3.0

4.000
6.250
9.000

4.000
7.812
13.500

12.000
15.000
18.000

36.000
45.000
54.000

60 x 35
60 x 40
80 x 10

21.00
24.00
8.00

5.67
6.48
2.16

1.75
2.0
0.5

3.0
3.0
4.0

12.250
16.000
1.333

21.437
32.000
0.666

21.000
24.000
10.666

63.000
72.000
42.666

80 x 15
80x20
80 x 25

12.00
16.00
20.00

3.24
4.52
5.40

0.75
1.0
1.25

4.0
4.0
4.0

3.000
5.433
8.333

2.250
5.333
10.416

16.000
21.333
26.666

64.000
85.333
106.66

80x30
80x35
80 x 40

24.00
28.00
32.00

6.48
7.56
8.64

1.5
1.75
2.0

4.0
4.0
4.0

12.000
16.333
21.333

18.000
28.583
42.666

32.000
37.333
42.666

128.00
149.33
170.66

100 x 20
100 x 30
100 x 40

20.00
30.00
40.00

5.40
8.10
10.8

1.0
1.5
2.0

5.0
5.0
5.0

6.666
15.000
26.666

3.666
22.500
53.333

33.333
50.000
66.666

166.66
250.00
333.33

Material
1)

Wrought aluminum alloys, see pages 166 and 167.

DIN EN 754-5 contains no dimensions. Specialized dealers still offer flat bars in dimensions according to DIN 1769.

Material science: 4.

171

a l s

Round tubes. Channels from aluminum alloys

cf. DIN EN 754-7 (1998-10), replaces DIN 17951)

Round tubes, cold-drawn seamless (selection)

d
s
S

outside diameter
wall thickness
cross-sectional
area
m' linear mass
density
W axial section
modulus
I
axial moment
of inertia

dx s
mm

S
cm 2

m'
kg/m

Wx
cm 3

/x
cm 4

dx s
mm

S
cm 2

m'
kg/m

Wx
cm 3

/x
cm 4

10 x 1
10 x 1.5
10 x 2

0.281
0.401
0.503

0.076
0.108
0.136

0.058
0.075
0.085

0.029
0.037
0.043

35 x 3
35 x 5
35 x 10

3.016
4.712
7.854

0.814
1.272
2.121

2.225
3.114
4.067

3.894
5.449
7.118

12 x 1
12 x 1.5
12 x 2

0.346
0.495
0.628

0.093
0.134
0.170

0.088
0.116
0.136

0.053
0.070
0.082

40 x 3
40 x 5
40 x 10

3.487
5.498
9.425

0.942
1.484
2.545

3.003
4.295
5.890

6.007
8.590
11.781

16 x 1
16 x 2
16 x 3

0.471
0.880
1.225

0.127
0.238
0.331

0.133
0.220
0.273

0.133
0.220
0.273

50 x 3
50 x 5
50 x 10

4.430
7.069
12.566

1.196
1.909
3.393

4.912
7.245
10.681

12.281
18.113
26.704

20 x 1.5
20 x 3
20 x 5

0.872
1.602
2.356

0.235
0.433
0.636

0.375
0.597
0.736

0.375
0.597
0.736

55x3
55 x 5
55 x 10

4.901
7.854
14.137

1.323
2.110
3.817

6.044
9.014
13.655

16.201
24.789
37.552

25 x 2
25x3
25 x 5

1.445
2.073
3.142

0.390
0.560
0.848

0.770
1.022
1.335

0.963
1.278
1.669

60 x 5
60 x 10
60 x 16

8.639
15.708
22.117

2.333
4.241
4.890

10.979
17.017
20.200

32.938
51.051
60.600

30 x 2
30 x 4
30 x 6

1.759
3.267
4.524

0.475
0.882
1.220

1.155
1.884
2.307

1.733
2.826
3.461

70 x 5
70 x 10
70 x 16

10.210
18.850
27.143

2.757
5.089
7.331

15.498 54.242
24.908 87.179
30.750 107.62

Material

e.g. aluminum alloys, non-heat treatable, see page 166

aluminum alloys, heat-treatable, see page 167

1)

DIN EN 754-7 contains no dimensions. Specialized dealers still offer round tubes in dimensions according to DIN 1795.
cf. DIN 9713 (1981-09)1)

Extruded channel sections (selection)

w width
h height
S cross-sectional
area
m' linear mass
density
W axial section
modulus
axial moment
I
of inertia

hx w * s x f
mm

cm"

20 x 20 x 3 x 3
30x30 x 3 x 3
35 x 35 x 3 x 3

2.52
2.97

40 x 15 x 3 x 3
40 x 20 x 3 x 3
40 x 30 x 3 x 3

Wx
cm ;

cm

cm

cm

0.945
2.43
3.44

0.945
3.64
6.02

0.805

1.10
1.28

0.628
2.29
3.73

0.431
0.610
3.62

2.04
2.59
7.24

4.07
5.17
2.49

0.810

0.770

2.0
2.0
2.0

1.30
2.49

0.349
0.795
2.52

3.71
4.51
5.57

1.00

2.0

4.49
5.80

8.97
11.6
13.6

3.03
4.80
5.64

3.17
7.12
8.59

50 x 30 x 3 x 3
50 x 30 x 4 x 4
50 x 40 x 5 x 5

12.2

19.6
23.3

2.91
5.65
6.54

2.70
7.80
9.26

60 x 30 x 4 x 4
60 x 40 x 4 x 4
60 x40 x 5 x 5

4.12
6.35
7.47

3.69

cm

0.437
0.687
0.802

1.00

0.780

1.50
1.75

1.92
2.25
2.85

0.518

40 x 30 x 4 x 4
40 x 40 x 4 x 4
40 x 40 x 5 x 5

Rounded edges r<\ and r 2100 x 50 x 6 x 9

120 x 55 x 7 x 9
t
'2
140 x 60 x 4 x 6
mm
mm
mm
Materials
3,4
2.5
0.4
0.6

8,9

0.6

ex

cm

80 x 40 x 6 x 6
80 x 45 x 6 x 8
100 x 40 x 6 x 6

5,6

m
kg/m

1)

1.62

0.608

2.06

2.91

1.22

2.0

1.50

2.0

1.05
1.49
1.52

3.15
4.91
6.07

0.851
1.33
1.64

2.5
2.5
2.5

0.929
1.38
1.42

4.88
7.83
9.32

4.51
5.31
6.57

1.22

1.43
1.77

3.0
3.0
3.0

0.896
1.29
1.33

7.90
10.1
12.0

23.7
30.3
36.0

8.95

2.42
3.02
2.74

4.0
4.0
5.0

1.22

11.2
10.1

82.4
108
142

10.6
13.9
12.5

20.6
21.8

1.11

20.6
27.1
28.3

14.1
17.2
12.35

3.80
4.64
3.35

5.0
6.0

1.72
1.74
1.83

43.4
61.9
56.4

217
295
350

19.9
28.2
24.7

34.3
49.1
45.2

7.0

1.57

6.80

8.20

9.94

13.8

AIMgSi0.5; AIMgSil; AIZn4.5Mg1

DIN 9713 was withdrawn without replacement. Specialized dealers still offer channels
according to this standard.

172

Material science: 4.

a l s

Magnesium alloys, Titanium, Titanium alloys

Wrought magnesium alloys (selection)
Dcilive ry
f(D r m 1)
B

T D

2)

F20
F24

MgAI6Zn

3.5612

F27

MgAI8Zn

3.5812

F29
F31

1)

200
240

145
155

15
10

<80

270

195

10

290
310

205
215

10
6

o o

00 00
VI VI

3.3520
3.5312

Yield
strength

Bar diameter
mm
00 00
VI VI

MgMn2
MgAI3Zn

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm 2

o o

Designation

Materialnumber

cf. DIN 9715 (1982-08)

N/mm 2

Elong. at
fracture Properties,
EL
application
%

Corrosion resistant,
weldable, cold workable;
cladding, containers
Higher strength, limited weldability; lightweight material
in automotive, machine and
aircraft manufacturing

Delivery forms: B bars, e.g. round bars; T tubes; D stamped part

M material condition F20 R m = 10 20 = 200 N/mm 2

2)

Magnesium casting alloys (selection)

1

Designation *

MCMgAI8Zn1

Materialnumber 1 '

MC21110

Material- Hardness
M >
HB
condition 3 )
2

cf. DIN EN 1753 (1997-08)

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm 2

Yield
strength
N/mm 2

Elong. at
fracture
EL

Properties,
application

F
T6

50-65
50-65

160
240

90
90

2
8

K
K
D

F
T4
F

50-65
50-65
60-85

160
160
200-250

90
90
140-160

2
8
<7

F
T6

55-70
60-90

160
240

90
150

6
2

Very good castability,

dynamically loadable,
weldable;
gear and motor
housings

MCMgAI9Zn1

MC21120

K
K
D

F
T6
F

55-70
60-90
65-85

160
240
200-260

110
150
140-170

2
2
1-6

High-strength,
good sliding properties,
weldable;
automotive and aircraft
manufacturing,
armatures

MCMgAI6Mn
MCMgAI7Mn
MCMgAI4Si

MC21230
MC21240
MC21320

D
D
D

F
F
F

55-70
60-75
55-80

190-250
200-260
200-250

120-150
130-160
120-150

4-14
3-10
3-12

Fatigue resistant, dynamically loadable, high temperature resistant, gear

and motor housings

1)

2)
3)

For simplification, designations and material numbers are written without the "EN-" prefix,
e.g. MCMgAIBZnl instead of EN-MCMgAI8Zn1.
M casting method: S sand casting; K permanent mold casting; D die casting
Material condition, see designation of aluminum casting alloys, page 168

Titanium, titanium alloys (selection)

Designation

Materialnumber

Dilive>ry
f<Drm 1)
S

Sheet
thickness
s
mm

cf. DIN 17860 (1990-11)

Hardness
HB

Tensilestrength
Am
N/mm 2

Elong. at
Yield
strength fracture Properties,
EL
application
N/mm 2
%

Til
Ti2
Ti3

3.7025
3.7035
3.7055

0.4-35

120
150
170

290-410
390-540
460-590

180
250
320

30
22
18

TilPd
Ti2Pd

3.7225
3.7235

0.4-35

120
150

290-410
390-540

180
250

30
22

TiAI6V6Sn2

3.7175

<6
6-50

320
320

> 1070
> 1000

1000
950

10
8

T1AI6V4

3.7165

<6
6-100

310
310

>920
>900

870
830

8
8

TiAI4Mo4Sn2

3.7185

6-65

350

> 1050

1050

1)

Delivery forms: S sheet and strip; B bars, e.g. round bars; T tubes

Weldable, solderable,
glueable, machinable,
cold and hot workable,
fatigue resistant,
corrosion resistantweight saving designs
in machine construction,
electrical engineering,
precision engineering,
optics and medical technology, chemical industry, food industry, aircraft manufacturing

Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals

173

Overview of the heavy non-ferrous metals

Heavy non-ferrous metals have a density q > 5 kg/dm 3 . However, in technical literature q ;> 4.5 kg/dm 3 is also used
as limit for non-ferrous metals.
Construction materials in machine and plant construction: copper, tin, zinc, nickel, lead and their alloys
Metals used for alloys: chromium, vanadium, cobalt (for effects of alloying metals, see page 129)
Precious metals: gold, silver, platinum
Pure metals: Homogeneous structure; low strengths, lesser importance as a construction material; usually used
based on material typical properties, e.g. good electrical conductivity.
Heavy non-ferrous metal alloys: Improved properties compared to base metals, such as higher strength, higher hardness, better machinability and corrosion resistance, construction materials for various application. Classified according to manufacture into wrought alloys and casting alloys.

Overview of common heavy non-ferrous metals and alloys

Metal, alloy
group

Main characteristics

Application examples

Copper (Cu)

High electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity, inhibits bacteria, viruses and molds, corrosion resistant, good appearance, easily recyclable

Pipes in heating and plumbing equipment,

cooling and heating coils, electrical wiring,
electrical parts, cookware, building facades

CuZn
(brass)

Wear-resistant, corrosion-resistant, good hot

and cold workability, good machinability, polishable, shiny golden, medium strengths

Wrought alloys: deep-drawn parts, screws,

springs, pipes, instrument parts
Casting alloys: armature housings,
plain bearings, precision mechanical parts

CuZnPb

Very good machinability, limited cold workability, Automatic screw machine parts, precision
very good hot workability
mechanical parts, fittings, hot-pressed parts

CuZn
multi-alloy

Good hot workability, high strengths,

wear-resistant, weather-resistant

Armature housings, plain bearings, flanges,

valve parts, water housings

CuSn
(bronze)

Very corrosion-resistant, good sliding properties,

good wear-resistance, strength resulting from
cold working is highly variable

Wrought alloys: hardware, screws,

springs, metal hoses
Casting alloys: spindle nuts,
worm gears, solid plain bearings

CuAl

High strength and toughness, very corrosion

resistant, salt water resistant, heat resistant,
highly cavitation resistant

Wrought alloys: highly stressed lock

nuts, ratchet wheels
Casting alloys: armatures in the chemical
industry, pump bodies, propellers

CuNi(Zn)

Extremely corrosion resistant, silvery

appearance, good machinability, polishable,
cold workable

Coins, electrical resistors,

heat exchangers, pumps, valves in
salt water cooling systems, ship building

Zinc (Zn)

Resistant to atmospheric corrosion

Corrosion protection of steel parts

ZnTi

Good workability, joinable by soft soldering

Roofing, gutters, downspouts

ZnAICu

Very good castability

Thin walled, finely articulated die castings

Tin (Sn)

Good chemical resistance, non-toxic

Coating of steel sheet

SnPb

Low viscosity

Soft solder

SnSb

Good dry running properties

Small, dimensionally precise die castings,

plain bearings with average loading

Nickel (Ni)

Corrosion resistant, high temperature resistant

Corrosion protection layer on steel parts

NiCu

Extremely corrosion resistant and high temp, resist. Equipment, condensers, heat exchangers

NiCr

Extremely corrosion resistant and very high temperature resistant and nonscaling, e.g. age hardenable

Lead (Pb)

Shields against x-ray and gamma rays, corrosion Shielding, cable sheathing,
tubes for chemical equipment
resistant, toxic

PbSn

Low viscosity, soft, good dry running properties

Soft solder, sliding sheaths

PbSbSn

Low viscosity, corrosion resistant, good running

and sliding properties (low friction)

plain bearings, small, dimensionally precise die

castings such as pendulums, parts for measuring
equipment, meters

Chemical installations, heating tubes,

boiler internals in power plants, gas turbines

174

Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals

Designation of heavy non-ferrous metals

cf. DIN 1700(1954-07)1)

Designation system (excerpt)

Example:

NiCu30Fe F45
GD - Sn80Sb

Special properties

Manufacture, application
E
G
GC
GD
GK
GZ
L
S
1)

Electrical material
Sand casting
Continuous casting
Die casting
Permanent mold casting
Centrifugal casting
Solder
Welding filler alloys

minimum tensile strength

R m = 10 45 N/mm 2
= 450 N/mm 2

a
9
h
ka
ku
ta
wa
wu
zh

age hardened
annealed
hard
naturally aged
cold worked
partially age hardened
artificially aged
hot worked
drawn hard

Chemical composition
Example

Comment

NiCu30Fe Ni-Cu alloy,

30% Cu, trace iron
Sn80Sb

Sn-Sb alloy, 80% Sn,

approx. 20% Sb

The standard has been withdrawn. However the material designations are
still used in individual standards.

Designation system for copper alloys

Examples:

F45

cf. DIN EN 1982 (2008-08) and 1173 (2008-08)

CuZn31Si
- R620
CuZn38Pb2
CuSn11Pb2 - C -GS

Casting method
GS Sand casting
GM Permanent mold casting
GZ Centrifugal casting GC Continuous casting
GP Die casting

Chemical composition
Example

Meaning

CuZn31Si

Cu alloy, 31% Zn, trace Si

CuZn38Pb2

Cu alloy 38% Zn, 2% Pb

CuSnl1Pb2

Cu alloy 11 % Sn, 2% Pb

Product form
C
B

Material in the form of castings

Material in ingot form
Wrought alloys (without code letter)

Material condition (selection)

Example

Meaning

Example

Meaning

A007
D

Elongation at fracture EL = 7%
Drawn, without specified
mechanical properties

Y450
M

Yield strength Rp = 450 N/mm 2

Manufactured condition, without specified
mechanical properties

H160

Vickers hardness HV = 160

R620

Minimum tensile strength Rm = 620 N/mm 2

Material numbers for copper and copper alloys

Example:

cf. DIN EN 1412(1995-12)

C W 024 A

Code letters for material groups

Letter

Material group

Letter

Material group

A or B

Copper

Copper-nickel alloys

C or D

Copper alloys, percentage of the

alloying element < 5%

E or F

Copper alloys, percentage of the

alloying elements > 5%
Copper-aluminum alloys

J
K
Lor M
N or P

Copper-zinc alloys
Copper-tin alloys
Copper-zinc binary alloys
Copper-zinc-lead alloys

R or S

Copper-zinc multi-alloys

Material numbers for castings of zinc alloys

Example:

cf. DIN EN 12844(1999-01)

Z P 04 1 0
Z Zinc alloy

P Casting
Al content
04 = 4% aluminum

Cu content
1 = 1% copper

Content of the next higher

alloying element
0 = next higher alloying
element < 1 %

Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals

175

Copper alloys
Wrought copper alloys
Designation,
Material
number11

Bars
03)
mm

C>

Tensile
Yield
Elong. at
Hardness strength strength fracture Properties,
application examples
HB
EL
Am
2
%
N/mm 2 N/mm

1 Copper-zinc alloys
CuZn28
(CW504L)

CuZn37
(CW508L)
CuZn40
(CW509L)

cf. DIN EN 12163(1998-04)

R310
R460

4-80
4-10

H085
H145

4-80
4-10

R310
R440

2-80
2-10

H070
H140

4-80
4-10

R340
H080

2-80

85-115
> 145
-

70-100
> 140

310
460
-

120
420

27

310
440
-

340

120
400
-

260

30
-

25

> 80

1 Copper-zinc alloys (multi-alloys)

CuZn31Si
(CW708R)

CuZn38Mn1 Al
(CW716R)

CuZn40Mn2Fe1
(CW723R)

R460
R530

5-40
5-14

H115
H140

5-40
5-14

R490
R550

5-40
5-14

H120
H150

5-40
5-14

R460
R540

5-40
5-14
5-40
5-14

Very good cold workability, good

hot workability, machinable,
very easily polished; deep-drawn
parts, screws, springs, press rollers
Very good hot workability,
machinable; rivets, screws
cf. DIN EN 12163 (1998-04)

115-145
> 140
-

120-150
> 150
-

460
530

250
330

22
12
-

490
550

210
280

18
10

460
540

270
320

20
8

H110
H150

Very good cold workability, good

hot workability, machinable,
very easily polished;
instrument parts, bushings

110-140
> 150

I Copper-zinc-lead alloys

Good cold workability; hot workable,

machinable, good sliding properties;
sliding parts, bearing bushings,
guides
Good hot workability, cold
workable, machinable, sliding
properties, weather resistant;
sliding elements, guides
Good hot workability, cold workable,
machinable, average strength,
weather resistant;
equipment manufacturing,
architecture
cf. DIN EN 12164(2000-09)

CuZn36Pb3
(CW603N)

R340
R550

40-80
2-4

90
150

340
550

160
450

20

Excellent machinability, limited cold

workability; automatic lathe parts

CuZn38Pb2
(CW608N)

R360
R550

40-80
2-6

90
150

360
550

150
420

25

Excellent machinability, good cold and

hot workability; screw machine parts

CuZn40Pb2
(CW617N)

R360
R550

40-80
2-4

90
150

360
550

150
420

20

Excellent machinability, good hot

workability; stamping blanks, gears

I Copper-tin alloys
CuSn6
(CW452K)

CuSn8
(CW453K)

CuSn8P
(CW459K)
1)
2)

3)

cf. DIN EN 12163(1998-04)

R340
R550

2-60
2-6

H085
H180

2-60
2-6

R390
R620

2-60
2-6

H090
H185

2-60
2-6

R390
R620

2-60
2-6

H090
H185

2-60
2-6

85-115
> 180
-

90-120
> 185
-

90-120
> 185

340
550

230
500

45

390
620

260
550

45

390
620
-

260
550
-

45

High chemical resistance,

good strength;
springs, metal hoses, pipes and
bushings for suspension bodies
High chemical resistance,
high-strength, good sliding
properties; plain bearings, rolled bearing bushings, contact springs
Excellent sliding properties, high
wear-resistance, endurance strength;
highly stressed plain bearings in automotive and machine manufacturing

Material numbers according to DIN EN 1412, see page 174.

C Material condition according to DIN EN 1173, see page 174. In manufactured condition M all alloys can be delivered up to diameter D = 80 mm.
D Diameter for round bars, width across flats for square bars and hexagonal bars, thickness for flat bars.

176

Material science: 4.9 Heavy non-ferrous metals

Copper and refined zinc alloys

Designation,
Material
number1'

C>

Bars
03)
mm

Tensile
Elong. at
Yield
Hardness strength strength fracture Properties,
HB
EL
application examples
Am
2
%
N/mm 2 N/mm

Copper-aluminum alloys
CuAI10Fe3Mn2
(CW306G)

CuAI10Ni5Fe4
(CW307G)

R590
R690

10-80
10-50

H140
H170

10-80
10-50

R680
R740

10-80

H170
H200

10-80

cf. DIN EN 12163 (1998-04) I

590
690

140-180
> 170

330
510

12
6

680
740

170-210
> 200

480
530

10
8
-

I Copper-nickel-zinc alloys
CuNi12Zn24
(CW430J)

CuNi18Zn20
(CW409J)
1>
3)

R380
R640

2-50
2-4

H090
H190

2-50
2-4

R400
R650

2-50
2-4

H100
H200

2-50
2-4

Corrosion-resistant, wear-resistant,
fatigue-resistant, high-temperature
resistant; screws, shafts, gears, worm
gears, valve seats
Corrosion resistant, wear-resistant,
nonscaling, fatigue resistant, high temperature resistant; capacitor bases,
control parts for hydraulics
cf. DIN EN 12163(1998-04)

380
640

90-130
> 190

270
550

38

400
650

100-140
> 200

280
580
-

35

Extremely good cold workability,

machinable, easily polished;
deep-drawn parts, flatware, applied
arts, architecture, spring contacts
Good cold workability, machinable,
non-tarnishing, easily polished;
membranes, spring contacts,
flatware

Material numbers according to DIN EN 1412, see page 174. 2 ) C Material condition according to DIN EN 1173, see page 174.
D Diameter for round bars, width across flats for flat bars and hexagonal bars, thickness for flat bars.

| Cast copper alloys

cf. DIN EN 1982 (1998-12) |

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm 2

Yield strength
flp0,2
N/mm 2

Elong. at
fracture
A
%

CuZn15As-C
(CC760S)

160

70

20

45

Excellent soft and hard solderability,

salt water resistant; flanges

CuZn32Pb2-C
(CC750S)

180

70

12

45

Good machinability, resistant to industrial water up to 90C; armatures

CuZn25AI5Mn4Fe-C
(CC762S)

750

450

180

CuSn12-C
(CC483K)

260

140

80

High wear-resistance;
spindle nuts, worm gears

CuSnl1Pb2-C
(CC482K)

240

130

80

Wear-resistant, good dry running

properties; plain bearings

CuAI10Fe2-C
(CC331G)

500

180

18

100

Mechanically stressed parts;

levers, housings, bevel gears

CuAI10Ni3Fe2-C
(CC332G)

500

180

18

130

Corrosion stressed parts;

armatures, propellers

CuAI10Fe5Ni5-C
(CC333G)

600

250

13

140

Strength and corrosion

stressed parts; pumps

Designation,
Material number11

Hardness
Properties, application
HB

Very high strength and hardness,

good machinability; plain bearings

1) Material numbers according to DIN EN 1412, see page 174. More cast Cu alloys for plain bearings, see page 261.
Strength values apply to separately sand-cast test specimens.

High-grade cast zinc alloys

cf. DIN EN 12844(1999-01)

Very good castability; preferred alloys
for die castings

ZP3 (ZP0400)
ZP5 (ZP0410)

280
330

200
250

10
5

83
92

ZP2 (ZP0430)
ZP8 (ZP0810)

335
370

270
220

5
8

102
100

Good castability; very good

machinability, universally applicable

ZP12 (ZP1110)
ZP27 (ZP2720)

400
425

300
300

5
2.5

100
120

Injection, blow, and deep-draw molds

for plastics, sheet metal working tools

177

Material science: 4.10 Other materials

Composite materials, Ceramic materials

Composite materials
Composite
material

Base
material11

1)

2)

Service
temperature
up to C

Application examples

Shafts, joints, connecting bars,

ship hulls, rotor blades

10800

50

Containers, tanks, pipes,

dome lights, body parts

53)

5000

190

Large-area, stiff housing parts,

power plugs

3.5 3)

6000

145

Housings for printers, computers,

televisions

3.5

11200

260

Lamp sockets and coils

in electrical equipment

205

11700

280

Bearings, valve seat rings,

seals, piston rings

1.44

155

2.2

10300

315

Light construction materials in

aerospace applications, metal
substitute

30

1.45

190

2.5

17150

260

Like FRP-PPS

PAI

30

1.42

205

11700

180

Like FRP-PAI

PEEK

30

1.44

210

1.3

13000

315

Like FRP-PEEK

EP

60

365

3.5

UP

35

1.5

130

3.5

PA 66

35

1.4

1602>

PC

30

1.42

90 2 )

PPS

30

1.56

140

PAI

30

1.56

PEEK

30

PPS

FRP
(Fiberglass
reinforced
plastic)

CFRP
(Carbon
fiber
reinforced
plastic)

Tensile Elong. at Modulus

tear
of
Fiber
Density strength
elasticity
content
E
e
r
ob
%
2
N/mm 2
%
g/cm 3 N/mm

EP epoxide
PPS polyphenylene sulfide

UP unsaturated polyester
PAI polyamideimide
3)

a y yield stress

PA 66 polyamide 66, semi-crystalline

PEEK polyetheretherketone

PC polycarbonate

es elongation at yield stress

| Ceramic materials
Mater ial
Name

Designation

Flexural Modulus Coefficient

of
of linear
Density strength
elasticity expansion
E
a
e
Ob
2
N/mm 2
1/K
g/cm 3 N/mm

Properties, application examples

Aluminum
silicate

C130

2.5

160

100000

0.000005

Hard, wear-resistant, chemical and heat resistant,

high insulating resistance;
insulators, catalytic converters, refractory housings

Aluminum
oxide

C799

3.7

300

300000

0.000007

Hard, wear-resistant, chemical and heat

resistant;
ceramic inserts, wire drawing dies, biomedicine

Zirconium
oxide

Zr02

5.5

800

210000

0.000010

High stability, high strength, heat and chemical

resistant, wear-resistant;
drawing dies, extrusion dies

Silicon
carbide

SiC

3.1

600

440000

0.000005

Hard, wear-resistant, thermal-shock resistance,

corrosion-resistant even at high temperatures;
abrasives, valves, bearings, combustion chambers

Silicon
nitride

Si 3 N 4

3.2

900

330000

0.000004

High stability, thermal-shock resistance,

high strength; cutting ceramics, guide and runner
blades for gas turbines

Aluminum
nitride

AIN

3.0

200

300000

0.000005

High thermal conductivity, high electrical

insulation property;
semiconductors, housings, heatsinks, insulating parts

178

Material science: 4.10 Other materials

Sintered metals
Designation system for sintered metals
Designation example:

Sint - A 1 0 sintered smooth

Code letters for material class

Code letter

Volume ratio
Rx in %

AF

<73

cf. DIN 30910-1 (1990-10)

1. 1st number for chemical composition

Area of application

Number Chemical composition

mass fraction in %

Filter

Sintered iron, sint. steel, Cu < 1 % with or without C

75 2.5

plain bearings

Sintered steel, 1 % to 5% Cu, with or without C

Sintered steel, Cu > 5%, with or without C

80 2.5

plain bearings
Formed parts with
sliding properties

Sintered steel, with or without Cu or C, other

alloying elements < 6%, e. g. Ni

85 2.5

plain bearing, formed parts

90 2.5

Formed parts

94 1.5

Formed parts

>95.5

Sintered forged
formed parts

Sintered steel, with or without Cu or C, other

alloying elements > 6%, e. g. Ni, Cr
Sintered alloys, Cu > 60%, e. g. sintered CuSn
6

7
3,9

Sintered nonferrous heavy metals, except for no. 5

Sintered light alloys, e. g. sintered aluminum
Reserved numbers

Treatment condition
Treatment condition of the material

Treatment condition of the surface

sintered
calibrated
heat treated

sintered smooth
calibrated smooth
sized and coined smooth

steam treated
sintered forged
isostatically pressed

Sintered metals (selection, soft magnetic sintered metals not included)

Designation
Sint-AF 40

Hardness Tensile strength

Chemical composition
HB m j n
Rm N/mm 2

Sint-AF 50

80-200

Sintered steel. Cr 16-19%, Ni 10-14%

40-160

Sintered bronze, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu

machined
surface treated

cf. DIN 30910-2-6 (1990-10)

Properties,
application examples
Filter parts for gas and
liquid filters
Bearing materials with
exceptionally large pore volume for the best emergency
running properties; bearing
liners, bearing bushings

Sint-A 00

>25

>60

Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1%

Sint-A 20

>40

>150

Sintered steel, C < 0.3%, Cu 15-25%

Sint-A 50

>25

>70

Sintered bronze, C < 0.2%, Sn 9 - 1 %, rem. Cu

Sint-A 51

>18

>60

Sintered bronze, C 0.2-2%, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu

Sint-B 00

>30

>80

Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1 %

Sint-B 10

>40

>150

Sintered steel C < 0.3%, Cu 1 - 5 %

Sint-B 50

>30

>90

Sintered bronze, C < 0.2%, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu

Sint-C 00

>45

>150

Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1 %

Sint-C 10

>60

>200

Sintered steel C < 0.3%, Cu 1 - 1 , 5 %

Sint-C 40

>100

>300

Sintered steel. Cr 16-19%, Ni 10-14%, Mo 2%

Sint-C 50

>35

>140

Sintered bronze, C < 0.2%, Sn 9-11 %, rem. Cu

Sint-D 00

>50

>250

Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1 %

Sint-D 10

>80

>300

Sintered steel C < 0.3%, Cu 1 - 5 %

Sint-D 30

>110

>550

Sintered steel C < 0.3%, Cu 1 - 5 % , Ni 1 - 5 %

Sint-D 40

>100

>450

Sintered steel Cr 16-19%, Ni 10-14%, Mo 2%

Sint-E 00

>60

>200

Sintered iron, C < 0.3%, Cu < 1 %

Sint-E 10

>100

>350

Sintered steel C < 0.3%, Cu 1 - 5 %

Sint-E 73

>55

>200

Sintered aluminum Cu 4 - 6 %

Formed parts for precision

engineering, for household
appliances, for the electrical
industry

Sint-F 00

>140

>600

>180

>770

Sinter forged steel, containing C and Mn

Sinter forged steel, containing C, Ni, Mn, Mo

Sealing rings, flanges for

muffler systems

Sint-F 31

Plain bearings with very

good dry running properties,
low stressed formed parts
Plain bearings, formed parts
with average stress with
good sliding properties; auto
parts, levers, clutch parts
Formed parts for higher
stresses; wear-resistant
pump parts, gears, some are
corrosion-resistant

Material science: 4.1

astis

Overview of plastics
Disadvantages:
lower strength and heat resistance in
comparison to metals
some are combustible
some are nonresistant to solvents
limited material reutilization

General
properties

Advantages:
low density
electrically insulating
heat and sound absorbing
decorative surface
economical forming
weather and chemical resistance

Classification

Thermoplastics

Thermosets

Elastomers

Processing

Hot workable
Weldable
Generally glueable
Machinable

Not workable
Non-weldable
Glueable
Machinable

Not workable
Non-weldable
Glueable
Machinable at low temperatures

Fabrication

Injection molding
Injection blow molding
Extruding

Pressing
Transfer molding
Injection molding, molding

Pressing
Injection molding
Extruding

Recycling

Easily recyclable

Not recyclable,
possible reuse as filler

Not recyclable

Temperature behavior

Structure
Amorphous thermoplastica

brittle hard

thermoelastic

thermo- viscous
plastic

range of use

V> .O

Filamentary macromolecules
without cross-linking

elongation at
fracture
20C
temperature T

a welding range; b hot-working ;

c injection molding, extrusion

20C
temperature T

a welding range; b hot-working,c injection molding, extrusion

Semi-crystalline thermoplastic
/
^.lamella (crystalline)

amorphous
intermediate
layers

Crystalline areas have

greater cohesive forces
Filamentary thermoset plastics

hard
tensile strength

range of use

OJ ro1
* g
Macromolecules with
many cross-links

e l o n g a t i o n ^ fracture^
20C 50C
temperature T-

Filamentary elastomers

rubber-elastic

brittle
hard

_to

t
Macromolecules in random
condition with few cross-linkages

range of use
to . 0

QJ "NJ

. cn
0C 20C
temperature J

180

Material science: 4.1

astis

Basic polymers, fillers and reinforcing materials

Designations for basic polymers
DesigMeaning
nation

Type11

ABS

Acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene
AM MA Acrylonitrile-methylmethacrylate

T
T

ASA
CA
CAB
CF
CMC

T
Acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate
T
Cellulose acetate
T
Cellulose acetate butyrate
D
Cresol-formaldehyde
MNM
Carboxymethyl cellulose

CN
CP
EC
EP

Cellulose nitrate
Cellulose propionate
Ethyl cellulose
Epoxide

EVAC
MF
PA

Ethylene-vinyl acetate
Melamine formaldehyde
Polyamide

1)

MNM
T
MNM
D
E
D
T

cf. DIN EN ISO 1043-1 (2002-06)

DesigMeaning
nation

Type11

DesigMeaning
nation

Type11

PAK
PAN
PB
PBT

Polyacrylate
Polyacrylonitrile
Polybutene
Polybutylene terephthalate

T
T
T
T

PTFE
PUR
PVAC
PVB

Polytetrafluoroethylene
Polyurethane
Polyvinyl acetate
Polyvinyl butyral

T
D
T
T

PC
PCTFE
PE
PET
PF

Polycarbonate
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene
Polyethylene
Polyethyleneterephthalate
Phenol formaldehyde

T
T
T
T
D

PVC
PVDC
PVF
PVFM
PVK

Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinylidene chloride
Polyvinyl fluoride
Polyvinyl formaldehyde
Poly-N-vinylcarbazole

T
T
T
T
T

PIB
Polyisobutene
PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate
POM Polyoxymethylene;
Polyformaldehyde

T
T
T

SAN
SB
SI
SMS

Styrene-acrylonitrile
Styrene-butadiene
Silicone
Styrene-a-methylstyrene

T
T
D
T

PP
PS
PSU

T
T
T

UF
UP
VCE

Urea-formaldehyde
Unsaturated polyester
Vinyl chloride-ethylene

D
D
T

Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polysulfone

MNM modified natural materials; E elastomers; D thermoset plastics; T thermoplastics

Code letters for designation of special properties

Special
properties

CL 1 '
B
C
D
E

block, brominated
chlorinated; crystalline
density
foamed;
elastomer

CL1>
F
H
I
L
M

Special
properties
flexible; liquid
high; homo
impact tough
linear, low
moderate, molecular

cf. DIN EN ISO 1043-1 (2002-06)

CL1>
N
O
P
R
S

Special
properties
normal; novolak
oriented
plasticized
raised; resol; hard
saturated; sulphonated

Special
properties

CL1>
T
U
V

temperature
ultra; no plasticizers
very
weight
cross-linked, cross-linkable

w
X

PVC-P: Polyvinylchloride, plasticized; PE-LLD: Linear Polyethylene low density

1)

code letter

Code letters and abbreviations for fillers and reinforcing materials cf. DIN EN ISO 1043-2 (2002-04)
Abbreviation for material11
Designation

Material

Boron

C
D
E

Carbon
Aluminum trihydrate
Clay

Designation
G
K
L
M

Material
Glass
Calcium carbonate
Cellulose
Mineral, metal 2 '

Designation
P
Q
R
S

Material

Designation

Material

Mica

Talc

Silicate
Aramid
Synthetic materials

W
X

Wood
not specified
other

Abbreviations for shape and structure

Designation
B

Shape, structure

Designation

Shape, structure

Designation

nonwoven (thin)

VV

veneer

Shape, structure

ground stock

whiskers

paper

woven

chips, shavings

knitwear

roving

not specified

powder

laminates

peelings, flakes

yarn

fibers

matted, thick

spun yarn, cord

other

=>

2)

Designation

pearls, balls,
beads

11

Shape, structure

GF: glass fiber; CH: carbon whisker; MD: mineral powder

The materials can be further designated, e.g. by its chemical symbol or another symbol from relevant international standards.
For metals (M) the type of metal must be specified by the chemical symbol.

Material science: 4.1

astis

Identification, Distinguishing characteristics

Methods for identifying plastics
Floa ting test
Solution density
Plastics
in g/cm 3
floating
0.9-1.0
1.0-1.2

1.2-1.5
1.5-1.8
1.8-2.2

Solubility in
solvents

PB, PE, PIB, PP

Thermosets and
ABS, ASA, CAB, CP, PTFE are not soluble.
PA, PC, PMMA,
PS, SAN, SB
Other thermoplastics are soluble
CA, PBT, PET,
in certain solvents;
POM, PSU, PUR
e.g. PS is soluble in
Organically filled
benzene or acemolding material
tone.
PTFE

Visual test
Behavior when
Appearance of the specimen is
heated
transparent
cloudy
CA, CAB, CP,
EP, PC, PS,
PMMA, PVC,
SAN

ABS, ASA,
PA, PE,
POM, PP,
PTFE

Thermopl. soften and melt

Thermosets and elastomers
decompose without softening

Touch

Burning test

Waxy to the touch:

PE, PTFE, POM, PP

flame color
fire behavior
soot formation
odor of the smoke

Distinguishing characteristics of plastics

Designation1'

Density
g/cm 3

Burning behavior

Other characteristics

Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells like

coal gas

Tough elastic, is not dissolved by carbon

tetrachloride, sounds dull

ABS

= 1.05

CA

1.31

Yellow, sputtering flame, drips, smells like

distilled vinegar and burnt paper

Pleasant to the touch, sounds dull

CAB

1.19

Yellow, sputtering flame, drips burning,

smells like rancid butter

Sounds dull

MF

1.50

Very flammable, chars with white

edges, smells like ammonia

Very brittle, rattling sound

(compare to UF)

PA

~ 1.10

Blue flame with yellow edges, drips

in fibers, smells like burnt horn

Tough elastic, not brittle, sounds dull

PC

1.20

Yellow flame, goes out after flame is

removed, soots, smells like phenol

Tough hard, not brittle, rattling sound

PE

0.92

Light flame with blue core, drips off burning,

odor like paraffin, smoke hardly
visible (compare with PP)

Wax like surface, can be scratched with the

fingernail, not brittle, working
temperature > 230C

PF

1.40

Very flammable, yellow flame, chars,

smells like phenol and burnt wood

Very brittle, rattling sound

PMMA

1.18

Luminous flame, fruity odor,

crackles, drips

Clear when uncolored, sounds dull

POM

1.42

Bluish flame, drips, smells like

formaldehyde

Not brittle, rattling sound

PP

0.91

Light flame with blue core, drips off burning,

odor like paraffin, smoke hardly
visible (compare with PE)

Cannot mark with fingernail,

not brittle

PS

1.05

Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells sweet

like coal gas, drips off burning

Brittle, sounds like tinny metal, is dissolved

by carbon tetrachloride among others

PTFE

2.20

Nonflammable, strong odor when red hot

Waxy surface

PUR

1.26
0.05

Yellow flame, very strong odor

Polyurethane, rubber elastic

Polyurethane foam

PVC-U

1.38

Very flammable, extinguishes after the flame

is removed, smells like hydrochloric acid, chars

Rattling sound (U = hard)

PVC-P

1.20-1.35

Can be more flammable than PVC-U, depending

on plasticizer, smells like hydrochloric acid, chars

Rubbery flexible, no sound (P = soft)

SAN

1.08

Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells

like coal gas, drips off burning

Tough elastic, is not dissolved by carbon

tetrachloride

SB

1.05

Yellow flame, soots strongly, smells like

coal gas and rubber, drips off burning

Not as brittle as PS, is dissolved by

carbon tetrachloride among other things

UF

1.50

Very flammable, chars with white

edges, smells like ammonia

Very brittle, rattling sound

(compare to MF)

UP

2.00

Luminous flame, chars, soots, smells

like styrene, glass fiber residue

Very brittle, rattling sound

1)

Compare to page 180

182

Material science: 4.1

astis

Thermoplastics (selection)
Abbreviation

Density
Designation

Trade name

ABS

AcrylonitrileTerluran,
butadiene-styrene Novodur

PA 6

Polyamide 6

PA 66

Polyamide 66

PE-HD

Polyethylene,
high density

Durethan,
Maranyl,
Resistane,
Ultramid,
Rilsan

Working
TensileImpact temperature,
strength11 toughness long-term2' Application examples

g/cm 3

N/mm 2

mJ/mm 2

1.05

35-56

80n.f. 3 '

85-100

1.14

43

n.f. 3)

80-100

1.14

57

0.96

0.92

4)

80-100

20-30

n.f. 3 '

80-100

8-10

n.f.3>

60-80

Hostalen,
Lupolen,
Vestolen A

21

Telephone housings,
instrument panels,
surf boards
Gears,
plain bearings,
screws,
cables,
housings
Battery cases,
fuel containers,
garbage cans,
pipes,
cable insulation,
films,
bottles

PE-LD

Polyethylene,
low density

PMMA

Polymethylmethacrylate

Plexiglas,
Degalan,
Lucryl

1.18

70-76

18

70-100

Optical lenses,
warning lights,
dials,
lighted letters

POM

Polyoxymethylene;

Delrin,
Hostaform,
Ultraform

1.42

50-70

100

95

Gears,
plain bearings,
valve bodies,
housing parts

Polypropylene

Hostalen PP,
Novolen,
Procom,
Vestolen P

PS

Polystyrene

Styropor,
Polystyrol,
Vestyron

PTFE

Polytetrafluorethylen

Hostaflon,
Teflon,
Fluon

PP

PVC-P

PVC-U

Polyvinylchloride,
Hostalit,
plasticized
Vinoflex,
Vestolit,
Polyvinylchloride Vinnolit,
no plasticizers
Solvic

SAN

Styreneacrylnitrile
copolymer

Luran,
Vestyron,
Lustran

SB

Styrenebutadiene
copolymer

Vestyron,
Styrolux

11

0.91

1.05

21-37

40-65

13-20

100-110

55-85

Packaging material,
flatware,
film cartridges,
insulating boards
Maintenance free
bearings,
piston rings,
seals, pumps

2.20

15-35

n.f. '

280

1.20
-1.35

20-29

24)

60-80

1.38

35-60

n.f. 3 '

<60

1.08

78

23-25

85

Graduated dials,
battery housings,
headlight housings

22-50

40 n.f. 3 '

55-75

Television housings,
packaging material,
clothes hangers,
distribution boxes

1.05

Values depend on temperature and test speed.

Duration of temperature application has a significant effect.
3
' n.f. = no fracture of the specimen
4
' Impact toughness
2)

n.f. 3 '

Heating ducts,
washing machine
parts,
fittings,
pump housings

Hoses,
seals,
cable sheathing,
pipes,
fittings,
containers

Material science: 4.1

astis

Designation of thermoplastic molding materials

Polyethylene PE
Polypropylene PP

cf. DIN EN ISO 1872-1 (1999-10)

cf. DIN EN ISO 1873-1 (1995-12)

Designation system
Name
Standard
block:
number block
Example:
Thermoplastic
ISO 1873

PP-R

EL

ISO 8773

06-16-003

Data block 1
In data block 1 the molding material is designated by its abbreviation PE or PP after the hyphen.
For polypropylene the additional information follows: PP-H homopolymers of the propylene, PP-B thermoplastic,
impact tough PP (so-called block-copolymer); PP-R thermoplastic, static copolymers of the propylene.
Data block 2
Intended applications and/or
processing methods for PE and PP
SymPosition 1
bol

Important properties, additives and coloring

for PE and PP
SymSymPositions 2 to 8
Positions 2 to 8
bol
bol

SymPosition 1
bol

B
C

Blow molding
Calendering

L
M

Monofilam. extrusion
Injection molding

A
B

Process stabilizer
Anti-blocking agent

L
N

Light stabilizer
Natural colors

E
F

Extrusion
Extrusion (films)

Q
R

Stamping
Rotomolding

C
D

Artificial color
Powder

P
R

Impact tough
Mold release agent

C
H

General use
Coating

S
X

Powder sintered
Unspecified

E
F

Blowing agent
Fire extinguisher

S
T

Sliding and lubricating agent

Increased transparency

Cable insulation

Fiber production 3 '

C
H

Pellets
Thermal aging stabilizer

X
Y
Z

Cross-linkable
Increased electr. conductivity
Static inhibitor

Data block 3
Density of PE in kg/m 3

Modulus of elasticity
for PP in MPa (N/mm 2 )

Symbol

above-to

Symbol

00
03
08

-901
901-906
906-911

02
06
10

13
18
23

911-916
916-921
921-925

28

27
33
40

925-930
930-936
936-942

Impact toughness for PP in kJ/m2

02
05

-3
3-6

45
50
57
62

942-948
948-954
954-960
960

09
15
25
35

6-12
12-20

Melting mass flow rate in g/10 min

Conditions for PE
Load
Temp,
in kg
in C

above-to
-400
400-800

190
190
190
190

800-1200

16

1200-2000

40

2000-3500
3500

0.325
2.16

5.00
21.6

for PP and PE

Symbol

above-to

000
001
003

-0.1
0.1-0.2

006
012
022
0,45
090
200
400
700

0.4-0.8
0.8-1.5
1.5-3.0
3.0-6.0

0.2-0.4

6-12

12-25
25-50
50

20-30
30
Data block 4 for PE and PP

Position 1: Symbol for filler/reinforcer grade

Symbol Material
B
C
G

Boron
Carbon
Glass

K
L
M

Chalk
Cellulose
Mineral, metal

Symbol Material
S
T
W
X

Position 2: Symbol for physical form

Symbol Form

Synthetic,
organic
Talcum

B
D
F

Pearls, balls
Powder
Fiber

Wood
Not specified
Other

G
H

Ground stock
Whiskers

Symbol Form

Lamina
Flakes
Not specified

Other

Position 3: Mass percentage of the filler material

Thermoplastic ISO 1873-PP-H, M 40-02-045, TD40: Polypropylene molding material, homopolymer,
fabricated by injection molding, modulus of elasticity 3500 MPa; Impact toughness 3 kJ/m 2 , melting mass
flow rate 4.5 g/10 min, filler 40% talcum powder
1>

Data block 5 optional - entry of additional requirements

2)

2 commas - data block missing

3)

only for PP

184

Material science: 4.1

astis

Thermoset molding materials, Laminated material

Designation and properties of thermoset plastic molding materials
Type
DIN 7708-2
(old standard)

Type
ISO 14526
cf.
page 180

Resin

Flexural
strength 1 '
N/mm 2

Filler

Pourable phenolic plastic molding materials (PF PMC)

Impact
toughness 1 '
kJ/m 2

Water
absorption
mg

cf. DIN EN ISO 14526 3 (2000-08)

31

PF (WD30+
MD20)

30% wood flour

20% mineral flour

Q: >40
M: > 50

Q >4.5
M >5.0

< 100

51

PF (LF20+
MD25)

20% cellulose fibers

25% mineral flour

Q: > 40
M: > 50

Q >4.5
M >5.0

< 150

84

PF (SC20+
LF15)

20% synthetic chips

15% cellulose fibers

Q: > 35
M: >45

Q >5.5
M >6.5

< 150

40% (to 50%) flaky

organ, synthesis product

Q: > 30
M: >45

Q >7.0
M >9.0

<200

40% (to 60%)

mica fibers

Q: > 30
M: >40

Q >2.5
M >3.5

<30

Phenolic
(formaldehyde)-resin
(PF)

74

PF (SS40
to SS50)

13

PF(PF40
to PF60)

83

PF(LF20+
MD25)

20% cellulose fibers

25% mineral fibers

Q: > 35
M: > 45

Q >5.5
M >6.0

< 150

12

PF (GF20+
GG30)

20% fiber glass

30% glass grist

Q: > 50
M: >60

Q >6.0
M >7.0

<30

=>

PMC ISO 14526- PF(WD30+MD20), M: Pourable molding compound (PMC), phenolic (formaldehyde)
resin (PF), approx. 30% of wood flour (WD30), approx. 20% of mineral flour (MD20); recommended
machining process: injection molding (M) 1)

Urea formaldehyde molding materials (UF PMC) and

cf. DIN EN ISO 14527 3 (2000-08)
urea/melamine formaldehyde molding materials (UF/MF-PMC) (UF/MF-PMC)
131.5

UF(LD10+
MD30),X,E2)

131

UF(LD10+
MD30)

130

UF(WD30+
MD20)
UF/MF
(LF20+S10)

Urea
(formaldehyde)
resin
(UF)
Urea/melamine
(formaldehyde) resin

20% cellulose powder

30% mineral flour

Q: > 45
M: > 55

Q: > 5.0
M: > 7.5

< 150

20% cellulose fibers

30% mineral flour

Q: > 45
M: > 55

Q: > 5.0
M: >7.5

< 150

30% wood flour

20% mineral flour

Q: > 35
M: >40

Q: > 4.5
M: > 5.0

<200

Q: > 6.5
M:-

< 100

20% cellulose fibers

10% organic
synthesis product

PMC ISO 14527 - UF(LD20+MD20), M: Pourable molding compound (PMC), urea formaldehyde resin
(UF), approx. 20% of cellulose powder (LD20), approx. 20% of mineral flour (MD20); recommended
machining process: injection molding (M) 1)

Laminated materials3*

cf. DIN EN 60893 (2004-12)

Resin types
Type of resin Designation
EP
MF
PF
UP
SI
PI
Nominal
thicknesses
t in mm

Epoxy resin
Melamine (formaldehyde) resin
Phenolic (formaldehyde) resin
Unsaturated polyester resin
Silicone resin
Polyimide resin

Types of reinforcing materials

Abbreviation Designation
CC
CP
CR
GC
GM
WV

Cotton fabric
Cellulose paper
Combined reinforcing material
Glass fiber fabric
Fiber glass mat
Wood veneer

0.4; 0.5; 0.6; 0.8; 1.0; 1.2; 1.5; 2; 2.5; 3; 4; 5; 6; 8; 10; 12; 14; 16; 20; 25; 30; 35; 40; 45; 50; 60; 70; 80; 90; 100
Board IEC 60893 - 3 - 4 - PF CP 201,10 x 500 x 1000: Board made of phenolic (formaldehyde) resin/cellulose
paper (PF CP 201) according to IEC standard4* 60893-3-4 with f= 10 mm, w= 500 mm, / = 1000 mm.

> Q = compression molding compound; M = injection molding compound

X = machining process not specified; A = free of ammonia; E = specific electric properties
3)
Applications: insulators for electrical equipment, for instance, or bearing liners, rollers and gears for machine construction
4)
IEC = International Electrotechnical Commission (international standard)
2)

Material science: 4.1

astis

Elastomers, Foam materials

Elastomers (rubber)
AbbreDesignation
viation 1 '
BR

Butadiene
rubber

CO

Epichlorhydrin
rubber

CR

Density
g/cm 3

Tensile
Elong: at
Working
Properties,
strength2'
fracture temperature
application examples
C
%
N/mm 2
High abrasion resistance;
tires, belts, V-belts

0.94

2(18)

450

1.27
-1.36

5(15)

250

Chloroprene
rubber

1.25

11 (25)

400

- 3 0 to +110 Oil and acid resistant, very flammable,

seals, hoses, V-belts

CSM

Chlorosulfonated
polyethylene

1.25

18 (20)

300

- 3 0 to +120

EPDM

Ethylenepropylene rubber

0.86

4(25)

500

Good electrical insulator, not resistant

- 5 0 to +120 against oil and gasoline; seals, profiles,
bumpers, cold water hoses

1.85

2(15)

450

Abrasion resistant, best thermal resistance;

- 1 0 to +190 aerospace and automotive industries;
rotary shaft seals, O-rings

IsobuteneIsoprene
rubber

0.93

5(21)

600

Weather and ozone resistant;

- 3 0 to +120 cable insulation, automotive hoses

IR

Isoprene
rubber

0.93

1 (24)

500

- 6 0 to +60

NBR

Acrylonitrilebutadiene
rubber

1.00

6(25)

450

Abrasion resistant, oil and gasoline resistant,

- 2 0 to+110 electr. conductors, O-rings, hydraulic hoses,
rotary shaft seals, axial seal

NR

Natural rubber
Isoprene rubber

0.93

22 (27)

600

- 6 0 to +70

Low resistance to oil, high strength;

truck tires, spring elements

PUR

Polyurethane
rubber

1.25

20 (30)

450

- 3 0 to +100

Elastic, wear-resistant; timing belts,

seals, couplings

SIR

Styrene-lsoprene
rubber

1.25

1 (8)

250

Good electr. insulator, water repellant

- 8 0 to +180 O-rings, spark plug caps, cylinder
head and joint sealing

0.94

5(25)

500

- 3 0 to +80

FKM

IIFt

SBR
1

Fluoro rubber

Styrene-Butadiene
rubber

' cf. DIN ISO 1629 (1992-03)

2)

- 6 0 to +90

Vibration damping, oil and gasoline

- 3 0 to +120
resistant; seals, heat
- 1 0 to +120
resistant dampers

Aging and weather resistant, oil resistant;

insulating material, molded goods, films

Low resistance to oil, high strength;

truck tires, spring elements

Low resistance to oil and gasoline;

tires, hoses, cable sheathing

Value in parentheses = with additive or filler reinforced elastomer

Foam materials

cf. DIN 7726 (1982-05)

Foam materials consist of open cells, closed cells or a mixture of closed and open cells.
Their raw density is lower than that of the structural substance. A distinction is made between hard, medium hard,
soft, elastic, soft elastic and integral foam material.
Stiffness, Raw material base of the
hardness foam material

Cell structure

15-30

Polystyrene
Polyvinylchloride
Hard

Polyethersulfone

Predominantly
closed
cell

Polyurethane
Phenolic resin
Urea-formaldehyde resin
Polyethylene

Open cell

Predominantly
Medium- Polyvinylchloride
closed
hard
cell
Melamine resin
to softPolyurethane polyester type
elastic
Open cell
Polyurethane polyether type
1)

Density
kg/m 3

Max. working
temperature
oC1)

Thermal
conductivity
W/(K m)

Water absorption in 7 days

Vol.-%

75(100)

0.035

2-3

50-130

60 (80)

0.038

<1

45-55

180 (210)

0.05

15

20-100

80(150)

0.021

1-4

40-100

130 (250)

0.025

7-10

5-15

90(100)

0.03

20

25-40

up to 100

0.036

1-2

50-70

- 6 0 to +50

0.036

1-4

10.5-11.5

up to 150

0.033

approx. 1

20-45

- 4 0 to +100

0.045

Long-term working temperature, short-term in parentheses

186

Material science: 4.1

astis

Plastics processing
Injection molding and extrusion
Injection molding
temperalture in C

Abbreviation

Substance

Injection presExtrusion
sure
process
in bar
temperature
in C

Mold

Shrinkage
in %

Tolersince grou|p 1 > for

GenDimeiisions
eral
wiith
toledeviaitions
rances
Series 12Series 2 2 1

PE

160-300

20-70

500

190-230

1.5-3.5

150

140

130

PP

170-300

20-100

1200

235-270

0.8-23'

150

140

130

PVC, hard

170-210 4 '

30-60

1000-1800

170-190

0.2-0.5

130

120

110

PVC, soft

170-200 4 '

20-60

300

150-200

1-2.5

PS

180-250

30-60

180-220

0.3-0.7

130

120

110

SB

180-250

20-70

180-220

0.4-0.7

130

120

110

SAN

200-260

40-80

180-200

0.5-0.6

130

120

110

ABS

200-240

40-85

800-1800

180-220

0.4-0.7

130

120

110

PMMA

200-250

50-90

400-1200

180-250

0.3-0.8

130

120

110

PA

210-290

80-120

700-1200

230-275

1-2

130

120

110

POM

180-230 4 '

50-120

800-1700

180-220

1-3.5

140

130

120

PC

280-320 4 '

80-120

>800

240-290

0.7-0.8

130

120

110

pF5)

901104)

170-190

800-2500

0.5-1.5 3 )

140

130

120

MF6>

95-110 4 )

160-180

1500-2500

0.6-1.7 3 >

130

120

110

UF5>

95-110

150-160

1500-2500

0.4-0.6

140

130

120

1)
3)
5)

2)
See table below
Series 1: Can be maintained without special effort, Series 2: Requires high finishing effort
4)
Transverse and longitudinal shrinkage may differ
With screw injection molding machine
6)
With organic filler material
With inorganic filler material

Tolerances for plastic molded parts

Tolerance
group
from table
above

cf. DIN 16901 (1982-11)

Nominal dimension range over - up to in mm

Codeletter1'

0-1

1-3

3-6

6-10

10-15 15-22 22-30 30-40 40-53 53-70 70-90

90120

120-

160

General tolerances
150

A
B

0.23
0.13

0.25
0.15

0.27
0.17

0.30
0.20

0.34
0.24

0.38
0.28

0.43
0.33

0.49
0.39

0.57
0.47

0.68
0.58

0.81
0.71

0.97
0.87

1.20
1.10

140

A
B

0.20
0.10

0.21
0.11

0.22
0.12

0.24
0.14

0.27
0.17

0.30
0.20

0.34
0.24

0.38
0.28

0.43
0.33

0.50
0.40

0.60
0.50

0.70
0.60

0.85
0.75

130

A
B

0.18
0.08

0.19
0.09

0.20
0.10

0.21
0.11

0.23
0.13

0.25
0.15

0.27
0.17

0.30
0.20

0.34
0.24

0.38
0.28

0.44
0.34

0.51
0.41

0.60
0.50

Tolerances for dimensions with deviations

1)

140

A
B

0.40
0.20

0.42
0.22

0.44
0.24

0.48
0.28

0.54
0.34

0.60
0.40

0.68
0.48

0.76
0.56

0.86
0.66

1.00
0.80

1.20
1.00

1.40
1.20

1.70
1.50

130

A
B

0.36
0.16

0.38
0.18

0.40
0.20

0.42
0.22

0.46
0.26

0.50
0.30

0.54
0.34

0.60
0.40

0.68
0.48

0.76
0.56

0.88
0.68

1.02
0.82

1.20
1.00

120

A
B

0.32
0.12

0.34
0.14

0.36
0.16

0.38
0.18

0.40
0.20

0.42
0.22

0.46
0.26

0.50
0.30

0.54
0.34

0.60
0.40

0.68
0.48

0.78
0.58

0.90
0.70

110

A
B

0.18
0.08

0.20
0.10

0.22
0.12

0.24
0.14

0.26
0.16

0.28
0.18

0.30
0.20

0.32
0.22

0.36
0.26

0.40
0.30

0.44
0.34

0.50
0.40

0.58
0.48

A For dimensions which do not depend on mold dimensions; B For dimensions which depend on mold dimensions

Material science: 4.1

astis

High-temperature plastics, Polyblends, Reinforcing fibers

High-temperature plastics
Abbreviation

Designation

PTFE

Polytetrafluoretylene
trade name
"Teflon"

PEEK

Tensile Working
strength temperature
N/mm 2 from to

Special properties

Application examples

10

-20 to 260 C,
short-term to
300 C

High-temperature strength
and chemical resistance, low
strength, hardness and
coefficient of friction

Bearings, seals, coatings, highfrequency cable, chemical

equipment

Polyetheretherketone

97

-65 to 250C,
short-term to
300 C

High-temperature strength
and chemical resistance, good
sliding behavior

Bearings, gears, seals, air and

space travel (instead
of metals)

PPS

Polyphenylensulfide

70

-200 to 220C,
short-term to
260 C

High strength, hardness, stiffness, high chemical, weather

and radiation resistance

Pump housings,
bearing bushings, space travel,
nuclear power stations

PSU

Polysulfone

-40 to 150C,
140-240 short-term to
200 C

High strength, hardness, stiffness, high chemical and radiation resistance, clear

Microwave dishes, spools,

circuit boards, oil level indicators, needle bearing cages

PI

Polyimide
trade name
"Vespel"

High strength in large

-240 to 360 C,
temperature range,
75-100 short-term to
radiation resistant, dark, non400 C
transparent

Jet engines, aircraft noses,

piston rings, valve seats, seals,
electronic connection
components

Polyblends
Polyblends (also known as "blends") are mixtures of different thermoplastics. The special properties of these copolymers result from numerous possible combinations of the properties of the original materials.
Abbreviation

Designation

Components

Special
properties

Application examples

S/B

Styrene/butadiene

90% polystyrene,
10% butadiene rubber

Brittle hard, at low temperatures not impact tough

Stacking boxes, fan

housings, radio housings

ABS

Acrylonitrile/butadiene/
styrene

90% styrene-acrylonitrile,
10% nitrile rubber

Brittle hard, impact tough

even at low temperatures

Telephones, dash-boards,
hub caps

PPE +
PS

Polyphenylenether +
Polystyrene

various compositions;
possibly can be reinforced
with 30% glass fiber

High hardness, high cold

impact toughness to
-40C, physiologically
harmless

Radiator grill, computer

parts, medical equipment,
solar panels,
trims

PC +
ABS

Polycarbonate +
Acrylnitrile/Butadiene/
Styrene

various
compositions

High strength, hardness,

Instrument panels,
toughness, dimensional
fenders, office machine
stability under heat,
housings, lamp housings
impact tough, shock-proof in motor vehicles

PC +
PET

Polycarbonate + Polyethyleneterephthalate

different
compositions

Exceptional impact toughness and shock resistance

Motorcycle helmets,
automotive parts

Reinforcing fibers
Designation

Density
kg/dm 3

Tensile
strength
N/mm 2

Elongation
at fracture
%

Special properties

Glass fiber
GF

2.52

3400

4.5

Isotropic 1 ', good strength, high- Body parts, aircraft manufacturing, sailboats
temp. strength, inexpensive

Aramide
fibers
AF 3 '

1.45

3400
-3800

2.0-4.0

Highly stressed light parts,

Lightest reinforcing fiber,
ductile, fracture tough, strongly crash helmets,
anisotropic 1 ', radar-penetrable bulletproof vests

Carbon
fiber
CF

1.6-2.0

1750
- 5000 2 '

0.35-2.1 '

Application examples

Parts for racing cars, sails for

Extremely anisotropic 1 ', highstrength, light, corrosion resist- racing yachts,
aerospace applications
ant, good electr. conductor

Thermosets (e.g. UP and EP resins) and thermoplastics with high working temperatures (e.g. PSU, PPE, PPS, PEEK,
PI) are used as embedding materials (so-called matrix).
1)

2)
3)

Isotropic = the same material properties in all directions; anisotropic = material properties in the direction of the
fibers are different from those transverse to fibers
Depends significantly on the fiber defect sites occurring during the manufacturing process
Trade name "Kevlar"

188

Material science: 4.1

aterials

Material testing methods - Overview

Material science: 4.1

189

aterials

Material testing methods - Overview

Illustration

Process

Applications, notes
page 195

Hardness test by Shore

The testing device (durometer) is pressed on
the test piece with contact pressure F
The spring loaded indenter penetrates
into the test piece
Working time 15 s

Control of plastics (elastomers).

It is hardly possible to derive any relationships to other material properties from the
shore hardness.

The shore hardness is displ. directly on the device

Shear test

page 191
Cylindrical specimens are loaded in standardUsed to determine the shear strength r s e, e.g.
ized equipment until fractured due to shearing
- for strength calculations of shear loaded
Breaking strength is determined from the
parts, e.g. pins
maximum shearing force and cross-sectional - to predict cutting forces in forming
area of the test specimen

Notched-bar impact bending test

Notched test specimens are subjected to
bending load by pendulum impact and are
fractured
Notch impact toughness = energy required
to deform and fracture the test specimen

Erichsen cupping test

page 191
- To test metallic materials for behavior after
impact bending loads
- To monitor heat treatment results, e.g.
with quenching and tempering
- To test the temperature behavior of steels

page 191
Sheet metal clamped on all sides is
deformed until crack formation by a ball
The deformation depth until crack propagation is a measure of deep drawing capability

- For testing of sheet metal and strip for

their deep drawing capability
- Evaluation of the sheet surface for
changes during cold working

Fatigue test

A?

Cylindrical specimens with polished surface

are alternately loaded with constant mean
stress a m and variable alternating stress
amplitude oA, until fracture. The graphical
representation of the series of tests yields
the Wohler (S-N) curve

Used to determine material properties with

dynamic loading, e.g.
- fatigue strength, fatigue endurance and
fatigue strength under alternating stresses
- endurance limit

A transducer sends ultrasonic signals

through the workpiece. The waves are
reflected by the front wall, the back wall and
by defects of a certain size

- Nondestructive testing of parts, e.g. for

cracks, cavities, gas holes, inclusions, lack
of fusion, differences in microstructure
- To determine the type of defect, the size
and the location of the defect
- To measure wall and layer thicknesses

Ultrasonic testing

The screen of the testing device displays the

echoes
The test frequency determines the detectable
defect size which is limited by the grain size
of the test specimen
Metallography
Etching metallographic test specimens (microsections) develops the microstructure which can then
be observed under the metallographic microscope.
Specimen preparation:
Removal
avoid structural transformation
Embedding - sharp edged microsections
Grinding
removal of layers of deformation
Polishing - high surface quality
Etching
-* structural development

- To check the crystalline structure

- To monitor heat treatments, forming and
joining processes
- To determine grain distribution and
grain size
- Defect testing

190

Material science: 4.1

aterials

Tensile test, Tensile test specimens

Tensile test
Stress-strain diagram
with distinct yield point,
e.g. for soft steel

EL
strain e in %

Stress-strain diagram
without distinct yield point,
e.g. for quenched and
tempered steel

cf. DIN EN 10002-1 (2001-12)

EL elongation at fracture
F
tensile force
F m maximum force
F e force at yield
strength limit
Fpo.2 force at yield
strength limit
at 0.2% strain offset
L0 initial gage length
Lu gage length
after fracture
d0
initial diameter of
the test specimen

Sq

initial cross section

of the test specimen
S u smallest test
specimen cross
section after fracture
e
normal strain
Z
reduction of area at
fracture
az
tensile stress
R m tensile strength
R e yield strength
ftpo.2 yield strength at
0.2% strain offset
Vs
yield strength ratio

Tensile test specimens

Normally, round proportional bars with an initial gage
length of L0 = 5 d0 are used.
Unmachined specimens are allowed with
- uniform cross sections, e.g. for specimens of sheet
metal, profiles, wires
- c a s t test specimens, e.g. of cast iron materials or
non-ferrous casting alloys
Elongation at fracture EL

Tensile stress

Tensile strength
P
m

^"m
7T"

Yield strength
R

F6
e

S~

Yield strength at
0.2 % strain offset

If tensile test specimens are used that contract during

the test, the initial gage length L 0 has an effect on the
elongation at fracture EL.
Smaller initial gage length L0 - greater elongation at
fracture EL

0.2
EL
strain in %

Yield strength ratio: \/ s

It provides information
dition of the steels:
normalized
quenched & tempered

= R e (fl p0 . 2 )/^m
about the heat treatment con14
Vs

0.5-0.7
0.7-0.95

Tensile test specimens

Shape A

cf. DIN 50125 (2004-01)

Round tensile test specimens with smooth cylindrical ends, shapes A and B
d0

10

12

14

Lo
Lc

20
24

25
30

30
36

40
48

50
60

60
72

70
84

Shape A f 1
M

5
65

Shape B ^

M6
40

Shapes, application

Shape A: Machined test specimens for clamping in the

tensioning wedge
12
17
6
8
10
15
Shape B: Machined test spe80
95 115 140 160 185
cimens with threaded heads
M8 M10 M12 M16 M18 M20 produce more precise mea50
60
75
90 110 125 surement of the elongation

Tensile test specimens, other shapes

Shape E

10

b
Shape E L0
B

8
30
12

10
35
15

10
40
15

20
60
27

22
70
29

25
80
33

25
90
33

Lc
Lt

38
115

45
135

50
80
140 210

90
230

105
260

Shapes, application

Flat specimens with heads

for tensioning wedges,
tensile test specimens of
115 strips, sheets, flat bars and
270 profiles

Shape C
Shape D
Shape F

Machined round test specimens with shouldered ends

Machined round test specimens with conical ends
Unmachined sections of round bars

Shape G
Shape H

Unmachined sections of flat bar steel and profiles

Flat specimens for testing sheets with thicknesses between 0.1 and 3 mm
Tensile test specimen DIN 50125 - A10x50: Shape A, dQ = 10 mm, L0 = 50 mm

Material science: 4.1

191

aterials

Shear test, Notched bar impact bending test, Cupping test

Shear test
hardened
bushings

cf. DIN 50141 (2008-07), withdrawn

Fm maximum shear force
d0 initial diameter of
the test specimen
/ specimen length

1
T

So initial cross section

of the test specimen
r s B shear strength

Shear strength

The test is carried out on tensile test machines with

standardized shear devices.
Shear test specimens
do

-0.020
Limit
deviations -0.370
I

10

12

16

-0.020
-0.370

-0.030
-0.390

-0.030
-0.345

-0.040
-0.370

-0.013
-0.186

-0.016
-0.193

-0.016
-0.193

50

50

50

50

110

110

110

50

Charpy impact test

cf. DIN EN 10045 (1991-04)

KU Notch impact energy in J, measured on a test specimen with U-notch
KV Notch impact energy in J, measured on a test specimen with V-notch

pendulum

Test specimen
The test specimen must be completely machined. Fabrication of the test material
should alter the material's microstructure as little as possible. No notch should be
visible with the naked eye at the notch root which runs parallel to the notch axis.
Notch impact test specimens
Notch
shape

Designation
Test specimen cross section
1

<=///

Normal test specimen

55

40

10

10

1.0

Normal test specimen

55

40

10

10

0.25

11

55

40

10

10

1.0

DVM test specimen

1)

Explanation

Erichsen cupping test

I Ft

MM
punch

D hole diameter of the die

d ball diameter of the punch
t thickness of the test sheet
w width of the test sheet

Test specimens
The test specimens must be flat and not have any burrs. Before clamping, the
sheets are to be lightly greased over with a graphite lubricant.
Tools and test specimen dimensions
Abbreviation

sheet metal
holder

cf. DIN EN ISO 20482 (2003-12), replacement for DIN 50101 and 50102

die
D

45

Deutscher Verband fur Materialprufung

(German Association for Material Testing)

IE Erichsen cupping depth value in mm

F sheet metal holding force in kN
I length of the test sheet

Normal test specimen with U-notch, Notch

impact energy 115 J, work capacity of the
pendulum impact tester 300 J
KV150 = 85 J: Normal test specimen with V-notch, Notch
impact energy 85 J, work capacity of the pendulum impact tester 150 J

test specimen

KU = 115 J:

% Notch shapes ^

i f

Testd imensic)n in mni or degree ()

b
hk
r
h
/w

Tool dimen;sions
F
D
d
kN
mm mm

Test specimen dimlensions

w
f
/
mm
mm
mm

IE

27

20

10

>90

>90

0.2-2

IE 4 0

40

20

10

>90

>90

2-3

IE 21

21

15

10

> w

55-90

0.2-2

IE11

11

10

> b

30-55

0.1-1

Application
Standard test
Tests on
thicker or
narrower
strips

IE = 12 mm: Erichsen cupping depth = 12 mm, standard test

192

Material science: 4.1

aterials

Hardness test by Brinell

Hardness test by Brinell

cf. DIN EN ISO 6506-1 (2006-03)

test load in N
D
ball diameter in mm
d
diameter of the impression in mm
dy, d2 individual measurement values of the
impression diameter in mm
h
depth of impression in mm
s
minimum thickness of the test specimen
in mm

if
1

-4

distance from edge in mm

Test conditions
Impression diameter
0.24- D < d < 0 . 6 D
Minimum test specimen thickness s > 8 h

Impression diameter
d

+ d

Brinell hardness

0.204 F

HBW =

ji D {D-\/d2

-d2

Distance from edge a > 3 d

Test specimen surface: metallic bright
Designation examples:

180 HBW 2.5/62.5

600 HBW 1 / 3 0 / 25

Hardness value

Indenter

Ball
diameter

Test force F

Impact time

Brinell hardness 180

Brinell hardness 600

W carbide ball

2.5 mm
1 mm

62.5 9.80665 N = 612.9 N

30 9.80665 N = 294.2 N

Unspecified:
Value entry:

10 to 15 s
25 s

Degree of loading, ball diameter, test loads and test materials

Degree of
loading
0.102 FID2
30
15

1)

Test loa d Fin N

with ball diam eter D 1 ) iri mm
1
2.5
10
5
294.2
-

1839

7355

Test range
Materials

Brinell
hardness
HBW

29420

Steel, nickel and titanium alloys

Cast iron
Copper, copper alloys

< 650
> 140
>200

14710

Light metal, light metal alloys

>35

10

98.07

612.9

2452

9807

Cast iron
Light metal, light metal alloys
Copper, copper alloys

<140
> 35
35-200

49.03

306.5

1226

4903

Copper, copper alloys

Light metals, light metal alloys

< 35
35-80

2.5

24.52

153.2

612.9

2452

Light metals, light metal alloys

< 35

9.807

61.29

245.2

980.7

Lead, tin

Small ball diameters for fine-grained materials, thin specimens or hardness tests in the outer layer. For hardness tests
on cast iron, the ball diameter D must be s 2.5 mm. Hardness values are only comparable if the tests were carried out
with the same degree of loading.

Minimum thickness s of the specimens

Ball diameter
D in mm

Minimum thickness s in mm for impression diameter d 1 > in mm

0.25 0.35

0.5

0.6

0.13 0.25 0.54

0.8

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.3

1.5

2.0

2.4

3.0

Example: D= 2.5 mm, d= 1.2 mm

minimum specimen thickness
s= 1.23 mm

0.23 0.37 0.67 1.07

2.5

453r

V12 1.46

2.0

0.58 0.69 0.92 1.67 2.45

10
1)

3.5 I 4.0 I 4.5 I 5.0 I 5.5 I 6.0

4.0

1.17 1.84 2.53 3.34 4.28 5.36 6.59

Table fields without thickness indicated lie outside of the test range 0.24 D< d< 0.6 D

8.0

Material science: 4.1

aterials

Hardness test by Rockwell, Hardness test by Vickers

193

194

Material science: 4.1

aterials

Martens hardness, Conversion of hardness values

Martens hardness by penetrant testing
indenter
test
specimen

F
h
s

cf. DIN EN ISO 14577 (2003-05)

test load in N
depth of penetration in mm
specimen thickness in mm
Martens hardness

Test specimen surface

Average roughnes s Ra at F

Material

0.1 N

2N

100 N

Aluminum

0.13

0.55

4.00

Steel

0.08

0.30

2.20

Carbide

0.03

0.10

0.80

HM 0 5 / 20 / 20 = 5700 N/mm 2

Designation:

Test method

Test load F

Test duration

Application of load

Martens hardn. value

Martens hardness

0.5 N

20 s

within 20 s

5700 N/mm 2

Applications

Conditions

Test range

2 N < F< 30 kN

Macro range
Micro range

F< 2 N or H > 0.2 pm

Nano range

h < 0.2 pm

Universal hardness test, e.g. for all metals,

plastics, carbides, ceramic materials;
micro and nano ranges: thin layer measurement,
microstructure components

Conversion tables for hardness values and tensile strength 1)

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm 2

1>

2)

Vickers
Brinell
hardness
hardness
HV
HB30
(F 2; 98 N)

R<ockwell hardnej;s
HRC

HRA

255
285
320
350
385

80
90
100
110
120

76
86
95
105
114

415
450
480
510
545

130
140
150
160
170

124
133
143
152
162

575
610
640
675
705

180
190
200
210
220

171
181
190
199
209

740
770
800
835
865

230
240
250
260
270

219
228
238
247
257

20
22
24
26

61
62
62
63

900
930
965
1030
1095

280
290
300
320
340

266
276
285
304
323

27
29
30
32
34

64
65
65
66
68

HRB2> HRF2>

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm 2

cf. DIN EN ISO 18265 (2004-02)

Vickers
RockweHI hardBrinell
hardness
ness
hardness
HV
HB30
(F 98 N)
HRA
HRC

48
56
62
67

83
87
91
94

1155
1220
1290
1350
1420

360
380
400
420
440

342
361
380
399
418

37
39
41
43
45

69
70
71
72
73

71
75
79
82
85

96
99
(101)
(104)
(106)

1485
1555
1595
1665
1740

460
480
490
510
530

437
456
466
485
504

46
48
48
50
51

74
75
75
76
76

87
90
92
94
95

(107)
(109)
(110)
(111)
(112)

1810
1880
1955
2030
2105

550
570
590
610
630

523
542
561
580
599

52
54
55
56
57

77
78
78
79
80

97
98
100
(101)
(102)

(113)
(114)
(115)

2180

650
670
690
720
760

618

58
59
60
61
63

80
81
81
82
83

64
65
66
68
68

83
84
85
85
86

(104)
(105)
-

800
840
880
920
940

Applies to unalloyed and low alloy steels and cast steel. Special tables of this standard are to be used for
quenched and tempered, cold worked and high-speed steels, as well as for various carbide types. Considerable
deviations are to be expected for high-alloyed and/or work-hardened steels.
The values in parentheses lie outside of the measurement range.

Material science: 4.1

195

aterials

Testing of plastics: Tensile properties. Hardness testing

Determination of the tensile properties on plastics
maximum force

Typical stress-strain
curves

Fy

yield stress

AZ-FM

change in length with

maximum load
change in length with
yield strength

ALFY

cf. DIN EN ISO 527-1 (1996-04)

L0
S0
otm
oy
M
Ey

Tensile strength
gage length
initial cross section
rr
tensile strength
yield strength
maximum elongation Yield strength
yield strain
Fy
CTY

ductile wifhouf
yield point
E

M1

e M 2 M3

Y2

strain e
Test specimens

Test Specimens
For each property, e.g. tensile strength, yield strength,
yield strain, at least five test specimens must be tested.
Application
- thermoplastic injection molded and extrusion
molding materials
- thermoplastic slabs and films
- thermoset molding materials
- thermoset slabs
- fiber reinforced composite materials, thermoplastic
and thermoset plastic

20

50

100

=>

Yield strain

/-n

Toler- Type
ance Lq
mm

1A

1B

5A

5B

50 0.5

50 0.5

20 0.5

10 0.2

50 0.5

50 0.5

25 0.25

20% h

mm

4 0.2

4 0.2

>2

>1

<1

<1

<1

200 10% b

mm

10 0.2

10 0.2

4 0.1

2 0.1

10-25

25.4 0.1

6 0.4

Test speed
in mm/min
2

Maximum elongation

Test specimen accordingI to

DIN EN ISO 527-2 for molding materials
DIN EN ISO 527-3 for films

Test speed

10

Tensile test ISO 527-2/1 A/50: Tensile test according to ISO 527-2; specimen type 1A; test speed 50 mm/min

Hardness test on plastics

Ball indentation test

cf. DIN EN ISO 2039-1 (2003-06)

F0 preload 9.8 N
F m test load

h
a

depth of penetration
distance from edge

specimen thickness

Test Specimens
distance from edge a > 10 mm, minimum specimen thickness s > 4 mm
Ball indentation hardness H in N/mm 2 for indentation depth h in mm
0.18
0.28
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.16

Test load
Fm >n N
49

22

19

16

15

13

12

11

10

132

59

51

44

39

35

32

30

27

25

24

358

160

137

120

106

96

87

80

74

68

64

961

430

370

320

290

260

234

214

198

184

171

Test specimen

Ball indentation hardness ISO 2039-1 H 132: H= 31 N/mm 2 at F M = 132 N

Hardness test by Shore on plastics

cf. DIN EN ISO 868 (2003-06)

F a contact pressure in N
F Test
specimen F test load

h
a

depth of penetration
distance from edge

specimen thickness

Test Specimens
Distance from edge a > 9 mm, minimum specimen thickness s > 4 mm
Test conditions for the Shore A and Shore D methods
Indenters for
Shore A
o
"SL

Shore D

Test
method

Fmax
in N

Fa
in N

7.30

10

if Shore hardness with Type D is < 20

40.05

50

if Shore hardness with Type A is > 90

=>

Application

85 Shore A: Hardness value 85; test method Shore A

196

Material science: 4.13 Corrosion, Corrosion protection

Corrosion
Electrochemical series of metals
In galvanic corrosion the same processes occur as in electrical elements where the base metals are corroded. The
voltage produced between two dissimilar metals under influence of a conducting liquid (electrolyte) can be taken
from the standard potentials of the electrochemical series. Standard potential refers to the voltage produced between
the electrode material and a platinum electrode immersed in hydrogen.
Passivation (formation of protective layers) alters the voltage between the elements.
Electrode
materials

co
CN
Mg
-3

-2.5

IT)
O
T
Mn

<q
T
Al

co
r-; o
o
Zn Cr

in
o C
oN o- o
Fe Ni Sn H

o
d
0+0
Ag

CO
o
+
Cu

M i
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
+0.5
Standard potentials of the electrode materials in volts
i

CM

Ol
+

Pt

Au
+1.5

+1

>

increasingly noble

increasingly base

Example: The standard potentials of Cu = +0.34 V and Al = -1.7 V yield a voltage of U = +0.34 V - (-1.67 V) = 2.01 V
between Cu and Al.

Corrosion behavior of metallic materials

Resistance in following environment
Country
Industrial
Sea
air
air
air

Materials

Corrosion behavior

Unalloyed and
alloy steels

Only resist corrosion in dry

areas

Stainless
steels

Resistant, but not against

aggressive chemicals

Aluminum and
Al alloys

Resistant, except the Al

alloys containing Cu

toe

Copper and
Cu alloys

Resistant, especially
Cu alloys containing Ni

Dry
ambient air

resistant

fairly resistant

non-resistant

Salt
water

toe

O unusable

Corrosion protection
Preparation of metal surfaces before coating
Processing step

Purpose

Process

Mechanical cleaning
and creating a good
surface for adherence

Removal of mill scale, rust and

dirt

Grinding, brushing, blasting with

water jet mixed with silica sand

Chemical cleaning and

creating an optimal
surface finish

Removal of mill scale, rust and grease

residues
Roughing or smoothing the surface

Etching with acid or lye;

degreasing with solvents;
chemical or electrochemical polishing

Preventative actions for corrosion protection

Actions

Examples

Select suitable materials

Stainless steel for parts for preparation in the

paper production

Observe corrosion protection principles in design

Same material on contact points, insulation layers

between the parts, avoiding gaps

Protective layers: protective oil or lubricant

chemical surface treatment
protective paint

Oiling sliding tracks and measuring tools

Phosphatizing, burnishing
Lacquer coat, possible after previous phosphatizing

Metallic coatings

Hot-dip galvanizing,
galvanic metal plating, e.g. chrome plating

Cathodic corrosion protection

Part to be protected, e.g. a ship propeller,

is connected to a sacrificial anode

Anodic oxidation of Al materials

A corrosion-resistant permanent oxide layer is produced

on the part, e.g. a rim

Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials

197

Disposal of substances*
Waste management laws

cf. Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act (2001-10)

Important principles of recycling management

Avoid waste, e.g. by in-house recycling management or a low-waste product design.
Utilize material waste, e.g. by recovery of raw materials from waste (secondary raw materials).
Use waste for recovery of energy (energy use), e.g. use as substitute fuel.
Waste must be recycled properly without adverse effect on the well being of the general public.
The disposal of waste is subject to monitoring by the responsible authorities (usually the administrative district). In
particular, wastes hazardous to health, air or water, explosive, and flammable especially need to be monitored.
The waste producer is responsible for proper disposal and documentation of disposal.
Examples of waste requiring special monitoring (hazardous waste) in metal processing industry 1 '
Disposal
code

Description of the
type of waste

Appearance, description,
source

Special instructions,
actions

150199D1

Packaging containing
hazardous impurities

Barrels, canisters, buckets and

cans contain residues of
paints, lacquers, solvents,
cleaning agents, rust preventatives, rust and silicone
removers, spackle, etc.

Emptied, drip free, brush or spatula clean

conditions are not wastes requiring
special monitoring. They are considered
retail packaging. Disposal using the dual
system or in metal bins using a waste
management company. Bins with dried
paint are similar to house-hold commercial
waste.
Spray cans should be avoided if possible;
they must be disposed as hazardous waste.

Spray cans with residual

contents
160602

Nickel cadmium
batteries

160603

Mercury dry cells

160604

Alkaline batteries

All batteries containing contaminants are

Rechargeable batteries, e.g.
from drills and screwdrivers, etc. labeled. The dealer must accept their return
at no charge.
Coin cell batteries, mercury
Consumers are required to return them to
containing monocell batteries
the dealer or to a public recycling center.
Non-rechargeable batteries

060404

Mercury containing
waste

Fluorescent lamps
(so-called "neon tubes")

Can be recycled. Return to dealer or to

waste disposer.
Do not put in glass recycling!

120106

Used machining oils,

containing halogens, no
emulsion

Water free drilling, turning,

grinding and cutting oils,
so-called cooling lubricants

120107

Used machining oils,

Old, water free
halogen free, no emulsion honing oil

110

Synthetic machining oils

Avoid cooling lubricants as much as possible, e.g. by

dry machining
minimum quantity cooling lubrication
Separated collection of different cooling
lubricants, emulsions, solvents. Inquire
with supplier for reprocessing or
combustion (energy recycling) options.

130202

Non- chlorinated machine, Used oil and gear oil,

gear and lubricating oils
hydraulic oil, compressor oil
from piston air compressors

150299D1

Vacuumed and filter materials, wipe cloths and protective clothing with hazardous contaminants

For example, used rags, clean- Option of using a rental service for cleaning
ing cloths; brushes contamicloths.
nated with oil or wax, oil
binders, oil and lubricant cans

130505

Other emulsions

Condensation water from

compressors

Use compressor oils with de-emulsifying

properties; inquire about the option of oil
free compressors.

140102

Other halogenated
solvents and solvent
mixtures

Per (-chloroethane)
Tri (-chloroethene)
Mixed solvents

Recycling by suppliers and test replacement with aqueous cleaning solution.

11

Cooling lubricants from synthetic oils, e.g. on ester-based

Recycling through supplier or a licensed

waste disposal service.
Used oils of known origin may be recycled
by secondary refining or energy recovery.
Do not mix with other materials!

Regulation governing wastes requiring special monitoring - BestbuAbfV (1999-01), Appendix 1: Wastes listed in
the European Waste Catalog (EAK waste) are considered to be especially hazardous. Appendix 2: EAK waste
requiring special monitoring as well as waste types not on the EAK list ( Letter "D" in Disposal code).
*) According to European Standards

198

Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials

Hazardous materials and material characteristics of hazardous gases

cf. EC Directive R 67/548/EEC1)

Identification and handling of hazardous materials

Substance

Identificatio n 2 )
Symbol R-phrases
S-phrases

Acetone

F, Xi

Acetylene

F+

5; 6; 12

Acrylonitrile

F, T, N

45; 11; 23/24;

25; 37/38; 41;
43; 51/53

Ammonia

C; N

34; 50

Arsenic

T; N

Asbestos

11; 36; 66; 67

9; 16; 26

Substance

Identificatio n 2 >
Symbol R-phrases
S-phrases

Tetrachlorethane ("Per")

Xn; N

40; 51/53

23; 36/37;
61

(2); 9; 16; 33

Kerosine

45

53; 45

9; 16; 45;
53; 61

Phenol

T;C

23/24/25; 34;
48/20/21/22;
68

24/25; 26;
28; 36/37;
39; 45

26; 36/37/39;
61

Phosphoric acid

34

23; 45

23/25; 50/53

20/21; 28; 45;

60; 61

Propane

F+

12

9; 16

45; 48/23

53; 45

Mercury

T; N

23; 33; 50/53

7; 45; 60; 61

Gasoline

45; 65

53; 45

Hydrochloric acid C

34; 37

26; 45

Benzene

F; T

45; 46; 11;

36/38; 48/23/
24/25; 65

53; 45

Oxygen

17

Lead
compounds

T; N

61; 20/22; 33;

62; 50/53

53; 45; 60; 61

Lubricating grease T

45

53; 45

Chromium
compounds

T; N

49; 43; 50/53

53; 45; 60; 61

Lubricating oil

45

53; 45

Hydrofluoric acid
(HF)

T+;C

26/27/28;
35

7/9; 26;
36/37; 45

Sulphoric acid

35

26; 30; 45

Ceramic
mineral fibers

49; 38

53; 45

Styrene

Xn

10; 20; 36/38

23

Carbon
monoxide

F+; T

61; 12; 23;

48/23

53; 45

Turpentine, oil

Xn; N

10; 20/21 ;
36/38; 43;
51/53; 65

36/37; 46;
61; 62

Fiber glass

Xn

38; 40

35/37

Trichlorethylene
(Tri)

45; 36/38;
52/53; 67

53; 45; 61

Nicotine

T+;N

25; 27; 51/53

36/37; 45; 61

Hydrogen

F+

12

9; 16; 33

11
2)

As per Art. 1a of the Regulation on Hazardous Materials applicable in Germany since 31 October 2005
Cf. R-phrases on page 199, S-phrases on page 200, Safety signs on page 342; the slash (/) between the number indicates a combination of R-phrases or S-phrases.

Material characteristics of hazardous gases

Gas
Acetylene

Density
ratio to air
0.91

Ignition
temperature
305 C

Lower I Upper
ignition limit
vol.-% gas in air
1.5

82

Additional information
With a pressure pe > 2 bar self-disintegration
and explosion

Argon

1.38

Butane

2.11

Carbon dioxide

1.53

Carbon monoxide

0.97

605 C

12.5

74

Hydrogen

0.07

570 C

75.6

Nitrogen

0.97

incombustible

Lose of breath in enclosed spaces; danger of

suffocation

Oxygen

1.1

incombustible

Greases and oils react with oxygen explosively;

fire-promoting gas

Propane

1.55

incombustible
365 C
incombustible

470 C

1.5
-

2.1

8.5
-

9.5

Loss of breath; danger of suffocation

Narcotic effect; suffocating effect
Liquid CO2 and dry ice lead to serious frostbyte
Potent blood poison; damage to vision,
lungs, liver, kidneys and hearing
Spontaneous combustion with high escaping
speeds; forms explosive mixtures with air, 0 2
and CI

Loss of breath; liquid propane causes damage

to skin and eyes

199

Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials

Hazardous substances, R-phrases*

Hazardous substances adversely affect the safety and health of humans and endanger the environment. They must
be specially labeled (see page 342). The following R Phrases1' are standard phrases and point out the special risks
when handling a hazardous substance. Special safety data sheets for each hazardous substance contain further
extensive information.
cf. RL 67/548/EWG2' (2004-04)

R-Phrases: Notes on special risks

R-Phrases3)

Meaning

R-Phrases3)

Meaning

R1

Explosive when dry

R 34

Causes burns

R2

Risk of explosion by shock, friction,

fire, or other sources of ignition

R 35

Causes severe burns

R 36

Irritating to the eyes

R3

Extreme risk of explosion by shock, friction,

fire, or other sources of ignition

R 37

Irritating to respiratory system

R4

Forms very sensitive explosive metallic

compounds

R 38

Irritating to the skin

R 39

Danger of very serious irreversible effects

R 40

Limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect

R 41

Risk of serious damage to eyes

R 42

May cause sensitization by inhalation

R 43

May cause sensitization by skin contact

R 44

Risk of explosion if heated under confinement

R 45

May cause cancer

May cause heritable genetic damage

R5

Heating may cause an explosion

R6

Explosive with or without contact with air

R7

May cause fire

R8
R 10

Contact with combustible material may

cause fire
Flammable

R 11

Highly flammable

R 46

R 12

Extremely flammable

R 48

R 13

Extremely flammable liquid gas

Danger of serious damage to health by

prolonged exposure

R 49

May cause cancer by inhalation

R 14

Reacts violently with water

R 50

Very toxic to aquatic organisms

R 15

Contact with water liberates extremely

flammable gases

R 51

Toxic to aquatic organisms

R 52

Harmful to aquatic organisms

R 53

May cause long-term adverse effects

in the aquatic environment

R 16

Explosive when mixed with

oxidizing substances

R 17

Spontaneously flammable in air

R 54

Toxic to flora (plants)

R 18

In use, may form flammable/explosive

vapor-air mixture

R 55

Toxic to fauna (animals)

R 19

May form explosive peroxides

R 56

Toxic to soil organisms

Harmful by inhalation

R 57

Toxic to bees

R 21

Harmful in contact with skin

R 58

May cause long-term adverse effects

in the environment

R 22

Harmful if swallowed

R 59

Dangerous to the ozone layer

R 23

Toxic by inhalation

R 60

May impair fertility

R 24

Toxic in contact with skin

R 25

Toxic if swallowed

R 61

May cause harm to the unborn child

R 62

Possible risk of impaired fertility

R 26

Very toxic by inhalation

R 27

Very toxic in contact with skin

R 63

Possible risk of harm to the unborn child

R 28

Very toxic if swallowed

R 29

Contact with water liberates toxic

gases

R 64

May cause harm to breastfed babies

R 30

Can become highly flammable in use

R 65

Harmful: May cause lung damage if

swallowed

R 31

Contact with acids liberates toxic gases

R 66

R 32

Contact with acids liberates very toxic

gases

Repeated exposure may cause skin dryness

or cracking

R 33

Danger of cumulative effects

R 67

Vapors may cause drowsiness

and dizziness
Possible irreversible damage

R 20

R 68
1)

2)
R = Risk
EU-Directive, Appendix III
Combinations of the risk phrases are possible; e.g. R 23/24: Toxic by inhalation and in contact with skin
*) According to European Standards

3)

200

Material science: 4.14 Hazardous materials

Hazardous substances, S-Phrases*

The following standardized recommended safety measures (S phrases)1' are to be followed while handling hazardous
substances and preparations. By complying with them dangers can be avoided or reduced.

S (safety) phrases: Recommended Safety Measures

S phrase 3 '

1)

Meaning

S phrase 3 '

cf. RL 67/548/EWG2' (2004-04)

Meaning

S1

Keep locked up

S 39

Wear eye/face protection

S2

Keep out of the reach of children

S 40

S3

Keep in a cool place

To clean the floor and all objects contam. by this

material, use ... (to be specif, by the manufacturer)

S4

Keep away from living quarters

S 41

S5

Keep contents under... (appropriate liquid to

be specified by the manufacturer)

In case of fire and/or explosions do not breathe

fumes

S 42

S6

Keep contents under... (appropriate linert gas

to be specified by the manufacturer)

During fumigation/spraying wear suitable

respiratory equipment (appropriate
wording to be specified by the manufacturer)

S7

Keep container tightly closed

S 43

S8

Keep container dry

In case of fire, use ... (indicate in the space

the precise type of fire-fighting equipment
if water increases risk, add: 'Never use water')

S 45

In case of accident or if you feel unwell,

seek medical advice immediately
(show the label where possible)

S9

Keep container in a well-ventilated place

S 12

Do not keep the container sealed

S 13

Keep away from food, drink and animal

feeding stuffs

S 46

S 14

Keep away from ... (incompatible materials

to be indicated by the manufacturer)

If swallowed, seek medical advice immediately

and show this container or label

S 47

S 15

Keep away from heat

Keep at temperature not exceeding ... C

(To be specified by the manufacturer)

S 16

Keep away from sources of ignition - no smoking

S 48

S 17

Keep away from combustible materials

Keep wet with ... (appropriate material

to be specified by the manufacturer)

S 18

Handle and open container with care

S 49

Keep only in the original container

S 20

When using do not eat or drink

S 50

S 21

When using do not smoke

Do not mix with ... (to be specified

by the manufacturer)

S 22

Do not breathe dust

S 51

Use only in well-ventilated areas

S 23

Do not breathe gas/fumes/vapor/spray

(appropriate wording to be specified by the
manufacturer)

S 52

Not recommended for interior use on large

surface areas

S 53

S 24

Avoid contact with skin

Avoid exposures4', obtain special

instructions before use

S 25

Avoid contact with eyes

S 56

S 26

In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately

with plenty of water and seek medical advice

Dispose of this material and its container

at hazardous or special waste collection point

S 57

Use appropriate container to avoid 5 '

environmental contamination

S 59

Refer to manufacturer/supplier for information

on recovery/recycling

S 60

This material and its container must be

disposed of as hazardous waste

S 61

Avoid release to the environment.

Refer to special instructions/safety data sheets

S 62

If swallowed, do not induce vomiting:

seek medical advice immediately
and show this container or label

S 63

In case of accident by inhalation: move victim to

fresh air and keep at rest

S 64

If swallowed, rinse mouth with water (only if the

person is conscious)

S 27

Take off immediately all contaminated

clothing

S 28

After contact with skin, wash immediately with

plenty of... (to be specified by the manufacturer)

S 29

Do not empty into drains

S 30

Never add water to this product

S 33

Take precautionary measures against

static discharges

S 35

This material and its container must be

disposed of in a safe way

S 36

Wear suitable protective clothing

S 37

Wear suitable gloves

S 38

In case of insufficient ventilation,

wear suitable respiratory equipment

2>
S = safety
EU- Directive, Appendix IV
' Combinations of the S phrases are possible; e.g. S 20/21: when using do not eat, drink or smoke,
4
5
' i.e. do not expose yourself to this hazard
' Contamination,infestation
*) According to European Standards
3

Table of Contents

201

5 Machine elements
5.1

Threads (overview)
Metric ISO threads
Whitworth threads, Pipe threads
Trapezoidal and buttress threads
Thread tolerances

202
204
206
207
208

5.2

Bolts and screws (overview)

Designations, strength
Hexagon head bolts & screws
Other bolts & screws
Screw joint calculations
Locking fasteners
Widths across flats, Bolt and screw drive systems

209
210
212
215
221
222
223

5.3

Countersinks
224
Countersinks for countersunk head screws . . . . 224
Counterbores for cap screws
225

5.4

Nuts (overview)
Designations, Strength
Hexagon nuts
Other nuts

226
227
228
231

5.5

Washers (overview)
Flat washers
HV, Clevis pin, Conical spring washers

233
234
235

Parallel and woodruff keys

Splined shafts, Blind rivets
Tool tapers

240
241
242

Springs, components of jigs and tools

Springs
Drill bushings
Standard stamping parts

244
247
251

Drive elements
Belts
Gears
Transmission ratios
Speed graph

253
256
259
260

u
i s :

J
5.8

5.9

5.10 Bearings
Plain bearings (overview)
Plain bearing bushings
Antifriction bearings (overview)
Types of roller bearings
Retaining rings
Sealing elements
Lubricating oils
Lubricating greases

261
262
263
265
269
270
271
272

202

Machine elements: 5.

ads

Types of threads. Overview

a. DIN 202 (1999-11)

Right-hand threads, single-start

Thread
name

Thread profile

Code
letter

Metric threads
ISO threads

n n

Metric threads with

large clearance
Metric straight
internal threads

/yffyyy,

Designation
example

Nominal sizes

Application

DIN 1 4 - M 08

0.3 to 0.9 mm

Clocks, precision
mechanisms

DIN 1 3 - M 30

1 to 68 mm

General purpose
(coarse thread)

DIN 1 3 - M 20 x 1

1 to 1000 mm

General purpose
(fine thread)

DIN 2510-M 36

12 to 180 mm

Bolts/screws with
anti-fatigue shank

DIN 158-M 30 x 2

6 to 60 mm

Drain plugs and

grease nipples

DIN 158-M 30 x 2 keg

6 to 60 mm

Drain plugs and

grease nipples

60

Metric
taper
external threads

Pipe threads,
straight

Parallel
pipe threads
(internal threads)

DIN ISO 228-G1 1 / 2 (internal)

1
DIN ISO 228-G 1 / 2 A(external) /s to 6 inches

DIN 2999-Rp 1 / 2

DIN 3858-Rp 1 / 8

V 8 to 1 1 / 2 inch

DIN 2999-R 1 / 2

V16 to 6 inches

DIN 3858-R 1 / 8 -1

Does not seal on

thread

/i6to 6 inch

Rp

Pipe threads,
seals on thread;
for threaded pipe,
fittings, screwed
pipe joints

Taper
pipe threads
(external threads)

Metric ISO
trapezoidal
threads

i n

Tr

DIN 103-Tr 40 x 7

8 to 300 mm

General purpose as
motion screw
threads

DIN 513-S 48 x 8

10 to 640 mm

General purpose as
motion screw
threads

DIN 405-Rd 40 x V 6

8 to 200 mm

General purpose

DIN 20400-Rd 40 x 5

10 to 300 mm

Knuckle threads with

large thread overlap

ISO 1478-ST 3,5

1.5 to 9.5 mm

For tapping
screws

Buttress threads

Knuckle threads

/s to 1 1 / 2 inches

Rd

Tapping screw
threads

ST

Designation of left-hand and multiple start threads

cf. DIN ISO 965-1 (1999-11)

Type of thread

Explanation

Left-hand threads

The code designation "LH" is placed after the complete M 30-LH

Tr 40 x 7 - L H
thread designation (LH = Left-Hand).

Multiple start
right-hand thread

The lead P h and the pitch Pfollowthe code designation M 16 x P h 3 P 1,5 or

M 16 x P h 3 P 1,5 (double-start)
and the thread diameter.

Multiple start lefthand thread

"LH" is placed after the thread designation of the multi- M 14 x P h 6 P2-LH or

ple start. 1)
M 14 x P h 6 P 2 (triple-start)-LH

1)

Code designation (examples)

For parts which have right-hand and left-hand threads, "RH" (Right-Hand) is placed after the thread designation of
the right-hand thread and "LH" (Left-Hand) after the left-hand thread. The number of starts for multiple-starts is
found by: no. of starts = lead P h / pitch P.

Machine elements: 5.

ads

Thread standards of various countries (selection)1'

Thread name

Thread profile

Thread designation

Code
Example

Meaning

Country 2 )

Unified National
Coarse Thread

UNC

1/4-20

UNC-2A

ISO-UNC-thread
with V4 inch
nominal diameter,
20 threads/inch,
Class 2A

ARG, AUS,
CAN, GBR,
IND, JPN,
NOR, PAK,
SWE
and others

Unified National Fine

Thread

UNF

V4-28 UNC-3A

ISO-UNF threads
with V4 inch
nominal diameter,
28 threads/inch,
Class 3A

ARG, AUS,
CAN, GBR,
IND, JPN,
NOR, PAK,
SWE
and others

Unified National
Extra Fine
Thread

UNEF

V4-32 UNEF-3A ISO-UNEF thread

with V4 inch
nominal diameter,
32 threads/inch,
Class 3A

ARG, AUS,
CAN, IND,
NOR, PAK,
SWE
and others

Unified National
Special Thread,
special diameter/lead
combinations

UNS

/4-27 UNS

UNS threads with

V4 inch nominal
diameter,
27 threads/inch

ARG, AUS,
CAN, NZL,
USA

NPSM

/2-14NPSM

NPSM threads
with V2 inch
nominal diameter,
14 threads/inch

USA, CAN

NPT

/g 18 NPT

NPT thread
with 3 / 8 inch
nominal diameter,
18 threads/inch

BRA, CAN,
FRA, USA
and others

NPTF

V 2 ~14NPTF
(dryseal)

NPTF threads
with V2 inch
nominal diameter,
14 threads/inch,
(dry sealing)

BRA, CAN,
USA

Acme

1 3 / 4 - 4 A c m e - 2 G Acme threads
with 1 3 / 4 inch
nominal diameter
4 threads/inch,
Class 2G

AUS, CAN,
GBR, NZL,
USA

Stub
Acme

1
/2-20 Stub
Acme

CAN, USA

internal thread

Threads for
Mechanical Joints

/ / / / /

/ / / / \
/

, straight
/ / / /
' internal thread/
/ / / / y / y
/ /
p
straight
external thread

American Standard
Taper Pipe Thread

taper
internal thread

American Taper Pipe

Thread, Fuel
taper
external thread
American trapezoidal
threads
h = 0.5 P

internal thread

American truncated
trapezoidal threads
ft = 0.3 P

Stub Acme threads

with V2 inch
nominal diameter,
20 threads/inch

external thread
1)

2)

cf. Kaufmann, Manfred: "Wegweiser zu den Gewindenormen verschiedener Lander"

DIN, Beuth-Verlag
Three-letter codes for countries, cf. DIN EN ISO 3166-1 (2008-06)

203

Machine elements: 5.

ads

Imperial Threads
| Imperial Threads for general purposes
internal thread

oo

P
i

1
Osl

CL

ii

'trr,

S
i \

CVI

ji

1
A

OM
CD

externalthr ead
c

Major diameter
Pitch

d =D
P

Denth nf external thread

h-, = 0 fi134 . P

Depth of internal thread

Radius at root
Basic pitch 0
Minor 0 of external thread
Minor 0 of internal thread
Tap hole drill 0
Thread angle

0.5413 P
= 0.1443 P
= D2 = d- 0.6495 P
= d- 1.1904 P
= d- 1.0825 P
=d-P
60
, 0
7i /d2 + d3Y
S = ~
4 V 2
/
Ft
d2
d3
D-,

Stress area

Basic sizes for Unified National Coarse Threads (UNC)

Major
diameter

No.
size
or inches

Threads
per inch

inches

Pitch
P
inches

32

0.1380

0.0313

32

0.1640

0.0313

10

24

0.1900

12

24

1/4

Pitch
diameter

d2 = D2

Miinor
External Internal
threads
threads

ANSl/ASME BI.1 (1989)

Threac J depth
External
Internal
threads
threads

Radius

Stress
area S
inch 2

Drill bit f<j r t a p hole

Drill size Decimal
equival.

ch

D^

inches

inches

inches

inches

inches

inches

0.1177

0.1008

0.1042

0.01920

0.01691

0.0045

0.0093

#36

0.1065

0.1437

0.1268

0.1302

0.01920

0.01691

0.0045

0.0142

#29

0.1360

0.0417

0.1629

0.1404

0.1449

0.02558

0.02255

0.0060

0.0179

#25

0.1495

0.2160

0.0417

0.1889

0.1664

0.1709

0.02558

0.02255

0.0060

0.0246

#16

0.1770

20

0.2500

0.0500

0.2175

0.1905

0.1959

0.03067

0.02706

0.0072

0.0324

#7

0.2010

5/16

18

0.3125

0.0556

0.2764

0.2464

0.2524

0.03411

0.03007

0.0080

0.0532

0.2579

3/8

16

0.3750

0.0625

0.3344

0.3006

0.3073

0.03834

0.03383

0.0090

0.0786

5/16

0.3125

7/16

14

0.4375

0.0714

0.3911

0.3525

0.3602

0.04380

0.03866

0.0103

0.1078

0.3680

1/2

13

0.5000

0.0769

0.4500

0.4084

0.4167

0.04717

0.04164

0.0111

0.1438

27/64

0.4219

9/16

12

0.5625

0.0833

0.5084

0.4633

0.4723

0.05110

0.04511

0.0120

0.1842

31/64

0.4843

5/8

11

0.6250

0.0909

0.5660

0.5168

0.5266

0.05576

0.04921

0.0131

0.2288

17/32

0.5313

3/4

10

0.7500

0.1000

0.6851

0.6310

0.6418

0.06134

0.05413

0.0144

0.3382

21/32

0.6562

7/8

0.8750

0.1111

0.8028

0.7427

0.7547

0.06815

0.06014

0.0160

0.4666

49/64

0.7656

1.0000

0.1250

0.9188

0.8512

0.8647

0.07668

0.06766

0.0180

0.6120

7/8

0.8750

1 1/8

1.1250

0.1429

1.0322

0.9549

0.9704

0.08765

0.07732

0.0206

0.7713

63/64

0.9844

1 1/4

1.2500

0.1429

1.1572

1.0799

1.0954

0.08765

0.07732

0.0206

0.9781

1 7/64

1.1093

1 3/8

1.3750

0.1667

1.2668

1.1766

1.1946

0.10225

0.09021

0.0241

1.1664

1 7/32

1.2187

1 1/2

1.5000

0.1667

1.3918

1.3016

1.3196

0.10225

0.09021

0.0241

1.4179

1 11/32

1.3437

1.7500

0.2000

1.6201

1.5119

1.5335

0.12268

0.10825

0.0289

1.9171

1 9/16

1.5625

4.5

2.0000

0.2222

1.8557

1.7355

1.7594

0.13630

0.12028

0.0321

2.5207

1 25/32

1.7812

1 3/4
2

I Basic sizes for Unified National Fine Threads (UNF)

Major
diameter

No.
size
or inches

Threads
per inch

inches

Pitch
P
inches

40

0.1380

0.0250

36

0.1640

0.0278

10

32

0.1900

12

28

0.2160

1/4

28

5/16
3/8

Pitch
diameter

d2 = D2

Mi nor
External Internal
threads
threads

ANSl/ASME B1.1 (1989) |

Threac I depth
External
Internal
threads
threads

Radius

Stress
area S
inch 2

Drill bit fc >rtap hole

Drill size Decimal
equival.

<h

01

inches

inches

inches

inches

inches

inches

0.1218

0.1082

0.1109

0.0153

0.01353

0.0036

0.0103

#33

0.1130

0.1460

0.1309

0.1339

0.0170

0.01504

0.0040

0.0149

#29

0.1360

0.0313

0.1697

0.1528

0.1562

0.0192

0.01691

0.0045

0.0203

#21

0.1590

0.0357

0.1928

0.1735

0.1773

0.0219

0.01933

0.0052

0.0262

#14

0.1820

0.2500

0.0357

0.2268

0.2075

0.2113

0.0219

0.01933

0.0052

0.0368

0.2720

24

0.3125

0.0417

0.2854

0.2629

0.2674

0.0256

0.02255

0.0060

0.0587

0.2720

24

0.3750

0.0417

0.3479

0.3254

0.3299

0.0256

0.02255

0.0060

0.0886

0.3320

7/16

20

0.4375

0.0500

0.4050

0.3780

0.3834

0.0307

0.02706

0.0072

0.1198

25/64

0.3906

1/2

20

0.5000

0.0500

0.4675

0.4405

0.4459

0.0307

0.02706

0.0072

0.1612

29/64

0.4531

9/16

18

0.5625

0.0556

0.5264

0.4964

0.5024

0.0341

0.03007

0.0080

0.2046

33/64

0.5156

5/8

18

0.6250

0.0556

0.5889

0.5589

0.5649

0.0341

0.03007

0.0080

0.2578

37/64

0.5781

3/4

16

0.7500

0.0625

0.7094

0.6756

0.6823

0.0383

0.03383

0.0090

0.3754

11/16

0.6875

7/8

14

0.8750

0.0714

0.8286

0.7900

0.7977

0.0438

0.03866

0.0103

0.5127

13/16

0.8125

12

1.0000

0.0833

0.9459

0.9008

0.9098

0.0511

0.04511

0.0120

0.6674

59/64

0.9219

1 1/8

12

1.1250

0.0833

1.0709

1.0258

1.0348

0.0511

0.04511

0.0120

0.8607

1 3/64

1.0469

1 1/4

12

1.2500

0.0833

1.1959

1.1508

1.1598

0.0511

0.04511

0.0120

1.0785

1 11/64

1.1719

1 3/8

12

1.3750

0.0833

1.3209

1.2758

1.2848

0.0511

0.04511

0.0120

1.3208

1 19/64

1.2968

1 1/2

12

1.5000

0.0833

1.4459

1.4008

1.4098

0.0511

0.04511

0.0120

1.5877

1 27/64

1.4219

hs

HI

Machine elements: 5.

ads

Imperial Threads
Basic sizes National Pipe Taper (NPT)

ANSI/ASME B1.20.1 - 1983 (R 1992)

internal
thread

Thread depth h3 = 0.8 P

Hight
H= 0.865 P
outside
diameter
of pipe

external
N
thread
V
axis of thread f
Threads
No. size

.
< ,,
\ t a P e r 1_16

Outside
diam. of pipe

Pitch

Pitch
diameter

Gauge
length

Usuable
length of
ext. thread

h3 = 8P

0.2611
0.2639

0.02963
0.02963

0.2420

0.3320

0.4018
0.0478
0.5337

0.04444

7/16

0.4380

0.04444
0.05714

9/16
45/64

0.3391
0.3997

0.5457

0.05714

29/32

0.5620
0.7030
0.9060

0.6828

1 9/64

0.4197

0.7068

0.06957
0.06957

27

0.3125

0.03704

27

0.4050

0.03704

0.28120
0.37360

0.1598

1/8
1/4

18

0.5400

0.05556

0.49163

3/8
1/2

18
14
14

0.6750
0.0625

0.05556
0.07143

1.0500

0.07143

0.62701
0.77843
0.98887

0.2275
0.2398

1
1 1/4

11 1/2

1.3150
1.6600

0.08696
0.08696

1.23863
1.58338

1 1/2

11 1/2

2
2 1/2

11 1/2
8

1.9000
2.3750
2.8750

0.08696
0.08696
0.12500

1.82234
2.29627

0.4197
0.4354

0.7235
0.7565

2.76215

0.6825

1.1375

11 1/2

Drill bit for tap hole

Drill size ii Decimal
equival.

L2

/-i
dz = D2
all dimensions in inches

1/16

3/4

Depth of
external
thread

0.1613

0.3199

0.06957
0.06957
0.10000

1 31/64

1.1410
1.484

1 23/32
2 3/16
2 39/64

2.1880
2.6090

1.7190

Basic sizes American National Standard General Purp. Acme Screw Thread ANSI/ASME B1.5 -1988 (R 1994)
thread

No. size
3/8
7/16
1/2
5/8
3/4

Threads
per inch
12

ac
ac
Hi
R2
Minor 0 external threads
Major 0 internal threads
Minor 0 internal threads
Pitch 0
Thread depth
Width of flat

Nominal diameter

Pitch

Pitch diameter

d2=D2

all dimensions in inches

0.3333
0.0833
0.0833
0.3958
0.4500
0.1000
0.5625
0.1250

Minor diameter
Internal thread
External thread ii

0.2917

0.3342
0.3600
0.4600

0.3542
0.4000
0.5000
0.5833
0.7083
0.8000

7/8
1

6
6
5

0.7500
0.8750
1.0000

0.1667

0.6667
0.7917

0.5433
0.6683

0.2000

0.9000

1 1/8
1 1/4
1 3/8

5
5
4

1.1250
1.2500
1.3750

0.2000
0.2000
0.2500

1.0250
1.1500
1.2500

0.7600
0.8850

1 1/2

4
4

1.5000
1.7500

0.2500
0.2500

2
2 1/4

2.0000
2.2500

2 1/2
2 3/4

3
3

3
3 1/2
4

2
2

4 1/2

1 3/4

D,

0.2717

0.3750
0.4375
0.5000
0.6250

Thread depth

h3= HA

<h

12
10
8

0.1667

up to 10 tpi = 0.020
over 10 tpi = 0.010
0.06 P
0.12 P
d3 = d- (P+ 2 a c )
D 4 = d+2 ac
D,=
d-P
d2 = D2 = d-0.5 P
h3 = H 4 = 0.5 P+ a c
w = 0.370- P-0.259

0.0517
0.0517
0.0700
0.0825
0.1033
0.1033

0.9250

0.1200
0.1200

1.0100
1.0850

1.0500
1.1250

0.1200
0.1450

1.3750
1.6250

1.2100
1.4600

1.2500
1.5000

0.1450

1.8750
2.0833

1.7100
1.8767

2.3333

2.1267

1.7500
1.9167
2.1667

0.1450
0.1867

2.5000

0.2500
0.3333
0.3333

2.7500

0.3333

2.3767

2.4167

0.1867

0.5000
0.5000
0.5000

2.4600
2.9600

2.5000
3.0000

0.2700
0.2700

3.0000
3.5000
4.0000

2.5833
2.7500
3.2500
3.7500

4.5000
5.0000

0.5000
0.5000

4.2500
4.7500

3.4600
3.9600
4.4600

3.5000

2
2

4.0000
4.5000

0.2700
0.2700

0.1450

0.1867

0.2700

204

Machine elements: 5.

ads

Metric threads and fine threads

Metric ISO threads for general purpose application, basic profiles
internal thread

external thread

cf. DIN 13-19 (1999-11)

Major diameter
Pitch
Depth of external thread
Depth of internal thread
Radius at root
Basic pitch 0
Minor 0 of external thread
Minor 0 of internal thread
Tap hole drill 0
Thread angle

d =
P
h3 =
"1 =
R =
d2 =
d3 =
01 =
=
60c>

Stress area

Basic sizes for coarse threads Series 1 1 ) (dimensions in mm)

Pitch

Pitch 0

d= D

d2 = D2

d3

D^

h3

M 1
M 1.2
M 1.6

0.25
0.25
0.35

0.84
1.04
1.38

0.69
0.89
1.17

0.73
0.93
1.22

M2
M 2.5
M3

0.4
0.45
0.5

1.74
2.21
2.68

1.51
1.95
2.39

M 4
M5
M6

0.7
0.8
1

3.55
4.48
5.35

M8
M 10
M 12

1.25
1.5
1.75

M 16
M 20
M 24

Minor 0
external internal
threads threads

0.6134- P
0.5413 P
0.1443 P
D2 = d-0.6495
d- 1.2269 P
d- 1.0825 P
d- P

n fd2 +
! (
2

d3\2
)

Drill bit Hexagonal width

0 for
across
tap
flats 3 '
hole 2 )

Rounded
root

Stress
area S

"i

mm2

0.15
0.15
0.22

0.14
0.14
0.19

0.04
0.04
0.05

0.46
0.73
1.27

0.75
0.95
1.25

3.2

1.57
2.01
2.46

0.25
0.28
0.31

0.22
0.24
0.27

0.06
0.07
0.07

2.07
3.39
5.03

1.6
2.05
2.5

4
5
5.5

3.14
4.02
4.77

3.24
4.13
4.92

0.43
0.49
0.61

0.38
0.43
0.54

0.10
0.12
0.14

8.78
14.2
20.1

3.3
4.2
5.0

7
8
10

7.19
9.03
10.86

6.47
8.16
9.85

6.65
8.38
10.11

0.77
0.92
1.07

0.68
0.81
0.95

0.18
0.22
0.25

36.6
58.0
84.3

6.8
8.5
10.2

13
16
18

2
2.5
3

14.70
18.38
22.05

13.55
16.93
20.32

13.84
17.29
20.75

1.23
1.53
1.84

1.08
1.35
1.62

0.29
0.36
0.43

157
245
353

14
17.5
21

24
30
36

M 30
M 36
M 42

3.5
4
4.5

27.73
33.40
39.08

25.71
31.09
36.48

26.21
31.67
37.13

2.15
2.45
2.76

1.89
2.17
2.44

0.51
0.58
0.65

561
817
1121

26.5
32
37.5

46
55
65

M 48
M 56
M 64

5
5.5
6

44.75
52.43
60.10

41.87
49.25
56.64

42.59
50.05
57.51

3.07
3.37
3.68

2.71
2.98
3.25

0.72
0.79
0.87

1473
2030
2676

43
50.5
58

75
85
95

Basic sizes for fine threads (dimensions in mm)

Thread
Pitch 0
Minor 0
designation
ext. th. int. th.
d x P
cfe = D 2 d3
D^
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M

1.84
2.84
3.87

1.69
2.69
3.76

1.73
2.73
3.78

3.77
4.84
4.68

3.57
4.69
4.39

3.62
4.73
4.46

M
M
M
M
M
M

5.84
5.68
5.51

5.69
5.39
5.08

5.73
5.46
5.19

M 8 x 0.25
M 8 x 0.5
M 8x 1

7.84
7.68
7.35

7.69
7.39
6.77

7.73
7.46
6.92

1>

10x0.25
10x0.5
10 x 1
12 x 0.35
12 x 0.5
12 x 1

cf. DIN 13-2 - 10 (1999-11)

Thread
Minor 0
Pitch 0
designation
ext. th. int. th.
dx P
dz = D2 dz
D^

0.25
0.25
0.2
0.35
0.25
0.5
0.25
0.5
0.75

2)

2x
3x
4x
4x
5x
5x
6x
6x
6x

cf. DIN 13-1 (1999-11)

Thread depth
external internal
threads threads

Threaddesignation

9.84
9.68
9.35

9.69
9.39
8.77

9.73
9.46
8.92

11.77
11.68
11.35

11.57
11.39
10.77

11.62
11.46
10.92

M 16x0.5
M 16 x 1
M 16 x 1.5

15.68
15.35
15.03

15.39
14.77
14.16

15.46
14.92
14.38

M 20 x 1
M 20 x 1.5
M 24 x 1.5

19.35
19.03
23.03

18.77
18.16
22.16

18.92
18.38
22.38

Series 2 and Series 3 also have intermediate sizes (e. g. M7, M9, M 14).
cf. DIN 336 (2003-07)
3) cf. DIN ISO 272 (1979-10)

Thread
Minor 0
Pitch 0
designation
ext. th. int. th.
dx P
d2 = D2 d3
M
M
M
M
M
M

24
30
30
36
36
42

x2
x 1.5
x2
x 1.5
x2
x 1.5

22.70
29.03
28.70

21.55
28.16
27.55

21.84
28.38
27.84

35.03
34.70
41.03

34.16
33.55
40.16

34.38
33.84
40.38

M
M
M
M
M
M

42
48
48
56
56
64

x2
x 1.5
x2
x 1.5
x2
x2

40.70
47.03
46.70

39.55
46.16
45.55

39.84
46.38
45.84

55.03
54.70
62.70

54.16
53.55
61.55

54.38
53.84
61.84

Machine elements: 5.

ads

Metric taper threads

Metric taper external and mating
internal straight screw threads (standard design)11

cf. DIN 158-1 (1997-06)

saga

Thread dimensions of
external threads

- X I
. OSL

reference
plane

reference
plane
thread axis

Thread
designation
dx P
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M

5 keg
6 keg
8 x 1 keg
10 x 1 keg
12 x 1 keg
10 x 1.25 keg
12 x 1.25 keg
12 x 1.5 keg
14 x 1.5 keg
16 x 1.5 keg

M 18 x
M 20 x
M22x
M 24 x
M 26 x
M 30 x

1.5 keg
1.5 keg
1.5 keg
1.5 keg
1.5 keg
1.5 keg

M
M
M
M
M
M

36 x
38 x
42 x
45 x
48 x
52 x

1.5 keg
1.5 keg
1.5 keg
1.5 keg
1.5 keg
1.5 keg

M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M

27 x
30 x
33 x
36 x
39 x
42 x
45 x
48 x
52 x
56 x
60 x

2 keg
2 keg
2 keg
2 keg
2 keg
2 keg
2 keg
2 keg
2 keg
2 keg
2 keg

Dimeirisions in ireference plane

Thread
length
h

Thread
depth
h3 max.

Distance
a

0.52

5.5

0.66

2.5

0.82

8.5

0.98

3.5

10.5

1.01

4.5

12

1.32

13

1.34

d2 = d-0.650

Minor0

d3 = d- 1.23 P

Height

H, = 0.866 P

Thread depth

h3 =0.613 P

Root radius

R = 0.144 P

inspection
plane

inspection
plane

Thread cimensions

Pitch 0

Thre ad dimen sions

d = D2) d2 = D 2 3 )
5
6
8
10
12
10
12
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
30
36
38
42
45
48
52
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
52
56
60

4.48
5.35
7.35
9.35
11.35
9.19
11.19
11.03
13.03
15.03
17.03
19.03
21.03
23.03
25.03
29.03
35.03
37.03
41.03
44.03
47.03
51.03
25.70
28.70
31.70
34.70
37.70
40.70
43.70
46.70
50.70
54.70
58.70

ds
4.02
4.77
6.77 ]
8.77
10.77
8.47
10.47
10.16
12.16
14.16
16.16
18.16
20.16
22.16
24.16
28.16
34.16
36.16
40.16
43.16
46.16
50.16
24.55
27.55
30.55
33.55
36.55
39.55
42.55
45.55
49.55
53.55
57.55

Dimenisions in iinspection plane

Disstance
b
2.8

3.5

6.5

10

Thre ad dimen sions

d
5.05
6.06
8.06
10.06
12.06
10.13
12.13
12.19
14.19
16.19
18.19
20.19
22.19
24.19
26.19
30.19
36.22
38.22
42.22
45.22
48.22
52.22
27.25
30.25
33.25
36.25
39.25
42.25
45.25
48.25
52.25
56.25
60.25

d'2

d'z

4.5
5.4
7.4
9.4
11.4
9.3
11.3
11.2
13.2
15.2
17.2
19.2
21.2
23.2
25.2
29.2
35.2
37.2
41.2
44.2
47.2
51.2
25.9
28.9
31.9
34.9
37.9
40.9
43.9
46.9
50.9
54.9
58.9

4.07
4.84
6.84
8.84
10.84
8.59
10.59
10.35
12.35
14.35
16.35
18.35
20.35
22.35
24.35
28.35
34.38
36.38
40.38
43.38
46.38
50.38
24.80
27.80
30.80
33.80
36.80
39.80
42.80
45.80;
49.80
53.80
57.80

Threads DIN 158 - M 30 x 2 keg: Metric taper external threads, d= 30 mm, P = 2 mm,
standard design
1)

2)

For self-sealing joints (e.g. Drain plugs, grease nipples). For larger nominal diameters it is recommended to use
a joint compound to seal in the threads.
3)
D Basic major diameter of internal thread
D2 Basic pitch diameter of internal thread

206

Machine elements: 5.

ads

Whitworth threads, Pipe threads

Whitworth threads

(not standardized)
Major diameter
Minor diameter

internal
thread

Pitch diameter
Threads/inch
Pitch

d =D
di = Di = d- 1.28 P
= d-2U
d2 = D2 = d-0.640 P
N

P =

Thread depth
Radius
Thread angle

25.4 mm
N

/?! = Ht = 0.640 P
H = 0.137 P
55

Dimensions in mm for external and internal threads

Dimensions in mm for external and internal threads
Thread
Thread
desig- Major Minor Pitch Threads Thread Core desig- Major Minor
Pitch Threads Thread Core
nation
per
depth cross nation
per
0
0
depth section
0
0
0
0
inch
section
inch
o
2
d2=D2
d
d=D
d
d-D
d 1 = D n ck = D2
h, = H, mrrr
N
mm
N
1
5

/4"

/l6"
3
/s"
1

/2"

%"
U"
7
/s"
3

1"

6.35
7.94
9.53
12.70

4.72
6.13
7.49
9.99

5.54
7.03
8.51
11.35

20
18
16
12

0.81
0.90
1.02
1.36

17.5
29.5
44.1
78.4

1V
1V2"
13/4"
2"

31.75
38.10
44.45
50.80

27.10
32.68
37.95
43.57

29.43
35.39
41.20
47.19

6
5
4.5

2.32
2.71
3.25
3.61

577
839
1 131
1491

15.88
19.05
22.23
25.40

12.92
15.80
18.61
21.34

14.40
17.42
20.42
23.37

11
10
9
8

1.48
1.63
1.81
2.03

131
196
272
358

2V 4 "
2V 2 "
3"
3 V2"

57.15
63.50
76.20
88.90

49.02
55.37
66.91
78.89

53.09
59.44
72.56
83.89

4
4
3.5
3.25

4.07
4.07
4.65
5.00

1886
2408
3516
4888

Pipe threads

cf. DIN ISO 228-1 (2003-05), DIN EN 10226-1 (2004-10)

Pipe threads DIN ISO 228-1

for joints not sealed by threads;
straight internal and external threads

Pipe threads DIN EN 10226-1

sealed by threads;
straight internal threads, taper external threads
taper external
thread

internalthread

external thread
straight
internal thread
cf. American Taper Standard-Pipe Threads NPT: page 203
Thread designation
DIN ISO 228-1
DIN EN10226-1
External and
External
Internal
internal threads threads
threads

G1
G1 1 / 4
G1 1 / 2
G2
G2 1 / 2
G3
G4
G5
G6

R1
R1 1 / 4
R1 1 / 2
R2
R2V2
R3
R4
R5
R6

Rp1
Rp1 1 / 4
Rp1 1 / 2
Rp2
Rp2 1 / 2
Rp3
Rp4
Rp5
Rp6

Major
diameter

Pitch
diameter

Pitch

Threads
per
inch
N

Profile
height

D2

d, = Di

7.723
9.728
13.157

7.142
9.147
12.301

6.561
8.566
11.445

0.907
0.907
1.337

0.581
0.581
0.856

16.662
20.995
26.441

15.806
19.793
25.279

14.950
18.631
24.117

1.337
1.814
1.814

0.856
1.162
1.162

33.249
41.910
47.803

31.770
40.431
46.324

30.291
38.952
44.845

2.309
2.309
2.309

1.479
1.479
1.479

59.614
75.184
87.884

58.135
73.705
86.405

56.656
72.226
84.926

2.309
2.309
2.309

1.479
1.479
1.479

113.030
138.430
163.830

111.551
136.951
162.351

110.072
135.472
160.872

2.309
2.309
2.309

1.479
1.479
1.479

d-D

d2

Minor
diameter

usable thread length

h = h, = Hn

Usable
length of
external
threads

Machine elements: 5.

ads

Trapezoidal and buttress threads

Metric ISO trapezoidal screw threads

Dimension
a

R2

For pitch P in mm
2-5
6-12

1.5
0.15
0.075
0.15

0.25
0.125
0.25

cf. DIN 103-1 (1977-04)

14-44

0.5
0.25
0.5

1
0.5

Nominal diameter
Single start pitch
and multiple start lead
Multiple start pitch
No. of threads
Minor 0 external threads
Major 0 internal threads
Minor 0 internal threads
Pitch 0
Thread depth
Thread overlap
Crest clearance
Radius
Width of flat
Thread angle

d
P
Ph
n = Ph:P
d3 = d-(P+2 ac)
04 = d+2 ac
01 = d-P
d2 = D2 = d-0.5 P
h3 = H4 = 0.5 P + a c
Hi = 0,5 P
ac
and R2
w- = 0.366 - P - 0 . 5 4 - a
30c1

Thread dimensions in mm

Thread dimensions in mm

Minor 0
Minor 0
Thread
Thread
Major Thread Width
Major Thread Width designation
designation
Pitch 0 ext. th. int. th.
Pitch 0 ext. th. int. th.
of
flat
depth
0
0 depth of flat
dx P
d x P
D^
D^
w
D 4 *3 = H 4 w
<h
4> = 92 <h
*>4 / 3 = H
4

10.5
12.5

1.25
1.75

0.60

0.96

Tr 40 x
Tr 44 x

36.5
40.5

32
36

33
37

41
45

12
16

16.5
20.5

2.25
2.25

1.33
1.33

Tr 48 x
Tr 52 x

44
48

39
43

40
44

49
53

4.5
4.5

2.66
2.66

18.5
22.5

19
23

24.5
28.5

2.75
2.75

1.70
1.70

Tr 60 x 9
Tr 70 x 10

55.5
65

50
59

51
60

61

71

5
5.5

3.02
3.39

29
34.5

25
32.5

26
33

33
36.5

3.5
2.0

1.93
0.83

Tr 80 x 10
Tr 90 x 12

75
84

69
77

70
78

81
91

5.5
6.5

3.39
4.12

33
31

29
25

30
26

37
37

3.5
5.5

1.93
3.39

Tr 100 x 12
Tr 140 x 14

94
133

87
124

88
126

101
142

6.5
8

4.12
4.58

Tr 10 x
Tr 12 x

9
10.5

Tr 16 x
Tr 20 x

14
18

11.5
15.5

Tr 24 x
Tr 28 x

21.5
25.5

Tr 32 x
Tr 36 x
Tr 36 x 6
Tr 36 x 10

7.5
8.5

Metric buttress threads

cf. DIN 513 (1985-04)

Nominal thread size
Pitch
Minor 0 external threads
Minor 0 internal threads
Pitch 0 external threads
Pitch 0 internal threads
Axial clearance
External thread depth
Internal thread depth
Radius
Crest width on major 0
Thread angle

internal thread

external thread

d x P

Minor
0
ds

d =D
P
d3 = d- 1.736 P
Dt = d - 1.5 P
d2 = d-0.75 P
D2 = d - 0.75 P+ 3.176 a
a =0.1 - f P
h3 = 0.8678 P
H, = 0.75 P
R =0.124- P
w = 0.264 P
33

Extern;a I threads Intern;il threads

Extern;al threads Intern:il threads

Thread
designation

2.29
2.29

Thread
depth
h3

Minor
0
01

Thread
depth
"i

Pitch
0
d2

Thread
designation
d x P

Minor
0
ds

Thread
depth
hs

Minor
0
01

Thread
depth

Pitch
0
dz

S 12x3
}S 1 6 x 4

6.79
9.06

2.60
3.47

7.5
10.0

2.25
3.00

9.75
13.00

S 44 x 7
S 48 x 8

31.85
34.12

6.07
6.94

33.5
36

5.25
6.00

38.75
42.00

S 20 x 4
S 24 x 5

13.06
15.32

3.47
4.34

14.0
16.5

3.00
3.75

17.00
20.25

S 52 x 8
S 60 x 9

38.11
44.38

6.94
7.81

40
46.5

6.00
6.75

46.00
53.25

S 28 x 5
S 32 x 6

19.32
21.58

4.34
5.21

20.5
23.0

3.75
4.50

24.25
27.50

S 70x10
S 80x10

52.64
62.64

8.68
8.68

55
65

7.50
7.50

62.50
72.50

S 36 x 6
S 40 x 7

25.59
27.85

5.21
6.07

27.0
29.5

4.50
5.25

31.50
34.75

S 90x12
S 100x12

69.17
79.17

10.41
10.41

72
82

9.00
9.00

81.00
91.00

208

Machine elements: 5.

ads

Thread tolerances
Tolerance classes for metric ISO threads
Screw thread tolerances are to ensure the function
and interchangeability of internal and external
threads. They are dependent on the diameter tolerances set in this standard and on the precision of
the pitch and the thread angle.
The tolerance class (fine, medium and coarse) is
also dependent on the surface finish of the
threads. Thick electroplated protective coatings
require more clearance (e.g. Tolerance Class 6G)
than bright or phosphatized surfaces (Tolerance
Class 5H).

cf. DIN ISO 965-1 (1999-11)

Thread tolerance

Internal threads

External threads

Applies to

pitch and minor

diameters

pitch and major

diameters

Labeled by

upper case letters

lower case letters

Tolerance class
(example)

5H

6g

Tolerance grade
(size of tolerance)

Tolerance zone
H
| (position of zero line)

Designation examples

Explanations

M12 x 1 - 5g 6g

External fine threads, nominal 0 12 mm, pitch 1 mm; 5g -> Tolerance class for pitch 0;
6g - Tolerance class for major 0
External coarse threads, nominal 0 12 mm; 6g - Tolerance class for pitch and major 0

M24 - 6G/6e

Thread fit for coarse threads, nominal 0 24 mm, 6G - Tolerance class of the internal
threads, 6e Tolerance class of the external threads

M16

Tolerance class medium 6H/6g applies to threads without tolerance indication

Tolerance Class 6H/6g

is assigned to the
"medium" (general
purpose) tolerance
class and "normal"
engagement length in
DIN ISO 965-1 (see
table below).

QJ
N
l/l
To
c
'E
o
C

Imin<

M12 - 6g

X
ID
e
cT
C3 ^
t t_
o
co a
'E

'E

Internal threads, tolerance zone location H

External threads, tolerance zone location g

Limits for external and internal threads (selection)

cf. DIN ISO 965-2 (1999-11)

Inteirnal threa ds - Toler ance class6H

External threads - Tolerancc; class 6g

Minor 0 1 ) c / 3

Major
0 D
min.

min.

max.

min.

max.

max.

min.

max.

min.

max.

min.

3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0

2.675
3.545
4.480
5.350

2.775
3.663
4.605
5.500

2.459
3.242
4.134
4.917

2.599
3.422
4.334
5.135

2.980
3.978
4.976
5.974

2.874
3.838
4.826
5.794

2.655
3.523
4.456
5.324

2.580
3.433
4.361
5.212

2.367
3.119
3.995
4.747

2.273
3.002
3.869
4.596

M8
M8 x 1
M10
M10 x 1

8.0
8.0
10.0
10.0

7.188
7.350
9.026
9.350

7.348
7.500
9.206
9.500

6.647
6.917
8.376
8.917

6.912
7.153
8.676
9.153

7.972
7.974
9.968
9.974

7.760
7.794
9.732
9.794

7.160
7.324
8.994
9.324

7.042
7.212
8.862
9.212

6.438
6.747
8.128
8.747

6.272
6.596
7.938
8.596

M12
M12 x 1.5
M16
M16 x 1.5

12.0
12.0
16.0
16.0

10.863
11.026
14.701
15.026

11.063
11.216
14.913
15.216

10.106
10.376
13.385
14.376

10.441
10.676
14.210
14.676

11.966
11.968
15.962
15.968

11.701
11.732
15.682
15.732

10.829
10.994
14.663
14.994

10.679
10.854
14.503
14.854

9.819
10.128
13.508
14.128

9.602
9.930
13.271
13.930

M20
M20 x 1.5
M24
M24 x 2

20.0
20.0
24.0
24.0

18.376
19.026
22.051
22.701

18.600
19.216
22.316
22.925

17.294
18.376
20.752
21.835

17.744
18.676
21.252
22.210

19.958
19.968
23.952
23.962

19.623
19.732
23.577
23.682

18.334
18.994
22.003
22.663

18.164
18.854
21.803
22.493

16.891
18.128
20.271
21.508

16.625
18.930
19.955
21.261

M30
M30 x 2
M36
M36 x 3

30.0
30.0
36.0
36.0

27.727
28.701
33.402
34.051

28.007
28.925
33.702
34.316

26.211
27.835
31.670
32.752

26.771
28.210
32.270
33.252

29.947
29.962
35.940
35.952

29.522
29.682
35.465
35.577

27.674
28.663
33.342
34.003

27.462
28.493
33.118
33.803

25.653
27.508
31.033
32.271

25.306
27.261
30.655
31.955

Threads
M3
M4
M5
M6

1)

Pitch 0 D2

Minoi 0 DT

cf. DIN 13-20 (2000-08) and DIN 13-21 (2005-08)

Majo r 0 d

Pitch 0 d2

209

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Bolts and screws - Overview

Illustration

Design

Standard range
from-to

Standard

Hexagon head bolts and screws

Fi
bj i

ti
i

Fi i i
b

11

1
1j h - e

pages 212-214

B-

M1.6-M64

DIN EN
ISO 4014

Fully threaded with

fine threads

M1.6-M64

DIN EN
ISO 4017

Partly threaded and

with fine threads

M8x1-M64x4

DIN EN
ISO 8765

Fully threaded with

fine threads

M8x1-M64x4

DIN EN
ISO 8676

With reduced shank

M3-M20

DIN EN
ISO 24015

Waisted bolts; for dynamic loads, no

nut retention necessary when properly installed

Fit bolt

M8-M48

DIN 609

Fixing position of parts against

movement, fit shank transmits transverse loads

With larger
width across flats

M12-M36

DIN EN
14399-4

High-strength structural bolting

assemblies (HV), with nuts as per
DIN EN 14399-4 (page 230)

Fit bolt with large

widths across flats

M12-M30

DIN 7999

Friction grip (FG) joints, shear/bearing

stress connection

pages 215,216

+--+

With hexagon socket,

with coarse threads

M1.6-M64

DIN EN
ISO 4762

With hexagon socket,

fine threads

M8x1-M64x4

DIN EN
ISO 21269

With hexagon socket

and low head

M3-M24

DIN 7984

Slotted

M1.6-M10

DIN EN
ISO 1207

| Countersunk head screws

hi

<

Slotted

M1.6-M10

DIN EN
ISO 2009

With hexagon socket

M3-M20

DIN EN
ISO 10642

Slotted raised head

countersunk

M1.6-M10

DIN EN
ISO 2010

Recessed raised head M1.6-M10

countersunk cross

DIN EN
ISO 7047

| Sheet metal screws with tapping threads

Machine, equipment and automotive

industry; low space requirements,
head sinkable
With low-profile head: small height,
low stress
Slotted bolts/screws: small screws,
low stresses
Fine threads: smaller thread depth,
capable of higher loads, larger
minimum engagement depth l e
pages 216,217

I,

f ^
|r_,

Compared to coarse threads:

smaller thread depth, smaller
pitch, higher load capacity, larger
minimum engagement depth l e

page 214 |

| Cap screws

1*

The most commonly used

bolts/screws in machine, equipment
and automotive industry
Fully threaded type:
higher fatigue strength

Partly threaded and

with coarse threads

| Hexagon bolts and screws for steel structures

Application, properties

Variety of applications in machine,

equipment and automotive industry
For screws with hexagon socket:
greater load capacity
For screws with cross recess: Secure
tightening and loosening compared
to slotted screws

pages 217,218

Round head screw

ST2.2-ST9.5

DIN
ISO 7049

Countersunk
head screw

ST2.2-ST6.3

DIN
ISO 7050

Round head
countersunk screws

ST2.2-ST9.9

DIN
ISO 7051

Vehicle body and sheet metal manufacturing.

The sheets to be joined have tap
holes. The threads are formed by the
screw. Locking fasteners are only
needed for thin sheets.

210

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Bolts and screws - Overview, Designation of bolts and screws

Illustration

Design

Standard range
from-to

Standard

Application, properties

ST2.2-ST6.3

DIN EN
ISO 15481

Round head counter- ST2.2-ST6.3

sunk with cross/recess

DIN EN
ISO 15483

Vehicle body and sheet metal

manufacturing
drilling screws bore the tap hole
while being screwed in and form the
threads.

Drilling screws with tapping threads

Flat head with
cross recess

Studs

page 219
/. 2 d
/ e ~ 1.25 d
/e * 1 d

M4-M24
M4-M48
M4-M48

DIN 835
DIN 939
DIN 938

For aluminum alloys

For cast iron materials
For steel

Set screws

page 220
With dog point
and slotted

M1.6-M12

DIN EN
27435

With dog point

and hex socket

M1.6-M24

DIN EN ISO
4028

With cone point

and slotted

M1.6-M12

DIN EN
27434

With cone point

and hex socket

M1.6-M24

DIN EN ISO
4027

With flat point

and slotted

M1.6-M12

DIN EN
24766

With flat point

and hex socket

M1.6-M24

DIN EN ISO
4026

Compression loadable screws

for securing position of parts,
e.g. levers, bearing bushings, hubs
Set screws are not suitable for power
transmission of torques, e.g. for joining shafts to hubs.

Drain plugs

page 219
Heavy type with
hexagon socket or
hexagon head

M10x1M52x1.5

DIN 908
DIN 910

Gearbox manufacturing; Fill, overflow

and drain screws for gear oil; milling
of seating surface necessary

Thread forming screws

Various head forms
e.g. hexagon,
cheese head

page 218
M2-M10

DIN 7500-1

For low loading in malleable

materials, e.g. S235, DC01-DC04,
non-ferrous metals; use without
locking fastener

Eye bolts

page 219

With coarse threads

M8-M 100x6

DIN 580

Transport eyes on machines and

equipment; stress depends on the
angle of the applied load, milling of
seating surface necessary

Designation of bolts and screws

Examples:

Type

1)

Hex screw
Drain plug
Cap screws
I
Reference standard,
e.g. ISO, DIN, EN;
Sheet number of
the standard1'

cf. DIN 962 (2001-11)

ISO 4017 - M12 x 80 - A2-70
DIN 910 - M24 x 1.5 - St
ISO 4762 - M10 x 55 - 8 . 8

Nominal data, e.g.

M -> metric screw thread
12 -> nominal diameter d
80 -> shank length /

Property class, e.g. 8.8, 10.9,

A2-70, A4-70
Material, e.g. St steel,
CuZn copper-zinc-alloy

Bolts and screws standardized according to ISO, DIN EN or DIN EN ISO have the abbreviation ISO in their designation. Bolts and screws standardized according to DIN have the abbreviation DIN in their designation.

211

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Property classes, Product grades, Clearance holes, Minimum engagement depth

Property classes of screws and bolts
Examples:

cf. DIN EN ISO 898-1 (1999-11), DIN EN ISO 3506-1 (1998-03)

Unalloyed and alloy steels

DIN EN ISO 898-1

Stainless steels
DIN EN ISO 3506-1

9.8

A 2-70

Tensile strength Rm

Yield strength Re

Steel microstr.

Steel group

Tensile strength Rm

Rm= 9 -100 N/mm 2

= 900 N/mm 2

Re = 9 - 8 - 1 0 N/mm 2
= 720 N/mm 2

A austenitic
F ferritic

2 alloyed with Cr, Ni

4 alloyed with Cr, Ni, Mo

Rm = 70 10 N/mm 2
= 700 N/mm 2

Property classes and material properties

Material property
5.8

Property classes for bolts and screws made of

stainless steels1'
unalloyed and alloyed steels
6.8
8.8
9.8
10.9
12.9 A2-50 A4-50 A2-70

Tens, strength Rm in N/mm 2 500

600

800

900

1000

1200

500

500

700

Yield strength Re in N/mm 2 400

480

640

720

900

1080

210

210

450

12

10

20

20

13

Elong. at fracture EL in %
1)

10

Material properties apply to threads < M20

Product grades for bolts and nuts

Product
grade

Tolerances

fine

cf. DIN EN ISO 4759-1 (2001-04)

Explanation, application

Dimensional, form and positional tolerances for bolts and nuts

with ISO threads are specified in tolerance grades A, B, C.

medium
coarse

Clearance holes for bolts

Thread
d

cf. DIN EN 20273 (1992-02)

1)

Clearance hole d h
Series
fine
med. coarse

Thread
d

1)

Clearance hole d h
Series
fine
med. coarse

M1
M1.2

1.1
1.3

1.2
1.4

1.3
1.5

M5
M6

5.3
6.4

M1.6
M2

1.7
2.2

1.8
2.4

2
2.6

M8
M10

8.4
10.5

9
11

M2.5
M3
M4

2.7
3.2
4.3

2.9
3.4
4.5

3.1
3.6
4.8

M12
M16
M20

13
17
21

13.5
17.5
22

1)

5.5
6.6

Thread
d

Clearance hole d h 1 )
Series
fine
med. coarse

M24
M30

25
31

26
33

28
35

10
12

M36
M42

37
43

39
45

42
48

14.5
18.5
24

M48
M56
M64

50
58
66

52
62
70

56
66
74

5.8
7

Tolerance grades for d h ; fine series: H12, medium series: H13, coarse series: H14

Minimum engagement depth in blind hole

Minimum engagement depth / e 1 >
Area of application

am.

3.6, 4.6

4.8-6.8

0.8 d

1.2 d

0.8 d

1.2 d

1.2 d

0.8 d

1.2 d

1.2 d

1.2 d

0.8 d

1.2 d

1.0 d

1.0 - d

Cast iron materials

1.3 d

1.5- d

1.5 d

Copper alloys

1.3 d

1.3 - d

Aluminum casting alloys

1.6 d

2.2 d

Al alloys, age-hardened

0.8 d

1.2 d

Al alloys, not age-hardened

1.2 d

1.6 d

Plastics

2.5 d

Rm < 400 N/mm

Struc. Am = 400-600 N/mm 2

steel
> 600-800 N/mm 2
Rm > 800 N/mm

x 3 P (thread pitch)
e-| according to DIN 76,
see page 89

8.8
-

1.6 - d
-

10.9
-

Engagement depth for fine threads l e = 1.25 Engagement depth for coarse threads

212

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Hexagon head bolts

Hexagon head bolt with shank and coarse threads
Valid standard
DIN EN ISO

Repla ces
DIN EN
DIN

4014

24014

931

t?

WAF'

M1.6

M2

M2.5

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

WAF
k
dw

3.2
1.1
2.3

4
1.4
3.1

5
1.7
4.1

5.5
2
4.6

7
2.8
5.9

8
3.5
6.9

10
4
8.9

13
5.3
11.6

16
6.4
14.6

e
b

3.4
9

4.3
10

5.5
11

6
12

7.7
14

8.8
16

11.1
18

14.4
22

17.8
26

j from
/ to

12
16

16
20

16
25

20
30

25
40

25
50

30
60

40
80

45
100

Property
classes

1
j

OJ

Thread d

5.6, 8.8, 9.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70

Thread d

M12

M16

M20

M24

M30

M36

M42

M48

M56

WAF
k

18
7.5

24
10

30
12.5

36
15

46
18.7

55
22.5

65
26

75
30

85
35

dw
e

16.6
20

22
26.2

27.7
33

33.3
39.6

42.8
50.9

51.1
60.8

60
71.3

69.5
82.6

78.7
93.6

b1>

30

38
44

46
52

54
60
73

66
72
85

84
97

96
109

108
121

137

90
240

110
300

140
360

160
440

180
500

220
500

1)

for / < 125 mm

for / = 125-200 mm
3)
f o r / > 200 mm

cf. DIN EN ISO 4014 (2001-03)

b3>

2)

j from
/ to

Product gradeis (page 21 1)

Threads d

/ in mm

Grade

< M12

all

M16-M24 i
r

/ < 150

/ > 160

> M30

all

50
120

80
200

5.6, 8.8,9.8, 10.9

Property
classes
Nominal
lengths /

65
160

A2-70, A4-70

A2-50, A4-50

12, 16, 20, 25. 30. 35-60, 65, >

70, 80, 90-140, 150, 160,
180, 200-460, 480, 500 mm
Hexagon head bolt ISO 4014 - M10 x 60 - 8.8:
d= M10, / = 60 mm, property class 8.8

I Hexagon head bolts with coarse threads, fully threaded

Valid standard
DIN EN ISO
4017

i
Qj J

Thread d

24017

I.
1

JH
JL.

wy

Repla ces
DIN EN
DIN
933

Ik_

>
T;J

Product gradeis (page 2111)

Threads d

/ in mm

Grade

< M12

all

Is 150

/ > 160

all

M16-M24
> M30

as per
agreement

cf. DIN EN ISO 4017 (2001-03) |

M1.6

M2

M2.5

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

WAF
k

3.2
1.1

4
1.4

5
1.7

5.5
2

7
2.8

8
3.5

10
4

13
5.3

16
6.4

dw
e

2.3
3.4

3.1
4.3

4.1
5.5

4.6
6

5.9
7.7

6.9
8.8

8.9
11.1

11.6
14.4

14.6
17.8

j from
/ to

2
16

4
20

5
25

6
30

8
40

10
50

12
60

16
80

20
100

Property
classes

5.6, 8.8, 9.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70

Thread d

M12

M16

M20

M24

M30

M36

M42

M48

M56

WAF
k

18
7.5

24
10

30
12.5

36
15

46
18.7

55
22.5

65
26

75
30

85
35

dw
e

16.6
20

22
26.2

27.7
33

33.3
39.6

42.8
50.9

51.1
60.8

60
71.3

69.5
82.6

78.7
93.6

j from
/ to

25
120

30
200

40
200

50
200

60
200

70
200

80
200

100
200

110
200

Property
classes
Nominal
lengths /

5>.6, 8.8,!9.8, 10.S)

A2-70, A4-70

A2-50, A4-50

as per
agreement

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 2 5, 30, 35-60, 6Ei, 70, 80.

90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200 mm
Hexagon head bolt ISO 4017 - M8 x 40 - A4-50:
d= M8,1 = 40 mm, property class A4-50

213

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Hexagon head bolts

Hexagon head bolt with shank and fine threads
Valid standard
DIN EN ISO

Repla ces
DIN EN
DIN

8765

960

28765

Thread d

M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24

x1
x1 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x2

WAF
k

13
5.3

dw
e

11.6 14.6 16.6 22.5 28.2 33.6

14.4 17.8 20 26.2 33 39.6

Qj

w,A

C|

'

j from
/ to

-1

Product gradeis (page 21 1)

16
6.4

22

b2>
b3>

cf. DIN EN ISO 8765 (2001-03)

26

40
80

24
10

18
7.5

30

45
100

50
120

30
12.5

38
44
65
160

46
52
80
200

M30
x2

M36
x3

M42
x3

M48
x3

M56
x4

46
18.7

55
22.5

65
26

75
30

85
35

42.8
50.9

51.1
60.8

60
71.3

69.5
82.6

78.7
93.6

54
60
73

66
72
85

84
97

96
109

108
121

137

100
240

120
300

140
360

160
440

200
480

220
500

36
15

Nominal
lengths /

40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200,
220-460, 480, 500 mm

Threads d

/ in mm

Grade

< M12x1.5

all

Property
classes

d < M24x2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70

d= M30x2-M36x2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-50, A4-50

M16x1.5-

< 150

Explanations

1)

M24x2

> 150

> M30x2

all

=>

2)

for / < 125 mm

for / = 125-200 mm

Repla ces
DIN EN
DIN

8676

t
T
L

Qj

W;

28676

961

^J

[D

<

M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24

x1
x1 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x2

WAF
k

13
5.3

dw
e

11.6 14.6 16.6 22.5 28.2 33.6

14.4 17.8 20 26.2 33 39.6

18
7.5

16
6.4

16
80

20
100

25
120

24
10

35
160

30
12.5

40
200

36
15

40
200

M56
x4

46
18.7

55
22.5

65
26

75
30

85
35

42.8
50.9

51.1
60.8

60
71.3

69.5
82.6

78.7
93.6

40
200

40
90
200J 420

100
480

120
500

d s M24x2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-70, A4-70

d = M30x2-M36x2: 5.6, 8.8, 10.9, A2-50, A4-50

d > M42x3: as per

agreement

cf. DIN EN 24015 (1991-12)

Thread d

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

M20

WAF
k
dw

5.5
2
4.4

7
2.8
5.7

8
3.5
6.7

10
4
8.7

13
5.3
11.4

16
6.4
14.4

18
7.5
16.4

24
10
22

30
12.5
27.7

ds
e

2.6
6

3.5
7.5

4.4
8.7

5.3
10.9

7.1
14.2

8.9
17.6

10.7
19.9

14.5
26.2

18.2
33

12

14

16

18

22
28

26
32

30
36

38
44

46
52

20
30

20
40

25
50

25
60

30
80

40
100

45
120

55
150

65
150

b2)

abm

M48
x3

Property
classes

M42
x3

Hexagon head bolt ISO 8676 - M8 x 1,5 x 55 - 8.8:

d = M8 x 1.5, / = 55 mm, property class 8.8

WA F

M36
x3

16, 20, 25, 30, 35-60, 65, 70, 80, 90-140, 150, 160, 180, 200,
220-460, 480, 500 mm

Hex head bolt with reduced shank

M30
x2

Nominal
lengths /

Product grades according to

DIN EN ISO 8765

QJ

for / > 200 mm

cf. DIN EN ISO 8676 (2001 03)

Thread d

j from
/ to

3)

Hexagon head bolt ISO 8765-M20 x 1.5 x 120 - 5.6:

d = M20 x 1.5, / = 120 mm, property class 5.6

Hexagon head bolts with fine threads, fully threaded

Valid standard
DIN EN ISO

d > M42x3: as per

agreement

j from
/ to
Nominal
lengths /
Property
classes

Product grades (page 211)

Explanations

Threads d

/ in mm

Grade

- M20

all

=>

20, 25, 30-65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100-130, 140, 150 mm
5.8, 6.8, 8.8, A2-70
11

for / < 120 mm

2)

for 1 > 125 mm

Hexagon head bolt ISO 4015 - M8 x 45 - 8.8:

d = M8, / = 45 mm, property class 8.8

214

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Hexagon head bolts

Hexagon head fit bolts with long thread

x1

M10
M10
x1

M12
M12
x1.5

M16
M16
x1.5

M20
M20
x1.5

M24
M24
x2

M30
M30
x2

M36
M36
x3

M42
M42
x3

M48
M48
x3

WAF
k

13
5.3

16
6.4

18
7.5

24
10

30
12.5

36
15

46
19

55
22

65
26

75
30

ds k6

9
14.4

11

13
19.9

17
26.2

21
33

25
39.6

32
50.9

38

17.8

60.8

44
71.3

82.6

14.5
16.5

17.5
19.5

20.5
22.5

25
27
32

28.5
30.5
35.5

36.5
41.5

43
48

49
54

56

63

61

68

38
150

45
150

55
150

65
200

200

80
200

85
200

Thread d

WAF

"ta

i -

b1>

from
to

Nominal
lengths /

I in mm

< 10

all

> 12

all

25
80

32
120

30
100

Grade

Explanations

A2-70
1)

2)

for / < 150 mm

Product grade C

cf. DIN EN 14399-4 (2006-06),

replaces DIN 6914

M12

M16

M20

M22

M24

M27

M30

M36

WAF
k

22
8
20.1

27
10
24.9

32
13
29.5

36
14
33.3

41
15
38

46
17
42.8

50
19
46.6

60
23
55.9

23.9
23

29.6
28

35
33

39.6
34

45.2
39

50.9
41

55.4
44

66.4
52

35
95

40
130

45
155

50
165

60
195

70
200

200

from
to

75

85

200

Nominal
35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70-175, 180, 185, 190, 195, 200 mm
lengths /
Property class,
10.9
surface
normal - > with thin oil film, hot-galvanized - > code: tZn
Hexagon head bolt EN 14399-4 - M12 x 65 - 10.9 - HV - tZn:
M12, / = 65 mm, property class 10.9, for high-strength bolting
assemblies, with hot-galvanized surface

Hexagon fit bolts with large width across flats

Thread d
WAF
k

WAF

cf. DIN 7999 (1983-12)

M12

M16

M20

M22

M24

M27

M30

21

27
10
25

34
13
32

36
14
34

41
15
39

46
17
43.5

50
19
47.5

21
37.3
26

23
39.6
28

25
45.2
29.5

28
50.9
32.5

31
55.4
35

50
180

55
200

55
200

200

8
19

d8b11
e
b

22.8

18.5

17
29.6
22

j from
i to

40
120

45
160

Nominal
lengths /
Property
classes
Product grade C

> for / > 150 mm

Thread d

cL

I
k

for / = 50-150 mm

Fit bolt DIN 609 - M16 x 1.5 x 125 - A2-70:

d= M16 x 1.5, / = 125 mm, property class A2-70

WAF

as per
agreement

A2-50

Hexagon head bolts with large width across flats

for high-strength structural bolting assemblies (HV)

70

50

25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38, 40, 42, 45, 48, 50, 55, 60-150, 160-200 mm

Property
classes

Product grades (page 211)

d in mm

M8
M8

63>

cf. DIN 609 (1995-02)

13

40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65-180, 185, 190, 195, 200 mm
All bolts: property class 10.9
Hexagon head bolt DIN 7999 - M24 x 165:
d= M24,1 = 165 mm, property class 10.9

60

65

200

215

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Hexagon socket head cap screws

Hexagon socket head cap screws with coarse threads
Valid standard
DIN EN ISO

Replaces
DIN

4762

912

Thread d
WAF
k
dk

M1.6

M2

M2.5

M3

1.5

1.5
2
3.8

2
2.5
4.5

2.5
3
5.5

16
20

17
25

18
>25

1.6

b
for/
/1
for /
from
to
Property
classes

WAF
1

L
h

Thread d

/1

C3

M5

M6

M8

M10

4
5

B.5

5
6
10

6
8
13

8
10
16

20
>30

22
>30

24
>35

28
>40

32
>45

3
= 30

3.8
<35

4.5
<40

1.1

1.2

1.4

1.5

2.1

< 16

< 16

<20

<20

<25

2.4
<25

2.5
16

3
20

4
25

5
30

6
40

8
50

by agreement

8.8, 10.9, 12.9

M24

M30

M36

M42

M48

M56

WAF
k
dk

10
12
18

14
16
24

17
20
30

19
24
36

22
30
45

27
36
54

32
42
63

36
48
72

41
56
84

b
for /

36
> 55

44
> 65

52
>80

60
>90

72

84

>110

> 120

96
: 140

/1
for /

5.3
< 50

7.5
<70

10.5

12

; 60

: 80

< 100

< 110

20
120

25
160

200

40
200

45
200

45
200

Nominal
lengths /

30

A2-70, A4-70

70
300

80
300

as per
agreement

A2-50, A4-50

2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30-65, 70, 80-150, 160,
180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300 mm

cf. DIN 7984 (2002-12)

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

M20

M24

WAF
k
d,

2
2
5.5

2.5

4
4
10

5
5
13

7
6
16

7
18

12
9
24

14

3
3.5
8.5

30

17
13
36

b
for /

12
>20

14
>25

16

>30

18
>30

22
>35

26
>40

30
>50

38
>60

44
>70

46
>90

h
for /

1.5

2.1

3
<25

3.8
<30

4.5
<35

5.3
<45

6
<50

<20

2.4
<25

7.5

< 16

<60 <80

5
20

30

10
40

12
80

16
100

20

25

80

30
80

Nominal
lengths /

M3-M24

60
300

Thread d

from
to

Grade

124
> 180

Cap screw ISO 4762 - M10 x 55 - 10.9:

d= M10, / = 55 mm, property class 10.9

zzy

Thread d

108
> 160

15
13.5
16.5
< 130 < 150 < 160

8.8, 10.9, 12.9

Hexagon socket head cap screws, low head

Product grades (page 211)

16

100

M20

M1.6-M56

di

12

80

M16

Grade

WAF

10
60

Stainless steels A2-70, A4-70

Property
classes

Thread d

M4

M12

from
to

Product grades (page 211)

cf. DIN EN ISO 4762 (2004-06)

Property
classes

2.8

11

40
100

50
100

5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 mm
8.8, A2-70, A4-70
Cap screw DIN 7984 - M12 x 50 - A2-70:
d= M12, / = 50 mm, property class A2-70

216

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Cap screws, Countersunk head screws

Hexagon socket head cap screws with fine threads

WAF

L
h

1(

ZZ3
1=4

/1

Thread d

M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M36 M42 M48 M56
x2
3x
x4
xl x1 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x2
x3
x3

WAF
k
dk

6
8
13

10

8
10
16

12
18

14
16
24

b
for /

36
44
28 32
>40 >45 >55 >65

h
for /

3
3
4.5
< 35 <40 <50

cf. DIN EN ISO 21269 (2004-06)

from
to

Nominal
lengths /

20

12

80

19
24
36

30
45

52
>80

60
>90

r 110

4.5

4.5

22

25

30

72

dk
k

Nominal
lengths /

1)

Product grade A (page 211)

80
300

70
300

as per
agreement

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

7
2.6

8.5
3.3

10
3.9

13
5

16
6

0.8

1.2

1.1

1.2

0.9

1.3

1.6
1.6

4
30

5
40

6
50

60

M1.6

M2

M2.5

M3

3.8
1.4

4.5
1.8

5.5
2

0.4
0.5

0.5

0.6

0.7

3
20

3
25

16

0.6

2.5
2.4
10

12

80

80

threads near to head

b = 38 mm

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25-45, 50, 60, 70, 80 mm

4.8, 5.8, A2-50, A4-50

cf. DIN EN ISO 10642 (2004-06), replaces DIN 7991

Thread d

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

M20

WAF
dk
k

2
5.5
1.9

2.5
7.5
2.5

3
9.4
3.1

4
11.3
3.7

5
15.2
5

6
19.2
6.2

8
23.1
7.4

10
29
8.8

12
36
10.2

b
for /

18
>30

20
>30

22
>35

24
>40

28
>50

CNE
Al

00

/i

Property classes A2-50, A4-50 (stainless steels)

Hexagon socket head countersunk screws

124
>180

Cheese head screw ISO 1207 - M6 x 25 - 5.8:

d = M6, / = 25 mm, property class 5.8

Product grade A (page 211)

60
300

A2-70, A4-70

Property
classes

55
200

8.8, 10.9, 12.9

for / < 45 mm
for / > 45 mm

108
>160

12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110,
120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 180, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300 mm

1.1

from
to

41
56
84

cf. DIN EN ISO 1207(1994-10)

Thread d

96

45
200

Slotted cheese head screws

84

36
48
72

Cap screw ISO 21269 - M20 x 1,5 x 120 - 10.9:

d= M20x1.5, / = 120 mm, property class 10.9

Product grade A (page 211)

WAF

32
42
63

<100 <110 <130 <150 <160

40
200

200

27
36
54

: 120 >140

<60 <70 <70

100 120 160

Property
classes
Explanation

20

17
20
30

36
>65

44
>80

52
100

/i
for /

1.5
<25

2.1
<25

2.4
<30

3
<35

3.8
<45

4.5
<50

5.3
<60

6
<70

7.5
<90

8
30

8
40

8
50

8
60

10
80

12
100

20
100

30
100

35
100

j from
/ to
Property
classes

8.8, 10.9, 12.9

Nominal
lengths /

8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 80, 90, 100 mm
Countersunk head screw ISO 10642 - M5 x 30 - 8.8:
d= M5, / = 30 mm, property class 8.8

217

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Countersunk head screws, Raised head countersunk screws. Tapping screws

Slotted raised head countersunk screws
Raised head countersunk screws with cross recess
Thread d

M1.6

dk
k

cf. DIN EN ISO 2010 (1994-10)

cf. DIN EN ISO 7047 (1994-10)

M2

M2.5

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

3.8

4.7
1.5

5.5
1.7

8.4
2.7

9.3
2.7

11.3
3.3

15.8
4.7

18.3
5

0.5
0.5
0.8

0.6
0.6

0.8
0.7

1.2
1.0

1.2

1.6

1.2
1.2
2.0

1.6
1.4
2.4

2
2
3.2

2.5
2.3
3.8

3
20

4
25

5
30

6
40

50

60

10
80

12
80

1.2

0.4
0.4
0.6

1.0

C1)
from
to

2.5
16

for / < 45 mm -* b** I; for I > 45 mm -* b = 38 mm

Property
classes

DIN EN ISO 2010: 4.8, 5.8, A2-50, A2-70

DIN EN ISO 7047: 4.8, A2-50, A2-70

Nominal
lengths /

2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25-45, 50, 60, 70, 80 mm

Explanation

C cross recess size, forms H and Z

Countersunk head screw ISO 7047 - M3 x 20 - 4.8 - H:
d = M3, / = 20 mm, property class 5.8, cross recess form H

Product grade A (page 211)

Slotted flat head countersunk screws

Flat head countersunk screws with cross recess
Thread d

n II Crj \
"T3 oJ
Iu
-

. b

M1.6

dk
k

cf. DIN EN ISO 2009 (1994-10)

cf. DIN EN ISO 7046-1 (1994-10)

M2

M2.5

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

3.8

4.7
1.5

5.5
1.7

8.4
2.7

9.3
2.7

11.3
3.3

15.8
4.7

18.3
5
2.5

1.2

-Q

0.4
0.5

0.5

0.6
0.8

0.8
0.9

1.2

1.2

1.6

0.6

1.3

1.4

1.6

2.3

2.6

2.5
16

3
20

4
25

5
30

6
40

50

60

10
80

12
80

C *

from
to

for / < 45 mm
- ~r~~i
b

b* I; for / > 45 mm -> b = 38 mm

Property
classes

DIN EN ISO 2009: 4.8, 5.8, A2-50, A2-70

DIN EN ISO 7046-1: 4.8, A2-50, A2-70

Nominal
lengths /

2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25-45, 50, 60, 70, 80 mm

Explanation

1)

C cross recess size, forms H and Z (DIN EN 2010)

Countersunk head screw ISO 7046-1 - M5 x 40 - 4.8 - H:

d = M3, / = 40 mm, property class 4.8, cross recess form H

Product grade A (page 211)

Flat head countersunk tapping screws

Raised head countersunk tapping screws
DIN EN ISO 7050,
Form F

Thread d

cf. DIN EN ISO 7050 (1990-08)

cf. DIN EN ISO 7051 (1990-08)
ST2.2

ST2.9

ST3.5

ST4.2

ST4.8

ST5.5

ST6.3

3.8

7.3
2.4

8.4

9.3

2.6

2.8

0.5

5.5
1.7
0.7

0.8

1.0

1.2

10.3
3
1.3

11.3
3.2
1.4

4.5
16

6.5
19

9.5
25

9.5
32

9.5
32

13
38

13
38

dk

1.1

k
f
from
to
DIN EN ISO 7051,
Form C

C 1>
Nominal
lengths /
Forms
Explanation

Product grade A (page 211)

4.5, 6.5, 9.5, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 32, 38 mm

Form C with cone point, form F with dog point
11

C cross recess size, forms H and Z (DIN EN 2010)

Tapping screw ISO 7050 - ST4.8 x 32 - F - Z:

d= ST4.8, / = 32 mm, form F, cross recess form Z

218

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Tapping screws, Thread forming screws

Pan head tapping screws

cf. DIN ISO 7049 (1990-08)

Thread d

ST2.2

ST2.9

ST3.5

4
1.6

5.6
2.4

4.5
16

6.5
19

d,

k
from
to

WA
k

ST4.2

ST4.8

ST5.5

ST6.3

2.6

3.1

9.5
3.7

11
4

13
4.6

9.5
25

9.5
32

9.5
32

13
38

13
38

C1>
I

Nominal
lengths /

4.5, 6.5, 9.5, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 32, 38 mm

Forms

Form C with cone point, form F with dog point

Explanation

11

C cross recess size, forms H and Z (DIN EN 2010)

Tapping screw ISO 7049 - ST2.9 x 13 - C - H:

Product grade A (page 211)

d = ST2.9, / = 13 mm, form C, cross recess form H

Tap hole diameter for tapping screws (selection)

Sheet metal
thickness
s in mm
from-to

1)

Holes bored or punched in

steel or copper alloy sheet

Tap hole diameter d for tapping screw threads 1

ST2.2

ST2.9

ST3.5

ST4.2

0-0.5
0.6-0.8
0.9-1.1

1.6
1.7
1.8

2.2
2.3
2.4

2.6
2.7
2.8

1.2-1.4
1.5-1.7
1.8-2.0

1.8

2.4
2.5
2.6

2.8
2.9
3.0

2.0-2.5
2.6-3.0
3.1-3.5

3.0
3.0

ST4.8

ST5.5

ST6.3

3.2
3.2

3.7
3.7

4.2

4.9

3.3
3.5
3.5

3.9
3.9
4.0

4.3
4.5
4.6

4.9
5.0
5.2

3.5
3.8
3.9

4.0
4.1
4.3

4.6
4.7
5.0

5.3
5.3
5.8

Thread forming screws

Form DE: hexagon head bolt

Form

n
\

-*t3

11

DE

Thread

M2

M2.5

M3

M4

WAF

4
1.4

5
1.7

5,5
2

dk
e

2.3
3.4

3.1
4.3

3
16
1.5

M5

M6

M8

M10

2.8

3.5

10
4

13
5.3

16
6.4

4.1
5.5

4.6
6

6
7.7

6.9

11.6

11.1

14.4

14.6
17.8

4
20

4
25

6
30

40

8
50

10
60

12
80

3.8

2
2.5
4.5

2.5
3
5.5

4
5
8.5

5
6
10

6
8
13

10
16

3
16

4
20

4
25

6
30

40

50

10
60

12
80

dk
k
f

3.8

5.5
1.7
1

8.4
2.7
1.2

9.3
2.7
1.4

11.3
3.3
1.4

15.8
4.7

0.4

4.7
1.5
0.5

18.3
5
2.3

j from
/ to

4
16

5
20

25

30

10
40

10
50

12
60

20
80

from
to

Form EE: hexagon socket head

cap bolt

WAF

WAF
EE

k
dk

from
to

Form NE: raised countersunk

head bolt with cross
recess

cf. DIN 7500-1 (2007-03)

WAF
[ E
-RAI
Q
I
rI
t

NE

1.2

C1'

Nominal
lengths I
Explanation
Product grade A (page 211)

3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30-50, 55, 60, 70, 80 mm

1)

C cross recess size, forms H and Z (DIN EN 2010)

Screw DIN 7500 - DE - M8 x 25 - St: DE Hex head, d = M8,

/ = 25 mm (material: case hardened and tempered steel)

219

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Studs, Eye bolts, Drain plugs

Studs

cf. DIN 835, 938, 939 (1995-02)

M3

M4

M6

M5

Thread d

x1

t3

n r
U

1
1

b for / < 125

/ < 125

b
e

from
to

Product grade A (page 211)

835
938
939

Aluminum alloys
Steel
Cast iron

12
18

14
20

DIN 835
DIN 938
DIN 939

Application
DIN
For screwing into

M8
M8

Property
classes
Nominal
lengths /

20
30

20
40

M10 M12
M10 M12
xl.25 xl.25

M16
M16
x1.5

M20
M20
x1.5

M24
M24
x2

16
22

18
24

22
28

26
32

30
36

38
44

46
52

54
60

10
5
6.5

12

20
10
12

24
12
15

32
16
20

40

7.5

16
8
10

25

48
24
30

25
50

25
60

30

35
100

40

120

50
170

60
200

200

80

20

70

5.6, 8.8, 10.9

20, 25, 30-75, 80, 90-180, 190, 200 mm
Stud ISO 939 - M10 x 65 - 8.8:
d= M10, / = 65 mm, property class 8.8

Eye bolts

cf. DIN 580 (2003-08)

Thread d

M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24

M30

M36

M42

M48

M56

18
36

75
144
80

85
166
90

95
184
100

85
63

100
68

110
78

8.60
6.10

8.20

cfi
d2

20

d3

20

13

22.5
45
25

26
54
30

30.5
63
35

35
72
40

45
90
50

55
108
60

65
126
70

25
17

30
20.5

35
27

40
30

50
36

65
45

75
54

Case hardened steel C15E, A2, A3, A4, A5

Materials

Carrying capacity in t for loading direction

vertical
(single line)

under 45
(double line)

Vertical
under 45c

0.14 0.23 0.34 0.70 1.20

0.10 0.17 0.24 0.50 0.86

1.80
1.29

3.20
2.30

4.60
3.30

11.5

Eye bolt DIN 580 - M20 - C15E: d= M20, material C15E

Hexagon head Drain plugs

WAF

6.30
4.50

cf. DIN 910 (1992-01)

M10
x1

M12
x1.5

M16
x1.5

M20
x1.5

M24
x1.5

M30
x1.5

M36
x1.5

M42
x1.5

M48
x1.5

M52
x1.5

14
17

17
21
12

21
21
12

25
26
14

29
27
14

36
30
16

42
32
16

49
33
16

55
33
16

60
33
16

c
WAF
e

3
10
10.9

3
13
14.2

3
17
18.7

4
19
20.9

4
22
23.9

4
24

4
27
29.6

5
30
33

5
30
33

5
30
33

Materials

St steel, Al Al-alloy, CuZn copper-zinc-alloy

Thread d

26.1

Screw plug DIN 910 - M24 x 1.5 - St:

d= M24 x 1.5, material: steel

Hexagon socket Drain plugs

cf. DIN 908 (1992-01)

M10
x1

M12
x1.5

M16
x1.5

M20
x1.5

M24
x1.5

M30
x1.5

M36
x1.5

M42
x1.5

M48
x1.5

M52
x1.5

d\
I
c

14
11
3

17
15
3

21
15
3

25
18
4

29
18
4

36
4

42
21
5

49
21
5

55
21
5

60
21
5

WAF
t
e

5
5
5.7

6
7
6.9

7.5
9.2

10
7.5
11.4

12
7.5
13.7

17
9
19.4

19
10.5
21.7

22
10.5
25.2

24
10.5
27.4

24
10.5
27.4

Thread d

Materials

20

St steel, Al Al-alloy, CuZn copper-zinc-alloy

Screw plug DIN 908 - M20 x 1.5 - CuZn:
d= M24 x 1.5, material: copper-zinc-alloy

220

Machine elements:
Set

5.2 Bolts a n d s c r e w s
screws

S l o t t e d set s c r e w s

cf. DIN EN 27434, 27435, 24766 (all 1992-10)

Thread d

with cone point

LU CO

M1.2 M1.6 M2 M2.5 M3

0.1
0.2

4
n
t

0.5

r-
Q

^ in
LU CO
Z rO
from
to
with flat point

^
co

d^
n
t

0.6
0.2
0.5

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

0.2

0.2

0.3
0.7

0.3
0.8

0.3
0.4
1

0.3
0.4
1.1

0.4
0.6
1.4

0.5
0.8
1.6

1.5
1
2

2
1.2
2.5

2.5
1.6
3

3.6
2
3

3
10

3
12

4
16

6
25

8
30

5
35

10
40

12
55

16
60

0.8
1.1

1
1.3

1.5
1.5

2
1.8

2.5
2.3

3.5
2.8

4.3
3.3

5.5
4.3

7
5.3

8.5
6.3

0.3
0.7

0.3
0.8

0.4
1

0.4
1.1

0.6
1.4

0.8
1.6

1.2
2.5

1.6
3

2.5

3
10

4
12

5
16

6
20

8
25

10
40

12
50

16
60

1
0.3
0.8

1.5
0.4
1

2
0.4
1.1

2.5
0.6
1.4

3.5
0.8
1.6

5.5
1.2
2.5

7
1.6
3

8.5
2
3.6

2
10

2.5
12

3
16

4
20

5
25

40

10
50

12
60

from
to

M4

0.8
0.3
0.7

from
to

30

6
30

Product grade A (page 211)

Property
classes

45H, A1-12H, A2-21H, A3-21H, A4-21H, A5-21H

Valid standard

Replaces

2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30-50, 55, 60 mm

DIN EN 27434
DIN EN 27435
DIN EN 24766

DIN 553
DIN 417
DIN 551

Nominal
lengths /

Set screw ISO 7434 - M6 x 25 - 14H:

d = M6, / = 25 mm, property class 14H

S e t s c r e w s w i t h h e x a g o n socket

cf. DIN EN ISO 4026, 4027, 4028 (2004-05)

Thread d

with cone point

M2 M2.5 M3

M20

2.3
1.5

2.9
2

3.4
2

4.6
3

5.7
4

6.9
4.8

9.1
6.4

11.4
8

2
10

2.5
12

3
16

4
20

5
25

6
30

40

10
50

12
60

16
60

20
60

1
1.3
0.9

1.5
1.5
1.3

1.8
1.5

2.5
2.3

3.5
2.8
2.5

4
3.3
3

5.5
4.3
4

7
5.3
5

8.5
6.3
6

12
8.4

15
10.4
10

1
0.8

1.5

1.7

1.2

2.3
1.5

2.9

3.4
2

4.6
3

5.7
4

6.9
4.8

9.1
6.4

11.4

1.2

2.5
10

3
12

4
16

5
20

6
25

30

8
40

20
50

12
60

16
60

1.5
1.3

2.5

1.5

3.5
2.5

8.5
6

12

0.9

15
10

LU O

1.5

&

1.2

1.7
1.2

2.3
1.5

2.9

0.8

3.4
2

4.6
3

5.7
4

6.9
4.8

9.2
6.4

11.4
8

2.5

5
25

6
30

8
40

10
50

16

16

4
20

12

12

60

60

20
60

_ oo
Z

from
to
d1
z
WAF

LU O

from
to
di
WAF

with flat point

_

5
10

2.5
5

CN

| o
D c/)

CD
CM

Q c/D

DIN 913
DIN 914
DIN 915

M16

1.7
1.2

with dog point

DIN EN ISO 4026

DIN EN ISO 4027
DIN EN ISO 4028

M12

1.5
1.2

o 00

Replaces

1.5
3

M10

1
0.8

SW " k ^ -

Valid standard

1.3
2.5

M8

0.8
1.5

sS

Product grade A (page 211)

M6

0.7
1.3

Z CN
LU O

SW

M5

0.5
0.9

d^
WAF

if

M4

Property
classes
Nominal
lengths /

from
to

10

5.5
4

45H, A1-12H, A2-21H, A3-21H, A4-21H, A5-21H

2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30-50, 60 mm
Set screw ISO 4026 - M6 x 25 - A5-21H:
d= M6, / = 25 mm, A5 stainless steel, property class 21H

20

60

221

M a c h i n e e l e m e n t s : 5.2 Bolts a n d s c r e w s

Screw joint calculations

Preselection of shank bolts1'

F p preload
Fa applied force

Applied force per bolt Fa2) in kN

Load
static

2.5

6.3

10

16

25

40

63

F c joint clamp
force

dynamic

1.6

2.5

6.3

10

16

25

40

Fs total bolt load

fa> W5

fs bolt extension
f} joint compression

5.8, 6.

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

M20

M24

8.8

M5

M6

M8

M8

M10

M16

M20

M24

Q. CD 10.9
P o 12.9

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

M20

M4

M5

M5

M8

M8

M10

M12

M16

1)

2)

It is necessary to check the values of the selected bolts in accordance

with VDI Guideline 2230 for instance.
For waisted bolts select next higher applied force level.

Preload and tightening torques

Waisted b<alts

Shank bo Its
Thread

F3)

v
in
mm2

Tightening torque
Mx in N m

Preload
F p in kN

Overall c oefficie nt of friiction fj 4)

0.08 0.12 0.14 0.08 0.12 0.14

Tightening torque
Mt in N m

Preload
F p in kN

A/v2)
in
mm2

4
coefficier it of fric tion /J )
0.12 0.14 0.08 0.12 0.14

1rota I

0.08

M8

8.8
10.9
12.9

36.6

18.6
27.1
31.9

17.2
25.2
29.5

16.5
24.2
28.3

17.9
26.2
30.7

23.1
34
39.6

25.3
37.2
43.6

26.6

12.9
19
22.2

11.8
17.3
20.2

11.2
16.4
19.2

13.6
20
23.4

17.6
25.8
30.2

19.2
28.2
33

M8 x 1

8.8
10.9
12.9

39.2

20.3
29.7
34.8

18.8
27.7
32.4

18.1
26.6
31.1

18.8
27.7
32.4

24.8
36.4
42.6

27.3
40.1
47.1

29.2

14.6
21.5
25.1

13.4
19.6
23

12.7
18.7
21.9

13.6
20
23.4

17.6
25.8
30.2

19.2
28.2
33

M10

8.8
10.9
12.9

58.0

29.5
43.3
50.7

27.3
40.2
47

26.2
38.5
45

36
53
61

46
68
80

51
75
88

42.4

20.7
30.4
35.6

18.9
27.7
32.4

17.9
26.4
30.8

25
37
43

32
47
55

35
51
60

M10x1.25

8.8
10.9
12.9

61.2

31.5
46.5
54.4

29.4
43.2
50.6

28.3
41.5
48.6

37
55
64

49
72
84

54
80
93

45.6

22.7
33.5
39.2

20.9
30.6
35.9

19.9
29.2
34.4

27
40
46

35
51
60

38
56
65

M12

8.8
10.9
12.9

84.3

43
63
73.9

39.9
58.5
68.5

38.3 61
56.2 90
65.8 105

80
117
137

87
128
150

61.7

30.3
44.6
52.1

27.6
40.6
47.7

26.3
38.6
45.2

43
63
74

55
81
95

60
88
103

M12x1.5

8.8
10.9
12.9

88.1

48.2
70.8
82.7

45
66
72.3

43.2 65
63.5 96
74.3 112

87
128
150

96
141
165

65.8

35
52
61

32.6
47.8
56

31
45.7
53.4

48
71
83

63
93
108

69
102
119

M16

8.8
10.9
12.9

157

81
119
140

75.3 72.4 147

106
216
111
124
253
130

194
285
333

214
314
367

117

58.4
85.8
100

53.4
78.5
91.8

51
106
74.8 156
87.5 182

137
202
236

150
221
258

M16x1.5

8.8
10.9
12.9

167

88
129
151

82.2 79.2 154

121
227
116
141
265
136

207
304
355

229
336
394

128

65.5 60.2
96.2 88.4
104
113

57.4 115
84.5 169
197
99

151
222
260

166
244
285

M20

8.8
10.9
12.9

245

131
186
218

121
173
202

117
166
194

297
423
495

391
557
653

430
615
720

182

92
134
157

86
123
144

82
117
137

215
306
358

278
395
462

304
432
505

M20x1.5

8.8
10.9
12.9

272

149
212
247

138
200
231

134
190
225

320
455
533

433
618
721

482
685
802

210

113
160
188

104
148
173

100
142
166

242
345
402

322
460
540

355
508
594

M24

8.8
10.9
12.9

353

188
268
313

175
250
291

168
238
280

512
730
855

675
960
1125

743
1060
1240

262

136
193
225

124
177
207

118
168
196

370
527
617

480
682
800

523
745
871

M24x2

8.8
10.9
12.9

384

210
300
350

196
280
327

189
268
315

545
776
908

735
1046
1224

816
1160
1360

295

158
224
263

145
207
242

139
198
230

410
582
682

543
775
905

600
852
998

During assembly, the bolts are under tensile and torsional stress. The tightening torque Mt utilizes approx. 90% of the
yield strength of the bolt material.
1)
4)
As stress area
^ = - 0 8 : b o l t MoS 2 lubricated
2)
A w waist cross section
fj = 0.12: bolt lightly oiled
3)
F property class of bolt
ij = 0.14: bolt secured with microencapsulated plastic

222

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Locking fasteners
A locking fastener is generally not necessary for screw
joints which are sufficiently dimensioned and securely
mounted. The clamping forces prevent the slipping of
the screwed parts or loosening of the bolts and nuts. In
practice a loss of clamping force can still occur due to
the following causes:
\ Z
\
\

"O

L o c k i n g e d g e ri n g s , b o l t s / s c r e w s w i ith
t e e t h u n d e r t h e head, m i c r o e n c a p s ii l a t e d
a d h e s i v e s , l i q u id a d h e s i v e : o p t i m a l
u n s c r e w i n g loq k

I \
1 \
1 \

CD

0)

Loosening of the screw joint caused by high surface

contact pressures which initiate plastic deformation
(so-called settling) and reduce the preload of the
screw joint.
Remedy: As little seperation as possible, minimal surface roughness, use of high-strength bolts (large preload).

Loc:k w a s h e r s , castle nuits, lock w i r e:

cap>tive fastenlers o r SITUall unscrew /ina
MI IY
lociks ( p o l y a mlide coatinigs)

Unscrewing of the screw joint: For joints dynamically loaded transverse to the bolt axis a fully self-actuated unscrewing can occur.

I
Q.

This is remedied with locking elements. These are

divided into three groups based on their effectiveness.

:Spriri g lock w a ;5her, sprinig w a s h e r ,

t ^ t o o t h i lock w a s hier, c o u n t e r n u t :
\ ineffi c i e n t lock <s l e m e n t s

1000

2000

3000

load cycles

4000

Ineffective locking elements (e.g. spring lock washers

and tooth lock washers).
Captive fasteners, which allow a partial unscrewing,
but prevent the screw joint from coming completely
apart.

5000

Threadlocking (e.g. glue or corrugated head screws).

The preload remains approximately constant. The nut
or bolt cannot loosen by itself (best method of locking).

Vibration test DIN 65151 performed on various locking

elements
The locking behavior of screw joints under transverse
loading on the bolt is tested
ISO 4014-M10.

Overview of locking fasteners

Joint

Locking element

Standard

Type, property

Loaded
together,
spring loaded

spring lock washer

spring washer
tooth lock washer
serrated lock washer

withdrawn
withdrawn
withdrawn
withdrawn

ineffective
ineffective
ineffective
ineffective

Interlocking

lock washer
castle nut with cotter pin
lock wire

withdrawn
DIN 935-1+2

captive fastener
captive fastener
captive fastener

Force-fit
(gripping)

jam nut
bolts and nuts
with gripping
polyamide coating

Blocking
(force-fit and
interlocking)

Bonded

bolts with teeth

under the head
detent edged ring
detent washer
self-locking pair
of washers
microencapsulated adhesives
in threads
liquid adhesive

DIN 267-28
ISO 2320

DIN 267-27

ineffective, loosening possible

captive fastener or slight
anti-rotation lock

anti-rotation lock, not suitable for

hardened parts
anti-rotation lock, not suitable for
hardened parts
anti-rotation lock

anti-rotation lock, sealing jointtemperature range -50C to 150C

anti-rotation lock

223

Machine elements: 5.2 Bolts and screws

Width across flats, Types of bolt and screw drives

Width across flats for bolts, screws, valves and fittings
Width across
flats (WAF)
Nominal size
s
3.2
3.5
4

e-, = 1.4142 s
8 = 0.7071-6!

cf. DIN 475-1 (1984-01)

Length of diagonal
Width across
Two Square Hexa- flats (WAF)
flats
gonal Nominal size
d
s
e2
3.7
4.5
3.5
21
4
4.9
3.8
22
5.7
4.4
4.5
23

Two
flats
d
24
25
26

Length of diagonal
Square Hexa- Octagonal gonal
e

29.7
31.1
32.5

23.4
24.5
25.6

22.7
23.8
24.9

4.5
5
5.5

5
6
7

6.4
7.1
7.8

4.9
5.5
6.0

24
25
26

28
29
31

33.9
35.5
36.8

26.8
27.9
29.0

26.0
27.0
28.1

6
7
8

7
8
9

8.5
9.9
11.3

6.6
7.7
8.8

27
28
30

32
33
35

38.2
39.6
42.4

30.1
31.3
33.5

29.1
30.2
32.5

9
10
11

10
12
13

12.7
14.1
15.6

9.9
11.1
12.1

32
34
36

38
40
42

45.3
48.0
50.9

35.7
37.7
40.0

34.6
36.7
39.0

12
13
14

14
15
16

17.0
18.4
19.8

13.3
14.4
15.5

41
46
50

48
52
58

58.0
65.1
70.7

45.6
51.3
55.8

44.4
49.8
54.1

15
16
17

17
18
19

21.2
22.6
24.0

16.6
17.8
18.9

55
60
65

65
70
75

77.8
84.8
91.9

61.3
67.0
72.6

59.5
64.9
70.3

18
19
20

21
22
23

25.4
26.9
28.3

20.0
21.1
22.2

70
75
80

82
88
92

99.0
106
113

78.3
83.9
89.6

75.7
81.2
86.6

=>

DIN 475 - WAF 16: Width across flats with nominal size s = 16 mm

Table values as per DIN 475 apply to finished stamped wrought products, bolts,
screws, nuts and fittings. Diagonal lengths calculated by the formula e 2 = 1.1547 s
are larger than the table values, since they are based on the sharp-edged hexagon.
Calculation of regular polygons, page 27.

Screw drive systems

Type

Properties

Type

High torque transmission, no axial

force required, relatively economical,
identical tool for bolt and nut, many
variations, tool relatively large

Higher torque transmission than with

hexagon head

internal
torx drive

hexagonal head
Like hexagon head except the torque
transmission is slightly less, requires
less space for tool than with hexagon
head

Very good torque transmission, little

space required for tool

external
torx drive

hexagon socket

tamper resistant
hexagon drive

Safety screw, can only be loosened

with a special tool, especially wellsuited as protection against damage
and theft, yet has good torque transmission

Safety screw, can only be loosened

with a special tool, especially wellsuited as protection against damage
and theft, yet has good torque transmission
t a m p e r resistant
t o r x drive

Inexpensive and popular, but it is difficult to center the tool, low torque
transmission, high contact pressure
on the loaded driving flats
slotted

Properties

cross recess
Pozidriv

Higher torque than with slotted bolts

& screws, better tool centering, lower
contact pressure, available without
diagonal notches and also with cross
recess Phillips form H

224

Machine elements: 5.

o t s n s

Countersinks for countersunk head screws

Countersinks for countersunk screws with head forms as per ISO 7721 cf. DIN EN ISO 15065 (2005-05) Replaces DIN 66
Nominal sizes

1.6

Metric screws

M1.6

2.5
M2

Tapping screws

V/)

M3.5

M4

ST2.9

ST3.5

ST4.2

1.8

2.4

2.9

3.4

3.9

4.5

d2 min.

3.6

4.4

5.5

6.3

8.2

9.4

d2 max.

3.7

4.5

5.6

6.5

8.4

9.6

1.0

1.1

1.4

1.6

2.3

2.6

Tapping screws

M3

d y H13

10

5.5
M5

Metric screws

M2.5

ST2.2

Nominal sizes

3.5

ST4.8

ST5.5

M6

M8

M10

ST6.3

ST8

ST9.5

6.6

d, H13

5.5

11

d2 min.

10.4

11.5

12.6

17.3

20

d2 max.

10.7

11.8

12.9

17.6

20.3

2.6

2.9

3.1

4.3

4.7

Countersink ISO 15065-8: Nominal size 8 (metric threads M8 or

tapping screw threads ST8)
Application for:

Graphical representation,
see page 83;

Slotted flat head countersunk screws

Cross recessed flat head countersunk screws
Slotted raised head countersunk screws
Cross rec. raised head countersunk screws
Slotted flat head countersunk tapping screws
Cross rec. flat head counters, tapping screws
Slotted raised head countersunk tapping screws
Cross rec. raised head counters, tapping screws
Cross recessed flat head countersunk tapping screws
Cross recessed raised head countersunk tapping screws

Countersinks for countersunk head screws

Thread 0

DIN EN ISO 2009

DIN EN ISO 7046-1
DIN EN ISO 2010
DIN EN ISO 7047
DIN ISO 1482
DIN ISO 7050
DIN ISO 1483
DIN ISO 7051
ISO 15482
ISO 15483

cf. DIN 74 (2003-04)

2.5

1.6

4.5

<

d, H13 1)

1.8

2.4

2.9

3.4

4.5

E
o

tf2H13

3.7

4.6

5.7

6.5

8.6

h -

0.9

1.1

1.4

1.6

2.1

5.5

6.6

7.6

9.5

10.4

12.4

14.4

16.4

2.3

2.5

2.9

3.3

3.7

Countersink DIN 74 - A4: Form A, thread diameter 4 mm

///.
V/,
d, H13

Form A and Form F

Application of
Form A for:

Countersunk flat head wood screws

Raised head countersunk wood screws

Thread 0

E
L_
o
LL

24

10

12

16

20

22

10.5

13

17

21

23

25

d 2 H13

19

24

31

34

37

40

fi a

5.5

11.5

12

13

H131)
LU

DIN 97 and DIN 7997

DIN 95 and DIN 7995

75 1

60 1

Countersink DIN 74 - E12: Form E, thread diameter 12 mm

Application of
Form E for:
Shape F
Graphical representation,
see page 83;
Forms B, C and D are no
longer standardized

DIN 7969

10

12

14

16

20

di H131)

3.4

4.5

5.5

15.5

17.5

22

6.9

9.2

11.5

18.3

11
22.7

13.5

d2 H13

6.6
13.7

27.2

31.2

34.0

40.7

h -

1.8

2.3

3.0

3.6

4.6

5.9

6.9

7.8

8.2

9.4

Thread 0

Form E

Countersunk head bolts for steel structures

Countersink DIN 74 - F12: Form F, thread diameter 12 mm

Application of
Form F for:
1)

Hexagon socket head countersunk screws

DIN EN ISO 10642

(replaces DIN 7991)

Medium size clearance hole according to DIN EN 20273, page 211

Machine elements: 5.

225

o n e s

Counterbores for cap screws and Hexagon head bolts

Counterbores for cap screws

cf. DIN 974-1 (1991-05)

dhH131)

3.4

Series 1

6.5

4.5

Series 3

20

24

27

30

36

17.5

22

26

30

33

39

15

18

20

26

33

40

46

50

58

18

24
20

26

33

40

46

50

58

24

30

36

43

46

54

63
69

10

11

11

13

10

11

15

18

11

13

16

20

6.5
10

13

15

18

24

26

33

40

48

54

61

Series 6

10

13

15

20

24

33

43

48

58

63

73

3.0

3.7

4.3

ISO 4762
DIN 7984
2 a
Series
1

x_

16

13.5

Series 5
ISO 1207

tfhH13

12

11

6.6

Series 2
Series 4

10

5.5

2.4

5.6

6.6

1 2 . 6 16.6 20.6 24.8

2.4
3.2
3.9
4.4
5.4
6.4
7.6
9.6 11.6 13.
DIN 974 provides no code designations for counterbores.

3.4

4.4

5.4

6.4

8.6

10.6

31.0 37.0

Cap screws without washer components

Screws (bolts) ISO 1207, ISO 4762, DIN 6912, DIN 7984
Screws (bolts) ISO 1580, DIN 7985

/Ra 3.2

Cap screws and the following washer components:

Screws (bolts) ISO 1207, ISO 4762, DIN 7984 with spring lock washers DIN 79803*
Washers DIN EN ISO 7092
Tooth lock washers DIN 6797 3)
Spring washers DIN 137 Form A 3 )
Serrated lock washers DIN 67983)
3>
Spring lock washers DIN 128 + DIN 6905 Serrated lock washers DIN 69073'
Spring washers DIN 137 Form B 3 )
Spring washers DIN 69043'

Washers DIN EN ISO 7090

Washers DIN 6902 Form A 3 )
Graphical representation, see page 83;

1)
2)

Conical spring washers DIN 6796

Clearance hole according to DIN EN 20273, series medium, page 211
3)
For screws/bolts without washer components
Standards withdrawn

Counterbore for hexagon bolts/screws and hexagon nuts

8

^H13
10

Width across flats

co

d, H13
X _

or

Ra 3.2
Rz 25

Graphical representation, see page 83;

T.

13

10
16

cf. DIN 974-2 (1991-05)

12

14

16

20

24

27

30

33

36

42

18

21

24

30

36

41

46

50

55

65

22

26

30

33

36

39

45

dh H13

4.5

5.5

6.6

Series 1
Series 2

13

15

18

24

28

33

36

40

46

58

61

73

76

15

18

20

26

33

36

43

46

54

73

76

89

82
93

107

Series 3

10

11

13

18

22

26

30

33

40

48

54

82
61

69

73

82

Hex bolt

3.3

4.1

4.6

6.1

7.2

8.3

9.6 10.8 13.3 16.0 18.2 20.1 22.4 23.9 27.4

11

13.5 15.5 17.5

98

DIN 974 provides no code designations for counterbores.

Series 1: For socket wrench DIN 659, DIN 896, DIN 3112 or socket DIN 3124
Series 2: For box wrench DIN 838, DIN 897 or socket DIN 3129
Series 3: For recesses in tight space conditions (not suitable for conical spring washers)
1)
For hexagon bolts/screws ISO 4014, ISO 4017, ISO 8765, ISO 8676 without washer components

Calculation of counterbore depth for flush mounting (for DIN 974-1 and DIN 974-2)
Determining the allowance Z

washer
H,

bolt/screw
Thread
/ head nominal 0 d
Allowance Z

over 1
to 1.4

over 1.4
to 6

over 6
to 20

over 20
to 27

over 27
to 100

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

counterbore depth
maximum height of the screw/bolt head
maximum height of the washer component
allowance based on thread nominal diameter
(see table)

1)

If values kmax and / ? m a x are unavailable,

values k and h can be used as approximations.

Counterbore depth 11
t=k,

max + ^ m a x +

226

Machine elements: 5.

ts

Nuts-Overview
Illustration

Design

Standard range
from-to

Standard

Hexagon nuts, type 1

page 228

with coarse threads

M1.6-M64

DIN EN ISO
4032

with fine threads

M8x1-M64x4

DIN EN ISO
8673

Hexagon nuts, type 2

with coarse threads

M5-M36

DIN EN ISO
4033

with fine threads

M8x1-M36x3

DIN EN ISO
8674

Nut height m is approx. 10% higher

than nuts of type 1, used with bolts
up to equal property class
Fine threads: greater transmitted
force than for coarse threads
pages 229, 230

with coarse threads

M1.6-M64

DIN EN ISO
4035

with fine threads

M8x1-M64x4

DIN EN ISO
8675

Prevailing torque hexagon nuts with locking insert

Use with low installation heights and

low stresses
Fine threads: higher transmission of
force than coarse threads
page 230

with coarse threads

M3-M36

DIN EN ISO
7040

Self-locking nuts with full loading

capacity and non-metallic insert, up
to operating temperatures of 120C

with fine threads

M8x1-M36x3

DIN EN ISO
10512

Fine threads: greater transmitted

force than for coarse threads

with coarse threads

M5-M36

DIN EN ISO
7719

Self-locking all-metal nuts with full

loading capacity

with fine threads

M8x1-M36x3

DIN EN ISO
10513

Hexagon nuts, other forms

HI

Most commonly used nuts, used with

bolts up to equal property class
Fine threads: greater transmitted
force than for coarse threads

page 229

Low hexagon nuts

Applications, properties

Fine threads: greater transmitted

force than for coarse threads
pages 230, 232

with large
width across flats,
coarse threads

M12-M36

with flange,
coarse threads

M5-M20

weld nuts,
coarse threads

M3-M16
M8x1 -M16x1.5

DIN EN
14399-4

Metal construction: high-strength

custom preloaded joints (HV), with
hexagon head bolts DIN EN 14999-4
(page 214)

Might be used with large clearance

DIN EN 1661 holes or to reduce contact pressure

DIN 929

Castle nuts, cotter pins

Used in sheet metal structures; nuts

are usually joined to metal sheets by
projection welding
page 232

high form,
coarse or
fine threads

M4-M100
M8x1-M 100x4

DIN 935

low form,
coarse or
fine threads

M6-M48
M8x1-M48x3

DIN 979

cotter pins

0.6x12-20x280

DIN EN ISO
1234

Might be used for axial fixing of

bearings, hubs in safety joints (steering area of vehicles)
Locking with cotter pin and transverse hole in the bolt. At full
load of the bolt, the cotter pin is
sheared off above property class 8.8.

Machine elements: 5.

227

ts

Nuts - Overview, Designation of nuts

Illustration

Standard range
from-to

Design

Standard

Application, properties

Acorn nuts

im
%3lit?

page 231
high form,
coarse or
fine threads

M4-M36
M8x1-M24x2

DIN 1587

low form,
coarse or
fine threads

M4-M48
M8x1-M48x3

DIN 917

Decorative and sealing external joint

closures, protection for threads, protection from injuries

Eye nuts, eye bolts

page 231

eye nuts,
coarse or
fine threads

M8-M 100x6
M20x2M100x4

DIN 582

Transport eyes on machines and

equipment; stress depends on the
angle of the applied load, milling of
seating surface necessary

Lock nuts, lock washers

page 231

lock nuts
with fine threads

M10x1M200x1.5

DIN 70852

lock washers

10-200

DIN 70952

lock nuts
with fine threads

M 10x0.75M115x2
(KM0-KM23)

DIN 981

lock washers

10-115
(MB0-MB23)

DIN 5406

For axial positioning, e.g. of hubs,

with small mounting heights and low
stresses, locking with lock washers

For axial positioning of roller bearings, for adjustment of the bearing

clearance, e.g. with tapered roller
bearings that are locked with lock
washers

Knurled nuts

page 232
high form,
coarse threads

M1-M10

DIN 466

low form,
coarse threads

M1-M10

DIN 467

Used in joints that are opened frequently, e.g. in manufacturing of jigs

and fixtures, in control cabinets

Hexagon turnbuckle nuts

coarse threads

M6-M30

DIN 1479

For joining and adjusting, e.g. of

threaded and connecting bars, with
left-hand and right-hand threads;
locked by jam nuts

Designation of nuts
Examples:

1)

cf. DIN 962 (2001-11)

Hexagon nut
Castle nut
Hexagon nut

ISO 4032 - M 1 2
-8
DIN 929 - M8 x 1 - St
EN 1661 - M 1 2
-10

Nuts standardized according to ISO or DIN EN ISO, have the code ISO in their designation.
Nuts standardized according to DIN, have the code DIN in their designation.
Nuts standardized according to DIN EN, have the code EN in their designation.

228

Machine elements: 5.

ts

Property classes, hexagon nuts with coarse threads

cf. DIN EN 20898-2 (1994-02),
DIN EN ISO 3506-2 (1998-03)

Property classes of nuts

Examples:

Stainless steels
DIN EN ISO 3506-2

Unalloyed and alloy steels

DIN EN 29898-2
nut height m > 0.8 d:
nut height m< 0.8 d:

8
04

nut height m > 0.8 d:

A2-70

nut height m< 0.8 d:

A 4-035

Code

Steel microstructure

Steel group

Code

8 property class
04 low nuts, test
load = 4 -100 N/mm 2

A austenitic
F ferritic

1 free m a c h i n i n g a l l o y s
2 a l l o y e d w i t h Cr, Ni
4 a l l o y e d w i t h Cr, Ni, M o

70 proof stress = 70 10 N/mm 2

035 low nut,
proof stress = 35 10 N/mm 2

Allowable combinations of nuts and bolts

Nuts

Property class
of the nut

4.8

cf. DIN EN 20898-2 (1994-02)

Usable bolts up to property class

Stainless steels
Unalloyed and alloy steels
A2-70
A4-50
5.8 6.8 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9 A2-50

A4-70

allowable combinations
of property classes for nuts
and bolts

10
12
A2-50
A2-70
A4-50
A4-70
04, 05,
A2-025,
A4-025

Bolts

Property classes for low nuts. The nuts are designed for smaller load
capacity. Bolts and nuts of the same material group, e.g. stainless steel,
can be combined with each other.

Hexagon nuts with coarse threads, Type

Valid standard Replaces Thread d
DIN EN ISO DIN EN DIN
WAF
4032
24032 934 cL,

M2

M2.5

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

3.2
2.4

4
3.1

5
4.1

5.5
4.6

7
5.9

8
6.9

10
8.9

13
11.6

16
14.6

3.4
1.3

4.3

5.5

6
2.4

7.7
3.2

8.8

11.1

14.4

4.7

5.2

6.8

17.8
8.4

5
-Ji

M20-M64

6, 8, 10
A2-70, A4-70

M12

M16

M20

M24

M30

M36

M42

M48

M56

WAF

18
16.6

24
22.5

30
27.7

36
33.3

46
42.8

55
51.1

65
60

75
69.5

85
78.7

20
10.8

26.

33
18

39.6
21.5

50.9
25.6

60.8
31

71.3
34

82.6
38

93.6
45

M1.6-M16

Thread d

Thread d

1.6

as per agreement

Property
classes

dw

Product grades (page 211)

cf. DIN EN ISO 4032 (2001-03)

M1.6

WAF t

1)

Explanation

as per agreement

6, 8, 10

Property
classes

Grade

14.

A2-70, A4-70
1)

A2-50, A4-50

Type 1: Nut height m > 0.8 d

Hexagon nut ISO 4032 - M10 - 10: d= M10, property class 10

229

Machine elements: 5.4 Nuts

Hexagon nuts
Hexagon nuts with coarse threads, type 2 1 }
Thread d

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

M20

M24

M30

M36

6.9

10
8.9

13
11.6

16
14.6

18
14.6

24
22.5

30
27.7

36
33.2

46
42.7

55
51.1

11.1

14.4
7.5

17.8
9.3

20
12

26.8
16.4

33
20.3

39.6
23.9

50.9

60.8
34.7

WAF
L

Vy/rf

T
e

cf. DIN EN ISO 4033 (2001-03), replaces DIN EN 24033

5.7

5.1

Property
Product grades (page 211) classes
Thread d

Grade

Explanation

28.6

9, 12
1)

Hexagon nuts of type 2 are approx. 10% higher than nuts of type 1.

M1.6-M16
Hexagon nut ISO 4033 - M24 - 9: d = M24, property class 9

M20-M64

Hexagon nuts with fine threads, type 1 and type 2 1 *

Valid standard Replaices
Thread d
DIN EN ISO DIN EN DIN
8673

28673 934

8674

28674 971

WAF

WAF

mi 1
m21

"TD I

cf. DIN EN ISO 8673 and 8674 (2001-03)

M8
x1

M10
x1

M12
x1.5

M16
x1.5

M20
x1.5

M24
x2

M30
x2

M36
x3

M42
x3

M48
x3

M56
x4

13
11.6

16
14.6

18
16.6

24
22.5

30
27.7

36
33.3

46
42.8

55
51.1

65
60

75
69.5

85
78.6

14.4

17.8
8.4
9.3

20
10.8
12

26.8

33
18
20.3

39.6
21.5
23.9

50.9
25.6

60.8
31
34.7

71.3
34

82.6

93.6
45

6.8

7.5

14.8
16.4

28.6

6,8
Type 1
Property
classes
Type 2

Product grades (page 211)

Thread d

Explanation

A2-70, A4-70

Grade

M8x1 -M16x1.5

10

Hexagon nut type 1: DIN EN ISO 8673, nut height nr, >0.8 d
Hexagon nut type 2: DIN EN ISO 8674, nut height m 2 is approx. 10%
larger than nuts of type 1.

Hexagon nut ISO 8673 - M8x1 - 6: d = M8x1, property class 6

M20x1.5-M64x3

Low hexagon nuts with coarse threads1 ]

Valid standard
DIN EN ISO

Replaces
DIN EN

4035

24035

Thread d

M2

M2.5

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

3.2
2.4

4
3.1

5
4.1

5.5
4.6

7
5.9

6.9

10
8.9

13
11.6

16
14.6

3.4

4.3

7.7

11.1

1.2

5.5
1.6

1.8

14.4
4

17.5
5

WAF

S:
m

M20-M36

04, 05

M12

M16

M20

M24

M30

M36

M42

M48

M56

WAF
cL

18
16.6

24
22.5

30
27.7

36
33.2

46
42.8

55
51.1

65
60

75
69.5

85
78.7

20
6

26.*
8

33
10

39.6
12

50.9
15

60.8
18

71.3
21

82.6

93.6
28

04, 05

Property
classes

M1.6-M16

3.2

Thread d

Grade

2.7

A2-035, A4-035

Product grades (page 211)

2.2

as per agreement

Property
classes

WAF

cf. DIN EN ISO 4035 (2001-03)

M1.6

e
m

Thread d

as per
agreement

A2-50, A4-50

8, 10, 12
1)

38

Explanation

A2-035, A4-035
1)

24

as per agreement
A2-025, A4-025

Low hexagon nuts (nut height m < 0.8 d) have a smaller load capacity as type 1 nuts.

Hexagon nut ISO 4035 - M16 - A2-035:

d = M16, property class A2-035

230

Machine elements: 5.

ts

Hexagon nuts
Low hexagon nuts with fine threads1'
Valid standard
DIN EN ISO

Replaces
DIN EN

8675

28675

Thread d
WAF
dw
e
m

cf. DIN EN ISO 8675 (2001-03)

M8
x1

M10
x1

M12
x1.5

M16
x1.5

M20
x1.5

M24
x2

M30
x2

M36
x3

M42
x3

M48
x4

M56
x4

13
11.6

16
14.6

18
16.6

24
22.5

30
27.7

36
33.3

46
42.8

55
51.1

65
60

75
69.5

85
76.7

14.4
4

17.8
5

20
6

26.8

33
10

39.6
12

50.9
15

60.8

71.3
21

82.6

93.6
28

04, 05

Property
classes
Product grades (page 211)
Thread d

Explanations

1)

M8x1-M16x1.5

Low hexagon nuts (nut height m < 0.8 d) have a smaller load capacity
of type 1 nuts (page 229).
Property classes for stainless steels: A2-025, A4-025

Hexagon nut ISO 8675 - M20x1.5 - A2-035:

d = M20x1.5, property class A2-035

M20x1.5-M64x3

Hexagon nuts with insert, type 1 1 )

Valid standard Replaices
DIN EN ISO DIN EN DIN Thread d
7040
10512

27040 982

cf. DIN EN ISO 7040 and 10512 (2001-03)

M4

M5

M6

M8
M8
x1

M10
M10
x1

M12
M12
x1.5

M16
M16
x1.5

M20
M20
x1.5

M24
M24
x2

M30
M30
x2

M36
M36
x3

WAF
c/w
e

7
5.9
7.7

10
8.9

16
14.6
17.8

16.6

20

24
22.5
26.8

30
27.7
33

36
33.3
39.6

46
42.8
50.9

55
51.1

11.1

13
11.6
14.4

18

8.9

6
2.9

9.5
6.4

11.9
8

14.9
10.4

19.1
14.1

22.8
16.9

27.1

4.9

32.6
24.3

38.9
29.4

Explanation
Product grades see
DIN EN ISO 4032

6.8

4.4

for DIN EN ISO 7040: 5, 8, 10

Property cl.
1)

20.2

60.8

for DIN EN ISO 10512: 6, 8, 10

Hexagon nuts type 1 (nut height m > 0.8 d)

DIN EN ISO 7040: Nuts with coarse threads
DIN EN ISO 10512: Nuts with fine threads

Hexagon nut ISO 7040- M16-10: d = M10, property class 10

Hexagon nuts with large width across flats1'

cf. DIN EN 14399-4 (2006-06), replaces DIN 6915

Thread d

M12

M16

M20

M22

M24

M27

M30

M36

WAF
dw

22
20.1

27
24.9

32
29.5

36
33.3

41
38

46
42.8

50
46.6

60
55.9

23.9
10

29.6
13

35
16

39.6
18

45.2
20

50.9
22

55.4
24

66.4
29

Property cl.,
surface
Explanation

10
normal - > lightly oiled, hot-galvanized - > code: tZn
1)

for high-strength structural bolting assemblies (HV) in metal construction. Used

in combination with hexagon head bolts as per DIN EN 14399-4 (page 214).

Hexagon nut DIN EN 14399-4 - M16 - 10 - HV: d = M24, property class 10,
high-strength preloaded

Product grade B

Hexagon nuts with flange

cf. DIN EN 1661 (1998-02)

Thread d

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

M20

WAF
dw
dc

10
9.8

12.2

11.8

14.2

13
15.8
17.9

16
19.6
21.8

18
23.8
26

24
31.9
34.5

30
39.9
42.8

14.4

17.8
10

20
12

26.8
16

33
20

e
m

Product grades see

DIN EN ISO 4032

24

as per
agreement

A2-035, A4-035

2)

Grade

18

Property
classes

11.1
6

8, 10, A2-70
Hexagon nut EN 1661 - M16-8: d = M16, property class 8

Machine elements: 5.

ts

Hexagon acorn nuts. Lock nuts, Eye nuts

231

232

Machine elements: 5.

ts

Castle nuts, Cotter pins. Weld nuts, Knurled nuts

Castle nuts, high form

cf. DIN 935-1 (2000-10)

M4

M5

M6

M8
M8
x1

M10
M10
x1

M12
M12
x1.5

M16
M16
x1.5

M20
M20
x2

M24
M24
x2

M30
M30
x2

8.8

7
7.7
5

10
11.1
7.5

13
14.4
9.5

16
17.8
12

18
20
15

24
26.8
19

30
33
22

36
39.6
27

46
50.9
33

n
w

no cylindrical shoulder
2.8
1.4
2.5
3.2
8
4
6.5

15.6
3.5
10

21.5
4.5
13

27.7
4.5
16

33.2
5.5
19

42.7
7
24

Thread d

s
e

Product grades (page 211)

Thread d

Grade

M1.6-M16

1.2

6, 8, 10

Property
classes

A2-70

A2-50

Castle nut DIN 935 - M20 - 8: d= M20, property class 8

M20-M100

Cotter pins

cf. DIN EN ISO 1234(1998-02)

1

1.2

1.6

3.2
2.8

1.6

2.5

2.5

4
3.6
2.5

from
to

6
20

8
25

32

10
40

2) over
to

3.5
4.5

4.5
5.5

5.5
7

1.6

Nominal
lengths
Explanations

2.5

3.2

5
4.6
2.5

6.4
5.8
3.2

8
7.4
4

10
9.2
4

12.6

11.8
4

16
15
4

12
50

14
63

18
80

22
100

28
125

36
160

11
14

14
20

20
27

27
39

39
56

11

6.3

6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 71, 80,
90, 100, 112, 125, 140, 160 mm
1)
2)

d Nominal sizes = cotter pin hole diameter

di applicable bolt diameter

Cotter pin ISO 1234 - 2.5x32 - St:

d = 2.5 mm, I = 32 mm, material steel

Hexagon weld nuts

cf. DIN 929 (2000-01)

Thread d

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

M12

M16

s
dy
e

7.5
4.5
8.2

9
6
9.8

10
7
11

11
8
12

14
10.5
15.4

17
12.5
18.7

19
14.8
20.9

24
18.8
26.5

m
h

3
0.3

3.5
0.3

4
0.3

5
0.4

6.5
0.4

8
0.5

10
0.6

13
0.8

Material

St - steel with a maximum carbon content of 0.25%

Weld nut DIN 929 - M16 - St: d = M16, material steel

Product grade A

Knurled nuts

cf. DIN 466 and 467 (2006-08)

Thread d

M1.2

M1.6

M2

M2.5

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

M10

6
3
1.5

7.5
3.8

9
4.5

11
5
2.5

12
6
2.5

16
8
3.5

20
10
4

24
12
5

30
16
6

36
20
8

5
2.5

5.3
2.5

6.5
3

7.5
3

9.5
4

11.5
5

15
6

18

23
10

h1>
h2
Property
classes
Explanations

St (steel), A1-50
1)
2)

Nut height for DIN 466 high form

Nut height for DIN 467 low form

Knurled nut DIN 467 - M6-A1-50: d= M6, property class A1-50

Machine elements: 5.

233

ases

Flat washers. Overview

Designation example:

Washer ISO 7090 - 8 - 300 HV - A2 1 '

ir~
Name
1)

Hardness
grade

Nominal size
(Thread nominal 0)

Standard

Material

Stainless steel, steel group A2

Overview
Design
Standard range
from-to

Illustration

Flat washers
with chamfer
Product grade A 2 )
M5-M64

M1)

Standard

Steel,
stainless
steel

DIN EN
ISO
7090

Design
Standard range
from-to

Illustration

Flat washers
with chamfer,
for HV bolts
M12-M30

Flat washers
small series
Product grade A 2 )
M1.6-M36

DIN EN
ISO
7092

Steel,
stainless
steel

Washers, square,
for channels and
I beams
M8-M27

Steel

DIN EN
14399-6

Steel

DIN 434
DIN 435

Steel

DIN EN
28738

page 235

page 234
Flat washers
normal series
Product grade C 2>
M1.6-M64

Plain washers for

clevis pins
Product grade A 2 )
d= 3-100 mm

DIN EN
ISO
7091

Steel

page 235

page 234
Washers for steel
structures
Product grade
A2>, C 2 )
M10-M30

Steel

Conical spring
washers for
screw joints
d = 2-30 mm

DIN
7989-1

Spring
steel

DIN
6796

page 235

page 234
1)

Standard

page 235

table below

2)

M1)

Material is steel with corresponding hardness grade (e.g. 200 HV; 300 HV); other materials as agreed upon.
Product grades are differentiated by tolerance and by manufacturing process.

Flat washers with chamfer, normal series

For threads
h

"2

M12

M16

M20

10

12

16

20

6.4

8.4

10.5

13.0

17.0

21.0

d2 max. 11

10.0

12.0

16.0

20.0

24.0

30.0

37.0

/7 >

Nominal size
d-j min.

1)

d2 max.

1)

h"

1.6

1.6

2.5

M24

M30

M36

M42

M48

M56

M64

24

30

36

42

48

56

64

25.0

31.0

37.0

45.0

52.0

62.0

70.0

44.0

56.0

66.0

78.0

92.0

105.0

115.0

10

10

Hardness grade 300 HV suitable for:

Hexagon bolts and nuts of property classes < 10.9 or < 10 (nut)

M10

For threads

Hardness grade 200 HV suitable for:

Hexagon bolts and nuts of property classes < 8.8 or < 8 (nut)
Hexagon bolts and nuts made of
stainless steel

M8

M6

5.3

30 to 45

M5

d-| min. 11

Nominal size
h

cf. DIN EN ISO 7090 (2000-11), replaces for DIN 125-1+2

Type

1)
3)

A2, A4, F1, C1, C4 (ISO 3506) 3 '

300 HV
200 HV
(quenched and
tempered)
Washer ISO 7090-20-200 HV: Nominal size (= thread nomi
nal 0) = 20 mm, hardness grade 200 HV, steel
These are all nominal dimensions
Non-ferrous metals and other materials as per agreement
Compare to page 211

Hardness grade

2)

Stainless steel

Steel

Material '

200 HV

234

Machine elements: 5.

ases

Flat washers, Washers for steel structures

Flat washers, small series

cf. DIN EN ISO 7092 (2000-11), replaces DIN 433-1+2

For threads
Nominal size
1

1.6

M5

M6

M8

3.2

4.3

5.3

6.4

8.4

11

15

2.2

d2 max. 1

3.5

4.5

0.35

0.35

0.55

0.55

0.55

1.1

1.8

1.8

M10

M12

M14 2 '

M16

M20

M24

M30

M36

2.7

10

12

14

16

20

24

30

36

d-\ min. '

10.5

13.0

15.0

17.0

21.0

25.0

31.0

37.0

18.0

20.0

24.0

28.0

34.0

39.0

50.0

60.0

1.8

2.2

2.7

2.7

3.3

4.3

4.3

5.6

d2 max. '

Material '

Hardness grade 300 HV suitable for:

Cap screws with hexagon socket
and property classes
< 10.9

M4

2.5

Hardness grade 200 HV suitable for:

Cap screws with property classes
< 8.8 or of stainless steel
Cap screws with hexagon socket
and property classes
< 8.8 or of stainless steel

M3

1.7

Nominal size

M2.5

d-i min. '

For threads
TD

M2

M1.6

Steel

Stainless steel
A2, A4, F1, C1, C4 (ISO 3506)4'

Type
Hardness grade

300 HV
(quenched
and tempered)

200 HV

200 HV

Washer ISO 7092-8-200 HV-A2: Nominal size

(= thread nominal 0) = 8 mm, small series,
hardness grade 200 HV, of stainless steel A2
1)
2)
3)
4)

These are all nominal dimensions

Avoid this size if at all possible
Non-ferrous metals and other materials as per agreement
Compare to page 211

Flat washers, normal series

cf. DIN EN ISO 7091 (2000-11), replaces DIN 126

For threads

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

M8

Nominal size

M12

10

12

2.4

3.4

4.5

5.5

6.6

9.0

11.0

13.5

d2 max. '

5.0

7.0

9.0

10.0

12.0

16.0

20.0

24.0

/71>

0.3

0.5

0.8

1.0

1.6

1.6

M16

M20

M24

M30

M36

M42

M48

M64

16

20

24

30

36

42

48

64

di min. 1 '

17.5

22.0

26.0

33.0

39.0

45.0

52.0

70.0

30.0

37.0

44.0

56.0

66.0

78.0

92.0

115.0

d-1 min. '

For threads
Nominal size

d2 max. '
Hardness grade 100 HV suitable for:
Hexagon bolts/screws, product
grade C, with property classes < 6.8
Hexagon nuts, product grade C,
with property classes < 6

M10

2.5

A)1'

10
Washer ISO 7091-12-100 HV: Nominal size
(= thread nominal 0), d= 12 mm, hardness grade 100 HV

' These are all nominal dimensions

Washers for steel structures

cf. DIN 7989-1 and DIN 7989-2 (2000-04)

1

For threads '

M10

M12

M16

M20

M24

M27

M30

d-i min.

11.0

13.5

17.5

22.0

26.0

30.0

33.0

d2 max.

20.0

24.0

30.0

37.0

44.0

50.0

56.0

Washer DIN 7989-16-C-100 HV: Thread nominal 0

d= 16 mm, product grade C, hardness grade 100
Suitable for bolts according to DIN
7968, DIN 7969, DIN 7990 joined
with nuts according to ISO 4032 and
ISO 4034.

Versions: Product grade C (stamped version) thickness h = (8 1.2) mm

Product grade A (turned version) thickness h = (8 1) mm
1

' Nominal dimensions

Machine elements: 5.

ases

235

Washers for HV bolts, Channels and I beams. Clevis pins, Conical spring washers

236

Machine elements: 5.6 Pins and clevis pins

Pins and clevis pins. Overview

Designation example:

Taper pin ISO 2339 - A - 10x40 -St_

I

Name

Standard

I
Nominal 0 x nominal length

Form or Type 1 '

e.g. St = steel
Stainless steels:
A1 = austenitic
C1 = martensitic

Pins with DIN-EN main numbers are designated with ISO numbers.
ISO number = DIN-EN number - 20000; example: DIN EN 22338 = ISO 2338
11
if available
Illustration

Designation,
Standard range
from-to

Standard

Dowel pin,
not hardened
d = 1 - 5 0 mm

DIN
EN ISO
2338

Material

Illustration

Designation,
Standard range
from-to

Standard

Taper pin
di = 0.6-50 mm

DIN EN
22339

Spring pin
(clamping
sleeves),
slotted
= 1-50 mm

DIN
EN ISO
8752
DIN
EN ISO
13337

Tapered grooved
pin
d-1 = 1.5-25 mm

DIN
EN ISO
8744

Pins

/
1)

tolerance m6 or h8
Dowel pin,
hardened
d = 0.8-20 mm

DIN
EN ISO
8734

F=
3

1:50

?
- d " "CD
I

Grooved pins, grooved drive studs

Straight grooved
pin with chamfer
di = 1.5-25 mm

DIN
EN ISO
8740

I
Half length
reversed taper
grooved pin
d n = 1.5-25 mm

DIN
EN ISO
8741

Half length taper

grooved pin
d-i = 1.2-25 mm

DIN
EN ISO
8745

Center grooved
pin,
grooved 1/3 the
length
d-i = 1.2-25 mm

DIN
EN ISO
8742

Round head
grooved pin
d-i = 1.4-20 mm

DIN
EN ISO
8746

Center grooved
pin, with long
grooves
d-i = 1.2-25 mm

DIN
EN ISO
8743

Grooved pin with DIN

countersunk head EN ISO
8747
di = 1.4-20 mm

Clevis pins without head,

form A without
cotter pin hole,
form B with
d = 3-100 mm

DIN EN
22340

Clevis pins
Form A

Form A

Clevis pins with

head,
form A without
cotter pin hole,
form B with
d = 3-100 mm

DIN EN
22341

Machine elements: 5.6 Pins and clevis pins

Dowel, Taper and spring pins

Dowel pins of unhardened steel
and austenitic stainless steel

cf. DIN EN ISO 2338 (1998-02)

dm6/h82)

0.6

0.8

from
to
d m6/h82>
from
to
Nominal
lengths /
1)

Radius and hollow allowed at

end of pin

12
60

14
80

1.2

1.5

4
10

4
12

4
16

6
20

6
24

30

8
40

10
50

10

12

16

20

25

30

40

50

18
95

22
140

26
180

35
200

50
200

60
200

80
200

95
200

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35,
40-95, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200 mm.
Dowel pin ISO 2338 - 6 m6 x 30 - St: d = 6 mm,
tolerance class m6, / = 30 mm, of steel

2)

Available in tolerance classes m6 and h8

Dowel pins, hardened

cf. DIN EN ISO 8734 (1998-03)

cfm6
from
to

1)

2.5

1.5
3
10

4
16

5
20

6
24

8
30

12
50

10
40

12

16

20

14
60

18
80

22

26 40
100

50

3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 40,
45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100 mm

Materials

Steel: Type A pin fully hardened, type B case hardened

Stainless steel type C1

Radius and hollow allowed on

end of pin

Dowel pin ISO 8734 - 6 x 3 0 - C 1 : d = 6 mm, / = 30 mm,

of stainless steel of type C1
cf. DIN EN 22339 (1992-10)
dh10

8
12
45

22
90

18
60

12

16

22 26 32 40
120 160 180

20

25

30

45 50
200

55

6
10

Nominal
lengths /

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 40,
45-95, 100, 120-180, 200 mm

10
35

14
55

10

7 from
/ to

Type A ground, Ra = 0.8 pm;

Type B turned, Ra = 3.2 pm

Taper pin ISO 2 3 3 9 - A - 10 x 40 - St: Type A, d=10 mm,

/ = 40 mm, of steel

Spring pins (clamping sleeves) , slotted, heavy duty

Spring pins (clamping sleeves) , slotted, light duty

cf. DIN EN ISO 8752 (1998-03)

cf. DIN EN ISO 13337 (1998-02)

Nominal 0 d^
d<\ max.

2
2.4

2.5
2.9

3
3.5

4
4.6

5
5.6

6
6.7

8
8.8

10
10.8

12
12.8

s ISO 8752
s ISO 13337

0.4
0.2

0.5
0.25

0.6
0.3

0.8
0.5

1
0.5

1.2
0.75

1.5
0.75

2
1

2.5
1

j from
/ to

4
20

4
30

4
40

4
50

5
80

10
100

10
120

10
160

10
180

Nominal 0 dy
d-1 max.

14
14.8

16
16.8

20
20.9

25
25.9

30
30.9

35
35.9

40
40.9

45
45.9

50
50.9

s ISO 8752
s ISO 13337

3
1.5

3
1.5

4
2

5
2

6
2.5

7
3.5

7.5
4

8.5
4

9.5
5

j from
/ to

Only one chamfer is allowed for

spring pins with nominal diameter d-\ > 10 mm.

10

Nominal
lengths I

Taper pin, unhardened

1)

2.5

10
200

14
200

20
200

Nominal
lengths /

4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 35, 40,
45-95, 100, 120, 140, 160, 180, 200 mm

Materials

Steel: Hardened and tempered 420 HV 30-520 HV 30

Stainless steel: Type A or type C

Application

The diameter of the location hole (tolerance class H12) must

have the same nominal diameter d-\ as the mating pin. After
installing the pin in the smallest receiving hole, the slot
should not be completely closed.
Spring pin ISO 8752 - 6 x 30 - St: d, = 6 mm, I = 30 mm,
of steel

238

Machine elements: 5.6 Pins and clevis pins

Grooved pins, Grooved drive studs. Clevis

Grooved pins, grooved drive studs

cf. DIN EN ISO 8740-8747 (1998-03)

1.5

Full length straight

grooved pin with
chamfer
ISO 8740

pins

from
to

2.5

10

12

16

20

25

10
30

10
40

10
60

14
60

14
80

14 14 18 22 26 26
100 100 100 100 100 100

10
60

10
60

12
80

14 18 26 26 26 26
100 160 200 200 200 200

20

8
30

from
to

20

8
30

30

8
40

from
to

8
20

12
30

12
30

12
40

18
60

18
60

22
80

26 32 40 45 45 45
100 160 200 200 200 200

Tapered groove pin

ISO 8744

from
to

8
20

30

8
30

40

60

60

10
80

12 14 14 24 26 26
100 120 120 120 120 120

Full length taper

grooved pins
ISO 8745

from
to

20

30

30

40

10
60

10
60

10
80

14 14 18 26 26 26
100 200 200 200 200 200

1.4

1.6

1/2 length reversetaper grooved pin

ISO 8741
1/31/C2 length
rr.
center grooved pins
ISO 8742+8743

3 -

Grooved pins
with round head
ISO 8746

"ta
^

Grooved pins with

countersunk head
ISO 8747

2.5

10

12

16

20

from
to

3
10

3
12

4
16

5
20

6
25

8
30

10
40

12
40

16
40

20
40

25
40

from
to

4
10

4
12

5
16

6
20

25

8
30

10
40

12
40

16
40

20
40

25
40

Nominal
lengths /

Pins: 8, 10-30, 32, 35, 40-100, 120, 140-180, 200 mm

Studs: 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 mm
Grooved pin ISO 8740 - 6 x 50 - St: dy = 6 mm, / = 50 mm, of steel

Clevis pins with and without head

Clevis pins without head ISO 2340

cf. DIN EN 22340, 22341 (1992-10)

d h11
d, H13

UV
HT
/e

0.8

1.2

1.6

10

12

3.2

3.2

18

20

/
dk h14

10

14

14

16

18

20

22

6.3
22

25

28

30

33

1.6

k js14

Clevis pins with head ISO 2341

from
to
Nominal
lengths /

/
Form A without cotter pin hole
Form B with cotter pin hole

4.5

2.2

2.9

3.2

3.5

4.5

6
30

8
40

10
50

12
60

16
80

20 24 28 30 35 40 45 50
100 120 140 160 180 200 200 200

5.5

6, 8, 10-30, 32, 35, 40-95, 100, 120, 140-180, 200 mm

Clevis pin ISO 2340 - B - 20 x 100 - St: Form B, d = 20 mm,
/ = 100 mm, of free-cutting steel

hi 1

-,
f

5.5

1.6

Clevis pins with head and threaded stud end

cf. DIN 1445(1977-02)

10

12

14

16

18

20

24

30

40

50

17

20

20

20

25

29

36

42

49

b min

11

14

d2

M6

M8

d3 h14

14

18

M10 M12 M12 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M36

20

22

k js14

25

28

30

36

44

55

66

24

27

32

36

50

60

4.5
11

13

17

19

22

Nominal
16, 20, 25, 30, 35-125, 130, 140, 150-190, 200 mm
lengths l 2
gripping length

36

1)

24

Clevis pin DIN 1445 - 12h11 x 30 x 50 - St: d, = 12 mm, tolerance class h 11, /) = 30 mm, / 2 = 50 mm, of 9SMnPb28 (St)

239

Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections

Keys, Gib-head keys

Designation example:

Feather key DIN 6885 - A - 12x8x56 - E295

Designation,
Standard range Standard
from-to

Illustration

Designation,
Standard range Standard
from-to

Illustration

Overview of tapered Ikeys

table below

1^1:100

DIN 6887

Gib-head
tapered key
wx h =
4 x 4100 x 50

Form B:
driving key

Form A:
sunk key

(
^

1^1:100

DIN 6886

Tapered key
wx h =
2x2-100x50

Overview of feather keys

page 240

Form A

>
j

Feather key
wx h =
2x2-100x50

DIN 6885

Form A - J

DIN 6888

Woodruff keys
wx h =
2.5x3.7-10x16

Tapered keys, Gib-head tapered keys

cf. DIN 6886 (1967-12) or DIN 6887 (1968-04)

Form A (sunk key)

b D10

Form B (driving key)

tsj:100

jL

Gib head tapered key

b*J:100

1^1:100

j L
-xT

/
For shaft
diameter d

over
to

10
12

12
17

17
22

22
30

30
38

38
44

44
50

50
58

58
65

65
75

75
85

85
95

95
110

Tapered keys

w D10
h

4
4

5
5

6
6

8
7

10
8

12
8

14
9

16
10

18
11

20
12

22
14

25
14

28
16

4.1
7

5.1
8

6.1
10

7.2
11

8.2
12

8.2
12

9.2
14

10.2
16

11.2
18

12.2
20

14.2
22

14.2
22

16.2
25

2.5
1.2

3
1.7

3.5
2.2

4
2.4

5
2.4

5
2.4

5.5
2.9

6
3.4

7
3.4

7.5
3.9

9
4.4

9
4.4

10
5.4

50
200

56
220

63
250

70
280

80
320

Gib-head tapered
h2
keys
Shaft keyway depth
Hub keyway depth
Allow, deviation
Key length /

fi
h

from
to

+0.2

+0.1

h.t2
1

10 >
45

12D

56

16
70

20
90

25
110

32
140

40
160

45
180

Nominal lengths /

6, 8-20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 70, 80-100, 110, 125, 140, 160-200, 220,
250, 280, 320, 360, 400 mm

Length tolerances

Key length /, from-to

Tolerances for
1)

6-28

32-80

90-400

Key length

-0.2

-0.3

-0.5

Keyway length (sunk key)

+0.2

+0.3

+0.5

Gib-head key lengths from 14 mm

240

Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections

Feather keys, Woodruff keys

Feather keys (high form)
Form A

cf. DIN 6885-1 (1968-08)

Form B

\
>

s
I

Form C

Form D

Form E

Form F

I
Tolerances for feather keyways

r////////a

C<3
N

t ]
I

Shaft keyway width w

tight fit
normal fit

P9
N9

Hub keyway width w

tight fit
normal fit

P9
JS 9

Allow, deviation for d n

<22

<130

>130
+0.3
+0.3

Shaft keyway depth ^

Hub keyway depth t2

+0.1
+0.1

+0.2
+0.2

Alllow. deviation for length I

6-28

32-80

90-400

-0.2

-0.3

-0.5

+0.2

+0.3

+0.5

ke

Length
tolerances

Y
keyway

di over
to

6
8

8
10

10
12

12
17

17
22

22
30

30
38

38
44

44
50

50
58

58
65

65
75

75
85

85
95

95
110

110
130

w
h

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

6
6

8
7

10
8

12
8

14
9

16
10

18
11

20
12

22
14

25
14

28
16

32
18

h
t2

1.2
1

1.8
1.4

2.5
1.8

3
2.3

3.5
2.8

4
3.3

5
3.3

5
3.3

5.5
3.8

6
4.3

7
4.4

7.5
4.9

9
5.4

9
5.4

10
6.4

11
7.4

from
to

6
20

6
36

8
45

10
56

14
70

18
90

20
110

28
140

36
160

45
180

50
200

56
220

63
250

70
280

80
320

90
360

Nominal
lengths /

6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 125, 140, 160, 180,
200, 220, 250, 280, 320 mm
Feather key DIN 6885 - A - 12 x 8 x 56: Form A, b = 12 mm, h = 8 mm, / = 56 mm

Woodruff keys

cf. DIN 6888 (1956-08)

Tolerances for Woodruff keyways
Shaft keyway width w tight fit
normal fit

P 9 (P8)1
N 9 (N 8) 1 )

Hub keyway width w tight fit

normal fit

P 9 (P8) 1 )
J 9 (J8) 1 )

Allow, devia. for

and

Shaft keyway depth f-| +0.1

Hub keyway depth t2 +0.1

WTPZvm
.
d l

w <5
5
h <7.5 >7.5

over
to

8
10

+0.2
+0.1

6
<9

6
>9

+0.1
+0.1

+0.2
+0.1

8
-

10
-

+0.2
+0.1

10
12

12
17

17
22

22
30

30
38

10

+0.2
+0.2

w h9

2.5

3.7

3.7

6.5

6.5

7.5

6.5

7.5

7.5

11

11

13

11

13

16

d2

10

10

13

16

13

16

19

16

19

22

19

22

28

22

28

32

28

32

45

2.9

2.5

3.8

5.3

3.5

4.5

5.5

5.1

6.6

8.6

6.2

8.2

10.2 7.8

9.8

12.8

t2

9.7

h12

1.4

2.2

12.7 115.7 12.7' 15.7 18.6 15.7' 18.6 21.6 18.6 21.6' 27.4 21.6

Woodruff key DIN 6888 - 6 x 9: w = 6 mm, h = 9 mm

1)

2.6

Tolerance class for broached keyways

3
CN

9.7

1.7

3.4
31.4 27.4 31.4 43.1

241

Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections

Splined shaft joints and blind rivets

Splined shaft joints with straight flanks and internal centering
Hub
d
11
13
16
18
21
23
26
28
32
36

Shaft

Light
series
A/1)
D

14
16
20
22
25

3
3.5
4
5
5

42
46
52
56
62

8
8
8
8
8

46
50
58
62
68

8
9
10
10
12

8
8
8
8
8

48
54
60
65
72

8
9
10
10
12

28
32
34
38
42

6
6
7
6
7

72
82
92
102
112

10
10
10
10
10

78
88
98
108
120

12
12
14
16
18

10
10
10
10
10

82
92
102
112
125

12
12
14
16
18

6
6
6
6
6

6
6
7
6
7

6
6
6
8
8

26
30
32
36
40

Light
series
A/1)
D

Heat
treated
dimensions

H10

H9

Internal
centering

H7

H11

Tolerance classes for the shaft

Tolerance classes for the hub

Not heat
treated
dimensions

Medium
series
A/1)
D
B

Medium
series
A/D
D
B

6
6
6
8
8

cf. DIN ISO 14(1986-12)

H7

H10

Dimen.

Sliding
fit

Type of fit
Transition
fit

Press fit

d10

f9

h10

all

a11

a11

f7

97

h7

Shaft (or hub DIN ISO 14 - 6 x 23 x 26: N= 6, d= 23 mm, D= 26 mm

1)

N number of splines

Open end blind rivets with break mandrel and flat head
Open end blind rivets with break mandrel and countersunk head

cf. DIN EN ISO 15977 (2003-04)

cf. DIN EN ISO 15978 (2003-08)
61>

Rivet 0 d (Nominal size)

Blind rivet with flat head

0dh ^

Head 0 d k max.

6.3

Head height k

1.3

Rivet mandrel 0 cL

max.

Rivet hole 0 d h 1

min.
max.

Fitting length b

3.1
3.2
W

+ 3-5

Shaft length /
max.
min.

8.4

10.5

12.6

1.7

2.1

2.5

2.45

2.95

3.4

4.1
4.2

5.1
5.2

6.1
6.2

/max + 4

/max + 4.5

/max + 5

Recommended grip range

0.5-1.5 1)

original
head

set rivet joint

Blind rivet with countersunk

head
an.
d

(* d m m

broken
mandrel
original
head

"

1)
2)

set rivet joint

3.5-5.0

2-5
3-5 1 )

2.5-4.0

2-3

5-7

5.0-6.5

4-6

3-5

12

13

7-9

6.5-8.5

6-8

5-7

16

17

9-13

8.5-12.5

8-12

7-11

20

21

13-17

12.5-16.5

12-15

11-15

15-20

15-20

20-25

20-25

Property
classes
Materials 2 '

formed
head

1.5-2.5 1)

11

30
m*dk

1-3 1 )

10

25

Mt77\

2.0-3.5
1.5-3.5 1)

26
31

17-22

16.5-21.0

L (low) and H (high) are differentiated by the minimum shear

and minimum tensile forces of the rivet.
Rivet body of aluminum alloy (AIA)
Rivet mandrel of steel (St)
Blind rivet ISO 15977 - 4 x 12 - AIA/St - L: Blind rivet with flat
head; d = 4 mm, / = 12 mm, rivet body of aluminum alloy, rivet
mandrel of steel, property class L (low)

Only for flat head rivets ISO 15977

Other standardized material combinations for rivet body/mandrel include:
St/St; AIA/AIA; A2/A2; Cu/St; NiCu/St etc.

242

Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections

Metric tapers, Morse tapers. Steep tapers

Morse tapers and metric tapers

cf. DIN 228-1 (1987-05)

Form A: Taper shank with tightening thread

Form B: Taper shank with tang

Rz 2.5
r

CNI

i
v!

^Am/

T~

'1

Form C: Taper sleeve for taper shanks with draw-in threads

Form D: Taper sleeve for taper shanks with tang

z

'

'

/ '

- V /

/ / / /\/

R z

2 5

/ / /

<3
The Forms AK, BK CK and DK each have a feed for cooling lubricants.
Taper shank
Size

Type of
taper
Metric
taper
(ME)

Morse
taper
(MT)

ds

<*4

dfc

'1

cfeH11

Taper

z1>

Taper
ratio

a
2

1 : 20

1.432

4.1

2.9

23

25

20

0.5

6.2

4.4

32

4.6

34

28

0.5

9.045

9.2

6.4

6.1

50

56.5

6.7

52

45

1 : 19.212

1.491

12.065

12.2

9.4

M6

53.5

3.5

62

9.7

56

47

1 : 20.047

1.429

17.780

18.0

14.6

M10

14

64

75

14.9

67

58

1 : 20.020

1.431

23.825

24.1

19.8

M12

19.1

81

94

20.2

84

72

1 : 19.922

1.438

31.267

31.6

25.9

M16

25.2

102.5

6.5 117.5

26.5

107

92

1 : 19.254

1.488

44.399

44.7

37.6

M20

36.5

129.5

6.5 149.5

38.2

135

118

1 : 19.002

1.507

63.348

63.8

53.9

M24

52.4

182

210

54.8

188

164

1 : 19.180

1.493

80

80.4

70.2

M30

69

196

220

71.5

202

170

1.5

100 100

100.5

88.4

M36

87

232

10

260

90

240

200

1.5

120 120

120.6

106.6

M36 105

268

12

300

108.5

276

230

1.5

1 : 20

1.432

160 160

160.8

143

M48

141

340

16

380

145.5

350

290

200 200

201.0

179.4

M48

177

412

20

460

182.5

424

350

80
Metric
taper
(MT)

dz

Taper shank

Taper shank DIN 228 - ME - B 80 AT6: Metric taper shank, Form B, Size 80,
Taper angle tolerance quality AT6
1)

Control dimension d 1 may lie a maximum distance z in front of the taper sleeve.

Steep taper shanks for tools and chucks form A

7:24

cf. DIN 2080-1 (1978-12)

No.

dy

d2 a10

d3

d 4 - 0.4

30

31.75

17.4

M12

50

68.4

1.6

16.1

40

44.45

25.3

M16

63

93.4

1.6

16.1

50

69.85

39.6

M24

97.5

126.8

3.2

25.7

60

107.95

60.2

M30

206.8

3.2

25.7

92

M36

230

296

32.4

140

M48

350

469

40.5

70

165.1

80

254

156

/i

a 0.2 > H12

Steep taper shank DIN 2080 - A 40 AT4: Form A,

No. 40, Taper angle tolerance quality AT4

Machine elements: 5.7 Shaft-hub connections

243

Tool holding fixtures

Tool holding fixtures join the tool with the spindle of the machine tool. They transmit the torque and are responsible
for precise concentric running.
Type of design

Function, advantages {+) and disadvantages (-)

Metric taper (ME) and Morse taper (MT)

vcontact x \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ N
surface
W W V V M ^
machine tool spindle

Torque transmission:
force-fit over the taper surface
+ reduction sleeves fit different taper
diameters
- not suitable for automatic tool change

Metric taper 1: 20;

Morse taper 1:19.002 to 1: 20.047

Steep taper shank (SK)

machine
tool
spindle

Fastening in the machine spindle:

Form A: with draw-in bar
Form B: by front fastener
Taper 7: 24 (1: 3.429) according to
DIN 254

+ DIN 69871-1 suitable for automatic tool

change
- high weight, therefore less suited for
quick tool change with high axial repeating clamping accuracy and for high revolution speeds

Hollow taper shanks (designation HSK)

driver

threads for
machining coolant
feed

hole
for tool

machine tool spindle

Taper 1: 9.98

Vcontact surface

cf. DIN 228-1 and -2(1987-05)

Clamping device for conventional drilling and milling.
Taper shank numbers:
ME 4; 6
MT0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6
ME 80; 100; 120; (140); 160;
(180); 200

cf. DIN 2080-1 (1978-12) and -2 (1979-09) and DIN 69871-1 (1995-10)
Torque transmission:
grooves on taper edge produce interlock.
The steep taper is not meant for transmission of forces, it only centers the tool.
Axial locking is achieved by the thread or
the ring groove.

Vcontact
surface

Application, sizes

Torque transmission:
force-fit using the taper and contact surfaces
drive slots on shaft end produce interlock.
+ low weight, therefore
+ high static and dynamic
rigidity
+ high repeated clamping accuracy (3 pm)
+ high rotational speeds
- more expensive than steep taper

Use with CNC machine tools,

especially machining centers;
less suited for high-speed cutting (HSC)
Steep taper numbers:
DIN 2080-1 (form A): 30; 40;
45; 50; 55; 60; 65; 70; 75; 80
DIN 69871-1: 30; 40; 45; 50; 60

cf. DIN 69893-1 and -2 (2003-05)

Safer use with high-speed cutting
Nominal sizes: d-, = 32; 40; 50;
63; 80; 100; 125; 160 mm
Form A: with shoulder and
clamping keyway for automatic
tool change
Form C: only manual change is
possible

Shrinkage chucks
Torque transmission like HSK.
Clamping the tool by quick, inductive heating (approx. 340 C) of the holding shank in
the shrinkage chuck. A shrinkage joint is
formed by the oversize of the tool (approx.
3 - 7 pm) after the joining and cooling.
holding
shank

available with HSK or steep taper

+ transmission of high torques

+ high radial rigidity
+ higher cutting values possible
+ shorter machining times
+ good runout
+ greater running smoothness
+ better surface quality
+ reliable tool changes
- relatively expensive
- additional induction and cooling devices
required

Universally applicable in
machine tools with steep taper
or hollow shank tool holders;
suitable for tools with cylindrical shank of HSS or carbide.
Shank diameters: 6; 8; 10; 12;
14; 16; 18; 20; 25 mm

244

Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools

Cylindrical helical tension springs

German loop DIN 2097
LH

UC

Do
Ds
Li

Lb

D0

Ds

wire diameter in mm
outside coil diameter
minimum sleeve diameter in mm
free length, with no load on spring in mm
length of spring body with no load in mm
maximum spring length
internal prestress in N
maximum allowable spring force in N
spring rate in N/mm
maximum allowable spring displacement
for F m a x in mm

Lf

Tension springs of patented drawn unallo^1ed spring steel wire

1)

Sm

cf. DIN EN 10270-1 (2001-12)

0.20
0.25
0.32
0.36
0.40

3.00
5.00
5.50
6.00
7.00

3.50
5.70
6.30
6.90
8.00

8.6
10.0
10.0
11.0
12.7

4.35
2.63
2.08
2.34
2.60

0.06
0.03
0.08
0.16
0.16

1.26
1.46
2.71
3.50
4.06

0.036
0.039
0.140
0.173
0.165

33.37
36.51
18.85
19.23
23.67

0.45
0.50
0.55
0.63
0.70

7.50
10.00
6.00
8.60
10.00

8.60
11.10
7.10
9.90
11.40

13.7
20.0
13.9
19.9
23.6

3.04
5.25
5.78
7.88
9.63

0.25
0.02
0.88
0.79
0.83

5.31
5.40
11.66
12.13
14.13

0.207
0.078
0.606
0.276
0.239

24.41
68.79
17.78
41.15
55.78

0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.25

10.80
10.00
13.50
12.00
17.20

12.30
11.70
15.40
14.00
19.50

25.1
23.0
31.4
27.8
39.8

10.20
9.45
12.50
11.83
15.63

1.22
1.99
1.77
2.99
2.77

19.10
28.59
28.63
41.95
42.35

0.355
0.934
0.454
1.181
0.533

50.36
28.49
59.22
32.98
74.25

1.30
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.80

11.30
15.00
20.00
21.60
20.00

13.50
17.50
22.70
24.50
23.20

134.0
34.9
48.9
50.2
46.0

118.95
15.05
21.75
20.00
19.35

5.771
5.44
3.99
3.99
6.88

70.59
66.08
60.54
67.40
100.90

0.322
1.596
0.603
0.726
1.819

201.60
38.00
93.72
87.38
51.70

2.00
2.20
2.50
2.80
3.00

27.00
24.00
34.50
30.00
40.00

30.50
27.80
38.90
34.70
45.10

62.8
55.6
79.7
69.8
140.0

25.00
23.10
31.25
29.40
86.25

6.88
9.81
9.88
17.77
11.50

101.20
148.00
148.50
233.40
214.20

0.907
2.425
1.056
3.257
0.587

104.00
57.02
131.33
65.85
345.31

3.20
3.60
4.00
4.50
5.00

43.20
40.00
44.00
50.00
50.00

46.60
46.00
50.60
57.60
58.30

100.0
92.1
117.0
194.0
207.0

40.00
37.80
58.00
128.25
142.50

11.88
19.60
24.50
28.00
47.00

238.40
357.10
436.30
532.30
707.90

1.451
3.735
3.019
1.613
2.541

156.13
90.38
136.43
312.74
260.12

5.50
6.30
7.00
8.00

60.00
70.00
80.00
80.00

69.30
80.00
92.00
94.00

236.0
272.0
306.0
330.0

156.75
179.55
199.50
228.00

38.00
45.00
70.00
120.00

774.50
968.50
1132.00
1627.00

2.094
2.258
2.286
4.065

351.72
429.00
464.83
370.91

Tension springs of stainless steel spring steel wire1*

1>

^max

0.20
0.40
0.63
0.80
1.00

3.00
7.00
8.60
10.80
13.50

3.50
8.00
9.90
12.30
15.40

1.25
1.40
1.60
2.00
4.00

17.20
15.00
21.60
27.00
44.00

19.50
17.50
24.50
30.50
50.60

8.60
12.70
19.90
25.1
31.4
39.8
34.9
50.2
62.8
117.0

cf. DIN EN 10270-3 (2001-08)

4.35
2.60
7.88
10.20
12.50

0.05
0.121
0.631
0.971
1.411

15.63
15.05
20.00
25.00
58.00

2.211
4.351
3.211
5.501
19.600

0.99
3.251
9.861
15.67
23.77
35.50
55.72
56.93
84.86
366.50

0.031
0.142
0.237
0.305
0.390

30.54
22.11
38.97
48.19
57.40

0.458
1.371
0.623
0.779
2.593

72.73
37.48
86.19
101.86
133.83

In addition to the springs listed, other springs with different outside diameters and lengths are commercially
available for each wire diameter.

Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools

Cylindrical helical compression springs

Spring
characteristic
curve

wire diameter

Dm

mean coil diameter

oZ

Total number of coils

mandrel diameter
On

sleeve diameter

free length, unloaded spring

it = 's + 2

Ly,L2 length of loaded spring at

Z. min

cf D I N 2 0 9

FF2

minimum allowable test length of the spring

F-j, F2 spring force at /. 1f L2

Fmax

maximum allowable spring force at s m a x

Si, s2 spring displacement at F-\, F2

smax

maximum allowable spring displacement at F m a x

is

number of spring coils

/t

total number of coils (ends ground)

spring rate in N/mm

Compression spring DIN 2098 - 2 x 20 x 94:
d = 2 mm, D m = 20 mm and L f = 94 mm

Da
max.

Ds\
min.

^rnax
inN

Li

's = 3.5
s
max

is = 5.5
R

Li

max

Li

is = 8-5
s
R
max

/s = 12.5
s
R
Li
max

5.4
4.0
3.0

3.8
2.4
1.5

0.26
0.51
1.0

8.2
5.9
4.4

6.0
3.8
2.4

0.17
0.33
0.65

12.4
8.7
6.4

9.3
5.9
3.6

0.11
0.21
0.42

17.9 13.7
12.6 8.6
9.2 5.4

6.6
9.3
10.4

13.5
7.0
4.4

9.2
3.3
0.9

0.73
2.84
11.6

20.0
10.0
6.1

14.0
4.9
1.4

0.46
1.81
7.43

30.0
15.0
8.7

21.3
7.9
2.2

0.30
1.17
4.80

44.0 31.8 0.21

21.5 11.7 0.79
12.0 3.0 3.27

14.4
9.6
6.5

22
33.2
43.8

24.0
13.0
8.5

14.6
5.7
1.9

1.49
5.68
23.2

36.5
19.0
12.0

23.1
8.9
3.0

0.95
3.61
14.8

55.5
28.5
17.0

36.1
14.2
4.4

0.61
2.33
9.57

80.5 53.1
40.5 20.6
24.0
6.6

17.5
10.3
5.9

22.6
14.7
10.1

84.9
135
212

48.0
24.0
14.5

35.6
14.0
5.5

2.38
9.76
37.3

73.5
36.0
21.5

55.9
21.9
8.9

1.52 110
6.23 53.5
23.7
31.5

25
16
10

22.0
13.4
7.5

28.0
18.6
12.5

128
198
318

58.0
30.0
18.0

43.0
17.5
6.8

2.98
11.4
46.6

88.5
45.0
26.5

67.1
27.3
10.9

1.90 135 104

1.23 195
7.24 68.0 42.5 4.69 98
29.7
38.5 16.5 19.2
55

151
0.83
62.1 3.19
24.4 13.0

32
O K 25
20
16

28.3
21.6
16.8
12.9

36.0
28.4
23.2
19.1

182
233
292
365

71.5
49.0
36.0
27.5

52.2
32.2
20.5
12.9

3.48 110
7.29 74.5
14.2
54.0
41.0
27.8

82.1
50.5
32.1
20.5

2.22 170 129

1.43 245
4.64 115
80.2 3.0 165
9.05 81.5 50.0 5.86 120
17.7
61.0 31.7 11.5
88.0

187
116
75.7
49.9

40
Q O 32
O.d. 25
20

35.6
27.6
21.1
16.1

44.6
36.5
28.9
23.9

288
361
461
577

82.0
58.5
42.5
33.5

60.8
38.7
23.4
15.0

4.76 125
88.5
9.3
19.4
63.5
38.2
49.5

95.3
61.1
37.2
23.6

3.03 190 148

1.96
5.92 135
96.2 3.82
12.4
94.5 57.4 8.0
24.2
74.0 36.9 15.7

275
190
135
105

216
1.33
136
2.61
83.4 5.45
53.4 10.7

50
40
32
25

44.0
34.8
27.0
20.3

56.0
45.2
37.0
29.7

427
533
666
852

99.0
71.0
53.5
41.0

71.6
45.8
29.5
18.1

5.95 150
11.7 105
22.8
79.5
47.7
60.5

111
69.9
46.2
28.3

3.79 230 175

2.45
7.41 160
110
4.79
14.4 120
72.8 9.35
30.3
89.5 43.5 19.6

335
235
170
130

257
1.65
165
3.26
104
6.36
65.5 13.3

63
50
40
32

56.0
43.0
34.0
26.0

70.0 623
57.0 785
46.0 981
38.0 1226

120
85.0
64.0
51.0

87.7
54.1
34.4
22.3

7.27 180
14.5 130
28.4
95.5
55.4
75.0

135
86.8
54.5
34.8

4.63
9.25
18.1
35.3

275
195
140
110

210
2.99
133
5.98
81.6 11.7
52.5 22.9

395
280
205
160

304
2.03
194
4.07
124
7.95
79.5 15.5

80
63
50
40

71.0
55.0
42.0
32.6

89.0 932
71.5 1177
58.0 1481
47.5 1854

145
103
105
65.0
80.0 42.0
60.0 24.0

8.96 220
18.3 155
36.7 115
71.7
90.0

160
99.0
62.0
39.7

5.70
11.7
23.3
45.6

335
235
175
135

250
3.69
155
7.55
100
15.1
63.2 29.5

490
340
250
195

370
2.51
277
5.13
145 10.3
95.0 20.1

100
80
63
50

89.0
69.0
53.0
40.5

111
91.0
73.0
60.0

170
118
125
76.0
95.0 48.0
75.0 30.0

11.9
23.2
47.0
95.4

187
111
74.0
46.8

7.58
14.8
30.3
60.8

390
285
205
160

4.9
286
186
9.58
112
19.6
70.0 39.2

570
410
300
230

423
271
169
103

0.2

2.5
2
1.6

2.0
1.5
1.1

3.1
2.6
2.1

0.5

6.3
4
2.5

5.3
3.1
1.7

7.5
5.0
3.4

12.5
8
5

10.8
6.5
3.6

1.6

20
12.5
8

c
O

O.O

Q
o

1.00
1.24
1.50

1413
1766
2237
2825

260
180
140
110

0.07
0.15
0.28

0.41
1.59
6.51

0.67
84.5 0.99 165 129
33.4 4.0
78.0 50.0 2.73
13.6 15.4
45.0 20.2 10.4

0.97
2.04
3.98
7.78

3.34
6.51
13.3
26.7

246

Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools

Disc springs
Single spring
D0

Series stack

De

outside diameter

Di

inside diameter

thickness of the single

disc spring

ho

spring height (theoretic

spring displacement to flat
position)

lo

overall height of the

unloaded single spring

\ho~lp52223

D;

without contact surface:

Groups 1 & 2
B

cf. d i n 2093(2006-03)

Spring
Spring force deflection
"total

Stotal -

'

Spring length

spring deflection of a single

spring
Stotal spring deflection of stack of
disc springs

=F

Lo = i lo
Parallel stack

load generated by a single

disc spring

total total load generated by stack

of disc springs

length of unloaded spring

stack

Spring deflection s

Spring force graph for various disc spring

combinations: (a) single spring;
(b) parallel stack of 3 single springs: 3 times force;
(c) series stack of 4 single springs: 4-fold deflection;
(d) series stack of 3 parallel stacks with 2 single
springs each: 3-fold deflection, 2-fold force
Set ies A: h ard spri ngs
I.4
D(, / f * 18; h0/t* C
Fin
t
s2'
lo
kN 1)

3)

Group 2: f = 1.25-6 mm
without contact surface

Group. 1: t < 1.25 mm

without contact surface

Group

Spring force

number of disc springs in

parallel stack
number of disc springs in
series stack
Series E3: mediuim hard springs
De/ f 28; h0/t 0..75
Fin
t
s2'
lo
kN1>

Se ries C: soft sprir igs

D(} /f ~ 40; holt* 1.3
Fin
t
s2*
lo
kN 1)

De

D\

h12

H12

8
10
14
16

4.2
5.2
7.2
8.2

0.4
0.5
0.8
0.9

0.6
0.75
1.1
1.25

0.21
0.33
0.81
1.00

0.15
0.19
0.23
0.26

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6

0.55
0.7
0.9
1.05

0.12
0.21
0.28
0.41

0.19
0.23
0.30
0.34

0.2
0.25
0.35
0.4

0.45
0.55
0.8
0.9

0.04
0.06
0.12
0.16

0.19
0.23
0.34
0.38

20
25
28
40

10.2
12.2
14.2
20.4

1.1

1.55

1.53

0.34

0.8
0.9
1.0

1.35
1.6
1.8

0.75
0.87
1.11

0.41
0.53
0.60

0.5
0.7
0.8
1

1.15
1.6
1.8
2.3

0.25
0.60
0.80
1.02

0.49
0.68
0.75
0.98

25
28
40
45

12.2
14.2
20.4
22.4

1.5
1.5
2.2
2.5

2.05
2.15
3.15
4.1

2.91
2.85
6.54
7.72

0.41
0.49
0.68
0.75

1.5
1.7

2.6
3.0

2.62
3.66

0.86
0.98

1.25

2.85

1.89

1.20

50
56
63
71

25.4
28.5
31
36

3
3
3.5
4

4.3
4.9
5.6
6.7

12.0
11.4
15.0
20.5

0.83
0.98
1.05
1.20

2
2.5
2.5

3.4
3.6
4.2
4.5

4.76
4.44
7.18
6.73

1.05
1.20
1.31
1.50

1.25
1.5
1.8
2

2.85
3.45
4.15
4.6

1.55
2.62
4.24
5.14

1.20
1.46
1.76
1.95

80
90
100
125

41
46
51
64

5
5
6

7
8.2
8.5

33.7
31.4
48.0

1.28
1.50
1.65

3
3.5
3.5
5

5.3
6
6.3
8.5

10.5
14.2
13.1
30.0

1.73
1.88
2.10
2.63

2.25
2.5
2.7
3.5

5.2
5.7
6.2
8

6.61
7.68
8.61
15.4

2.21
2.40
2.63
3.38

140
160
180

72
82
92

9
10.5
11.1

27.9
41.1
37.5

3.00
3.38
3.83

3.8
4.3
4.8

8.7
9.9
11

17.2
21.8
26.4

3.68
4.20
4.65

5
6
6

Disc spring DIN 2093 - A 16: Series A, outside diameter De = 16 mm

1)
2)
3)

Spring
deflection

Spring force Fof a single disc with spring deflection s 0.75 h0

s 0,75 hQ
Size 3: t > 6-14 mm, with contact surface, D e = 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 225, 250 mm

Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools

Drill bushings

248

Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools

Grub screws. Thrust pads, Ball knobs

Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools

Knobs, Locating and seating pins

Star knobs

cf. DIN 6335 (1996-01)

Form A

Form B

Form E

32

dz
12

<h
18

M6

40

14

21

M8

21

hz
20

fh
10

12

26

25

14

15

50

18

25

10

M10

34

32

20

18

63

20

32

12

M12

42

40

25

22

80

25

40

16

M16

52

50

30

28

1001)

32

48

20

M20

65

60

38

36

Form

Description

AtoE

Metal knobs
rough part of metal
with through bore d4
with blind bore d 4

with through threaded bore d 5

with blind threaded bore d 5

Form C

Form K

K2)

of molding mat. (plastic) with threaded bushing d 5 (of metal)

L 2>

of molding material (plastic) with threaded pin d 5 (of metal)

Star knob DIN 6335 - A 50 AL: Form A, d, = 50 mm,
of aluminum

1)

This size is not available in molding material.

Sometimes with insignificant other dimensions; material like
fluted knobs DIN 6336

2)

Fluted knobs

cf. DIN 6336(1996-01)

Form A

Form E

Form L

' t i iTP?)
1
ft
d,

Locating and seating pins

Form A
Seating
pin

Form B
Locating
pin
cylindrical

1
I

Form C
Locating
pin
truncated

<*2

h2

hs

32

12

M6

21

20

10

12

20

30

40

14

M8

26

25

13

15

20

30

50

18

M10

34

32

17

18

25

30

63

20

M12

42

40

21

22

30

40

80

25

M16

52

50

25

28

30

40

Fluted knob DIN 6336 - L 40 x 30: Form L (molding

material) d-\ = 40 mm, / = 30 mm
Forms A to E (metal knobs) as well as K and L (knobs of molding
material) correspond to star knobs DIN 6335.
Materials: Cast iron, aluminum, molding compounds (PF 31 N
RAL 9005 DIN 7708-2)
cf. DIN 6321 (2002-10)
4
/1
g6 Form A Form B and C
short long
h9

n6
1.2

12
16

1.6

18

2.5

13

22

3.5

15

25

1.6

10

10
12
16

12

20
25

0.04
10

12

18

Clevis pins DIN 6321 - C 20 x 25: Form C,

hardened 53 + 6 HRC

1)

0.02

Appropriate bore tolerance: H7

2.5
= 20 mm, /, = 25 mm

250

Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools

T-slots and accessories, Spherical washers, Conical seats

T-slots and nuts for T-slots

cf. DIN 650 (1989-10) and 508 (2002-06)

8

10

12

14

Deviation from a -0.3/-0.5

14.5 16

19

23

Width a

18
30

+ 2/0

mlE

Thread d

1)

+ 1/0
28
23

25
20

42

-0.4/-0.7
56

68

+ 4/0

16

20

25

+ 2/0
36
45
30
38

56
48

71
61

32

+ 3/0

21
17

M6

M8 M10 M12 M16 M20 M24 M30 M36

13

15

18

22

28

35

44

54

10

12

14

16

20

28

36

44

52

10

14

18

22

26

0/-0.5

85
74
65

0/-1

Nut DIN 5 0 8 - M 1 0 x 12: d= M10, a= 12 mm

Bolts for T-slots

cf. DIN 787 (2005-02)

dx

fQ
-=- t A -

46

36

18
15

Deviation from k

Tolerance class H8 for pilot T-slots and

clamping slots; H12 for clamping slots

37
+ 3/0

12
max.
min.

28

-0.3/-0.6

Deviation from b 1.5/0

Deviation from c

22

T
k

-a

from
to

b
e

uS
h

up to M12x 12:
s. '
M12x14 and
up: a>d-\

ih

6 \

k
Nominal
lengths /

M8
M10
M12
M16 M20 M24 M30
10
12
14
18
22
8
28
36
22
30
35
45
55
70
80
50
60
120
240
150
190
300
15
18
22
44
54
13
28
35
14
24
12
16
32
41
50
20
6
7
14
22
6
8
10
18
25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 160, 200, 250, 315, 400,
500 mm
Bolt DIN 787 - M10 x 10 x 100 - 8.8: d, = M10,
a = 10 mm, / = 100 mm, property class 8.8

Loose slot tenons

vgl. DIN 6323 (2003-08)

Form C
b-1 < b2

by

fci h6

b2 h6 Form

h2

12

12

h3

20

3.6

10

28.6

12

20

5.5

12

20

14
18

14

22

50.5

18

28

12

61.5

24

36

16

76.5

30

42

19

90.5

36

Spherical washers and conical seats

Conical seat
120

90
I"
IVA

2
d
du
Form C

Form D
d4 = d3

32

40
50

Slot tenon DIN 6323 - C 20 x 28:

Form C, b-\ = 20 mm, b2 = 28 mm

hardened, hardness 650 + 100 HV10

Spherical washer

5.5

m
-c:

'

Form G
d 4 > of3

cf. DIN 6319 (2001-10)

dy

d2

H13

H13

6.4

7.1

8.4

d4
Form
D
G

12

12

17

h2

h3
Form
D
G

2.3

2.8

17

17

24

11
14.5

21

21

30

18.5

14.2

24

24

36

20

4.6

19

30

30

44

26

23.2

36

36

50

31

9.6

10.5

12

13
17
21

d3

3.2

R
Sphere

3.5

12

4.2

15

5.3

6.2

22

6.3

7.5

27

17

Spherical washer DIN 6319 - C 17: Form C, d q = 17 mm

Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools

Punch holder shanks, Punches, Machined plates

Punch holder shanks form A 1 )
Form A

cf. DIN ISO 10242-1 and -2 (2000-03)

d-, f9

d2

d3

20

15

M16 x 1.5

40

25

20

M16 x 1.5
M20 x 1.5

45

32

25

M20 x 1.5
M24 x 1.5

40

32

50

42

, /0c

WAF

WAF

h
12

58

17

16

68

21

56

16

79

27

M24 x 1.5
M27 x 2
M30 x 2

70

26

93

12

36

M30 x 2

80

26

108

12

41

2.5

Punch holder shanks ISO 10242-1 A - 40 x M30 x 2: Form A,

d-i = 40 mm, d3 = M30 x 2
thread undercut DIN 76-A

1)

Form C with mounting flange instead of screw threads

Round punch Form D 1 )

t
[fl

cf. DIN 9861-1 (1992-07)

d-, h6
from-to

Graduation

0.5-0.95

0.05

1.0-2.9

0.1

3.0-6.4

0.1

6.5-20

0.5

/ 0/+0.5

71

Hardness
Shank
Head

Material
WS2>

80

62 2 HRC

45 5 HRC

64 2 HRC

50 5 HRC

HWS3>
71

80

100

HSS 4)

Punch DIN 9861 D - 5.6 x 71 HWS: Form D, d, = 5.6 mm,

/ = 71 mm, of high-alloyed cold-work steel
1)

d ih6

Form
WS
HWS
HSS

2)
3)

d2 ~ (1.1-1.8) d-\ (depending on 0

4)

DA with allowable enlargement below the head

alloyed cold-work steel
high-alloyed cold-work steels
high-speed steels

Machined plates for press tools

and for fixtures

cf. DIN ISO 6753-1 (2006-09)

80

160

100

Plate thickness t for plate dimension w

125 I 160
200
250
315
400

630

20, 25, 32

200

25, 32, 40

250

25, 32, 40
32, 40, 50

315

32, 40, 50

400

32, 40, 50

500

32, 40, 50, 63

630

Machined plate ISO 6753-1 1 - 315 x 200 x 32: Fabricated by flame

cutting (1), / = 315 mm, w = 200 mm, t = 32 mm

Code
Ra 6.B

500

Fabrication method

Ra B.2

Note: These surface roughness

values only apply to milled
edges.

Flame cutting
Beam cutting
Milling

Limit deviations for

length I and width w
( w < 630 mm)

Limit deviations
for thickness t

+4

+1

+ 0.4
+ 0.2

+ 0.5
+ 0.3

252

Machine elements: 5.8 Springs, components of jigs and tools

Pillar die sets

Pillar die sets with rectangular working
surface forms C and CG1* cf. DIN 9812 (1981-12)

a y x b-,

c1

02

C3

d2

80x63
100 x 63
100 x 80
160x80
125 x 100
250 x 100

50

30

80

19

M20 x 1.5

50

30

80

25

M20 x 1.5

50

40

90

25
32

M24 x 1.5

160 x 125
315 x125
200 x 160
315x160

56

40

90

32

M24 x 1.5

56
63

50

100

32
40

M30 x 2

63

50

100

40

M30 x 2

250 x 200
315x250

Pillar die sets with circular working surface

forms D and DG 2>
cf. DIN 9812 (1981-12)

<h
125
145
155
215
180
315

160

50
63

160

80

170
180

40

100

200

330 220
395

250
315

25

65

16

d3
80
95

M16 x 1.5

50

30

80

25

M20 x 1.5

155

25

56

180

56
63

40

50

32

90

100

40

125
140

125
160

180

160
M24 x 1.5

M30 x 2

225

180

245

180

265

190

330
395

200
220

Pillar die set DIN 9812 - D 160: Form D,

d = 160 mm
2)

Pillar die sets with centrally positioned

pillars and thick pillar guide plate, form DF

<*2

125

225 180
380
265 200
395 220

Form C without threads; form CG with threads d 3

P3

19

Center pillar die set DIN 9812 - C 100 x 80:

Form C, a, x ^ = 100 mm x 80 mm
1)

C2

Form D without threads; form DG with threads d 3

Pillar die sets with diagonal

pillars, forms C and CG 3)
cf. DIN 9819 (1981-12)

cf. DIN 9816(1981-12)

zaiim

L U i

!AI

d * do

= 3 7

z
80
100
125
160
200
=>

50
50

56

80
85
90
100
110

di

'1

fz

a, x ^

19

125

16

10

36

170

80x63
125 x 80

25

32

155
180
225
265

18

11

40

23

11

45

180

220

125x 100
250 x 100
160x 125

240

315 x 125

190

Pillar die set DIN 9816 - DF 100 GG: Form DF,

d-i = 100 mm, cast iron slide guide

=>
3)

32

bz

135 180
215
190
235
325 255
235
280
390

C1

50

56

C2

C3

30

80

40

90

d2
19
25
25

40

90

32

I
i
75 103
160
128
120
148 170
245 158
155
180
183
310

Pillar die set DIN 9819 - C 160 x 80 GG:

Form C, a-\ = 160 mm, b-1 = 80 mm, cast iron

Form C without threads; form CG with threads d3

253

Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements

V-belts, Positive drive belts

Design types
Speed
range

Range of dimensions

Designation

h 1 ) in mm |
Standard for the belts

Power
range

L 2 ) in mm
Vmax in m/s P ' m a x

Standard for pulleys

Properties,
application
in kW3>

Classic V-belts
185-19000

4-25

30

65

DIN 2217, ISO 4183

DIN 2215, ISO 4184
ISarrow V-bellts
630-12500

8-18

40

70

For higher maximum tensile

strengths, reliable tractive power;
construction equipment, variable drives for the mining
industry, agricultural machinery, conveyors, general
machine construction
Good power transmission,
twice the power with the same
width as classic V-belts;
gearbox manufacturing,
machine tools, HVAC

DIN 2211, ISO 4183

DIN 7753, ISO 4 184
Cogged V-belts
800-3150

4-25

50

70

DIN 2211, DIN 2217

Low elongation, small pulley

diameter, high temperature
resistance from -30C to +80C;
automotive alternator drives,
transmission design, pumps,
HVAC

DIN 2215, DIN 7753

Joined V-belts
(Power Band)

10-26

1250-15000
30

65

DIN 2211, DIN 2217

V-ribbed belts
(ribbed belts)

3-17

600-15000
60

20

DIN 7867

Insensitive to vibration or
impact, no twisting of single
belts in the pulleys, absolutely
uniform force distribution, high
tensile strength, for long distances between axles;
paper machines
Large transmission ratios
possible, low vibration running
behavior;
automotive alternator drives,
compressor drives in
HVAC, small machines

DIN 7867

85

Excellent transverse strength,

very high tensile strength,
flexible;
speed control gears,
machine tools, textile
machines, printing machines,
agricultural machinery

20

Good power transmission for

drives with several pulleys
and alternating direction of rotation, 10% less efficiency than
classic V-belts; agricultural
machinery, textile machines,
general machine building

0.5-900

Efficiency t ] m a x ^ 0.98,
synchronous running, low prestress forces, therefore lower
bearing load;
precision machine drives, office
machine drives, automotive
industry, CNC spindle drives

Wide V-belts
468-2500

6-18

30
DIN 7719
DIN 7719
C)ouble V-belt:s
(Hiexagonal bel

2000-6900

10-25

30
Its)

DIN 2217

DINI 7722, ISO 5

Positive drive belts
0.7-5.0

100-3620

289
40-80
DIN ISO 5294
DIN 7721, DIN ISO 5296
1>

Belt height (pages 254, 255)

21

Belt length

3)

Transmittable power per belt

254

Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements

Narrow V-belts
Narrow V-belts

Narrow V-belt
pulley
DIN 2211-1 (1984-03)

DIN 7753-1 (1988-01)

V.

" I SrfJ

Effective diameter

31

Narrow V-belts,
V-belt pulleys

Designations
Belt profile (ISO designation codes)

SPZ

SPA

SPB

SPC

upper belt width

effective width

9.7
8.5

12.7
11

16.3
14

22
19

10
2.8

13
3.5

18
4.8

63
9.7

90
12.7

140
16.3

224
22

2.8

h
belt height
/7W distance
c/ m i n minimum allowable effective 0
w-| upper groove width

r,
mm.
mm

c
t

distance from effective 0 to outer 0

minimum allowable groove depth

2
11

13.8

3.5
17.5

4.8
23.8

- 2c

groove spacing for multi-groove

pulleys
groove spacing from outer edge

12

15

19

25.5

10

12.5

17

34 for effective 0 up to

80

118

190

315

38 for effective 0 over

80

118

190

315
1.47

de = da

Narrow V-belt DIN 7753 - XPZ 710:

Narrow V-belt, cogged profile,
reference length 710 mm
Angle factor c-|

Wrap angle /?

180

1.02

1.05

1.08

170

160

150

1.12

1.16

1.22

1.28

1.37

140

130

120

110

100

90c

Service factor c 2
Dai ly operating time in ho urs
over 16
up to 10
from 10 to 16

Driven machines (examples)

1.0
1.1

1.1
1.2

1.2
1.3

Centrifugal pumps, fans, conveyor belts for light material

Machine tools, presses, sheet metal shearers, printing machines

1.2
1.3

1.3
1.4

1.4
1.5

Grinding gears, piston pumps, textile and paper machines

Stone crushers, mixers, winches, cranes, excavators

Efficiency values for narrow V-belts

Profile selection for narrow V-belts

2500

| 2000
1600

cf. DIN 7753-2 (1976-04)

P
Prate(j
N
c-|
c2

power to be transmitted
power rating per belt
number of belts
angle factor
Number of belts
service factor

| 1250
^ 1000
800
"S

Example:

6 3 0

| 500
400
I 315
ro

250

200

2.5

6.3 10

16 25 U0 63

calculated power P-c 2 in kW

Transmission parameters P= 12 kW with c-\ = 1.12;

c2 = 1.4; d m i n = 160 mm, ns = 950 1/min; & = ?, /V = ?
1. P- c2 = 12 kW 1.4= 16.8 kW
2. From the diagram n s = 950 1/min and
P - c 2 = 16.8 kW profile SPA
3. Prated = 4.27 kW from the table
P-Ci-Co 12 kW-1.12-1.4
A(
!
4 N=
=
= 4.4
Prated
4.27 kW

5. Selected: N = 5 belts

255

Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements

Positive drive belts

Positive drive belts (timing belts)

cf. DIN 7721-1 (1989-06)

Tooth size

Tooth spacing
Code
T2.5

t*

IV i
-cj

T10

-cT

\|/

10

120
150
160
200
245

S \

VV

l1-1

0.2

1.3

1.2

0.4

2.2

5.3

2.5

0.6

48

30

112
122
126

61
66
78

700
720
780
840
880

144
156
168

84
91
96
100

900
920
960
990

54

114

132
-

168
-

192
200

10

4.5

530
560
610
630
660

40
49

16

No. of teeth for

T5
T10

Effective
length1*

270
285
305
330
390

Non-standardized tooth forms

LAHN profile

0.7

64
80
98

420
455
480
500

HT profile

1.5
2.7

No. of teeth for

T2.5
T5

Effective
length 1)

Double-sided

p y v j <:f

2.5

T5

Positive drive belt width

Nominal
thickness
hs

Single-sided

180
184
-

T)

Effective diameter

2)

25

32

50

Effective No. of teeth for

length1*
T10
101
108
115
121
125

70
72
78
84
88

1320
1390
1460
1560
1610

132
139
146
156
161

1780
1880
1960
2250

178
188
196
225

Belt DIN 7721 - 6 T2.5 x 480: w=6 mm, spacing p = 2.5 mm,
effective length = 480 mm, single-sided
The code letter D is added for double-sided positive drive belts.
1)
Effective lengths from 100-3620 mm, in custom-made products up to
25000 mm
cf. DIN 7721-2 (1989-06)

Pulley groove dimensions

1)

25

1010
1080
1150
1210
1250

Timing belt pulleys

d = d0 +

16

53
56
61
63
66

92
96

198

10

Pulley
groove

Pulley outer 0
Pulley outer 0
Pulley outer 0
Pulley
Pulley
d0 for
d0for
d0 for
groove
groove
T2.5
T5
T10
T2.5
T5
T10
T2.5
T5
T10

10
11
12
13

7.4

15.0

8.2

16.6
18.2

14
15
16

10.6

9.0
9.8
11.4
12.2

19.8

36.3
39.5

21.4
23.0
24.6

42.7
45.9
49.1

13.0
13.8
14.6
15.4

27.8
29.4
31.0

22
25

17.0
19.3
21.7

34.1
38.9
43.7

28

2 a

Pully dimensions

T2.5
T5
T10

24.9

50.1 100.0
56.4 112.7
62.8 125.4
75.5 150.9

61.8

32
36
40
48

31.3
37.7

68.2
77.7
87.2

60
72
84

47.2 94.6 189.1

56.8 113.7 227.3
66.3 132.9 265.5

28.1

Groove width w r
Form SE 1)
Form N 2 >
1.83
3.32
6.57

1.75
2.96
6.02

Groove height hg
Form SE1>
Form N2>
0.75
1.25
2.6

2a
0.6

1
1.95
3.4

1
2

Pulley width
with flange w f
without flange w' f

Letter symbols

Belt width w

T2.5

4
6
10

5.5
7.5
11.5

10
16
25

7.5
11.5
17.5
26.5

14
20
29

16
25
32
50

18
27
34
52

30
37
55

with pulley flange

T5

T10
without pulley flange

52.2
55.4
58.6

Pulley groove dimensions

Code

Form SE for < 20 grooves

Form N for > 20 grooves

26.2

17
18
19
20

10
14
10

21

256

Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements

Straight-toothed spur gears

Unmodified spur gears with straight teeth
External teeth

_ d

Number of teeth

N=

- 2

d 0 = d+ 2 m= m (N + 2)

Outside diameter

dr = d-

Root diameter

2 {m + c)

_ d-, +d2 _ m (N-]+N2\

d

Center distance

External and internal teeth

Module

Pitch
m

module

N, Nh N2

p
c
h
ha
hd
a

pitch
clearance
whole depth
addendum
dedendum
center distance

d,

d2

dQ, d 0 1 , do2
dr, d r 1 , d r 2

p = n m

no. of teeth
pitch
diameter
outside
diameter

d= m N
Pitch diameter

Clearance

0.1 m to 0.3 m
often c= 0.167 m

Addendum

ha = m

Dedendum

hri = m + c

c=

root
diameter

Example:
External spur gear,
m = 2 mm; N= 32; c= 0.167 m; d= ?; d0 = ?;/? = ?
d m ' N 2 mm 3 2 - 6 4 mm
d0 = d + 2 m = 64 mm + 2 - 2 mm = 68 mm
h = 2-m + c=2-2 mm + 0.167 2 mm = 4.33 mm

h = 2

Whole depth

m + c

Internal teeth

Number of teeth

Outside diameter
Root diameter

Center distance

N=

| d0 =

dQ

+ 2 m
m

d+2 m = m (N + 2)

dr=d

-2

(m+

c)

_ d 2 - d - 1 _ m (A/ 2 - N^)

Example:
Internal spur gear, m = 1.5 mm; N = 80;
c= 0.167 m; d= ?; dQ = ?;/? = ?
d= m N= 1.5 mm 80 = 120 mm
dQ = d-2 m= 120 m m - 2 1.5 mm = 117 mm
h = 2 m + c= 2 1.5 mm + 0.167 1.5 mm = 3.25 mm

257

Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements

Helical gears, Module series for spur gears

Unmodified helical gears

VI

mt

transverse module

mr
Pt

real pitch module

transverse pitch

pr

real pitch

helix angle (normally 0 = 8 to 25c

N,
N2 no. of teeth
d, d-|, d2
pitch diameter
dQ
outside diameter
a
center distance

ex.

Transverse module

Transverse pitch

Pitch diameter

Number of teeth
In helical gears the teeth run in a screw-like pattern on
the cylindrical wheel body. The tools for manufacturing spur gears and helical gears conform to the real
pitch module.

Real pitch module

In the case of parallel shafts the two gears have the

same helix angle, but opposite direction of rotation,
i.e., one gear has a right-hand helix and the other a
left-hand helix
=-&).

Real pitch

Example:

Outside diameter

Helical gear, N = 32; mr= 1.5 mm;

0 = 19.5; c = 0.167 m; mt = ?;d0 = ?; d=?;h = ?
mr
1.5 mm
mt = =
= 1.591 mm
cos (5 cos 19.5
d0 = d + 2 m r = 50.9 mm + 2-1.5 mm = 53.9 mm
d = mt N= 1.591 mm 32 = 50.9 mm

Center distance

= 2 m r + c= 2 1.5 mm + 0.167 1.5 mm

= 3.25 mm

Calculations of whole depth, addendum, dedendum, clearance and root diameter are the same as those for spur
gears with straight teeth (page 256). In the formulae the
module m is replaced by the real pitch module mr.

Module series for spur gears (Series I)

cf. DIN 780-1 (1977-05)

Module
Pitch
Module
Pitch

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.25

0.628

0.785

0.943

1.257

1.571

1.885

2.199

2.513

2.827

3.142

3.927

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

16.0

4.712

6.283

7.854

9.425

12.566

15.708

18.850

25.132

31.416

37.699

50.265

Classification of a tool set of 8 module side milling cutters (up to m = 9 mm) '
Cutter no.
No. of teeth
1)

12-13

14-16

17-20

21-25

26-34

35-54

55-134

135 to toothed rack

The manufacture of gears with side milling cutters is not an involute process. Only an approximate involute form
of the tooth flank is produced. Therefore this manufacturing process is only suitable for secondary gears. For gears
with m > 9 mm a tool set with 15 module side milling cutters is used.

258

Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements

Bevel gears, Worm drive

Unmodified bevel gears with straight teeth
m
module
N, N^, N2
d, d 1 f d2
pitch diameter
d, <51f d2
d0, d01, dQ2 outside diameter
y1r y2
I
shaft angle (normally 90)

no. of teeth
pitch angle
tip angle

Pitch and whole depth narrow to the cone point, so that at

every point of the tooth width a bevel gear has another
module, outside diameter, etc. The outermost module corresponds to the standard module.

Pitch diameter
Outside diameter

In addition to the dimensions given on the outside

edges, the dimensions in the centers and inner edges
of gear teeth are also important for manufacturing.

Tip angle gear 1

Example:

Tip angle gear 2

Bevel gear drive, m = 2 mm; A/-, = 30; N2 = 120;

I = 90. Calculate the dimensions for turning the
driving bevel gear.
/Vi 30
tan^ = 1 = - 0.2500; 8* = 14.04
1
1
N2 120
d|
=m-/V ) = 2 m m - 3 0 = 60 mm
c, o^
+ 2 m cos^
= 60 mm + 2 2 mm cos 14.04 63.88 mm
= 0.267
1 3 0 / 1 Ni+2 cos<5,
+ 2 cos
14.04
N2 - 2 sin (St 30120-2
sin
14.04
=14.95

d = m N
d0 = d+ 2 m cosd
tan Yy -

N^ +2 cosd-,
N2-2 -sinS,
A/o + 2 cos<59

tan y , =
2

A/-| - 2 sin<52

Pitch angle gear 1

^
d!
/Vt 1
tand-,1 = 1 = ' = d2
N2
i

Pitch angle gear 2

+ X
d
N
.
tan do = 2 = 2 = /
2
di
N,

Shaft angle

2 = d i + <5-

Whole depth, addendum, clearance, etc. are calculated like

spur gears with straight teeth (page 256).

Worm drive
m
module
d, d-1, d2
pitch diameter
d0, d 0 i , d o 2 outside diameter
rt
throat radius

/Vq, A/2 no. of teeth

pn
lead
Px, p
(axial) pitch
dt
tip 0

Worm
Pitch diameter
Axial pitch - worm
Outside diameter
Lead
Ny (no. of teeth)
Example:
Worm drive m = 2.5 mm; A/-, = 2; d q = 40 mm;
N2 = 40; d 0 i = ?; d 2 = ?; d t = ?; r t = ?; a = ?
d o 1 = d 1 + 2 m = 40mm + 2-2.5 mm = 45 mm
d 2 = m N2= 2.5 mm 40
= 100 mm
do2=d2+2m = 100 mm+ 2 2.5 mm= 105 mm
d
t ~ d o 2 + m = 105 mm + 2.5 mm
= 107.5 mm
c/-|
40 mm
rt = m =
-2.5 mm
= 17.5 mm
2"
c/i+do 40 mm + 100 mm
a =
=
= 70 mm
2
2

Worm gear
Pitch diameter
Pitch
Outside diameter
Tip diameter
Throat radius
Clearance, whole depth, addendum, dedendum and center
distance like spur gears (page 256).

259

Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements

Transmission ratios
Gear drives

driving

no. of teeth

NVN3,N5...

Single gear ratio

n 3 , n 5 . . . speeds
no. of teeth
N2,N4,N6...
n2, n4, n6... speeds

driven

i
/'1, h,

/,

^ driven
j 9ears

initial speed
final speed
total gear ratio
individual gear ratios

n\

Multiple gear ratio

driving
J gears

Example:
i.

nu=nf

Drive formula
n<| A/<| = n2 N2
Gear ratio
N 2

i =

/V,

1 =

n2

nf

Total gear ratio

/"= 0.4; N-I = 180/min; N2 = 24; n 2 = ?; A/n = ?

180/min J C A / .
= 450/min
"2 = -r- =
0.4
c
N ^ _ n 2 - N 2 ^ 450/min 24
180/min

/ =

/v 2 A / 4 - / V 6
A/q A/ 3 A/ 5

i= h- I2- 13,

Torque for gears, page 37

Belt drives
d-|, d 3 , d 5 . . . diameters1*

Single gear ratio

driving
pulleys

n 3 , n 5 . . . speeds
^2, d 4 , d 6 ... diameters1*

driving

driven

6 speeds
initial speed

Drive formula

nf

final speed

/'

total gear ratio

/7<l C/l = /?2

/'1, / 2 , / 3 ...

individual gear ratios

v,

circumferential velocity

v2

c/-|

n-, = 600/min; n2 = 400/min;

d, = 240 mm; /'= ?; d 2 = ?
i-i _____
600/min 1,5 .
=

n2
d,=
1)

Gear ratio
. = c[2

Example:

Multiple gear ratio

y= v/-| = V2

driven
pulleys

Hj

Velocity

400/min ~ 1
d-| 600/min 240 mm
= 360 mm
400/min
n2

For V-belts (page 254) calculate with the

effective diameter d e ; for positive drive
belts (page 255) calculate with the number
of teeth on the pulley.

_ Hj

n2

A7f

Total gear ratio

I =

d2

dA

di

d i c/o c/c

I = h /2 '3

Worm drives
driven

A/-| no. of teeth (no. of threads) of the worm

n-, speed of the worm
N2 no. of teeth of the worm gear
n2

speed of the worm gear

/'

gear ratio

Example:
/'= 25;
driving

= 1500/min; A/-, = 3; n2 = ?

ni 1500/min
.
==
= 60/min
/
25

Drive formula
n-| A/-! = n2 A/ 2

Gear ratio

260

Machine elements: 5.9 Drive elements

Speed graph
The speed n of a machine tool from the workpiece or tool diameter d and the selected cutting speed vc can be determined
on a computer/calculator using the formula, or
graphically using the speed graph.
Speed graphs have the speeds under load which can be set on the machine.
These are stepped geometrically. For infinitely variable drives the calculated speed
can be set precisely.

Speed

Speed graph with logarithmically scaled coordinates

800
m/min
600
500

6 7 8 9 10

15

20

30

40

50 60

80 100

150

c^

200 mm 300

diameter d
Example: d = 100 mm; v c =220 ; n = ?
c
min
m
220
m n
Calculation: n =
' = 700.3
; read from the speed graph above: n 700
_ yc _
n d Ji 0.1 m
min
min

400

Machine elements: 5.

261

rins

Plain bearings, Overview

Plain bearings1* (Selection by type of lubrication)
Hydrodynamic
plain bearings

Hydrostatic
plain bearings

Dry-running
plain bearings

Suitable for

Suitable for

Suitable for

- low-wear continuous operation

- high speeds
- high impact loads

- wear-free continuous operation

- low friction losses
- low speeds possible

Areas of application

Areas of application

- main and big end bearings

- gearboxes
- electric motors
-turbines, compressors
- lifting equipm., agricul. machinery
1>

- maintenance free or low

maintenance operation
- w i t h or without lubrication
Areas of application
-construction equipment
- armatures and devices
- packaging machines
- j e t engines
- household appliances

- precision bearings
- space telescopes and
antennae
- machine tools
- axial bearings for high forces

Other plain bearings: air or gas and water lubricated plain bearings, magnetic bearings

Properties of plain bearing materials

Designation,
Material
number

Elongation limit
ftp 0.2
N/mm 2

Specific
bearing
load
P l"
N/mm 2

Shaft
min.
hardness

Sliding
properties

Sliding
speed

EmergencyProperties, application
running
behavior

Lead and tin casting alloys

G-PbSb15Sn102)
2.3391

43

G-SnSb12Cu6Pb
2.3790

61

cf. DIN ISO 43

10

Medium loading;
all purpose plain bearing

160 HB

Good impact loading; turbines, compressors, electric machines

160 HB

Cast copper alloys and copper wrought alloys

CuSn8Pb2-C
2.1810

130

CuZn31Si1
2.1831

250

58

55 HRC

80

18

250 HB

60

11

150 HB

CuPb10Sn10-C2)
2.1816

CuPb20Sn5-C
2.1818

21

cf. DIN ISO 4382-1 and -2 (1992-11)

280 HB

High surface pressures; vehicle bearings, bearings in hot-rolling mills

Suitable for water lubrication,
resistant to sulfuric acid
cf. DIN ISO 6691 (2001-05)

PA 6
(Polyamide)

12

50 HRC

POM
(Polyoxymethylene

18

50 HRC

2)

Low to moderate loading,

sufficient lubrication
High loading, high vertical and
horizontal impact loading

Thermoplastics

1)

(2001-02)

Impact and wear resistant;

bearings in farm machinery
O

Bearing force based on the projected bearing surface

Composite material according to DIN ISO 4383 for thinwalled plain bearings

very good

limited

Harder and capable of higher compressive loads than PA; bearings in precision
mechanics, suitable for dry-running
q good
O poor

normal

262

Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings

Plain bearing

bushings

Bushings made of copper alloys

Form C
y / / / / / /

cf. DIN ISO 4379(1995-10)

Form F

Form C
d,

>o
LU
"6"

NO vO
LU
u) "6"

///////)

all
. chamfers 45
by js13
Force fitting produces
tolerance class H8
Recommended tolerance classes for mounting dimensions
Location hole
H7
Shaft
e7 or g7 (depending on
application)
by] S13

10
12
15
18
20
22
25
30
35
40

by
d2
10
12 14 16
10 15 20
14 16 18
10 15 20
17 19 21
12 20 30
20 22 24
15 20 30
23 24 26
15 20 30
25 26 28
20
30 40
28 30 32
20 30 40
34 36 38
30 40 50
39 41 45
30 40 60
44 48 50
Diameter range dy. 6-200
Bushing ISO 4379 - F22 x 25 x 30 - CuSn8P: Form F,
di = 22 mm, d2 = 25 mm, by = 30 mm, of CuSn8P

Bushings made of sintered metal

Form V

Form J
Y//////S

cf. DIN 1850-3 (1998-07)

Form J

-P

7 7 7 7 7m;
r*ID
t5~

I
b / / / / A

V / / / / / / >
A

2 js13

by] S13

Z71JS13

all chamfers 45

dy
10
12
15
18
20
22
25
30
35
40

Recommended tolerance classes for mounting dimensions

Location hole
H7
Shaft

Form V
<h
bi

<h.

d2

16
14
16
18
16
18
21
19
21
24
22
24
26
25
26
28
27
28
32
30
32
38
35
38
45
41
45
50
46
50
Diameter range dy.

22
24
27
30
32
34
39
46
55
60
1-60

Thermoset plastics
Form R

S//S//
J

- "6"
V / / / / J

6 2 js13

ijs13
all chamfers 45

by] S13

Form T

by h13

y h13

cf. DIN 1850-5 and -6 (1998-07)

dy

di

<h

bz

^max

10
12
15
18
20
22
25
30
35

16
18
21
24
26
28
32
38
45

20
22
27
30
32
34
38
44
50

3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
5

0.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.8

+0.07

; ss/
>30<

16
20
25
30
25
25
30
30
40
50

Lengths
by
6
10
10
12
15
15
20
20
30

10
15
15
20
20
20
30
30
40

20
20
30
30
30
40
40
50

Tolerance class
Fabrication
resulting after
method
from 10 15 20 28 35 42
force fitting d.
to 14 18 25 32 40 55
D12
A +0.21 +0.2 +0.4 +0.6 +0.69 +0.90 i n j e c t i o n

m
- "O

10
12
15
18
20
20
25
25
35
40

8
10
12
15
15
20
20
25
30

dz

30(

30

0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8

Diameter range d-\ for thermosets: 3-250,

for thermoplastics: 6-200
Limit deviations d2 and dy of tolerance classes A and B for
bushings made of thermoplastics

Thermoplastics
Form S

3.5
4
5
5

Lengths
by

f?max

Bushing DIN 1850 - V18 x 24 x 18 - Sint-B50:

dy = 18 mm, d2 = 24 mm, by = 18 mm,
sintered bronze Sint-B50

Bushings made of thermosets and thermoplastics

Form P

Lengths

Form F
Series 1
Series 2
dz <h t>2 d2
b>2
12 14
16 20
14 16
18 22
17 19
21 27
20 22 1
24 30
23 26 1.5 26 32
25 28 1.5 28 34
28 31 1.5 32 38
38 44
34 38 2
45 50
39 43 2
50 58
44 48 2

b2 h13

+0.1 +0.2 +0.23 +0.30

molded

machined
B
Tolerance class zb11
C11
Additional codes for bushings made of thermoset plastics

Assembly bevel 15 (inst. of 45

Circular grooves on
Recommended tolerance classes for mounting dimensions W outer diameter d
Undercut instead of
2
radius R
Thermosets
Thermoplastics
H7
Location hole
H7
Bushing DIN 1850 - S20 A20 - PA 6: Form S; dy
20 mm, tolerance cl. A, by = 20 mm, polyamide 6
Shaft
h7
h9
Other stand, designs: Wrapped bushings DIN 1494, internal tension bushings DIN 1498, external tension bushings DIN 1499

Machine elements: 5.

263

rins

Antifriction bearings, Overview

Roller bearings (selection)
For rotation

Radial
load
Ball bearing

Linear bearings

Axial and radial

load

Roller bearing

Ballbearing

Deep groove ball Cylindrical roller

bearings DIN 625 bearings DIN 5412

For linear
movement

Antifriction bearings

Roller bearing

Ball bearing

Angular ball
Tapered roller
bearings DIN 628 bearings DIN 720

Roller bearing

Axial-deep groove Axial-cyl. roller

ball bear. DIN 711
bear. DIN 722

i n

Self-aligning ball Needle bearings

bearing DIN 630
DIN 617

Axial
load

Angular contact ball Cylindrical roller

bearings DIN 628 bearings DIN 5412

Four-point contact Spherical roller

bearings DIN 628 bearings DIN 728

Properties of roller bearings

Bearing design 1 '

Inside 0

Radial Axial
High
loading loading speed

High
loads

Quiet
Application
running

Universal bearings in machine and

automotive manufacturing

Compensation with misalignment

Only used in pairs, large forces,

automotive manufacturing

Ball bearings
Deep groove ball
bearings

1.5-600

Self-aligning ball
bearings

5-120

Angular contact ball

bearings single-row

10-170

2>

Angular contact ball

bearings double-row

10-110

Axial deep groove

ball bearings

8-360

Four-point contact
bearings

20-240

Cylindrical roller
bearings (form N)

17-240

Cylindrical roller
bearings (form NUP)

15-240

Needle bearings

90-360

Tapered roller
bearings

15-360

C2)

Axial cylindrical
roller bearings

15-600

Spherical
roller bearings

60-1060

Large forces, automotive manufacturing,

with limited space requirements

e
e
e

Acceptance of very large radial forces,

roller bearing assemblies, transmissions

Like Form N, with flanged wheel

additional acceptance of axial forces

High carrying capacity with tight

mounting space

03)

Usually mounted in pairs, wheel bearings

in automobiles, spindle bearings

Stiff bearing requiring minimal axial

space, high friction

Angular displacement thrust bearings,

thrust bearings in cranes

Acceptance of very high axial forces,

drill spindles, tail stock centers
Very tight spaces, spindle bearing layouts,
gear and roller bearing assemblies

Roller bearings

11
2)
3)

For all radial bearings the prefix "radial" is omitted.

Reduced suitability with paired mounting
Mounted in pairs

Suitability levels:
very good

good

^ limited

O not suitable

normal

264

Machine elements: 5.

rins

Antifriction bearings. Designation

Designation of antifriction bearings
Example:

cf. DIN 623-1 (1993-05)

Tapered roller bearings DIN 720 - S 30208 P2

I
Standard

Name

Prefix symbol

Basic numbers

Prefix symbols
K
L
R
S

Suffix symbol

Suffix symbols (selection)

K
Z
2Z
E
RS
2RS
P2

cage with roller elements

free ring
ring with roller set
stainless steel

Example of basic numbers:

bearing with tapered bore

bearing with shield on one side
bearing with shield on both sides
reinforced design
bearing with seal on one side
bearing with seal on both sides
highest precision: dimensional, form and
running

3 0 2 08

Bearing series 302

Width series 0
Bearing type 3

Bearing type

Diameter series 2

Dimension series 02

Design

Bore code 08

Borecode

Bore 0
d

Bore
code

Bore 0
d

Angular contact ball bear., double row

Self-aligning ball bearing

00

10

12

60

Barrel and spherical roller bearings

01

12

13

65

Tapered roller bearings

02

15

14

70

Deep groove ball bear., double row

03

17

15

75

Axial deep groove ball bearings

04

20

16

80

Deep groove ball bear., single row

05

25

17

85

Angular contact ball bear., single row

06

30

18

90

Axial cylindrical roller bearings

07

35

19

95

Needle bearings

08

40

20

100

QJ

Four-point contact bearing

09

45

21

105

N, NJ, NJP, NN,

NNU, NU, NUP

10

50

22

110

Cylindrical roller bearings

11

55

23

115

8
NA

Dimension series (selection)

Explanation
The dimension plans in DIN 616
contain diameter series in
which each nominal diameter
of a bearing bore d (= shaft
diameter) is assigned a number
of:
outside diameters and
width series (for radial
bearings) or
height series (for axial
bearings).

cf. DIN 616(1994-06)

Structure of the dimension series

m-

02
"ool

Dimension series 02

dimension
series

width series

a0.3

Example: Tapered roller bearings11

Bore
code

Bore

07
08
09
10

35
40
45
50

10

diameter
series
1)

72
80
85
90

17
18
19
20

other dimensions, see page 267

Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings

Ball bearings
Deep groove ball bearings (selection)

cf. DIN 625-1 (1989-04)

Bearing series 60

"O

Cl

w
d f r o m 1.5 to 600 m m
Mounting dimensions
according to DIN 5418:

T
(2A
*

N\

V/A )/ i ^
N

10
12
15

26
28
32

17
20
25

r h
Basic
max min number

Bearing series 62

r
h
Basic
max min number

Bearing series 63

30 9 0.6 2.1
32 10 0.6 2.1
35 11 0.6 2.1

6200
6201
6202

35 11 0.6 2.1
37 12 1
2.8
2.8
42 13 1

6300
6301
6302

35 10 0.3 1
42 12 0.6 1.6
47 12 0.6 1.6

6003
6004
6005

40 12 0.6 2.1
47 14 1
2
52 15 1
2

6203
6204
6205

47 14
52 15
62 17

1
1
1

2.8
3.5
3.5

6303
6304
6305

30
35
40

55 13
62 14
68 15

1
1
1

2.3
2.3
2.3

6006
6007
6008

62 16
72 17
80 18

2
2
3.5

6206
6207
6208

72 19
80 21
90 23

1
3.5
1.5 4.5
1.5 4.5

6306
6307
6308

45
50
55

75 16
80 16
90 18

1
1
1

2.3
2.3
3

6009
6010
6011

85 19
90 20
100 21

1
3.5
1
3.5
1.5 4.5

6209
6210
6211

100 25
110 27
120 29

1.5 4.5
2
5.5
2
5.5

6309
6310
6311

60 95 18
65 100 18
70 110 20

1
1
1

3
3
3

6012
6013
6014

110 22
120 23
125 24

1.5 4.5
1.5 4.5
1.5 4.5

6212
6213
6214

130 31 2.1 6
140 33 2.1 6
150 35 2.1 6

6312
6313
6314

75 115 20
80 125 22
85 130 22

1
3
1
3
1.5 3.5

6015
6016
6017

130 25
140 26
150 28

2
5.5
2
5.5
2.1 6

6215
6216
6217

160 37
170 39
180 41

2.1 6
2.5 7
2.5 7

6315
6316
6317

90 140 24
95 145 24
100 150 24

1.5 3.5
1.5 3.5
1.5 3.5

6018
6019
6020

160 30 2.1 6
170 32 2.1 6
180 34 2.1 6

6218
6219
6220

190 43
200 45
215 47

2.5 7
2.5 7
2.5 7

6318
6319
6320

8 0.3 1
8 0.3 1
9 0.3 1

1
1
1

Deep groove ball bearing DIN 625 - 6208 - 2Z - P2: Deep groove ball bearing (bearing type 6), width series 0 1 ) , diameter series 2, bore code 08 (d= 8 5 mm = 40 mm),
design with 2 shields, bearing with highest precision (tolerance class 2)

Angular contact ball bearings (selection)

cf. DIN 628-1 (1993-12)

Bearing series 73

Bearing series 72

Mounting dimensions
according to DIN 5418:

r
h
Basic
max min number

6000
6001
6002

11

d f r o m 10 to 170 m m

h Basic
D
r
max min number2'

15
17
20
25

35
40
47
52

11 0.6 2.1
12 0.6 2.1
14 1
2.8
15 1
2.8

30
35
40

62 16
72 17
80 18

Bearing ser. 33 (double row)

r
h
D
Basic
max min number2'

h
r
Basic
max min number3'

2.8
2.8
3.5
3.5

7302B
7303B
7304B
7305B

42
47
52
62

2.8
2.8
3.5
3.5

3302
3303
3304
3305

72 19
80 21
90 23

1
3.5
1.5 4.5
1.5 4.5

7306B
7307B
7308B

72 30.2 1
3.5
80 34.9 1.5 4.5
90 36.5 1.5 4.5

3306
3307
3308

7209B
7210B
7211B

100 25
110 27
120 29

1.5 4.5
2
5.5
2
5.5

7309B
7310B
7311B

100 39.7 1.5 4.5

5.5
110 44.4 2
5.5
120 49.2 2

3309
3310
3311

1.5 4.5
1.5 4.5
1.5 4.5

7212B
7213B
7214B

130 31
140 33
150 35

2.1 6
2.1 6
2.1 6

7312B
7313B
7314B

130 54 2.1 6
140 58.7 2.1 6
150 63.5 2.1 6

3312
3313
3314

1.5 4.5
2
5.5
2
5.5

7215B
7216B
7217B

160 37
170 39
180 41

2.1 6
2.1 6
2.5 7

7315B
7316B
7317B

160 68.3 2.1 6

170 68.3 2.1 6
180 73 2.5 7

3315
3316
3317

5.5
90 160 30 2
95 170 32 2.1 6
100 180 34 2.1 6

7218B
7219B
7220B

190 43
200 45
215 47

2.5 7
2.5 7
2.5 7

7318B
7319B
7320B

190 73 2.5 7
200 77.8 2.5 7
215 82.6 2.5 7

3318
3319
3320

7202B
7203B
7204B
7205B

42
47
52
62

2.8
3.5
3.5

7206B
7207B
7208B

45 85 19
50 90 20
55 100 21

1
3.5
1
3.5
1.5 4.5

60 110 22
65 120 23
70 125 24
75 130 25
80 140 26
85 150 28

1
1
1

13
14
15
17

1
1
1
1

19
22.2
22.2
25.4

1
1
1
1

Angular contact ball bearing DIN 628 - 7309B: Angular contact ball bearing
(Bearing type 7), width series 0 1 ) , diameter series 3, bore code 09 (bore diameter
d= 9 5 mm = 45 mm), contact angle a = 40 (B)
11

In the designations for deep groove and angular contact ball bearings the 0 for the
width series is sometimes omitted according to DIN 623-1.
2
3>
' Contact angle a = 40
Contact angle not standardized

266

Machine elements: 5.

rins

Ball bearings. Roller bearings

Axial deep groove ball bearings (selection)

cf. DIN 711 (1988-02)

Bearing series 512

Bearing series 513

Basic
h
number
min
max

Basic
h
r
number
min
max

\/jCr/
\\'T
i
i

///J

Dy
D
dfrom 8 to 360 mm
Mounting dimensions according to DIN 5418:

k.

25
30
35

27
32
37

47
52
62

15 0.6
16 0.6
18 1

51205
51206
51207

52
60
68

18
21
24

40
45
50

42
47
52

68
73
78

19
20
22

51208
51209
51210

78
85
95

26
28
31

10
10
12

51308
51309
51310

55
60
65

57
62
67

90
95
100

25
26
27

51211
51212
51213

105
110
115

35
35
36

13
13
13

51311
51312
51313

70
75
80

72
77
82

105
110
115

27
27
28

51214
51215
51216

125
135
140

40
44
44

14
15
15

51314
51315
51316

cf. DIN 5412-1 (2005-08)

Bearing series
N2, NU2, NJ2, NUP2

Form NU

W ry hy '2

Bearing series
N3, NU3, NJ3, NUP3

h2

max min max min

zzzzi

W
dfrom 15 to 500 mm

Mounting dimensions according to DIN 5418:

unflanged

M m

Form NU
with fixed flange

W ry hy '2

h2

Bore
code

max min max min

17
20
25

40 12 0.6 2.1 0.3 1.2

47 14 1
2.8 0.6 2.1
52 15 1
2.8 0.6 2.1

47 14 1
2.8 1
52 15 1.1 3.5 1
62 17 1.1 3.5 1

2.8
2.8
2.8

03
04
05

30
35
40

62 16 1
72 17 1
80 18 1

72 19 1.1 3.5 1
80 21 1.5 4.5 1
90 23 1.5 4.5 2

2.8
2.8
5.5

06
07
08

3.5 100 25 1.5 4.5 2

3.5 110 27 2
5.5 2
3.5 120 29 2
5.5 2

5.5
5.5
5.5

09
10
11

2.8 0.6 2.1

3.5 0.6 2.1
3.5 1
3.5

45 85 19 1
3.5 1
50 90 20 1
3.5 1
55 100 21 1.5 4.5 1

Form N

1
1.5
1.5

Axial deep groove ball bearing DIN 711 - 51210: Axial-deep

groove ball bearing of the bearing series 512 with bearing
type 5, width series 1, diameter series 2 and bore code 10

Cylindrical roller bearings (selection)

Form N

51305
51306
51307

60 110 22 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5 130 31 2.1 6

65 120 23 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5 140 33 2.1 6
70 125 24 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5 150 35 2.1 6

2
2
2

5.5
5.5
5.5

12
13
14

75 130 25 1.5 4.5 1.5 4.5 160 37 2.1 6

80 140 26 2
5.5 2
5.5 170 39 2.1 6
85 150 28 2
7
5.5 2
5.5 180 41 3

2
2
3

5.5
5.5
7

15
16
17

90 160 30 2
5.5 2
5.5 190 43 3
2.1 6 200 45 3
95 170 32 2.1 6
100 180 34 2.1 6
2.1 6 215 47 3

7
7
7

3
3
3

7
7
7

18
19
20

105
110 200 38 2.1 6
120 215 40 2.1 6

7
7
7

3
3
3

7
7
7

21
22
24

2.1 6
2.1 6

225 49 3
240 50 3
260 55 3

Cylindrical roller bearing DIN 5412 - NUP 312 E: Cylindrical

roller bearing of bearing series NUP3 with bearing type NUP,
width series 0, diameter series 3 and bore code 12, reinforced
design
The normal design of the dimension series 02, 22, 03 and 23 were
deleted from the standard with no replacement and then
replaced with the reinforced design (suffix symbol E).

Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings

Roller bearings
Tapered roller bearings (selection)

cf. DIN 720 (1979-02) and DIN 5418 (1993-02)

Bearing series 302
Mounting dimension

Dimensions
C

Db

t s Basic
max min min max min min min max max no.
da

db

Da

cb

as

20
25
30

47 14
52 15
62 16

12 15.25 33.2
13 16.25 37.4
14 17.25 44.6

27
31
37

26
31
36

40
44
53

41
46
56

43
48
57

2
2
2

3
2
3

35
40
45

72 17
80 18
85 19

15 18.15 51.8
16 19.75 57.5
16 20.75 63

44
49
54

42
47
52

62
69
74

65
73
78

67
74
80

3
3
3

3
1.5 1.5 30207
3.5 1.5 1.5 30208
4.5 1.5 1.5 30209

50 90 20
55 100 21
60 110 22

17 21.75 67.9
18 22.75 74.6
19 23.75 81.5

58
64
70

57
64
69

79 83 85
88 91 94
96 101 103

3
4
4

4.5 1.5 1.5 30210

1.5 30211
4.5 2
1.5 30212
4.5 2

65 120 23
70 125 24
75 130 25

20 24.75 89
21 26.25 93.9
22 27.25 99.2

77
81
86

74 106 111 113

79 110 116 118
84 115 121 124

4
4
4

4.5 2
2
5
2
5

80 140 26
85 150 28
90 160 30

22 28.25 105
24 30.5 112
26 32.5 118

91 90 124 130 132

97 95 132 140 141
103 100 140 150 150

4
5
5

6
2.5 2
6.5 2.5 2
6.5 2.5 2

95 170 32
100 180 34
105 190 36

27 34.5
29 37
30 39

126
133
141

110 107 149 158 159

116 112 157 168 168
122 117 165 178 177

5
5
6

7.5 3
8
3
9
3

2.5 30219
2.5 30220
2.5 30221

110 200 38
120 215 40

32 41
34 43.5

148
161

129 122 174 188 187

140 132 187 203 201

6
6

9
3
9.5 3

2.5 30222
2.5 30224

di

1
1
1

1
1
1

30204
30205
30206

1.5 30213
1.5 30214
1.5 30215
30216
30217
30218

Bearing series 303

Mounting dimension

Dimensions

Mounting dimensions
according to DIN 5418:

The mounting dimensions of DIN

5418 must be maintained so that
the cage does not rub against
other parts.

cb

47
57
66

2
2
3

3
1.5 1.5 30304
1.5 1.5 30305
3
4.5 1.5 1.5 30306

74
82
92

3
3
3

4.5 2
2
5
2
5

65
71
77

60 95 100 102
65 104 110 111
72 112 118 120

4
4
5

6
2.5 2
30310
6.5 2.5 2
30311
7.5 3
2.5 30312

83
89
95

77 122 128 130

82 120 138 140
87 139 148 149

5
5
5

8
8
9

db

L >a

Db

20
25
30

52 15
62 17
72 19

13 16.25 34.3
15 18.25 41.5
16 20.75 44.8

28
34
40

27
32
37

44
54
62

45
55
65

35 80 21
40 90 23
45 100 25

18 22.75 54.5
20 25.25 62.5
22 27.25 70.1

45
52
59

44
49
54

70
77
86

71
81
91

50 110 27
55 120 29
60 130 31

23 29.25 77.2
25 31.5 84
26 33.5 91.9

65 140 33
70 150 35
75 160 37

28 36
30 38
31 40

98.6
105
112

80 170 39
85 180 41
90 190 43

33 42.5
34 44.5
36 46.5

120
126
132

95 200 45
100 215 47
105 225 49

38 49.5
39 51.5
41 53.5

110 240 50
120 260 55

42 54.5
46 59.5

dy

cage

In the case of tapered roller bearings the cage projects beyond the
lateral face of the outer ring.

rbs Basic
max min min max min min min max max no.
ca

da

as

1.5 30307
1.5 30308
1.5 30309

3
3
3

2.5 30313
2.5 30314
2.5 30315

102 92 148 158 159

107 99 156 166 167
113 104 165 176 176

5 9.5 3
6 10.5 4
6 10.5 4

2.5 30316
30317
3
3
30318

139
148
155

118 109 172 186 184

127 114 184 201 197
132 119 193 211 206

6 11.5 4
6 12.5 4
7 12.5 4

3
3
3

30319
30320
30321

165
178

141 124 206 226 220

152 134 221 246 237

8 12.5 4
8 13.5 4

3
3

30322
30324

Tapered roller bearing DIN 720 - 30212: Tapered roller bearing of bearing
series 302 with bearing type 3, width series 0, diameter series 2, bore code 12

268

Machine elements: 5.

rins

Needle bearings, Lock nuts, Lock washers

Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings

Internal and external retaining rings, Circlips

Retaining rings in standard design11 (selection)
For shafts (external)
mounting ^
space \

cf. DIN 471 (1981-09)

For bores (internal)

cf. DIN 472 (1981-09)

mounting
space

external
groove

groove'

m
Nomilal size

dy

Ring
s

Slot

<h

d4

25
28
30
32
35
38
40
42
45
48
50
60
65
70
75
80
90
100
=>

IV

<*2

sss

mm
10
12
15
18
20
22

1
1
1

9.3
11
13.8

1.2
1.2
1.2

H13

min

mm

1)

dy

9.6
11.5
14.3
17
19
21

0.6
0.8
1.1

10
12
15

1.3
1.3
1.3

23.9
26.6
28.6

1.3
1.6
1.6

1.5
1.5
1.5
1.7
2.1
2.1

18
20
22

1.2
1.5
1.5

1.8
1.8
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
3.5

1.1
1.1
1.1

16.5
18.5
20.5
23.2
25.9
27.9

17
19
22.6
26.2
28.4
30.8
34.2
37.9
40.5

1.5
1.5
1.75

29.6
32.2
35.2

43
46.8
50.2

1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0

36.5
38.5
41.5

52.6
55.7
59.1
62.5
64.5
75.6
81.4
87
92.7
98.1
108.5
120.2

3.6
3.9
4.2
4.4
4.5
4.7

30.3
33
36
37.5
39.5
42.5
45.5
47.0
57.0
62.0
67.0
72.0
76.5
86.5
96.5

1.6
1.6
1.85
1.85
1.85
1.85
1.85
2.15
2.15
2.65
2.65
2.65
2.65
3.15
3.15

2.6
3
3
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
5.3
5.3
5.3

44.5
45.8
55.8
60.8
65.5
70.5
74.5
84.5
94.5

5
5.1
5.8
6.3
6.6
7.0
7.4
8.2
9

Retaining ring DIN 471 - 40 x 1.75:

dy = 40 mm, s = 1.75 mm
in mm

3-10

25
28
30
32
35
38
40
42
45
48
50
60
65
72
75
80
90
100
=>

Tolerance classes for cfe

dy

Nominal size

Ring

d3

Slot
<*4

dz

w
*

1
1
1
1
1
1

10.8
13
16.2

1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.5
1.75
1.75
1.75
1.75
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
3.0
3.0

3.3
4.9
7.2
9.4
11.2
13.2

19.5
21.5
23.5
26.9
30.1
32.1
34.4
37.8
40.8
43.5
45.5
48.5
51.5
54.2
64.2
69.2
76.5
79.5
85.5
95.5
105.5

15.5
17.9
19.9
20.6
23.6
26.4
27.8
29.6
32
34.5
36.3
44.7
49.0
55.6
58.6
62.1
71.9
80.6

1.4
1.7
2

10.4
12.5
15.7

2.2
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3
3.2
3.4
3.7
3.9
4.1
4.3
4.5
4.6
5.4
5.8
6.4
6.6
7.0
7.6
8.4

19
21
23
26.2
29.4
31.4
33.7
37
40
42.5
44.5
47.5
50.5
53.0
63.0
68.0
75.0
78.0
83.5
93.5
103.5

n
min

1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.3

0.6
0.8
1.1

1.3
1.6
1.6
1.85
1.85
1.85

2.6
3
3
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
5.3
5.3
5.3

1.5
1.5
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.1

1.85
2.15
2.15
2.65
2.65
2.65
2.65
3.15
3.15

Retaining ring DIN 472 - 80 x 2.5:

dy = 80 mm, s = 2.5 mm

Tolerance classes for cfe

12-22

24-100

dy

in mm

8-22

d2
h10
hi 1
h12
H11
Standard design: dy from 3-300 mm; heavy duty design: dy from 15-100 mm

24-100

100-300

H12

H13

Circlips (selection)

cf. DIN 6799 (1981-09)

relaxed

Circlips

loaded
d2

hi 1

Mounting
dimensions:

d2 from 0.8 to 30 mm

m
H13

Shaft

d3
loaded

dy

12.3
14.3
16.3

5.26
5.84
6.52

0.7
0.9

7- 9

9-12

18.8

7.63
8.32
10.45

1.1
1.2

12.61

15.92

1.5
1.75

21.88

9
10
12

20.4
23.4

15
19
24

29.4
37.6
44.6

from-to

1.3

8-11

10-14
11-15
13-18
16-24
20-31
25-38

Circlip DIN 6799 - 15: d2 = 15 mm

n
min

0.74 + 0.05
0.94
0
1.05

1.2

1.15
1.25
1.35 + 0.08
0
1.55

1.80

2.05

1.5
1.8
2
2.5
3
3.5
4

270

Machine elements: 5.

rins

Sealing elements
Radial seals (selection)
Form A

cf. DIN 3760 (1996-09)

dz

Form AS
10

22 26

25

14 24 30

non-rotating

b * 0.3,

with
Ra0.2 to
Ra0.8
or
Rz1 bis Rz5

12

26 35

35

47 52

38 55 62

18

40

50 55

55

52 62

22.5

c/1 from 6 to 500 mm

70

80

51

85

90 10 61

70

90

95 10 66

75

95 100 10 70.5

85 110 120 12 80.5

90 110 120 12 85.5
95 120 125 12 90.5

44.5 100

48 62

56

80

80 100 110 10 75.5

41.5

62

85

65

38.5

60 65

75

32

Felt rings (selection)

120 130
125

12 94.5

cf. DIN 5419 (1959-09)

Dimensions

Mounting dimensions:

4
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55

d, from 17 to 180 mm

d2
30
37
42
47
52
57
66
71

Mounting dim.

Dimensions

d3

d4

di

6.5
6.5

21
26
31
36
41
46
51
56

31
38
43
48
53
58
67
72

60
65
70
75
80
85
90
100

Mounting dim

d2

w
<h
76 6.5 61.5
81 6.5 66.5
88 7.5 71.5
93 7.5 76.5
99 7.5 81.5
103 7.5 86.5
110 9.5 92
124 10 102

<U
77
82
89
94
99
104
111
125

Felt ring DIN 5419 M5-40: Felt ring of d, = 40 mm, felt hardn. M5

O-rings

DIN 3771 (withdrawn)

dz
externally sealing
0 to 5

Mr:

w+0.25

di from 1.8 to 670 mm,

d2 from 1.8 to 7 mm
axially sealing
h +0.1

46.5

68

RWDR DIN 3760 - A25 x 40 x 7 - NB: Radial seal (RWDR) of

form A with d-\ = 25 mm, d2 = 40 mm and w=l mm,
elastomer part of Nitrile-Butadiene rubber (NBR)

a) = edges rounded

72

60

37

42 55 62
45

65

29

35

55

19.5

40 52

27.5

47

16

35 47

50

72

45 52

30 35

40

25

42 52

14

35 47

25.5

47
40 47

dz

40 52

30 35

35

22

32

13

30

30 40

20

30

10

25

Mounting dimensions:

8.5 28

12 22 30

15

ds

5
6
8
9
10
14
15
16
17

1.8

1.8 2.65

d.
18
20
25
28
30
40
45
50
53

di

dz

2.65 3.55

3.55

5.3

56
58
60
63
67
69
71
75
80

dz

dy

dz

85
90
95
100
3.55 5.3 103 3.55
106
109
112
115

5.3

Mounting dimensions for static loading

internally sealing

internally & extern, sealing

0 to 5
fisa

d2

1.8
CD
+

i
w+0.25

2.65
3.55
5.3

r-i

r2

0.3

0.2

0.6

0.2

internal external
h

axially sealing
w

2.4

1.4

1.3

2.6

1.3

3.6

2.1

1.95

3.8

4.8

2.85

2.65

2.75

7.1

4.3

4.15

7.3

4.25

Machine elements: 5.10 Bearings

Lubricating oils
Designation of lubricating oils

cf. DIN 51502(1990-08)

Designation using symbols

Designation using code letters

PGLP 220

PGLP

CL
100
Additional code
letters

Code letters
for lubricating oils

ISO viscosity
grade

220

Mineral oil based

lubricating oil

Silicon based
lubricating oil

Lubricating oil DIN 51517 - CL 100: Circulating mineral oil based lubricating oil (C), increased corrosion and
aging resistance (L), ISO viscosity grade VG 100 (100)
Lubricating oil DIN 51517 - PGLP 220: Polyglycol oil (PG), increased corrosion and aging resistance (L),
increased wear protection (P), ISO viscosity grade VG 220 (220)

Types of lubrication oils

cf. DIN 51502 (1990-08)

Standard

Application

Normal lubricating oils without

additives

DIN 51501

Once-through and circulating

lubrication at oil temperatures up to 50 C

Bitumen containing lubricating oils

with high adhesion

DIN 51513

Manual, continuous flow and oil bath lubrications, mainly for open lubrication points

Circulating lubricating oil, without

additives

DIN 51517

Plain bearings, antifriction bearings, gears

Sliding track oil with active ingredients

for reducing wear

DIN 8659
T2

In mixed friction operations for slideways and

guideways, and for worm gears

Code letters Type of lubricant and properties

Mineral oils
AN

CG

Synthetic liquids
Ester oils with especially low
change in viscosity

Bearings with widely varying

temperatures

PG

Polyglycol oils with high aging

resistance

Bearings with frequent mixed friction

conditions

SI

Silicon oils with high aging

resistance

Bearings with very high and low

temperatures, very water repellant

Additional code letters

Additional
code letters

cf. DIN 51502 (1990-08)

Application and explanation

For lubricants that are mixed with water, e.g. cooling lubricant SE

For lubricants with solid lubricant additive, e.g. graphite, molybdenum sulfide

For lubricants with active ingredients to improve corrosion protection and/or aging
resistance

For lubricants with active ingredients for reducing friction and wear in
mixed friction areas and/or to increase the load capacity

ISO viscosity grade for liquid industrial lubricants

Viscosity
grade
ISO VG 2
ISO VG 3
ISO VG 5
ISO VG 7
ISO VG 10
ISO VG 15

Kinetic viscosity
in mm 2 /s at
20 C
40 C
50 C
3.3
5
13
21
34

2.2

3.2
4.6
6.8

10
15

Viscosity
grade

cf. DIN 51519 (1998-08)

Kinetic viscosity
in mm 2 /s at
50 C
40 C
20 C

Viscosity
grade

Kinetic viscosity
in mm 2 /s at
20 C
40 C
50 C

1.3
2.7
3.7

ISO VG 22
ISO VG 32
ISO VG 46

22
32
46

15
20
30

ISO VG 220
ISO VG 320
ISO VG 460

220
320
460

130
180
250

5.2
7

ISO VG 68
ISO VG 100
ISO VG 150

68
100
150

40
60
90

ISO VG 680
ISO VG 1000
ISO VG 1500

680
1000
1500

360
510
740

11

272

Machine elements: 5.

rins

Lubricating grease. Solid lubricants

cf. d i n 5 1 5 0 2 <1990-08)

Designation of lubricating greases

Designation by code letters

Designation by symbols

-20N

'3N

Lubricating grease DIN 51517 - K3N -20: Lubricating grease for antifriction and plain bearings (K) based on
mineral oil (NLGI grade 3) (3), upper working temperature +140C (N), lower working temperature -20C (-20)
Lubricating grease DIN 51517 - KSI3R -10: Silicon based lubricating grease for antifriction and plain bearings
(K) (SI), NLGI-grade 3 (3), upper working temperature +180C (R), lower working temperature -10C (-10)

Lubricating greases
Code letters Application/additives

Code letters Application

General: antifriction bearings, plain bearing,

sliding surfaces
KP

Like K, but with additives for

reducing friction

KF

Like K, but with solid lubricant

additives

Closed gears
OG
M

Open gears
(adhesive lubricant without bitumen)
For plain bearings and seals
(low requirements)

Consistency1) classification for lubricating greases

NLGIgrade3'

Worked penetration2'

000
00

445-475 (very soft)

400-430
355-385

0
1)
2)
3)

NLGIgrade3'

Worked penetration2'

1
2
3

NLGI
grade 3)
4
5
6

310-340
265-295
220-250

Worked penetration2'
175-205
130-160
85-115 (very firm)

Code for the viscoelasticity

Measure of the penetration depth of a standardized test ball in the kneaded (worked) grease
National Lubrication Grease Institute (NLGI)

Additional letters for lubricating greases

Addit.
letter1)

Upper working
temperature
C

C
D

+60
+60

E
F

+80
+80

1>

2)

Addit.
letter1)

Upper working
temperature
C

0 or 1
2 or 3

G
H

+ 100
+ 100

0 or 1
2 or 3

0 or 1
2 or 3

K
M

+120
+120

0 or 1
2 or 3

Grade

2)

Grade '

Addit.
letter1)

Upper working
temperature
C

N
P
R
S
T
U

+ 140
+ 160
+ 180
+ 200
+ 220
+ 220

Grade 2 '

as per
agreement

The number value for the lower working temperature can be appended to the additional code letters;
e.g.-20 for-20C
Grades for behavior when subjected to water, cf. DIN 51807-1:
0: no change; 1: small change; 2: moderate change; 3: large change

Solid lubricants
Lubricant

Code

Working
temperature

Application

Graphite

-18 to+450 C

As powder or paste and as an additive to lubricating oils and

lubricating greases, not in oxygen, nitrogen and vacuums

Molybdenum
Polytetrafluorethylene

MOS2

-180 to+400 C As mineral oil-free paste, sliding lacquer or additive to lubricating oils sulfide
and lubricating greases, suitable for very high surface pressures

PTFE

-250 to+260 C As powder in sliding lacquer and synthetic lubricating greases and as
bearing material, very low coefficient of sliding friction fj = 0.04 to 0.09

Table of Contents

273

6 Production Engineering
inflection
point

frequency
curve

Material overhead

6.1

6.2

in percent of material direct

costs, e.g. purchasing costs,
warehousing costs, etc.

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

6.7

6.8

Wear safety
glasses

Wear hard
hat

Quality management
Standards, Terminology
Quality planning, Quality testing
Statistical analysis
Statistical process control
Process capability

274
276
277
279
281

Production planning
Time accounting according to REFA
Cost accounting
Machine hourly rates

282
284
285

Machining processes
Productive time
Machining coolants
Cutting tool materials, Inserts, Tool holders . . . .
Forces and power
Cutting data: Drilling, Reaming, Turning
Cutting data: Taper turning
Cutting data: Milling
Indexing
Cutting data: Grinding and honing

287
292
294
298
301
304
305
307
308

Material removal
Cutting data
Processes

313
314

Separation by cutting
Cutting forces
Shearing
Location of punch holder shank

315
316
317

Forming
Bending
Deep drawing

318
320

Joining
Welding processes
Weld preparation
Gas welding
Gas shielded metal arc welding
Arc welding
Thermal cutting
Identification of gas cylinders
Soldering and brazing
Adhesive bonding

322
323
324
325
327
329
331
333
336

Workplace safety and environmental protection

Prohibitive signs
Warning signs
Mandatory signs, Esc. routes and rescue signs .
Information signs
Danger symbols
Identification of pipe lines
Sound and noise

338
339
340
341
342
343
344

274

Production

ngineering: 6.

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Standards ISO 9000,9001,9004

Standards of the ISO-9000 family should help organizations of all types and sizes to implement quality management
systems, to work with existing quality management systems, and to facilitate mutual understanding in national and
international trade.

Quality management standards

cf. DIN EN ISO 9000 (2005-12), 9001,9004 (2000-12)

Standard

Explanation, contents

DIN EN ISO
9000

Fundamentals of quality management systems

Principle of quality management
customer focus
leadership
involvement of people

system approach to management

continuous improvement
factual approach to decision making

process approach

mutually beneficial supplier relationships

Fundamentals of quality management systems (QM systems)

reasons for QM systems
evaluation of QM systems
requirements of QM systems and
continuous improvement
products
role of statistical methods
progressive implementation of QM systems
QM systems as part of the total
process oriented evaluation
management system
quality policies and goals
requirements of QM systems and
role of top management in the QM system
comparative evaluation of organizations
documentation; advantages and types
based on criteria of excellence models
Terminology for quality management systems
For a selection of definitions and explanations of terms, see page 275.
DIN EN ISO
90011)

Requirements of a quality management system

This international standard applies to organizations in any industry or business sector regardless of
products offered. It establishes requirements for a QM system, based on fundamentals outlined in
ISO 9000, if an organization:
must demonstrate capability to offer products which fulfill both customer and
regulatory requirements,
strives to improve customer satisfaction, including the process of continuous improvement of the
system.
Specified requirements can be used for:
internal applications by organizations
certification purposes
contract purposes
The standard is based on a process oriented evaluation, i.e. every activity or sequence of activities
which uses resources to convert input into results is regarded as a process.
Requirements
The organization must:
recognize all necessary processes for the QM system and their use in the organization,
establish the flows and interdependencies of these processes,
establish criteria and methods for ensuring implementation and control of these processes,
ensure availability of resources and information for these processes,
monitor, measure and analyze these processes,
take necessary actions for continuous improvement of these processes,
fulfill documentation requirements for the QM system, and
observe regulations for document control.
1

DIN EN ISO
9004

) This standard also replaces previous standards 9002 and 9003.

Guideline for assessing the overall performance, effectiveness and efficiency of

quality management systems
The goal of this standard is to improve the organization and to improve the satisfaction of customers
and other relevant parties.
It is not intended for certification or contract purposes.

Production

ngineering: 6.

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Terminology
I Terms (selection)

Definitions & explanations

cf. DIN EN ISO 9000 (2005 12)

I Quality-related terms
Quality

Extent to which the characteristics of a product fulfill the requirements for that product.

Requirement

Specified or mandatory demands for characteristics of a unit, e.g. nominal values, tolerances, functional capability or safety.

Customer satisfaction

Customer's perception of degree to which its requirements have been fulfilled.

Capability

Suitability of an organization, system or process to provide a product that fulfills that product's quality requirements.

Characteristic and conformity related terms

Quality characteristic

Identifying attribute of a product or process, which is utilized in assessing quality based on

the specified quality requirements.
Quantitative (variable) characteristics:
discrete characteristics (whole numbers), i.e. number of holes, piece count
continuous characteristics (measured values), e.g. length, position, mass
Qualitative characteristics:
ordinal characteristics (with ranking), e.g. light blue - blue - dark blue
nominal characteristics (without ranking), e.g. good - bad, blue - yellow
Identifying attribute of a product, a process or system relating to a requirement.

Conformity

Fulfilling a specified requirement, e.g. a dimensional tolerance.

Defect

Not fulfilling a specified requirement, e.g. not conforming to a required dimensional

tolerance or surface quality.

Rework

Action taken on a defective product so that it fulfills requirements.

Process and product related terms

Process

Mutually interactive resources and activities which convert inputs into results. Some examples of resources are personnel, finances, facilities and manufacturing methods.

Method

Defined manner in which an activity or process is performed. In written form also referred
to as process instructions.

Product

Result of a process, e.g. part, assembly, service, processed item, knowledge, concept, document, contract, pollutant.

I Terms related to organization

Organization

Group of persons and facilities with a matrix of responsibilities, authorities and relationships.

Customer

Organization or person which receives a product from a supplier.

Supplier

Organization or person which provides a product to a customer.

I Terms relating to management

Quality
management system

Organization and organizational structures, methods and processes of an operation required

to put a quality management into practice.

Quality
management

All coordinated activities for managing and controlling the quality-related aspects of an
organization by:
establishing a quality policy
quality control
setting quality goals
quality assurance
quality planning
quality improvement

Quality planning

Activities directed toward establishing quality goals and required implementation processes, as well as associated resources for attaining quality goals.

Quality control

Work activities and techniques to continually fulfill requirements despite unavoidable variations in quality. Consists primarily of process monitoring and elimination of weak points.

Quality assurance

Performing and generating required documentation for all activities relating to the QM system, with the goal of creating an atmosphere of trust, both in-house and with the customer,
that quality requirements will be fulfilled.

Quality
improvement

Actions taken throughout the organization to increase product quality.

Quality manual

Document describing the quality policy, quality goals and quality management system of an
organization.

276

Production

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Quality planning. Quality control. Quality testing

Quality planning
Rule-of-ten (for costs)
Costs required to eliminate defects or costs resulting
from defects increase by about a factor of 10 from
phase to phase in the product life cycle.

product planning process planning

and development and production

testing
and customer

Example: A tolerance error on a single part can be

corrected during the design phase with negligible
increase of costs. If the defect is first noticed in production, much larger costs result. If the defect leads
to problems in assembly or has an adverse impact
on the functionality of the finished product or even
leads to a recall, enormous costs are incurred.

Quality control
Quality control circle

Factors causing variance in quality

human
environment
machine W testing

Actions taken
on process
BBHHRRIH^

Actions taken
on product

Factor

Examples

Human

qualification, motivation,
degree of utilization

Machine

machine rigidity, positioning

accuracy, wear condition

Material

deviations, material properties,

material variations

Method

work steps, production process,

test conditions

Surroundings
(environment)

temperature, vibrations,
light, noise, dust

Management

poor quality goals or policies

Measurability

measurement inaccuracy

Quality testing

cf. DIN 55350-17 (1988-08)

Concepts

Explanations

Quality testing

Determine to what extent a unit meets specified quality requirements.

Test plan
Test instructions

Define and describe the type and scope of testing, e.g. measuring and monitoring devices,
frequency of testing, test personnel, testing location.

Complete testing

Testing of a unit for all specified quality characteristics, e. g. complete inspection of a

single workpiece regarding all requirements.

100% testing

Testing of all units within a test lot, e. g. visual inspection of all delivered parts.

Statistical testing
(sampling test)

Quality testing with the aid of statistical methods, e. g. evaluation of a large quantity
of parts by analyzing a number of sampled parts.

Test lot
(sampling test)

All of the units being tested, e.g. a production of 5000 identical workpieces.

Sample

One or more units which are taken from the population or a subset of the population,
e. g. 50 parts from a daily production of 400 parts.

Probability (Probability of defect)

Probability of a defective part within a defined total number of parts.
P probability in %
n number of defective parts

m total number of parts

Example:
In a crate there are m = 400 parts, where n = 10 parts have a dimensional defect.
What is the probability Pof obtaining a defective part when taking one part out
of the crate?
n
10
Probability P=
100%
100% = 2.5%
m
400

Probability

P = 100%
m

Production

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Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis of continuous characteristics

vgl. DIN 53804-1 (2002-04)

Presentation of test data

Example

Raw data list

Sample size: 40 parts

Test characteristic: part diameter d = 8 0.05 mm

Raw data is the documentation of all

observed values from the test lot or
sample in the sequence in which they
occur.

Tally sheet
The tally sheet provides a clear presentation of the observed values and
assignment into classes (ranges) of a
specific class interval size.
n
k
/
R
rij
h,

number of individual values

number of classes
class interval
range (page 278)
absolute frequency
relative frequency in %

Measured part diameter d i n mm

Parts 1-10

7.98 7.96 7.99

8.01

8.02

7.96 8.03

7.99

7.99

8.02

8.02

8.00

8.01 8.01

Parts 11-20

7.96 7.99

8.00

8.02

Parts 21-30

7.99

8.05 8.03

8.00

Parts 31-40

8.02

8.01 8.05

7.94 7.98

Class Measuried value

<
Tally sheet
z
no.

7.99
8.03 7.99
8.00

7.96

2.5

7.96

7.98

III

7.5

7.98

8.00

Wt 1

11

27.5

8.00

8.02

m 111

13

32.5

8.02

8.04

Jttt Wi-

10

25

8.04

8.06

ll

0.11 mm

Histogram

14-

A histogram is a bar graph for visualizing the distribution of individual test

data.

12-

8.01 8.02

8.01

8.02

8.01

in\ %

7.94

c = f n = l/40 = 6.3 6

7.98 7.99

8.00

Number of classes
n

2 =

8.01

40

100

k^Jn
Class interval size

.
i

Relative frequency
100%

= 0.018 mm ~ 0.02 mm

A7 = 40

10-

c
J3 0)

co cr

. O CD

4 2

0
7.94

7.96

7.98

8.00

8.02 8.04 mm
part diameter d

8.08

Cumulative frequency curve in

probability system
99.5
99

The cumulative frequency curve in the

probability system is a simple and
clear graphical method used to check
for the existence of a normal distribution (page 278).
If the cumulative relative frequency in
the probability system approximates
a straight line, then a normal distribution of the individual values can be
assumed, i.e. a further evaluation can
be conducted per DIN 53 804-1 (page
278).
In this case specific values can additionally be determined from the samples.
Example of problem solving using the
graph:
Arithmetic mean x (for Fj = 50%) and
standard deviation s (as difference
68.26% -r 2 between ^ = 50% and
84.13%):
x= 8.003 mm; s 0.02 mm
The probability model of the example
shows that in the entire lot approximately 0.6% of parts can be expected
to be too thin and 3% too thick.

c
uT
c

CD

cr

<
>1)
TO
a>
CD
>

TO
=3
E
=3
o

99.9
99.95
7.94

7.96

7.98

8.00

8.02

8.04

part diameter d
LLV lower limit value; ULV upper limit value

mm

8.08

278

Production

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Normal distribution
Gaussian distribution
QQ 73 %

Continuous data values often exhibit a characteristic in their distribution which is approximated mathematically by the Gaussian
normal distribution model. For an infinite number of individual values the probability density of a normal distribution yields the typical
bell curve. This symmetrical and continuous distribution curve is
clearly described by the following parameters:
The mean n lies on the curve maximum and identifies the position of
the distribution.
The standard deviation a is a measure of the variations, i.e. how values deviate from the mean.
1)

characteristic value x

Carl Friedrich Gaufc (1777-1855), German mathematician

Normal distribution in sampling

cf. DIN 53804-1 (2002-04) or DGQ 16-31 (1990)

n

number of individual values

(sample size)
Xj
value of measurable properties,
e.g. individual value
x m a x largest measurement value
-*min smallest measurement value
X
arithmetic mean
median value 1 ', middle value of
measured values arranged in
order of magnitude
standard deviation
range
mode (measurement value
occurring most frequently
in a test series)
gf(X) probability density

number of samples

mean of multiple sample ranges

mean of multiple sample means

mean of standard deviations

2)

Standard deviation2'
'Z(Xi-x)2
S =

n-1

Range
R

*Ynax

*min

x = 8.005 mm

s = 0.02348 mm

/ ?

/ ?

+ . . .

/ ?

Mean of sample means

D = 7.99 mm
=

Median value for

odd number of individual values:
e.g. x-|,# x 2 ; x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 :
x = x3

Example: Evaluation of sample values from page 277:

1)

Mean of sample ranges

When evaluating several samples:

x = 8.00225 mm ft = 0.11 mm

Arithmetic
mean2)

* 1 + * 2 + -

*m

even number of individual values:

e.g. x1f- x 2 ; x 3 ; x 4 ; x 5 ; x 6 :
X = ( X 3 + X 4 )/2

Many pocket calculators have special functions for calculating the mean and
standard deviation.
Repeated occurrences of identical measurement values can be represented by a
suitable factor.

Mean of standard
deviations

Normal distribution in an inspection lot

Parameters of the population are estimated using a sampling method based on characteristic values from the sample (confirmatory statistics). To differentiate sampling characteristics clearly from parameters of the population,
other designations are used. These estimated values are distinguished from the calculated process values for a
100% inspection (descriptive statistics) by adding a A mark.

Characteristic values and designations in quality testing

Sampling test (confirmatory statistics)
Sample
Population

100% inspection
(descriptive statistics)

Number of measured values n

Number of measured values m n

Number of measured values N

Arithmetic mean x

Estimated process mean/2

Process mean //

Standard deviation s

Estimated process standard

deviation o (calculator an_-|)

Process standard deviation o

(calculator a n )

Production

ngineering: 6.

u i

ang

Statistical process control

Quality control charts
Process control charts

Acceptance control charts

Process control charts are used for monitoring a

process for changes compared to a target value or a
previous process value. The intervention and warning
limits are determined by the process estimated value of
a population or a preliminary run.

Acceptance control charts are used to monitor a process

in reference to set specification limits (limit values).
Control limits are calculated as tolerance limits for the
location of the process mean and a tolerance range for
process variance.

Process control charts for quantitative characteristics (Shewhart-control charts) 1)

Raw data chart

Control limits

The raw data chart is a documentation of all measurement values by entering directly
on the chart. It assumes an approximate normal distribution process and is relatively
complex because of the
number of entries.

Example: 5 individual values for each sample

characteristic mean
(mean of the characteristic, target value, ideal
value)

5.06

II

UWL

upper warning limit

LWL

lower warning limit

UCL

upper control limit

LCL

lower control limit

USL

upper specification limit

LSL

lower specification limit

5.04

USL
UCL

5.02

b UWL

5.00

4.98

LWL

4.96

LCL

4.94

LSL

Sample
number

5...

Median value range chart (x-R-chart)

Mean standard deviation chart (x-s-chart)

These charts are used to clearly represent production

dispersion without requiring much calculation. They are
suitable for manual control chart management.

These charts are used to show the trend of the mean

and exhibit greater sensitivity than x-R-charts. They
require computer-aided control chart management.

Example:

Example:
k

Control interval
/
Sample size
60 m i n
f
n= 5
5.03 4.97
J*1 4.98 4.96
0) w
4.97
4.99
5.01 4.96
II CD E
D D E 4.99
5.02
5.03
5.01
cfl

C
D >5
x 4 5.01 4.99
4.99
4.99
5.02
*5 5.01 5.00 4.98
Ex 24.96 24.97 25.03 24.95
4.99
4.99
5.01 4.99
0.04 0.07
0.05
0.06
v}
5.04
UCL
<v
5.02
UWL
5.00
x
4.98
LSL
.E
4.96
LCL
"8*
UCL
0.08
UWL
0.06
E
x
>E 0.04
LWL
CD c 0.02
LCL

II

Inspect, characteristic:
diameter

Sample size:
Control intervall:
n =5
60 min
4.97
5.03
*1 4.98 4.96
E
4.97
4.99
5.01
4.96
*2
a? w
5.02
5.03
5.01
u. <D
*3 4.99
x 4 5.01 4.99
4.99
4.99
5.02
*5 5.01 5.00 4.98
X 4.992 4.994 5.006 4.990
s 0.018 0.025 0.021 0.025
UCL
cr,)
5.02
I
1
I
CD
UWL
5.01
.V
5.00
A
LWL
4.99
I
I
I*
s
4.98
LCL

11

CO
L! C
T3
CD O 0.022
"O VC C
D 0.020
CD ' C
iz > 0.018
0.016

Sample no.

Sample no.
Time

Walter Andrew Shewhart (1891-1967), American scientist

UCL
UWL

0.026
0.024

Time
1)

Control dimension:
50.05

leasu
valui
mrr

Inspect, characteristic: Control dimension:

diameter
50.05

x
>

LWL
I

1
6 00

2
7 00

3
8i 00

LCL ,
4
9i 00

280

Production

ngineering: 6.

u i

ang

Process trend, Acceptance sampling and plan

Process trends
Process trend
(e.g. from an x trace)

Designation/observations

Possible causes

Natural run

The process is under control and can continue without interruption.

2/3 of all values lie in the range

standard deviation s and all values lie within the control limits.
UCL

Exceeding the control limits

The values are outside of the control limits.

RUN (sequential)
7 or more sequential values lie on
one side of the mean line.

Actions

Over-adjusted machine, different material,

damaged or worn equipment
Stop process and 100% inspect parts
since the last sampling
Tool wear, other material charge, new tool,
new personnel
-> Tightened observation of the process

LCL

UCL

Trend

7 or more sequential values show

an increasing or decreasing trend.

Wear on tool, equipment or measuring devices, operator fatigue

Stop process to determine reasons for
adjustment

LCL
UCL

Middle Third
At least 15 consecutive values lie
within standard deviation s.

V V V V W v ^

Improved production, better supervision,

corrected test results
Determine how the process was
improved or check the test results

LCL
UCL
x

Cyclical
The values cross the mean line
periodically.

Different measuring devices, systematic

spread of the data
Examine manufacturing process for
influences

LCL

Acceptance sampling (attribute sampling)

cf. DIN ISO 2859-1 (2004-01)

An attribute inspection is an acceptance sampling inspection in which the acceptability of the inspection lot is determined based on defective units or defects in individual sampling.
The percentage of nonconforming units or the number of defects per hundred units of the lot identifies the quality level. The acceptable quality level is the quality level defined for continuously presented lots; it is a quality level
that is specified by the customer in most cases. The associated sampling instructions are summarized in control
tables.
Acceptance sampling plan for single sampling inspection as the normal inspection
(excerpt from a control table)
Acceptable quality level AQL (preferred values)

Lot size
0.04

0.065

0.10

0.15

0.25

0.40

0.65

2-

9-

15

16-

25

26-

50

51-

90

50

32

91- 150

80

50

151- 280

125

80

50

281- 500

200

125

80

501-1200

315

200

125

80

Explanation:
50 2
1

1.0

13

20

20

32

32

50

50

1.5

2.5

13

13

20

20

13

32

20

20

50

32

32

32

80

50

50

50

125

80

80

80

80

Use first sampling instruction of this column. If the sample size is greater than or equal to
the batch size: Carry out a 100% inspection.
Second number: Acceptance number = number of the accepted delivered defective units

E First number: Sample size = number of units to be tested

Production

ngineering: 6.

u i

ang

Process and machine capability. Quality control charts

Capability, Quality control charts
During an evaluation of the quality-related capability of a process through capability characteristics (capability indices), differentiation must be made between shortterm capability (machine capability) and long-term capability (process capability).
tolerance T> 10 s

LLV
*
charcteristic value
LLV
ULV
x
s

Machine capability index

Machine capability is an evaluation of the

machine, i.e. whether there is sufficient probability
that it can produce within specified limits given its
normal fluctuations.
If C m > 1.67 and C m k > 1.67, this means that
99.99994% (range 5 s) of the quality characteristics lie within the limits and the mean x lies
at least an amount of 5 s away from the tolerance
limits.

Requirement 1 ' e.g.

C m > 1.67 and C m k > 1.67.

ULV

lower limit value

upper limit value
arithmetic mean
standard deviation

Process capability index

Acrit

smallest interval between

mean and a tolerance limit

Cnv C m k machine capability index

Process capability is an assessment of the manufacturing process, i.e. whether

there is sufficient probability that it can fulfill specified requirements given its
normal fluctuations.
o

estimated standard deviation

Cp, C p k

process capability index

Example:
Examination of machine capability for production dimension 80 0.05;

Requirement 1 ' e.g.

C p > 1.33 and C p k > 1.33
1)

Values from preliminary run: s = 0.009 mm; x = 79.997 mm

T
6 s

0,1mm
- o,-o Acrit
0.047 mm
= 1852; Cmk
=.
=1.74
m =-_
6 0.009 mm
* 3 s 3-0.009 mm

The machine capability is below requirements.

Quality control charts for qualitative characteristics

Defect chart
Defect charts record the defective
units, the defect types and their frequency in a sampling.
Example of reading from the graph
for F3:
n = 9 50 = 450
defects in % = 100%
n
3
100% = 0.66%
~ 450

Pareto11 diagram

Customer or contract
specific requirements;
in large scale production,
e.g. automotive industry,
tendency to higher requirements, e.g. Cm: 2.0.

cf. DGQ 16-33 (1990); DGQ 11-19 (1994)

Example:
Part: Cover
Sample size n = 50
Defect type
Frequency of
Paint damage
F1
1
Dents
F2 1 2
2 1
Corrosion
F3
1
1
BunF4 1
Crackings
F5
1
Angle error
F6 2
3 1
Bent
F7
1
Threads missing F8
1
Defects per sample
4 6 3 3 3
Sample no.
1 2 3 4 5

Test interval: 60 min

% Perc. of total
2 0.44 i
14 3.11
i
3 0.66 i
1 0.22
1 0.22
12 2.66
2
3 1
I
1 0.22
1 0.22
35
5 4 3 4
6 7 8 9

defect /j
1
2 2 2 2
1

Example:

The Pareto diagram classifies criteria (e.g. defects) according to type

and frequency and is therefore an
important aid in analyzing criteria
and establishing priorities.
Example for F2:
Percentage of total defects
=

1)

35

100% = 40%

Pareto - Italian sociologist

F4
F7
defect types

F8

Example of graphic representation: Dents (F2) and angle error

(F6) together make up approx. 74% of the total errors.

282

Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning

Job time1'
Structure of types of time for workers

Designation

Explanation with examples

Job time

Time allowed for manufacturing a lot size

ts

Setup time

Setup for an entire job

basic setup time f b s
- turn on machine
setup recovery time f s r
-* recovery time after strenuous changeover
setup unproductive time f u s
repair of brief machine malfunction

fp

Production time

Time allowed for production of a lot size (without setup)

fre

Recovery time

Personnel break time to reduce work-related fatigue

fu

Unproductive time

job-related interruption time f m

unforeseen tool sharpening
personnel interruption time tp -* checking work times, taking care of needs

tac

Activity time

Times in which the actual job is processed

variable times f t v
assembly or deburring work
fixed times
cycle of a CNC program

fw

Waiting time

Waiting for the next workpiece in the continuous flow production

Job volume

Number of units to be produced for a job (lot size)

Symbol

Example: Turning three shafts on a lathe

Setup times:
Setup job
Setup of machine
Setup of tool
Basic setup time
fbs
Setup recovery time
fsr = 4 % o f f b s
Unproduc. setup time t u s = 1 4 % o f f b s
Setup time
ts = f b s + tsr + tus
Job time 7"= f s + f p

min
= 4.50
= 10.00
= 12.50
= 27.00
= 1.08
= 3.78
= 31.86

Production times:
Activity time
Waiting time
Floor-to-floor time
Recovery time
Unproductive time
T.m* per unit work
Production time

tac
fw
=
+ t...
f r e compens. for in f w
f u = 8%offff
f u w = f f f + tn + tu
tp = q f u w

min
= 14.70
= 3.75
= 18.45
= 1.48
= 19.93
= 59.79

32 min + 60 min = 92 min (= 1.53 hr)

1)
According to REFA (Verband fur Arbeitsgestaltung, Betriebsorganisation und Unternehmensentwicklung e.V.)
International Association for Work Design, Industrial Organization and Corporate Development

Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning

283

Utilization time1'
Structure of the types of times for production resources (PR)

Designation

Explanation with examples

'UtP

Utilization time

Time allowed for utilization of a production resource for manufacturing

a lot size

UP

Production resource
setup time

Setup of production resource for completing an entire job

PR basic setup time f b s P
clamping equipment on a machine
unproductive setup time f us p - optimization of CNC program

Production resource
production time

Time allowed for the production time of a lot size (without setup)

uP

Production resource
interruption time

Time in which the production resource is not utilized or additionally utilized;

power outage, un-planned repair work, etc.

mp

Main
productive time

Times in which the work object is processed according to plan

variable times f t v
manual drilling
fixed times f tf
- cycle of CNC program

Auxiliary
productive time

Production resources are prep., loaded or emptied for the main productive time
variable times f a v
- manual clamping
fixed times f a f
automatic workpiece change

Idle time

Process or recovery related down time, e.g. filling of a magazine

Job volume

Number of units to be produced for a job (lot size)

Symbol

PP

fid

Example: Milling a contact surface on 20 base plates using a vertical milling machine
min
min Production times:
3.52
4.54 Milling = main productive time f m p
4.00
3.65 Clamp workpiece = aux. productive time f a p
1.20
3.10 Transport workpiece = idle time f i d
2.84 Prod. res. floor-to-floor time f f f P = f m p + f a p + f i d
= 8.72
Production resources basic setup time f b s P
= 14.13 Prod. res. unproductive time f u P = 10% of f f f P
=
0.87
Prod. res. unproductive s. time f u s P = 10% of f b s P = 1.41Prod, resource time per unit f
= 9.59
u w P = fffP + f u P
= 191.80
Production resources setup time f s P = fbsP + *usP = 15.54 Production resource prod, time f p P = q f u w P
Setup times:
Read the job order and drawing
Set up and store the surface cutter
Clamp and unclamp the cutter
Set up the machine

Utilization time 7 U t P = f s P + f p P 16 min + 192 min = 208 min (= 3.47 hr)

1)

According to REFA (Verband fur Arbeitsgestaltung, Betriebsorganisation und Unternehmensentwicklung e.V.)

International Association for Work Design, Industrial Organization and Corporate Development

284

Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning

Cost accounting
Simple calculation (numerical example)
Direct costs1'
directly attributable
to a specific product
Types
of
costs 1 '

Material costs
Labor costs

Overhea d 1 '
Not directly
Surcharge in percent of wage
attributable to a specific product
costs

$ 80 000.00
$ 120 000.00

Depreciation
Salaries (incl.
management salaries)
Interest
Other costs
I Overhead

Cost calculation

Wage hours = 10000 hrs

$ 50 000.00
$ 80 000.00
$ 40 000.00
$ 50 000.00

1 8 3 3 3

Labor costs/hr = $/hr 12.00

Costs must be determined periodically for every operation.

A surcharge rounded off to

185% is applied to each wage
hour to cover overhead costs.

Material costs
of order
Working time 5 hr
x$/hr 34.20

$ 171.00

Price without VAT

$ 295.75

$ 124.75

Expanded calculation (schematic)

Material costs

Material direct costs

Procurement costs

Design costs
Salaries etc.

Direct production costs

Production wages attributable to
one product

Material overhead
Percent of material direct costs,
e.g. purchasing costs, storage
costs, etc.

Equipment costs
Drilling equipment molds etc.

Material costs

Special tools
Special drills etc.

Production overhead1'
Machine costs
Depreciation, interest, occupancy, energy and maintenance
costs
Remaining overhead
Percent of production wages,
e.g. fringe benefits, occupancy,
operating materials, etc.

' If no machine hourly rates are

calculated, these are included
in the production overhead
and increase the surcharge
rate. The overhead surcharge
rates are taken from the operational accounting sheet.

Out-of-house processing
Heat treatment etc.

1
Special direct costs of
production

1
Production costs
Special direct costs of
production

Manufacturing costs
Management and
sales overhead
Percent of manufacturing costs
Prime cost
Profit
Percent of prime cost
Raw price
Commissions, discounts, rebates
Percent of sales price
Sales price without VAT

$ 120 000.00

$ 220 000.00

Rate per hour = $/hr 12.00 + 185% = $/hr 34.20

(for independent contractor invoices; management salaries = profit)
1)

$ 2 2 0 000.00- 100%

Example:
Material direct costs
Material overhead 5%
Production wages 10 hr x $/hr 15.Machine costs 8 hr x $ / h r 3 0 Residual overhead 200% of production wages
Special tools

$ 1 225.00
$61.25
$ 150.00
$ 240.00
$ 300.00
$ 125.00

Manufacturing costs
Management and sales overhead
12% of manufacturing costs

$2101.25

Prime cost
Profit addition 10% of the prime cost

$2353.40
$ 235.34

Raw price
Commissions 5% of sales price

$2588.74
$ 136.25

Sales price before VAT

$2724.99

$ 252.15

/ o

285

Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning

Machine hourly rate calculation

Machine hourly rate calculation
Average production overhead does not take into consideration various machine costs attributable to a specific
product. This type of cost accounting would be misleading.
If machine costs are taken out of production overhead and converted to hours the machine was utilized, this yields
the machine hourly rate.
Compilation of machine costs
Machine costs are:
Calculated depreciation
Linear loss of value over the service life of the
machine relative to replacement cost

Energy costs
Costs incurred by electricity, natural gas, steam or
gasoline consumption

Calculated interest
Average interest for capital invested for
the machine
Occupancy costs
Costs incurred by floor and traffic
space of the machine

Maintenance costs
Costs for repairs and regular service
. 0 t h e r types of costs
Costs for tool wear, insurance premiums, disposal of
coolants and lubricants etc.

Machine running time, Machine hourly rates

7rt
Tj
7"st

according to VDl Directive 3258

1Vlachine running time

TSm

machine running time in hours/period

total theoretical machine time in hours/period
down times, e.g. work free days, work interruptions
etc., usually in % of Tj
times for service and maintenance, usually in % of Tj

CM
CMhr
Cf
Qj/hr

sum of machine costs per period (usually per year)

machine costs per hour; machine hourly rate
machine fixed costs per year; e.g. depreciation
machine variable costs per hour; e.g. electrical consumption

I 7RT = Tj - 7"ST - 7"SM

Vlachine hourly rates
1
CMhr = F - + C v / h r
'in-

Calculation of machine hourly rate ( e x a m p l e )

Tool machine:
Procurement value $ 160 000.00
Power consumption 8 kW
Occupancy costs $/m 2 10.00 x month
Additional maintenance $/hr 5.00

Service life 10 years

Cost per kWh $ 0.15
Space req. 15 m 2
Normal utilization
7 r t = 1200 hr/year (100%)

Assumed interest rate 8%

Base charge $/month 20.00
Maintenance $/year 8 000.00
Actual utilization 80%

What would be the machine hourly rate for normal utilization and 80% utilization?
Type of cost

Calculation

Fixed costs
$/year

Calculated
depreciation

procurement value
service life in years

Calculated
interest

V2 procurement value in $ x interest

100%

Maintenance
costs

maintenance factor x depreciation - e.g. 0.5 x $ 16 000.00

maintenance is dependent upon utilization.

Energy
costs

base charge for power supply $/month 20.00 x 12 mon.

power consumption x energy costs 8 kW x $/kWh 0.15

Proportional
occupancy costs

space cost rate x space requirement

= $/m 2 10.00 x month x 15 m 2 x 12 months

$ 16 000.00

$ 160 000.00
10 years
$ 80 000 - x 8%
100%

+ <Vhr = $ ^ i f ? ' 0
1200 nr

$ 6 400.00
$ 8 000.00
$5.00
$ 240.00
$ 1.20
$ 1 800.00
$ 32 440.00

Total machine costs (CM)

Machine hourly rate (CMhr) at 100% utilization =

Variable
costs
S/hr

+ $/hr 6.20 = S/hr 33.23

7RJ

Machine hourly rate (CMhr) at 80% utilization =

+ Q,/\hr =
+ $/hr 6.20 = $/hr 40.00
0.8 /RT
0.8 1 zOO nr
The machine hourly rate does not include costs for operator.

$ 6.20

286

Production engineering: 6.2 Production planning

Direct costing1'
Marginal costing (with numerical example)
Contribution margin

Marginal costing takes the market price of a product into consideration. The market
price must at least cover variable costs (lower price limit). The remainder is the contribution margin. Contribution margins of all products carry the costs of operational
readiness.
R/piece
R
CM
CM/piece

market price; revenue per piece

revenue (sales) of product
contribution margin of product
contribution margin per piece

Cf
CXj
P
Bp

CM
piece

fixed costs
variable costs
profit or gain
breakeven point

CM-

R
piece
C M

Cv
piece
volume

piece
Profit

P= CM- Cf
Variable costs (C^)21
depends on production
volume

Cfl

Material costs
Labor costs
Energy costs

$/piece 30.00 Depreciation

$/piece 20.00 Wages
$/piece 10.00 Interest
Others Cf
$/piece 60.00 2 Fixed costs

CD

C
>L

2 Variable costs
No. of pieces
produced

CO

O
|

Contribution margin (CM)

Fixed costs (Cf)

independent of production
volume

CM = ft/piece - C v /piece

$ 50 000.00
$ 80 000.00
$ 40 000.00
$ 30 000.00

Revenue of $/piece 110.00

must cover all variable costs
first. The remainder is used to
cover total fixed costs and
includes profit.

$ 200 000.00

Contribution margin
5 000 pieces $ 110.00-$60.00

= $/piece 50.00

Breakeven point

Total contribution margin 5 000 pieces $/piece 50.00 = $ 250 000.00

$ 200 000.00
2 Fixed costs
$ 50 000.00
Profit
$
200
000.00
Cl
Breakeven point Bp =
= 4 000 pieces
CM/piece
$/piece 50.00
400000

800000 -

S> 600000
c
CD
>
CD 400000

costs or contribution margin

breakeven
point (Bp)

O CD

II

S 200000

200000
fixed
costs

w 33

O3
O -Q

^
2000
4000 piec. 6000
volume

i
1
2000
4000 piec. 6000
volume

Cost comparison method

In the cost comparison method, the machine or facility that
incurs the lowest costs for a given production volume
should be selected.
Example for 5 000 pieces
Machine 1: C f 1 = $/year 100 000.-; C v 1 = $/piece 75.00
$/year 100 000 - + $/piece 75 x 5 000 pieces = $ 475 000
Machine 2: C f 2 = $/year 200 000.00; C v 2 = $/piece 50.00
$/year 200 000.- + $/piece 50.00 x 5000 pieces = $ 450 000
Machine 1 costs > machine 2 costs
Piece count limit M\im =

Cf2 - Cfl
C v1 /piece - C v2 /piece

Cost comparison
piece count limit M\]rr
600000 machine 1
machine 1 costs
$475000.machine 2

400000

200000

$200 000.00 - $ 100 000.00

= 4000 pieces
Mil iim
m =
$/piece 75.00 - $/piece 50.00
Machine 2 is more economical at volumes above 4000 pieces.
1)
2)

2000

4000
volume

6000 pieces

Direct costing separates costs into fixed costs (costs of operating readiness) and variable costs (direct costs).
Variable costs are calculated for each job and compared to revenue.

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

ci

Turning, Thread cutting

Straight cylindrical turning and facing at constant rotational speed
fp
d
di
dm
/
/si

/0i
L
f
n
/
vc

productive time
outside diameter
inside diameter
mean diameter 11
workpiece length
starting idle

overrun idle travel

travel
feed per revolution
rotational speed
number of cuts
cutting speed

Productive time

Calculating travel L, mean diameter dm and rotational speed n

Facing

Straight cylindrical turning

Solid cylinder
without shoulder
with shoulder
L
/c
/si
r~i

with shoulder

without shoulder
L

Hollow cylinder

y i

f-

k-i

A
dm

n=
1)

L = / + / si

= / + /Sj +10\

2
dm = ~;

k d

L=

81

n=
rc dr

L^+lsi+lo!
,
d + d-i
dm = L\

vr
n=
Jt dr

Use of mean diameter dm leads to higher cutting speeds. This ensures acceptable cutting conditions for small
diameters (inside area).

Example:
Straight cylindrical turning without shoulder, / = 1240 mm;
/ s i = / 0 j = 2 mm; f= 0.6 mm; v c = 120 m/min;
/'= 2; d= 160 mm;
i = ?; n = ? (for infinitely variable speed adjustment)

fP = ?

fp
L
/
/Si
/oi
/

productive time
total travel of thread cutting tool
thread length
starting idle
overrun idle travel
number of cuts

P
n
s
h
ap
vc

L = I + / s i + / o i = 1240 mm + 2 mm + 2 mm = 1244 mm
120 m
1
v
min a 239
n = c _
n d Ji 0.16 m
min
L i
1244 mm -2
.
fp =
=
~ 17.4 min
n T
'
239
0.6 mm
min

thread pitch
rotational speed
no. of starts
thread depth
cutting depth
cutting speed

Example:

L-i-s
P n
Number of cuts
.

Threads M 24; I = 76 mm; / s i = / o i = 2 mm;

L = I + /Sj + / o i = 76 mm + 2 mm + 2 mm = 80 mm

f= 0.6 mm; v c = 6 m/min; /'= 2; a p = 0.15 mm;

h= 1.84 mm; P= 3 mm; s= 1;
!_ = ?; n = ?;

Productive time

/' = ?; fp = ?

h 1.84 mm
/=- =
= 12.2 ^ 13
3 P 0.15 mm

n=

nd
L-is
P n

min
^ QQ 1
it 0.024 m
min
80 mm -13-1
= 4.3 min
1
3 mm 80
min

288

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

ci

Turning
Straight cylindrical turning and facing at constant cutting speed
If the rotational speed must be limited for safety reasons by inputting a rotational speed limit n|, m , a turning diameter of d < transition diameter dx is turned at
constant rotational speed (page 287).
<k

transition diameter

number of cuts

Vc

cutting speed

outside diameter

dy

inside diameter

cutting depth

\\m rotational speed limit

f
productive time
P

de
L

effective diameter
travel

feed

Transition diameter

dt =

Jt H;

Productive time
f

Jt d e

Vc -f

/si

starting idle

lo\

overrun idle travel

Number of cuts for

straight cylindrical turning
I =

d-d
2 ar

Calculating travel L and effective diameter de

Facing

Straight cylindrical turning

J t

cu

H
ft1

"C3

% d1
ra d\
TD

Xj

r
/

d\
"D

Ik

n lim

rotational speed n
with shoulder

without shoulder

dn

rotational speed n
Hollow cylinder

Solid cylinder with

shoulder

"lim

-T-

/si

/si

L
L

1 + ls\

L=

L=l +L

l 0j
de = d - a D (/' + 1)
Example:

de

si

d + d

d =
M

de

Facing; / s i = 1.5 mm; v c = 220 m/min; f= 0.2 mm;

/'= 2; n M m = 3000/min; d< = ?; L = ?; d e = ?; f p = ?
mm
220000
y
2
2
U
U
U
U
^ _ c
min _
nf
Jt ni m JI 3000 U0. = 23.3mm(d 1 >cf t
min
d-d, ,
120 m m - 6 5 mm
1
L =
+ L: =
+1.5 mm = 29mm

LTL

tSl

L=

t =

UL

Sl

2
120 m m +
65 mm

2
Jt de L i
v

c -f

+1.5 mm = 94 mm
2
Jt 94 mm 29 mm 2
= 0.39 min
___
mm _ _
220000
0.2 mm
min

d-d^
-

.
.
+ L+ L
+
' c i

*ru

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

ci

Drilling, Reaming, Counterboring, Planing, Shaping

Drilling, reaming, countersinking
Cut / c
a
80

lc
0.6 d

118

0.3 d

130

0.23 d

140

0.18 d

/si

productive time
tool diameter
bore depth
starting idle
overrun idle travel
lead

Productive time

travel

f
n
vc

feed per revolution

rotational speed
cutting speed

/
o

number of cuts
drill point angle

L i
n f

Speed

n = c
71 d

Calculating travel L
for drilling and reaming

for counterboring

Through hole

Blind hole

L = / + /c + /si + /c

L=I+L+L

Example:
L = / + l c + / s i = 90 mm + 0.23 30 mm + 1 mm = 98 mm

Blind hole of d = 30 mm;

/ = 90 mm; f= 0.15 mm;
n = 450/min; /'= 15; / S j = 1 mm;
(7=130; L = ?; tp = ?

L i

98 mm-15
450

min

= 21.78 min

0.15 mm

Planing and shaping

fp
/si
/oi

L
w
wa

productive time
workpiece length
starting idle
overrun idle travel
stroke length
width of workpiece
approach width

wQ
n
vc
vr
W
f
/'

overrun width
no. of double strokes per minute
cutting speed, approach speed
return speed
planing, shaping width
feed per double stroke
number of cuts

Calculating stroke length L and planing width W

Productive time

W- i

vv

W- i
f

290

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

ci

Milling
Productive time

productive time
workpiece length
cutting depth
a e engagement (milling width)
la approach

Feed per revolution of milling cutter

L; overrun idle travel

f=ft-N

/st

starting travel

total travel

cutter diameter

rotational speed

Feed rate
vf = n f

feed per revolution

ft

feed per tooth

number of teeth

VF=N-FT-N

Rotational speed

v c cutting speed
vf

feed rate

number of cuts

Total travel L and starting travel / s t in relation to the milling process

Face milling
Peripheral
face milling

eccentric

centric

a P <0.5 d

3p >0.5 d

L = / + 0.5 d + la + lol-

/st

L = I+ la + l0 j + /st
L = ! + 0.5 d +

+ lr

L* = 0.5 id2 - ae2

lst =

l/ae-d-ae2

Example:
Face milling (see left illustration): N = 10, ft = 0.08 mm,
v c = 30 m/min, la = / o i = 1.5 mm, i = 1 cut
Sought after: n; vf; L; tp

080
Solution: n

v
JT d
=
=

m
30 min
JT 0.08 m

Vt =n I -N =119

[ - xZ/y/A r ^t

-0.08 mm 10 = 9 5 . 2 - ^
min

30 mm
= 0.375, it follows that a <0.5 d
80 mm

in
I o^
260

min

min

= '+la+loi

+ 'st
2

= V30mm 80 mm - (30 mm) 2 = 38.7 mm

lst

=y]ae d-a

=260 mm + 1.5 mm + 1.5 mm +38.7 mm = 301.7mm

L-i

'P

301.7 m m - 1
95.2 mm
min

= 3.2 min

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

ci

Grinding
Straight cylindrical grinding
fp
L
/
n
f
vf
d-|
d
ap
/
wg
/oi
t

productive time
travel
number of cuts
workpiece rotational speed
workpiece feed per revolution
feed rate
initial diameter of workpiece
final diameter of workpiece
cutting depth
workpiece length
grinding wheel width
overrun idle travel
grinding allowance

Workpiece rotational
speed

Productive time

Number of cuts
for external straight
for internal straight
grinding
grinding
; =

2 3n

2 an
1)

2 cuts to spark out, for lower tolerance grades additional cuts are necessary

Calculating travel L
Workpieces without shoulder

Workpieces
with shoulder

2-wq
^

- j - k
s>

S E E
3
/. = / - - Wg

Feed for roughing f = 2 / 3 w g to 3 / 4 w g ;

feed for finishing f= V4 w g to V2 w g

Surface grinding
f p productive time

transverse feed per stroke

workpiece length

no. of strokes per minute

/j

start, idle, overrun idle travel Vf feed rate

L travel

/'

number of cuts

w width of workpiece

grinding allowance

w 0 overrun width

w g grinding wheel width

W grinding width

a p cutting depth

Number of cuts

No. of strokes

r = - + 21>

n=

Vf

Productive time

2 cuts to
spark out

yy+1
f
.

Calculating travel L and grinding width W

Workpieces without shoulder

Workpieces with shoulder

W

f
1Li
"tn
//

~ 3\

m*
/

2-^9 2' 3 3 >\

w0~-

=J3

L = / + 2 /i

/; - 0.04 /

W = W Wg

L = I+ 2-1;

l\ 0.04 /

Transverse feed for roughing f = 2 / 3 w g to % w g ; feed for finishing f = V2 w g to 2/3

1/1/= W

Wg
3

292

Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes, Machining coolants

Machining coolants for cutting metals

Terminology and applications for machining coolants
Type of machining
coolant

Composition

increasing lubricating effect

increasing cooling effect

SN
machining
coolants
insoluble in
water

1)

Group
Applications

Inorganic materials
in water

Grinding

Organic or synthetic
materials in water

Machining at high
cutting speed

Emulsions

2%-20% emulsive
(soluble) machining
coolant in water

Good cooling effect, but

low lubrication,
e.g. machining (turning, milling,
drilling) of easy-to-machine
materials, at high cutting speed;
for high working temperatures;
susceptible to bacterial or fungal
attack

Cutting oil

Mineral oils with polar

additives (greases or
synthetic esters) or EP
additives 2 ' to increase
lubricating performance

For lower cutting speed,

higher surface quality, for difficult-to-machine materials;
very good lubrication and
corrosion protection

Solutions/
dispersions

SEMW
machining
coolants
(oil in water)

2)

Explarlation

Effect

SESW
machining
coolants

cf. DIN 51385 (1991-06) |

Machining coolants may be hazardous to health (page 198) and are therefore only used in small quantities.
EP = Extreme Pressure; additives to increase acceptance of high surface pressure between chip and tool

Guidelines for selecting coolants

Manufacturing process

Steel

Cast iron,
malleable cast iron

Cu,
Cu alloys

Al,
Al alloys

Mg alloys

Roughing

emulsion,
solution

dry

dry

emulsion,
cutting oil

dry,
cutting oil

Finishing

emulsion,
cutting oil

emulsion,
cutting oil

dry,
emulsion

dry,
cutting oil

dry,
cutting oil

Milling

emulsion,
solution,
cutting oil

dry,
emulsion

dry,
emulsion,
cutting oil

cutting oil,
emulsion

dry,
cutting oil

Drilling

emulsion,
cutting oil

dry,
emulsion

dry,
cutting oil,
emulsion

cutting oil,
emulsion

dry,
cutting oil

Reaming

cutting oil,
emulsion

dry,
cutting oil

dry,
cutting oil

cutting oil

cutting oil

emulsion

dry,
emulsion,

dry,
cutting oil

cutting oil,
emulsion

dry,
cutting oil

cutting oil

cutting oil

cutting oil

Turning

Sawing
Broaching

cutting oil,
emulsion

emulsion

Hobbing,
gear shaping

cutting oil

cutting oil,
emulsion

Thread cutting

cutting oil

cutting oil,
emulsion

cutting oil

cutting oil

Grinding

emulsion,
solution,
cutting oil

solution,
emulsion

emulsion,
solution

emulsion

Honing, lapping

cutting oil

cutting oil

cutting oil,
dry

Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes, Machining coolants

Hard and dry machining, High-speed milling, MQCL

Hard turning with cubic boron nitride (CBN)
Turning process

Material
hardened steel
HRC

Cutting
speed
vc m/min

Feed f
mm/revolution

60-220

0.05-0.3

0.05-0.5

60-180

0.05-0.2

0.05-0.2

50-190

0.05-0.25

0.05-0.4

50-150

0.05-0.2

0.05-0.2

Cutting
a depth
p
mm

W ^ t ,

External turning

45-58

Internal turning
External turning

> 58-65

Internal turning

Hard milling with coated solid carbide (VHM) tools

<

Material
hardened steel

Cutting
speed

HRC

m/min

mm

to 35

80-90

0.05 d

36-45

60-70

0.05 d

46-54

50-60

0.05 d

working
engagement

Fee;d per tooth ft in mm

for la the diameter d in mm

^e max

/-

2-8

>8-12

> 12-20

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.03

0.04

0.05

High-speed cutting (HSC) with PCD

Cutter diarr leter d in mn

Cutting
speed

Material group

1<3

m/min
i

yy
y

d>0

ae
mm

ft
mm

ae
mm

fx
mm

Steel Rm
850-1100
> 1100-1400

280-360
210-270

0.25

0.09-0.13

0.40

0.13-0.18

Hardened steel
48-55 HRC
> 5 5 - 6 7 HRC

90-240
75-120

0.25
0.20

0.09-0.13

0.40
0.35

0.13-0.18

EN-GJS > 180HB

300-360

0.25

0.09-0.13

0.40

0.13-0.18

Titanium alloy

90-270

0.20-0.25

0.09-0.13

0.35-0.40

0.13-0.18

Cu alloy

90-140

0.20

0.09-0.13

0.35

0.13-0.18

1 Dry machining
Process

Quenched and
tempered steels

Cutting tool material and machini ng coolant for:

Iron materials
Al materials
Cast alloy
High-alloy steels
Cast iron

Wrought alloy

Drilling

TIN, dry

TiAIN 1 ', MQCL

TIN, dry

TIAIN, MQCL

TIAIN, MQCL

Reaming

PCD, MQCL

_2)

PCD, MQCL

TiAIN, PCD,
MQCL

"TIAIN, MQCL

Milling

TIN, dry

TiAIN, MQCL

TIN, dry

TiAIN, dry

TIAIN, MQCL

Sawing

MQCL

MQCL

_2)

TIAIN, MQCL

TiAIN, MQCL

| Minimum quantity of machining coolant (MQCL or MQL) 3

Suitability of minimum quantity lubrication
for the material to be machined
Cu alloys
Al alloy castings
Ferritic steel
Mg alloys
Al wrought alloys
Pearlitic steel
Cast iron materials
Stainless steels

Dependency of MQCL volume on

machining method
nriilling

drilling
grinding
lapping
turning
reaming
honing

Increasing material suitability

Increasing lubrication requirement

1)

Titanium aluminum nitride (super hard coating)

2)

Not normally done

3)

Generally 0.01-3 l/hr

294

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes, ools

Cutting tool materials

Designation of hard cutting tool materials
Example:

cf. DIN ISO 513 (2005-11)

Code letter (see the table below)

HC -

Application group

20

Cutting main group

P (blue)
Cutting tool
material group

K1>

M (yellow)

K (red)

Components

N (green)

S (br

Properties

Indexable inserts for

drilling, turning and
milling tools, also for
solid hard metal tools

HT

Uncoated hard metal of titanium Like HW, but with high

carbide (TiC), titanium nitride
cutting edge stability,
(UN) or of both, also called
chemical resistance
cermet.

Indexable inserts for

lathe and milling tools
for finishing at high
cutting speeds

HC

HW and HT, but coated with

titanium carbonitride (TiCN)

Increase of wear resistance

without reducing toughness

Increasingly replacing
the uncoated hard
metals

CA

Cutting ceramics, primarily of

aluminum oxide (Al 2 0 3 )

High hardness and hot

hardness up to 1 200 C
sensitive to severe temperature changes

Cutting of cast iron,

usually without cooling
lubricant

CM

Mixed ceramics with aluminum

oxide (Al 2 0 3 ) base, as well as
other oxides

Tougher than pure ceramics,

better resistance to
temperature variations

Precision hard turning

of hardened steel,
cutting at high cutting
speed

CN

Silicon nitride ceramics, primari- High toughness, high

ly of silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 )
cutting edge stability

Cutting of cast iron at

high cutting speed

CR

Cutting ceramics with aluminum oxide (Al 2 0 3 ), as a main

component, reinforced

Tougher than pure ceramics

due to reinforcement, improved resistance against
temperature variations

Hard turning of hardened steel, cutting

at high cutting speed

CC

Cutting ceramics such as CA,

CM and CN, but coated with
titanium carbonitride (TiCN)

Increase of wear resistance

without reducing toughness

Increasingly replacing
the uncoated cutting
ceramics

Cutting ceramics

Cubic crystalline boron nitride (BN),

Very high hardness and
also designated CBN or PCB or "super- hot hardness up to
hard cutting tool material"
2000C, high wear
resistance, chemical
resistance
BL
With low boron nitride content
BH

With high boron nitride content

BC

BL and BH, but coated

Cutting tool material of carbon (C),

also designated CBN, PCB or "superhard cutting tool material"

Diamond

Tool steel 2 '

1)
2)

Applications

Uncoated hard metal, main component High hot hardness up to

1 000 C, high wear resistis tungsten carbide (WC)
ance, high compression
HW Grain size > 1 pm
strength, vibration
HF
Grain size < 1 nm
damping

Hard metals

Boron nitride

H (gray)

DP

Polycrystalline diamond (PCD)

DM

Monocrystalline diamond

HS

High-performance high-speed
steel with alloying elements
tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo),
vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co),
usually coated with titanium
nitride (TIN)

Code letters according to DIN ISO 513

Tool steels are not included in DIN ISO 513 but in ISO 4957

Dressing of hard materials (HRC > 48) with

high surface quality

High wear resistance,

very brittle, temperature
resistance up to 600 C,
reacts with alloying elements

Cutting of non-ferrous
metals and Al alloys with
high silicon content

High toughness, high

bending strength, low
hardness, temperature
resistant up to 600 C

For severe alternating

cutting forces, machining
of plastics, for the
cutting of Al and Cu
alloys

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

ools

Cutting tool materials

Classification and application of hard cutting tool materials
Code letter

Application

color code

group

cf. DIN ISO 513 (2005-11)

Cutting tool material

properties1*

Possible cutting
parameters 1 '

Workpiece - material
Wear
resistance

Toughness

Cutting
speed

Feed

Steel

P
blue

P01
P10
P20
P30
P40
P50

P05
P15
P25
P35
P45

All types of steels and cast

steels, with the exception
of stainless steel with
austenitic structure

M01
M10
M20
M30
M40

M05
M15
M25
M35

Austenitic and austenitic

ferritic stainless steels and
cast steels

K01
K10
K20
K30
K40

K05
K15
K25
K35

Cast iron with flake

and spheroidal graphite
malleable cast iron

Stainless steel

M
yellow

Cast iron

K
red

I
y
u

Non-ferrous metals and other non-ferrous materials

N
green

N01
N10
N20
N30

N05
N15
N25

Aluminum and other

non-ferrous metals
(e.g. Cu, Mg),
non-ferrous materials
(e.g. GPR, CFRP)

f t

U
Special alloys and titanium
S01
S10
S20
S30

S05
S15
S25

High-temperature special
alloy on the basis of iron,
nickel and cobalt,
titanium and titanium
alloys

A
u

Hard materials

H
gray

H01
H10
H20
H30

H05
H15
H25

Hardened steel,
hardened cast iron
materials, cast iron
for ingot casting

I
1)

Increasing in direction of the arrow

296

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes, ools

ISO 1832
Designations for indexable inserts for cutting toolscf. DIN (2005-11)
Designation examples:
Indexable carbide insert with rounded corners (DIN 4968) without mounting hole
Insert DIN

4968
T
N G N
16 03 08 T
P20
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Indexable carbide insert with wiper edges (DIN 6590) without mounting hole

Insert DIN
Standard number

15

04

ED

6590
D

R - P10

(9

Basic shape

Equilateral, equiangular
and round

80 (

Equilateral and
non-equiangular
W

85 (

Non-equilateral and
L
equiangular
A, B, K non-equiangular

55c

82'

Many company specific shapes are used in addition to standardizied shapes.

B

(2) Normal clearance angle

an to the insert
(3) Tolerance class

N
c

20c

15
Allow, dev. for

Control dim. d

0.025

0.013

0.005

0.013

0.025

0.025
M

U
0.16

0.013

0.08...0.20

0.25

0.09

0.13

0.025

0.025
K

W
T
c r o

a n n o

0.025

D E I
\ZE

7 [

D D J

a s 7C

Special data

The cutting length is the longer cutting edge for non-equilateral inserts, for round
inserts it is the diameter.

(6) Insert thickness

Insert thickness is given in mm without decimal places.

(7) Cutting point

configuration

Code number multiplied by factor 0.1 = corner radius r c

D

1. Letter symbol for cutting edge angle x r

of main cutting edge

45

2. Letter symbol for clearance angle

a'n on wiper edge (corner chamfer)
(8) Cutting point

0.09

0.05...0.15

0.025
0.025

K
0.005

0.025

0.05...0.15

Control dim. d

Insert size

0.025

Insert thickness s

Insert thickness s

special data

11'

Control dim. m

Control dim. m

30c
H

0.013

Allow, dev. for

@ Faces and
clamping
features

25c

F sharp

E rounded

T chamfered

60c

75c 85c 90c

c
c
c
15c 20 25 30

chamfered
rounded

double
chamfered

(9) Cutting direction

R right hand cutting

Cutting tool material

Carbide with machining application group or cutting ceramic

L left hand cutting

11'

doub. chamfered
and rounded

N right and left hand cutting (neutral)

Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes, ools

Designation of indexable and short indexable insert holders

Designation example:
Holder DIN 4984

standard no.
of holder
holding method
insert
shape 1 '
design of holder
normal clear, angle of insert 1 ' a n
type of holder
height of cutting edge h^ = h2 in mm
shank width w i n mm
length of holder /| in mm
indexable insert size 1 '
1) For indexable inserts, see page 296

R 32 25

cf

MOTW

M 16

298

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

an

Forces and power in turning and drilling

Turning
Fc
A
ap
f
h
x
C

cutting force in N
chip section in m m 2
cutting depth in mm
feed per revolution in mm
chip thickness in mm
cutting edge angle in degrees ()
correction factor for the cutting
speed
v c cutting speed in m/min
kc specific cutting force in N/mm 2
(page 299)
P c cutting power in kW
P-\ drive power of the machine tool in kW
rj efficiency of the machine tool

Correction factor C for

the cutting speed
Cutting speed
vc in m/min

10-30
31-80

1.3
1.1

81-400

1.0

Chip section

A = ap f
Cutting force
Fc - A

Example:
A shaft of 16MnCr5, a p = 5 mm, f= 0.32 mm, v c = 110 m/min, x = 75c
Sought after: h; kc; C; A; Fc; P-, with rj = 0.75
Solution: h = f sinx = 0.32 mm sin 75 = 0.31 mm
kc = 3735N/mm 2 (see table on page 299),
C = 1.0 (see correction factor table)
A =ap -f = 5 mm 0.32 mm = 1.6 m m 2
N
2
= A kc C 1.6 mm 3735
1.0 = 5976 N
mm z
5976N 110 m i l 4 A <
= 14608 W= 14.6 kW
0.75 60 s

Chip thickness

h = f sinx
Cutting power

Pc = Fc. vc
Drive power

Pr
Pi'

Drilling
Fc
z
A
d
f
fz
o
h
C
vc
kc
Pc
Pi
rj

cutting force per edge in N

number of cutting edges (twist drill z = 2)
chip section in m m 2
drill diameter in mm
feed per revolution in mm
feed per cutting edge in mm
drill point angle in degrees ()
chip thickness in mm
correction factor for the cutting speed
cutting speed in m/min
specific cutting force in N/mm 2 (page 299)
cutting power in kW
drive power of the machine tool in kW
efficiency of the machine tool

Example:

Correction factor C for

the cutting speed
Cutting speed
vc in m/min

10-30

1.3

31-80

1.1

Chip section per cutting

edge
4 =

d f

Cutting force per cutting edge1'

Fr=*\.2-

A- kr - C

Material 42CrMo4, d= 16 mm, v c = 28 m/min, f= 0.18 mm, o = 118

Sought after: h; kc; C; A; Fc; P c
^ . _.
,
f
o 0.18 mm
.
Solution: h = - sin
sin 59 = 0.08mm
2
2
2
kc = 6265 N / m m 2 (see table on page 299)
2
A = d f 16 mm 0.18 mm 0.72 mm
4
4
C = 1.3 (see correction factor table)
Fc =1.2 -A kc C = 1.2 0.72 mm

6265
1.3 = 7037 N
mnr1
2 7037 N-28 m
N m
P, =
~

= 3284
= 3284W = 3.3 kW
2
60 s 2
s
11
The specific cutting force values ke are assessed in turning tests.
The conversion to drilling is realized via the factor 1.2 in the formula.

Chip thickness

sin

o
2

Cutting power
p
r
c ~

Drive power

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

an

Specific cutting force

The specific cutting force
is the the force that is required to separate a chip
with a cross section of A = 1 mm 2 from a workpiece. The values are assessed in
turning tests and form the basis of the calculation of the cutting forces and the
drive power in chip-removing machining processes.
kc
h
f
ap
x

specific cutting force N/mm 2

chip thickness in mm
feed in mm
cutting depth in mm
angle of incidence in degrees ()

The chip thickness h depends on the applied machining process.

Calculation of chip thicknesses: pages 298 and 300.

Standard values for the specific cutting force1)

Specific cutting force ^ in N/mm 2 for the chip thickness h in mm
Material

0.05

0.08

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.80

1.00

1.50

2.00

S235
E295
E355

3850
5635
4565

3555
4990
4215

3425
4705
4055

3195
4235
3785

3040
3930
3605

2930
3710
3470

2840
3535
3365

2705
3285
3205

2605
3100
3085

2405
2740
2850

2315
2585
2745

2160
2330
2560

2055
2160
2340

C15, C15E
C35, C35E
C45, C45E

4575
4425
4760

4125
3895
4210

3925
3670
3975

3590
3290
3575

3370
3045
3320

3210
2865
3130

3085
2725
2985

2895
2525
2770

2755
2375
2615

2485
2095
2315

2365
1970
2185

2165
1765
1965

2030
1635
1825

C60, C60E
11SMnPb30
16MnCr5

4750
2675
5950

4365
2460
5265

4190
2360
4965

3895
2195
4470

3700
2085
4150

3555
2000
3915

3440
1935
3735

3265
1840
3465

3135
1765
3270

2880
1625
2895

2770
1560
2730

2575
1450
2455

2445
1375
2280

20MnCr5
18CrMo4
34CrAIMo5

5775
4955
4930

5135
4575
4360

4855
4405
4115

4385
4110
3705

4085
3915
3435

3860
3770
3245

3690
3655
3095

3435
3480
2870

3245
3350
2710

2885
3095
2395

2730
2975
2260

2475
2780
2035

2295
2645
1890

42CrMo4
50CrV4
102Cr6

7080
6290
5895

6265
5565
4910

5915
5250
4500

5320
4725
3840

4940
4385
3435

4660
4140
3145

4445
3945
2930

4125
3660
2620

3890
3455
2400

3445
3060
2000

3250
2885
1835

2925
2595
1565

2715
2410
1400

90MnCrV8
X210CrW12
X5CrNi18-10

5610
5155
5730

5080
4565
5190

4850
4305
4955

4455
3875
4550

4195
3595
4285

4000
3395
4085

3850
3235
3935

3625
3005
3705

3460
2835
3535

3135
2510
3200

2990
2365
3055

2745
2130
2805

2585
1975
2640

X30Cr13
T1AI6V4

5155
3340

4565
3025

4305
2890

3875
2655

3595
2495

3395
2385

3235
2295

3005
2160

2835
2060

2510
1985

2365
1780

2130
1635

1975
1540

GJL-150
GJL-200
GJL-400

2315
2805
4165

2100
2495
3685

2005
2360
3480

1840
2130
3130

1730
1985
2905

1650
1875
2740

1590
1790
2615

1500
1670
2425

1430
1575
2290

1295
1405
2025

1235
1325
1910

1135
1200
1720

1065
1115
1595

GJS-400
GJS-600
GJS-800

2765
3200
5500

2455
2955
4470

2325
2845
4055

2100
2655
3390

1955
2530
2985

1845
2435
2710

1765
2360
2500

1645
2250
2200

1555
2165
1995

1380
2000
1625

1305
1925
1470

1180
1795
1230

1100
1710
1085

AlCuMgl
AIMg3
AC-AISi12

2150
2020
2150

1930
1810
1930

1835
1725
1835

1670
1570
1670

1565
1470
1565

1485
1395
1485

1425
1340
1425

1335
1250
1335

1265
1190
1265

1135
1065
1135

1080
1015
1080

985
925
985

920
865
920

MgAI8Zn
CuZn40Pb2
CuSn7ZnPb

895
1740
1760

820
1600
1565

785
1535
1480

725
1425
1335

690
1355
1245

660
1300
1175

635
1260
1125

605
1195
1045

580
1150
990

530
1055
880

505
1015
830

470
945
750

445
895
700

1)

The standard values apply to tools with hard metal edges. Tool wear increases the specific cutting force by
approximately 30%. The values specified in the table include this addition. For turning, drilling (page 298) and
milling processes (page 300), the effect of the cutting speed on the standard values for the specific cutting force
is considered via correction factors C in the upper table.

300

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

an

Forces and power in milling

Face milling
cutting force per tooth in N
chip section per tooth in m m 2
a
P cutting depth in mm
a
e engagement (milling width) in mm
h chip thickness in mm
f
feed per revolution in mm

feed per tooth in mm

cutter diameter in mm
v c cutting speed in m/min
Vf feed rate in mm/min
N number of teeth
/Vp number of teeth engaged
angle of engagement in degrees ()
specific cutting force in N/mm 2
(page 299)
correction factor for the
cutting speed

fz
d

cutting power in kW
Py drive power in kW
effective power of the machine
tool
Example:

Feed rate
Vj = N-

fz-

Chip cross section

per tooth

A = ap-fz

Cutting force per tooth 1 1

Fc=1.2

A - kc - C

Chip thickness
for d = (1.2-1.6)- a e 2 )

Material 16MnCr5; d= 180 mm; N = 12; a e = 120 mm; a p = 6 mm;

fz = 0.10 mm; vc = 85 m/min; rj = 0.8.

h~f

Sought after: A; h; kc; Fc; (p; A/e; P c ; Py

A = a p - fz = 6 mm 0.1 mm = 0.6 m m 2
h
fz = 0.1 mm
N
kc = 4965
(table on page 299)
mm'
Fc = 1.2 A kc C; C = 1.0 (table of correction factors C)
N
1.0 mm = 3575 N
1.2 -0.6 mm 2 - 4965
'c
mm"
d_ 180 mm = 1.5; <p = 83 (angle of engagement <p table)
120 mm
aQ
83
= 12
= 2.8
360

Solution:

Pc = Ne-FcP,

vc= 2.8 -3575N ^ ^ = 14181

60s
14.2 kW
= 17.8 kW
0.8

Number of teeth
engaged
A/p =

d/ae

cp in

2)

<p in

d/ae

ip in

1.20

113

1.35

96

1.50

83

1.25

106

1.40

91

1.55

80

1.30

100

1.45

87

1.60

77

360c

Cutting power
Ne- Fc

VC

Correction factor C
for the cutting speed
Cutting speed
vc in m/min

C
Drive power

cutter diameter

30-80

1.1

engagement

81-400

1.0

1)

d/ae

<P

14.2kW

Pc=
Angle of engagement <p

rj

The values of the specific cutting force kc (page 299) are assessed in turning tests. The conversion to milling is
achieved via the factor 1.2 in the formula.
In order to ensure favorable cutting conditions, the cutter diameter should be selected in the range
d = (1.2-1.6) a e .

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

Drilling
Twist drills of high-speed steel (HSS)
Helix angle

Type 1 '

11

Point angle

3)

Helix
angle 2 '

Point angle 3)

Universal application for materials

up to Rm 1000 N/mm 2 , e.g. structural, casehardened, quenched and tempered steels

30-40c

118c

Drilling of brittle, short-chipping

non-ferrous metals and plastics, e.g.
CuZn alloys and PMMA (Plexiglas)

13-19c

118c

Drilling of soft, long-chipping non-ferrous

metals and plastics, e.g. Al and Mg alloys, PA
(polyamide) and PVC

40-47c

130c

Application

2)

cf. DIN 1414-1 (2006-11)

Tool application groups for HSS tools according to DIN 1835

Depends on drill diameter and pitch
Standard version

Standard values for drilling with HSS twist drills1)

Cutting
speed 2 '

Workpiece matesrial
Material group

Tensile strength
Rm in N/mm 2
or
Hardness HB

Drill d iameter d in
i mm
2-3

>6-12

>3-6

>12-25

>25-50

m/min
Feed f in mm/revolution

Steels, low strength

Rm < 800

40

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.25

0.35

Steels, high strength

Rm > 800

20

0.04

0.08

0.10

0.15

0.20

Stainless steels

Rm < 800

12

0.03

0.06

0.08

0.12

0.18

Cast iron, malleable cast iron

<250 HB

20

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.60

Al alloys

Rm < 350

45

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.60

Cu alloys

Rm < 500

60

0.10

0.15

0.30

0.40

0.60

Thermoplastics

50

0.10

0.15

0.30

0.40

0.60

Thermoset plastics

25

0.05

0.10

0.18

0.27

0.35

Standard values for drilling with carbide drills1)

Cutting
speed 2 '

Workpiece mate5rial
Material group

Tensile strength
Rm in N/mm 2
or
Hardness HB

vc

Drill diameter d in
i mm
2-3

>3-6

I >6-12

>12-25

>25-50

m/min
Feed f in mm/revolution

Steels, low strength

Rm < 800

90

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.25

0.40

Steels, high strength

Rm > 800

80

0.08

0.13

0.20

0.30

0.40

Stainless steels

Rm < 800

40

0.08

0.13

0.20

0.30

0.40

Cast iron, malleable cast iron

< 250 HB

100

0.10

0.15

0.30

0.45

0.70

Al alloys

flm < 350

180

0.15

0.25

0.40

0.60

0.80

Cu alloys

ftm < 500

200

0.12

0.16

0.30

0.45

0.60

Thermoplastics

80

0.05

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

Thermoset plastics

80

0.05

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

Standard values for modified conditions

Standard values for cutting speed and feed are valid for moderate usage conditions:
tool life approx. 30 min average strength of material
hole depth < 5 d
Standard values are increased for more favorable conditions,
decreased for unfavorable conditions
1)

For cooling lubricants, see pages 292 and 293

2>

Values for coated drills

short drill

302

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

Reaming and tapping

Standard values for reaming with HSS reamers1*
Workpiece mater ial

Cutting speed

Tool cliameteir d in mmi

Reami ng allow.
f o r d ' in mm

Tens, strength
Rm in N/mm 2
or
Hardness HB

m/min

Steels, low strength

Rm - 800

15

0.06

0.12

0.18

0.32

0.50

Steels, high strength

Rm > 800

10

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.25

0.40

Stainless steels

Rm < 800

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.25

0.40

Cast iron, malleable cast iron

<250 HB

15

0.06

0.12

0.18

0.32

0.50

Al alloys

Rm < 350

26

0.10

0.18

0.30

0.50

0.80

Cu alloys

Rm < 500

26

0.10

0.18

0.30

0.50

0.80

Material group

2-3

>3-6

>6-12

>12-25

>25-50

to 20

>20-50

0.20

0.30

0.30

0.60

Feed f in mm/revolution

Thermoplastics

14

0.12

0.20

0.35

0.60

1.00

Thermoset plastics

14

0.12

0.20

0.35

0.60

1.00

Standard values for reaming with carbide tooling 1)

Workpiece mater ial
Material group

Cutting speed

Tool dliametei' d in mm

Reamiing allow.
f o r d ' in mm

Tens, strength
Rm in N/mm 2
or
Hardness HB

m/min

Steels, low strength

Rm < 800

15

0.06

0.12

0.18

0.32

0.50

Steels, high strength

Rm > 800

10

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.25

0.40

Stainless steels

Rm > 800

10

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.25

0.40

Cast iron, malleable cast iron

< 250 HB

25

0.10

0.18

0.28

0.50

0.80

Al alloys

Rm < 350

30

0.12

0.20

0.35

0.50

1.00

Cu alloys

Rm < 500

30

0.12

0.20

0.35

0.50

1.00

2-3

>3-6

>6-12

>12-25

>25-50

to 20

>20-50

0.20

0.30

0.30

0.60

Feed f in mm/revolution

Thermoplastics

20

0.12

0.20

0.35

0.50

1.00

Thermoset plastics

30

0.12

0.20

0.35

0.50

1.00

Standard values for tapping and thread forming1*

H<5S tool

Workpiece mater ial

Material group

Tens, strength
Rm in N/mm 2
or
Hardness HB

Tapping 2 '
Cutting sf

Carbic ie tool

Thread
forming 2 '
Deed v c m/min

Tapping 2 '

Thread
forming 2 '

Cutting spe<ed v c m/min

Steels, low strength

Rm s 800

40-50

40-50

40-60

Steels, high strength

Rm > 800

20-30

15-20

20-30

Stainless steels

Rm > 800

8-12

10-20

20-30

Cast iron, malleable cast iron

< 250 HB

15-20

Al alloys

Rm < 350

20-40

30-50

60-80

60-80

Cu alloys

Rm s 500

30-40

25-35

30-40

50-70

25-35

Thermoplastics

20-30

50-70

Thermoset plastics

10-15

25-35

For cooling lubricants, see pages 292 and 293

' Upper limit values: for material groups with lower strengths; short threads
Lower limit values: for material groups with higher strengths; long threads

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

Turning
Roughness depth depending on tool nose radius and feed
flth theoretical
roughness depth

r tool nose radius

f feed
a p cutting depth

Theor. roughness depth

Example:
flth = 25 pm; r= 1.2 mm; f= ?
= V8 1.2 mm -0.025 mm ~ 0.5 mm
Roughn. depth
ftth
in pm

0.4

1.6
4
10
16
25

0.07
0.11
0.18
0.23
0.28

^th ~

hh

8 r

R,

Nose radius r in mm
0.8
I
1.2
Feed f in mm
0.10
0.12
0.16
0.20
0.25
0.31
0.32
0.39
0.40
0.49

1.6
0.14
0.23
0.36
0.45
0.57

Standard values for turning with HSS tools1 ) 2 )

Material group

Workpiece mate rial

Tensile strength
Rm in N/mm 2 or
Hardness HB

Cutting
speed vc
in
m/min

Steels, low strength

flm < 800

40-80

Steels, high strength

Rm > 800

30-60

Stainless steels

Rm > 800

30-60

Cast iron, malleable cast iron

<250 HB

20-35

Al alloys

Rm < 350

120-180

Cu alloys

flm < 500

100-125

Thermoplastics

100-500

Thermoset plastics

80-400

Feed
f
in
mm

Cutting
a depth
p

0.1-0.5

0.5-4.0

Feed
f
in
mm

Cutting depth

0.1-0.5

0.3-5.0

in
mm

Standard values for turning using coated carbide tools 2)

Material group

Workpiece matesrial
Tensile strength
Rm in N/mm 2 or
Hardness HB

Cutting
speed vc
in
m/min

Rm < 800

200-350

> 800

100-200

Stainless steels

Rm > 800

80-200

Cast iron, malleable cast iron

<250 HB

100-300

Al alloys

f?m < 350

400-800

Cu alloys

Rm < 500

150-300

Steels, low strength

Steels, high strength

Thermoplastics

500-2000

Thermoset plastics

400-1000

P
in
mm

Application of the cutting data range

Example: Standard values for turning of steels with lower strengths using carbide tools
Upper values

Application

Lower values

Application

vc = 350 m/min

finish machining (finishing)

stable tool and workpiece

vc = 200 m/min

premachining (roughing)
unstable tool or workpiece

f= 0.5 mm,
a p = 5.0 mm

premachining (roughing)
stable tool and workpiece

f= 0.1 mm,
a p = 0.3 mm

finish machining (finishing)

unstable tool or workpiece

1)

HSS lathe tools have for the most part been replaced by lathe tools
with carbide indexable inserts.

2)

Machining coolant, see pages 292

and 293

304

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

a n i n g

Taper turning
Terminology for tapers

cf. DIN ISO 3040(1991-09)

^ 1: x (taper ratio)

D large taper diameter

d small taper diameter

L taper length

taper incline

1: x taper:
on a taper length of x mm
the taper diameter
changes by 1 mm.

a taper angle
a taper-generating angle
2 (setting angle)
C taper ratio

Taper turning on CNC lathes

CNC program according to DIN 66025 1) to produce a
workpiece with a taper (see figure):
N10
N20
N30
N40

GOO
G01
G01
G01

N50
N60

G01
G01

X72

N70

GOO

X100

1)

X0
X0
X50
X60

Z2
Z0

F0.15

Z-25
Z-40
Z150

Approach at rapid speed

Traversing motion to P1
Traversing motion to P2
Traversing motion to P3
Traversing motion to P4
Traversing motion over P5
Tool change point

Compare to page 387

Taper turning by setting the compound rest

Example:

Setting angle

D = 225 mm, d= 150 mm, L = 100 mm;

a
D-d
tan =
2 2L
(225- 150) mm
= 0.375
2- 100 mm
-

=20.556 = 20 33 22

a _C
tan
2~2
a D-d
tan =
2
2-L
Taper ratio

D-d
(225- 150) mm
= 0.75-1 : 1.33
L ~
100 mm

Taper turning by offsetting the tailstock

lathe axis

Wmax

Lw

tailstock offset
maximum allowable
tailstock offset

Tailstock offset

workpiece length

Example:

tailstock
centerline

D = 20 mm;
L =80 mm;
VT = ?; TV-max

d =18 mm;
L w = 100 mm
=

Maximum allowable
tailstock offset1'

parallel to
lathe axis

1)

2
L
(20 -18) mm 100 mm
= 1.25 mm
2
80 mm
L^ 100 mm _
VT
<
=
= 2 mm
T m a x
50
~ 50

If the tailstock offset is too large the workpiece cannot be secured between the lathe centers.

1/
V

<

T max -

5 Q

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

Milling
Standard values for milling with HSS milling cutters
Material group

Workpiece mater ial

Tensile strength
Rm in N/mm 2 or
Hardness HB

Cutting
speed

Milling cutter
(except for
end mill)

in m/min

Steels, low strength

Rm < 800

50-100

Steels, high strength

Rm > 800

30-60

Stainless steels

Rm > 800

15-30

Cast iron, malleable cast iron

< 250 HB

25-40

Al alloys

Rm < 350

50-150

Cu alloys

Rm < 500

50-100

Thermoplastics

100-400

Thermoset plastics

100-400

Feed ft in mm
End
mm
mill d in
6

20

12

0.05-0.15

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.10-0.20

0.10

0.15

0.20

Standard values for milling with coated carbide

Material group

Workpiece mater ial

Tensile strength
Rm in N/mm 2 or
Hardness HB

Cutting
speed
vc
in m/min

Steels, low strength

Rm < 800

200-400

Steels, high strength

Rm > 800

150-300

Stainless steels

Rm > 800

150-300

Cast iron, malleable cast iron

< 250 HB

150-300

Al alloys

Rm < 350

400-800

Cu alloys

Rm < 500

200-400

Thermoplastics

500-1500

Thermoset plastics

400-1000

Milling cutter
(except for
end mill)

Feied ft in mm
mm
End
mill d in
6

20

12

0.05-0.15

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.10-0.20

0.10

0.15

0.20

Increasing the recommended feed per cutting edge ft for slotting with side milling cutters
Cutting depth a e , based on the milling cutter 0 d

side milling cutter

Feed
per tooth

1/3 - d

1/6 - d

i / i o - cy

1/20 d

increase

1 A

1.15- ft

1.45 ft

2- ft

to be adjusted

0.25 mm

0.29 mm

0.36 mm

0.50 mm

Meanings of cutting data ranges

Example: Standard values for milling of low-strength steels using HSS milling cutters
Upper values

Application

Lower values

Application

v c = 100 m/min

finish machining (finishing)

rigid tool and workpiece

vc = 50 m/min

premachining (roughing)
low rigidity of tool or workpiece

ft = 0.15 mm

premachining (roughing)
rigid tool and workpiece

ft = 0.05 mm

finish machining (finishing)

low rigidity of tool or workpiece

Calculation of feed rate

Vf feed rate in mm/min
ft feed per tooth in mm
Example:

n
N

rotational speed of milling cutter in 1/min

number of teeth
Feed rate

v c = 100 m/min; d = 4 0 mm; ft = 0.12 mm; N = 10

vc
100 m/min
v = n ,/r n = n ~ d = jt 0 04 m = 7 9 6 1 / m i n ;
i
t A/ = 796/min 0.12 mm 10 = 955 mm/min

Vf= n - ft-

306

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

Troubleshooting for drilling, turning and milling

Processes and problems1'

Possible corrective measures

Drilling

CD

TJ
C/3

c -o
CD
o
o>
Q. co
= E

i- CO
Q
T3

4'
CJ
O

c 0)
CO E
0 CO

> "D

0
o
o
4-"

CD
M
X JS

w
en
2? CD
.E en
= "D

1 s
c5
/ t;

CO <13

Q.jE>

v,>

D
O

CD

<4

t O =

I I

00
1

.a
>
Check cutting geometry
Increase supply of lubricant
Decrease feed f
Increase cutting speed v c
Decrease projection length
Check cutting parameters
Check type of carbide

Turning
TJ
C

LJ
CO

CD

C CD
O CD

4= TJ
CO CD

E o>

O c=
CD

D o

CD

O)
O

(D

CD O)

Ec
Oo

'TD CD

c C
<D

CL ts
0 =3
Q.
^C/3 o
o CD
CO
1_
la.

CD

JZ C/3
t ; <D
4 O)
o "O
O) <
C CD
= E

co 'E
CL 5
CO o

(J

_0)
co
x
CD
~o
c
4o
JD

CD

D CD
O TJ
CD

co

CA

CD
B
t
O <D

co w

.V-

!E
o
CD "co
c .!=
O CL
- I c/3

C/3

O
co

.a
>

Change cutting speed v c

Change feed f
Decrease cutting depth
Choose a more wear-resistant carbide type
Choose tougher carbide type
Choose a positive cutting geometry

Milling
_Q)

"O
c

co
o
C <D
O CD

co
oi

sz
g>

-Q

Q)
CD
"O
4= -a
CO CD

05

CO
X
CD

"O
iz a) C
H- CD >4
O "D O
O) ^
CD
c CD

CD
CD

0)
o>
"O

CD

3
O

O <D

CD

= E
CO ' X

C3 o

Q- ^

CO o

B t

O CD

CO c/3
."r c

CD

O
CO
t
O CO

O 13
Q- cr

C/3

c
o

CO
1

-9

Change cutting speed vc

Change feed ft
Choose a more wear-resistant carbide type
Choose tougher carbide type
Use milling cutter with wider spacing
Change milling cutter position
Dry milling

1)

problem to be solved

ft

increase value of cutting parameter

decrease value of cutting parameter

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

n i n g

Indexing with a dividing head

Direct indexing
dividing head
spindle

In direct indexing the dividing head spindle, along with

the indexing plate and workpiece, is turned by the
desired indexing step. The worm is disengaged from the
worm wheel.
D no. of divisions
a angular division
n h no. of holes in the indexing plate
r\\ indexing step; no. of hole spacings to be indexed

Example:

indexing
/ plate
1

workpiece

n h =24; D= 8;

Worm disengaged

=?

Indexing step

= = = 3
D
8

Indirect indexing
In indirect indexing the dividing head spindle is driven
by the worm and worm wheel.
worm gear

dividing head
spindle
workpiece

Indexing step

n0r =
D

D no. of divisions
a angular division
/' gear ratio of dividing head
nc indexing step; no. of indexing crank revolutions
for one division

i a

360
Example 1:
D = 68; /' = 40; nc = ?
worm
locking pin
(engaged)

indexing
crank

indexing
plate

_i_ 40 10
" ~ D ~ 68 ~ 17
c

Circles of holes on
indexing plates
15 16 17 18 19 20
21 23 27 29 31 33

Example 2:

37 39 41 43 47 49

a = 37.2; / = 40; nc = ?
i-a
40 37.2 37.2 186 _ 2
nr =
9
9 5 ~ 15
360
360

or
17 19 23 24 26 27
28 29 30 31 33 37
39 41 42 43 47 49
51 53 57 59 61 63

Differential indexing

worm gear

dividing head
spindle
workpiece

locking
pin (disengaged)

In differential indexing the dividing head spindle is

driven with worm and worm wheel like indirect indexing. Simultaneously the dividing head spindle drives
the indexing plate using change gears.
D
no. of divisions
a angular division
D'
auxiliary no. of divisions
/'
gear ratio of dividing head
nc
indexing step; no. of indexing crank revolutions
for one division
A/ dg
no. of teeth of driving gears {N-\, /V3)
/V dn
no. of teeth of driven gears (N 2 , /V4)
For selecting D' the following applies:
D'> D\ Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate
in the same direction.
D'< D: Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate
in opposite directions
If necessary the required direction of rotation is
achieved by means of an idle gear.

Indexing step

ncr =
D ,

No. of teeth on
change gears

A/dn

D'

Example:
Nda
i = 40; D = 97; nCc =7;-^ = ?; D'selected = 100
/Vdn

indexing
crank

ndexing
plate

(Indexing crank and indexing plate must rotate in

the same direction).
_ / _ 40
8
n
~ D '~ 100 20
40
48
1%
= -(D'-Dl = (100-97) = - -3 = - =
100
40
^dn D'

No. of teeth on
change gears
24
24
28

32
48

36

40

44

56
84

64

72

80

86

96

100

308

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

Grinding
v c cutting speed
dg diameter of grinding wheel
n n rotational speed of grinding wheel
'g
feed rate
Vf
L travel

Surface grinding
grinding wheel
workpiece

n s no. of strokes
di diameter of workpiece
Cylindrical grinding
workpiece

Cutting speed
Vr = K dn nr

Feed rate

Surface grinding

workpiece rotational speed

speed ratio

n
q

VF = /_ N<

Cylindrical
grinding

Vf = jt d-| n

Example:
Speed ratio

vc = 30 m/s; vf = 20 m/min; q = ?
vr

grinding
wheel

30 m/s 60 s/min
20 m/min

Vf

1800 m/min
90
20 m/min

q = v

Standard values for cutting speed vc, feed rate vf, speed ratio q
<Surface grindir
Cylindrical <jrindin g
>g
Per ipheral gr inding

Material

Steel
Cast iron
Carbide
Al alloys
Cu alloys

vc

Vf

m/s
30
30
10
18
25

m/min
10-35
10-35
4
15-40
15-40

q
80
65
115
30
50

Si

vc

ing
de wheeli

External cyl. grindiing

Vf

m/s
25
25
8
18
18

m/min
6-25
6-30
4
24-45
20-45

q
50
40
115
20
30

vc

Vf

m/s
35
25
8
18
30

m/min
10
11
4
24-30
16

Interi
iding
rial cyl. grii

vc

q
125
100
100
50
80

m/s
25
25
8
16
25

Vf
m/min
19-23
23
8
30-40
25

q
80
65
60
30
50

Grinding data for steel and cast iron with corundum or silicon carbide grinding wheels
Processes
Rough grind
Finishing
Precision grinding

Grain size

Grinding allowance

Depth of cut in mm

Rz in pm

30-46
46-80
80-120

0.5-0.2
0.02-0.1
0.005-0.02

0.02-0.1
0.005-0.05
0.002-0.008

3-10
1-5
1.6-3

Maximum speed of grinding wheels

cf. DIN EN 12413(2007-09)

11

Miaximu m speed vc in
i m/s for be>nd ty|pe2>
B
E
R
BF
M
RF
PL
V
Straight grinding wheel
stationary
pd or ho
50
63 40
25
50
50
40
hand-held grinder
free-hand
50
80
50
80
50
stationary
Straight cutting wheel
pd or ho
80 100 63
63
80
hand-held grinder
80
free-hand
1>
pd positively driven: feed by mechanical means; ho hand operated: feed by operator2)
free-hand grinding: grinding machine is guided entirely by hand;
Type of bond, see page 309
Shape of grinding wheel

Type of grinding machine

Guide

Restrictions for use of grinding tools3*'

VE
VE1

Meaning
Not allowed for free-hand or hand operated
grinding

VE2
VE3
VE4
VE5

Not
Not
Not
Not

3)

allowed
allowed
allowed
allowed

cf. BGV D12 4) (2001-10)

VE
Meaning
VE6
Not allowed
VE7
Not allowed
VE8
Not allowed
VE10 Not allowed
VE11 Not allowed
sive cutting

for free-hand abrasive cutting

for wet grinding
in enclosed work area
without vacuum exhaust

for side wheeling

for free-hand grinding
with backing pad
for dry grinding
for free-hand or hand operated abra-

If no restriction is given, the grinding tool is suitable for all applications.

Color stripes for maximum allowable peripheral speeds > 50 m/s^

Color stripe
v c max in m/S
Color stripe
Vc max
4)

in m/s

cf. BGV D12 4) (2001-10)

blue

yellow

red

green

blue & yellow

blue & red

blue & green

50

63

80

100

125

140

160

red & red

green & green

320

360

yellow & red yell. & green

180

200

red & green

225

blue & blue yellow & yell.

250

280

BGV Berufsgenossenschaftliche Vorschrift (Employers' Liability Insurance Association Provisions)

*) According to European Standards

Production engineering 6.3 Machining processes,

a s

Abrasives, Bonds
Abrasives

cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-08)

Symbol Abrasive

Chemical composition

KnoopAreas of application
hardness

Norm, corundum A l 2 0 3 + additions

18000

Carb. steel, unhardened steel, cast steel, malleable cast iron

white fused alu- A l 2 0 3 in crystalline

mina
form

21000

High and low alloyed steel, hardened steel, case hardened

steel, tool steel, titanium

zircon corundum A l 2 0 3 + Z r 0 2

silicon carbide

SiC + additions

24800

Hard materials: carbide, cast iron, HSS, ceramic, glass;

soft materials: copper, aluminum, plastics

BK

boron carbide

B 4 C in crystalline form

47000

Lapping, polishing of carbide and hardened steel

CBN

boron nitride

BN in crystalline form

60000

High-speed steels, cold and hot work steels

diamond

C in crystalline form

70000

Carbide, cast iron, glass, ceramic, stone, non-ferrous metals, not for steel; dressing of grinding wheels

Stainless steels

Hardness grade
Designation

cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-08)

Designation

Hardn. grade Application

Deep and side wheeling of

hard materials

hard
very hard

P Q RS
T U V W

Conventional metal
grinding

extremely hard X Y Z

Hardn. grade Application

extremely soft A B C D
very soft
E FG
H I J K
soft
medium
L M N O

Grain size

External cylindrical grinding; soft materials

cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-08)

Grain designation for bonded abrasives

coarse

medium

fine

very fine

F4, F5, F6 to F24

F30, F36, F46 to F60

F70, F80, F90 to F220

F230 to F1200

10-5

* 5-2.5

2.5-1.0

* 1.0-0.4

Grain ranges
Grain designation
Attainable Rz in (jm

Structure

cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-08)

0

Code
Structure

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, etc. up to 30
dense (nonporous)

Bond
Code

open (porous)
cf. DIN ISO 525 (2000-008) and VDI 3411 (2000-08)

Type of bond

Properties

Areas of application

B
BF

synthetic resin bond,

fiber reinforced

Nonporous or porous, elastic,

resistant to oil, cool grinding

Rough or cut-off grinding, form grinding with

diam. and boron nitride, high pressure grinding

shellac bond

Sensitive to temperature, tough

elastic, impact resistant

Saw tooth grinding, form grinding, control

wheel for centerless grinding

galvanic bond

Tight grip due to protruding

grains

Internal grinding of carbide,

hand grinding

metal bond

Nonporous or porous, tough,

insensitive to pressure and heat

Form and tool grinding using diamond

or boron nitride, wet grinding

MG

magnesite bond

Soft, elastic, sensitive to

water

Dry grinding, knife grinding

PL

plastic bond

Soft, elastic depending upon

plastic and degree of hardening

Plastic abrasive material for finishing,

precision finishing and polishing

R
RF

rubber bond,
fiber reinforced

Elastic, cold grinding,

sensitive to oil and heat

Cut-off grinding

Porous, brittle, insensitive

vitrified (ceramic) bond to water, oil, heat

Rough and finish grinding of steels using

corundum and silicon carbide

Grinding wheel ISO 603-1 1 N-300 x 50 x 76.2 - A/F 36 L 5 V - 50: Form 1 (straight grinding wheel), wheel
face N, outside diameter 300 mm, width 50 mm, hole diameter 76.2 mm, abrasive A (normal corundum or
white fused alumina), grain size F36 (medium), hardness grade L (medium), structure 5 vitrified (ceramic)
bond (V), maximum peripheral speed 50 m/s.

310

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

ining

ls

Selecting grinding wheels

Standard values for selecting grinding wheels (excluding diamond and boron nitride)
Cylindrical grinding
Material

Abrasive

Fine fir lishing

Finishling with >/vheel diarneter
over 51DO mm
up to 5 00 mm
Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
Roue|hing

Steel, unhardened

54

M-N

80

M-N

60

L-M

180

L-M

Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy.

46

L-M

80

K-L

60

J-K

240-500

H-N

60

M-N

240-500

H-N

Steel, hardened, high alloyed

A, C

80

M-N

80

Carbide, ceramic

C
A, C

60

80

N-0
K

60

240-500

H-N

60

80

60

100

46

60

60

Cast iron
Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn

Internal cylindrical grinding

Material

Abrasive

Steel, unhardened

Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy.

Steel, hardened, high alloyed

Grindiiig wheel diameter in mm

from 4Oto 80
ove r 80
from 2 Oto 40
Hardness
Grain
size
Hardness
Grain
size Hardness
Grain size Hardness Grain size
K
L-M
54
L-M
46
80
M
60
up t o 20

80

K-L

120

M-N

80

M-N

80

A, C

80

J-K

100

80

60

Carbide, ceramic

80

120

120

80

Cast iron

80

L-M

80

K-L

60

46

Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn

80

l-J

120

60

J-K

54

I Peripheral face grinding

Material

Abrasive

Cup vvheel
D< 3010 mm

Abrcisive
segnlents

Str aight griniding whe>els

D < 3010 mm
D > 3010 mm

Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
J
24
46
J
46
J
36
J

Steel, unhardened

Steel, hard., unalloy. and alloy.

46

60

36

46

H-J

60

J
l-J

46

Steel, hardened, high alloyed

46

l-J

36

l-J

Carbide, ceramic

46

46

60
46

J
J

60

Cast iron

C
A

46

J
J

46
24

J
J

Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn

46

60

60

36

I Tool grinding
Cutting tool material

Abrasive

Dish whee Is
CiJP
whieels
D < 100 D> 100
Grain size Grain size Hardness Grain size Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
M
K
M
80
60
46
80
60
Straighlt grinding wheels
D < 225 D > 225

Tool steel

High-speed steel

60

46

60

46

46

Carbide

80

54

80

54

46

I Cutting on stationary machines

Material

Abrasive

Straight <;ut-off wheels vc upto 80 m/s Straight c:ut-off wh<aels vc up:ot 100 m/s
D < 2010 mm
D> 2010 mm
0<5C )0 mm
D> 5C)0 mm
Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
Q-R

46

Q-R

24

60

Q-R

46

Q-R

24

U
U-V

60

Q-R

46

Q-R

30

Steel, unhardened

80

Cast iron

Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn

20

Q-R

20
24

U-V
S

Grinding and cutting with hand tools

Material

Abrasive

Rc>ugh grimJing whe<sis

Mounte d points
vc up toi 45 m/s vc up toi 80 m/s
Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness Grain size Hardness
Cut-off wheels
vc up to180 m/s

Steel, unhardened

30

24

24

36

Q-R

Steel, corrosion resistant

30

16

24

36

Cast iron

A, C

30

R
T

20

24

30

Non-ferr. met., e.g. Al, Cu, CuZn

A, C

30

20

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

ining

ls

Grinding with diamond and boron nitride

Grain designation ranges
Areas of application
Grain
diamond
designation11 boron nitride

cf. DIN ISO 848(1998-03)

Rough grind
D251-D151
B251-B151

Finishing
D126-D76
B126-B76

0.55-0.50

Attainable Ra in pm
1)
Mesh size of test sieve in pm

Precision grinding
D64, D54, D46
B64, B54, B46

0.45-0.33

Lapping
D20, D15, D7
B30, B6

0.18-0.15

0.05-0.025

Standard values for cutting speeds

Process

Abrasive

m/s by bond type i)

Cuttiii g speed vin
(
A
(
dry
wet
dry
dry
wet
wet
30-50
30-60
30-60
22-50
22-27
20-30
22-50
30-50
30-60
30-60
22-40
20-30
20-30
22-40
27-35
30-60
30-60
24-40
30-50
12-18
8-15
18-27
12-20
15-30
18-40
27-35
30-50
22-30
30-40
27-35
30-50
15-22
15-22
22-50
15-27
15-30
22-35
27-35
30-50
30-60
27-40
30-60
12-18
22-35
22-27
18-30
22-40
2)
Approx. four times the value for high speed grinding (HSG)
I3

CBN
D
External cylindrical
CBN
grinding 2 '
D
Internal cylindrical
CBN
grinding
D
Tool
CBN
grinding
D
Cut-off
CBN
grinding
D
1)
Bond types, see page 309
Surface grinding

\/
dry

wet
30-60
25-50
30-60
25-50
30-50
25-50
30-50

Standard values for depth of cut and feed of diamond grinding wheels
Process

Depth per stroke in mm for grain size

D181

D126

D64

Face grinding 1 '

0.02-0.04
0.01-0.02
External cyl. grinding 11
0.01-0.03
0.0-0.02
Internal cyl. grinding
0.002-0.007
0.002-0.005
Tool grinding
0.01-0.03
0.005-0.015
Groove grinding
1.0-5.0
1)
Approx. three times the value for high speed grinding (HSG)

Crossfeed relative to wheel

width w

Feed
m/min

0.005-0.01
0.005-0.01
0.001-0.003
0.002-0.005

10-15
0.3- 2.0
0.5-2.0
0.3- 4.0
0.01-2.0

0.5-3.0

Standard values for depth of cut and feed of CBN grinding wheels
Process

Surface grinding
External cyl. grinding
Internal cyl. grinding
Tool grinding
Groove grinding

Depth pe r stroke in mm for <

grain size
B252/B181

B151/B126

B91/B76

0.03-0.05
0.02-0.04
0.005-0.015
0.002-0.1
1.0-10

0.02-0.04
0.02-0.03
0.005-0.01
0.01-0.005
1.0-5.0

0.01-0.015
0.015-0.02
0.002-0.005
0.005-0.015
0.5-3.0

Crossfeed relative to wheel

width w

Feed
m/min
20-30
0.5-2.0
0.5-2.0
0.5-4.0
0.01--2.0

High-performance grinding with CBN grinding wheels

V4-V w
-

cf. VDI 3411 (2000-08)

Grinding processes achieving extremely high material removal rates by utilization of special machines and tools with
increased cutting speeds (> 80 m/s) and appropriate machine coolant. Predominantly used for side and external cylindrical grinding of metallic materials.
Grinding wheel preparation (conditioning)

Processing step
Action
Goal

Dresising
Truing

Sharpening

Cleaning

Removal of grain and

bond

Reduction of the
bond

No effect on abrasive
layer

Establishing concentricity
and wheel profile

Creating the grinding

wheel surface structure

Remove chips from pores

Maximum allowable peripheral speeds in high-performance grinding

Bond type 1 '
Highest allowable
peripheral speed in m/s
1)

Bond types, see page 309

140

200

180

280

312

Production engineering

6.3 Machining processes,

Honing
v c cutting speed

Cutting
speed

contact area of
honing stone

v a axial speed
v p peripheral speed

Fr

radial infeed force

angle of intersection
betw. abrading tracks

number of honing stones

contact pressure

w width of honing stones

/
length of honing stones

V^a 2 w

^c =

Angle of
intersection

Example:

miny

Contact pressure

28 m
min

miny

tan =
2

Hardened steel, finish honing, vp = ?; v a = ?; v c = ?; a = ?

read from table: v p = 25 m/min; va = 12 m/min

a v a 12 m/min _
tan = =
= 0.48; a = 51.3
2 v n 25 m/min

Cutting speed and machining allowances

Peripheral speed
v p in m/min

Material

Machining allowances in mm
for hole diameter in mm

Axial speed
v a in m/min

Rough honing Finish honing Rough honing Finish honing

18-40

Steel, unhardened

20-40

9-20

2-15

15-100

100-500

10-20

0.02-0.05

0.03-0.15

0.06-0.3

0.01-0.03

0.02-0.05

0.03-0.1

0.02-0.05

0.03-0.15

0.06-0.3

Steel, hardened

14-40

15-40

5-20

6-20

Alloy steels

23-40

25-40

10-20

11-20

Cast iron

23-40

25-40

10-20

11-20

Aluminum alloys

22-40

24-40

9-20

10-20

Honing with diamond grit vp up to 40 m/min and v a up to 60 m/min; a = 60- 90c

Contact pressure of honing tools
Contact pressure p in N/cm 2
Diamond
Plastic bonded
honing stick
honing stone

Honing process

Ceramic
honing stone

Boron nitride
honing stick

Rough honing

50-250

200-400

300-700

200-400

Finish honing

20-100

40-250

100-300

100-200

Selection of corundum, silicon carbide, CBN and diamond honing stones

Material
Steel

Tensile
strength
N/mm 2

Process

< 500
rough honing
(unhardened) intermed. honing
finish honing

Honing stone made of

Roughness
depth
corundum and silicon carbide 2 '
Rz
HardHoning Grain
Bond Strucpm
abrasive size
ness
ture
8-12
A
700
R
1
2-5
400
R
B
5
1200
M
0.5-1.5
2

rough honing
intermed. honing
finish honing

5-10
2-3
0.5-2

Cast
iron

rough honing
finish honing
plateau honing 1 '

5-8
2-3
3-6

Nonferrous
metals

rough honing
intermed. honing
finish honing

6-10
2-3
0.5-1

A
A
C

500-700
(hardened)

1)

80
400
700

R
O
N

80
120
900

M
K
H

80
400
1000

0
O
N

CBN or diamond
Grain size
D126
D54
D15

3
5
3
3
7
8

D91
D46
D25

3
1
5

D64
D35
D15

In plateau honing the peaks of the material surface are removed.

B76
B54
B30

2)

see page 309

Selection of honing stone made of diamond and cubic boron nitride (CBN)
Abrasive

Natural diamond

Synthetic diamond

CBN

Material

Steel, carbide

Cast iron, nitrided steel, non-ferrous metals, glass, ceramic

Hardened steel

Production engineering: 6.

ei

Productive time and standard values for material removal

Electric discharge machining (wire EDM)
productive time in min
feed rate in mm/min
travel, cutting length in mm
cutting height in mm
geometric tolerance in pm

wire electrode

Productive time

L
p

Vf

Example:
Material: Steel, H= 30 mm; L = 320 mm;
T= 30 (xm; v f = ?; f p = ?
Vf = 1.8 mm/min (from table)
p

_ L _ 320 mm
= 178 min
vf
1.8 mm/min

Feed rate Vf (standard values)1*

Cutting
height H
in mm
10
20
30
50
1>

Steel eroding
60

40

30

9.0

8.5
5.5

4.0
2.5

4.0

1.8
1.2

5.1
3.7
2.5

2.5

Feed rate v f in mm/min

Copper eroding
Desired geometric tolerance T in pm
10
40
10
20
20
2.1
3.9
7.5
3.5
2.0
4.7
2.4
2.5
1.5
1.5
4.0
1.8
1.1
1.1
1.9
1.2
0.8
2.6
0.7
1.4

Carbide eroding
80
4.5

20
0.7

3.1

0.3
0.2

0.6
0.3
0.2

0.2

0.2

2.3
1.4

10

These standard values are average values from the main cut and all subsequent cuts required to reach geometric tolerance.
With unfavorable flushing conditions the achievable feed rate drops considerably.

Characteristics and application of common wire electrodes

Wire
El. conductivity
in m/(Q mm 2 )
material
CuZn alloy
13.5
Molybdenum
18.5
Tungsten
18.2

Tensile strength
in N/mm 2
400-900
1900
2500

Typical wire
diameter in mm
0.2-0.33
0.025-0.125
0.025-0.125

Application
Universal
Cuts with very tight geometric tolerance
Narrow slots, small corner radii

Electric discharge machining (sink EDM)

electrode

productive time in min

removal area
of electrode in m m 2
V removal volume in m m 3
3
Vw removal rate in mm /min

Productive time
v_
w

Example:
Roughing of steel; graphite electrode,
S = 150 mm 2 ; V= 3060 m m 3 ; V w = ?; f p = ?
V w = 31 mm 3 /min (from table)
3060 mm 3
= 99 min
31 mm 3 /min
Removal rate V w (standard values)11
Removal rate l / w in mm 3 /min
Workpiece
material

Steel
Carbide
1)

Electrode

Graphite
Copper
Copper

10
to
50
7.0
13.3
6.0

Rough ing
rem()val area S in mnn 2
50
100
200
300
to
to
to
to
100
200
400
300
18
62
81
31
22
28
51
85
15
18
28
30

400
to
600
105
105
33

Finishin g
des ired rouejhness d epth Rz in
i pm
4
2
3
8
6
to
to
to
to
to
3
4
6
10
8
2
5
0.1
0.5
3.8
5
1.9
0.1
2.2
0.5
5.2

Actual values will vary widely due to the effects of different processing methods. Refer to page 314.

314

Production engineering: 6.

ei

Process parameters in EDM erosion

Vw
1/

removal rate in mm 3 /min

removal volume in m m 3

removal time in min

absolute tool wear in
mm3

Ve

relative tool wear in %

Removal rate

Relative tool wear

Wei

Parameter

Electrode
Material

Explanations, characteristics and applications

Electrolytic
copper

Universal application; low wear behavior; high removal rate;

for finish and rough machining; difficult to manufacture electrode by machining;
high thermal expansion; no cracked edges;
tendency to warp

Graphite
in various grain

Universal application; very low wear; greater current density than Cu;
low electrode weight; easy to manufacture electrode by machining;
non-warping; low thermal expansion; more detailed electrodes are made by
selecting a finer graphite grain; unsuitable for carbide machining

sizes

Tungsten-copper

Detailed electrodes; very low wear; very high material removal rate with relatively
low discharge currents even with large current densities;
only manufactured in limited sizes, high electrode weight

Copper-graphite

Special applications involving small electrode dimensions with simultaneous high

electrode strength; wear and material removal rate play a subordinate role in these
special applications

Synthetic oils,
filtered and
Dielectric cooled; according
t o
m a c h i n e
fluid
manufacturer

Flushing

Depending on requirements and available options, different flushing methods can

Replacement of
be used to maintain stable erosion performance:
dielectric fluid
at the erosion site flooding (most commonly used method, simultaneous heat rejection)
pressure flushing through hollow electrodes or next to electrode
Remove eroded
vacuum flushing through hollow electrode or next to electrode
particles from
interval flushing caused by retracting electrode
gap
movement flushing by relative movement between workpiece and electrode,
without interrupting erosion cycle
positive

Electrode is positively polarized; for low electrode burn rate during roughing with
long pulse duration and low frequency

negative

Electrode is negatively polarized; for erosion with short pulse duration and high
frequency

face

Kept constant during feed (controlled by discharge voltage).

Control sensitivity set too high: Electrode continually pulses on and off, controlled
discharge impossible.
Control sensitivity set too low: Abnormal discharges increase or gap remains too
large for discharge.

side

Determined primarily by duration and size of discharge pulse, depends on material

matching and no-load voltage

low

Low removal performance, low tool wear on copper electrodes, high wear on
graphite electrodes

high

High removal performance, high tool wear on copper electrodes, low wear on
graphite electrodes

s h o r t

Electrode wear with positive polarity is larger, lower removal rate

l o n g

Electrode wear with positive polarity Is smaller, higher removal rate

Polarity

Gap

Discharge
current

Pulse
duration

Requirements for dielectric fluids:

low and constant conductivity for stable sparking
low viscosity for filtrability and penetrating ability in narrow gaps
low evaporation to reduce hazardous vapors
high flash point to avoid fire hazard
high heat conductance value for good cooling
extremely low health hazard for operators

Production engineering: 6.

paation

315

ctin

Cutting force, Operating conditions for presses

Cutting force, cutting work

mmax

force-stroke curve

/y
at
C
o
M

cn
c

\k

F - S Tsb max

Max. shear strength

r

sB max

0.8 /?,m max

Example:
f-

b
^CO
^)
II

fgg m a x
IV
s

Cutting force

cutting force
calculated cutting force
shear area
maximum tensile strength
mavimnm
maximumchoar
shearctronnth
strength
cutting work
sheet metal thickness

S = 236 m m 2 ; s = 2.5 mm; R m

cvj|r
II n

= 510 N/mm 2

Cutting work

Wanted: r s B m a x ; F ; W

I'

max

I"

Solution: r s B

working stroke h

max

= 0.8 R m

max

= 0.8 510 N/mm 2 = 408 N/mm 2

F = S-tSB m a x = 236 m m 2 408 N/mm 2
= 96 288 N =96.288 kN

sheet metal
thickness s

W = - y F s = - J - 96.288 kN 2.5 mm
* 160 kN mm = 160 N - m

Operating conditions for eccentric and crank presses

crank

connecting

Press drives are usually designed such that the

nominal pressing force is applied at crank angle
a = 30.
Machines operate without interruption in continuous mode or can be stopped after each cycle in
single-stroke mode. For presses with adjustable
strokes, the allowable pressing force is less than
the nominal pressing force.

Work capacity in
continuous mode

15

Work capacity in
single-stroke mode
F

cutting force, shaping force

Fn

nominal pressing force

ws = 2 Wc

Fallow allow, pressing force for adjustable stroke

S
stroke, maximum stroke for adjustable
stroke

ram
metal
strip

Sa

adjusted stroke

working distance (= sheet metal thickness s)

crank angle

cutting work, shaping work

Wc

work capacity in continuous mode

W<

work capacity in single-stroke mode

Operating conditions
Fixed stroke

Example:
Eccentric press with fixed stroke F n = 250 kN; S = 30 mm;
F= 207 kN; s = 4 mm
Find: W; Wc. Can the press be put into continuous mode?
2

Solution: W = - F s = - 207 kN 4 mm = 552 kN mm = 552 N m

F * Fn
W < Wc or
W <
Adjustable stroke
F

Fgiiow
FnS

^allow

,at
F15
250 kN
n S
15 30 mm
\Nn =
=
= 500 kN mm = 500 N m
If F< F n , but W> Wc, the press cannot be used in continuous mode for
this workpiece.

W < W c or
W < Ws

316

Production engineering: 6.

e i o n i n g

Tool and workpiece dimensions

Punch and cutting die dimensions

cf. VDI 3368 (1982-05)

punch
dimension
cutting die
dimension

Piercing

Blanking

Governing
specified size is:

dimension of
punch d

dimension of
cutting die D

Dimension of
opposite tool

cutting die
D=d+2 u

punch
d=D-2u

Process
Shape of
workpiece

die clearance
sheet metal
thickness
clearance angle
cutting die

Die clearance u as a function of material and sheet metal thickness

sheet metal
thickness s
mm
0.4-0.6
0.7-0.8
0.9-1
1.5-2
2.5-3
3.5-4

Cutting die opening

with clearance angle a
shear strength r s B in N/mm 2
up to 250 | 251-400 | 401-600 | over 600
die clearance u in mm
0.01
0.02
0.015
0.025
0.015
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.05
0.03
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.04
0.07
0.10
0.12
0.12
0.06
0.09
0.16

Cutting die opening

without clearance angle a
shear strength r s e in N/mm 2
up to 250 | 251-400 | 401-600 | over 600
die clearance u in mm
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.04
0.025
0.03
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.11
0.08
0.11
0.14
0.17
0.11
0.15
0.19
0.23

Web width, edge width, trim stop waste for metallic materials
a edge width
e web width
l a edge length
l e web length
B strip width
/' trim stop waste
(french stop waste)

Polygonal workpieces:
The web or edge length, whichever is larger,
is used to determine web and edge widths.
Round workpieces:
For all diameters values given for / e = l a =
10 mm of polygonal workpieces apply to
web and edge widths.

Polygonal workpieces
Strip
width B
mm

up to
100 mm

Web length le
Edge length / a
mm

Web
width e
Edge
width a

0.1

0.3

0.5

0.75

1.0

1.25

1.5

1.75

2.0

2.5

3.0

up to 10

e
a

0.8
1.0

0.8
0.9

0.8
0.9

0.9

1.0

1.2

1.3

1.5

1.6

1.9

2.1

11-50

e
a

1.6
1.9

1.2
1.5

0.9
1.0

1.0

1.1

1.4

1.4

1.6

1.7

2.0

2.3

51-100

e
a

1.8
2.2

1.4
1.7

1.0
1.2

1.2

1.3

1.6

1.6

1.8

1.9

2.2

2.5

over 100

e
a

2.0
2.4

1.6
1.9

1.2
1.5

1.4

1.5

1.8

1.8

2.0

2.1

2.4

2.7

1.8

2.2

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.5

Sheeit metal thickn(5ss s in mm

1.5

trim stop waste /'

over
100 mm
to
200 mm

up to 10

e
a

0.9
1.2

1.0
1.1

1.0
1.1

1.0

1.1

1.3

1.4

1.6

1.7

2.0

2.3

11-50

e
a

1.8
2.2

1.4
1.7

1.0
1.2

1.2

1.3

1.6

1.6

1.8

1.9

2.2

2.5

51-100

e
a

2.0
2.4

1.6
1.9

1.2
1.5

1.4

1.5

1.8

1.8

2.0

2.1

2.4

2.7

101-200

e
a

2.2
2.7

1.8
2.2

1.4
1.7

1.6

1.7

2.0

2.0

2.2

2.3

2.6

2.9

1.8

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

5.0

trim stop waste i

1.5

Production engineering: 6.

paation

317

ctin

Location of punch holder shank, Utilization of strip stock

Location of punch holder shank for punch geometry with known center of gravity
Punch layout
prepunching

Distance of the center of forces

Workpiece

blanking out

x=

C]

d i + C2 ' 3 2 C '

+ ...

C i + Co + Co + . . .

Example:

-<P

Based on the figure at left, calculate the distance x of

center of forces S.
Solution:

10

The outer perimeter of the cutting punch is chosen as

reference edge.
Blanking punch: C| = 4 20 mm = 80 mm; a-i = 10 mm
Piercing punch: C2 = n 10 mm = 31.4 mm; a 2 = 31 mm

20
selected reference edge
Ci, C2, C3 ...
a-|, a2, a 3 ...
x

circumferences of individual punches

distances from punch centers of gravity
to selected reference edge
distance of center of forces S
from chosen reference edge

x=

C-] 3-\ + C2 ' 5 2

Ci + C 2

x=

80 mm 10 mm + 31.4 mm 31 mm
16 mm
80 mm + 31.4 mm

Location of punch holder shank for punch geometry with unknown center of gravity
Center of forces corresponds to centroid of the line 1) of
all cutting edges.
Punch layout
Workpiece

Distance of the center of forces

X =

I, a^+l2 a2+l3

a3 +..

x = Q
Z'n

Example:

Calculate the location of the punch holder shank on

the progressive die for the workpiece shown in the
figure at the left.
Solution:
n
/ n in mm

selected
refer,
edge
/v h> h t 0
cutting edge lengths
a-i, a 2 , a 3 to a n distance from line centroids
to selected reference edges
x
distance from center of forces
to selected reference edge
n
1)

15

9.8
21

23.6
20
2 20
20

118.6

3
4

I / n a,
n
x = I'n

number of individual cutting edge

For line centroids, see page 32

/ n a n in m m 2

a n in mm

75
231.28
420
1240
820

31
41

2786.28

2786.28 mm
118.6 mm

_ ^
23.5 mm

Utilization of strip stock for single row stamping

strip
area
V W

workpiece
area
A -l-w
I

I
w

workpiece length
workpiece width

W
a

strip width
edge width

web width

V
A
R

strip feed
area of workpiece
(including holes)
number of rows

degree of utilization

Strip width
W=w+2a
Strip feed

V=l+e
Utilization factor

318

Production engineering: 6.

o i n g

Bending radius, Bend allowances, Calculation of blank size

Smallest allowable bending radius for bent parts of non-ferrous metals
Material

Material condition

AIMg3-01
AIMg3-H14
AIMg3-H111

spheroidized
cold work hardened
cold work hardened
and annealed
AIMg4.5Mn-H112 spheroidized
straightened
AIMg4.5Mn-H111 cold work hardened
and annealed
AIMgSi1-T6
solution annealed
and artificially aged
CuZn37-R600
hard
1)
For bending angle a = 90, regardless of

>

cf. DIN 5520 (2002-07)

Thickness s in mm
0.8 | 1
1.5 | 2 | 3 | 4
Smallest allowable bending radius r 1 )
0.6
1
2
4
3
6
4
14
1.6
2.5
6
10
1

1.5

4.5

10

1.5

2.5

10

14

1.6

2.5

10

16

20

25

12

16

23

28

36

4
2.5
5
rolling direction

10

12

18

24

Smallest allowable bending radius for cold bending steel

cf. DIN 6935 (1975-10)

Minlimum bendi ng rad ius 1 ) r for s heet mletal th icknes:s s in in m

Minimum tensile
strength Rm
in N/MM 2 over-to

1)

5
6
in mm
8
10
18

10

10

12

10

12

1.5

2.5

up to 390

1.6

2.5

390-490

1.2

490-640

1.6

2.5

10

12

14

16

12

16

20

25

16

20

25

28

16

20

25

32

36

18

20

28

36

40

32

40

45

45

50

Values apply to bending angle a < 120 and bending transverse to rolling direction. Value of the next larger sheet
metal thickness should be selected for bending longitudinal to rolling direction and bending angle a > 120.

Bend allowances v for bending angle a = 90c

Bending

cf. Supplement 2 to DIN 6935 (withdrawn)

Bend allowance v per bend in mm for sheet metal thickness s in mm

in mm

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

1
1.6
2.5
4

1.0
1.3
1.6

1.3
1.6
2.0
2.5

1.7
1.8
2.2
2.8

1.9
2.1
2.4
3.0

2.9
3.2
3.7

4.0
4.5

4.8
5.2

6.0

6.9

3.4

3.8
5.5
8.1
9.8

4.5
6.1
8.7
10.4

5.2
6.7
9.3
11.0

5.9
7.4
9.9
11.6

6.7
8.1
10.5
12.2

7.5
8.9
11.2
12.8

8.3
9.6
11.9
13.4

9.0
10.4
12.6
14.1

9.9
11.2
13.3
14.9

12.7
14.8
16.3

17.8
19.3

21.0
22.3

11.9
15.0
18.4
22.7

12.6
15.6
19.0
23.3

13.2
16.2
19.6
23.9

13.8
16.8
20.2
24.5

14.4
17.4
20.8
25.1

15.0
18.0
21.4
25.7

15.6
18.6
22.0
26.3

16.2
19.2
22.6
26.9

16.8
19.8
23.2
27.5

18.2
21.0
24.5
28.8

21.1
23.8
26.9
31.2

24.1
26.7
29.7
33.6

6
10
16
20

25
32
40
50

Calculation of blank size for 90 bent parts

L developed length 1 '
a, b, c length of leg
s thickness
r bending radius
n number of bends
v bend allowance
\ e

-Q

"

10

cf. DIN 6935 (1975-10)

Developed length2'

L = a+ b+
2)

c+...-n-v

Calculated developed length

should be rounded off to a
whole mm value.

Example (see illus.):

a= 25 mm; b = 20 mm; c = 15 mm; n = 2; f = 2 mm;
r = 4 mm; material S235JR; v = ?; L = ?
v= 4.5 mm (from table above)
L = a + b+ c- n v= (25 + 20 + 15 - 2 4.5) mm = 51 mm

a
L
11

If the ratio r/s > 5, the formula for developed length (page 24) can be
used.

Production engineering: 6.

319

ormin

Calculation of blank size, Springback in bending

Calculation of blank size for parts with any selected bending angle
L
a, b
v
k

developed length
length of leg
bend allowance
correction factor

cf. DIN 6935(1975-10)

Developed length 1 '

s sheet met. thickness

r bending radius
(3 aperture angle

L = a +

b-v

Bend allowance for p - 0 to 90

Bend allowance for p over 90 to 165c

o

v = 2 (r + s) tan

(180-/^

180-j3

- n

180 y

f r + s- u)
k
K
2
J

Bending allowance for p over 165 to 180

v~0 (negligible)
Correction factor

Example:
Bent part with p = 60, a = 16 mm, b = 21 mm, r=6 mm,
s = 5 mm; k = ?; v = ?; L = ?;

Correction factor

6 mm

= 1.2; k = 0.7 (from diagram);

s 5 mm
k - 0.689 (calculated by formula)
v =2 (r + s)-n

[
1)

J V 2

180

1 n fio \

-^6 + - 0.7 | mm = 5.77 mm

i8qo
L =a + b-v = 16 mm+ 21 mm-5.77 m m 32 mm
For r/s > 5 the developed length (page 24) is sufficiently accurate
for calculations.

Springback in bending
Radius on tool

angle of bend before

springback (on tool)
a2
r-\
r2
/tr
s

Material of
bent part

angle of bend after

springback (on workpiece)
radius on tool
bending radius on workpiece
springback factor
sheet metal thickness

Springback factor

r, = fcR-(r2 + 0 . 5 - s ) - 0 . 5 - s

Angle of bend before springback

for the ratio r2/s

1.6

2.5

6.3

10

16

25

40

63

100

DC04
DC01
X12CrNi18-8

0.99
0.99
0.99

0.99
0.99
0.98

0.99
0.99
0.97

0.98
0.97
0.95

0.97
0.96
0.93

0.97
0.96
0.89

0.96
0.93
0.84

0.94
0.90
0.76

0.91
0.85
0.63

0.87
0.77

0.83
0.66

E-Cu-R20
CuZn33-R29
CuNi18Zn20

0.98
0.97

0.97
0.97

0.97
0.96

0.96
0.95
0.97

0.95
0.94
0.96

0.93
0.93
0.95

0.90
0.89
0.92

0.85
0.86
0.87

0.79
0.83
0.82

0.72
0.77
0.72

0.6
0.73

EN AW-A199.0
EN AW-AICuMg1
EN AW-AISiMgMn

0.99
0.92
0.98

0.99
0.84
0.96

0.98
0.77
0.95

0.98
0.67
0.93

0.97
0.54
0.90

0.97

0.96

0.95

0.93

0.99
0.90
0.98

0.99
0.87
0.97

0.86

0.82

0.76

0.72

320

Production engineering: 6.

o i n g

Deep drawing
Calculation of blank diameter
Drawn part

Blank diameter D

Drawn part

without flange d2

without flange d2

d,

D = Jd? +4 d-i h

D = yjd2 +4

D = yl2 d,2+4

d-i h

without flange d3
J

i.

CM
. ! -c:
i

D = yjd2

0 = ^2-d?+4-d^

with flange d2

with flange d2
2

Blank diameter D

+4 (d: fy +d2 h2

d^ h +

(d22-d?)

without flange d2
D = yjdi2+4

d-i h2

\r

with flange d3

with flange d2

D = yjd32+ 4 (d, h<i+d2 h2

D = yjd,2 +4 h, 2 +4 dy h2

without flange d 4

without flange d2

0 =^ + 4

D = y]2 d? =1.414 d

d2 /

+(d22-df)

JUf

II

1 s

with flange d2

with flange dA
2

D = y]d-\ + 4 d 2 l +

D = yjd-f +d22

(dA -d3 )

Example:
Cylindrical drawn part with flange d2 (see figure, upper left) with d-\ = 50 mm, h = 30 mm; D = ?
D = > j d f + 4 d: h = V502 mm 2 +4 50 mm 30 mm = 92.2 mm

Drawing gap and radii on draw ring and draw punch

blank holder
blank

drawing gap

sheet metal thickness

material factor

rr

radius on draw ring

rst

radius of draw punch

blank diameter

punch diameter

dr

draw ring diameter

Drawing gap in mm
w = s + k V10 s

Radius of draw ring in mm

For each redraw the radius of the draw

ring should be reduced by 20 to 40%.

Drawing gap
dr-d

Radius of draw punch in mm

rst = (4 to 5) s

Example:
Steel sheet; D = 51 mm; d = 25 mm; s = 2 mm; w = ?; r r = ?; r s t = ?
Material factor k

= 0.07 (from table)

Steel

0.07

Aluminum

0.02

rr

0.04

r s t = 4.5 s = 4.5 2 mm = 9 mm

Other non-ferrous metals

w = s + k / 1 0 - s = 2 + 0.07 V10 2 = 2.3 mm

= 0.035 [50 + (D - d)] / s = 0.035 [50 + (51 - 25)] / 2 = 3.8 mm

Production engineering: 6.

321

ormin

Deep drawing
Drawing steps and drawing ratios

draw punch
blank holder

D
d
d-\
d2
dn
02
/? tot
s

1st draw

\
draw ring

blank diameter
inside diameter of finished drawn part
punch diameter for 1st draw
punch diameter for 2nd draw
punch diameter for nth draw
drawing ratio for 1st draw
drawing ratio for 2nd draw
total drawing ratio
sheet metal thickness

Drawing ratio
1st draw

2nd draw

Example:
Cup without flange made of DC04 (St 14) with d =
50 mm; /7 = 60 mm; D = ?;fa = ?; /?2 = ?; di = ?; d 2 = ?

d2

D = y/d2 +4 d h
blank holder

= V(50 mm) 2 + 4 50 mm 60 mm 120 mm

/S, =2.0; $2 = 1.3 (according to table below)
,
D 120 mm
_
d* = =
= 60 mm
0^
2.0
60 mm
46 mm
02
1-3
Two draws sufficient since

Redraw

Material

Max. d rawing
rati'os1>

R 2>
n
m

02

N/mm 2

Material

Max. d rawing
rati os1>

Total
drawing ratio

d2<d
R 2>
n
m

02

N/mm 2

Material

R 2>
n
m

Max. d rawing
rati OS1'
P,

N/mm 2

DC01 (St12)

1.8

1.2

410

CuZn30-R270

2.1

1.3

270

AI99.5 H111

2.1

02
1.6

DC03 (St13)

1.9

1.3

370

CuZn37-R300

2.1

1.4

300

AIMgl H111

1.9

1.3

145

DC04 (St14)

2.0

1.3

350

CuZn37-R410

1.9

1.2

410

AICu4Mg1 T4

2.0

1.5

425

X10CrNi18-8

1.8

1.2

750

CuSn6-R350

1.5

1.2

350

AISilMgMn T6

2.1

1.4

310

1)

95

Values apply up to d-i : s = 300; they were determined for d-\ = 100 mm and s = 1 mm. Values change negligibly
2)
for other sheet metal thicknesses and punch diameters.
maximum tensile strength

Tearing force, deep drawing force, blank holding force

Ft

tearing force

dd
di
s

deep drawing force

Am

tensile strength
drawing ratio

0
0max

Fu
D
Blank holding pressure p in N/mm 2
Steel

2.5

Cu alloys

2.0-2.4

Al alloys

1.2-1.5

dh
P
rr
w

Tearing force

punch diameter
sheet metal thickness

max. possible
drawing ratio
blank holding force

Deep drawing force

Fdd = Ji-(d1 + s ) . s - / 7 m - 1 . 2 .

P-1

An ax

Blank holding force

blank diameter
support diameter
of blank holding force
blank holding pressure
radius on draw ring
drawing gap

Support diameter of blank holding force

d h = di + 2 (r r + w)

Example:
D = 210 mm; d-, = 140 mm; s = 1 mm; Rm = 380 N/mm 2 ; ^ = 1.5; ftmax = 1 -9'' ^dd = ?
jS-1 = ii (140 mm + 1 mm) 1 mm 380N 1.2 1.5-1 = 112218 N
Fdd = K (d-] +s) s /? m 1.2
1.9-1
mm^
^max-1

322

Production engineering: 6.7 Joining,

eding

Welding processes, Positions, General tolerances

Welding, cutting, soldering and related processes
n

Method, process

1 Arc welding
101
111

metal arc welding

shielded metal arc welding

N1>

Method, process

24
25

flash butt welding

upset welding

11

metal arc welding

without shielding gas

311

12
13

submerged arc welding

gas shielded metal arc welding

312

131
135

gas metal arc welding

metal active gas welding (MAG)

136

cf. DIN EN ISO 4063 (2000-04)

N1>

Method, process
Other welding methods

73
74

electrogas welding
induction welding

oxyacetylene welding

75
753

light beam welding

infrared welding

gas welding with oxygen/

propane flame

78
788

stud welding
friction stud welding

Gas welding

Pressure welding

flux cored arc welding

with active gas shield

41
42

ultrasonic welding
friction welding

81
82

oxygen cutting
arc cutting

137

flux cored arc welding

with inert gas shield

45
47

diffusion welding
pressure gas welding

83
84

plasma cutting
laser beam cutting

14
141

tungsten gas shield, arc welding

gas tungsten arc welding

Brazing, soldering

15
151

plasma arc welding

plasma TIG welding

51
52

Resistance welding

21
22
225
23

Beam welding

Cutting

electron beam welding

laser beam welding

91
912

brazing
torch brazing

512

electron beam
welding, nonvacuum

914
924

metal bath brazing

vacuum brazing

resistance spot welding

seam welding

521

solid-state laser beam

in atmosphere

94
944

soldering
metal bath soldering

foil butt seam welding

projection welding

522

gas laser beam welding

946
952

induction soldering
iron soldering

Process ISO 4063-111: Specified welding process -* manual arc welding (111)
1)

N Reference number for designating methods and processes in drawings, operating procedures and data processing

Welding positions

cf. DIN EN ISO 6947 (1997-05)

PD ^

PEK

PA-""

Name

Main position, description

PA

flat welding position

weld axis vertical, horizontal work, final pass

at top

PB

horizontal position

horizontal work, final pass at top

PC

transverse position

PD

horizontal
overhead position

weld axis horizontal, horizontal work

direction
horizontal work direction, overhead,
final pass at bottom

PE

overhead position

horizontal work direction, weld axis vertical,

final pass at bottom

PF

vertical up position

upward work direction

PG

vertic. down position

downward work direction

Code

PEx

fit
E r

^ PF
-PG

General tolerances for weldments

cf. DIN EN ISO 13920 (1996-11)

Allowable deviations
for length dimensions
A/ in mm
nominal size range / 1 >

Degree
of accuracy

1)

/ shorter leg

for angle dimensions

A a in and '
nominal size range / 1 )

to
30

over
30
to
120

over
120
to
400

over
400
to
1000

over
1000
to
2000

over
2000
to
4000

to
400

over
400
to
1000

over
1000

20'

15'

10'

45'

30'

20'

11

45'

30'

Production engineering: 6.

oin

cf. DIN EN ISO 9692-1 (2004-05),

replaces DIN EN 29692

Weld preparation
Name,
Workweld symbol piece
thickness D 1 '
weld
t
Edge form
pages 93-95
mm
Flare-V
groove
weld

butt weld

Weld preparation
Dimension
gap b
mm

web c
mm

angle a
in

Preferred
welding
method 2 '

0-2

3, 111, 141,
512

0-4

3, 111, 141

t/2

111, 141

0-8

< t/2
V groove
weld

V
Y-butt weld

3-10

<4

3-40

<3

13

<2

5-40

1-4

> 10

1-3

<2
2-4

13

111,

60c

111, 141

13, 141

2-4

111, 141

<2
40-60c

13

3-10

2-4

1-2

35-60c

111,

I /

3-30

1-4

<2

35-60c

111,

1-4

<2

35-60c

double
bevel weld

With root and

backing run

13

bevel
groove
weld

> 10

Little filler
material,
no weld
preparation

111, 141

60c

60c
1-3

Thin sheet
welding,
usually without
filler material

With backing run

40-60c

40-60c

> 10

Remarks

40-60c
60c

double
V-weld

323

ein

Symmetrical
edge form,
h=t/2

13, 141

13, 141

111,
13, 141

With backing run

Symmetrical
edge form,
h = t/2 or t/3

fi

| v

>2

<2

70-100c

3, 111,
13, 141

-2

70-110

3, 111,
13, 141

T-joint

Fillet weld

>3

1
it

- i t :Qia
J

1)
2

j!

D Design: s single-V weld; d double-Vweld

' For welding methods, see page 322

Double fillet weld,

corner joint

324

Production engineering: 6.7 Joining,

eding

Compressed gas cylinders. Gas welding rods

Compressed gas cylinders^

cf. DIN EN 1089-3 (2004-06)

1

Color coding '

as per DIN EN 1089-3
previbody
shoulder
ous

Filling
Filling
pressure p F quantity
bar
6 m3
150
Oxygen
blue
white
R3/4
blue
10 m 3
200
chestnut- chestnut8 kg
19
Acetylene
yellow Quick connect
brown
brown
10 kg
19
10
2 m3
200
Hydrogen
red
red
red
W21.80x1/14
50
10 m 3
200
dark2 m3
10
200
Argon
W21.80x1/14
gray
gray
10 m 3
green
50
200
2 m3
200
10
Helium
brown
W21.80x1/14
gray
gray
10
m3
200
50
4 m3
Argon-carbon
fluorescent
200
20
W21.80x1/14
gray
gray
10 m 3
dioxide mixture
green
200
50
7.5 kg
10
58
Carbon dioxide gray
W21.80x1/14
gray
gray
58
20 kg
50
6 m3
dark40
150
Nitrogen
black
W24.32x1/14
gray
10 m 3
green
50
200
1)
Changeover to the new color coding should be completed by July 1, 2006. During the transition
period the hazardous substance label (page 331) is the only legally valid designation.
*) According to European Standards
Type of gas

shoulder
N

body

Connection
threads

Gas welding rods for steel joint welding

Volume
1/
/
40
50
40
50

cf. DIN EN 12536(2000-08),

replaces DIN 8554-1

Classification, weld metal analysis, weld behavior

Designation
new

prev.

Ol
O

Weld metal analysis in % (standard values)

C

Si

Mn

GI

<0.1

<0.20

<0.65

G II

<0.2

<0.25

<1.20

<0.15

<0.25

<1.25

Mo

Ni

Weld behavior
Cr

Flow behavior

Spatter

Tendency
for pores

highly fluid

high

yes

less highly fluid

low

yes

semifluid

none

no

<0.80

OIV

G IV

<0.15

<0.25

<1.20

<0.65

<1.20

semifluid

none

no

OV

GV

<0.10

<0.25

<1.20

<0.65

<1.20

semifluid

none

no

Areas of application, mechanical properties

Welding
rod,
code

1>

Yield
strength
Re
N/mm 2

Tensile
strength
Am
N/mm 2

Elongation
at fracture
A
%

NI 2 '

Areas of
application

Steel type

Sheet, tube

S235, S275

0 I

> 260

360-410

> 20

>30

S235, S275,
P235GH, P265GH

0 II

>300

390-440

>20

>47

S235, S275
P235GH, P265GH

>310

400-460

>22

>47

Boilers, pipes,
temperature resistant up to 530 C

S235, S355, S275, P235,

P235GH, P265GH,
P295GH, 16Mo3

0 IV

>260

440-490

>22

>47

Boilers, pipes,
temperature resistant up to 570 C

13CrMo4-5, 16CrMo3

OV

>315

490-590

> 18

>47

Vessels,
pipes

Rod EN 12536 - O IV: Gas welding rod of Class IV

1)

T Treatment condition of the weld: U untreated (weld condition); T tempered

2)

NI notch impact energy at +20C, determined using an ISO-V test specimen

Production engineering: 6.

oin

325

ein

Shielding gases, Wire electrodes*

Shielding gases for arc welding of steel
Codes

Composition 1 '

Gas type,
effect

Welding
methods

Materials;
Applications

reduction
gases

TIG, plasmawelding

high-alloy steels,
Ni, Ni alloys

inert gases
(neutral
behavior)

MIG, TIG,
plasmawelding

Al, Al alloys,
Cu, Cu alloys

gas mixtures,
weak
oxidizing

MAG welding

alloyed Cr-Ni steels;

mainly stainless and
acid-resistant steels

mixed gases,
more strongly
oxidizing

MAG welding

low-alloyed and
medium-alloyed steels

mixed gases,
medium
oxidizing

MAG welding

unalloyed and low

alloyed steels; heavy
plate

strongly oxidizing gases

MAG welding

unalloyed steels

R1

H 2 < 15%, balance Ar or He

R2

(15-35)% H 2 , balance Ar or He

11

100% Ar

12

100% He

13

cf. DIN EN 439 (1995-05)

He < 95%, balance Ar

M11

C0 2 < 5%, H 2 < 5%, balance Ar or He

M12

(3-10)% C0 2 , balance Ar or He

M13

0 2 < 3%, balance Ar

M21

(5-25)% C0 2 , balance Ar or He

M22

(3-10)% C0 2 , balance Ar or He

M23

C0 2 < 5%, (3-10)% 0 2 , balance Ar or He

M31

(25-50)% C0 2 , balance Ar or He

M32

(10-15)% 0 2 , balance Ar or He

M33

(5-50)% C0 2 , (8-15)% 0 2 , balance Ar or He

C1

100% C0 2

C2

0 2 < 30%, balance C0 2

Shielding gas EN 439-13: Inert gas with up to 95% Helium, balance Argon
1>

Ar argon

He helium

0 2 oxygen

C 0 2 carbon dioxide

H 2 hydrogen

Wire electrodes and deposits for gas-shielded metal arc

welding of non-alloy and fine grain structural steels

cf. DIN EN 440 (1994-11)

Designation example (weld metal):

EN 440 -

46

Standard number

G3Si1
Designation
for shielding gases

2
Designation for
gas shielded metal
arc welding

Code digit for

the mechanical
properties of the
weld metal
(page 327)

Code digit for

notch impact
energy of the
weld metal
(page 327)

Code
letter

Shielding gases
DIN 439

M21, M22,
M23, M24

C1

Chemical composition of the wire electrodes (examples)

Designation

Main alloying elements

GO

All compositions agreed upon

G3Si1

0.7-1.0% Si, 1.3-1.6% Mn

Designation
G2T1
G2Ni2

Main alloying elements

0.5-0.8% Si, 0.9-1.4% Mn, 0.05-0.25% Ti
0.4-0.8% Si, 0.8-1.4% Mn, 2.1-2.7% Ni

EN 440 - G 46 4 M G3Si1: Properties of weld metal: Minimum yield strength R e = 460 N/mm 2 ,
notch impact energy at-40C = 47 J; mixed gas M21-M24, electrode with 0.7-1.0% Si, 1.3-1.6% Mn
Wire electrodes (selection)
Designation as per
DIN EN 440

Welding
methods

Shielding
gases

Usable on steels,
examples

Applications, properties,
examples

G 46 4 M G3Si1

MAG

M21-M24, C1

joint and build-up welding

G 50 4 M G4Si1

MAG

M21-M24, C1

S185-S355, E295, E335,

P235-P355, GP240R,
L210-L360

G 46 M G2Ni2

MAG

M21

12Ni 14, 13MnNi6-3,

S(P)275-S(P)420

fine grain structural steels and

steels with low-temp, toughness

*) According to European Standards

like G3Si1, but higher mechanical

strength properties

326

Production engineering: 6.7 Joining,

eding

Standard values for gas shielded metal arc welding. Filler metals for aluminum
v\feld design
Weld
Number
Wire
thickness diameter of passes
a
mm
mm

Weld seam type

Voltage
V

Sett ings
Current Wire feed
A
rate1*
m/min

Shielding gas
l/min

Efficient :y values
ProFiller
ductive
metal
time
min/m
g/m

MAG welding, standard values for unalloyed structural steel

Welding position: PB

Wire electrode DIN EN 440 - G 46 4 M G3Si1

2
3
4

0.8
1.0
1.0

20
22
23

105
215
220

7
11
11

10

45
90
140

1.5
1.4
2.1

5
6
7

1.0
1.0
1.2

1
1
3

30

300

10

15

215
300
390

2.6
3.5
4.6

8
10

1.2

3
4

30

300

10

15

545
805

6.4
9.5

K
/

Shielding gas DIN EN 439 - M21

MIG welding, standard values for aluminum alloys

Welding position: PA

Filler metal DIN 1732 - SG - AIMg5

ro I
IS W / / / J

F
1)

Shielding gas DIN EN 439-11

4
5
6

1.2
1.6
1.6

23
25
26

180
200
230

3
4
7

12
18
18

30
77
147

2.9
3.3
3.9

5
6
8

1.6

1
2
2

22
22
26

160
170
220

6
6
7

18

126
147
183

4.2
4.6
5.0

For MIG welding: welding travel speed

TIG welding, standard values for aluminum alloys

Welding position: PA

Filler metal DIN 1732 - SG - AIMg5

3.0

75
90

0.3
0.2

19
22

3.8
4.3

2
3

3.0

110
125

0.2

28

1.8
5.9

4
5
6

3.0

160
185
210

0.2
0.1
0.1

8
10
10

38
47
47

6.7
7.1
12

4.0

1st layer
2nd layer

165

0.1
0.2

12

105

13

4.0

1st layer
2nd layer

165

0.1
0.2

12

190

16

0
1
E S S H / / / / J
J

70

Shielding gas DIN EN 439-11

1
1.5

Welding fillers for aluminum

Designations 11

cf. DIN 1732 (1988-06)

Material
number

Application for base metals

(Designation without adding EN AW)

SG-AI99.8

(EL-AI99.8)

3.0286

AI99.7, AI99.5

SG-AI99.5T1

(EL-AI99.5T1)

3.0805

AI99.0, AI99.5

SG-AIMn1

(EL-AIMn1)

3.0516

AIMnl, AIMnlCu

SG-AIMg3

3.3536

AIMg1(C), AIMg3

SG-AIMg5

3.3556

AIMg3, AIMg4, AIMg5, AISilMgMn, AIMglSiCu, AIZn4.5Mg1,

G-AIMg5, G-AIMgSi, G-AIMg3, G-AIMg3Si

SG-AIMg4.5Mn

3.3548

AIMg4, AIMg5, AISilMgMn, AIMglSiCu, AIZn4.5Mg1, G-AIMg5,

G-AIMgSi

SG-AISi5

(EL-AISi5)

3.2245

AIMgSilCu, AIZn4.5Mg1

SG-AISi12

(EL-AISi12)

3.2585

G-AISi1, G-AISi9Mg, G-AISi7Mg, G-AISi5Mg

1)

SG metal fillers with bare surfaces; EL coated rod electrodes

Production engineering: 6.

oin

327

ein

Rod electrodes for arc welding

cf. DIN EN ISO 2560 (2006-03)
replaces DIN EN 499

Coated rod electrodes for unalloyed steels and fine grain steels
Classification of rod electrodes
Yield strength
Notch impact energy 47 J

Tensile strength
Notch impact energy 27 J

according to

Designation example

ISO 2560-A - E 46 3 INiB 54 H5

Standard number
A classification according to
yield strength and notch
impact energy 47 J

H hydrogen content
5 - > 5 ml/100 g weld metal

E coated rod electrode

Code numbers for the mechanical properties
of weld metal
Code Minimum
number
yield
strength
N/mm 2

Tensile
strength
N/mm

Minimum
elongation
at fracture
EL5 in %

35

355

440-570

22

38

380

470-600

20

42

420

500-640

20

46

460

530-680

20

50

500

560-720

18

Code numbers for the welding position

Code
number

Welding position

all positions

all positions, except vertical down welds

butt weld in flat position, fillet weld

in flat and horizontal position

butt and fillet weld in flat position

for vertical down weld and as in number 3

Code number for the efficiency and the type of current

Code letter for the notch impact energy
of weld metal

Code
number

Efficiency
%

Type of current

Code letter/
code number

Minimum notch impact energy

47 J at C

> 105

AC and DC

> 105

DC

no requirements

>105<125

AC and DC

+ 20

>105 <125

DC

>125<160

AC and DC

-20

>125<160

DC

-30

> 160

AC and DC

-40

> 160

DC

Code letters for the type of coating

Code letters for the chemical

composition

Code
letters

Type of coating

Code
letters

Maxiimum conteii t in %
Mn
Mo
Ni

None

2.0

Mo

1.4

MnMo

1.4-2.0

1 Ni

1.4

0.6-1.2

RA

rutile acid coating

2Ni

1.4

1.8-2.6

RB

rutile basic coating

MnINi

1.4-2.0

0.6-1.2

RC

rutile cellulose coating

1NiMo

1.4

0.6-1.2

RR

thick rutile coating

acid coating

basic coating

0.3-0.6

cellulose coating

0.3-0.6

rutile coating

0.3-0.6

ISO 2560-A - E 42 2 RB 12: A rod electrode with guaranteed yield strength and notch impact energy, 42 yield
strength R e = 420 N/mm 2 , 2 notch impact energy 47 J at-20C, RB rutile basic coating, 1 efficiency > 105%, 2 all
welding positions except for vertical down welds.

328

Production

ngineering: 6.7 Joining,

eding

Coating of rod electrodes, Weld design

Coating of rod electrodes used for arc welding
The coating of rod electrodes has a decisive influence on the welding properties and the mechanical properties of
the weld metal.
The coating consists of a homogeneous mixture of the following components:
slag formers
inert gas formers
binders
deoxidizers
arc stabilizers
alloy contents, if applicable
The addition of iron powder increases the efficiency of the weld metal.
Properties, application and welding position according to the type of coating1'
Type of coating

Properties, application

Welding position (page 322)

acid coating

With thick coated rod electrodes, fine drip

transition with flat, smooth welds, risk of
solidification cracking

Limited application in
constrained positions

basic coating

High notch impact energy, particularly at

low temperatures, low crack sensitivity

PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF

cellulose coating

Intense arc with particular suitability for

vertical down welding

PG

rutile coating

Good drip transition, suitable for the

welding of thin sheets

PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF

rutile acid coating

Typically thick coated rod electrodes,

same properties as electrodes with acid coating

PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF

rutile basic coating

Good welding and mechanical properties

PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF

rutile cellulose coating

Good drip transition, suitable for welding

of thin sheets, also in vertical down position

PA, PB, PC, PD, PE, PF, PG

1)

The specifications apply to rod electrodes designated according to the yield strength and the notch impact
energy (page 327).

Weld design for arc welded V joints

Weld
thickness
a
mm

filler pass

Number
and
type of
pass 1)

Electrode
dimensions
dxl
mm

1 R
1 FP

3.2 x 450
4 x 450

1.5

1 R
1 FP

3.2 x 450
4 x 450

4
2.9

100
110

1 R
2 FP
1 R
1 F
1 FP
1 R
1 F
1 FP

3.2
4
3.2
4
5
3.2
4
5

x 450
x 450
x 450
x 450
x 450
x 450
x 450
x 450

4
4.7
4
3.7
3.5
4
4
6.2

100
185
100
145
215
100
195
380

1
1

3.2 x 450
4 x 450

3.2
3.6

80
140

80
140

3
3

3.2 x 450
4 x 450

8.6
8

215
310

215
310

Gap
s
mm

roof pass

10

Spec, electrode consump.

piece/m

Weld weight
total
per pass
m
ms
g/m
g/m
75
155
80
210
285
460

675

Weld design for arc welded fillet welds

3
4
5
6

final pass
roof pass

1)

1 R
2 FP

4
5

x 450
x 450

3
7

120
430

550

10

1 R
4 FP

4
5

x 450
x 450

3
12.3

120
745

865

12

1 R
4 FP

4
5

x 450
x 450

3
18.5

120
1125

1245

R root pass;

F filler pass;

FP final pass

Production engineering: 6.

Standard values for oxyacetylene cutting

Material: unalloyed structural steel;
Sheet met.
thickn.
s
mm

Cutting
nozzle

Width of
cut
mm

3-10

1.5

2.5

heating
bar

bar

2.0

0.2

2.0
3.0

10

2.5
10-25

3.0

1.8

20

3.5

25

4.0

30

Acetylene
pressure

Oxygen pressure

mm

10
15

25-40

2.0

0.2

2.5

4.3

0.2

2.5

4.5

35

Standard values for plasma cutting

4
5
10

70

15
20
25

70

1)

120

120

Cutting
rate
quality stand.
cut
cut
m/min m/min

Acetylene
Total
oxygen
consumption
consumption
m3/hr
m3/hr

Cutting rate
quality
cut
m/min

standard
cut
m/min

1.67

0.27

0.69

0.84

1.92

0.32

0.64

0.78

2.14

0.34

0.60

0.74

2.46
2.67

0.36

0.62

0.75

0.37

0.52

0.69

2.98

0.38

0.45

0.64

3.20

0.40

0.41

0.60

3.42

0.42

0.38

0.57

3.54

0.44

0.36

0.55

11

Material: aluminum
Cutting method: argon-hydrogen

Material: high-alloyed structural steels

Cutting method: argon-hydrogen
Electrical
Sheet met. current
thickn.
qual. stand,
s
cut
cut
mm
A
A

329

ein

fuel gas: acetylene

cutting
bar

5
8

oin

Consumption values
argon
m3/hr

hydrogen
m3/hr

1.4
1.1
0.65

2.4
2.0
0.95

0.6
0.6
1.2

0.24

0.35
0.25
0.35

0.6
0.45
0.35

1.2
1.2
1.5

0.24
0.24
0.48

Electrical current

Consumption
Cutting
rate
values
hydroquality stand. argon
gen
cut
cut
3
m3/hr
m/min m/min m /hr

nitrogen
m3/hr

quality
cut
A

stand,
cut
A

1.2
1.2

70

120

3.6
1.9
1.1

6.0
5.0
1.6

1.2

0.5

70

120

0.6
0.35
0.2

1.3
0.75
0.5

1.2

0.5

Values apply to an arc power of approx. 12 kW and 1.2 mm cutting noozle diameter.

330

Production engineering: 6.7 Joining,

eding

Standard values, Quality and dimensional tolerances for beam cutting

Standard values for laser cutting 1)
Sheet met.
thickness
M>
s
mm
2

Cutting
speed
V

Cutting
gas

m/min

Cutting
gas press.
P
bar

Laser power 1 kW
13

4
COF
"D
CD
>

o
~CD
c

Z>

"A3
<D
4-1
V)
V)
CO

c
CD
cn
1)
2)

Cutting
speed
V

Cutting
gas

m/min

Cutting
gas press.
P
bar

7.0-10
5.6-7.4

5.0-8.0
4.0-7.0

7.0-10
5.5-7.5

2
2.5

4.0-6.0
3.5-5.0

3
4

3.5-4.0
2.5-3.0

3.5-4.2
2.8-3.3

3.6-2.8
2.8-3.4

5
6

1.8-2.3
1.3-1.6

2.3-2.7
1.9-2.2

2.5-3.0
2.1-2.5

1
1.5

4.0-5.5
2.8-3.6

2
2.5

2.2-2.8
1.6-2.0

3
4

1.3-1.4

N2

1.5-3.5

4.8-6.2
4.2-5.0

8
10

5.0-7.0
3.5-5.2

14

2.0-4.0
1.9-3.2

15

Cutting
gas press.
P
bar

Laser power 2 kW

1
1.5

02

Cutting
gas

m/min

Laser power 1.5 kW

02

1.5-3.5

N2

1.8-.2.4
1.0-1.1

4.8-6.1
4.2-5.0

6
10

4.5-9.0
3.8-6.6

10
14

3.4-5.3
2.7-3.8

14
15

2.2-2.7
1.4-1.8

O2

1.5-3.5

12
13
N2

14
14
16

The table values apply a the focal length of f= 127 mm (5") and a cutting gap width of w = 0.15 mm.
M material group

Cutting quality and dimensional tolerances for thermal cuts

cf. DIN EN ISO 9013 (2003-07)

Quality of cut surfaces

The specifications apply to

oxy-fuel gas cutting,
plasma cutting,
laser beam cutting.

Range

The quality of the cut surfaces

is determined by
the perpendicularity tolerance u,
the average surface roughness flz5.
/
s
u
Rz5
Al

Cutting
speed

Perpendicularity
tolerance u
in mm

Average surface
roughness /? z5
in pm

u< 0.05 + 0.03 s

Rz5 < 10 + 0.6 s

u< 0.15 + 0.07 s

Rz5 <40 + 0.8 s

u< 0.4 + 0.01 s

Rz5 < 70 + 1.2 s

Comments

Put in workpiece
thickness
in mm

Rz5 < 110 + 1.8 s

4
u< 1.2 + 0.035 s
nominal length
workpiece thickness
Limit deviations from the nominal length
perpendicularity tolerance
Limit deviations A/from nominal lengths / in mm
average surface roughness
Workpiece
limit deviations from the
Tolerance class 2
Tolerance class 1
thickness s
nominal length /
>35
> 125
>315
>35
> 125
>315
in mm

^
ISO 9013-342
standard number

<315

< 1000

< 125

<315

< 1000

> 1 <3.15

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.7

0.8

>3.15 <6.3

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.8

0.9

1.1

> 6 . 3 < 10

0.6

0.7

0.7

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.9

2.3

> 10 <50

0.7

0.7

0.8

1.8

> 50<100

1.3

1.4

1.7

2.5

2.6

3.0

>100<150

1.9

2.0

2.1

3.3

3.4

3.7

'
Example: oxy-fuel gas cutting according to tolerance class 2, / = 450 mm,
s= 12 mm, cutting quality according to range 4

Quality of cut
perpendicularity tolerance u ^
according to row 3
average surface roughness/?z5
according to row U
tolerance class 2

< 125

Sought after: A/; u; Rz5

J

Solution:

A/= 2.3 mm
u = 1.2 + 0.035 s = 1.2 mm + 0.035 12 mm = 1.62 mm
Rz5 = 110 + 1.8 s = 110 pm + 1.8 12 pm = 131.6 pm

Production engineering: 6.

oin

331

ein

Gas cylinders - Identification*

Hazardous substance labels

cf. DIN EN ISO 7225 (2008-02)

A hazardous substance label must be applied to individual gas cylinders to identify their contents and any possible hazards from these contents. Up to three hazard labels warn of the main hazards.
Example:
supplemental information on
hazards and safety
precautions

manufacturer's name,
address, phone number

product name
i.e. oxygen

hazard label with number of

hazardous substance class -

EWG no. for pure substances

or the words
"gas mixture"

gas
composition

information from
manufacturer

complete
name of the gas,
e.g. oxygen, compressed

Hazard label

non-combustible,
non-toxic

combustible

flammable

toxic

Color coding

corrosive

cf. DIN EN 1089-3 (2004-06)

Color coding of the cylinder shoulder is used as additional information about the properties of the gases.
It is readily recognized when the hazardous substance label is illegible from a distance.
This color coding does not apply to liquid gases.

General color coding

>

Decreasing risk potential

toxic and/or corrosice

flammable

inert2)

oxidizing

Color coding for special gases

a
Si
Oxygen

1)
W)

Acetylene
2)

Argon

Nitrogen

Carbon dioxide

N = new
Non-toxic, non-corrosive, non-flammable, non-oxidizing
According to European Standards

Helium

332

Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Welding

Gas cylinders - Identification*

Pure gases and gas mixtures for industrial use
Color coding (examples)

cf. Information sheet from Industrial Gases Association

Coding
old

Coding
new

1)2)

old

Oxygen

blue
blue

yellow
(black)

r N

Mk

white
blue

gray

flourescent
green
gray

gray
(black)

Hydrogen

chestnut brown

red

chestnut brown

Argon

red

red
red

Forming gas (mixture of nitrogen/hydrogen)

gray

dark green

gray

gray

Nitrogen

to

1)2)

Xenon, Krypton, Neon

Acetylene

yellow

new

red

red

red
(dark green)

gray

Mixture of argon/carbon dioxide

black

gray

gray

flourescent
green

gray

gray

Carbon dioxide

Compressed air

gray

gray

gray

flourescent
green

gray

gray

gray

gray

1)

Helium

gray
aaailiSilS gray

brown
gray

For gas cylinders color coded as per DIN EN 1089, the

letter "N" (= new) must be put on the shoulder of the
cylinder two times (opposite sides). The " N " is not
required on cylinders whose color coding has not
changed.
2)
The cylinder body may be another color. However, this
must not lead to confusion regarding the hazardous
nature of the cylinder contents.
*) According to European Standards

Production engineering: 6.

and

Brazing
Brazing heavy non-ferrous metals

cf. DIN EN 1044 (1999 07)

Silver containing brazing materials

Special
brazing

Silver content
below 20%

AgCuZn(Sn)

AgCuCdZn

Brazing nlaterial
Material
Group Desig- number
nation1*

Alloy
designation
as per
ISO 3677 2)

Information for use

Working
tempera- Brazing Solder
ture
joint 3 ' feed 4)
C

AG 301

2.5143

B-Ag50CdZnCu-620/640

640

AG 302

2.5146

B-Ag45CdZnCu-605/620

620

AG 304

2.5141

B-Ag45ZnCdCu-595/630

610

AG 309

2.1215

B-Cu40ZnAgCd-605/765

750

G, V

AG 104

2.5158

B-Ag45CuZnSn-640/680

670

AG 106

2.5157

B-Cu36AgZnSn-630/730

710

AG 203

2.5147

B-Ag44CuZn-675/735

730

AG 205

2.1216

B-Cu40ZnAg-700/790

780

AG 207

2.1207

B-Cu48ZnAg(Si)-800/830

830

AG 208

2.1205

B-Cu55ZnAg(Si)-820/870

860

G, V

CP 102 2.1210

B-C u 80 Ag P-645/800

710

G, V

CP 104 2.1466

B-Cu89PAg-645/815

710

G, V

CP 105 2.1467

B-Cu92PAg-645/825

710

G, V

Materials
precious metals, steels,
copper alloys
steels, malleable cast iron, copper,
copper alloys, nickel, nickel alloys

steels, malleable cast iron, copper,

copper alloys, nickel,
nickel alloys
steels, malleable cast iron, copper,
copper alloys, nickel, nickel alloys
copper and nickel-free copper alloys.
Unsuitable for materials containing
Fe or Ni

AG 351

2.5160

B-Ag50CdZnCuNi-635/655

660

Cu alloys

AG 403

2.5162

B-Ag56Cu I n N i-600/710

730

chrome, chrome-nickel steels

AG 502

2.5156

B-Ag49ZnCuMnNi-680/705

690

carbide onto steel,

tungsten and molybdenum materials

steels

| Copper based brazing materials

CU 104

2.0091

B-Cu100(P)-1085

1100

CU 201

2.1021

B-Cu94Sn(P)-910/1040

1040

CU 202

2.1055

B-Cu88Sn(P)-825/990

990

CU 301

2.0367

L-CuZn40

900

G, V

f, I

steels, malleab. iron, Cu, Ni, Cu & Ni alloys

G, V

f, I

steels, malleable iron, Ni, Ni alloys

CU 305

2.0711

B-Cu48ZnNi(Si)-890/920

910

CP 202

2.1463

B-Cu93P-710/820

720

f, I

Cu, Fe-free and Ni-free Cu alloys

5)

5)

5)

nickel, cobalt,
nickel and cobalt alloys,
unalloyed and alloyed steels

iron and nickel materials

cast iron

| Nickel based brazing materials for high-temperature brazing

NI 101

2.4140

B-Ni73CrFeSiB(C)-960/1060

NI 103

2.4143

B-Ni92SiB-980/1040

NI 105

2.4148

B-Ni71CrSi-1080/1135

NI 107

2.4150

B-Ni76CrP-890

I Aluminum based brazing materials

AL 102

3.2280

B-AI92Si-575/615

610

f,l

AL 103

3.2282

B-AI90Si-575/590

600

f, I

AL 104

3.2285

B-AI88Si-575/585

595

f, I

1)

2}

3)
4)
5)

The two letters indicate the alloy group, while the three digit numbers
are purely numbers increasing sequentially.
Numbers at the end indicate the melting range. Alloy components,
see pages 116 and 117.
G suitable for gap brazing; V suitable for V-joint brazing
f filled brazing; I lapped brazing
Refer to manufacturer's data.

aluminum and Al alloy types

AIMn, AIMgMn, G-AISi;
especially for Al alloy types
AIMg, AIMgSi up to 2% Mg content
Brazing joint
S

Gap brazing:

iv < 0.25mm
V-joint brazing:
w > 0.3 mm

AmSH

US

334

Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Soldering and Brazing

Solders and flux

Solders
Alloy
group 1 *

cf. DIN EN ISO 9453 (2006-12)

Alloy
no. 2 )

Alloy designation
as per ISO 3677 3)

Previous
designation
DIN 1707

Working
temperature
C

Application examples

tin-lead

101
102
103

S-Sn63Pb37
S-Sn63Pb37E
S-Sn60Pb40

L-Sn63Pb
L-Sn63Pb
L-Sn60Pb

183
183
183-190

precision mechanics
electronics, printed circuit boards
printed circuit boards, high-grade steel

lead-tin

111
114
116
124

S-Pb50Sn50
S-Pb60Sn40
S-Pb70Sn30
S-Pb98Sn2

L-Sn50Pb
L-PbSn40
L-PbSn2

183-215
183-235
183-255
320-325

electronics industry, tin plating

thin-sheet packaging, metal goods
plumbing work, zinc, zinc alloys
radiator manufacturing

131
132

S-Sn63Pb37Sb
S-Sn60Pb40Sb

L-Sn60Pb(Sb)

183
183-190

precision mechanics
precision mechanics, electrical industry

134
136

S-Pb58Sn40Sb2
S-Pb74Sn25Sb1

L-PbSn40Sb
L-PbSn25Sb

185-231
185-263

radiator manufacturing, wiping solder

wiping solder, lead solders

tin-leadbismuth

141
142

S-Sn60Pb38Bi2
S-Pb49Sn48Bi3

180-185
138

precision solders
low-temperature solder, safety fuses

tin-leadcadmium

151

S-Sn50Pb32Cd18

L-SnPbCd18

145

tin-leadcopper

161
162

S-Sn60Pb39Cu1
S-Sn50Pb49Cu1

L-SnPbCu3
L-Sn50PbCu

230-250
183-215

electronic devices, precision mechanics

tin-leadsilver

171

S-Sn60PbAg

L-Sn60PbAg

178-180

electrical devices, printed circuit boards

lead-tinsilver

182
191

S-Pb95Ag5
S-Pb93Sn5Ag2

L-PbAg5

304-365
296-301

for high operating temperatures

electric motors, electrical equipment

tin-leadantimony

1)
2)
3)

thermal fuses, cable joints

Filler metals for aluminium are no longer in EN ISO 9453.

The alloy numbers replace the material numbers as per DIN 1707.
With traces (<0.5%) of Sb, Bi, Cd, Au, In, Al, Fe, Ni, Zn: see pages 116 and 117.

Flux for soldering

cf. DIN EN 29454-1 (1994-02)

Designation by main constituents

Flux
type
1 rosin
2 organic

Flux basis

Classification by effect
Flux
form

Flux activator

1 colophonium
2 without colophonium 1 without activator
2 activated by halogens
1 water soluble
3 activated without halogens
2 not water soluble

A liquid

1 salts

1 with ammonium chloride

2 without ammonium chloride

B solid

2 acids

1 phosphoric acid
2 other acids

C paste

3 alkaline

1 amine and/or ammonia

3 inorganic

Desi gnations
DIN EN DIN 8511

Effect of
residues

3.2.2...
3.1.1...

F-SW11
F-SW12

very
corrosive

3.2.1...
3.1.1...
2.1.3...
2.1.2...
1.2.2...

F-SW13
F-SW21
F-SW23
F-SW25
F-SW28

somewhat
corrosive

1.1.1...
1.2.3...

F-SW31
F-SW33

noncorrosive

Flux ISO 9454- 1.2.2.C: Flux of type rosin (1), base without colophonium (2),
activated by halogens (2), available in paste form (C)

Flux for brazing

Flux

Activation temper.

cf. DIN EN 1045 (1997-08)

Instructions for use

FH10
FH11
FH12

550-800 C
550-800 C
550-850 C

Multi-purpose flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped.

Cu-AI alloys; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped.
Stainless and high-alloy steels, carbide; residues chemically stripped.

FH20
FH21
FH30
FH40

700-1000C
750-1100 C
over 1000 C
650-1000C

Multi-purpose flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped.

Multi-purpose flux; residues removed mechanically or chemically stripped.
For copper and nickel solder; residues removed mechanically.
Boron-free flux; residues rinsed off or chemically stripped.

FL10
FL20

400-700 C
400-700 C

Light alloys; residues are rinsed off or chemically stripped.

Light alloys; residues are non-corrosive, but should be protected from moisture.

Production engineering: 6.

and

r a i n 3 3 5

Soldered and brazed joints

Classification of soldering and brazing processes
Differentiating
characteristics

Soldering

cSoldering and brazing processes5

High temperature brazing
Brazing

< 450 C

> 450 C

> 900 C

Energy source

soldering iron, soldering

bath, electrical resistance

flame, furnace

flame, laser beam,

electric induction

Base material

Cu, Ag,
Al alloys,
stainless steel,
steel, Cu,
Ni alloys

steel,
carbide inserts

steel, carbide

Sn, Pb alloys

Cu, Ag alloys

Ni-Cr alloys,
Ag-Au-Pd alloys

Flux

flux, vacuum

vacuum, shielding gas

Working temperature

Soldering or filler
material
Auxiliary materials

Standard values for soldering gap widths

Base material

Soldering gap) width in mm

forb razing materials primariily of
brass
copper

for solders

silver

unalloyed steel

0.05-0.2

0.05-0.15

0.1-0.3

0.05-0.2

Alloy steel

0.1-0.25

0.1-0.2

0.1-0.35

0.1-0.25

Cu, Cu alloys

0.05-0.2

Carbide

0.3-0.5

0.05-0.25

0.3-0.5

Design rules for soldered joints

Preconditions
Soldering gap should be large enough so that flux and solder adequately fill the gap by capillary action (table above)
The two surfaces to be soldered should be parallel.
Surface roughness due to machining can remain for
Cu soldering Rz = 10-16 pm, for Ag soldering at Rz =
25 pm.

dmax ~ S 5

Soldered joint under shearing load

Load transfer
The load on the soldered joint should be in shear (transverse forces) if at all possible. In particular, solder seams
should not be loaded with tensile or peeling stress.

Load on solder joint reduced by folded seam

stop
position

knurled
press fit

Soldering gap depths / d > 5 s do not fill with solder reliably. Therefore load capacity cannot be increased by a
larger gap depth.
Load capacity can be increased by design features such as
folds
Production process simplification
In soldering there should be a means for assuring proper
positioning of the parts to be joined, e.g. by part shape
or by knurled press fit.

Production process simplification

Application examples
pipes and fittings
sheet metal parts
tools with brazed carbide cutters

Soldered pipe fitting

336

Production engineering: 6.7 Joining, Adhesive bonding

Adhesives, Preparation of joint surfaces

Properties and conditions of use for adhesives1)
Curing conclitions
Adhesive

Acrylic
resins

Trade name

Temperature Time
C

Agomet M,
Acronal,
Stabi I itExpress

Epoxy resins Araldit,

(EP)
Metallon,
Uhu-Plus

max.
operating
temperature
C

Comb, tensile
and shear
strength

Elasticity

Applications,
special characteristics

N/mm 2
metals, thermosets,
ceramics, glass

20

24 hr

120

6-30

low

20-200

1 hr to
12 hr

50-200

10-35

low

metals, thermosets, glass,

ceramics, concrete, wood;
long curing time

120-200

60s

140

20

low

metals, thermosets,
glass, elastomers, wood,
ceramics
metals, thermosets,
glass, elastomers, wood,
ceramics

Phenolic
resins (PF)

Porodur,
Pertinax,
Bakelite

Polyvinyl
chloride
(PVC)

Hostalit,
Isodur,
Macroplast

20

> 24 hr

60

60

low

Polyurethane Desmocoll,
(PUR)
Delopur,
Baydur

50

24 hr

40

50

present

metals, elastomers,
glass, wood,
some thermoplastics

Polyester
resins (UP)

Fibron,
Leguval,
Verstopal

25

1 hr

170

60

low

Polychloroprene
(CR)

Baypren,
Contitec,
Fastbond

50

1 hr

110

present

Cyanoacrylate

Permabond,
Sicomet 77

20

40 s

85

20-25

low

fast-curing adhesive for

metals, plastics, elastomers

Hot glue

Jet-Melt,
Ecomelt,
Vesta-Melt

20

> 30 s

50

2-5

present

all types of materials;

adhesive action through
cooling

1)

metals, thermosets,
ceramics, glass
contact glue for metals
and plastics

Due to varying chemical compositions of adhesives, the values given are only approximate values. For detailed
information please refer to information from the manufacturer.

Preparation of parts for bonded joints

Tireatment sequ ence 1)
for load sever ity 2>

Material
low
Al alloys
Mg alloys
Ti alloys
Cu alloys
11

21

cf. VDl 2229 (1979-06)

medium

high

low

1-2-3-4

1-6-5-3-4
1-6-2-3-4
1-6-2-3-4

1-2-7-8-3-4
1-7-2-9-3-4
1-2-10-3-4

Steel, bright
Steel, galvanized
Steel, phosphatized

1-2-3-4

1-6-2-3-4

1-7-2-3-4

Other metals

Code numbers for type of treatment

1 Cleaning of dirt, scale, rust
6
2 Removing grease with organic solvent
7
or aqueous cleaning agent
8
3 Rinsing with clear water
9
4 Drying in hot air up to 65C
10
5 Removing grease with simultaneous etching

Ti eatment sequ ence 1)

2
for load severity )

Material

medium

high

1-2-3-4

1-6-2-3-4
1-2-3-4
1-2-3-4

1-7-2-3-4
1-2-3-4
1-6-2-3-4

1-2-3-4

1-6-2-3-4

1-7-2-3-4

Mechanical roughing by grinding or brushing

Mechanical roughing by shot blasting
Etching 30 min, at 60C in 27.5% sulfuric acid solution
Etching 1 min, at 20C in 20% nitric acid solution
Etching 3 min, at 20C in 15% hydrofluoric acid solution

Load severity for bonded joints

Low:
Tensile shear strength up to 5 N/mm 2 ; dry environment; for precision mechanics, electrical equipment
Medium: Tensile shear strength up to 10 N/mm 2 ; humid air; contact with oil; for machine and vehicule manufacturing
High:
Tensile shear strength up to 10 N/mm 2 ; direct contact with liquids; for aircraft, ship, and container
manufacturing

Production engineering: 6.

o n

Design of adhesive bonded joints, Test methods

Design examples
Bonded joints should be loaded in compression or shearing if possible.
Tensile, peeling or bending loads should be avoided.
Butt joint/overlap joint

T-joint

Tube joint

good, since the bonding surfaces

only have a shear load

good, since the bonding surfaces

only have a shear and
compression load

good, since sufficiently large

bonding surfaces can withstand
shear load

not as good,
since peeling forces act due to
off-center application of force

not as good,
since peeling forces act due to
bending load

not as good, since small

bonding surfaces cannot
withstand tensile and shear load

Test methods
Test method
standard

Contents

Bending peel test

DIN 54461

Tests resistance of bonded joints against peeling forces

Tensile shear test

DIN EN 1465

Tests tensile shear strength of high-strength bonded lap joints

Fatigue test
DIN EN ISO 9664

Tests fatigue properties of structural adhesives under tensile-shear loads

Tensile test
DIN EN 26922

Tests tensile strength of bonded butt joints perpendicular to bonded surface

Roller peel test

DIN EN 1464

Tests resistance to peeling forces

Compression shear test

DIN EN 15337

Tests shear strength, primarily of anaerobic 1 ' adhesives

1)

Sets with exclusion of air

Adhesive behavior as a function of temperature and size of bonding surface

epoxy polyamide

increasing
width w

mm
40
Imethacrylate

epoxy resin
increasing
overlap /

phenolic resin

epoxy polyaminoamide
-50
0
50
test temperature 0

100

Tensile shear strength of

overlap bonded joints

150

bonded surface area

Effect of adhesive joint surface

area on breaking load

337

338

Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection

Safety colors, Prohibitive signs*

cf. DIN 4844-1 (2005-05) and BGV A8 1 ) (2002-04)

Safety colors
Color

Meaning

yellow

stop,
prohibited

blue

caution!
potential danger

safety,
first aid

mandatory signs,
notices

Contrast color white

black

white

white

Color of graphic symbol

black

black

white

white

Application
examples
(see pages 340
and 341)

Stop signs,
emergency stop
prohibitive signs,
fire fighting
equipment

Notice of hazards (e.g.

fire, explosion, radiation);
notice of obstructions (e.g. speed
bumps, holes)

Identification of ambulances and emergency

exits;
first aid and
emergency aid stations

Requirement to
wear personal protective equipment (PPE);
location of a
telephone

cf. DIN 4844-2 (2001-02) and BGV A8 1 ) (2002-04)

Prohibitive signs

Prohibited

No smoking

No fires, open
flame or
smoking

Access prohibited Access by forklifts

for unauthorized
prohibited
persons

Do not touch

Placement or stor- Transport of passengers prohibited

age prohibited

Walking in this
area prohibited

Do not use this

device in the
bathtub, shower
or sink

No magnetic or
electronic data
media allowed
1)

Climbing
prohibited for
unauthorized
persons

Pedestrian access Do not extinguish

prohibited
with water

Do not touch
live voltage

Non-potable
water

Do not
connect

No access for
persons with
pacemaker

No spraying with
water

No cell phones

No food or drink
allowed

Do not reach in

Operating with
long hair
prohibited

Hand-held or
manually operated grinding not
allowed

German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallverhiitungsvorschrift) BGV A8 (replaces VGB 125)
*) According to European Standards

Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection

339

Warning signs*
cf. DIN 4844-2 (2001-02) and BGV A8 1 ) (2002-04)

Warning signs

A AA A A A
Warning:
Hazardous area

Warning:
Combustible
materials

Warning:
Explosive
substances

Warning:
Toxic substances

Warning:
Corrosive substances

Warning:
Radioactive
materials or
ionizing radiation

A AAA AA
Warning:
Suspended
load

Warning:
Forklift traffic

Danger:
High voltage

Warning:
Optical radiation

aK A A A

Warning:
Non-ionic,
electromagnetic
radiation

Warning:
Strong magnetic
field

Warning:
Danger of
tripping

Warning:
Danger of falling

Warning:
Laser beam
radiation

Warning:
Biological hazard

AAAAA

Warning:
Oxidizing
substances

Warning:
Extreme cold

^mmmmmrn

Warning:
Substances
hazardous to
health or irritants

Warning:
Gas cylinders

Warning:
Hazards due to
batteries

Warning:
Explosive
atmosphere

Warning:
Milling shaft

Warning:
Crushing hazard

AA AAA A

Warning:
Danger of tipping
when rolling
1)

Warning:
Automatic
start-up

Warning:
Hot surface

Warning:
Risk of hand
injury

Warning:
Danger of slipping

Warning:
Moving
conveyor
on track

German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallverhiitungsvorschrift) BGV A8 (replaces VGB 125)
*) According to European Standards

340

Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection

Safety signs^

cf. DIN 4844-2 (2001-02)

and BGV A8 1 ) (2002-04)

Mandatory signs

General
mandatory sign

Wear safety
glasses

Wear hard hat

Wear ear
protection

Wear respirator

Wear safety shoes

Wear protective
gloves

Wear protective
clothing

Wear face
protection

Use safety belt

For pedestrians

Use safety
harness

Use crosswalk

Disc, plug from

power bef. opening

Disconnect
before working

Wear life
preserver

Sound horn

Follow
instructions

Emergency
shower

Eye rinsing
equipment

Escape and rescue signs for escape routes and emergency exits

Direction arrows for First aid stations,

escape routes and emergency exits 2 '

Emergency
telephone

Doctor

First aid

Medical stretcher

Defibrillator

Escape route/Emergency exit

Meeting point

Fire protection symbols and additional symbols

Directional arrows

Wall hydrant and

fire hose

Ladder

Work area!

Fire fighting
equipment
1)

Manual fire alarm

Fire alarm
telephone

High Voltage
Danger to life

Location:
Date:
Sign may only be
removed by:

Extra sign which

gives more information to
supplement the safety sign

German Employer's Liability Insurance Association

- Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche
Unfallverhutungsvorschrift) BGV A8

Fire extinguisher

2)

Extra sign which

gives more information to
supplement the safety sign

only in combination with other escape route

and rescue signs
*) According to European Standards

Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection

341

cf. DIN 4844-2 (2001-02)

and BGV A8 1 ) (2002-04)

Safety signs
Information signs

In case of
failure part can
have live voltage

Discharge time
longer than
1 minute

5 Safety rules

Before touching:
- discharge
- ground
- short circuit

Before beginning work

- Employ safety disconnect
- Lock out to prevent restart
- Check for no voltage
- Ground and short circuit
- Cover or enclose adjacent
parts which have live voltage

Combination signs

Work area!
Location:

Date:

Sign may only be

removed by:

Do not connect

High Voltage
Hazardous

Warning of high voltage

Combination signs for escape

routes or emergency exits with
corresponding direction indicated
by arrows

3 t

3^
3 *

A
Turn off engine.
Risk of poisoning.

Walking on roof
is prohibited

First aid
station
1)

Prohibited! Walking on
roof is prohibited.

Fire blanket for fighting fire

Danger of toxic
gases

German Employer's Liability Insurance Association - Accident Prevention Regulations (Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallverhutungsvorschrift) BGV A8 (replaces VGB 125)
*) According to European Standards

342

Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection

Danger symbols and description of hazards

Code letter, danger symbol, hazard description

Danger criteria of
materials
When consumed
in very small
amounts leads to
death or may
cause acute
or chronic damage to health.

Very toxic

Danger criteria of
Code letter,
danger symbol,
materials
hazard description

Danger criteria of
Code letter,
danger symbol,
materials
hazard description

Contact with skin

or mucus membranes can cause
inflammation.

Solid material
can be easily
ignited by a
source of ignition
Liquid material
with flash point
<21 C.

Xi

Irritant

X = St. Andrew's
cross
i = irritating

Flammable
F = flammable

T = toxic
When consumed
in small amounts
leads to death or
may cause acute
or chronic damage to health.

Risk of explosion
by shock, friction,
fire or other
sources of
ignition.

N
N

l & i
Toxic
T = toxic
Xn

Harmful to
health

Danger of
explosion

When ingested
may result in
death or cause
acute or chronic
harm to health.

X = St. Andrew's
cross
n = noxious

C = corrosive
Xn with R 40

Limited
evidence of
mutagenic
effect

E = explosive
Substances that
substantially
increase the risk
and severity of a
fire, because they
produce oxygen.

Oxidizing

T with R 45

N = noxious
(harmful)
Substance may
cause cancer from
inhaling, swallowing or from contact with the skin.

Carcinogenic
T = toxic

O = oxidizing
Liquid substances
with flash point
< 0C and boiling
point <35 C;
gaseous substances, which
are flammable in
contact with air.
Highly
flammable

T with R 46

Substances
which can have a
mutagenic effect
on humans.
R 46: May cause
heritable genetic
damage.

Mutagenic
substances
T = toxic

F = flammable

Substance which
can cause concern T with R 60, R 61
due to possible
mutagenic effect
on humans. However, there is not
yet sufficient
information available to give conDanger to
clusive proof.
fertility

Substances which
are known to
impair fertility or
reproduction.

X = St. Andrew's
cross
n = noxious
R 40 = irreversible
damage possible
(page 199)

T = toxic
R 60 = may impair
fertility
R 61 = may cause
harm to the
unborn child

EU-Directive, Appendix

Environmentally
dangerous

Substances
change water,
ground, air, climate, animals,
plants, etc. in
such a way that
the environment
is endangered.

R 45: May cause

cancer

Living tissue can

be damaged by
contact.

Corrosive

RL 67/548/EWG
(2004-04)1)

According to European Standards

Xn with
R 62, R 63

Limited
evidence of
influence on
fertility

Substances
which cause concern due to possible impairment of
fertility of
humans.

X = St. Andrew's
cross
n = noxious
R 62 = possible
risk of impaired
fertility
R 63 = possible
risk of harm to
unborn child

Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection

343

c f D N 24 0
( 2'0 07 0 5'

Identification of pipe lines*

Area of application and requirements

Area of application: A precise identification marking of pipe lines, indicating the substance being conveyed, is necessary for reasons of safety, fire fighting and proper maintenance and repairs. The identification marking is intended to
indicate possible hazards and help to prevent accidents and damage to health.
Requirements concerning identification marking
Identification marking must be clearly visible and longlasting.
Identification can be established by painting, lettering
(e.g. via self-adhesive foil strips) or signs.
Particularly operation-critical and hazardous places
should be marked (e.g. beginning and end of branch
pipes, wall penetrations, fittings).

Marking must be repeated at least every 10 m of pipe

length.
Indication of the group and supplemental color (see
table below).
Indication of the flow direction by means of an arrow.
Indication of the conveyed substance by specifying the
name (e.g. water) or the chemical formula (e. g. H 2 0).
With hazardous materials, additional indication of
hazard signs (page 342) or warning signs (page 339) if
general hazards are implied.

Color assignment according to conveyed substances

Conveyed substance

Group

Group
color

RAL

green

6032

Water

Supplem.
color

RAL

Color of
lettering

RAL

white

9003

Steam

red

3001

white

9003

Air

gray

7004

black

9004

Flammable gases

yellow

1003

3001

black

9004

Non-flammable gases

yellow

1003

9004

black

9004

Acids

orange

white

9003

Lyes

purple

white

9003

Flammable liquids
and solid materials

brown

red

3001

white

9003

Non-flammable liquids
and solid materials

brown

black

9004

white

9003

Oxygen

blue

white

9003

Identification of special pipe lines

Fire extinguishing lines must be fitted with a red/white/red color marking. The white field contains the graphical symbol of the safety sign "Fire fighting equipment and materials" (cf. page 340) in the color of the extinguishing agent.
Potable water lines must be fitted with a green/white/green color marking. Non-potable water lines have a
green/blue/green marking. The code letters and their colors are listed in the table below.
Description

Code

Color

Description

Code

Color

Potable water line

Potable water line, cold

PW
PWC

green

Potable water line,

hot, circulating

PWH-C

purple

Potable water line, hot

PWH

red

Non-potable water line

NPW

white

Potable water

Compressed air

Examples of identification marking

Heating oil

Fire extinguishing unit

(water)

Heating
Oil

a
Water

Oxygen (fire-promoting, O)

Oxygen
*) According to European Standards

Acetylene (highly flammable, F+)

Acetylene

a>

344

Production engineering: 6.8 Workplace safety and environmental protection

Sound and noise*

Sonic terms
Explanation

Term
Sound

Sound comes from mechanical vibrations. It propagates in gaseous, liquid and solid bodies.

Frequency

Number of oscillations per second. Unit: 1 Hertz = 1 Hz = 1/s. Pitch increases with frequency.
Frequency range of human hearing: 16 Hz-20.000 Hz.

Sound level

Measure of the sound strength (sound energy).

Noise

Undesirable, annoying or painful sound waves; damage depends on strength, duration,

frequency and regularity of exposure. For a noise level of 85 dB (A) and higher there is danger
of permanent hearing loss.

Decibel (dB)

Standardized unit for sound level.

dB (A)

Since the human ear perceives tones of different heights (frequencies) to have different
strengths when they are actually at the same sound levels, noise must be appropriately
dampened with filters for certain frequencies. Frequency weighting curve with Filter A
compensates for this and indicates the subjective auditory impression. A difference of 3 dB (A)
corresponds approximately to a doubling (or halving) of the sound intensity.

Sound level
dB (A)

Type of sound
Threshold of
auditory sensitivity

dB (A)

Type of sound
normal speech
at distance of 1 m

dB (A)

Type of sound

70

heavy stamping

95-110

75-90

angle grinder

95-115

80

car horn at
distance of 5 m

100

85

disco music

100-115

Breathing at distance
of 30 cm

10

Soft rustling of leaves

20

Whispering

30

Tearing paper

40

hammer drill, motorcycle

90

hammer and anvil

110

Quiet conversation

50-60

engine test stand, walkman

90-110

jet engine

120-130

machine tools
loud talking
at distance of 1 m
welding torch, lathe

Noise protection regulations

cf. Accident Prevention Regulations on "Noise" BGV B3 (1997-01)

Accident prevention regulations

for noise producing operations

15 Workplace regulation

Requirem. to post signage for noise ranges 90 dB (A) and above.

Above 85 dB (A) sound protection devices must be available, and they must be used above 90 dB (A).
If the risk of accidents increases due to noise, appropriate
measures must be taken.
Regular preventative medical checkups are compulsory.
New operational equipment must conform to the most
advanced level of noise reduction.

max. dB (A)
55

Noise limit value for:

predominantly mental activities
simple, predominantly mechanized
activities
all other activities (value may
be exceeded by 5 dB )
break rooms, ready rooms and
first-aid rooms

70
85
55

Noise harmful to health

II

LJU 1 11.

Psycflologic al readtions

LJ

annoyance, irritability

Vegetative r eactioris

nervous effects, stress, decreasing

job performance and concentration

Dam age to hearini

noise induced hearing loss,

incurable inner ear damage

Phys ical daimage

deafness

10

20

30

40

50

According to European Standards

60 65 70

80 85 90
100
danger limif
for hearing

110

120 130
pain
threshold

140
S Q U n d

150
leyel

160 dB (A)
^

Table of Contents

345

7 Automation and Information Technology

7.1
A
/
w
Control
unit

//

Final
control
elem. /

Contr.
system

7.2
OFF
ON h - J
K1

L-

K1

a.

7.3

\
7.4

7.5
110
111

01

7.6

7.7

7.8

Basic terminology for control engineering

Basic terminology, Code letters, Symbols
Analog controllers
Discontinuous and digital controllers
Binary logic

346
348
349
350

Electrical circuits
Circuit symbols
Designations in circuit diagrams
Circuit diagrams
Sensors
Protective precautions

351
353
354
355
356

Function charts and function diagrams

Function charts
Function diagrams

358
361

Pneumatics and hydraulics

Circuit symbols
Layout of circuit diagrams
Controllers
Hydraulic fluids
Pneumatic cylinders
Forces, Speeds, Power
Precision steel tube

363
365
366
368
369
370
372

Programmable logic control

PLC programming languages
Ladder diagram (LD)
Function block language (FBL)
Structured text (ST)
Instruction list
Simple functions

373
374
374
374
375
376

Handling and robot systems

Coordinate systems and axes
Robot designs
Grippers, job safety

378
379
380

Numerical Control (NC) technology

Coordinate systems
Program structure according to DIN
Tool offset and Cutter compensation
Machining motions as per DIN
Machining motions as per PAL
PAL programming system for lathes
PAL programming system for milling machines .

381
382
383
384
386
388
392

Information technology
Numbering systems
ASCII code
Symbols for program flow charts
Program flow chart, Structograms
WORD commands
EXCEL commands

401
402
403
404
405
406

346

Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology

Basic terminology of open loop and closed loop control systems

Basic terminology

cf. DIN 19226-1 to -5 (1994-02)

Open loop control

Closed loop control

For open loop control the output variable, such as the temperature in a hardening furnace, is influenced by the input
variable, such as the current in the heating coil. The output
variable does not have an effect on the input variable.
Open loop control has an open action flow.

For closed loop control the controlled variable, such as the

actual temp, in an annealing furnace, is continuously monitored and compared to the target temp, (reference variable) and, if there are deviations, adjusted to the reference
input variable. Closed loop control has a closed action flow.

Example: Annealing furnace

Schematic
presentation

Schematic
presentation

disturbance
heat losses
final control
element
relay

disturbance
heat losses

final control manipulated

element
variable
relay
current

manipulated
variable
current

controlled variable
feedback value
axial extensometer

spring
contact
controller
button

controlled \
system
\
_ annealing furn.\]
7777777777777; 77,

r v
'controlled system
^annealing furnace
/ V / / / / / / / / Z ? /

Functional diagram of
open loop control system

Simplified functional diagram of closed loop

control system
/

controled
system

controller
button

relay

target value
of controlled
variable

comparing
element

adjustment
screw contact

annealing furnace

w reference
input variable

y mamp.
variable

z disturbance

x control,
variable

w reference
input variable

temperature
setpoint

current

heat loss

actual
temperature

temperature
setpoint

open loop
control ^v,.-. s\
contr.
elem.

L.

x
axial
extonsometer
contact

e Error
e = w-x

Application-based code letters

If
'
drive final concont. trolled
elem. system
relay
annealing furnace

ymanip.
variable

z disturbance

x contr.
variable

current

heat loss

actual
temperat.

cf. DIN 19227-1 (1993-10)

Designation example:

PDIC

JTT.
First letters
D
E
F
G
H
K
L
M
P
Q
R
S
T
W

density
electrical parameters
flow, throughput
distance, position, length
manual input/intervention
time
status (e.g. level)
humidity
pressure
quality parameters
radiation parameters
speed, rotational speed
temperature
weight, mass

Supplementary letters
D

difference

ratio

control point query

sum, integral

Succeeding letters
A error indication
C automatic closed loop control
H upper limit value
I
display
L lower limit value
R registration

Example: Differential pressure closed loop control

Explanation: P
D
I
C

Pit
PDIC
312
P2

-{ih

pressure
difference
display
automatic closed loop control

In plain language: Pressure differential closed

loop control with display of pressure difference

Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology

Symbols
Location of output & user control

CD
or

Effect on the controlled system

Local,
general

o
Process control
room

Local, implemented
by process control
system

Local, implemented
by process
computer

Measuring point, control point

Servo motor,
general

Reference line

Servo motor; the

setting for minimal
mass flow or flow of
energy is set during
loss of auxiliary
power.

Measuring point,
sensor

Servo motor; the

setting for maximum mass flow or
flow of energy is set
during loss of auxiliary power.

Local control console

cf. DIN 19227-1 (1993-10)

Servo motor; the

final control device
remains in the most
recently acquired
setting during loss
of auxiliary power.

Final control element, control point

Example

temperature
lRZ\ registration
automatic
closed
loop control

ok>

Temperature control
and registration at local
control stand measuring
point 310

Solution based symbols for devices

Symbol

Explanation

Symbol

cf. DIN 19227-2 (1991-02)

Symbol

Explanation

Final controlling & user control

elements

Controllers

Sensors

or

piox
p

Two-point controller
with switching output and PID behavior

-z^W

Sensor for level with

float

>ki

Valve actuator with

solenoid drive

/
-E

Adjuster for electric

signal

Signal designators

Adapters

Pressure transducer
with pneumatic
signal output

Sensor for weight,

scales; indicating

~E
A
n

Signal, electrical
Signal, pneumatic
Analog signal
Digital signal

Example: Temperature controller

Output devices

Basic symbol,
general display

Printer, analog, no.

of channels as a
numeral

temperature
transducer
with electrical
signal output
temperaturesensor

Sensor for pressure

Three-point controller with switching output

<6

Valve actuator with

motor drive

Controller, general

Sensor for
temperature,
general

Explanation

Monitor

PID controller
signal amplifier for
manipulated
actuating signal
controlled variable x
variable/
reference input
PID)
valve
actuator,
signal adjuster for electrical
motor
signal to adjust reference
driven
input variable w
[M
steam

>

water bath

348

Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology

Analog controllers
Analog (continuous) controllers

cf. DIN 19225 (1981-12) and DIN 19226-2 (1994-02)

In analog controllers the manipulated variable y may assume any desired value within the control range.
Controller design

Level control example, description

P-controllers
Proportional
controllers

P controller

Output variable is
proportional to
input variable.
P-controllers
have steady-state
errors.

outflow
valve

Transition function
x controlled variable
y manipulated variable
e error

Symbol1'
Block representation2'
step function 3 '
step response 4 '

time t

2
/

time t

I-controllers
Integral controllers

I controller

I-controllers are
slower than
P-controllers, but
they eliminate all
errors.

2
/

PI-controllers
Proportional
integral controllers

P control
part
I control
part

LR

PI

X
z

In PI-controllers a
P-controller and a
I-controller are
connected in parallel.
D-controllers
Derivative controllers

D-controller systems only occur with P- or PIcontroller systems, since pure D-controller
behavior with constant error does not provide
any manipulated variable and therefore no
closed loop control.

LN
/

PD-controllers
Proportional
derivative controllers

PD-controllers are created when a P controller

and a D element are connected in parallel.
The D part changes the output variable at a rate
proportional to the rate of change of the input
variable. The P part changes the output variable
so that it is proportional to the input variable
itself.
PD-controllers act quickly.

PID-controllers
Proportional
integral
derivative controllers

Lf

II

PID-controllers are created by connecting P, I

and D-controllers in parallel.
Initially the D part reacts with a large change to
the control signal, afterwards this change is
reduced to approximately the magnitude of the
P element, and finally the effect of the I element
causes the response to rise linearly.

4)

> Symbol as per DIN 19227-2

' Signal curve at controlled system input

> Block representation as per DIN 19226-2

Signal curve at controlled system output

PID

Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology

Discontinuous and digital controllers

Switching (discontinuous) controllers

cf. DIN 19225 (1981-12) and DIN 19226-2 (1994-02)

Switching controllers change the manipulated variable y discontinuously by switching in several steps.
Controller design

Transition function,
switching behavior

Example, description

Two-point controller

9^9

relay

Symbol
Block representation

heating coil

IHII
heat radiation

f-V

contacts
switch pos. 2

set-point potentiometer
Three-point controller

Air conditioning system

In an air conditioning system three temperature ranges are assigned three
switch positions:
- heating ON
- heating/cooling OFF
- cooling ON

Digital controllers (software controllers)

switch pos. 1

II

error

switch pos. 3

switch pos. 2

y
0 error
switch pos. 1

31

-1

cf. DIN 19225 (1981-12) and DIN 19226-2 (1994-02)

The operating mode of the digital controller is implemented as a computer program.

Controller design

Transient function

Example (simplified)

Computers

J
Start
I
Enter
reference input
variable w

Programmable
Logic Controllers
(PLC)

Digital
PID-controller

error step

1
Aquire
controlled variable x
1
Generate error
e = w-x

Microcontrollers
Microprocessors

time t

.""-I
PID
control algorithm
1
Output manipulated
variable y
-

tl
3
2
1

summing

step response

Controller design

Example

P-controlled
system with delay
1st order
(P-T-i controlled
system)

Filling a gas vessel

Py

i t

i t

cf. DIN 19226-2 (1994-02)

Transient function

Explanation

time t

If the pressure vessel is

filled by a flow of gas,
pressure p-i in the vessel gradually reaches
the pressure of the gas
flow.

time t
Filling two gas vessels
1
ffl

it-

=1X3=

The computer program

has the following tasks:
-generate error e
- calculate the manipulated variable / based
on programmed control algorithms
At the step response all
P, D and I-parts are
summed.
Sampling of analog signals and their conversion to digital values
and internal program
flow causes a time delay
of the controlled variable x (similar to a
T-controlled system).

time t

P-controlled systems with time delay (T part)

P-controlled
system with delay
2nd order
(P-T2 controlled
system)

Explanation

Jfez

Py
Pn

time t
time t

If two vessels are connected in series, pressure P2 increases in the

second vessel slower
than pressure p-\ in the
first vessel.

350

Automation: 7.1 Basic terminology

Binary logic
Function

Circuit symbols
Logical equation

11
AND

&

12

Technical implementation

Function table

0 = 11 A 12

11

12

pneumatic

11

A\

OR

12

0 = 11 V 12

12

NOT

11

T r

12

12
H

11

electric

11 12

11

cf. DIN EN 60617-12 (1999-04)

111

~Jt
5

i\

12

11

12

--0-

11

11

12

0 = (11 A 12) V

(11 A 12)

&
0 = 11 A 12

NOT-OR
(NOR)
0 = 11 V 12

II
Exclusive
OR
(XOR)

=1

12

11

11
0
0
1
1

Memory
(RS flipflop)

12
R

S set
R reset

02

I = inputs

5
11

12

H5

I2

12

01

C1

11

12

12

0 =I

NOT
AND
(NAND)

12 0 1 02
0
1 0 1
0 1 0
1

state unchanged
condition
indeterminate
state

O = outputs, e.g. lamps

,1J J J J
01

11

,02
( 1
12

v ]*

C = relays, contacts

! J

I \ C 1 \ C 1 \ I \ C2\C2\

C1

C2
01

02<^)

351

Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits

Circuit symbols

CF. DIN EN 6O617-1 TO -12 0999-04)

General circuit symbols

Resistor,

-C

D general

Lamps,
general,
optional representation

Inductor, coil

Fuse

Nonstandard
representation

Capacitor

Permanent
magnet

Electrolytic
component

Buzzer
Horn

Converter,
transducer

Junction,
optional representation

Connection
to ground,
optional representation

Conductors, connectors and terminals

Conductor,
general

i^-

Grounded
conductor,
PE

Conductor,
moveable

Neutral conductor, PN

Conductor,
insulated

Neutral conductor with

protective
function PEN

-t-

I^A-J

Measuring
device,
recording

Transformer,
optional representation

Ground
Ground connector connection

Semiconductor diode,
general

LED light
emitting
diode

Types of current

Adjustability

Valve

Designations

general

"="

Semiconductor components

Devices and machines

Measuring
device,
machine

Double
junction,
optional representation

f k

Function
stepped

continuous

adjustable

Effect
thermal

regulated

radiation

DC
AC with low
frequency
AC with high
frequency

PNP
transistor

NPN
transistor

Types of connections

Y connection

Delta
connection

YA

Y-delta connection

Circuit symbols in wiring system drawings

Circuit switch

cT

d * a) single-pole

a)

b)

b) double-pole

KK^

Sensor switch

/
X

Three-way
switch, illuminated

Motor circuit
breaker

Groundingtype
receptacle

Series switch

Three-pole
switch, protective system IP 44

Key button

Automatic
breaker

Ground-fault
circuit interrupter

Application examples
Inductor,
continuously
adjustable

/
H

X
/

Resistor,
5 step
variable

DC-AC
converter,
regulated

DC or AC
(universal)

3G 1,5

Three-core
cable with
junction
Cable with
3 conductors,
with ground
conductor (G)
and 1.5 mm 2
cross section

DC motor

Three-phase
motor

352

Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits

Circuit symbols
Actuation types

Relay contacts
NO contact,
normally open
NC contact,
normally
closed
Single pole
double throw

Electromech. relays

Manual,
general

E>

By
pressing
By

Timer on
delay
Timer off
delay
Timer on off
delay

T-

By tilting

0
>/-

By key

By coil

By pressure
energy

C B -

By proximity
By touching

By pedal

pulling
By
turning

_F

Switch behavior

b)

>

By bimetal
(thermal)

Capacitive
sensor,
reacts to
proximity of
all substances

<0
Hl-

Delayed
action (parachute effect)
for movement
a) to the right
b)to the left

a)

Sensors (Block representation)

Lock,
prevents
automatic
return

Relay coil,
general

fx-7I|
'

CF. DIN EN 6O617-1 TO -12 (1999-04)

Inductive
sensor,
reacts to
proximity of
metals

Symbol for
"actuated
state"

Magnetic
sensor,
reacts to close
proximity of a
magnet (reed
switch)

Optical
sensor,
reacts to
reflection of
infrared beam

Examples of switch applications

h-

NO contact
manually

hvV-

Double pole
single throw

a) NC contact
b) NO contact
Representation in actuated condition
NO contact
a) closes
b) delayed
opening when
actuated

NC contact
with roller
actuation

Limit switch,
NO contact

Valve with
electromagnetic
actuation

Emergency
palm button

RS flip-flop
set dominant

11 12 01 02

12

02

0 1 0 1
1 1

=0-

RS flip-flop
reset dominant

11 12 01 02
S1 1
R

91 0
02

1 0 1 0
Function
table 2 '

Capacitive
proximity
switch with
NC contact,
reacts to proximity of all
materials.

Delay elements

RS 1) flip-flop

I<0>--

Limit switch,
NC contact

Flip-flop elements

91 0

Magnetic
proximity
switch with
NO contact,
reacts to
proximity of
magnetic
material.

11 12 01 02

0 1 0 1

12

R1 1

91 0
02

1 0 1 0
Function
table

1 1 1 0

With rise-delay time

0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0

Function
table

1 1 0 1

When a signal is applied

to input I, output O
assumes
value 1 after
time f-i elapses.

With turn-off delay

Flip-flops are integrated
circuits which store signal
conditions.
1

> R = reset
S = set
2)
unchanged state
indeterminate state

The numeral 1 after an R or S input indicates that the

logical state of this input is dominant.
If a signal simultaneously lies at inputs 11 and 12 (11 = 1
and 12 = 1) the following applies:
Input without the numeral 1 (R for set dominant, S for
reset dominant RS flip-flop) is always set to logical
state 0.

10 t 21 0

With loss of a
signal at
input I, output
O takes the
value 0 after
completion of
time t2.

353

Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits

Designations in circuit plans*

Designation of devices in circuit diagrams
Example:

B
F
K
Q
M
P
R
S

cf. DIN EN 61346-2 (2000-12)

S2E

Type of device

Sequential number

Code letters
for type (selection)

Code letters for function

(not standardized)

Sensor, proximity switch

Fuse
Switch relay, timed relay
Circuit breaker, contactor
Solenoid valve, solenoid
Indicator light, horn
Resistor
Control switch, push-button
switch

Function OFF

Direction of movement

Function ON

Device function

Example of circuit diagram

F1
K1

S1A E--

G Test
K

Jog operation

Save, set

Clear, reset

Designation of wires and connections

S2E E K1

eg

M1_c>X

cf. DIN EN 60446 (1999-10) and DIN EN 60445 (2000-08)

Insulated wires
Designation
Type of wire

DC network

AC network

Code
letters

positive

L+

negative

L-

neutral wire

Phase conductor 1

L1

Phase conductor 2

L2

Phase conductor 3

L3

PEN wire (neutral wire with

ground function, PE + N)

Example

Symbols

Rectifier circuit
L1
light blue

neutral wire
Ground wire

Wire
color

L3

brown

black

CD
C

light blue
PE
light blue

PE

black

L2

(J
<

green-yellow

-f-

green-ylffiov

L-

PEN

o
$
<D

black

c
O
Q

black

Ground
Device connections
Connections for

Example

Designation

Phase conductor 1

Star-connected (squirrel) cage motor

Phase conductor 2
Phase conductor 3
1)

2)

M3~

Terminal board
W2

Color is unspecified. Black is recommended,

brown to differentiate. Green-yellow may not be
used.
PEN-wires have a continuous green-yellow
conductor color. To avoid confusion with PE
wires, PEN wires are additionally marked with
light blue on the ends of the wires,
e.g. with a wire clip or adhesive tape.
According to European Standards

L1
V1

U2

rv>r>r\

V2

T
W1

L2
L3

354

Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits

Circuit diagrams

CF. DIN EN 61082 <1998-09)

Connector markings on relays

Example:
Relay with 2 NOs
and 2 NCs

2nd digit
Function number for contacts

NC

NC

NO

NO

delayed

SPDT
delayed

SPDT

delayed

1st digit
Consecutive numbering of contact sets

Designing circuit diagrams

Current sections and distribution of electric circuits
Every electrical device is shown with a
vertical current section regardless of the
actual spatial arrangement of the elements.
Current sections are numbered sequentially from left to right.
The control circuit contains devices for
signal input and signal processing.
The main circuit contains the necessary
final control elements for the working
elements.
The spatially shared devices, e.g. relay
coil and relay contact, are not represented.

Control circuit
L+

Main circuit

?
C1

S1 h ~

S2

53 h

H-A

C1

C1

\
MlCp-% N3CpX

C1
L-

Designation of devices
Contacts and the associated relay coils
are marked with the same code numeral.
Example: Current sections 1, 2 and 3
2 NO contacts belong to relay coil C1,
both marked as C1. They are used to
latch the relay coil.
All contacts of a relay are entered as a
complete contact set or as a table under
the current path of the relay. Both representations indicate the current section
on which a contact is located.

o
C1 I

0
C2 1

o
c a r

CNI

Osl

CM

,13
14
23 - i
33 -1n *

14
slL
23 ' 1 24
33 " 1 34

r ^ r
S1h A

C1

S2 I f

L-

ciN

S3

C1

14
1L
23 "f ~ 2 4
33 "rru

Representation as contact set

L+

C3
Osl
O

Contacts
C1

Section

13-14
23-24

2
3

C2 \

C3

M1

M3

S4

C2
Cvl

Contacts
C2

Section

Contacts
C3

Section

13-14

13-14

Representation as table

355

Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits

Sensors
Sensors (selection)
Sensors that are sensitive
to proximity

Inductive
sensors

Sensors

Capacitive
sensors

Photoelectric
sensors

Tactile sensors

Magnetic sensors

Ultrasound
sensors

Limit
switches

Characteristics of sensors
Sensor
type

Disadvantages

Object
distance

Only objects with high electrical conductivity, unsuitable where there is greater
accumulation of metal chips

1 mm to
150 mm

Triggers if an object interferes with the alternating

electric leakage field of
the sensor

Small object distances,

High degree of protection
larger design than
(IP67), detects all materials;
comparable inductive sendirt tolerant
sors

20 mm to
40 mm

<0

Triggers if an object
returns the infrared field
of the sensor

Detects all materials,

large distances

Evaluates transit times of

reflected ultrasonic pulses
to determine the distance
to an object

Tolerant to dust, dirt and

light; detects very small
objects at large distances

Slow, use only with standard

pressure, not in areas sub60 mm to
ject to explosion hazards and
6m
no high-frequency noise

A permanent magnet
actuates a proximity
switch (reed contact)
using two contact springs

Suitable in rough environment, high service life,

suitable for switches in
high frequency circuits

Risk of contact welding;

suppresses the current
peaks of RC modules

Symbol

Principle

Triggers if an object interferes with the alternating

magnetic leakage field of
the sensor

High degree of protection

(IP67), very high switch
point precision, dirt
tolerant

Inductive

Capacitive

Hh
Photoelectric

Ultrasound

HDh
O

Magnetic

Mechanical

M>~

Advantages

Triggered by manual
actuation or lever system

Sensitive to dirt, smoke and

secondary light, auxiliary
power necessary

Low price, robust, small,

unaffected by interference
fields, no auxiliary power
necessary

Contact chatter, not

allowed in food and
chemical industries

Designation of proximity sensors

Example:

cf. DIN EN 60947-5-2 (2004-11)

U 1 A30 A F 2 N

J
Type of
detection
inductive
C capacitive
U ultrasound
D photoelectric diffuse
reflected
luminous
beam
M magnetic
R photoelectric reflected
luminous
beam
photoelectric direct
luminous
beam

approx.
2m

Mechanical mounting conditions

flush
mounting
possible
flush
mounting
not possible
unspecified

Design
and size

FORM
A cylindrical
threaded
sleeve
B smooth cylindrical sleeve
C rectangular
with square
cross-section
D square, with
rectangular
cross-section
SIZE
(2 digits)
for diameter
or side length

JTTTI
Circuit element function

A NO contact
B NC contact
C single pole
double
throw
P programmable by
user
S other

Type of
output

P PNP output, 3
or 4 DC connections
N NPN output, 3
or 4 DC connections
D 2 DC connections 1 '
F 2 AC connections 2 '
U 2 AC or DC
connections
S other

Type of
connection
integrated
connection
line
plug
connection
screw
connection
unused
other
type of
connection

NAMUR
function
N NAMUR 3'
function
Note:
NAMUR
sensors
are 2 wire
sensors that
are connected
to an external
switching
amplifier

' DC = Direct Current

' AC = Alternating Current
3
' NAMUR = Normenarbeitsgemeinschaft fur Mess- und Regelungstechnik (Standardization Association for Measurement and Control)
2

356

Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits

Safety precautions
Safety precautions against electrical shock
Protection
against direct
and
indirect contact
I
Protection by:

cf. DIN VDE 0 100-410 (2003-06)

Protection
against electric shock
under normal conditions:
against direct contact
i
Protection by:
- protective insulation of active
parts, e.g. cable
- coating as insulation, e.g. housings on electr. devices
- distance, e.g. protective hoods,
housings of machine screen
- barriers, e.g. protective screen,
enclosure

- Safety Extra Low Voltage (SELV)

- Protective Extra Low
Voltage (PELV)
- Functional Extra Low Voltage
FELV

Protection
against electric shock
under fault conditions:
for indirect contact
l
Protection by:
- automatic disconnect or warning,
e.g. residual current protective
device
- potential equalization
- non-conductive areas;
e.g. by insulating coverings
- protective insulation, e.g. housings
encapsulated with insulating material

ft

ft

Additional protection by residual current circuit breaker GFI's:

Ground Fault Interrupter

Effects of alternating current

vgl. IEC 60479-1 (1994)

Zone

Safety curves for AC 50 Hz from hand to hand or

from hand to foot for adults

Physical effects

10 000
ms

AC-1

normally no effect

2000

AC-2

normally no damaging physical effects

AC-3

usually no organic damage, difficulty

breathing (> 2 s), muscle cramps

1000

o
5=
c

500

200

o
o
c
o

100

3
-o

20

AC-1

AC-2

Trigger curve
of a ground
fault interrupt
dev. < 30 mA

50

10
0.1

0.2

0.5 1 2 5 10

AC-4.1

5% probability of ventricular fibrillation

AC-4.2

up to 50% probability of ventricular fibrillation

AC-4.3

over 50% probability of ventricular fibrillation

mA
500 2000

100

AC-4

leakage current

cardiac arrest, cessation of breathing, and

extreme burns (increasing with exposure
time and current level)

Automatic fuses and wire cross-sectional areas

cf. DIN VDE 0 1000-430 (1991-11)

Minimum cross-sectional area in m m 2 for

Minimum cross-sectional area in m m for

Rated current of
fuse
I n in A

Color
code
of
fuse

Rated current of
fuse
I n in A

Color
code
of
fuse

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

25

yellow

1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

35

2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 1.5 2.5

50

Cu wires by method of installation

A1
2

10(13)
16
20

gray

B1

B2

and number of loaded strands

Method of installation of cables and insulated wires

A1

Installation in thermally
insulated walls, in electrical conduit

B1

Installation in electrical
conduit or in the wall or in
cable channels

According to European Standards

B2

white

Cu wires by method of installation

A1

B1

B2

and number of loaded strands

2.5

10

16

10

10

10

10

10

10

2.5 2.5

cf. DIN VDE 0 298-4 (2003-08)

Installation in electrical conduit or in the wall, in cable
channels or behind base
boards
Installation directly on or in
the wall

357

Automation: 7.2 Electrical circuits

Safety precautions*
Protective systems for electrical devices
Example:

Protective system
designation IP
(International Protection)

cf. DIN EN 60529 (2000-09)

IP3 4 C M

J T T
1st code numeral
for protection of
device1* against
penetration of
solid foreign
objects

II

2nd code number

for protection of
the device 1 '
against water with
damaging effect

Supplementary letters

Additional
code letters 2 '

J
1st code no.
Code
Protection against
Protection from
no
accidental contact
foreign objects
No protection

Protected against
contact by back of
the hand

Code
no

No protection

Protected against
penetration by foreign
objects d> 50 mm

2nd code number

Water protection
No protection
Protected against
vertical drips

Protected against
contact with finger
d = 12 mm

Protected against
penetration by foreign
objects d> 12.5 mm

Protected against
contact with a
tool d= 2.5 mm

Protected against
penetration by foreign
objects d> 2.5 mm

Protected against
water spray impacting device at 60

Protected against
contact with a wire
d = 1 mm

Protected against
penetration by foreign
objects d > 1 mm

Protected against
water spray from all
directions

Svmbol

Protected against
contact with a wire
d = 1 mm

Protected
from dust

Protected against
water jets from all
directions

Protected against
contact with a wire
d = 1 mm

Dust
proof

Protected against
strong water jets
from all directions

Protected against
temporary submersion in water

Protected against
continual submersion in water

4>

> If a code number is not given, the letter X is

used in its place, e.g. IP X6 or IP 3X

2)

Is only given if the protection is greater than

the 1st code number.

Protected against
drips if device is
inclined 15

Additional
letters

Symbol
None

*
4
4

Protected against
contact by back of the
hand

Protected against
contact with finger
d= 12 mm, 80 mm long

Protected against
contact with a tool
d = 2.5 mm,
100 mm long

Protected against
contact with a wire
d = 1 mm, 100 mm long
Supplementary letters

AA

44
44
44

Equipment for high

voltage

Tested on water intake

in running machine

Tested on water intake

on idle machine

Suitable for specific

weather conditions

...kPa

Electric equipment for explosive areas

Code

Type of protection

0
P

oil immersion
pressurized
enclosure
sand filling
flameproof
enclosure
increased
safety
inherent safety

q
d
e

cf. DIN EN 13237 (2003-01)

Group II
A

i
*) According to European Standards

ethylene, acryl
nitrite, hydrogen
cyanide,
dimethylether,
propylene oxide,
coke oven gas,
tetrafluoroethylene

Surface
temperature

T1

450 C

T2

300 C

T3

200 C

T4

135C

T5

100C

T6

85C

Risk of explosion by occurrence of the follo\ /ving gases:

methane, propane, butane,
propylene, benzene, toluol,
naphthalene, turpentine,
petroleum, gasoline, fuel oil,
diesel oil, carbon monoxide,
methanol, metaldehyde,
acetone, acids, chloride

Code

hydrogen,
acetylene,
carbon bisulphide,
ethyl nitrite

358

Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams

Function charts for sequential controls (GRAFCET)1*

CF. DIN EN 60848 (2002-12)

The function chart in accordance with GRAFCET is a graphical design language for sequential control. However, it
does not make any statement about the type of devices used, the direction of lines and the installation of electrical
equipment. Only the general representation via symbols is obligatory; dimensions and other details are left to the
user.

Example: hydraulic press with sequential control

The ram of a hydraulic
press forces bushings into
a plate. When the cylinder
is in its end position (B1)
and a bushing is available
(B4), the cylinder extends
in fast motion. The sensor
B2 switches to feed mode.
As soon as the bushing is
forced in (B3) the cylinder
retracts in fast motion.

- Start step Start cycle (S1) and

cylinder in basic position (B1) and
bushing available (B4)
Cylinder A1 extends in fast motion
Cylinder A1 extended (B2)
Cylinder A1 in feed mode
Cylinder A1 extended (B3)
Cylinder A1 retracts in fast motion
Cylinder A1 retracted (B1)
Symbol

Explanation

Steps

Examples

Explanation

Closed cycle (step chain)

Continuous action

Cylinder A1 retracts in fast motion

Stored with rising edge

Solenoid valve M2 ON

Stored with falling edge

Signal light M5 ON

M2:=1

M5:=1

Step

/
*

7
^

\
/

Start step

Start step with step number 1

Set step
It displays which steps
are set for a definite
condition of the process

Steps that are active at a

particular time can be
marked with a dot.

Macro step
Individual representation
of a detailed part of a
sequential control

S
/

This action is only valid as

long as the corresponding
step is active.
When the step is activated,
the value 1 is assigned to the
solenoid valve M2. This action
remains active also after the
reset of the step.
When the step is activated,
the value 1 is assigned to the
signal light P5 only after the
reset of the step.
The number must be in
the upper center of the
step field

Inclusive step
This step contains several
steps that are referred to
as included steps.

Inclusive start step

This step contains several
steps that are referred to
as included steps.

E5

Macro step M5, shown in its

detailed structure:

5.1

- The release of transition a

activates the access step
E5 of the macro step M5.

5.2

- The activation of the exit

step S5 releases transition g.

M5
5.3

- The release of transition g

deactivates step S5.
S5

> GRAFCET French: GRAphe Fonctionnel de Commande Etape Transition.

English: specification language for function charts of sequential controls

359

Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams

Basic designs of sequential charts

Symbol

Explanation

cf. DIN EN 60848 (2002-12)

Explanation

Examples

Sequential chart

step

A sequential chart consists of a series of steps

placed one after another. Steps and transitions alternate.

- Start step e.g. system "ON"

Start-up push button S1

step

Pump motor ON
Tank FULL

step

Agitator motor ON
15s delay time

step

OPEN drain valve

1. Sequential charts enforce a step structure

developed from top to
bottom.
2. Within the sequence,
only one step can be
active at a time.
3. The start step describes
the initial condition of
the system.
4. After execution of the
last step and release of
the transition, a feedback loop returns the
system to the start step.

Tank empty
Transistions
The transition is composed of
a dash and
a text describing the
transition
-- transition

1. Step 3 is active, i.e. the

agitator motor is ON.
2. If the condition for the
release of the transition
(the agitator runs for
15 sec.) is satisfied,
step 4 is set.
3. Step 4 resets step 3, i.e.
the ON signal for the agitator motor is no longer
active. The motor is shut
down.
4. The drain valve opens.

Agitator motor ON

Transitions can be
represented by:
text statements
Boolean algebra
(equation)
graphical symbols

15s delay time

OPEN drain valve

Sequence selection (alternative branch)

cAd-

--cAd

A sequence branches to
several sequences starting at a single or several
steps.
A difference is made
between:
sequence branch

1
Example:
sequence
branch

Sequence branch:

--

-II

The sequence occurs if

step 5 is set
a) branching to step 6 if the
condition for the release
of transition "e" is satisfied, (e=1) or
b) branching to step 8 if
the condition for the
release of transition "f"
is satisfied (f=1).

sequence junction

Simultaneous sequences (parallel branch)

-- a

A sequence from step 2 to

steps 22, 24 etc. only
occurs if,

A sequence branches to
multiple sequences that
are simultaneously activated but run independently of each other.
The next individual step is
carried out only after all
branches are processed.

22

24
._,

=E=

a) step 2 is set
and

-- a

-f b
3
1

b) the condition for the

release of the common
transition "a" is satisfied
(a=1).

360

Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams

Function charts for sequential controls, Examples

cf. DIN EN EO848 (2002-12)

Example: Lifting device

Workpieces are lifted by a lifting cylinder and pushed onto a roller conveyor by a transfer cylinder.
Actuating the main valve and start button S1 causes the lifting cylinder 1A1 to extend, lifting the workpiece and activating the limit switch 1B2 in the end position. This causes transfer cylinder 2A1 to extend, pushing the workpiece
onto the roller conveyor and activating limit switch 2B2. Cylinder 1A1 returns to its initial position, actuates 1B1 thereby causing cylinder 2A1 to be retracted.

transfer cylinder 2A1

2B1 2B2

System "ON".
Cylinders 1A1 and 2A1
in initial position
Start button S1

si-art

Extend cylinder 1A1

1B2 (Cylinder 1A1 is extended)
-

Extend cylinder 2A1

2B2 (Cylinder 2A1 is extended)

Retract cylinder 1A1

1B1 (Cylinder 1A1 is retracted)

lifting cylinder 1A1

Retract cylinder 2A1

2B1 (Cylinder 2A1 is retracted)

Example: Stirring machine control

Paint flows into a mixing tank, is stirred there and then
pumped back out. Opening valve 01 causes the paint to
fill to a level mark. Afterwards motor M1 is turned on and
the paint is stirred 2 minutes. After shutoff of stirring
motor M1 and activation of pump motor M2 (running
time at least 10 sec), the container is pumped empty.
Shutoff criterion for pump motor M2 is drop of motor
power below 1 kW (container is empty).

System "ON"
Start button S1
Valve Q1 OPEN

p > 0.4 bar (Fill level mark reached)

Valve Q1 CLOSED
stirring
, M
motor M1 v I I

Stirring motor M1 ON
start-

t= 2 min
Stirring motor M1 OFF
Pump motor M2 ON

pressure
sensor for
fill level

P< 1 kW (container empty)

& t>= 10s

pump motor
M2
-

Pump motor M2 OFF

= 1

Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams

Function diagrams
Path diagram

Function diagram

Description of a working sequence by 2 coordinates

i
Pneumatic
cylinder
Step 1: idle position

Simple motion sequences

cp
nJ

^ ^
SI

State diagram

S2

SO: signal element ON

S1: fast motion up to S1 Step 2: fast forward time in s
S2: feed up to S2
motion
o
S3: fast reverse motion step 3: feed
step
U
Pt0 S3
Step 4: end position
Step 5: fast reverse motion

0 1 4 10 11
1

:l

Symbols of a function diagram

Movements and functions
Paths and movements

Function lines

Path and movement limits

Straight line
working movement

Idle and initial position

of subassemblies

Path limits
general

Straight line
idle movement

For all conditions deviating from the idle or

initial position

Path limits using

signal elements

Signal elements
Manual actuation

Mechanical actuation

ON
JOG

OFF

Limit switch actuated in

end position

~p\ 6 bar

Limit switch actuated

over longer path length

71 2 s

P r e s s u r e

switch set to

6 bar

MODE
AUTOMATIC
MODE

ON/
OFF

Hydraulic or pneumatic
actuation

Time element set to

2 sec.

ON

Signal combinations

The signal line begins at

the signal output and
ends at the point where a
change of state is introduced.

V
V

AND state:
marked with a slash

The signal branch is

marked with a dot.

OR state:
marked with a dot

Execution of a function diagram (state diagram)

Cylinder
Step 1: move from
initial position 1 to
position 2
Step 2: remain in
position
Step 3: move
from position 2 to
initial position 1

0 12 3 4

Valve with two switch positions

0 1 2 3 4 5

Signal element activated manually

Step 1: switch
from initial position b to position a
Step 2 and 3:
remain in position
Step 4: switch
from position a to
initial position a

Step 2: switch on;

control element
switches from b
to a

Example: Final control element mechanically activated

1A1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 step
i
1S1

yi N,2s
J /

Step 1: Final control element switches directional control valve from b to

a and causes extension of cylinder 1A1.
Step 2: Cylinder actuates signal element 1S1
Signal element 1S1 controls timer element
Timer runs out (2 sec).
Step 3: Timer element controls directional control valve from a to b
Cylinder 1A1 retracts to initial state.

362

Automation: 7.3 Function charts and Function diagrams

Function diagrams. Example

Example: Pneumatically controlled lifting device
Layout

Function diagram

transfer cylinder 2A1

Pneumatic circuit diagram

Parts list
Designations Name
1A1
2A1

Cylinder, double acting

Cylinder, double acting

0V1
1V1
1V2
2V1

3/2 DCV with detent, manually activated

Two pressure valve
5/2 DCV, pressure activated
5/2 DCV, pressure activated

Designations Name
151
152
153
251
252

3/2
3/2
3/2
3/2
3/2

DCV, roller activated

DCV, roller activated
DCV, activated by push button
DCV, roller activated
DCV, roller activated

363

A u t o m a t i o n : 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics

Circuit symbols

CF. DIN ISO 1219-1 (1996-03)

Function elements

Hydraulic
fluid flow

>

Compressed
airflow

ill

( (

Direction of
flow

Power transmission
Hydraulic
pressure
source

Line junction

Pneumatic
press, source

Quick
coupling

Control line
Leakage current line

Exhaust
without
connection

Enclosure
around
subassemblies

Exhaust with
connection

S p r i n g

V W

Flow restriction

Adjustability

~ m >

Filter or
screen

Muffler
Tank

Line crossing

Working line

Direction of
rotation

Water
separator

Air
receiver
Hydraulic
accumulator

T 7 _

Service unit
(FRL)

dryer

Lubricator

Pumps, compressors, motors

Fixed displacement hydraulic
pump, unidirectional
Variable displacement
hydraulic
pump, bidirectional
Compressor,
unidirectional

Fixed displacement
hydraulic
motor, unidirectional

Variable displacement
hydraulic
motor, bidirectional

Fixed displacement
pneumaticmotor, unidirectional

Variable displacement
pneumatic
motor, bidirectional

Hydraulic
oscillating
drive
Pneumatic
oscillating
drive

Double-acting cylinders

Single-acting cylinders

JL

simplified:

Single-acting
cylinder,
return stroke
by undefined
power source

simplified:

Single-acting
cylinder,
return stroke
by integrated
spring

j
I

simplified:

Pilot operated
check valve

r^i
C h e c k valve,
spring loaded

Shuttle valve
(OR function)

Quick exhaust
valve

Double-acting
cylinder with
one-sided
piston rod

Pressure valves

Check, and/or valves

Check valve,
unloaded

Electric motor

TM

Pressure
relief valves

1M

Sequence
valve

LL
One-way flow
control valve

Dual-pressure
valve (AND
function)

2-way pressure regulator, directacting

Pressure
switch, emits
electrical signal
for a preset
pressure

simpli- '
fied: /

Double-acting
cylinder with
one-sided
piston rod
and twosided
adjustable
end cushion

Flow control valves

4 -

Adjustable
throttle valve

Adjustable
2-way flowcontrol valve

Adjustable
3-way flowcontrol valve,
relief opening to tank

364

Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics

Circuit symbols
cf. DIN ISO 1219-1 (1996-03)
DIN ISO 5599 (2005-12)

Connection designations and codes for directional control valves

Example:
5/2 directional control valve
with connection designation

4 2

6V/

Connection designations for

pneumatic and hydraulic equipment

12

14

PI

Designator

Connection

5 13

Code designation
5 / 2 - directional control valve 6 V 7

I
Number of
switch positions

Number of
connections

Circuit
number

Part
designation

Switch positions1*

Part designation

Valve with 2
positions
a
1)

Part
number

pumps and
compressors
drives
drive motors
signal pick-up
valves
all other parts

Valve with 3
positions

Number of rectangles
Number of positions

as per DIN
with
numbers

obsolete:
with
letters1'21

Inflow,
1
P
pressure
port
Working
A, B, C
2, 4,6
ports
Vent,
3, 5,7
R, S, T
drain
Leakage
L
oil port
Control
10,11,
X, Y, Z
12,14
ports3'
11
Letters are still frequently used in
hydraulic circuit diagrams.
21
The sequence of the letters does not
necessarily correspond to the number
sequence.
3)
A pulse at control port 12, for example,
connects ports 1 and 2.

Designs of directional control valves

2/ directional control valves 3/ directional control valves 4/ directional control valves 5/ directional control valves

2/2 DCV, normally closed

2/2 DCV,
normally
open
Flow paths

. . T,

3/2 DCV, normally closed

3/2 DCV, normally open

3/3 DCV, NC
in middle
position

OKI

e
in:

JZL

General, no
type of actuation indicated

HI

One flow path

in bypass
switch and
two closed
ports

4/3 DCV, with

float in middle
position

SQl

5/3 DCV,
NC in middle
position

Plunger

Pressure actuation
"C
hydraulic

Direct

--EC
Plunger with
adjustable
stroke limit

Push button

Two interconnected flow

paths

4/3 DCV. NC in
middle pos.

Mechanical actuation

Two flow
paths
Two flow
paths and
one closed
port

5/2 directional
control valve

Actuation of directional control valves

One flow path

Two closed
ports

1 X
X
i i

Manually activated

ri-i

4/2 directional
control valve

pneumatic
j

Indirect using
pilot valve

Electrical actuation

k:

HI
a )
^ L

Lever

Pull button

Spring

HI

Roller
plunger

Push and pull

button

Foot pedal

f t

Roller lever,
one direction
of actuation

By solenoid
By electric
motor

Combined actuation

By solenoid
and pilot
valve

Mechanical components
Notch

365

A u t o m a t i o n : 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics

Circuit diagrams

CF DIN ISO 1219-2 <1996-11)

Designing a circuit plan

circuit 1

circuit 2
1S2

1A1

1S2
W

The circuit is subdivided into subcircuits

with related control
functions.
The actual spatial
arrangement of the
components is not
considered.

Components are
arranged from bottom
to top in the direction
of power flow and
H t J T y M from left to right.

Ht lywv

ti

3-e5 V 7
Hht
1
Circuit
number

Part
designation
Part
number

Equipment
number

1S3

If the circuit diagram

is made of several
units, the unit number
must be given, beginning with numeral 1.

Tl!

2S2
X h

Subassemblies such
as throttle check
valves or service units
(FRL) are enclosed by
a dash-dot line.

2S1

Hydraulic components
are shown in their initial positions in the
equipment before
pressure is applied.

2S1

Similar components
or subassemblies are
shown at the same
height within a circuit.

Devices actuated by
drives, e.g. limit
switches, are represented at their point of
activation by a dash
and their designator.

For roller plunger

valves operating on
one side only, a directional arrow is also
placed at the dash.

2S2

Components of a circuit
Pneumatic components are shown in
their initial positions
in the equipment
before pressure is
applied.

Motors, cylinders, valves

Valves for controlling drive elements
Valves for signal combination
Components used to trigger
a switching action
Service unit (FRL), main valve

Drive elements
Actuators
Control elements
Signal elements
Supply elements

Example: Pneumatic circuit diagram with two cylinders (lifting device)

1S1

1A1

circuit 1

1S2

circuit 2

2S1

2A1

drive elements

1V2

4
71

1V1
T \
J
L
2S1

1S3

J2

5v v 3
2S2

Xlw

/w

LP
11 3

'3
ovTl%

0Z1

TW

14

final control
elements
control
element
signal
elements

supply elements

2V1

4
5v

1S2
=

12

f
ISI

2S2

366

Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics

Electropneumatic controls
Function diagram

Layout
transfer cylinder 2A1

B2

up
< pV
lifting cylinder 1A1
down

forward

transfer
cylinder 2A1

back

\
?<

B1

7/

11

B3

Pneumatic circuit diagram

Lifting

Pushing
B3 B4

B1 B2

8 2

~~ f i
lifting cylinder 1A1

Circuit diagram
U

switching
element t a b l e 1 )

B2

B/f

C2

C3

NCINO

NCINO

B1

C1

C2

C3

C4

1M1

2M1

1M2

2M2

C4

NC| NO

3 C M
NCINO

C M

E l *

NC = normally closed
NO = normally opened

~'6

Circuit diagram with the additional functions - magazine query and continuous operation
9

I-2A- V

11

rrrr

continuous
operation
ON

E-VcsV

continuous
operation
OFF

10

tr
B2

B4

T T
V
B1

T
V

C1

C2

C3

C4

1M1

2M1

1M2

2M2

B3

C5 d ^ Z I

0V
switching
element table 1 *

SOE--VC5\
START

C1

C=2 I

j C3

c m

C4

NCNO
-

10
11

NCINO
-15

NCNO NC [NO
-

|6~

IT

NC NO
8

C M

NC = normally closed
NO = normally opened

Example for relay K5: Relay K5 has a normally open switch in section 10 and a normally open switch in section 11.
1

> The switching element table is similar to the contact table (pg. 354) and is often used in practice. However it is not
standardized. The table indicates the section in which a NC or NO relay contact can be found.

367

Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics

Sequence control of a feed unit via PLC according to GRAFCET

Description

Technological scheme
feed
/

fast X
motion

motor
+

fast
reverse
motion

feed unit

The hydraulic cylinder extends in fast motion and

is switched into feed mode by switch B2. In the
fully extended position, the proximity switch B3
switches to fast reverse after a time delay of
2 seconds.

Description
A1

B4

J
B1 B2

/
automatic

operating
panel

B3

lift cylinder A1

single

CT
O

Components and action

Address

Remarks

E0.0/E0.1

NO contact/
NC contact

Cylinder A1 extends in fast motion

Cylinder A1 in position of
proximity switch B2

Push button START

S2

E0.2

NO contact

Push button STOP

S3

E0.3

NC contact

B1-B4

E0.4-E0.7

NO contact

Solenoid valve Q11

Cylinder in feed mode

1M1

A1.0

Solenoid valve 012

Extend cylinder

2M1

A1.1

Solenoid valve Q14

Retract cylinder

2M2

A1.2

Proximity switch

Function block language FBL

FUNCTION BLOCK
Operating modes
ON

Controller

OFF
[ Operating panel \
Automatic mode
Single
Release
step
START

Reset

STOP

Network 5: Step 3
Extend in feed mode
M0.1
RS
E0.5
&
M2.0
M3.0
M0.2
R1 1 h m
M4.0 >1

M0.1
-CZ]
MO.2
-EH

Network 2: Basic position

E0.4
M0.3
E0.7
& -GO
M0.1
E0.6
M3.0

Step chain
Network 3: Step 1
Start step
MO.2
>1
M2.0

Instruction list IL
Network 4: Step 2
Extend in fast motion
M0.1
RS
M0.3
&
M1.0
M2.0
M0.2
R1 1 H Z I
M3.0 >1

Operating modes
Network 1: Function block FB1

&

Component
designation
S0/S1

Cylinder A1 retracted (B1)

M0.1

Mode switch
AUTOMATIC/STEP

Cylinder A1 retracts in fast motion

V1
w
ISD2M2

Cylinder in basic position (B1)

Workpiece available (B4)
Start button ON (S2)

Cylinder A1 in feed mode

Cylinder A1 is extended to B3
and dwell time is 2 sec.

E 0 3

W
2M1CH

Allocation list

- Start step -

EO.O

O
STOP

Function chart and GRAFCET

V2
ra
1M1

START

B1 B2 B3

Network 6: Step 4
Fast reverse with dwell time
T1
RS
2 0

&

M02
M1.0

M4.0
R1 1 b e n
>1

RS
M1.0
R1 1

M4.0
Color marking: step flag in red
Transition in blue

Command output
Networks 7 to 9
M2.oll Cylinder extends
L=-l in fast motion
MIOSIS Cylinder in
I' feed mode
MU)/4n Cylinder retracts
in fast motion

Network 1
CALL FB1
Network 2
Basic position
U E0.4
U E0.7
S MO.3
Network 3
Step 1:
Start step
U E0.2
UN E0.3
U M0.1
U E0.4
U M4.0
0 MO.2
S M1.0
U M2.0
R M1.0
Network 4
Step 2:
Fast extension
U M0.1
U MO.3
U M1.0
S M2.0
O MO.2
O M3.0
R M2.0

Network 5
Step 3:
Feed mode
U M0.1
U E0.5
U M2.0
S M3.0
U MO.2
O M4.0
R M3.0
Network 6
Step 4:
Fast reverse
U M0.1
U E0.6
U M3.0
= T1
U T1
S M4.0
U MO.2
O M1.0
R M4.0
Network 7 to 9
Steps 5 to 7:
Command output
U M2.0
= A1.1
U M3.0
= A1.0
U M4.0
= A1.2
PE

368

Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics

Hydraulic fluids
Mineral oil based hydraulic oils
Type

Standard

HL

DIN 51524-1

cf. DIN 51524-1 to -3 (2006-04)

Effect of the ingredients

HVLP

DIN 51524-3

+ Reduction of wear due to scoring

in mixed friction area

Hydraulic units with hydro pumps

and hydro motors above 200 bar
+ Reduction of wear due to scoring
operating pressure and with high
in mixed friction area
temperature
requirements
+ Improvement of viscosity-temperature behavior

Increase in
aging
resistance

HL 10
HLP 10

Properties

Kinematic
viscosity in mm 2 /s

HL 22
HLP 22

HL 32
HLP 32

HL 46
HLP 46

HL 68
HLP 68

HL 100
HLP 100

at -20C

600

at 0C

90

300

420

780

1400

2560

at 40 C

9-11

19.8-24.2

28.8-35.2

41.4-50.6

61.2-74.8

90-110

at 100C

2.4

4.1

5.0

6.1

7.8

9.9

-18C

-15C

-12C

-12C

175C

185C

195C

205 C

Pour point 1 ' equal to or lower than

30 C

Flash point above

125C

1)

Hydraulic units up to 200 bar, with

high temperature requirements

Increase in
corrosion
DIN 51524-2 ) resistance
+

HLP

Applications

- 2 1 C
165C

The pour point is the temperature at which hydraulic oil still flows under the force of gravity.
Hydraulic oil DIN 51524 - HLP 46: Hydraulic oil of type HLP, kinematic viscosity = 46 mm 2 /s at 40C
Viscosity-temperature behavior of HL and HLP hydraulic oils
200
i2
HL 100/HLP 100
HL 68/HLP 68
HL 46/HLP 46
HL 32/HLP 32
HL 22/HLP 22
HL 10/HLP 10

Example of reading from diagram:

A gear pump operates at an average
operating temperature of 40C.
During operation the allowable
kinematic viscosity of the hydraulic
oil is allowed to fluctuate between
20 to 50 mm2/sec.
According to the diagram there are
6 hydraulic oils that would be suitable:
HL 22/HLP 22
HL 32/HLP 32
HL 46/HLP 46

20
40
temperature

100

Non-flammable hydraulic fluids

Type

ISO
Viscosity
classes

HFC
HFD

15, 22, 32,

46, 68, 100

Suitability for
temperatures Characteristics
C

Applications

-20 to +60

Aqueous monomer and/or polymer

solutions, good wear protection

Mining, printing machines, welding

machines, forging presses

-20 to+150

Water free synthetic liquids, good

resistance to aging, lubricating property through wide temperature range

Hydraulic equipment with high operating temperatures

Biodegradable hydraulic fluids

cf. VDMA 24569 (1994-03)

Suitability and properties

Hydraulic
fluid

Low tempe- High temperarature

ture oxidation
flowability
stability

Rust
protection

Compatibility
with inner
coatings

Seal compatiCost
bility
effectiveness

Unsaturated
esters

(3

Saturated
esters
Polyglycol
oils

(3

Suitability:

very good

good

average

(3

limited/poor

Fluid life

369

Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics

Pneumatic cylinders
Dimensions and piston forces
Piston diameter

12

16

Piston rod diameter (mm)

25

32

40

50

63

80

100

125

160

200

10

12

16

20

20

40

25

25

32

40

G3/8

G3/4

1560 2530 4010

G / 8 G /s G / 8 GV 8 G / 4 G3/8

20

Coupling thread

M5

M5

..
,
single-act. cyl. 2 '
Pushina force 1 '
at p e = 6 bar in N double-act. cyl.

50

96

151 241 375

644

968

58

106

164 259 422

665

1040 1650 2660 4150 6480 10600 16600

54

79

137 216

560

Pulling force1'at
p e = 6 bar in N

d o u b l e

.act.

single-act. cyl.

to
to
160 200

double-act. cyl.

G /2

870 1480 2400 3890 6060

10, 25, 50

strike
in m m

364

G /2

9960 15900

25, 50, 80, 100

to
320

10, 25, 50, 80, 100, 160, 200, 250, 320, 400, 500

' For a cylinder efficiency rj = 0.88

> The return force of the spring is considered.

Calculating air consumption

Q
pe

Single-acting cylinder
A

Pamb

air consumption
gage pressure in
cylinder
ambient air pressure
number of strokes

A
q

piston surface
Air consumption 1 '
area
Single-acting cylinder
specific air conPe+Pamb
sumption per cm
Q =
A-s-npiston stroke
Pamb
piston stroke

Example:
Pe

Pamb

Single-acting cylinder with d = 50 mm;

s = 100 mm; p e = 6 bar; n = 120/min;
1
Pamb =
bar; air consumption Q in l/min?

Double-acting cylinder
A

Q2

Pamb

Q = A-s-n-

Air consumption 1 '

Double-acting cylinder
-A-s-n-

Pamb

Pamb

ji (5 cm)

\
Pe Or Pamb
(on return)

Pe+Pamb

(6 + 1) bar
1 bar

10 cm 120
min
5

= 164934 cmmin

Pamb or pe
(on return)

165
min

Air consumption taken from diagram

1.256

Air consumption 1 '

Single-acting cylinder
Q= q s n
Air consumption 1 '
Double-acting cylinder

q- s- n

Example:

0.0125

10 12 14 16 20

25 32 35 40

50 63 70mm 100

piston diameter d
11.89

15.96

10.76 13.49
1

20.6

Calculate the air consumption of a single-acting cylinder of d = 50 mm, s= 100 mm

and n= 120/min from the
diagram for p e = 6 bar.
According to the diagram
the piston stroke is
q = 0.14 l/cm.
Q= q- s- n =
= 0.14 l/cm 10 cm 120/min
= 168 l/min

' When it fills dead space, actual air consumption may be up to 25% greater. Dead spaces include compressed air
lines between the directional control valve and the cylinder and unused space in the end position of the piston. The
cross-sectional area of the piston rod is not taken into consideration.

370

Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics

Force calculation
Piston forces

Extending
1
1

m
d,

Fy

dy piston
diameter
d2 piston rod
diameter
efficiency

pe
gage pressure
Ay, A2 piston areas
Fy
piston force when
extending
F2
piston force when
retracting
Example:

Hydraulic cylinder with dy = 100 mm; d2 = 70 mm;

rj = 0.85 and p e = 60 bar.
What are the effective piston forces?
Extending:

Pe
Retracting

0 0 0

F^Pe-A

^ e o o A - "
cnr
40055 N

-0.85

F=pe-A-rj

Pressure units
1 Pa = 1 - ^ = 10-5 bar
nv
1 bar = 10

= 0.1

cm'
mm'
1 mbar = 100 Pa = 1 hPa

Retracting:
F2 =
PeA2rl

T7J

ir

"1'

Effective piston force

pe

. 6 0 0 ^ -2 J t cm
= 20 428 N

[ ( 1 0 c m ) 2

( 7 c m ) 2 ]

.0.85

Hydraulic press
In confined liquids or gases, pressure is distributed Displaced volume
uniformly in all directions.
A Si = A2 s 2
Fy force on pressure piston
Work on both pistons
F force on working piston
2

Ay
A2
Sy
s2
/'

area of pressure piston

area of working piston
travel of pressure piston
travel of working piston
hydraulic transmission ratio

^ = F2 s 2

Ratios:
forces, areas, travel
F2 _A2
A

Example:
Fy = 200 N; Ay = 5 cm 2 ; A2 = 500 cm 2 ;
s2 = 30 mm; F2 = ?; Sy = ?; /' = ?
Fo =

s2

Transmission ratio

Ft A2 _ 200 N -500 cm 2
= 20000 N =20 kN
5 cm 2
A

30 mm 500 cm 2
= 3000 mm
5 cm 2

s,_ Fy_ _
F2

200 N 1
20000 N " 100

Pressure intensifier
Pe 1

Pel

Compressed
air

oil

Example:

\ i r

At = 200 cm ; A2 = 5 cm ; rj = 0.88;
2

Pei = 7 bar = 70 N/cm ; p e 2 = ?

ir

1
A
Circuit symbols
accord, to DIN ISO 1219-1

Ay, A2 piston surface areas

Pei
gage pressure at piston area Ay
Pel
gage pressure at piston area A2
rj
efficiency of pressure intensifier

__ N
z

A2

cm
2

200 cm 2
0.
5 cm 2

= 2464 N/cm = 246.4 bar

Gage pressure
Pe2

Pel '

A
'
M2

371

Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics

Speeds, Power
Flow rates
Volume flow rate

Q, Q^ Q 2 volume flow rates

A, A^, A2 cross-sectional areas
v, v-i, v2 flow rates

Q =A v
QI = Q 2

Continuity equation
^

In a pipeline of variable cross-section the volume

flow rate Q is constant throughout all cross-sections over time t.
Example:

Ratio of flow rates

2

Pipeline with >An = 19.6 cm ; A2 = 8.04 cm and

Q= 120 l/min; v, = ?; v 2 = ?
_ Q _ 120000 cm 3 /min _ 6 r o cm _
m
v
1
2
A,
19.6 cm
min
" s
V2

v 1 A,
~ A2

1.02 m/s 19.6 cm 2 2 4

8.04 cm 2
~ '

V1=A2
v2
A

Piston speeds
Extending

4k

Q
volume flow rate
A-i, A2 effective piston areas
v 2 piston speeds
Piston speed

Example:
Hydraulic cylinder with piston diameter
d-\ = 50 mm; piston rod diameter
d2 = 32 mm and Q = 12 l/min.
How high are the piston speeds?
Extending:
Q 12000 cm 3 /min _ cm _
m
= 611
= 6.11
ji (5 cm) 2
min
min
Retracting:
Q
12000 cm 3 /min
V l
~ A2 ~ tc (5 cm) 2 n (3.2 cm) 2
= 1 0 3 5 ^ = 10.35^min
min

Power of pumps and cylinders

P<\
P2
Q
pe
rj
M
n
9550
600

input power on pump drive shaft

output power on pump outlet
volume flow rate
gage pressure
efficiency of the pump
torque
rotational speed
conversion factor
conversion factor

Input power

Example:
Pump with Q = 40 l/min; p e = 125 bar; r\ = 0.84;
P 1 = ?;P 2 = ?
40^25

=
1

600
600
^ = a333 k W
rj
0.84

k w

8 > 3 3 3 | < w

9 g 2 0 k W

Formulae for input and

output power with:
Pin kW, M i n N m,
n in 1/min, Q in l/min,
p e in bar

372

Automation: 7.4 Hydraulics, Pneumatics

Tubes
Seamless precision steel tubes for hydraulic and pneumatic lines (selection)

Materials

cf. DIN EN 10305 1 (2003-02)

E235 (St37.4), E355 (St52.4) according to DIN 1630

Tensile strength
Am
N/mm 2

Yield strength
N/mm 2

Elongation at
fracture EL
%

E235

340 to 480

235

25

E355

490 to 630

355

22

Material
Mechanical
properties

Good cold workability, surface phosphatized or electroplated and

chromed

A n n l i r a t i n n1Q1 O

R \ F J P 1 I L - Q LI U

Pnr l i n o c ir1 h x / H r u i i l i ^ r\r n n o i nm ^ t i r Q\/QtpmQ a t m flyimpl

rafpH n r p c i
i i i i i y u i u u u v \J i p i 1 u 11id
1 ills o y o i c i i lo a l i l lciaiiiicjI i a i c u p i c o

sures up to 500 bar

Delivery type: Normal manufactured length: 6 m, normalized. Tubes have a surface quality of Ra < 4 pm.
Tube HPL-E235-NBK-20 x 2: Seamless precision steel tube for hydraulic and pneumatic applications, made of
E235, normalized, bright-drawn, outside diameter 20 mm, wall thickness 2 mm
Outside
diameter
D
mm

Wall
thickness
s
mm

Flow sectional area

A
cm 2

Outside
diameter
D
mm

Wall
thickness
s
mm

Flow sectional area

A
cm 2

Outside
diameter
D
mm

Wall
thickness
s
mm

Flow sectional area

A
cm 2

4
4
5
5
6
6
8
8
8
10
10
10
12
12
12
14
14
14
15
15
15
16
16
16
16
18
18
18
18

0.8
1.0
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
1.0
1.5
2.5
1.0
2.0
3.0
3.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0

0.05
0.01
0.10
0.07
0.13
0.07
0.28
0.20
0.13
0.50
0.39
0.28
0.79
0.64
0.50
1.13
0.95
0.79
1.33
1.13
0.79
1.54
1.13
0.79
0.64
2.01
1.77
1.54
1.13

20
20
20
20
22
22
22
22
25
25
25
25
25
25
28
28
28
28
28
30
30
30
30
30
35
35
35
35
35

2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
3.5
1.5
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.5
6.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
3.5
4.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
5.0
6.0
2.5
3.5
4.0
5.0
6.0

2.01
1.77
1.54
1.13
3.14
2.54
2.01
1.77
3.80
3.14
2.84
2.55
2.01
1.33
4.91
4.52
3.80
3.46
3.14
5.31
4.91
4.52
3.14
2.55
7.07
6.16
5.73
4.91
4.16

38
38
38
38
38
42
42
42
50
50
50
50
50
55
55
55
55
60
60
60
60
70
70
70
70
80
80
80
80

2.5
4.0
5.0
7.0
10.0
2.0
5.0
8.0
4.0
5.0
8.0
10.0
13.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
5.0
8.0
10.0
12.5
5.0
8.0
10.0
12.5
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.5

8.55
7.07
6.16
4.52
2.55
11.34
8.04
5.31
13.85
12.57
9.08
7.07
4.52
17.35
14.52
11.95
9.62
19.64
15.21
12.57
9.62
28.27
22.90
19.64
15.90
36.32
32.17
28.27
23.76

Rated pressure depending on wall thickness

Rated pressure p in bar

Outside
diameter
D in mm

64

100

6
8

1.0
1.0

1.0
1.0

1.0
1.0

10
12

1.0
1.0

1.0
1.0

16
20

1.5
1.5

25
30
38
50

160
250
Wall thickness s in mm

320

400

1.0
1.5

1.0
1.5

1.5
2.0

1.0
1.5

1.5
2.0

1.5
2.0

2.0
2.5

1.5
1.5

1.5
2.0

2.0
2.5

2.5
3.0

3.0
4.0

2.0
2.5

2.0
2.5

2.5
3.0

3.0
4.0

4.0
5.0

5.0
6.0

3.0
4.0

3.0
4.0

4.0
5.0

5.0
6.0

6.0
8.0

8.0
10.0

373

Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control

Programming languages
PLC programming languages (overview)

cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)

Common elements of all PLC languages (selection)

Delimiters (selection)
Symbol
(**)

cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)

Use

Symbol

At beginning and end of comment

Step names and variable/type separators

Statement label separators (ST)
Network label separators (LAD and FBL)

Leading prefix for decimal numbers

Addition operator (ST)
Leading prefix for decimal numbers
Year-month-day separator
Subtraction, negative operator (ST)
Horizontal line (LAD and FBL)

()

Initialization operator
Assignment operator (ST)

Base number and time literal separator

Beginning and end of character strings

%
I or!

Real-exponent delimiter

Separator for areas

Separator for CASE areas (ST)
Bulleted lists, initial values and field index
separators, operand lists, function argument
lists and CASE value lists separators (ST)

Beginning of special characters in strings

Whole number/fraction separator
Separator for hierarchal addresses and structured elements

e or E

Instruction lists modifier/operator (ST)

Function arguments (ST)
Delimiter for FBL input lists (ST)
Separator for type declaration
Separator for statements (ST)

:=

Use

Direct representation prefix1*

Vertical lines (LD)

Individual element variables for storage locations

Variable Meaning
1
Q
M
X

Variable Meaning

storage location input

storage location output
storage location tag
(individual) bit size

B
W
D
L

Name

1)

ST %QB5 1) :
Stores current result in byte size in
output storage location 5

Elementary data types

Operators

ADD
SUB
MUL
DIV
AND
OR
XOR
NOT
S
R
GT
GE
EQ
NE
LE
LT

Example (AWL)

byte size (8 bit)

word size (16 bit)
double word size (32 bit)
long word size (64 bit)

Symbol Meaning
+
*

/
&

^ 1
=1
3
3)
3)
>
>=
=

<>
<=

<

addition
subtraction
multiplication
division
Boolean AND
Boolean OR
Boolean exclusive OR
negation
sets Boolean operator to "1"
sets Boolean operator to "0"
comparison: greater than
comparison: greater than or equal to
comparison: equal to
comparison: not equal to
comparison: less than or equal to
comparison: less than

Data type

Bits

BOOL
SINT
INT
DINT
LINT
REAL
LREAL
STRING
TIME
DATE

Boolean
short whole number
whole number
double whole number
long whole number
real number
long real number
variable long number sequence
duration
date

1
8
16
32
64
32
64
_4)

BYTE
WORD
DWORD
LWORD

bit
bit
bit
bit

8
16
32
64

Key word

sequence
sequence
sequence
sequence

Directly represented individual element variables have a leading % symbol.

2
> This symbol is not allowed as operator in text language.
3
> No symbol
4)
Manufacturer specific

of
of
of
of

length
length
length
length

8
16
32
64

_4)

-4)

374

Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control

Programming languages
Ladder diagram (LD)

cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)

A ladder diagram represents the flow in an electromechanical relay system.

Symbol

Description

Symbol

Description

Lines and blocks

Symbol

Description

Contacts

... 1)
H I

Horizontal line
Vertical line
Line junction

Coils

-(/^
O

NO contact
logic condition "1"

...

Crossing without
connection

...

l/l

NC contact
logic condition "0"

|P|

Contact for sensing

rising edge,
signal from "0" to "1

Coil output energize

Coil output deenergize

(s)

Latching coil,
stores an operation
Unlatching coil

Blocks with
connection lines
Left power rail

... )
...

1)

Right power rail

Contact for sensing

falling edge,
signal from "1" to "0'

|N|

- ( N ) -

Function block language (FBL)

Coil for sensing

positive slopes,
signal from "0" to "1"
Coil for sensing
negative slopes,
signal from "0" to "1"
1)
component designator
cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)

Function block language consists of individual function blocks with statistical data. They are useful in implementing
frequently recurring functions.
Symbol

Description

Symbol
_ AND J

Description

OR

Elements are rectangular or square.

Input parameters are placed on the left side
and output parameters on the right side.
FB 1.2
ADD

The block's functionality is entered as a

name or symbol within the block.
The block designator is located above the
block.

Structured text (ST)

OR

Elements must be interconnected by horizontal and vertical signal flow lines.

Negation of Boolean signals is shown by a

circle on the input or output.

cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)

Structured text is a high level language and builds on the syntax of ISO-PASCAL.
A: = A + B (B-C)

Statement

Type

IF
CASE
FOR
WHILE
REPEAT
EXIT

assignment
conditional statement
selection statement
repeat statement
repeat statement
repeat statement
leaving a repeated statement

Comparison of Function Block Language (FBL) and Structured text (ST)

Function blocks (examples)

Structured text (examples)

B
c

ADD

or

A:= ADD (B, C, D)

or
A:= B + C + D

&

E:= AND (F, G, H)

or
E:= F & G & H

F
AND

or

G
H

375

Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control

Programming languages
Instruction list (IL)

cf. DIN EN 61131 (2003-12)

Instruction list is a machine-oriented textual programming language, similar to assembly language.

Structure of an instruction
Operator modifiers

Start: AND N %MX51 ("blocked*)

N
Operator

Label

Operand

Boolean negation of the operand.

Statement is only executed if the evaluated result
is a Boolean 1.

Comment

Separates multiple.
Standard
operator

Modifier

Evaluation of the operator is deferred until

")" appears.

Standard operators
Operator

Modifier

Meaning

Operator

Modifier

Meaning

LD

setting an operand

DIV

division

ST

storing on operand addresses

GT

comparison: >

sets Boolean operator to 1

GE

comparison: >=

sets Boolean operator back to 0

EQ

comparison: =

AND

N,(

Boolean AND

NE

comparison: <>

&

N,(

Boolean AND

LE

comparison: <=

OR

N,(

Boolean OR

LT

comparison: <

XOR

N,(

Boolean exclusive OR

JMP

C,N

jump to label

ADD

addition

CAL

C,N

call of a function block

SUB

subtraction

RET

C,N

jump back

MUL

multiplication

processing of deferred operations

Information list (IL) according to VDI1>

cf. VDI 2880 (1985-09)

Structure of an instruction
Set solenoid Y2 back'

Label 1: R A1.2
I
Label

I
Operand

Operator

I
Comment

Operators for
signal processing

Operators for
program organization

Operators

load

AND operation

ZV

count forwards

open parenthesis

OR operation

ZR

count backwards

closed parenthesis

negation

XO

exclusive OR

NOP null operation

UN

NAND operation

SP

unconditional jump

ON

NOR operation

input

SPB

conditional jump

assignment

output

BA

call of a block

ADD

addition

tag

BAB

conditional call of a block

SUB

subtraction

constant

BE

block end

MUL

multiplication

timer

Operand

comment beginning

DIV

division

counter

comment end

set

program block

PE

program end

reset

function block

> In practice, many more PLC controls exist which are programmed according to the VDI guidelines.

376

Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control

Programming languages
Comparison of the most commonly used PLC programming languages
Functions as
components of
programs
AND
with 3 inputs

Instruction list (IL)

according to VDI
U
U
UN

Ell
E12
E13
A10

Function block language

(FBL)

E11

E11

E12

8c

E13

Ell
E12
E13
A10

OR
with 3 inputs

E11
E12

A10

E11

E11
E12
M1
E13
E14
M1
A10

OR before AND
with intermediate
tag

Exclusive OR
(XOR)

RS flip-flop
Set dominant

RS flip-flop
Reset dominant

U
UN
O

>1

A10

>1

A10

E11

E12

E13

E14

A10

&
M1

E11
E12

E12

M1

>1

&

1-1-1

A10

E14

E111>
A11
E12
A11

E11
E12

S1 1
R

R1 1

t
i

E11

E12

E11

E12

E12

A10
(

A10

0
i

A11
S1 1

A12

E12

A12

R1 1

E12

A10

A12

A11

E11

A11

A12

E11

T1

T1

A10

E11
E11

M1

3E

E11

A11

T1
E11

A10

=1

E12

E12

E13
E14

E11

U
S
U
R

E12
A10
Ell
A10

A10

E13

E14

E11

U
0
UN

E12

E13

E121>
A11
Ell
A11

Ell
T1
T1
A10

l/l

E11

U
R
U
S

Turn on
delay

Latch,
ON (E 12)
dominating

E11
E12
(UN E l l
U E12)
A10

1 I

A10

-o

E12

E12
E13
E14
A10

E12 E13

E11

E13

AND before OR

Ladder diagram
(LD)

A10

A10

&
>1

E12
A10

> The following applies to flip-flops: If S = 1 and R = 1, the last function programmed in the IL dominates.

377

Automation: 7.5 Programmable logic control

PLC controlled embossing machine tool

Description

Technological scheme
/

?
automatic

cylinder A1
B1

single
step

cr vo
START

STOP

operating
panel

Workpieces are to be fitted with a workpiece number on an embossing machine

tool. The sensor B7 detects whether workpieces are still available in the stacker. The
pneumatic cylinder A1 pushes the workpiece out of the stacker into the working
position. After this, the embossing cylinder
A2 extends and embosses the workpiece.
After a delay time of 1 sec., first the
embossing cylinder A2 and then the
pushing cylinder A1 are retracted. Cylinder
A3 serves as an ejector of the embossed
workpiece. Sensor B8 detects whether the
workpiece was actually ejected.

Function chart in accordance with GRAFCET Allocation list

Component and action
Mode switch
AUTOMATIC/STEP
Push button START
Push button STOP
Proximity switch
Solenoid valve (with cyl. A1)
Solenoid valve (with cyl. A2)
Solenoid valve (with cyl. A3)

Component
designation

Address

S0/S1

E0.0/E0.1

S2
E0.2
S3
E0.3
B1-B4
E0.4-E0.7
E1.0-E1.3
B5-B8
1M1 und 1M2 A0.0/A0.1
2M1 und 2M2 A0.2/A0.3
3M1 und 3M2 A0.4/A0.5

Step chain
Network 3: Step 1
Start step
M0.2
E0.3
M0.1
EOA
M7.0

>1

&

M2.0

RS
M1.0
R1 1 b m

Network 4: Step 2
Extend cylinder A1
M0.1
RS
M0.3
&
M1.0
M2.0
M0.2
R1 1
M3.0 >1

Function block language (FBL)

Network 5: Step 3
Extend cylinder A2
M0.1
E0.5
&
E1.3
RS
M2.0
M3.0
M0.2
R1 1 b e n
M4.0 >1
Network 2: Basic position
E0.6
E1.0
E1.2

M0.1

Network 6: Step 4
Retract cylinder A2
T1

NO contact/
NC contact
NO contact
NC contact
NO contact

Network 7: Step 5
Retract cylinder A1
M0.1
RS
E0.6
&
M4.0
M5.0
M0.2
HZI
M6.0
Network 8: Step 6
Extend cylinder A3
M0.1
RS
E0.4
&
M5.0
M6.0
M0.2
-GH
M7.0
Network 9: Step 7
Retract cylinder A3
M0.1
E1.B
&
E1.1
RS
M6.0
M7.0
M0.2
KZI
M1.0 >1
Command output
Networks 10 to 15
M ? n AO.O
^ 4 Z I (Extend A1)
M3.0 A0.2
3 (Extend A2)
M4.0 A0.3

&

M0.3
- m
Color marking: step flag in red
Transition in blue

Remarks

(Retract A2)
^ - m

(Retract A1)

M7.0 A0.5 (Extend A3)

G H (Retract A3)

378

Automation: 7.6 Handling and robot systems

c f D , N E N 1 3 0 9 7 8 7 (2

Coordinate systems and axes

Robot axes
Robot auxiliary axes
for orientation

Coordinate system

Robot main axes for positioning

To manipulate workpieces
or tools in space, the following are necessary:
3 degrees of freedom for
positioning and
3 degrees of freedom for
orientation

To reach a desired point in space, 3 robot main axes are

necessary.
Cartesian robots

Articulated arm robots

3 translation axes
(T axes) designated
X, Y and Z

3 rotational axes
(R-axes) designated
A, B and C

Coordinate systems

3 robot auxiliary axes for

spatial orientation
R (roll)
P (pitch)
Y (yaw)

cf. DIN EN ISO 9787 (2000-07)

Base
coordinate system
The base coordinate
system references
the level mounting surface for the X-Y plane
the center of the robot for
the Z axis
Flange
coordinate system
The flange coordinate system references the end
surface of the terminating
main axis of the robot.
Tool
coordinate system
The origin of the tool coordinate system lies at the
tool center point TCP (Tool
Center Point).
The speed of the tool center point is referred to as
the robot speed and the
path of tool travel as the
robot trajectory.

Symbols for representing robots (selection)

Designation

Symbol

Designation

Translation axis
(T-axis)D

Rotation axis
(R-axis)2>
Rotation
aligned

Translation aligned
(telescoping)
Translation out of
alignment

> Translation = straight line motion

Symbol

- < l > - 0

Rotation out of
alignment
Auxiliary axis
(e.g. for roll, pitch
and yaw)

Gripper
1

cf. VDl 2861 (1988 06)

> Rotation = rotational motion

Example RRR robots

Automation: 7.6 Handling and robot systems

Robot designs
Mechanical structure1)

Kinematics2* and working

space

Cartesian robots

TTT-Kinematics

Examples of
design types

Characteristics, areas of
application
Main axes:
3 translational

Gantry robot
Cylindrical robots

cf. DIN EN ISO 9787 <200007)

Areas of application:
large working space, therefore often in overhead
gantry
tool and workpiece feed in
production ceils
sheet processing with laser
beam and water jet cutting
palletizing
Main axes:
1 rotational
2 translational
Areas of application:
suitable for heavy masses
handling of heavy forged
and cast parts
transport of pallets
and tool cartridges
pick and place

RTT-Kinematics

CD )
Base robot
Polar robot 1

Main axes:
2 rotational
1 translational

RRT-Kinematics

Vertical
swivel arm robot
Polar robot 2
Type: SCARA3> robot

Areas of application:
telescoping type axis 3,
consequently deeper
working space
point and simple path
welding, e.g. on car bodies
pick and place with die
casting machines
Main axes:
2 rotational as horizontal
revolute joint
1 translational

RRT-Kinematics

Areas of application:
primarily in vertical
assembly area
point and simple path
welding
pick and place work
Horizontal
swivel arm robot
Articulated arm robots

RRR-Kinematics

Vertical
swivel arm robot
1)

Main axes:
3 rotational
Areas of application:
handling and
assembly area
complex path welding
painting work
adhesive bonding
low space requirement
yet large working space

Axes are designated with numbers, where axis 1 is the axis of the first motion.
R = rotational axis; T = translational axis (Designations "R" and "T" are not standardized.)
3
> SCARA = Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm
2)

380

Automation: 7.6 Handling and robot systems

Grippers, Job safety

Gripper

cf. DIN EN ISO 14539 (2002-12) and VDI 2740 (1995-04)

Gripper

mechanical

Finger grippers
Linear
grippers

pneumatic

adhesive

suction gripper
articulated finger gripper

electromagnets
permanent magnets

Jaw grippers

Clamp grippers

Scissors
grippers

Characteristics

Characteristics

Spring
loaded

Both gripper
fingers turn
about an axis
fixed in the
frame.

1 degree of
movement

Flat
gripper

Parallel
gripper

Weight
loaded
Both gripper
fingers are
pushed
parallel to
each other
opposite to
the gripper
housing.

Spatial
gripper

6 degrees of
movement

Work safety for handling and robot systems*

protective curtain with sensors that can
distinguish between human and robot
because of workpiece change

velcro fastener
gripper
Needle grippers

Characteristics

Clamping
force is created by a
spring.
Opening of
the gripper
by pressure.

Frequently
used
grippers.
3 degrees of
movement

JP

magnetic

Clamping
force created
by the own
weight of the
gripping
object.
Opening of
the gripper
by pressure.

Used in textile industry.

Four nail
plates are
extended by a
tapered plug
and grip the
fabric.

cf. DIN EN ISO 10218-1 (2007-02) & VDI 2854 (1991-06)

Concepts

Explanations

Maximum
space

Area encompassing:
moving parts of robot
tool flange
workpiece

Restricted
space

A portion of the maximum space which should

not be entered in case of an eventual breakdown of the robot system

Separating
safeguards

Containment fences, coverings, permanent

encasements, locking devices
(DIN EN 1088)

Protective
systems with
contactless
activation

Hazardous area security: light curtains and

light barriers
Area monitoring: laser scanners
Access security: light grills and light barriers

Important safety relevant standards

DIN EN 292
DIN EN 61496
DIN EN 418

area bordered by
protective fence

safety
switching mat

According to European Standards

DIN EN 294
DIN EN 457
CSA Z 434-03
ANSI R 15.06

Safety stand, for machines, basic terminology

Safety standards for machines, contactless
activation of safety systems
Safety standards for machines, emergency
OFF systems
Safety around machines, safe distances
Acoustical hazard signals
Industrial Robots and Robot systems
American Standard for Industrial Robots

Automation: 7.

technology

Coordinate axes

381
CF. DIN 66217 <1975-12)

Coordinate system
Right hand rule

Cartesian coordinate system

Coordinate axes X, Y and Z are

perpendicular to each other.
This arrangement can be represented by thumb, index finger
and middle finger of the right
hand.
Axes of rotation A, B and C are
assigned to coordinate axes X, Y
and Z.
When looking down one axis in
the positive direction, the positive
direction of rotation is clockwise.

Coordinate axes in programming

Vertical milling machine

Lathe

Lathe tool
behind turning center

Coordinate axes and the resulting

directions of motion are aligned
to the main slideways of the CNC
machine and are essentially relative to the clamped workpiece
with its workpiece zero point.
Positive directions of motion always result in greater coordinate
values on the workpiece.
The Z axis always runs in the
direction of the main spindle.

Horizontal milling machine

Lathe tool
forward of
turning center

To simplify programming it is
assumed that the workpiece
remains motionless and only the
tool moves.

Example:
2-carriage lathe with programmable
main spindle

Reference points
Machine zero point M
Origin of the machine coordinate system and is set by the
machine manufacturer.

^ ^ ^

Program zero point PO

Indicates the coordinates of the point at which the tool is located
before start of the program.
Reference point R
Origin of incremental position measurement system with a distance to the machine zero point set by the machine manufacturer.
Tool holder reference point T
Lies central to the limiting face of the tool holder. On milling
machines this is the abutting surface of the tool spindle, on lathes
the abutting face of the tool holder on revolver.
1
> not standardized
Workpiece zero reference point W
Origin of the workpiece coordinate system and is set by the programmer based on engineering principles.

382

Automation: 7.

technology

Program structure
Tasks of the control program
Block structure
rN10

G01

X30

Y40 F150

S900

T01

M03

Explanation of words:
N10 block number 10

Positional
data

Technical
information

X30 coordinate of target point in X direction

Miscellaneous
function
(M function)

Prep,
function
(G function)
Block
number

G01 feed, linear interpolation

Coordinates of
target point

Feed

Speed

Tool

Y40
F150
S900
T01
M03

coordinate of target point in Y direction

feed 150 mm/min
speed of main spindle 900/min
tool no. 1
spindle clockwise

Program structure
CNC
%01
N1 G90
N2 G96
N3 GOO
N4 G01
N5
N6 GOO
N7

program

F0.2
X20
X30
X200

M04
S180
Z2
Z-3
Z-15
Z200
M30

Preparatory functions
Prep,
functions

Effectiveness

Prep,
functions

Meaning

Effectiveness

Meaning

GOO

Positioning at rapid rate

G53

Cancel shift

G01

Linear interpolation

G02

Circle interpolation clockwise

G54G59

Shift 1-Shift 6

G03

Circle interpol. counterclockwise

G74

Approach reference point

G04

Dwell time predetermined

G80

Cancel fixed cycle

G09

Exact stop

G17

Plane selection XY

G81G89

Fixed cycle 1-Fixed cycle 9

G18

Plane selection ZX

G90

Absolute dimensional notation

G19

Plane selection YZ

G91

Incremental dimensional notation

G33

Thread cutting, constant

pitch

G94

Feed rate
in mm/min

G40

Cancel tool offset

G95

Feed in mm

G41

Cutter compensation, left

G96

Constant cutting speed

G42

Cutter compensation, right

G97

Spindle speed in 1/min

modal:

Preparatory functions that remain effective until they are overwritten by a similar type of
condition.

non-modal:

Preparatory functions that are only effective in the block in which they are programmed.

Universal miscellaneous functions (m-functions, selection)

cf. DIN 66025-2 (1988-09)

MOO

Programmed stop

M04

Spindle counterclockwise

M07

Cooling lubricant ON

M02

Program end

M05

Spindle stop

M09

Cooling lubricant OFF

M03

Spindle clockwise

M06

Tool change

M30

Program end with reset

Automation: 7.

technology

Tool offset and Cutter compensation

383

384

Automation: 7.

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to DIN

Machining motion for vertical milling machines
G01

cf. DIN 66025-2 (1983-01)

Linear motion
Designation and machining example:
N30

X!50

Gl[>1

Linear interpolation,
machining motion in
programmed feed

Y 19

Z-8

Coordinates of target point

I
in X direction in Y direction in Z direction

CNC program

N...
N10
N20

19
10
0-

Pz

GOO
G01

| N30

X20

Y10

X50

Y19

Z1
ZO

(P1)
(P2)
Z - 8 | | (P3)

N...
<=>
Csl

G02

o
LTI

Clockwise circular movement

Designation and machining example:
N40

G02

X32

I26

Y38

Incremental input of the

center point relative to
circle starting point

Coordinates of
circle endpoint
I
I
in X
in Y
direction direction

Clockwise circular
interpolation,
machining motion
in programmed
feed

J-10.39

in X direction in Y direction
CNC program

N...
N10 G41
N20 G01 X6
N30

Y4
Y20.39

N40 G02 X32 Y38

N50 G01 X40

N...
G03

(P1)
(P2)
I26 J-10.39| (P3)
(P4)

Counterclockwise circular movement

Designation and machining example:
N40

G03

X32

18

J16.12

Incremental input of the

center point relative to
circle starting point
I
I
in X direction in Y direction

Coordinate of
circle endpoint
I
I
in X
in Y
direction direction

Counterclockwise
circle interpolation,
machining motion in
programmed feed

CNC program

38-

>4

P2

N...
N10 G41
N20 G01 X6
N30

P1

N40 G03 X32 Y38 18

88

Y38

II

N50 G01 X40

N...
CXI o
m

-j-

Y4
Y21.88
J16.12

(P1)
(P2)
(P3)
(P4)

Automation: 7.

385

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to DIN

Machining motions of lathes
G01

cf. DIN 66025-2 (1983-01)

Linear movement
Designation and
machining example:

N20

G<di

XI50

z- 50

Coordinates of target point

I
in X direction in Z direction

Linear interpolation, machining

motion in programmed feed

CNC program

N...

si
m

50
60

G02

N10

GOO

N20
N30
N40
N...

G01

X60

Z2

(P1)
(P2)
(P3)
(P4)

Z-50
X 80
X102

Z-61

Clockwise circular movement

Designation and machining example:
N30

G02

X100

Z-60

I20

Incremental input of
center point relative to
circle starting point
r..-tlr-^'-v
I
in X direction in Z direction

Coordinates of
circle endpoint
I
I
in X
inZ
direction direction

Clockwise circular
interpolation,
machining motion in
programmed feed

KO

CNC program

Id

P2

P1

60

G03

.40

N...
N10
N20

GOO
G01

X60

Z2
Z-40

| N30

G02

X100

Z-60

N40
N...

G01

X110

(P1)
(P2)
I20

KO | (P3)
(P4)

Counterclockwise circular movement

Designation and machining example:
N40

G03

Counterclockwise
circle interpolation,
machining motion in
programmed feed

X90

Z-55

10

K-15

Incremental input of
center point relative to
circle starting point
1
i
in X direction in Z direction

Coordinates of
circle endpoint
I
I
in X
inZ
direction direction

CNC program
N...
N10
N20
N30

G01
G03
G01

XO
X60

ZO
Z-11.46
Z-40

10

K-45

(PI)
(P2)
(P3)

N40

G03

X90

Z-55

10

K-15

(P4)

N...

386

Automation: 7.

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL1)

Linear interpolation with G1 for lathes and milling machines
Turning

Milling

Incremental programming with XI, Yl and Zl coordinates in NC programs with G90

NC program

NC program

N10...
N15G90
N20...
N25G1 X68Z-16 ;P2
N30G1 XI31 ZI-54 ;P3
N35...

N10...
N15 G42
N20G0 X...
;P2
N25 G1 X72
N30G1 XI-17 YI57 ;P3
N35...
55 72

Absolute programming with XA, YA and ZA coordinates in NC programs with G91

NC program

NC program

N10...
N15G91
N20...
N25G1 X68Z-16
;P2
N30G1 XA130 ZA-70 ;P3
N35...

N10...
N15G42 GO X-16Y18
N20 G91
;P2
N25G1 X88
N30G1 XA55YA78 ;P3
N35...

Start angle AS with coordinate value X

NC program

16 0

N10...
N15
N20...
N25G1 X60Z-16
N30 AS150X130
N35...

|AS|

m '

18
;P2
;P3

120

P2
38

NC program

N10...
N15G42
N20G0 X... Y18
N25G1 X72
;P2
N30 G1 |AS120 X38 ;P3
N35...

72

Start angle AS with coordinate value Z

P3

^
^ ^

[as]
140 y^
P1\

m
80

P2]
BR v
1Hjr+X vo
1 A.
^

\mjTz

NC program

NC program

N10...
N15G90
N20...
N25G1 X60Z-16 ;P2
N30G1 AS 140 Z-80 ;P3
N35...

N10...
N15G42
N20G0 X... Y18
;P2
N25 G1 X50
N30G1 AS65Y66 ;P3
N35...

16 0

Transition elements radius RN+ and phase RNThe radius RN+ and the phase RN- are transition elements be tween two contour elements (circles, straight lines)

10x45

90 74
1)

30

NC program

N10...
N15G90
N20 GO X48 ZO
N25G1 Z-30 RN-10
N30G1 X82
N35G1 Z-74 |RN+30
N40G1 X140Z-90

NC program

P1
P2
P3
P4
P5

N10...
N15G42
N20 GO X... Y18
N25 G1 X75IRN-23I
;P2
N30 G1 X60 Y80[RN+12|;P3
N35...

Priifungsaufgaben- und Lehrmittelentwicklungsstelle (PAL) (Institute for the development of training and testing material)

Automation: 7.

387

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

Circular interpolation for lathes and milling machines
Turning

Milling

Circular interpolation with absolute center point coordinates

Block structure:

Block structure:

G90
G1 X.. Z..
G2 X.. Z..

G90
G1 X..
G2 X..

;P2
IA.. KA.. ;P3

Z..
Z..

;P2
IA.. JA.. ;P3
NC program

NC program

70

N10 ...
N15G90
N20 GO X38 Z4
;P1
;P2
N25G1 Z-40
N30 G2 X98 Z-70 IA49| KA-40|;P3
N35 ...

40

29

D3 m
m
+Y-

it

40

N10 ...
N15G90
;P1
N20G0 X... Y9
N25 G1 X40
;P2
N30 G3 X60 Y29 |lA40|| JA29 |;P3
N35 ...

P3

60

Selection criteria for multiple solutions

When using the radius R or the aperture angle AO, several arc solutions may result. The programmer can select
the desired arc by defining an arc or a start angle with the help of the two addresses O and/or R and H.
Selection of the arc length using the address O or R
G1 X.. Z..
;P2
G2 X.. Z.. R.. O.. ;P3
shorter arc

or:

G1 X.. Z..
G2 X.. Z.. R+..

Block structure:

Block structure:

Block structure:

Block structure:

G1 X.. Z..
;P2
G2 X.. Z.. R.. 0.. ;P3

;P2
;P3

NC program

or:

G1 X.. Z..
G2 X.. Z.. R-..

;P2
;P3

NC program

longer arc

N10 ...
N15G90
N20...
;P2
N25G1 X12Y15
N30G2X66Y15 R26 [ a^ ;P3
or:
N30G2X66Y15 R026
;P3

N10 ...
N15G90
N20...
;P2
N25G1 X70 Z-25
N30G2X100Z-70 R26 |0 l] ;P3
or:
N30G2X100Z-70 R026 ;P3
Selection of the start angle using the address H
Block structure:

Block structure:

G1 X.. Z..
;P2
G2 Z.. R.. AO.. H.. ;P3

G90
G1 X.. Z..
;P2
G2 X.. R.. AO.. H.. ;P3

smaller start angle

P3 f ,115

[Rj]

larger

NC program

NC program

ascent angle

N10 ...
N15G90
N20...
N25G1X50Z-18
;P2
N30 G2 Z-55 R26 A0115 [Hi] ;P3

N10 ...
N15G90
N20...
;P2
N25G1 X30 Y26
N30 G2 Z62 R26 A0115 H2 ;P3

Contour routing for lathes (selection)

Where open contour routing is concerned, the starling point as well as the target point may still be undefined. The
control system calculates the starting and end point of the open element on the basis of the specified addresses.
Three-point routing
G62/G63 Open arc
G61 Open line section
Block structure:

Block structure:

G1 X.. Z..
G61 AS..

N15 G1 X50 Z-30 ;P1

N20 G61 AS 160

G1 X.. Z..
G62 AS.. R..

N15 G1 X40 Z-30 ;P1

N20 G62AS210 R50

N15 ...
N20G1 X40Z-20 ;P1
N20 G61 AS210
;P2
N30 G62 Z-72 R+26 ;P3

>P3 / 2 1 0 ^
/Wo
^ S P1 j
o
_jiiiir
+ X k
-Ji
J"P2
-TTz
72
20
0

388

Automation: 7.

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL functions for lathes and milling machines
Programming coordinates and interpolation parameters
XA, YA, ZA

Absolute input of coordinate values relative to the workpiece zero point

XI, Yl, Zl

Incremental input of coordinate values relative to the current tool position

IA, KA

Absolute input of the interpolation parameters relative to the workpiece zero point

T-addresses for tool change

T

Tool storage place in the tool revolver or holder

TC

Selection of the number of the offset memory

TR

Incremental tool radius or cutting edge offset in the selected offset memory

TL

Incremental tool length offset in the selected offset memory (milling)

TZ

Incremental tool length offset in Z direction in the selected offset memory (turning)

TX

Incremental diameter offset in X direction in the selected offset memory (turning)

Additional M-functions1' according to PAL

M13

Clockwise spindle rotation, coolant ON

M17

End of sub program

M14

Counter clockwise spindle rotation, coolant ON

M60

Constant feed

M15

Spindle and coolant OFF

M61

M60 + corner shaping

PAL functions for lathes

G-functions
Types of interpolation

Cutter compensation

GO

Rapid travel/motion
Linear interpolation with feed rate
Circular interpolation, clockwise
Circular interpolation, counter clockwise
Dwell time
Exact stop

G40
G41

Travel to configured tool change point

Linear interpolation for contour routing
Circular interpolation for contour routing,
clockwise
Circular interpolation for contour routing,
counter clockwise

G92
G94
G95
G96
G97

G1
G2
G3
G4
G9
G14
G61
G62
G63

G42

Cancel tool radius offset TRO

Tool radius offset TRO to the left of the
programmed contour
Tool radius offset TRO to the right of the
programmed contour

Feeds and speeds

Rotational speed limitation
Feed in mm per minute
Feed in mm per revolution
Constant cutting speed
Constant rotational speed

Reference points

Program features

G50

Cancellation of incremental zero point

shift and rotations

G22
G23

Repeat program section

G53

Cancellation of all zero point shifts and

rotations
Adjustable absolute zero points

G29

Conditional jumps

G54G57
G59

Incremental Cartesian zero point shift and

rotation

Machining planes and rechucking

G18
G17
G19
G30

Selection of the plane of rotation

Face machining planes
Shell surface/segment surface machining
planes
Rechucking/opposed spindle takeover

Dimensions
G70
G71
G90
G91

Inch input confirmation

Metric input confirmation (mm)
Absolute dimensions
Input of incremental dimensions

Call sub program

Cycles
G31
G32
G33
G80
G81
G82
G83
G84
G85
G86
G87
G88
G89

Thread cycle
Tapping cycle
Thread chasing cycle
Completion of a machining cycle contour
description
Longitudinal rough-turning cycle
Rough facing cycle
Rough-turning cycle parallel to the contour
Drilling cycle
Undercut cycle
Radial grooving cycle
Radial contour cutting cycle
Axial grooving cycle
Axial contour cutting cycle

Automation: 7.

389

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

G-functions for lathes
G22

Call sub program

Structure of NC block
G22 L [H] [/]
Obligatory addresses:
L
number of the
sub program

Main program %900

Sub program L911

Machining example

Optional addresses:
H
number of
repetitions
/
extract level
G23

Repeat program section

Structure of NC block
G23 N N [H]
Obligatory addresses:
N start block number of the program section to
be repeated
N end block number of the program section to
be repeated
Optional addresses:
H
number of repetitions
G14

Machining example
N10..
N15G0 X58 Z-15 M4
N20 G91
N25G1 X-11
N30G1 X11
N35G0Z-16
N40 G23 N20 N35 H2
N45 G90
N50 ...

Travel to tool change point

Structure of NC block
G14 [H]

H1_

Optional addresses:
HO travel to tool change point simultaneously in all axes
H1 first X axis, then Z axis H2 first Z axis, then X axis

H2

PAL cycles for lathes

G84

Drilling cycle

Structure of NC block
G84 ZI/ZA [D] [V] [VB] [DR] [DM] [R] [DA] [U] [O] [FR] [E]

VB

>-

Obligatory addresses:
/
E?
Zl depth of hole, incremental depth relative to the current tool position
\
\
ZA depth of hole, absolute depth
Optional addresses (selection):
ZA
D pecking amount
Zl
(if D is not specified, pecking depth is
Machining example
equal to the final drilling depth)
35
27
31
V
safety distance
VB safety distance to the hole bottom
DR reduction value of the pecking amount
DM minimum infeed
K
R retract level/distance
DA spot-drilling depth
U dwell time at hole bottom
130
20
0
dwell time selection
01 in seconds
N10 G90
02 in revolutions
N15 G84 Z-130 D30 V5 VB1 DR4 U0.5
FR rapid travel reduction in %
N20..
E spot-drilling feed

k+X

uL
V Tz
V

I F

G32

Tapping cycle

Structure of NC block
G32 Z/ZI/ZA F
Obligatory addresses:
Z, Zl, ZA thread end point in
Z direction
I incremental, A absolute
F
pitch of thread

Machining
example

35

M20x3.5/45

2.5

Zl

N10 G90
N15 G32 Z-35 F2,5 S.. M..

390

Automation: 7.7 NC technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL cycles for lathes
G31

Thread cycle

Structure of NC block
G31 Z/ZI/ZA X/XI/XA F D [ZS] [XS]
[DA] [DU] [Q] [O] [H]
Obligatory addresses:
Z, Zl, ZA thread end point in Z direction
Z controlled by G90/G91;
I incremental, A absolute
X, XI, Zl thread end point in X direction;
X controlled by G90/G91,
I incremental, A absolute
F
thread pitch
D
thread depth
Optional addresses [..]:
ZS thread starting point, absolute in Z
XS thread starting point, absolute in X
DA approach
DU overrun
Q number of cuts
O number of idle cycles
H selection of infeed type and residual cuts (RC)
H1 without offset (radial infeed), RC OFF
H2 infeed at left flank, RC OFF
H3 infeed at right flank, RC OFF
H4 alternating infeed, RC OFF
H11 without offset (radial infeed), RC ON
H12 infeed at left flank, RC ON
H13 infeed at right flank, RC ON
H14 alternating infeed, RC ON
Residual cuts Vi, 1 A, 1/s, Vs x (D/Q)
G81

Longitudinal rough-turning cycle

Radial
infeed
HI/H11

Flank
infeed
left H2/H12
0

Flank
infeed
right H3/H13
0

Alternating
infeed
H4/H14

Machining example

N10 G90
N15 G31 Z-40 X30 F3.5 D2.15 ZS-10 XS30 Q12 013 H14
N20 ..
G82

Rough facing cycle

Structure of NC block
G81 (or G82) H4 [AK] [AZ] [AX] [AE]
[AS] [AV] [O] [Q] [V] [E]
or
G81 (or G82) D [H1/H2/H3/H24]
Obligatory addresses:
D
infeed
Optional addresses [..]:
H type of machining
Longitudinal rough turning
Rough facing cycle with G82
cycle with G81
H1 rough machining, removal below 45
H2 stepwise angle-cutting along the contour
Machining example: longitudinal rough-machining cycle
H3 like H1 with final contour cut
=o.P9
H4 contour finishing
H24 rough-machining with H2 and subsequent
finishing
AK contour allowance parallel to the contour
AZ contour allowance in Z direction
AX contour allowance in X direction
AE immersion angle (final angle of the tool)
20 0 3
170
125 110
77 55
AS emergence angle (lateral adjustment angle of tool)
AV safety angle reduction for AE and AS
O machining starting point
N10
01: current tool position
N15 G81 D3 H3 E0.15 AZ0.1 AX0.5
02: calculated from contour
P1
N20 X44Z3
Q idle step optimization
P2
N25 G1 Z-20
Q1: optimization OFF
N30 G1 Z-55 AS135 RN20
P3
Q2: optimization ON
P4
N35 G1 Z-77 AS 180
N40 G1 Z-110X64
P5
V safety distance for idle step optimization
G81: in Z direction
P6
N45 AS 180
G82: in X direction
P7
N50 AS110 X88 Z-125
immersion feed
N55 AS 180
P8
P9
N60 AS130 X136 Z-170
N65 G80

Automation: 7.

technology

391

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL cycles for lathes
G86

Radial grooving cycle

G88

Axial grooving cycle

Structure NC block
G86 Z/ZI/ZA X/XI/XA ET [EB] [D] [..] (selection)
G88 Z/ZI/ZA X/XI/XA ET [EB] [D] [..] (selection)
Obligatory addresses:
Z, Zl, ZA grooving position in Z direction;
Z controlled by G90/G91,
Zl incremental, ZA absolute
X, XI, XA grooving position in X direction;
X controlled by G90/G91,
XI incremental, XA absolute
ET G86 absolute diameter of grooving depth
G88 absolute grooving depth
Optional addresses [..]:
EB grooving width and position
EB+ grooving in direction Z+ relative to the
programmed grooving position P
EB- grooving in direction Z - relative to the
programmed grooving position P
D pecking amount (if no value is specified, the
pecking depth is equal to the groove depth ET)
AS flank angle of grooving at the starting point
relative to the grooving direction (X or Z)
Radial grooving cycle with G86 Axial grooving cycle with G88
AE flank angle of grooving at the end point
relative to the grooving direction (X or Z)
RO rounding or chamfering of upper corners
R0+ rounding
RO- chamfer width
Machining example: radial grooving cycle with G86:
RU rounding or chamfering of lower corners
RU+ rounding
RU- chamfer width
AK contour allowance parallel to the contour
AX contour allowance in X direction (contour offset)
EP setpoint definition for groove cutting (position P)
EP1: setpoint in upper corner of the groove
EP2: setpoint in bottom corner of the groove
H type of processing
H1 roughing cut H14 roughing and finishing
H2 plunge turning H24 plunge turning and finishing
H4 finishing
DB infeed in % of the cutting tool width for grooving
N10G0 X82 Z-32
V
safety distance above groove
N35 G86 Z-30 X80 ET48 EB20 D4 AS10 AE10 RO-2.5 RU2 H14
E
feed rate into solid material
G85

Undercut and thread undercut cycle

Structure of NC block
Thread undercuts acc. to DIN 76 Undercuts acc. to DIN 509
G85 Z/ZI/ZA X/XI/XA l/[l] K[K] [RN] [SX] [H] [E]
Obligatory addresses:
RN
,^30 "
Z, Zl, ZA undercut position in Z direction;
Z controlled by G90/G91,
Zl incremental, ZA absolute
outside
X, XI, XA undercut position in X direction;
Machining process with DIN 76
X controlled by G90/G91,
0.2
XI incremental, XA absolute
shapeF
I
undercut depth; obligatory parameter for DIN 76 (H1)
K
undercut length; obligatory parameter for DIN 76 (H1)
Optional addresses [..]:
RN corner radius
SX grinding allowance
N10G0..
E
feed rate for plunging
N15G85 ZA-18 XA16 11.5 K5 RN1 SX0.2 H1 E0.15
H
undercut shape
H1 DIN 76 H2 DIN 509 E H2 DIN 509 F
Further information on p. 89 and p. 92
G80

Completion of a contour description in a rough-machining cycle

Structure of NC block Optional addresses [..]: ZA absolute Z-coordinate of the machining limit parallel to the X axis
G80 [ZA] [XA]
XA absolute Z-coordinate of the machining limit parallel to the Z axis

392

Automation: 7.

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Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL functions for milling machines
G-functions
Types of interpolation, contours

Tool offsets

GO

Rapid motion

G40

Cancel cutter compensation

G1

Linear interpolation with feed rate

G2

Circular interpolation, clockwise

G41G42

Cutter compensation left

Cutter compensation right

G3

Circular interpolation, counterclockwise

Feeds and speeds

G4

Dwell time

G94

Feed in mm per minute

G9

Exact stop

G95

Feed in mm per revolution

G10

Rapid motion in polar coordinates

G96

Constant cutting speed

Gil

Linear interpolation with polar coordinates

G97

Constant spindle speed

G12

Circular interpolation with polar coordinates,

clockwise

Program features

G13

Circular interpolation with polar coordinates,

counter clockwise

G45

Linear tangential approach to a contour

G46

Linear tangential retraction from a contour

G47

Tangential approach to a contour in a

quarter circle

G48

Tangential retraction from a contour in a

quarter circle

G61

Linear interpolation for contour routing

G62

Circular interpolation for contour routing,

clockwise

G63

Circular interpolation for contour routing,

counter clockwise

Reference points, rotation, mirror images, scaling

G50

Cancellation of the incremental zero point shift

and rotations

G53

Cancellation of all zero point shifts and

rotations

G54G57

Adjustable absolut zero points

G58

Incremental zero point shift, polar and

rotation

G22

Call sub program

G23

Repeat program section

G29

Conditional jumps

Fixed cycles
G34

Start-up of the contour pocket cycle

G35

Rough-machining technology of the contour

pocket cycle

G36

Residual material technology of the contour

pocket cycle

G37

Finishing technology of the contour pocket cycle

G38

Contour description of the contour pocket cycle

G80

Completion of the G38 cycle

G39

Call contour pocket cycle with material removal

either parallel to the contour or in meanders

G72

Rectangular pocket milling cycle

G73

Circular pocket and spigot milling cycle

G74

Slot milling cycle

G75

Circular slot milling cycle

G81

Drilling cycle

G82

Deep drilling cycle with pecking

G59

Incremental Cartesian zero point shift and

rotation

G83

Deep drilling cycle with pecking and full retraction

G84

Tapping cycle

G66

Mirror image across the X or Y axis,

mirror image off

G85

Reaming cycle

G67

Scaling (enlarging or reducing or cancellation)

G86

Boring cycle

G87

Plunge milling cycle

Plane selection, dimensions

G88

Internal thread milling cycle

G17G19

Plane selection, 2V2 D processing

G89

External thread milling cycle

G76

Multiple cycle call on a straight line (line of holes)

G70

Inch input confirmation

G77

Multiple cycle call on a pitch circle (line of holes)

G71

Metric input confirmation (mm)

G78

Cycle call at a particular point (polar coordinates)

G90

Input of absolute dimensions

G79

G91

Input of incremental dimensions

Cycle call at a particular point (Cartesian

coordinates)

Automation: 7.

393

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL cycles for milling machines
G1

Linear interpolation with feed rate

Structure of NC block
G1 [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [D] [AS] .. (selection)
Obligatory addresses:
X, XI, XA X coordinate of the target point
Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the target point
Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the target point

Machining example

Optional addresses [..]:

D
length of travel distance
AS ascent angle relative to the X axis
RN transition element to the next contour element
RN+ rounding radius RN- chamfer width
H
selection among two solutions via angle criterion
HI small ascent angle H2 greater ascent angle
TC selection of the offset memory number
TR incremental change of the tool radius value
TL incremental change of the tool length offset
G11

N10 ...
N15G1 X74Y16RN-12
;P2
N20 G1 D65 AS 120 RN+14 ;P3

Linear interpolation with polar coordinates

Structure of NC block
G11 RP AP/AI [J/JA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [RN] .. (Auswahl)
Obligatory addresses:
RP polar radius
AP polar angle relative to the positive X axis
Al incremental polar angle
Optional addresses [..]:
I, IA
X coordinate of the polar center
J,JA
Y coordinate of the polar center
Z, Zl, ZA infeed in Z direction
RN transition to the next contour element
RN+ rounding radius RN-chamfer width
TC selection of the offset memory number
TR incremental change of the tool radius value
TL incremental change of the tool length offset
G2/G3

74

Machining example
P3

JA

hJr

IA

P2
P3
P4
P5
P2

Circular interpolation with Cartesian coordinates

Structure of NC block
G2 [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] ((l/IA [J/JA]) /
([l/lAj J/JA) / R / AO [RN] [O] [F] [S] [M]
G3 [X/XI/XA]

Machining example
shorter
arc (01)

Optional addresses [...]:

X, XI, XA X coordinate of the target point
Y, Yl, YA
Y coordinate of the target point
Z, Zl, ZA
Z coordinate of the target point
I, IA, J, JA center point coordinates
R radius of arc and
selection of solution via arc length criterion
R+ shorter arc R- longer arc
AO aperture angle
RN transition element
RN+ rounding radius RN- chamfer width
0
selection of solution via arc length criterion
01 shorter arc 02 longer arc
G12/G13

N15 G42 G47 R20 X30 Y0 Z-3

N20G11 I AO J AO RP30 AP90
N25 G11 I AO J AO RP30 AP180
N30 G11 I AO JAO RP30 AP270
N35G11 IA0 JAO RP30 APO

N10...
N15G1 X38Y70RN+15
;P2
N20 G3 XA80 R30 A0135 RN-8 02 ;P3

Circular interpolation with polar coordinates

Structure of NC block
G12 AP/AI [l/lA] [J/JA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [RN] [F] [S] [M]
G13 AP/AI [l/lA] [J/JA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [RN] [F] [S] [M]
Obligatory addresses:
AP polar angle of target point
Al incremental polar angle
Optional addresses [...]:
I, IA X coordinate of polar center
J, JA Y coordinate of the polar center
RN+ rounding radius RN- chamfer width

PU

JA

Machining
example

^/AP)
0

+Y'
i tx
IA

45

N15G1X60Y15
;P2
N20 G12 IA45 JA45 AP50 ;P3

394

Automation: 7.

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL functions for milling machines
G45

Linear tangential approach to the contour

G46

Linear tangential retraction from the contour

Structure of NC block
G41/G42 G45 D [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA]
[W] [E] [F] [S] [M]
G46G40D [Z/ZI/ZA] [W] [F] [S] [M]

Machining example

Obligatory addresses:
with G45: D distance to the first contour point,
unsigned
with G46: D length of the retracting motion,
unsigned
Optional addresses [..]:
X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first contour point
Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the first contour point
Z, Zl, ZA with G45: infeed at approach point in the Z axis
with G46: retracting motion at the end point
in the Z axis
W absolute position in fast motion in the infeed axis
E
feed rate for plunging
G47

Tangential approach to the contour in a quarter circle

G48

N10...
N15G42 G45 XO Y8 D13
N20 G1 X50
N25G1 Y40 AS80
N30 G40 G46D13

;P1
;P2
;P3
;P4

Tangential retraction from the contour in a quarter circle

Structure of NC block
G41/G42 G47 R [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA]
(W] [E] [F] [S] [M]
G48G40 R [Z/ZI/ZA] [W] [F] [S] [M]

Machining
example

Obligatory addresses:
with G47: R radius of the approach motion relative
to the center path of the cutter
with G48: R

radius of the retracting motion relative

to the center path of the cutter

Optional addresses [..]:

X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first contour point
Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the first contour point
Z, Zl, ZA infeed at the approach point in the Z axis
W absolute position in fast motion in the infeed axis
E
feed rate for plunging
G54-G57

;P1
;P2
;P3
;P4

Adjustable absolute zero point shift

Structure of NC block
G54 or G55 or G56 or G57
Explanatory notes:
The workpiece zero point W is determined by the
commands G54 to G57 and has a defined distance to
the machine zero point. The operator enters the shift
values into the zero point register of the controller
before starting the program. The zero point is always
specified in absolute coordinates (XA, YA, ZA) relative
to the machine zero point.
G59

N10 ...
N15G42 G47 XO Y8 R13
N20 G1 X50
N25G1 Y40 AS80
N30 G40 G48R13

workpiece
zero point W

machine
zero point M

Incremental zero point shift and rotation

Structure of NC block
G59 [XA] [YA] [ZA] [AR]

workpiece
zero point W2

Optional addresses [..]:

XA absolute X coordinate of the new workpiece zero point
YA absolute Y coordinate of the new workpiece zero point
ZA absolute Z coordinate of the new workpiece zero point
AR angle of rotation of the new coordinate system relative
to the X axis
Explanatory notes:
If the coordinate system of the workpiece is rotated in
its current position, only the angle of rotation is specified:
N... G59 ARThe zero point shift launched via G54...G57 is reset by:
N... G50

machine
3 .
zero point M j

*x

i
\

L> / I

'+X'
XA

workpiece
zero point W1
N10 ..
N15G54
;W1
N20 G59 X20 Y40 Z30 AR45 ;W2

Automation: 7.

395

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL cycles for milling machines
G81

Drilling cycle

Structure of NC block
G81 ZI/ZA V [W] [F] [S] [M]
Obligatory addresses:
Zl depth of bore in the feed axis
ZA absolute depth of bore relative to the
coordinate system of the workpiece
V
safety distance from the top edge of
the hole
Optional addresses [..]:
W retract level relative to the coordinate
system of the workpiece
G82

Machining example

The center of the

hole is the point
where the cycles
are called G76-G79

GO rapid
motion
G1 feed

ZA
XI/YI

Zl
XI/YI

G83

Deep drilling cycle with pecking

N10 ...
N15 G81 ZI-18 V6 W15
N20G79X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call

Deep drilling cycle with pecking and full retraction

G83 has the following features:

Structure of NC block
- the same addresses as G82
G82 ZI/ZA D V [W] [VB] [DR] [DM]
- retracts to the safety distance V for chip removal
[U] [O] [DA] [E] [F] [S] [M]
and in addition
G83 ZI/ZA D V [W] [VB] [DR] [DM]
FR rapid motion reduction in %
[U] [O] [DA] [E] [FR] [F] [S] [M]
Obligatory addresses:
G O rapid
motion
ZI/ZA depth of bore in the feed axis
G1 feed
Zl incremental depth from the top edge of the hole
ZA
ZA absolute depth in workpiece coordinates
Machining example
D
pecking amount
V
safety distance above the top edge of the hole
ZA
Optional addresses [..]:
W retract level relative to the coordinate
system of the workpiece
VB retract distance to the current hole bottom
DR reduction value of the last pecking amount
DM minimum pecking amount (unsigned)
U
dwell time at hole bottom (relative to pecking)
0
unit of the dwell time
01 dwell time in seconds
N10...
02 dwell time in number of revolutions
N15 G82 ZI-30 D10 V3 W4 VB1.5 DR3 U1 01 DA6
DA incremental spot-drilling depth of the first infeed
N20 G79 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call
E
spot-drilling feed rate
G84

Tapping cycle

Structure of NC block
G84 ZI/ZA F M V [W] [S]
G1 feed
Obligatory addresses:
Zl incremental depth from the top edge of the hole
ZA absolute depth in workpiece coordinates
F
thread pitch
M direction of tool rotation for plunging
M3 right-hand thread M4 left-hand thread
V
safety distance to the top edge of the hole
Optional addresses [..]:
W retract level relative to the coordinate
system of the workpiece
G85

N15 G84 ZI-12 F1.25 M3 V4 W7 S800

N20 G79 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call

Reaming cycle

Structure of NC block
G85 ZI/ZA [W] [E] [F] [S] [M]
Obligatory addresses:
ZI/ZA drilling depth in the infeed axis
Zl incremental depth from the top edge of the hole
ZA absolute depth in workpiece coordinates
V
safety distance from the top edge of the hole
Optional addresses [..]:
W retract level relative to the coordinate
system of the workpiece
E
feed speed of the retracting motion

r i

reaming
feed

Machining
example ZA

XI/YI

N10 ...
N15G85 ZI-17 V3 W8 E260
G79X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call

396

Automation: 7.

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL cycles for milling machines
G86

Boring cycle

Structure of NC block
G86 ZI/ZA V [W] [DR] [F] [S] [M]

Machining example

Obligatory addresses:
ZI/ZA depth to be bored out
Zl
depth of bore in the infeed axis
ZA
absolute depth of bore relative to the coordinate
system of the workpiece
V
safety distance from the top edge of the hole

ZA
XA/YAi i

-a

W
;DRZl

XA/YA

EZ

XI/
Yl

N10 ...
N15G86ZI-9 V2 W10 DR2
N20 G79 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call

Machining example

Xl/

ZA
ft XA/YA

Yl

(OJ
BG2

Optional addresses [..]:

W
retract level relative to the coordinate
system of the workpiece
BG2 machining, clockwise
BG3 machining, counter clockwise

N10...
N15 G87 ZI-8,5 R10.92 D3 V3 W13 D3 BG2
N20G79X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call

Internal thread milling cycle

Structure of NC block
G88 ZI/ZA DN D Q V [W] [BG] [F] [S] [M]
Obligatory addresses:
ZI/ZA depth of thread
Zl
incremental depth of thread from the top edge
ZA
absolute depth of thread relative to the
coordinate system of the workpiece
DN
nominal diameter of the internal thread
D
thread pitch
Q
number of thread grooves of the tool
V
safety distance from the top edge of the hole
Optional addresses [..]:
W
retract level relative to the
coordinate system of the workpiece
BG2 machining, clockwise
BG3 machining, counter clockwise
G89

&

119

Plunge milling cycle

Structure of NC block
G87 ZI/ZA R D V [W] [BG] [F] [S] [Ml
Obligatory addresses:
ZI/ZA depth of hole to be bored out
Zl
incremental depth from the top edge
absolute depth of bore relative to the
ZA
coordinate system of the workpiece
radius of the hole to be milled out
R
infeed per helical line
D
(pitch of the helical motion)
safety distance from the top edge of the hole
V

G88

ZA Zl

10
2 T Zl

Mzsi

>

Optional addresses [..]:

W
retract level relative to the coordinate system
of the workpiece
DR
radial retract distance to the contour
G87

ZA

Machining example

rfn

M24x2

N10...
N15 G88 ZA-16 DN24 D2 Q7 V1.5 W10 BG3 F..
N20 G79 X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call

External thread milling cycle

Structure of NC block
G89 ZI/ZA DN D Q V [W] (BG] [F] [S] [M]
Obligatory addresses:
Zl
incremental depth of thread from the top edge
ZA absolute depth of thread relative to the
coordinate system of the workpiece
DN nominal diameter of the external thread
D
thread pitch
Q
number of thread grooves of the tool
V
safety distance to the top edge of the hole
Optional addresses [..]:
W
retract level
BG2 machining, clockwise
BG3 machining, counter clockwise

Machining example

ZA

XA/YAtq

IJ]L
XA/YA i : 3 r

13

Zl

8M0/YI
3-M20x1,5
BG3 +018.16

N10 ...
N15 G89 ZI-8 DN18.16 D1.5 07 V5 W13 BG3 F..
N20G79X.. Y.. Z.. ;cycle call

Automation: 7.

397

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL cycles for milling machines
G72

Rectangular pocket milling cycle

Structure of NC block
G72 ZI/ZA LP BP D V [W] [RN] [AK] [AL] [EP]
[DB] [RH] [DH] [O] [Q] [H] [E] [F] [S] [M]

Machining example

Obligatory addresses:
ZI/ZA depth of the circular pocket in the infeed axis
Zl
incremental from the top edge of the pocket
ZA
absolute, relative to the coordinate system of
the workpiece
LP
length of the rectangular pocket in X direction
BP
width of the rectangular pocket in Y direction
D
maximum depth of cut
V
safety distance to the material surface
Optional addresses [..]:
AK
pocket edge finish allowance
AL
pocket bottom finish allowance
RN
corner radius
EPO, EP1, EP2, EP3 definition of the setpoint at cycle call
W
retract level, in fast motion
H
type of machining
H1 rough machining H4 finishing
H2 face roughing of the rectangular surface
H14 rough-machining and finishing with the same tool
E
feed rate for plunging
G73

Circular pocket and spigot milling cycle

Structure of NC block
G73 ZI/ZA R D V [W] [RZ] [AK] [AL] [DB]
[RH] [DH] [O] [Q] [H] [E] [F] [S] [M]
Obligatory addresses:
ZI/ZA depth of circular pocket in the feed axis
Zl
incremental from the top edge of the pocket
ZA
absolute, relative to the coordinate system
of the workpiece
D
maximum depth of cut
V
safety distance to the material surface
Optional addresses [..]:
RZ
radius of the optional spigot
AK
pocket edge finish allowance
AL
pocket bottom finish allowance
DB
cutter path overlap in %
W
retract level, in fast motion
H - E as with G72

G74

N15 G72 ZA-9 LP47 BP24 D4 V3 AK0.4 AL0.5 W8

N20 G79 X40 Y36 ;cycle call for G72

Machining example

+Y

N15 G73 ZA-15 R20 D4 V2 AK0.4 AL0.5 W5

N20 G79 X46 Y27 ;cycle call for G73

Slot milling cycle (longitudinal slot)

Structure of NC block
G74 ZI/ZA R D V [W] [RZ] [AK] [AL] [DB]
[RH] [DH] [01 [Q] [H] [E] [F] [S] [M]
Obligatory addresses:
ZI/ZA depth of the slot in the infeed axis
Zl
incremental from the top edge of the slot
ZA
absolute, relative to the coordinate system of
the workpiece
LP
slot length
BP slot width
D
maximum depth of cut
V
safety distance

Machining
example
+Z

J
50

Optional addresses [..]:

W
retract level
AK
pocket edge finish allowance
26
AL
pocket bottom finish allowance
EPO, EP1, EP2, EP3 definition of the setpoint at cycle call
0
infeed motion
01 vertical tool immersion
N15 G74 ZA-15 LP50 BP22 D3 V2 definition of longitudinal slot via G74
02 ramping tool immersion
N20 G79 X... Y... ;cycle call at a particular point via G79
H - E as with G72

398

Automation: 7.

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL cycles for milling machines
G75

Slot milling cycle (arc)

Structure of NC block
G75 ZI/ZA BP RP AN/AO AO/AP D V (W] (AK] (AL]
[EP] [O] [Q] [H] [E] [F] [S] [M]
Obligatory addresses:
ZI/ZA slot depth
Zl incremental from the top edge of the slot
ZA absolute depth
BP slot width
RP slot radius
AN polar start angle relative to the positive X axis and the
center point of the slot's first end radius
AO polar aperture angle between the center points of the slot's
end radii
AP polar final angle relative to the positive X axis and the
center point of the slot's second end radius
Machining example
(only 2 of the 3 polar angles need to be defined)
D
maximum depth of cut
V
safety distance
Optional addresses [..]:
EP definition of the calling point for the slot cycle
EPO center of the circular slot
EP1 center of the right or top semicircle at the rear end
EP3 center of the left or bottom semicircle at the rear end
W retract level, in fast motion
AK slot edge finish allowance
AL slot bottom finish allowance
Q direction of motion
01 climb milling
02 conventional milling
H
type of machining
H1 rough machining
H4 finishing
N15 G75 ZA-15 BP12 RP80 AN70 A0120 AK0.3 AL0.5 EP3 D5 V3 W6
H14 rough machining and finishing
N20 G79 X64 Y30 ;cycle call for G75 at EP3
feed rate for plunging
G76

Cycle call on a straight line (hole line)

Structure of NC block
G76 [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] AS D O [AR] [W] [H]
Obligatory addresses:
AS angle of the straight line relative to the first geometry axis
+ counter clockwise
- clockwise
D
spacing of the cycle calls on the line
O
number of cycle calls on the line
Optional addresses [..]:
X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first point
X absolute or incremental X coordinate (G90, G91)
XI difference in coordinates between the current tool
Machining example
position and the first point on the line
longitudinal slot with G74
XA absolute coordinate input of the starting point
Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the first point
Y
absolute or incremental Y coordinate (G90, G91)
Yl difference in coordinates between the current tool
position and the first point on the line
YA absolute coordinate input of the starting point
Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the first point
181
Z
absolute or incremental Z coordinate (G90, G91)
+x
Zl
difference in coordinates between the current tool
126
-o
position and the first point on the line
ZA absolute coordinate input of the starting point
N15 G74 ZA-5 LP34 BP20.... /definition of longitudinal slot with
AR angle of rotation relative to the positive X axis
G74 N20 G76 X126 Y18 ZO AS120 D42 03 AR-30 ;cycle call
W retract level, absolute
H
reversing position
H1 tool travels to safety distance between two positions and to
the retract level after the last position
H2 tool travels to the retract level between two positions

Automation: 7.

399

technology

Program structure with CNC machines according to PAL

PAL functions for milling machines
G77

Cycle call on a pitch circle (hole circle)

Structure of NC block
G77 [l/lA] [J/JA] [Z/ZI/ZA] R AN/AI AI/AP O [AR] [W] [H] [FP]
Obligatory addresses:
R
radius of pitch circle
AN polar angle of first object
Al constant segment angle
AP polar angle of last object
O number of objects on the pitch circle
Optional addresses [..]:
difference in X coordinates between the circle center and the starting point
I
IA absolute X coordinate of the circle center
Machining example
J
difference in Y coordinates between the circle center and the starting point
JA absolute Y coordinate of the circle center
Z
absolute or incremental input via G90/G91
Zl difference in Z coordinates between the current tool position and the
pitch circle center
ZA absolute coordinate of the target point
AR angle of rotation in direction of the positive first geometry axis
Q orientation of the object to be processed
01 forced rotation of the object 02 fixed orientation of the object
W retract level, absolute
H retracting motion
H1 the tool travels to the safety distance V after completion
of the machining process
H2 the tool travels to the retract level W
after completion of the machining process
N15 G74 ZA-5 LP34 BP20 .... longitudinal slot with G74
H3 like H1, but the tool travels to the next position
N20 G77 R40 AN-65 AI60 AR40 05 IA80 JA60 ;cycle call
on the pitch arc
G78

Cycle call at a particular point (with polar coordinates)

Structure of NC block
G78 [l/lA] [J/JA] RP AP [Z/ZI/ZA] [AR] [W]
Obligatory addresses:
I, IA X coordinate of the center of rotation
J, JA Y coordinate of the center of rotation
RP radius of the rotation circle
AP angle of rotation relative to the X axis
Optional addresses [..]:
Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the top edge
AR angle of rotation of the object
relative to the X axis
W retract level
G79

Machining example
^ A R

.; l A
Y>

Mr x

IA

T
t
}
rx^s

N15 G72 ZA.. LP.. BR.. ;rectangular pocket with G72

N20 G78 IA45 JA2 RP50 AP60 AR135 ;cycle call G78

Cycle call at a particular point (with Cartesian coordinates)

Structure of NC block
G79 [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [AR] [W]
Optional addresses [..]:
X, XI, XA X coordinate of the first point
Y, Yl, YA Y coordinate of the first point
Z, Zl, ZA Z coordinate of the first point
AR angle of rotation of the object relative to the X axis
W retract level, absolute in workpiece coordinates
G61

Machining
example

N15 G72 ZA.. LP.. BP.. ;rectangular pocket with G72

N20 G79 XA55 YA40 AR-45 ;cycle call G79

Linear interpolation for contour routing

Structure of NC block
G61 [XI/XA] [YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [D] [AT] [AS] [RN] [H] [O]
Optional addresses [..]:
XI, XA
X coordinate of the target point
Yl, YA
Y coordinate of the target point
Z, Zl, ZA infeed in the Z axis
D
travelling distance AT transition angle
AS ascent angle relative to the X axis
RN+ rounding radius
R- chamfer width
H1 small ascent angle H2 larger ascent angle
01 short distance
02 longer distance

N15G1 X... Y...

N20 G61 AT 135 RN20
N25 G61 XA93 YA56 AS30

400

Automation: 7.

technology

Program structure of CNC machines according to PAL

PAL cycles for milling machines
G62/G63 Circular interpolation for contour routing
Structure of NC block
G62 or G63 [XI/XA] [YI/YA] [Z/ZI/ZA] [l/IA] [J/JA] [R] [AT] [AS] [AO]
[O] [AE/AP] [RN] [H] [O] [F] [S] [M]
Optional addresses [..]:
XI, XA, Yl, YA coordinates of the target point
Z, Zl, ZA infeed in the Z axis
R radius of the arc
R+ shorter arc R- longer arc
+
AS angle between tangents AT transition angle (starting point)
AO aperture angle
AE angle between tangents (end point)
AP polar angle of the arc's end point
RN+ rounding radius
RN- chamfer width
H1 smaller AT angle
H2 larger AT angle
01 shorter arc
02 longer arc
G34-G39

Structure of NC block GM ZI/ZA [AK] [AL]

Obligatory addresses:
Zl depth of bore from tool position
ZA absolute depth of bore
Optional addresses [..]:
AK pocket edge finish allowance
AL pocket bottom finish allowance
Rough-machining technology
of the contour pocket cycle

Structure of NC block
G35 T D [V] [TC] [TR] [TL] [DM] [DB]
[RH] [DH] [O] [Q] [E] [F] [S] [M]
G36

Residual material rough-machining

technology of the contour pocket cycle

Structure of NC block
G36 T D [V] [TC] [TR] [TL] [DM] [DB]
[RH] [DH] [O] [Q] [E] [F] [S] [M]
G37

-AP \
\

AS P1,

y
AT

ir
N15G1 X... Y...
;P1
N20 G63 R+40 AS-45 RN15 ;P2
N25 G61 Y75 AS130
;P3

Circular interpolation for contour routing

G34 I Start-up of the contour pocket cycle (CPC)

G35

Machining example

Finishing technology of the

contour pocket cycle

Structure of NC block
G37 T D [V] [TC] [TR] [TL] [DB] [RH]
[DH] [O] [Q] [H] [E] [F] [S] [M]

Machining example
P4/P5

pocket
island

N5 G54
N10 T1 M.. G97 S.. G94 F..

adjustable absolute zero point

N15 G34 ZA-10 AK0.5 AL0.5

N20 G35 T01 D6 M3
N25 G37 T02 D6 M3 S.. F..
N30 G38 H1
N35 GO X-40 YO
N40 G61 AS90 RN+9
N45 G63 JA20 R13 RN+9 01
N50 G61 AS5 RN+9
N55 G63 IA40 R13 RN+9 01
N60 G1 X50 Y-25
N65 ...
N70 G80
N75 G38 H2
N870 ...
N85 G80
N90 G39 ...

;start-up of contour pocket cycle

;rough-machining technology of the CPC
,-finishing technology of the CPC
;contour description of the pocket
;P1
;P2
;P3
;P4
;P5
;P6
completion of G38
;contour description of the island
/completion of G38
;call the contour pocket cycle

Obligatory addresses for G35, G36, G37:

G39 Call contour pocket cycle with either material removal
T
tool number D absolute depth of bore
parallel to the contour or loop-type material removal
Optional addresses for G35, G36, G37:
Structure of NC block
V
safety distance
G39 Z/ZI/ZA V [W] [X/XI/XA] [Y/YI/YA] [AN] [H]
T... addresses for tool change (p. 388)
Obligatory addresses:
DM infeed minimum for island height optimization
Z, Zl, ZA material surface in Z
DB cutter path overlap at the bottom
V
safety distance to the material surface
RH radius of the center path of the helical infeed
DH infeed per helical turn
Optional addresses [..]:
01 plunging
02 helical plunging
W height of retract level, absolute
Q1 climb milling
02 conventional milling
X, XI, XA starting point of machining in X
H4 finishing of edge/bottom H4 finishing of bottom/edge Y, Yl, YA starting point of machining in Y
H6 finishing of edge only H7 finishing of bottom only AN angle for loop-type material removal,
E
feed rate for plunging
if AN is not defined, removal is parallel to the contour
H1 rough-machining H2 isolating (facing) H4 finishing
G38
Contour description of the contour pocket cycle
H8 isolating in finishing mode
H14 rough-machining and finishing
Structure of NC block
G38 H [ZI/ZA] [(IA JA R) / (LP BP IA JA [RN] [AR])]
Obligatory addresses:
H1 pocket H2 island H2 pocket in an island
Optional addresses [..]: see on page 397

G80

Completion of a G38 pocket/island

contour description

Structure of NC block: G39

401

A u t o m a t i o n : 7.8 Information technology

Numbering systems
Decimal system

Binary number system

Base 10

Numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Decimal number n 1 0

205

i
2

Place value

Value
2100 =
Total
value
/i10 =
200
(decimal)

TT

200

10 = 10

10= 1

0-10 = 0

5-1=5

H-

Numbers: 0, 1
1010

10 = 100

Base 2
Binary number n2

23 = 8

Place value

= 205

22 = 4

21 = 2

2= 1

Value
1-8 = 8 0-4 = 0 1-2 = 2 0 - 1 = 0
Total
value
/?i o = 8
f
0
-h 2 H- 0
= 10
(decimal)

Hexadecimal numbering system

Base 16

Numbers and letters: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

Decimal value: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
Conversion into binary number:
Conversion into decimal number:
A2F
Every digit represents a
group of 4 Bits
162 = 256

Place value

161 = 16

Number value

16 = 1

4 bit group (tetrad)

Value
10-256 = 2560 2-16 = 32 1 5 - 1 = 1 5
Total
value
/7 10 =
2560
h
32
-h
15
= 2607 Binary number n2
(decimal)
I
I

A2F

-TTL

10

15

1010

0010
I

1111

10100010 1111

Binary numbers n2 and hexadecimal numbers n 1 6 for decimal numbers n 1 0 up to 255

bs
b7
be

CD

5
*-
w
'

0
0
0
0

0
0

n
U
0

n
u
1

n
U

16
10
17
11
18
12
19
13
20
14
21
15
22
16
23
17
24
18
25
19
26
1A
27
1B
28
1C
29
1D
30
1E
31
1F

32
20
33
21
34
22
35
23
36
24
37
25
38
26
39
27
40
28
41
29
42
2A
43
2B
44
2C
45
2D
46
2E
47
2F

b2 <>1
be b t 6 bs b4
1st tetrad
2nd tetrad No.
0

n
u

1
I

1 0

1 0

n
u

n
u

n
u

n
u

"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16
"10
"16

00
1
01
2
02
3
03
4
04
5
05
6
06
7
07
8
08
9
09
10
OA
11
0B
12
OC
13
0D
14
0E
15
OF

n
u

n
u

n
u

1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
\
n
n
1
1
0
1
0
0
U
u
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
Bit pattern (binary numbers) } r
Decimal numbers and hexadecimal numb ers
48 64 80
96 112 128 144 160 r 6 192
60 70 80 90 AO B0 CO
30 40 50
97 113 129 145 161 i ; 1 193
49 65 81
31 41 51
61 71 81 91 A1 B1 C1
50 66 82
98 114 130 146 162 1 J 8 194
32 42 52
62 72 82 92 A2 B2 C2
99 115 131 147 163 179 195
51 67 83
33 43 53
63 73 83 93 A3 B3 C3
52 68 84 100 116 132 148 164 180 196
34 44 54
64 74 84 94 A4 B4 C4
53 69 85 101 117 133 149 165 181 197
35 45 55
65 75 85 95 A5 B5 C5
54 70 86 102 118 134 150 166 182 198
66 76 86 96 A6 B6 C6
36 46 56
55 71 87 103 119 135 151 167 183 199
37 47 57
67 77 87 97 A7 B7 C7
56 72 88 104 120 136 152 168 184 200
38 48 58
68 78 88 98 A8 B8 C8
57 73 89 105 121 137 153 169 185 201
39 49 59
69 79 89 99 A9 B9 C9
58 74 90 106 122 138 154 170 186 202
3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A 9A AA BA CA
59 75 91 107 123 139 155 171 187 203
3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 9B AB BB CB
60 76 92 108 124 140 156 172 188 204
3C 4C 5C 6C 7C 8C 9C AC BC CC
61 77 93 109 125 141 157 173 189 205
3D 4D 5D 6D 7D 8D 9D AD BD CD
62 78 94 110 126 142 158 174 190 206
3E 4E 5E 6E 7E 8E 9E AE BE CE
63 79 95 111 127 143 159 175 191 207
3F 4F 5F 6F 7F 8F 9F AF BF CF
0
0

1
1

1
1
0

1
1
1

1
1
1
1

208
DO
209
D1
210
D2
211
D3
212
D4
213
D5
214
D6
215
D7
216
D8
217
D9
218
DA
219
DB
220
DC
221
DD
222
DE
223
DF

224
E0
225
E1
226
E2
227
E3
228
E4
229
E5
230
E6
231
E7
232
E8
233
E9
234
EA
235
EB
236
EC
237
ED
238
EE
239
EF

240
F0
241
F1
242
F2
243
F3
244
F4
245
F5
246
F6
247
F7
248
F8
249
F9
250
FA
251
FB
252
FC
253
FD
254
FE
255
FF

Example of reading from table: Binary number n 2 = 10110010 corresponds to decimal number n 1 0 = 178 or hexadecimal number n-16 = B2.

402

Automation: 7.8 Information technology

ASCII code1)
7-Bit ASCII Code
Dec Hex Char.

0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 A
11 B
12 C
13 D
14 E
15 F

NUL
SOH
STX
ETX
EOT
ENQ
ACK
BEL
BS
HT
LF
VT
FF
CR
SO
SI

Dec Hex Char. Dec Hex Char.

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1A
1B
1C
1D
1E
1F

DLE
DC1
DC2
DC3
DC4
NAK
SYN
ETB
CAN
EM
SUB
ESC
FS
OS
RS
US

32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
2A
2B
2C
2D
2E
2F

SP
!
a

%
&

(
)

+
i

Dec Hex Char.

Dec Hex Char. Dec Hex

48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63

64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79

30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
3A
3B
3C
3D
3E
3F

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
i

<

>

40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
4A
4B
4C
4D
4E
4F

@
A
B
C
D
E
F

G
H

I
J
K
L
M
N
O

80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95

50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
5A
5B
5C
5D
5E
5F

Char. Dec Hex Char. Dec Hex Char.

P
Q
R
S
T
U
V

w
X
Y

z
[
\

96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111

60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
6A
6B
6C
6D
6E
6F

\
a
b
c
d
e
f

g
h
i
j

k
I
m
n
0

112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127

70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
7A
7B
7C
7D
7E
7F

P
q
r
s
t
u
V
w
X

y
z

{
I

}
~

DEL

Meanings of control characters

Dec

Char.

Name

Dec

Char.

0
1
2
3
4

NUL
SOH
STX
ETX
EOT

NULL
START OF HEADING
START OF TEXT
END OF TEXT
END OF TRANSMISSION

17
18
19
20
21

DC1
DC2
DC3
DC4
NAK

DEVICE CONTROL 1
DEVICE CONTROL 2
DEVICE CONTROL 3
DEVICE CONTROL 4
NEGATIVE ACKNOWLEDGE

5
6
7
8
9

ENQ
ACK
BEL
BS
HT

ENQUIRY
ACKNOWLEDGE
BELL
BACKSPACE
HORIZONTAL TABULATION

22
23

SYN
ETB

SYNCHRONOUS IDLE
END OF TRANSMISSION BLOCK

10
11
12
13
14
15
16

LF
VT
FF
CR
SO
SI
DLE

LINE FEED
VERTICAL TABULATION
FORM FEED
CARRIAGE RETURN
SHIFT-OUT
SHIFT-IN
DATA LINK ESCAPE

24
25
26
27
28
29
30

CAN
EM
SUB
ESC
FS
GS
RS

CANCEL
END OF MEDIUM
SUBSTITUTE CHARACTER
ESCAPE
FILE SEPERATOR
GROUP SEPERATOR
RECORD SEPERATOR

31
32
127

US
SP
DEL

UNIT SEPERATOR
SPACE
DELETE

Name

Meanings of special characters (International reference version)

Dec
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42

Char.

!
"

&
'

(
)
*

Name
space
exclamation point
quotes
number symbol
dollar symbol
percent
business 'And'
apostrophe
parenthesis open
parenthesis closed
asterisk

Dec

Char.

43
44
45
46
47
58
59
60
61
62
63

+
-

/
:
/

<
=

>

Name
plus
comma
minus, dash
period, decimal point
forward slash
colon
semicolon
less than
equal to
greater than
question mark

Dec

Char.

64
91
92
93
94
95
96
123
124
125
126

@
[

)
A

{
I

Name
at
bracket open
back slash
bracket closed
circumflex
underline
accent grave
curly bracket open
vertical line
curly bracket closed
tilde

Control symbols (0-32 and 127 decimal) cannot be seen on monitor or printer; they are for transmitting system commands.
Numbers 128-255 (decimal) in expanded ASCII code are either coded like symbols 0-127 or they are used for
special symbols (cursive symbols, graphic symbols, user defined code). For example, number 128 is the EURO
symbol .
1)

ASCII = AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE

403

Automation: 7.8 Information technology

Graphical symbols for data processing

Symbols for program flow charts

cf. DIN 66001 (1983-12)

Symbols for Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams

cf. DIN 66261 (1985-11)

Sequence block

Repeating block
with starting condition

Repeating block
with end condition

Starting condition:
Repeat, if...

Instruction 1

Instruction 1

Instruction 2

Instruction 1

Instruction 2

Instruction 3

Instruction 2

Instruction 3

Instruction 4

Instruction 3

Alternative
Simple alternative

Alternative
Conditional alternative

Condition

satisfied

^ ^

End condition:
If ..., then repeat
Alternative
Multiple alternatives

Condition
not
satisfied

satisfied

Condition
not
satisfied

Condition
1
Instruction

Instruction

No
instruction
(empty)

Condition
2

Condition
3

Instruction
Instruction

Instruction
Instruction

404

Automation: 7.8 Information technology

Graphical symbols for data processing

Program flow chart and Nassi-Shneiderman diagram
Example: Circle calculations
Program flow chart

Nassi-Shneiderman diagram
Program: circle calculation

Begin ^

Clear screen
Value assignment PI = 3.1415927

Clear screen

Initial value assignment W$ = "n"

Repeat, until W$ = "]'
Input D1, D2, S

Value assignment PI

Initial value W$

Loop

D1 diameter of the
smallest circle
D2 diameter of the
largest circle
S
increment

Output error
Value assignment D = D1
Repeat, until D > D2
Calculation
C = D * PI
A = D A 2 * PI/4

until W$ = " j "

Output D, C, A
Increment value of D by S
Input W$
Program end

BASIC program
Loop
until D > D2

Processing C, A

Output D, C, A

Increment value of D

End of loop

Input W$

End of loop

C^D

C circumference
A area

REM
* * * Circle Calculation Program * * *
REM
* * * for circumference and area of circle * * *
CLS
PRINT
CONST PI = 3.1415927 #
W$= "n"
REM
* * * Input value * * *
DO UNTIL W$ = " j "
PRINT "Diameter initial value:";
INPUT D1
PRINT "Diameter end value:";
INPUT D2
PRINT "Increment:";
INPUTS
IF D1 < 0 OR D1 > D2 OR S < = 0
THEN
PRINT "Invalid input"
END IF
REM * * * Processing and Output * * *
PRINT "D", "C", " A "
D = D1
DO UNTIL D> D2
C = D * PI
A = D A 2 * PI/4
PRINT D, C, A
D = D+S
LOOP
REM * * * End * * *
PRINT "End program? (y/n)";
INPUT W$
LOOP
END

Automation: 7.8 Information technology

405

MS WORD word processing commands

Command

Explanation

Command

Explanation

Insert Menu

File Menu
New

Creates a new document.

Open

Opens an existing document.

Close
Save

Break

Configures page break or column

break.

Closes the current document.

Page Numbers

Defines location and layout.

Saves the current document.

AutoText

Inserts predefined text.

Save as

Saves the current document

under a user-selected name.

Symbol

Inserts special characters from available

character sets.

Page setup

Sets margins, page orientation, paper

size and paper source.

Index and
Tables

Selects text for an index, creates table

of contents.

Print Preview

Displays a print image of the document.

Picture

Inserts graphics.

Print

Configures printer and printout.

Text Box

Inserts a text box.

Exit

Ends MS-Word.

File

Inserts a file.

Object

Inserts a formula, table, etc.

Hyperlink

Inserts a link to an URL.

Edit Menu
Undo

Undoes the last action.

Repeat
Cut

Repeats the last action.

Deletes selected text and saves it to the
clipboard.

Copy

Copies selected text or graphics

to the clipboard.

Paste

Inserts the clipboard contents.

Select All

Selects the entire document.

Find

Searches for text or formatting.

Replace

Searches and replaces text or formatting.

Goto

Jumps to point in text or specific page.

View Menu
Normal

Normal view for creating documents.

Print layout

Displays print layout of a document.

Outline

Shows outline of a document.

Toolbars

URL = Uniform Resource Locator

(Internet address)
Window Menu
New Window

Opens a new window with contents of

current window.

Arrange All

Arranges all open documents.

Split

Splits a document into two windows.

1 Document 1

List of opened documents.

Tools Menu
Spelling and
grammar
Language
Letters and
Mailings

Checks document for spelling and

grammatical errors.
Sets the language for corrections.
Links document to data of a control file
(database).

Macro

Combines individual commands into

one action.

Shows/hides toolbars.

Customize

Configures screen layout.

Ruler

Shows/hides ruler.

Options

Defines settings for MS-Word.

Header and
Footer

Inserts text at top or bottom of page.

Zoom

Magnifies or reduces the screen

display.

Table Menu

Format Menu
Font

Defines font type and character sets.

Paragraph

Configures paragraph settings.

Bullets and
Numbering

Configures numbering and bullets.

Borders and
Shading

Configures border type and shading.

Tabs

Sets tab stop locations.

Text direction

Changes orientation of text from

horizontal to vertical.

Insert Table

Creates a table.

Insert

Inserts individual cells (rows,

columns).

Delete

Deletes individual cells (rows,

columns).

Select

Selects individual cells (rows,

columns).

Merge Cells

Combines cells into one cell.

Split cells

Splits individual cells into multiple

cells.

Convert

Converts table to text and vice versa.

Table Properties Defines cell height, column width and

table layout.

406

Automation: 7.8 Information technology

EXCEL Spreadsheet Commands

| Command

Explanation

1 File Menu
New

Command

Explanation

Insert Menu
Inserts individual cells.

Close

Creates a new workbook, chart or

Cells
macro template. When opening a chart
Rows
the commands on the menu bar
change.
Columns
Opens an existing workbook.
Worksheet
Closes the current workbook.

Save

Saves the current workbook.

Chart

Inserts charts in the workbook.

Save as

Saves the current workbook under a

newly chosen name and file format.

Page Break

Sets page and/or column breaks.

Page setup

Sets margins, page orientation, paper

size and headers/footers.

Function

Inserts mathematical functions for calculation.

Print Area

Sets the selected print area.

Picture

Inserts graphics.

Displays a print preview of the workbook.

Object

Inserts a formula, a table, a chart, etc.

Print

Configures printer and printout.

Hyperlink

Exit

Ends Excel.

Open

Print Preview

Edit Menu

Inserts entire rows.

Inserts entire columns.
Inserts a new worksheet in the workbook.

Inserts a link to an URL.

URL = Uniform Resource Locator
(Internet address)

Window Menu
New Window

Opens a new window with contents of

current window.

Deletes selected area of worksheet

and saves it to the clipboard.

Arrange

Configures window layout for opened

workbooks.

Copy

Copies selected text or graphics

to the clipboard.

Split

Splits a workbook into two windows.

Paste

Inserts diagrams or data series from

the clipboard or other applications.

Freeze Panes

Freezes a worksheet in the screen

view.

Fill

Copies contents of selected cells

downwards, upwards, to the right or
left.

1 Workbook 1

Undo

Undoes the last action.

Repeat

Repeats the last action.

Cut

Delete Sheet

Deletes worksheet of a workbook.

Move or Copy
Sheet

Moves or copies single worksheets

within a workbook.

Find

Searches for text or formatting.

Replace

Searches and replaces text or formatting.

1 Data Menu
Sort

Sorts table area in alphabetical order.

Import External
Data

Enables importing from external databases, tables or text.

View Menu

List of opened workbooks.

Tools Menu
Spelling

Checks table for spelling errors.

Share workbook

Lets multiple users work on the

workbook simultaneously.

Protection

Protects workbook or individual worksheets from unauthorized access.

Formula
Auditing

Searches for errors within functions

and cross-references.

Macro

Combines individual commands into

one action.

Customize

Defines screen layout.

Options

Configures settings for EXCEL.

Format Menu

Page Break
Preview

Displays expansion of a table on one

or more pages.

Toolbars

Switches the toolbars on and off.

Ruler

Turns ruler on and off.

Header and
Footer

Inserts text at the top and/or

bottom of all pages.

Zoom

Magnifies or reduces the screen

display.

Cells

Sets number format, orientation, font

and frames.

Rows

Sets cell height.

Columns

Sets column width.

Sheet

Sets name of sheet.

Conditional
Formatting

Applies the format of a cell if a specific

condition is true.

407

Standards: 8.1 International standards

International Material Comparison Chart

Chart 1
Germany

USA

France

Japan

Sweden

AFNOR

JIS

SS

U. K.
Standard

DIN, DIN EN

Mat. No. AISI/SAE

BS

Structural and machine construction steels

S185

1.0035

A 283 (A)

1449 15 HR; HS

A 33

1300

S235JR

1.0037

1015, A 283

Fe 360 B

E 24-2

STKM 12 A; C

1311

S235JRG1

1.0036

A 283 (C)

Fe 360 B 4360-40 B

1311,1312

S235JRG2

1.0038

A550.36

E 24-2 NE
Fe 360 B;
6323-ERW 3; CEW 3

STKM 12A; C

1312

S235J0

1.0114

4360-40 C

E 24-3, E 24-4

S235J2G3

1.0116

A 515 (55)

Fe 360 D 1 FF

E 24-3, E 24-4

1312,1313

S235J2G4

1.0117

1513

A2

E 36-4

S275JR

1.0044

1020

Fe 430 B FU

E 28-2

SN 400 B; C; SN 490 B; C 1412

S275J0

1.0143

A 572 (42)

4360-43 C

E 28-3, E 28-4

S275J2G3

1.0144

A 500 (A; B; D) Fe 430 D1 FF

E 28-3, E 28-4

SM 400 A; B; C

1411, 1412, 1414

STK 400

2172

1414-01

S355JR

1.0045

4360-50 B

E 36-2

S355J0

1.0553

A 678 (C)

A3

320-560 M

1606

S355J2G3

1.0570

1024; 1524

1449 50/35 HR; HS

E 36-3, E 36-4

STK 500

2132 to 2134, 2174

S355J2G4

1.0577

A 738 (A; C)

Fe 510 D2 FF

A 52 FP

2174

S355K2G3

1.0595

A 678 (C)

224-430

S355K2G4

1.0596

A 678 (C)

224-430

E295

1.0050

A 570 (50)

Fe 490-2 FN

A 50-2

SS 490

1550,2172

E335

1.0060

A 572(65)

Fe 590-2 FN

A 60-2

SM 570

1650

E360

1.0070

Fe 590-2 FN

SM 570

1650

Unalloyed quality steels

S275N

1.0490

A 516(60)

S275M

1.8818

A 715 (7)

S355N

1.0545

A 714 (III)

4360-50 E

E 355 R

2334-01,2134-01

S355M

1.8823

A 715 (7)

Alloy high grade steels

S420N

1.8902

A 633 m

E 420 R

S420M

1.8825

S460N

1.8901

A 633 m

E 460 R

S460M

1.8827

A 734(B)

I Quenched and tempered structural steels with higher yield strength

S460QL

1.8906

4360-55 F

S 460 Q, T

SM 520 B, C

2143

S500QL

1.8909

S 500 T

S620QL

1.8927

S 620 T

S960QL

1.8933

S 960 T

I Unalloyed steels - Case hardened steels

C10E

1.1121

1010

040 A 10, 045 M 10

C 10, CX 10

S 9 CK, S 10 C

1265

C10R

1.1207

1011

E 355 C

C15E

1.1141

1015

040 A 15, 080 M 15 XC 12

S 15, S 15 CK

1370

C15R

1.1140

1016

080 A 20

I Alloy steels - Case hardened steels

16MnCr5

1.7131

5115

527 M 17

16 MC 5, 16 Mn Cr 5

2173

16MnCrS5

1.7139

5115

620-440

16MC5

2127

18CrMo4

1.7243

5120/5120 H

527 M 20

20 MC 5

Scr 420 M

2523

18CrMoS4

1.7244

5120/5120 H

527 M 20

20 MC 5

Scr 420 M

2523

20MoCr4

1.7321

K12220

20MoCrS4

1.7323

K12220

15NiCr13

1.5752

3310

655 H 13

12 NC 15

SNC 815(H)

20NiCrMo2-2

1.6523

8620 H

805 H 20

20 NCD 2

SNCM 220 H

2506

20NiCrMoS2-2

1.6526

8620/8620 H

20 NCD 2

SNCM 220 M

2506

17NiCrMo6-4

1.6566

815 M 17

18 NCD 6

2523

408

Standards: 8.1 International standards

International Material Comparison Chart

Chart II
Germany

USA

U.K.

France

Japan

Sweden

AFNOR

JIS

SS

Standard
DIN, DIN EN

Mat. No. AISI/SAE

BS

17NiCrMoS6-4

1.6569

4718/47 18 H

20MnCr5

1.7147

5120

527 M 20

20MC5

SMn C 420 H

20MnCrS5

1.7149

5120/5120 H

527 M 20

20 MC 5

Scr 420 M

2523

14NiCrMo13-4

1.6657

9310

832 M 13

16NCD13

18CrNiMo7-8

1.6687

18NCD6

Unalloyed steels - Quenched and tempered steels

C22

1.0402

1020

055 M 15

AF 42 C 20

S 20 C, S 22 C

1450

C22E

1.1151

1023

055 M 15

2 C 22, XC 18, XC 25

S 20 C

1450

C25

1.0406

1025

070 M 26

1 C25

C25E

1.1158

1025

(070 M 26)

2 C 25, XC 25

S 25 C, S 28 C

1450

C35

1.0501

1035

060 A 35

C 35, 1 C 35

S 35 C, S 35 CM

1572, 1550

C35E

1.1181

1035

080 A 35

C 35

S 35 C

1550, 1572

C45

1.0503

1045

080 A 46

C 45

S 45 C, S 45 CM

1672, 1650

C45E

1.1191

1042, 1045

080 M 46

XC 42 H 1

S 45 C

1672

C60

1.0601

1060

060 A 62

C 60

S 58 C

C60E

1.1221

1064

060 A 62, 070 M 60

2 C 60

S 58 C, S 60 CM,
S 65 CM

C30

1.0528

G 10300

080 A 30

XC 32

S 30 C

C35

1.0501

1035

060 A 35

C40

1.0511

1040

080 M 40

AF 60 C 40

C50

1.0540

G 10500

080 M 50

XC 50

S 50 C

C55

1.0535

1055

070 M 55, 5770-50

C 54; 1 C 55

S 55 C, S 55 CM

1655

1665, 1678

F. 114A

Alloy steels - Quenched and tempered steels

38Cr2

1.7003

120 M 36

38 C 2, 38 Cr 2

38CrS2

1.7023

5140

530 A 40

42 C 4

Scr 440 M

2245

46Cr2

1.7006

5045

42 C 2, 46 Cr 2

46CrS2

1.7025

A 768(95)

SNB 5

34Cr4

1.7033

5132

530 A 32

32 C 4, 34 Cr 4

SCr 430(H)

34CrS4

1.7037

4340/4340 H

818 M 40

35 NCD 6

SNCM 439

37Cr4

1.7034

5135

530 A 36

37 Cr4, 38 C 4

Scr 435 (H) (M)

37CrS4

1.7038

5135/5135 H

38 Cr 4

Scr 435 H

25CrMo4

1.7218

4118

708 M 25

25 CD 4

SCM 420

2225

24CrMoS4

1.7213

4130/4130 H

CDS 110

30 CD 4

SCM 430 M

2223-01

41Cr4

1.7035

5140

530 A 40

41 Cr 4, 42 C 4

Scr 440 (H) (M)

41CrS4

1.7039

L1

524 A 14

2092

34CrMo4

1.7220

4137

708 A 37

35 CD 4

SCM 432

2234

42CrMo4

1.7225

4140

708 M 40

42 CD 4

SCM 440 (H)

2244

50CrMo4

1.7228

4150,4147

708 A 47

50 Cr Mo 4

SCM 4454 (H)

2512

51CrV4

1.8159

6150

735 A 50

50 CV 4

SUP 10

2230

36CrNiMo4

1.6511

9840

817 M 37

36 CrNiMo 4, 35 NCD 5,
40 NCD 3

34CrNiMoS4

1.6582

4337, 4240

816 M 40, 817 M 40 34 CrNiMo 8

SNCM 447

2541

30NiCrMo8

1.6580

823 M 30

30 CrNiMo 8

SNCM 431

36NiCrMo16

1.6773

5135/5135 H

38 Cr 4

Scr 435 M

31CrMo12

1.8515

722 M 24

30 CD 12

2240

34CrAIMo5-10

1.8507

A 355 CI.D

30 CAD 6.12

40CrAIMo7-10

1.8509

E 7140

905 M 39, En 41 B

40 CAD 6.12

SACM 1, SACM 645

2940

40CrMoV13-9

1.8523

897 M 39

Nitriding steels

Steels for flame and induction hardening

Cf45

1.1193

1045

060 A 47, 080 M 46

XC 42 H 1 TS

S 45 C, S 45 CM

1672

42Cr4

1.7045

5140

530 A 40

42 C 4 TS

Scr440

2245

41CrMo4

1.7223

4142

708 M 40, 3111-5/1

42 CD 4 TS

SNB 22, SCM 440

2244

Cf35

1.1183

1035

080 A 35

XC 38 H 1 TS

S 35 C, S 35 CM

1572

409

Standards: 8.1 International standards

International Material Comparison Chart

Chart III
Germany

USA

U. K.

Japan

France

Sweden

Standard
DIN, DIN EN

Mat. No. AISI/SAE

Cf53

1.1213

Cf70

1.1249

1050

BS

AFNOR

JIS

SS

070 M 55

XC 48 H 1 TS

S 50 C, S 50 CM

1674

1912

Free cutting steels

S 250

SUM 22

S 250 Pb

SUM 23 L

1914

S 300

SUM 25

12 L 14

S 300 Pb

1926

1108,1109

(210 M 15)

10 F 2

11SMn30

1.0715

1213

11SMnPb30

1.0718

12 L 13

11SMn37

1.0736

1215

11SMnPb37

1.0737

10S20

1.0721

230 M 07

10SPb20

1.0722

10 Pb F 2

35S20

1.0726

1140

212 M 36

35MF6

1957

46S20

1.0727

1146

En 8 DM

45MF4

SUM 43

Cold work steels, unalloyed

C80U

1.1525

W 108

C 80 E 2 U, Y-| 80

C105U

1.1545

W1

BW 1 A

Y 105

SK 3

1880

2710

Cold work steels, alloy

45WCrV7

1.2542

S1

BS 1

45 WCrV 8

S1

60WCrV8

1.2550

S1

BS 1

55 WC 20

100MnCrW4

1.2510

O1

BO 1

90 MnWCrV 5

SKS 3

90MnCrV8

1.2842

02

BO 2

90 Mn V 8, 90 MV 8

X210Cr12

1.2080

P3

BD 3

Z 2 0 0 C 12

SKD 12

2710

102Cr6

1.2067

L3

(BL 3)

100 Cr 6, Y 100 C 6

SUJ2

45NiCrMo16

1.2767

BP 30

Y 35 NCD 16

X153CrMoV12

1.2379

D2

BD 2

Z 160 CDV 12

SKD 12

2260

X100CrMoV51

1.2363

A2

BA2

Z100 CDV 5

SKD 12

2260

X40CrMoV51

1.2344

H 13

BH 13

Z 40 CDV 5

SKD 61

2242

X210CrW12

1.2436

D4 (D6)

BD 6

Z 210 CW 12-01

SKD 2

2312

55NiCrMoV7

1.2714

SKS 51

X37CrMoV5-1

1.2343

H 11

BH 11

Z 38 CDV 5

SKD 6

32CrMoV12-28

1.2365

H 10

BH 10

32 CDV 12-28

HS6-5-2C

1.3343

M 2

BM 2

HS 6-5

SKH 51

2722

HS6-5-2-5

1.3243

M 35

BM 35

Z 85 WDKCV 06-05-04-02

SKH 55

2723

HS 10-4-3-10

1.3207

BT 42

HS 10-4-3-10

SKH 57

HS2-9-2

1.3348

M 7

HS 2-9-2,
Z 100 DCWV 09-04-02-02

2782

HS2-9-1-8

1.3247

M 42

BM 42

HS 2-9-1-8

SKH 59

2716

S2-9-2-8

1.3249

M 42

BM 34

Z 12 CN 18-09

SUS 301

2331

SUS F 304 L

Hot work steels

High speed steels

Stainless steels, austenitic

X10CrNi18-8

1.4310

301

301 S 21/22

X2CrNi18-9

1.4307

F 304 L

304 L

X5CrNi18 9

1.4350

304

304 S 31

Z 5 C N 18.09

SUS 304

2332

X2CrNiN19-11

1.4306

304 L

304/305 S 11

Z 2 CN 18-10

SCS 19, SUS 304 L

2352

X2CrNi18-10

1.4311

304 LN

304 S 61

Z 3 CN 18-07 Az

SUS 304 LN

2371

X5CrNi18-10

1.4301

304

304 S 17

Z 5 CN 17-08

SUS 304

2332, 2333

X8CrNiS18-9

1.4305

303

303 S 22/31

Z 8 CNF 18-09

SUS 303

2346

X6CrNiTi18-10

1.4541

321

321 S 31/51

Z 6 CNT 18-10

SUS 321

2337

X4CrNi18-12

1.4303

305/308

305S 17, 305S 19

Z 5 CN 18-11 FF

SUS 305 J1, SUS 305

X5CrNiMo17-12-2

1.4401

316

316 S 13/17/19

Z 3 C N D 17-11-01

SUS 316

2347

X6CrNiMoTl 17-12-2

1.4571

31671

320 S 18/31

Z 6 CNDT 17-12

SUS 316 71

2350

X2CrNiMo18-14-3

1.4435

316 L

316 S 11/13/14

Z 3 C N D 17-12-03/
Z 3 C N D 18-14-03

SUS 316 L

2353

410

Standards: 8.1 International standards

International Material Comparison Chart

Chart IV
Germany

USA

U. K.

Japan

France

Sweden

Standard
DIN, DIN EN

Mat. No.

X2CrNiMoN 17-13-3

1.4429

316 LN

326 S 63

Z 3 C N D 17-12 Az

(SUS 316 LN)

X2CrNiMoN17-13-5

1.4439

316 L

316S 11

Z 2 C N D 17-12

SUSF316L

2348

X1 NiCrMoCu25-20-5

1.4539

USN N 08904

Z 2 NCDU 25-20

2562

AISI/SAE

BS

AFNOR

JIS

SS
2375

| Stainless steels, ferritic

X2CrNi12

1.4003

A 268

X6Cr13

1.4000

403

403 S 17

Z 8 C 12, Z 8 C 13 FF

SUS 403

2301

X6Cr17

1.4016

430

430 S 15

Z 8 C 17

SUS 430

2320

X2CrTi12

1.4512

409

409 S 19

Z3CT12

SUH 409

X6CrMo17-1

1.4113

434

434 S 17

Z 8 CD 17.01

SUS 434

X2CrMoTi18-2

1.4521

443/444

SUS 444

2326

J Stainless steels, martensitic

X12CrS13

1.4005

416

416S 21 Z11 CF13 SUS 416

2380

X12Cr13

1.4006

410

410 S 21

Z 10 C 13

SUS 410

2302

X20Cr13

1.4021

420

420 S 37

Z 2 0 C 13

SUS 420 J 1

2303

X30Cr13

1.4028

420 F

420 S 45

Z 3 0 C 13

SUS 420 J 2

2304

X46Cr13

1.4034

(420 S 45)

Z 44 C 14, Z 38 C 13 M

SUS 420 J2

2304

X39CrMo17-1

1.4122

5925

X3CrNiMo13-4

1.4313

CA 6-NM

425 C 11

Z 4 C N D 13.4 M

SCS 5, SCS 6

2384

Hot rolled steels for springs

38Si7

1.5023

41 Si 7

46Si7

1.5024

9255

51 S 7, 51 Si 7

2090

55Cr3

1.7176

5155

525 A 58

55 Cr 3, 55 C 3

SUP 9 (A) (M)

2253

61SiCr7

1.7108

9261,9262

61 SC 7

51CrV4

1.8159

6150

735 A 50

55 Cr V 4

SUP 10

2230

Cold rolled strip and sheet from soft steels

DC03

1.0347

A 619

1449 3 CR

CR 2

1146

DC04

1.0338

A 620 (1008)

1449 2 CR; 3 CR

ES

SPCE; HR 4

1147

Cast iron with flake graphite (gray iron)

EN-GJL-100

EN-JL-1010 A 48 20 B

1452 Grade 100

Ft 10 D

G 5501 FC 10

0110-00

EN-GJL-150

EN-JL-1020 A 48 25 B

1452 Grade 150

A 32-101 FGL 150; FT 15 D G 5501 FC 15

0115-00

EN-GJL-200

EN-JL-1030 A 48 30 B

1452 Grade 220

A 32-101 FGL 200; FT 20 D G 5501 FC 20

0120-00

EN-GJL-250

EN-JL-1040 A 48 40 B

1452 Grade 250/

260

A 32-101 FGL 250; FT 25 D G 5501 FC 25

0125-00

EN-GJL-300

EN-JL-1050 A 48 45 B

1452 Grade 300

A 32-101 FGL 300; FT 30 D

G 5501 FC 30

0130-00

EN-GJL-350

EN-JL-1060 A 48 50 B

1452 Grade 350

A 32-101 FGL 350; FT 35 D G 5501 FC 35

0135-00

Cast iron with spheroidal (nodular) graphite

EN-GJS-350-22

EN-JS-1010

0717-15

EN-GJS-500-7

EN-JS-1050 A 536 60-45-12 2789 Grade 500/7 A 32-201 FGS 500-7

G 5502 FCD 500

0727-02

EN-GJS-600-3

EN-JS-1060 A 536 80-55-06 2789 Grade 600/3 A 32-201 FGS 600-3

G 5502 FCD 600

0732-03

EN-GJS-700-2

EN-JS-1070 A 536 10070-03

2789 Grade 700-2 A 32-201 FGS 700-2

G 5502 FCD 700

0737-01

EN-GJMW-350-4

EN-JM 1010

86681 W 35-04

A 32-701 MB 35-7

G 5703 FCMW 330

EN-GJMW-400-5

EN-JM 1030

6681 W 40-05

A 32-701 MB 40-05

G 5703 FCMW 370

EN-GJMW-450-7

EN-JM 1040

6681 45-07

A 32-701 MB 450-7

G 5703 FCMWP 440

EN-GJMB-350-10

EN-JM 1130 A 47 Grade

22010+32510

310 B 340/12

A 32-702 MN 350-10

G 5703 FCMB 340

0815-00

EN-GJMB-450-6

EN-JM 1140

6681 P 45-06

A 32-703 MP 50-5

0854-00

EN-GJMB-550-4

EN-JM 1160

6681 P 55-04

A 32-703 MP 60-3

G 5703 FCMP 540

0856-00

EN-GJMB-650-2

EN-JM 1180

6681 P 65-02

0862-03

EN-GJMB-700-2

EN-JM 1190 A220 Grade

70003

6681 P 70-02

A 32-703 MP 70-2

G 5703 FCMP 690

0862-03

Malleable cast iron

411

Standards: 8.1 International standards

International Material Comparison Chart

Chart V
Germany

USA

France

Japan

Sweden

AFNOR

JIS

SS

U. K.
Standard

DIN, DIN EN

Mat. No.

AISI/SAE

BS

Cast steels for general applications

GS-38

1.0420

GS-45

1.0446

A 27

SC 360

SC 450

1504-161 Gr. B

Cast steels for pressure vessels

GP240GH

1.0619

A 216 Grade
WCC

G17CrMo5-5

1.7357

A 217 Grade
WC 6

Aluminum and wrought aluminum alloys

old

new old

Al 99.5

1050 A

1050 A

1B

1050 A A-5

Al Mn1

3103

3103

N 3

Al M n l C u

3003

3003

Al Mg1

5005 A

5005 A

N 41

Al Mg2

5251

5251

N4

Al Mg3

5754

5754

A-G 3 M

Al Mg5

5019/5119

5019/5119

A-G 5

Al Mg3Mn

5454

5454

N 51

5454 A-G 3 MC

Al Mg4.5Mn0.7

5083

5083

N 8

5083 A-G 4.5 MC

AlCuPbMgMn

2007

2007

A-U 4 PB

4335

Al Cu4PbMg

2030

2030

Al MgSiPb

6012

6012

A-SGPB

Al Cu4SiMg

2014

2014

H 15

Al Cu4MgSi

2017

2017

A 2017

Al Cu4Mg1

2024

2024

2 L 97/9

Al MgSi

6060

6060

H9

3103

new
1050 A A 1050

(3103) A-M 1

4007
4054

3003 A 3003

5005 A-G 0.6

5005 A 5005

4106

5251 A-G 2 M

5251

5754

4125

5454 A 5454

A 5083

(2014 A) A-U 4 SG
A-U 4 G
2024 A - U 4 G 1
(6063) A-GS

2024 A 2024

6060 A 6063

4103
4212

Al S i l M g M n

6082

6082

H 30

6082 A-SGM 0.7

6082

Al Zn4.5Mg1

7020

7020

H 17

7020 A-Z 5 G

7020 (A 7 N 01)

Al Zn5Mg3Cu

7022

7022

Al Zn5.5MgCu

7075

7075

2 L 95/96

A 356

L M 25

A-Z4GU
7075 A-Z 5 GU

4140

4425

7075 A 7075

I Aluminum casting alloys

|

AC-AISi7Mg

AC-42000

A-S 7 g

Magnesium alloys. Titanium, Titanium alloys

MgMn2

3.3520

M 1A

MAG-E-101

G-M2

MgAI3Zn

3.5312

AZ 31 B

MAG-E-111

G-A 3 Z 1

MgAI6Zn

3.5612

AZ 61 A

MAG-E-121

G-A 6 Z 1

MgAI8Zn

3.5812

AZ 80 A

G-A 7 Z 1

Ti1

3.7025

TA 1

Ti2

3.7035

TA 2

T1AI6V4

3.7165

T A 10-13, 28, 56

TiAIMo4Sn2

3.7185

T A 45-51, 57

The publisher and its affiliates have taken care to collect the above data to the best of their ability. However, no
responsibility is accepted by the publisher or any of its affiliates regarding its content or any statement herein or
omission there from which may result in any loss or damage to any party using the data shown above.

412

Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards

Index of cited standards and other regulations

No.

Type of standard and short title

Page

No.

Type of standard and short title

Page

DIN

DIN
13
74
76
82

Metric ISO screw threads

Counter sinks
Thread runouts
Knurls

204
224
89
91

824
835
908
910

Folding drawing sheets

Studs
Drain plugs
Drain plugs

66
219
219
219

103
125 1)
126 1)
158
172

Metric ISO trapezoidal threads

Flat washers
Flat washers
Tapered threads
Headed drill bushings

207
233
234
205
247

929
935
938
939
962

Hexagonal weld nuts

Castle nuts
Studs
Studs
Designation of bolts and screws

232
232
219
219
210

173
179
202
228
250

Slip type jig bushing

Drill bushings
Screw thread types, Overview
Morse tapers, Metric tapers
Radii

247
247
202
242, 243
65

962
974
981
10131}
10141)

Designation of nuts
Counterbores
Lock nuts for roller bearings
Hot rolled round steel bar
Hot-rolled square steel bar

227
225
268
144
144

319
323
332
336
406

Ball knobs
Preferred numbers
Center holes
Drill diameter for clearance holes
Dimensioning

248
65
91
204
75-82

10171)
1025
1026
1301
1302

Hot-rolled flat steel bar

I-beams
Steel channel
Units of measurement
Mathematical symbols

433 1)
434
435
461
466

Flat washers
Washers for channels
Washers for I-beams
Coordinate systems
Knurled nuts, high form

234
235
235
62, 63
232

1304
1414
1445
1587
16511'

Symbols, mathematical
Twist drills
Clevis pins with threaded stud end
Hexagon acorn nuts, high form
Free cutting steels

19
301
238
231
134

467
471
472
475
508

Knurled nuts, low form

Retaining rings for shafts
Retaining rings for holes
Widths across flats
Nuts for T-slots

232
269
269
223
250

17001)
17071)
1732
1850

Heavy non-ferrous metals, designation

Solders
Welding filler metals for Al
Plain bearing bushings

174
334
326
262

2080
2093
2098
2211
2215

Steep taper shanks

Disk springs
Compression springs
V-belt pulleys
Classic V-belts

2215
2403
3760
37711>
4760

V-belts, cogged
Pipelines, identification
Radial seals
O-rings
Form deviations

4844
4983
4987
5406
5412
5418
5419

338-341
Safety signs
297
Tool holders, designation
296
Indexable inserts, designation
268
Lock washers
266
Cylindrical roller bearings
Roller bearings, mounting dimensions 265-267
270
Felt seals

Undercuts
Metric buttress threads
Eye bolts
Eye nuts
Hexagon head bolts and screws

92
207
219
231
214

616
617
623
625
628

Dimension series for roller bearings

Needle bearings
Roller bearings, designation
Deep groove ball bearings
Angular-contact ball bearings

264
268
264
265
265

650
711
720
780
787
820

T-slots
Axial deep groove ball bearings
Tapered roller bearings
Module series for gears
Bolts and screws for T-slots
Standardization

250
266
267
257
250
8

509
513
580
582
609

1)

The standard was withdrawn. Replacement standard, if available, is given on the cited book page.

144
149,150
146
17,20-22
19

242, 243
246
245
254
253
253
343
270
270
98

Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards

Index of cited standards and other regulations

No.

Type of standard and short title

Page

No.

5520
6311
6319
6321

Tolerances for installation of roller

bearings
Bending radii, non-ferrous metals
Thrust pads
Spherical washers and conical seats
Locating and supporting pins

110 17221^
172231'
318 173501'
248 17860
250 19225
249

6323
6332
6335
6336
6771 1)

Loose slot tenons

Grub screws with thrust point
Star knob
Fluted knobs
Title blocks

250
248
249
249
66

6773
6780
67841>
6785
6796

Hardness specifications in drawings

Holes, simplified representation
Workpiece edges
Center punch on turned parts
Conical spring washers

97
83
88
88
235

6799
6885
6886
6887
6888

Circlips
Feather keys

269 53804
240 55350
239 66001
239 66025
240 66217

6914 1)
6915 1)
6935
7157
7500

Hexagon head bolts and screws

Hexagon nuts, heavy
Bending radii, steel
Fit recommendations
Thread forming screws

214
230
318,319
111
218

7719
7721

Wide V-be Its

Timing belts, synchronous belts

253
253, 255
253
185 439
253, 254 440
485
253
499 1)
215 515
234
216 573

Keys
Gib-head keys
Woodruff keys

H n u h l p \/-hplt<;

7726
7753

L/UUUIC V UCILO
Foam materials
Narrow V-belts

7867
7984
7989
7991
7999

V-ribbed belt
Cap screws, socket head
Washers for steel constructions
Countersunk head screws

85541>
9713 1)
9715
9812

Gas welding rods

Al channel
Magnesium wrought alloys
Pillar presses

9816

Pillar presses

9819

Pillar presses

O
OCi 1
yob

Hexagon fit bolts

Punches
16901
Plastic molded parts, tolerances
172111) Nitriding steels
172121' Steels for flame hardening

1)

Page

DIN

DIN
5425

Type of standard and short title

Spring steel
Steel wire for springs
Tool steels
Titanium, titanium alloys
Controllers

138
138
135
172
347-349

19226

Basic terminology of control

engineering

346-349

19227
30910
40719 1)
50125

Code letters, symbols

Sintered metals
Function charts
Tensile test specimens

346, 347
178
358-360
190

50141
51385
51502
51519
51524

Shear test
Machining coolants
Lubricants, designation
ISO viscosity grades
Hydraulic oils

191
292
271,272
271
368

Statistical analysis
Quality inspection and testing
Program flow charts, symbols
CNC machines, program structure
CNC machines, coordinates

277, 278
276
403
382-385
381

66261
69871
69893
70852
70952

214 754
754
324 755
171 7751>
172
252
1044
252 1045
1089
252
1089
OKI
ZD 1
1173
186
134
134, 156

Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams, symbols

Steep taper shank
Hollow taper shafts
Lock nuts
Lock washers

403
243
243
231
231

DIN EN
Inert gas
Wire electrodes
Wrought aluminum alloys
Rod electrodes
Material condition of Al alloys

325
325
166, 167
327
165

Designation for Al alloys

Wrought aluminum alloys
Al round and square bar
Wrought aluminum alloys
Work safety with robots

165
166, 167
169, 170
166, 167
380

Brazing
Flux for brazing
Compressed-gas cylinders
Gas cylinders - Identification
Copper alloys, material conditions

333
334
324
331,332
174

The standard was withdrawn. Replacement standard, if available, is given on the cited book page.

414

Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards

Index of cited standards and other regulations

No.

Type of standard and short title

Page

No.

Type of standard and short title

Page

DIN EN

DIN EN

161
142
142
141
175

174
158
160
161
160

10293
10297
10305
10327
12163

Cast steel
Tubes, machine construction
Precision steel tube
Hot dip coated sheet
Copper-zinc alloys

230
168
172
168
174, 176

12164
12413
12536
12844
12890

Copper-zinc-lead alloys
Grinding, maximum speeds
Gas welding rods
High-grade zinc casting alloys
Patterns

175
308
324
176
162, 163

13237
14399-4
14399-4
14399-6
20273

Equipment in EX area
Hexagon nuts, heavy
Hexagon head bolts, heavy
Flat washers
Clearance holes for bolts

357
230
214
233, 235
211

131
131
131
121-125
191

20898
22339
22340
22341
22553

Property classes for nuts

Tapered pins
Clevis pins without heads
Clevis pins with head
Welding symbols

Sheet metal, hot-rolled

Equal leg tee steel
Steel angle
Hot-rolled flat steel bar
Hot-rolled square steel bar

141
146
147, 148
144
144

24015
24766
27434
27435
28738

Hexagon head bolts and screws

Set screws, slotted
Set screws, slotted
Set screws, slotted
Washers for clevis pins

213
220
220
220
235

10060
10083
10084
10085
10087

Hot-rolled round steel bar

Quenched and tempered steels
Case hardening steels
Nitriding steels
Free cutting steels

144
133, 156
132, 155
134, 157
134, 157

29454
29692 1)
60445
60446
60529

Flux for soldering

Welding, weld preparation
Electrical equipment
Wires and connections
Protective systems

334
323
353
353
357

10088
10089
101131>
10130
101371'

Stainless steels
Spring steel
Fine grain structural steels
Sheet metal, cold-rolled
Quenched and tempered structural
steels

136, 137
138
131
140
131

60617
60848
60893
60947
610821'

Circuit diagrams, graphical symbols

Function charts
Laminated materials
Proximity sensors, designation
Electrical circuit diagrams

350-352
358-360
184
355
354

61131

PLC

373-375

101421)
10210
10213
10219
10226

Sheet metal, electroplated

Hot-rolled tubes
Cast steel for pressure vessels
Cold-rolled tubes
Whitworth pipe threads

141
151
161
151
206

10268
10270
10270
10277
10278

Sheet metal, cold-rolled

Steel wire for springs
Steel wire for tension springs
Delivery conditions, bright steel
Bright steel products

140
138
244
145
145

1412
1560
1561
1562
1563

Copper alloys, material numbers

Designation of cast iron
Cast iron with flake graphite
Malleable cast iron
Cast iron with spheroidal graphite

1661
1706
1753
1780
1982

Hexagon nuts with flange

Aluminum casting alloys
Magnesium cast alloys
Designation for Al cast alloys
Copper alloys, designation

6506
10002
100031)
10020
10025-2

Hardness test by Brinell

Tensile testing
Hardness test by Brinell
Steels, classification
Unalloyed structural steels

10025-3
10025-4
10025-6
10027
10045

Fine grain structural steels

Fine grain structural steels
Quenched and tempered structural steels
Steels, designation system
Notched-bar impact bending test

10051
10055
10056
10058
10059

1)

192
190
192
120
130

The standard was withdrawn. Replacement standard, if available, is given on the cited book page.

228
237
238
238
93-95

Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards

Index of cited standards and other regulations

No.

Type of standard and short title

Page

No.

Type of standard and short title

Page

DIN EN ISO

DIN EN ISO

217
217

7090
7091
7092

Flat countersunk head tapping screw

Raised head countersunk tapping
screws
Flat washers
Flat washers
Flat washers

7200
7225
8673
8674
8675

Title blocks
Hazardous substance labels
Hexagon nuts, fine thread
Hexagon nuts, fine thread
Hexagon nuts, low form

66
331
229
229
230

183
183 8676
217 8734
217 8740
8741
195 8742

Hexagon head bolts and screws

Dowel pins, hardened
Straight grooved pin
1/2 length reverse taper grooved pins
1/3-1/2 length center grooved pins

213
237
238
238
238

Dowel pins
Rod electrodes
Fonts
Three-letter codes for countries
Property classes of bolts and screws

237
327
64
203
211

8743
8744
8745
8746
8747

1/3-1/2 length center grooved pins

Tapered groove pin
Half length taper grooved pin
Grooved pins with round head
Grooved pins with countersunk heads

238
238
238
238
238

3506
4014
4017
4026
4027

Property classes of nuts

Hexagon head bolts and screws
Hexagon head bolts and screws
Set screws, hexagon socket
Set screws, hexagon socket

228
212
212
220
220

8752
8765
9000
9001
9004

Spring pins, heavy duty

Hexagon head bolts and screws
Quality management
Quality management
Quality management

237
213
274, 275
274
274

4028
4032
4033
4035
4063

Set screws, hexagon socket

Hexagon nuts, coarse threads
Hexagon nuts, coarse threads
Hexagon nuts, low form
Welding methods, designation

220
228
229
229
322

9013
9453
9692
9787
10218

Thermal cutting
Soft solder alloys
Weld preparation
Industrial robots
Work safety with robots

330
334
323
378, 379
380

4287
4288
4759
4762
4957

Surface finish
Surface finish
Product grades for bolts and screws
Cap screws, socket head
Tool steels

98
98, 99
211
215
135, 155

10512
10642
13337
13920
14526

Hexagon nuts with insert

Countersunk screws, hexagon socket
Spring pins, light duty
Welding, general tolerances
Phenolic powder molding compounds

230
216
237
322
184

5457
6506
6507
6508
6947

Drawing sheet sizes

Hardness test, Brinell
Hardness test by Vickers
Hardness test by Rockwell
Welding positions

66
192
193
193
322

14527
14539
14577
15065
15785

Urea molding compounds

Grippers
Martens hardness
Countersinks for countersunk head screws
Bonded joints, representation

184
380
194
224
96

7040
7046

Hexagon nuts with insert

Flat head countersunk screws,
cross recessed
Raised head countersunk screws,
cross recessed

230
217

15977

Blind rivets (flat head)

Blind rivets (countersunk head)
Conversion tables for hardness values
Cupping test
Cap screws, socket head

241

128
216
527
868
898

Lines
Paper formats
Tensile properties of plastics
Hardness test by Shore
Property classes of bolts and screws

1043
1101
1207
1234
1302

Basic polymers
Geometric tolerancing
Cap screws, slotted
Cotter pins
Indication of surface finish

1872
1873
2009
2010
2039

PE molding compounds
PP molding compounds
Countersunk head screws, slotted
Raised head countersunk screws,
slotted
Hardness test on plastics

2338
2560
3098
3166
3506

7047

1)

67
66
195
195
211
180
112-114
216
232
99, 100

7050
7051

15978
18265
20482
217
21269

The standard was withdrawn. Replacement standard, if available, is given on the cited book page.

233
234
234

241
194
191
216

416

Standards: 8.2 DIN, DIN EN, ISO etc. standards

Index of cited standards and other regulations

No.

Type of standard and short title

Page

No.

Type of standard and short title

Page

BGV

DIN ISO
14
128
228
273
286

Splined shaft joints

Lines
Pipe threads
Clearance holes for bolts
ISO fits

241 A8
67-75 B3
206 D12
225
102-109

338-341
Safety signs
344
Noise Protection Regulations (German)
308
Grinding tools, application

513
525
848
965
965

Cutting tool materials, designation

Abrasives
Grit designation
Multiple start threads, designation
Thread tolerance classes

294, 295 11-19

309 16-31
311
202
208

Quality Science, Introduction

Normal distribution in random samples

1219
1832
2162
2203
2768

Circuit symbols for fluidics

Indexable inserts
Representation of springs
Representation of gears
General tolerances

67/548
363-365 67/548
296
87
84
80, 110 60479

R-Phrases, S-Phrases
Danger symbols

2859
3040
4379
4381
4382

Acceptance sampling
Designation on cones
Plain bearing bushings
Plain bearing materials
Plain bearing materials

5455
5456
5599
6410
6411

Scales
Projection methods
5-way pneumatic valves
Screw threads, representation
Center bores, representation

6413
6691
6753
7049
8062

Representation of splines
Plain bearing materials
Plates for cutting tools
Pan head tapping screws
Dimensional tolerances for castings

8826

Roller bearings, simplified

representation

9222
10242
13715

Seals, simplified representation

Punch holder shanks
Workpiece edges

280
304
262
2229
261
2740
261
2880
3258
65
3368
69, 70
3411
364
79, 90
91
87
261
251
218
163

24569

DGQ

EWG guidelines

Safety measures
Automatic cutout fuses

Effects of alternating current (AC)

1>

356

VDI
Bonded joints, preparatory treatment
Grippers
PLC applications
Machine running time
Punch dimensions
Abrasive bonds

336
380
375
285
316
309,311

VDMA
Hydraulic fluids, degradable

85
86
251
88

356
356

Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act

Regulation for waste requiring
special monitoring

199, 200
198, 342

IEC

DIN VDE
0100-410
0100-430

281
278

197

The standard was withdrawn. Replacement standard, if available, is given on the cited book page.

368

Subject index

417

Subject index
Abrasives
ABS (acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
copolymers)

309
181,187

Aluminum, Aluminum alloys, overview

164

Aluminum, welding fillers

326

Amino plastic molding materials

184

Acceleration

34

Analog controllers

Acceleration due to gravity

36

AND operation

348
350,375,376

36

Angular-contact ball bearings

265

Acceptance quality level (AQL)

280

Anti-rotation lock for screws

222

Acceptance sampling

280

Aramide fibers

187

Acceleration force

Arc length, dimensioning

Accident prevention regulations with

78

344

Arc welding

Acetylene cylinders, color coding

332

Arc welding, weld design

Acme screw threads

203

Area graphs

Acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR)

185

Argon cylinders, color coding

Address codes, CNC controls

382

Arrow projection method

Adhesive bonding

336

ASCII code

402

Adhesives, microencapsulated

222

Austenite

153

Air consumption of pneumatic cylinders

369

Austenitic steels

regard to noise protection

Air pressure

Automation

42

327, 328
328
63
332
70

136
345-406

Aluminum alloys, heat treatment

157

Auxiliary dimensions

81

Aluminum casting alloys

168

Average speed of crank mechanism

35

168

Axial deep groove ball bearings

Aluminum castings, designation

Aluminum profiles

169-171

Aluminum profiles, overview

169

Aluminum tubes

171

Axonometric representation

266
69

B
Ball bearings
Ball knobs
Basic dimensions
Basic geometrical constructions
Basic hole
Basic polymers, designation
Basic quantities

265, 266
248
81

Bending

209-221

Bolts and screws, designation

210

180

Bolts and screws, head styles

223

20
20

Belt drive, transmission ratio

39

103

Basic units

Bearing forces

Bolts and screws

116,117

250

58-61

103

Beam cutting, areas of application

Bolt thread as inclined plane

Bolts and screws for T-slots

Basic shaft
Beam cutting

Boiling temperature

329, 330
329
37
259
318,319

Bolts and screws, overview

209, 210

Bolts, tightening torques

221

Bonded joints, preparation

336

Bonded joints, representation

96

Bonded joints, testing

337

Bonded joints, types

337

Bosses on turned parts

88

BR (butadiene rubber)

185

Bending load

47

Brazing materials

333

Bending stress

47

Breakeven point

286

Brinell hardness test

192

Bending, bending radius

318
318,319

Buckling, load

46

Bending, spring back

319

Buoyant force

42

Bevel gears, calculation

258

Buttress threads

Binary logic

350

Binary number system

401

Bending, calculation of blanks

Binomial formula
Blind rivet
Block and tackle

15
241
39

207

418

Subject index

Subject index
c
Cabinet projection

69

Coefficient of thermal conductivity

Calculations with brackets

15

Coefficient of volumetric expansion

117
116, 117

Captive fastener

222

Coefficients of friction

Carbon dioxide cylinders, color coding

332

Cold work steels

135

Carbon fibers

187

Cold work steels, heat treatment

155

Combination signs

341

Cartesian coordinate system

62

41

Case hardening steels

132

Combined dimensioning

82

Case hardening steels, heat treatment

155

Composite materials

177

Case-hardening

154

Compressed-gas cylinders

324

Cast copper alloys

176

Compressed-gas cylinders, color coding

332

Cast iron with flake graphite

159,160

Compression springs

245

Cast iron with spheroidal graphite

159, 160

Compressive load

45

Cast iron, bainitic

159

Compressive stress

45

Cast iron, designation system

158

Conductor resistance

53

Cast iron, dimensional tolerances

163

Cone, surface area and volume

30

Cast steel
Casting tolerance grade
Castle nuts

Conical seats

250

163

Conical spring washers

235

232

Continuous controllers

348

159,161

Contribution margin

286

Cellulose acetate plastics (CA)

181

Control characters of computers

394

Cellulose acetobutyrate plastics (CAB)

Cavalier projection

69
181

Control dimensions

81

Centrifugal force

37

Controlled systems

349

Centroids, lines

32

Controllers

Centroids, plane areas

32

Coordinate axes in programming

Ceramic materials

177

Coordinate dimensioning

346-349
381
82

78

Coordinate systems of CNC machines

381

Change in volume

51

Copper-tin alloys

175

Character sizes

64

Copper-zinc alloys

175

64

Corrosion

196

Chamfers, dimensioning

Character types
Chemicals used in metal technology

119

Corrosion protection

Chlorepoxypropane rubber (CO)

185

Cosine

Circle, area
Circle, circumference
Circle, finding the center of
Circlips
Circuit diagrams

196
11,13

10,27

Cost accounting

284

27

Cost calculation

284

60

Cost comparison method

286

269

Cotangent

354

Cotter pins

12, 13
232

Counterbores for cap screws and

Circuit diagrams, hydraulic

365, 367

Circuit diagrams, pneumatic

365, 366

Circuits, electrical

351-354

Counter nut

222

Circular movements of CNC machines

384, 385

Countersink depth, calculating

225
289

hexagon head bolts

Circular ring (annulus), area

28

Countersinking, productive time

Circular sector, area

28

Countersinks for countersunk head screws

28

Countersinks for screws

Circular segment, area

225

224
224, 225

Countersunk head screws, slotted

217

102

Countersunk screws, hexagon socket

216

Clearance holes for bolts

211

CR (chloroprene rubber)

185

Clevis pins

238

Cross-section area

Closed loop control, general terms

346

CSM (chlorosulfonated polyethylene elastomers) . . 185

Circumferential velocity, calculating

Clearance fit

34, 35

Cube root

15

197

Current density

54

204

Currents

356

Cutting data, drilling

301

Closed Substance Cycle and Waste

Management Act
Coarse threads
Coefficient of linear expansion

73

116,117

Subject index

419

Subject index
Cutting data, grinding

308,311

Cutting force, face milling

300
299

Cutting data, honing

312

Cutting force, specific

Cutting data, milling

305

Cutting force, turning

298

Cutting data, reaming

302

Cutting power in face milling

300

Cutting data, tapping

302

Cutting power, drilling

298

303

Cutting power, turning

298

Cutting data, turning

Cutting force
Cutting force, drilling

Cutting speed, calculating

46

Cutting tool materials

298

35
294, 295

D
D-controllers

348

Differential indexing

307

Danger criteria

342

Digital controllers

349

342

Dimension lines

Danger symbols
Data processing, graphical symbols
Deceleration force

403, 404
36

76

Dimension numbers

76

Dimensioning rules

77

Decimal system

393

Dimensioning systems

Deep drawing force

321

Direct costing

286

Deep drawing, blank diameters

320

Direct costs

284

Deep drawing, deep drawing force

321

Direct Current (DC)

Deep drawing, drawing gap

320

Direct indexing

307

Deep drawing, drawing ratio

321

Discontinuous controllers

349

Deep drawing, drawing steps

321

Disk springs

246

Deep drawing, tool radii

320

Disposal of substances

197

Deep groove ball bearings

265

Dividing head

307

Deep-drawing, hold-down force

321

Divisions, dimensioning

281

Drain plugs

219

47

Drill bushings

247

116,117

Drilling cycles

389

Defect chart
Deflection
Density, values

75

55, 351

79

Description of hazards

342

Drilling screws

210

Detent edged ring

222

Drilling, cutting data

301

102

Drilling, cutting force and cutting power

299

78

Drilling, problems

306

69

Drilling, productive time

289

Dry machining

293

198, 199

Energy, kinetic

38

Effective length of bent parts

318, 319

Energy, potential

38

Elastomers

179, 185

EPR (ethylene propylene rubber, EPDM)

Deviations
Diameter, dimensioning
Diametric projection
Die clearance

316

Die dimensions

316

E
EC Directive on Hazardous Substances

Electric current
Electrical circuit symbols
Electrical circuits
Electrical conductance
Electrical engineering, fundamentals
Electricity, quantities and units

53, 54

Equations, solving

185
15

351,352

Equipment, electrical

353

353, 354

Erichsen cupping test

191

Escape route and rescue signs

340

53
53-55
22

Euclidean theorem
Eutectic

23
153

196

Eutectoid

153

Electrohydraulic controls

367

EXCEL, commands

406

Electropneumatic controls

366

Extension lines

Electrochemical series

76

Ellipse, area

28

Extrusion

Ellipse, constructing

60

Eye bolts

219

187

Eye nuts

231

Embedding materials (matrix) for plastics

Energy of position

38

186

Subject index

420

Subject index
Face milling, cutting force and cutting power

300

Flux for soldering

334

Fatigue test

189

Foam materials

185

Feather & tapered keys, overview

239

Folded joints, representation

Feather keys

240

Fonts

64

Force diagram, calculation

36

270

Forces

36

Ferrite

153

Forces, adding and resolving

36

Ferritic steels

137

Forces, representation

Fiberglass

187

Form and positional tolerances

Filler metals

334

Form deviations

Feed rate, calculating

Felt rings

35

Fillers and reinforcing materials for plastics . . . . 180

Forming gas (IC) cylinders, color coding

Fine threads

Foundry technology

204

marking

36
112-114
98
332
162,163

Free cutting steels

134

343

Free cutting steels, heat treatment

157

340

Freezing temperature

117
277

Fire extinguishing lines, identification

Fire protection symbols

96

102

Frequency, relative

Fits, r e c o m m e n d e d

111

Friction

41

Fixed costs

286

Friction power

41

Flame-cutting, dimensional tolerances

330

Frictional moment

41

Flame-cutting, standard values

329

Frictional work

38

Fits, ISO system

Flat head countersunk screws, cross recessed . . . 217

Function block language (FBL)

373, 374

Flat head countersunk tapping screw

217

Function charts

358-360

Flat steel bar, bright

145

Function diagrams

361,362

144

Fundamental deviations

102

350, 352

Fundamental deviations for holes

105

Flow rates

371

Fundamental deviations for shafts

Fluorocaoutchouc (FKM)

185

Fundamental tolerance grades

Fluted knobs

249

Fundamental tolerances

103

Flux for brazing

334

Fuses

356

358

Flat steel bar, hot-rolled

Flip-flop elements

104
102,103

G
Gas cylinders, color coding

331

GRAFCET, graphical design language

for sequential control

Gas cylinders, identification

331

Graphical symbols for data processing

Gage pressure

Gas shielded metal arc welding

42

Graphs

325, 326

Gas welding rods

324

Greek alphabet

Gaseous materials, characteristics

117

Grinding

Gear winch
General tolerances
General tolerances, weldments
Geometric tolerancing
Geometrical areas, calculating

39

64
308-311
310

Grinding, cutting data

322

Grinding, maximum allowable peripheral velocity . . 308

112-114
26-28
32

Geometrical areas, units

20

Golden Rule of Mechanics

62,63

110

Geometrical areas, centroid

Gib-head keys

Grinding wheels, selection

403, 404

239

308, 311

Grinding, productive time

291

Grippers

380

Grooved drive studs

238

Grooved pins

238

Grub screws with thrust point

248

38, 39

H
Handling systems, job safety

380

Hardness limits

97

Hard milling

293

Hardness penetration depth

97

293

Hardness specifications in drawings

97

Hard turning
Hardening

153,154

Hardness test

188-195

Subject index

421

Subject index
Hardness values, conversion table

194

Hexagonal fit bolts, heavy

214
145

Hatching, representation

73

Hexagonal steel bars, bright

Hatchings, material dependent

75

High-grade cast zinc alloys

176

Hazardous gases and substances

198

High-performance grinding

311

Hazardous materials, gases

198

High-speed machining

293

High-speed steels

135

Hazardous substances

198-200
197

High-speed steels, heat treatment

155

247

High-temperature plastics

187

52

Histogram

277

Heat of combustion

52

Hoisting winch

Heat of fusion

52

Hold-down force in deep drawing operations . . . . 321

Heat of vaporization

52

Hollow cylinder, surface area and volume

Heat transfer

22

Hollow taper shanks

Heat transmission

52

Homogenizing anneal

153

52

Honing, cutting values

312

Honing, productive time

289

Honing, selection of honing stones

312

Hazardous waste
Headed drill bushings
Heat flux

Heat transmission coefficient

Heat treatment
Heat treatment information
Heat treatment of steels
Helical line, constructing
Helium cylinders, color coding
Hexadecimal numbering system
Hexagon head bolts & screws
Hexagon head bolts with reduced shank
Hexagon head bolts, heavy
Hexagon nuts

153-157
97

Hooke's law

153-157

Hot work steels

61

39
29
243

36
135

332

Hot work steels, heat treatment

155

401

HSC (High speed cutting)

293

212-214

Hydraulic circuit symbols

363, 364

213

Hydraulic fluids

368

214

Hydraulic oils

368

Hydraulic press

370

228-231

Hexagon, constructing

59

Hexagonal acorn nuts

231

Hydraulics

Hexagonal fit bolts with long threaded stem . . . . 214

363-372

Hydrostatic pressure

42

Hyperbola, constructing

61

I, J
I-beams, medium width
I-beams, wide
l-controller
Ideal gas law
Imperial threads
Incline, dimensioning
Inclined plane
Indexing
Industrial robots
Inert gas
Information signs
Information technology
Injection molding

149

Injection pressure

186

149,150

Instruction List IL

373, 375

Interference fit

348

Intersection line, representation

42

Involute curve, constructing

203
78

IR (isoprene rubber)

39

Iron-Carbon phase diagram

ISO fits

307

Isobutene-isoprene rubber

378, 379

102
73
61
185
153
104-109
185

325

Isometric projection

341

Job time acc. to REFA (German association

for work time studies)
Jointing, productive time

282
289

Knurls
Krypton cylinders, color coding

91
332

330

401-406
186

69

K
Keys, feather keys, woodruff keys
Kinetic energy
Knurled nuts

239
38
232

L
Labels for hazardous goods

331

Laser beam cutting, dimensional tolerances

Ladder diagram LAD

374

Laser beam cutting, standard values

184

Latent heat of fusion

Laminate materials

330
116,117

422

Subject index

Subject index
Law of cosines

14

Lines in technical drawings

Law of sines

14

Lines, centroid

77

Liquid materials, characteristics

Leader lines

67, 68
32
117

Ledeburite

153

Load cases

43

Left-hand threads

202

Load types

43

Lock nuts

231

25

Lock nuts for roller bearings

268

Length, units

20

Lock washers for bolts and screws

222

Lever

37

Lock washers for roller bearing slotted nuts

268

Lever principle

37

Lock washers, slotted nuts

231

Lifting work

38

Lock wire for screws

222

Limit dimensions for threads

208

Locking edge washer

222

Limits

102

Locking fasteners

222
272

Length, calculating
Length, effective

24, 25

Linear expansion

51

Lubricants

Linear function

16

Lubricating greases

272

Lubricating oils

271

Linear movements of CNC machines

384, 385

M
Machine capability

281

Melting temperature

116,117

Machine hourly rates

285

Memory (Flip-flop)

350,352

Machined plates for press tools and fixtures

251

Metric ISO screw threads

Machining coolants

292

Metric tapers

204
242, 243

MAG (Metal active gas) welding, standard values 326

MF (melamine formaldehyde) resin

Magnesium, cast alloys

172

Microstructures of carbon steel

153

Magnesium, wrought alloys

172

MIG (Metal-inert-gas) welding, standards

326

Milling, cutting data

305

Milling, cutting force and cutting power

300

Magnetism
Malleable cast iron

22
159,161

Mandatory signs

340

Manufacturing costs

284

181

Milling, cycles acc. to PAL

(German association)

Martens hardness

194

Milling, problems

Martensitic steels

137

392-400
306

Milling, productive time

290

Mass moment of inertia

38

Minimum clearance

102

Mass, calculation

31

Minimum dimension

102

Minimum engagement depth for screws

211

Mass, linear mass density and area

Minimum interference

102

Minimum quantity of machining coolant

293

Material removal processes, productive time . . . . 313

Module series for spur gears

257

Material removal rate, standard values

Modulus of elasticity

mass density
Material characteristics

31, 152
116,117
313

46

Material science

115-200

Molding materials, thermoplastic

Material testing

188-195

Molding materials, thermosetting

184

Material testing, overview

188-189

Molecular groups

119

Mathematical symbols
Mathematics

19
9-32

Morse taper

34
34

Matrix materials for plastics

187

Maximum clearance

102

Motion, uniform

102

Multiple start threads

Maximum interference

102

Mean value, arithmetical

278

Mean value, standard deviation chart

279

Mechanical strength properties

44, 45

Mechanics, quantities and units

20, 21

242, 243

Motion, accelerated
Motion, circular

Maximum dimension

183

34
202

Subject index

423

Subject index
N
350

NOR operation

350

Narrow V-belts

254

Normal distribution

278

Nassi-Shneiderman diagrams

395

Normalizing

Needle bearings

268

NOT operation

Neon gas cylinders, color coding

332

Notched-bar impact bending test

191

NPSM threads

203

NAND operation

Net calorific value

52

153, 154
350

Nitriding

154

NPT threads

203

Nitriding steels

134

NPTF threads

203

Nitriding steels, heat treatment

157

NR (natural rubber)

185

Noise

344

Numerical control technology

381-400

Noise Protection Regulations (German)

344

Nuts

226-232

Noise, damages to health

344

Nuts for T-slots

250

Nominal dimensions

102

Nuts, designation

227

Non-ferrous metals

164-176

Nuts, overview

Non-ferrous metals, material numbers

165, 174

Nuts, property classes

226, 227
228

Non-ferrous metals, systematic designation . 165, 174

O
O-rings
Ohm's law
Open loop control, general terms
OR operation

270
53
346, 347

Orientation tolerance

113

Overhead

284

Oxygen cylinders, color coding

332

PI (Proportional-integral) controller

348

350

P
PA (polyamide) plastics
PAL drilling cycles (German association)

180-182
389

PID (Proportional-integral-differential) controller . 348

PAL milling cycles (German association)

392-400

Pillar presses

PAL turning cycles (German association)

389-391

Pins

252
236-238

Parabola, constructing

61

Pins, locating

Parallel circuit

54

Pins, overview

236

Parallel dimensioning

82

Pins, seating

249

Parallelogram area

26

Pipe lines, identification

343

Pipe threads

206

71

Piston speeds

371

383

Plain bearing

162

Plain bearing bushings

180, 181

Plain bearing materials

261
329
186

Pareto diagram
Partial views in drawings
Path correction in CNC machining
Patterns, color coding
PC (polycarbonate) plastics

281

187

Plasma cutting, standard values

PC & PET plastics

187

Plastic processing, settings

PD controller

348

Plastic processing, tolerances

PC& ABS plastics

PE (polyethylene) plastics
PE molding materials
Pearlite
Percentage, calculating

180-182

Plastics

183

Plastics testing

153

Plastics, cutting

18

249

261, 262
262

186
179-187
195
301-305

Plastics, distinguishing characteristics

181
195

Periodic table of the elements

118

Plastics, hardness test

PF (phenol formaldehyde) resin

181

Plastics, identification

181

PF PMC molding materials

184

Plastics, material testing

195

PF molding materials

184

Plastics, tensile load

195

pH value

119

Plastics, thermal behavior

179

Phenolic molding materials

184

Plateau honing

312

Phenolic plastic molding materials

184

Plates for pillar presses

Physics

33-56

PLC, controls

251
373-377

Subject index

424

Subject index
373-376

Probability network

277

373-376

Process capability

281

PMMA (polymethylmethacrylate) plastics . . . 181, 182

Process steps

280

Pneumatic circuit symbols

Production costs

284

PLC, programming
PLC, programming languages

363, 364

Pneumatic cylinders, air consumption

369

Production engineering

Pneumatic cylinders, dimensions

369

Productive time, countersinking

289

369

Productive time, drilling

289

Productive time, grinding

291
289

Pneumatic cylinders, piston forces

Pneumatics

362-371

273-344

Polar coordinate system

63

Productive time, honing

Polar coordinates in drawings

82

Productive time, material removal processes . . . . 313

Polyblends

187

Productive time, milling

290

Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)

187

Productive time, reaming

289

Polygon, constructing

59

Productive time, thread cutting

287

Polygon, irregular

27

Productive time, turning

287

Polygon, regular

27

Productive time, turning with v= const

288

Program flow chart

404

Polyimide (PI) resin

187

Polyoxidemethylene (POM, polyacetal) resin .. 181, 182

Program structure of CNC machines

Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) plastics

Programmable logic control (PLC)

Polystyrene plastics

187
180-182

Prohibitive signs

Polysulfone (PSU) plastics

187

Projection methods

Position tolerances

114

Property classes of bolts and screws

382
373-377
338
69, 70
211

81

Proportion, calculating

18

Positional tolerances

114

Proportional controller

348

Potable water lines, identification marking

343

Protective measures against dangerous currents . . . 356

Positional dimensions in drawings

Potential energy
Pour point

38
368

Proximity sensors
PTFE

355
181, 187

Power factor

56

Pulley, fixed

39

Power, electrical

56

Pulley, movable

39

Power, mechanical

40

Pumping capacity

371

Powers (exponentiation)

15

Pumps, power

371

Punch dimensions

316

PP (polypropylene) plastics

181, 182

PP molding materials

183

Punch holder shanks

251

PPE & PS plastics

187

Punch holder shanks, location

317

Precision steel tubes for hydraulic and

pneumatic applications
Precision steel tubes, seamless

Punches

251

372

PUR (polyurethane) foam

185

142

PUR (polyurethane) plastics

181

Preferred numbers

65

Pure aluminum

164,166

Pressed joints, representation

96

PVC (polyvinyl chloride) plastics

181, 182

Pressure

42

PVC-P plastics (plasticized PVC)

182

Pressure intensifier

370

Pyramid, slant height

29

Pressure units

42

Pyramid, volume

29

Primary profile (P profile)

98

Pythagorean theorem

23

Pythagorean theorem of height

23

Prime cost

284

Probability

276

16

Quality management, definitions

275

Quality and process capability

281

Quality management, standards

274

Quality control

276

Quality planning

276

Quality control chart

279

Quantity of heat

51

Quality control circle

276

Quenched and tempered steels

276

Quenched and tempered steels, heat treatment .. 156

Quadratic function

Quality inspection and testing

Quality management

274-281

Quenching and tempering

133
154

Subject index

425

Subject index
R
Robot axes

R-Phrases Informatory notes on possible hazards

and risks, acc. to the German Hazardous
Substances Regulations (GefStoffV)
199
Radial seals (rotary shaft seals)

270

Radius

65

Radius, dimensioning

78

Raised head countersunk screws

217

Raised head countersunk tapping screws

217

Raised head tapping screws

218

Random sample tests, attribute testing

280

Random samples

278

Range (of samples)

278

Raw data

277

Raw data chart

279

Reaming, cutting data

302

Reaming, productive time

289

Recommended safety measures

200

Recrystallization annealing

153

Rectangle, area

26

Reference lines

77

Reference points of CNC machines

381

Reinforcing fibers

187

Retaining rings

269

Retaining rings, representation

87

Rhomboid, area

26

Rhombus, area

26

378

Rockwell hardness test

193

Rod electrodes, designation

327

Roller bearing fits

110

Roller bearings
Roller bearings, designation

263-268
264

Roller bearings, dimension series

264

Roller bearings, overview

263

Roller bearings, representation

Roller bearings, selection

85
263

Rolling friction

41

Roman numerals

64

Roots, extracting

15

Rotation, kinetic energy

38

Rough dimensions in drawings

81

Roughness depth in turning operations

303

Roughness parameters

98

Roughness profile (R-profile)

98

Round bar steels, bright

145

Round bar steels, polished

145

Round steel bar, hot-rolled

RS flip-flop

144
350,352

Rubbers

185

Rule-of-ten (for costs)

276

Run-out tolerances

114

Running dimensioning

82

S
Safety colors

338

Safety factors

44

Safety measures for robot systems

Safety signs
Sales price
SAN (styrene-acrylonitrile) copolymers
SB (styrene-butadiene) copolymers

220
220

380

Set screws, slotted

Shape dimensions

81

284

Shear cutting force

315

181,182

Shear cutting work

315

185

Scales

65

Shear load

46

Shear strength

46

Shear stress

SCARA robots

379

Shear test

Screw joints, calculation

221

Shearing

Screw joints, representation

87

Set screws, hexagon socket

338-341

180-182,187

SBR (styrene-butadiene) rubber

Serrations, representation

46
191
316,317

90

Shearing, design of press

315

203

Shearing, die dimensions

316

202-208

Shearing, edge width

316

Seals, representation

86

Shearing, edge width

316

Second moment of inertia

49

Shearing, location of clamping pin

317

Shearing, punch dimensions

316

Screw thread standards of various countries

Screw threads

Sectional views

73, 74

Shearing, utilization of strip stock

317

111

Shearing, web width

316

Sensors

355

Sheet and strip metal, overview

139

Sequential charts

359

Sheet metal, cold-rolled

140

Sheet metal, hot-dip galvanized

141

Sheet metal, hot-rolled

141

Sheet, hot-dip galvanized

141

Sections, comparison of load capacity

Selection of fits

Sequential control
Series circuit
Serrated lock washers

50

358, 360, 367

54
222

426

Subject index

Subject index
Shewhart quality control chart
Shore hardness test
Shrinkage

279

Square, dimensioning

195

Stainless steels

51

Standard deviation

Shrinkage allowances

163

Standardization, regulation body

Shrinkage chucks

243

Star knob

SI quantities and units

20

Static friction

77
136,137
278
8
249
41

Silicone rubber (SIR)

185

Statistical analysis

277

Simple indexing

307

Statistical process control

279

Steel bars, bright

145

Steel bars, hot-rolled

144

48

Steel channel

146

41

Steel sections, hot-rolled

Sine
Sintered metals
Size factor
Sliding friction

11,13
178

143

Slip type jig bushing

247

Steel sheet

139-141

Slot tenons

250

Steel tubes

142, 372

Slots, dimensioning
Software controllers
Soldering
Solders
Solid lubricants

79

Steel tubes, hot-rolled

151

349

Steel tubes, seamless

142, 372

335

Steel tubes, welded

151

Steel wire for springs, patented drawn

138

Steels for flame and induction hardening

134

333, 334
272

Steels, alloying elements

129

Sound level

344

Steels, classification

120

Sound, definitions

344

Steels, identification codes

SPC (statistical process control)

279

Steels, numbering system

Special characters, CNC machines

382

Steels, overview

Special characters, computers

402

Steep taper shanks

298

Strength of materials

43-50

116,117

Stress concentration

48

Stress limits

43

Solids, characteristics

Specific cutting force standard values

Specific heat
Speed graph

116, 117

260

122-125
121
126,127
242

Speeds of machines

35

Stress relief anneal

Sphere, dimensioning

78

Stress, allowable

30

Strip steel, cold-rolled

30

Strip stock utilization in shearing

317

Structural steels, carbon

130

Sphere, surface area and volume

Spherical segment, surface area and volume
Spherical washers

250

Spiral, construction

60

Splined shaft joints

241

Splines, representation

87

Structural steels, quenched and tempered

Structural steels, selecting
Structural tee steel, equal legs

153,154
41, 48
139,140

131
128, 129
146

Spreadsheets

406

Structured text (ST)

Spring back in bending

319

Stub-Acme screw threads

203

Studs

219

Spring force

36
222

Sub-dividing lengths

Spring pins

237

Surface profile

Spring rate

244, 245

Spring lock washers

Surface areas, calculation

138

Surface condition factor

Spring steel, hot-rolled

138

Surface finish

Spring washers

222

Surface indications

Spring steel wire

Springs, representation
Springs: tension, compression, disk
Sprockets, representation
Spur gears, calculating
Square prism, area
Square prism, volume
Square root
Square steel bar, hot-rolled
Square, area

87
244-246
84
256, 257

Surface pressure, stress

373,374

24
98
29, 30
48
99
99, 100
45

Surface protection

196

Surface roughness, attainable

101

Switching controllers

349

29

Symbols, mathematical

29

Synchronous belts

255

Synchronous pulleys

255

Systems for fits

103

10,15
144
26

19-22

Subject index

427

Subject index
T-slots

250

Three-phase power

Tally sheet

277

Three-point controller

349

Thrust pads

248

Tangent

12

56

218

Title block in drawings

Tap holes, drill

204

Tolerance class

102

Taper pins

237

Tolerance grade

102

Taper turning

304

Tolerance indications in drawings

Tapered keys

239

Tolerances of form

113

Tapered roller bearings

267

Tolerances of position

114

205

Tolerances, dimensioning

Tap hole diameter for tapping screws

Tapered threads
Tapers, dimensioning

78

103

304
204

Torque

Tapping screw threads

202

Torsion, loading
Total run-out tolerances

217, 218

80
297

Tapping drill holes, diameter

Tapping screws

80

Tolerances, ISO system

Tool holders for indexable inserts

Tapers, nomenclature

66

37
47
114

Transformers

56

51

Transition fit

102

Theorem of intersecting lines

14

Transmission ratios

259

Thermal conduction

52

Trapezoid, area

52

Trapezoidal screw threads

Technical drawing
Temperature

Thermal conductivity, definition

Thermal conductivity, values
Thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin)
Thermodynamics
Thermoplastics

57-114

116, 117
51
22,51,52
179, 182, 183

26
207

Triangle, area

26

Triangle, constructing circumscribed circle

60

Triangle, constructing inscribed circle

60

Triangle, equilateral

27
30

Thermoplastics, amorphous

179

Truncated cone, surface area and volume

Thermoplastics, semi-crystalline

179

Truncated pyramid, volume

Thermoset molding materials

184

Tubes

142, 151

Thermoset plastics

179

Turning cycles

388-391

Thread cutting, productive time

287

Turning with v= const., productive time

288

Thread forming screws

218

Turning, cutting data

303

Thread molding, cutting data

302

Turning, cutting force and cutting power

298

Thread runouts

Turning, cycles acc. to PAL

89

Thread tapping, cutting data

302

Thread tolerance

208

30

(German association)

388-391

Turning, problems

306

Turning, productive time

287

89

Turning, roughness depth

303

Threads, dimensioning

79

Types of adhesives

336

Threads, multiple start

202

Threads, representation

90

Thread types, overview

Thread undercuts

202, 203

Three steps for direct proportions

18

Three-phase current

55

U
UF (urea formaldehyde) resin

180, 181

Units of measurement

20

UF molding materials

184

UNS screw threads

UF PMC molding materials

184

UP (unsaturated polyester resin)

180, 181

UF/MF-PMC plastics

184

UPVC (unplasticized polyvinyl chloride)

181,182

UNC screw threads

203

Urea formaldehyde molding materials

Undercuts

92

UNEF screw threads

203

UNF screw threads

203

Unit prefixes

17, 22

203

184

Urea/melamine formaldehyde molding

materials
184
Utilization time acc. to REFA
(German association for work time studies) . . . 283

428

Subject index

Subject index
v
V-belt
V-belt pulleys
Variable costs
Velocity
Vibration test
Vickers hardness test
Views in drawings

Viscosity grade

253,254
254

Viscosity, kinematic

286

Voltage

271
368
53, 54

Voltage drop

54

222

Volume of compound solids

31

193

Volume, calculating

31

Volume, units

20

34,308

71, 72

W
Warning signs
Washers

339
233-235

Welding positions

322

Welding, general tolerances

322
159
223

Washers for cap screws

234

White cast iron

Washers for channels and I-beams

235

Widths across flats, dimension series

235

Widths across flats, dimensioning

Washers for clevis pins

77

233, 234

Wire electrodes

325

234, 235

Wire, electrical

353

197

Woodruff keys

240

Web width in shear cutting

316

Word processing

405

Wedge as an inclined plane

39

Work, electrical

56

Weight

36

Work, mechanical

38

Washers for hexagon bolts and nuts

Washers for steel structures
Waste Disposal Act (German)

Weld design for arc welding

328

Worm drive, calculating

258

Weld nuts, hexagonal

232

Worm drive, transmission ratio

259

Weld preparation

323

Wrought aluminum alloys, designation

165

Weldable fine-grain structural steels

131

Wrought aluminum alloys, heat treatable

167

Wrought aluminum alloys, material codes

165

Welding
Welding and soldering, dimensioning

322-330

Wrought aluminum alloys, non-heat treatable . . . 166

95,96

Welding and soldering, graphical symbols . . . . 93-95

Wrought copper-aluminum alloys

Welding and soldering, representation

Wrought copper-nickel-zinc alloys

176

Wrought titanium alloys

172

93-95

Welding fillers for aluminum

326

Welding methods

322

X
Xenon cylinders, color coding

332

176