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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
DISCUSSION OF SYLLABUS
The syllabus for this course discusses several points,
including how the course is different from an engineering
course, how it is related to engineering disciplines, why
engineering students should take the course, the course
objectives, topics to be covered, class attendance policy,
and how grades will be determined.
Keep in mind especially the following points:
(1) The course outline on page iv is only a guide. We may or
may not complete the topics listed for certain
weekProthero and Schwab, 2014omplete all topics by the
end of the course. If I travel out of town, the class will be
taught either by one of my colleagues or a graduate
teaching assistant.
(2) Students will be placed in teams and will help with
setting questions for the four exams that will comprise
60% of the course grade. I will send out the question
guidelines to be used by each team. My questions will be
added for exams, but will not be seen by students ahead
of time.
(3) One Friday afternoon, April 24, has been set aside for a
field trip to a location within the Rolla City limits. This
is a compulsory exercise. If you have to work or have
another lab on that day, please inform your supervisor or
instructor about this trip ahead of time. Every team will
write a field trip report, which will constitute 10% of the
course grade.
(4) I take class attendance very seriously. Inform me by
either e-mail if you will not be in class. I reserve the right
to drop any student who misses four class periods
without prior permission.
(5) I will use Blackboard to post messages, assignments,
question guidelines, students quiz questions, and send
out e-mails. Check Blackboard and your emails daily.
(6) I will use videotapes to complement some topics in this
course, such as deltas and reefs.
(7) I hope we will all have fun together in this course.
Email when you have questions.

STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTATION

This course is organized in such a way as to


facilitate the understanding of the following: (1)
Sedimentological processes, (2) Sedimentary petrology
(origin of sedimentary rocks), and (3) Stratigraphy
(sedimentary rock distribution through space and time).
Sedimentary rocks cover 66% of continental surface,
and most of the ocean floor is covered by at least a thin
layer of sediment. The analyses of these rocks involve
descriptive and interpretative aspects. Stratigraphy is a
very important discipline because many of the earth's
natural resources occur in stratified rocks. There are
three main subdisciplines, each of which is based on
one of the basic principles of stratigraphy (Fig. 1.1).
With the exception of uniformitarianism (below), the
other principles will be discussed at a later lecture.
Historical geology is founded on the principle of
uniformitarianism (James Hutton, 1795), and it states
that the processes responsible for ancient geological
phenomena are essentially the same as those operating
today. Simply put, it means, "The present is the key to
the past" = Actualism. This phrase was coined by
Sir Archibald Geikie but made popular by Charles
Lyell. All three subdisciplines of stratigraphy are used
to arrive at four stratigraphic units, namely
lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, geochronology and
chronostratigraphy.

Stratigraphy

Sedimentary
Petrology

Superposition

Correlation

Historical
Geology

Faunal SuccessionUniformitarianism

Figure 1.1. Subdisciplines of stratigraphy.

Please read Chapter 1 in the textbook for introductory


statements regarding to the following aspects of
describing sedimentary rocks (Table 1.1, p. 5 in the
textbook):
(1) Color: A reflection of composition.
(2) Composition: siliciclastic, carbonate, etc.
(3) Texture: Grain size, roundness, sphericity, surface
features, etc.

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(4) Sedimentary structures.
(5) Fossil content.
(6) Sedimentary rock geometry.
For interpretative purposes, another set of questions
is tackled, which give a stratigraphic perspective of
the rocks. These include but are not limited to the
following (Table 1.2, p. 10 in the textbook):
(1) Correlation and stratigraphy.
(2) Provenance or source of sediments or fossils.
(3) Dispersal: Erosion and transportation from source.
(4) Transporting agent and depositional setting.
(5) Paleogeography and sedimentary tectonics.
(6) Diagenesis: Post-depositional changes.
We will spend two months discussing the composition of
sedimentary rocks, diagenesis, and the major categories
sedimentary environments. The course will end by focusing
on the techniques used for interpreting stratigraphy, namely
lithostratigraphy,
biostratigraphy,
geochronology,
chronostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy, stable isotope
stratigraphy, seismic and sequence stratigraphy, and basin
analysis.

Mineralogy of Sediments
Terrigenous. Derived from pre-existing rocks, terrigenous,
detrital, clastic or siliciclastic particles are mainly composed
of quartz, potassium feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, clay
minerals, rock fragments and accessory minerals, especially
heavies. Examples include garnet, rutile. zircon, kyanite,
olivine, and pyroxene. These particles form sandstones,
conglomerates, shales, and siltstones, which can be either
extrabasinal or intrabasinal.
Chemical. These are chemically precipitated from solution.
They include evaporites, non-skeletal carbonates (intraclasts,
ooids, pellets), chert, phosphate, zeolites
(hydrous
aluminosilicates), and iron-rich sediments. Examples of
chemical rocks include some limestones, dolomite, halite,
and gypsum.
Biogenic. Biogenic sedimentary rocks are composed
of either skeletal particles (e.g., calcareous or siliceous
remains
of
foraminifera,
coccolithophores,
echinoderms, diatoms, radiolarians, green and red
algae), or plant debris (leaves twigs, pollen, spores and
tree trunks). Examples of biogenic rocks are chalk,
diatomite, radiolarite and coal.
A fourth category includes all clastic sedimentary rocks
that are produced by processes other than physical and
chemical weathering of pre-existing rocks. The major
varieties of this group are subdivided on the basis of
the mechanism by which the clasts are produced.
Principal types include pyroclastics (generated by
explosive igneous activity), meteoritics (produced by

the impact of extraterrestrial bodies), and cataclastics


(related to collapse or tectonism) (Prothero and
Schwab, 2014).
Reading Assignment: The Earths Sedimentary Shell
(p. 12-17 in the textbook).

Last to Weather

SECTION 2
WEATHERING AND SOILS
Introduction
Sediments and sedimentary rocks would not exist without
weathering. This process involves the erosion, and
subsequent transportation and redeposition of pre-existing
igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. The process
by which rocks weather depends on: (a) source composition,
(b) climate, (c) drainage, (d) topographic relief, and (e)
relative rates of physical and chemical weathering.
Physical or Mechanical weathering: This process occurs
mostly by the action of water. It is very important in
temperate regions. In freeze-thaw action, water increases in
volume by 9-10% when it freezes. This expansion exerts
great force when water freezes in cracks and pores of rocks.
This process can cause rapid mechanical breakdown of
rocks. Insolation refers to stresses generated when minerals
are exposed to changing temperatures, which result in
differential thermal expansion and contraction. This process
is common in arid environments, such as the Sahara and
Mohave Deserts. Stress release occurs when rocks buried
beneath overlying material experience high confining
pressures. If overburden is removed, pressure drops and the
rocks expand, resulting in cracks. Organic activity (e.g.,
plant roots, microscopic organisms) can promote physical
and chemical weathering. Other forms of mechanical
weathering include the abrasive action of water (and
whatever is carried by the water) and the action of glaciers.
Exfoliation and spheroidal weathering ultimately result from
a combination of physical weathering processes.
Chemical weathering: This is far more important than
physical weathering, and is enhanced by the latter. This is
because mechanical break-up of rocks at the Earth's surface
increases surface area open to chemical action.

The reactivity of these minerals is related to the


types of chemical bonds that form between the
component elements and oxygen. Bonding of Si and
Al with O is dominantly covalent. Bonding of Na,
Ca, Mg, and K with O is ionic. Ionic bonds are more
easily broken down by dipolar molecules such as
water. Minerals high in Bowen's reaction series have
a higher percentage of soluble elements. The
processes of dissolution include hydration,
dehydration, hydrolysis, and oxidation-reduction.
Check pages 2123 of the textbook for details of these
reactions.
Products of chemical alteration
Rain water charged with atmospheric carbon dioxide
becomes acidic:
H +HCO3

2H +CO3

Other sources of H include organic acid produced by


biological activity.
Reaction of carbonic acid or organic acids with
orthoclase:
3KAlSi3O8+2H
+6H4SiO4+2K

++
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2

+12H2O
orthoclase

muscovite

sericite
illite

soluble

silica

Further reaction of illite with acid:


++
2KAl3Si3O10(OH)2+2H +3H2O

3Al2Si2O5(OH)4+2K

illite

kaolinite

The chemical weathering of common igneous minerals


results in the following products:
Albite

First to Weather
Olivine
CaPlagioclase
Mg Pyroxene
Ca-Mg Pyroxene
Amphibole
Biotite
NaPlagioclase
KFeldspar
Muscovite
Quartz

CO2+H2O

Na smectite
soluble silica
+

Anorthite

soluble Na ions
Ca smectite
soluble silica
2+

Amphibole

soluble Ca ions
Ca smectite

Pyroxene

soluble silica

Biotite

Ca , Na , Mg ions, &

2+

2+

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limonite

further

FeO(OH) (limonite)
weathers:2FeO(OH)

Fe2O3(hematite)+H2O
Olivine

Chlorite

Not all soils have the idealized pattern shown in Figure 2.1
and tremendous variations do occur. For example:
Pedalfer soils:

2+

Quartz

Mg ions
2Fe(OH)3
smaller quartz grains!

Table 2.1 (on page 4) shows some weathering products


that form sediments.

Pedocal soils:

Laterite soils:

Product
Clays

Sediment
Shales, siltstones, mudstones, matrix
in sandstones; also argillaceous
components in carbonates
Silica
Bedded cherts, siliceous fossils
(diatoms, radiolarians, etc.) and silica
cements
Fe(OH)3
Hematite stains (Fe2O3), iron stone,
iron formation
2+
+
Evaporites including gypsum, anhydrite
Ca & Na
and halite
Ca2+& Mg2+ Carbonates including limestones and
dolomites
Quartz
Sandstones, siltstones, silt and sand
component of other sedimentary rocks
Table 2.1. Partial list of weathering products and the sediments that
they form.

Soils
Accumulations of weathered material on the Earths surface
are referred to as soils. They can be thin or several meters
thick. Soils consist of weathered bedrock material, organic
material added by living organisms, and additional chemical
elements that move through the soil in ground water. Several
processes aid the formation of soils:
(1) Plants and animals interact with the sediment, absorbing
nutrients and leaving behind their wastes and remains.
(2) Burrowing organisms (ants, worms, rodents, etc.) churn the
soil, thereby altering it from that of freshly weathered
sediment.
(3) Rainwater percolates through the sediment and moves
chemical elements though the soil. Laterites form in tropical
soils.
Zone of leaching:

Zone of accumulation:

Figure 2.1. Typical soil profile

Paleosols
Paleosols are fossil soils that have been buried and
preserved in ancient rocks. They have been used to
reconstruct ancient climates and vegetation pattern,
especially in the absence of other proxies. They have
been used to infer the existence of organisms for
which there are no body fossils (e.g. millipedes).
Since they are surfaces of weathering and erosion,

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they often mark unconformities. They can be
recognized in the field because of enrichment of
organic matter and also reddish iron oxides that
become more intense in color toward the top,
noticeable decrease in weathered minerals toward
the top, and disruption of bedding by organic
activity. The various paleosols identified in the
literature include platy, prismatic, columnar, angular
blocky, subangular blocky, crumb, and granular.
Read the textbook (p. 27-30) for more details.

SECTION 3
CLASTIC TRANSPORT AND FLUID
FLOWS

Figure 3.1. The forces that act upon a particle on a stream bed.
Although the force of gravity tends to hold the particles down, the
lift and drag force of the fluid tend to pull the particle up off the
streambed and downstream; C.G., center of gravity (from Prothero
and Schwab, 2014).

Clastic particles are transported to their depositional


environments from source areas by way of (a) dry, gravitydriven mass wasting processes (avalanches, rock falls); (b)
wet, gravity-assisted processes (grain flows, turbidity flows);
and (c) processes that involve direct fluid flows of air, water,
and ice. Although mass wasting processes move soil and
rock debris only short distances down-slope, they get the
weathered products into the longer-distance sediment
transport system.

Figure 3.2 summarizes the flow pattern of particles. It shows


that fine sand is the most easily transported and eroded of all
clastic particles. Also, clays are difficult to move once they
settle because of their electrolytic properties. They occur as
floccules and aggregates. However, cohesion-less particles
do not have electrolytic properties because of their larger
sizes. Secondly, they lack cements.

Fluid Flow: In Theory and In Nature


Read p. 34-36 in the textbook and write down the salient
points on the opposite page.

Entrainment of Sediments
Two main forces (Fig. 3.1) are usually involved in picking up
particles. The fluid drag force (FD) exerts a
horizontal force that is parallel to the flow on the particle and
rolls it along. The fluid lift force (FL) raises the particle
vertically into the current. The net fluid force (FF) on the
particle is therefore, a result of the horizontal fluid drag
vector (FD) and the vertical lift vector (FL).
This produces a net movement upstream or downstream.
Define Bernouillis principle below or on opposite page.

Figure 3.2. Hjulstrms diagram showing the relationship


between current velocity and particle size (from Press and
Siever, 1986).

Transport and Deposition


Movement of particles is affected by several factors,
including the density of particles, density of medium

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(air, water), size of particles and rate of shear stress.
Once the threshold of mobility is reached, particles may
be subjected to any of three continuous or interrupted
modes of transport (Fig. 3.3).
1) Traction or rolling:

2) Saltation:

3) Suspension:

of deformation in which planes in a body remain parallel but


are relatively displaced in a direction parallel to themselves;
i.e., adjacent planes can slide over each other.
Grain flows. Grain-to-grain interactions support sediments
by "dispersive pressure". In such cases, water may be absent,
as in sandy avalanches. Movement may be initiated when
slopes are greater than the natural angle of stability in
subaqueous or subaerial environments. Inverse graded
bedding can develop during movement through either (a)
differential friction close to the bottom or (b) downward
migration of finer particles between the coarser ones.
Dispersive forces are weak intermolecular forces.
Debris flows. These occur in poorly sorted masses of
sediment (silt to cobble size) carried by silty-clayey aqueous
matrix of a larger proportion. Such masses behave like a
paste with lumps, and can originate subaerially and
subaqueously on rather gentle slopes. They can flow over
long distances without becoming appreciably sorted, e.g.,
avalanches.

Figure 3.3. Modes of transport of clastic particles (from Prothero


and Schwab, 2014).

The capacity of air to transport by saltation or suspension is


poor because of its very low density and viscosity in
comparison with water. This deficiency is compensated for
by (a) frequently very high velocities and (b) high amplitudes
of upward movements resulting from impacts of particles.
The three populations of sediments (i.e., traction, saltation
and suspension) may be recognized on frequency cumulative
curves.
The drag force of the current and settling velocity of the
particle determine the distance the particle travels. The
velocity with which the clast settles through a fluid is
calculated using Stoke's law of settling (see page 10 of class
notes, and p. 39-40 in textbook textbook for detailed
description).

Liquefied flows. Some subaqueous sands may have


their fabric destroyed as a result of a sudden event
(earthquake, volcanic explosion, etc.) that causes
liquefaction. The cohesionless particles dilate, lose
excessive pore pressure and are dispersed as
suspended matter in water, thus acting like a viscous
fluid. Liquefied flows can move along very lowangle slopes as long as the carrying liquid cannot
escape to the top. Turbidity flows. These are
characterized by suspension of particles in a
turbulently flowing liquid. The flows represent dense
liquid masses within which horizontal and vertical
sorting take place as a function of:

Flows of Sedimentary Particles

(a)

Sediments and sediment-filled fluids flow under the direct


influence of gravity. Gravitational mass flows occur
suddenly in areas of notable submarine relief and in thick
sedimentary accumulations. There are five main types of
sediment gravity processes (Fig. 3.4).

(b)

Slumps. Large masses of sediment may move down slope as


a result of shear planes with in the mass. They retain their
internal cohesion (e.g., stratification) but are deformed by
convolutions (folding) or growth faults. Note: Shear is a type

(c)
Graded bedding is common. Turbidity currents may
move over long distances on surfaces with little or no
inclination.

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Figure 4.1 Bedding patterns.

Depositional structures of Sandstones and Siltstones


Depositional structures can be affected by the type of
bedding in the sediment. Sorting can lead to parallel or
subparallel bedding, as in beaches. Ripples are more or less
regularly spaced undulations on the sediment or bedding
surfaces. However, the internal lamination that results from
the migration of ripples is referred to as cross-lamination or
bedding. Cross-lamination may be symmetric or asymmetric.
Figure 4.2 shows several examples of depositional structures
described below.
Flat or horizontal bedding. Beds deposited just as the names
imply (without inclination).

External
shear
planes

Climbing ripple cross-lamination. Inclined bedding with


nonerosive boundaries between the bed sets.

Slump
Figure 3.4. Common types of gravitational sedimentary flows.

Lenticular bedding. Isolated lenses of sand ripples formed


when fine-grained sediment dominates.

SECTION 4

Flaser bedding. Formed where muddy sediment occurs as


thin and discontinuous laminae, which drape ripple forms.

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Sedimentary structures are among the most useful tools for
studying the sedimentary record, and they can be of physical,
chemical or biological origins. Sedimentary structures can
also be depositional, post-depositional or due to the effects of
erosion. Sediments are normally transported by the methods
described in the last lecture.

Bedding
Bedding is a combination of grain size, composition, shape,
orientation, packing and, occasionally, color. Bedding can
also be created in chemical precipitates and bioclastic
materials. Beds or strata or layers are >1 cm but laminae are
<1 cm. They could be plane or horizontal, inclined,
unidirectional or multidirectional (Fig. 4.1). All bedding
types are affected by flow velocity, while unconformities
result from erosion and break in sedimentation.
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2

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Hypothetical Horizontal

Inclined beds

Dunes and megaripples. Formed in coarser-grained sands at


higher flow or wind velocities; antidunes form when
velocities are very high. Dunes and ripples are quite common
in eolian sediments.
Hummocky cross-stratification. Curving laminations
with convex-up boundaries (hummocks) and concaveup boundaries (swales). Some stratigraphers now treat
swaley cross-stratification as a separate sedimentary
structure. Both are common in shallow marine
(shoreface) sandstones.
Herringbone
cross-stratification.
bidirectional cross-bedding.

Tidally-influenced

Planar and trough cross-bedding. These represent


ripple laminations on a larger scale, and they are planar
and trough-shaped respectively when viewed in
threedimension (see Fig. 4.3).
Graded bedding. Common in interbedded sandstone/
mudstone sequences as an assemblage of grain size
changes and sedimentary structures, which are
diagnostic of depositional processes; e.g., Bouma
turbidite sequence. Graded bedding also occurs in
conglomerates, breccias and gravels and it may be
reversed, especially in conglomerates.

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Note: Learn the definitions of some of the other types of
bedding, which include: interference ripples, wavy
bedding, sole marks, and flute casts.

Figure 4.3. Definition diagram for the basic types of crossbedding.


The middle and basal cosets show planar and trough cross-bedding,
respectively (from Collinson and Thompson, 1989).

Depositional structures in mudstones


X-ray photographs of cores can reveal these nonobvious
structures that are mostly on a small scale. Shales and
micaceous siltstones have very fine laminations, which lead
to fissility. Some mudstones have very fine "stripped"
appearance of alternating lighter and darker layers (about 1
mm to a few centimeters thick).

Structures due to deformation and disturbance


Physically induced structures. These can result from
overpressure or undercompaction, which can lead to
liquefaction and fluidization. Examples include (Fig.
4.4):
Load casts:

Figure 4.2. Examples of vertical arrangement of basic


sedimentary structures. A Inclined bedding: 1 subparallel
(with cross laminations); 2 inclined and crossed (crossbedding); 3 herring-bone cross-bedding; 4 hummocky crossbedding. B bedding with episodic intercalations: 5 finegrained material (in black) in coarser sediment (flaser
bedding); 6 lenticular bedding. C normal size-graded
bedding: 7 in strict sense, without finegrained admixtures at
base;8 in wider sense, with ubiquitous fine-grained matrix
(N.B. the same situation developed in reverse gradedbedding) (from Collinson and Thompson, 1989).

Ball-and-pillow structures:

Flame structures:

Convolute bedding:

Mud cracks:

Chemically induced structures. These are mostly


concretions or nodules that are due to localized
processes of precipitation. They may contain fossils
and are usually calcitic. Some of them may be
composed of dolomite, hematite, silica, pyrite,
siderite or even an evaporite. Concretions roughly
follow bedding and while many of them are centered
on fossils, others follow burrows and rootlets.
Biogenic structures. The study of biogenic structures
or trace fossils is called ichnology. Trace fossils are
represented by burrows, borings, tracks, trails,
resting places, fecal pellets, etc. They are usually
found where body fossils are absent and help to
record behavioral, ecological and sedimentological

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events (see Fig. 4.5 on page 9). Diagenesis does not
destroy them and they are insitu. Figure 4.6 illustrates the common trace fossils
and ichnofacies, which are commonly used for
paleoenvironmental and paleoecological analyses by
sedimentologists and paleontologists.
Note:

Figure 4.4 Examples of synsedimentary mechanical


deformation (A-D) and post-depositional (E) structures.
A, Load structures, B, ball-and-pillow structures; C,
convolute bedding; D, dish structures; E, polygonal mud
cracks resulting from (a) subaerial desiccation and (b)
subaqueous synaeresis (from Chamley, 1990).

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Figure 4.5 Relation between types of bioturbation and hydrodynamic conditions of deposition a, intensely bioturbated
argillaceous silt, trace fossils compressed and almost unrecognizable; b, fine-grained sand, intermediate stage; c,
coarser-grained sand with preserved sedimentary structures, trace fossils usually recognizable (from Chamley, 1990).

Figure 4.6. Summary diagram of the most common trace fossils and ichnofacies. Traces numbered as follows:
1 = Caulostrepsis; 2 = Entobia; 3 = unnamed echinoid borings; 4 = Trypanites; 5, 6 = Gastrochaenolites or related
ichnogenera; 7 = Diplocraterion; 8 = Psilonichnus; 9 = Skolithos; 10 = Diplocraterion; 11 = Thalasinoides; 12 =
Arenicolites; 13 = Ophiomorpha; 14 = Phycodes; 15 = Rhizocorallium; 16 = Teichichnus; 17 = Crossopodia; 18 =
Asteriacites; 19 = Zoophycos; 20 = Lorenzinia; 21 = Zoophycos; 22 = Paleodictyon; 23 = Taphrhelminthopsis; 24 =
Helminthoida; 25 = Spirorhaphe; 26 Cosmorhaphe (from Frey and Pemberton, 1984).

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SECTION 5

Settling tube analysis: Used for particles <50 m (shales), it is


governed by Stoke's law of settling:

SILICICLASTIC TEXTURES

Where V = settling velocity (cm/s); rs = density of solid


Different siliciclastic rocks warrant different methods of (g/cc); rf = density of fluid; g = acceleration due to gravity
quantitative analyses. For example, grain size analysis of (cm/sec2); = viscosity of fluid (centipoise); d = diameter of
conglomerates differs from those of sandstones. Large clast
2
grain (cm ). The settling tube works well for fine-grained
sizes of conglomerates permit fabric, grain surface features,
perfect spheres, and for static settling. The problems
grain shape, and grain roundness to be studied in the field.
associated with this method include: (a)
Grain size. This is measured in terms of diameter or volume,
and the former is what is commonly used. The techniques
used are as follows:
Calipers: Used for measuring grains larger than 1 cm (usually
conglomerate).
Sieve analysis: Used for grains 1 cm to 50 m. This involves
stacking up several sieves, with the finest diameter at the
bottom, and the data so derived are shown in Figure 5.1. The
problems encountered with this method are incompleteness of
sieving, and disaggregation.
_____

Figure 5.1. Sieve analysis example. (A) Histogram. (B) Frequency


curve. (C) Cumulative curve with standard arithmetic scale. (D)
Cumulative curve with probability scale.

(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
For grains <50 m, instruments utilizing photoelectric
sensors, sedigraphs, lasers and x-ray beams are now being
used.
Because of a wide range of sediment sizes present, a
geometric or log scale is used for grain size classification.
Known as Udden-Wenthworth grain size scale (Table 5.1),
Krumbein (1934) proposed the log scale F = -log 2d where d
is diameter (mm). The log scale eliminates fractions and
simplifies statistical calculations and graphic plots.

Table 5.1. Standard size classes of sediments

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Statistical Analysis of Grain Size Data

Kurtosis: Peakedness of a frequency curve. Measures the


relationship between the sorting in the central portion of the
The data obtained are usually in the form of weight curve to that in the tails.
percentages of each size class. They may be plotted as a
histogram or a frequency curve (see Fig. 5.1.). Geologists
usually plot the cumulative frequency curve or a probability
curve on which percentiles can be read off directly from the
graph. Four statistical parameters, called methods of moment,
are commonly used. These are the mean (statistical average),
standard deviation, skewness and kurtoses, in addition to the
median (50th percentile: grain size in the middle of the
population), and the mode (the most frequently occurring
grain size) (Table 5.2).

Standard deviation: The sorting value or uniformity in grain


size within a sediment sample. Steep cumulative curves
indicate good sorting while broad, flat curves indicate poor
sorting. Visual estimates are shown in Figure 5.2 on page 12.
Skewness: Measure of asymmetry in the population. This is
caused by a shift of the mode to the left (positive skew, excess
fine particles) or right (negative skew, excess coarse
particles).

Table 5.2. Formulas and verbal scales for graphic size parameters (from Folk and Ward, 1957).

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Figure 5.2. Classification of sorting values as seen through a


microscope (from Compton, 1962).

Grain Shape
Differences in grain shapes result from variations in a
combination of internal structure, and the origin and
history of the particles. Shape can have an incredible
bearing on the porosity of a rock. Are the clasts
equidimensional (equant)? Are they disk-like sheets or flakes?
Are they needle-like (prismatic) or elongate? Open packing
enhances higher permeability while close packing is Textural Maturity
associated with low permeability.
This is a general term that refers to the effect of the transport
Sphericity. Sphericity denotes how close a particle approaches and depositional processes on the resulting sedimentary rock.
a perfect sphere (Fig. 5.3). Equant grains (whether they be Mature sediments tend to have been in the transport and
cubes or spheres) have high sphericity; those with one or more depositional system longer than immature sediments. Note
dimensions of unequal length have low sphericity. It is more
that textural maturity can be described in terms of
strongly influenced by the origin of the particle than is
fundamental properties of the sediment or rock (Fig. 5.4;
roundness; e.g., crystallography.
Table 5.3, p. 13). Textural maturity affects porosity and
MINERALOGICAL
permeability.
Roundness (Angularity). This is an index of abrasion. Figure
chemically mature
STABLE
5.3 shows visual estimates of roundness. It is an important
Q+C
phenomenon because it also influences porosity and
hydrodynamic properties (e.g., settling velocity, erosional
susceptibility). Roundness and sphericity may not be related
chemically
immature UNSTABLE
in any given particle. For example, a hot dog is rounded but
F
RF
not spherical while a cube is angular but spherical.
clay content

Surface Textures
Surface textures are affected by physical and chemical
phenomena. They are expressed as abrasion, corrosion,
faceted surfaces, frosted surfaces, polished surfaces,
overgrowths, etc. Striations are common features of gravels
deposited by glacial activity.

T E X T U R A L
<5%

sorting

>0.5

<3.0

>3.0

SUPERMATURE

Color is one of the most noticeable features of sedimentary


rocks in the field. It is often an expression of the chemistry of
the rock, and may vary when wet or dry conditions prevail.
Therefore, it is not a reliable index of identification.
Figure 5.3. Standard images of roundness and sphericity used for
quantitative estimates of grain shape (from Powers, 1953).

SUBMATURE

<0.5

roundness

Color

>5%

MATURE

IMMATURE

14
Figure 5.4. Mineralogical vs. textural maturity.
Immature
Poorly sorted (grain size
is not uniform).

Mature

Relatively well sorted


Would you expect texturally mature or immature rock to have better
(grains tend to be of a
porosity and permeability? Why?
uniform size).
High clay, feldspar and
Grains mainly composed
rock fragment content.
of quartz.
Grains are angular and
Grains are rounded and
have low sphericity.
have high sphericity.
Grains tend to be loosely Grains are relatively
packed.
tightly packed.
Table 5.3. Immature vs. mature sandstones.

14

15

SECTION 6
SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS
Conglomerates are lithified gravel made up of
rounded to subangular clasts whose diameters
exceed 2 mm. Breccias are lithified rubbles made up
of angular clasts coarser than 2 mm. Because these
rocks constitute 1-2% of sedimentary rocks and
generally lack fossils, they are not as extensively
treated as sandstones and carbonates in the literature.
Rock fragments are the dominant constituents of
conglomerates and breccias. Quartz is the most
abundant major mineral, while others such as
Kfeldspar, micas, and
heavies (e.g.,
zircon, amphibole, olivine, magnetite) occur as
accessory minerals. The
rocks are
classified
using framework-to-matrix
ratio,
stability of
the framework, clast
lithology, clast size, and overall fabric. Table 5.2 and
Figure 5.5 on page 76-77 in the textbook show the
schemes best suited for classifying conglomerates and
breccias. The two broad
categories
of
extraformational and intraformational varieties are
based on the provenance of the clasts.
SANDSTONES
Grain composition is used to differentiate different
types of sandstone. Components are as follow:
Grains: Including quartz grains, feldspar grains
(usually K-feldspar), and rock fragments or labile
fragments (chert, multimineralic grains, volcanic
glass, etc.).
Matrix: Silt and clay sized material deposited with the
larger grains.
(Or produced by the diagenetic
breakdown of clastic feldspar and rock fragment grains.
Cement: Authigenic mineral material that is
deposited between clastic grains during
diagenesis. May form some of the binding
material that holds the sandstone together. May
include quartz or other silica minerals such as opal
or chert, carbonates, hematite, authigenic clay
minerals (which is difficult to distinguish from
clastic clay minerals that are deposited as matrix).
Sandstone has had a rather long history of
classification styles, with inputs from Pettijohn
(1949, 1957), Krynine (1948), McBride (1963),

Dott (1964) and Folk (1968). Classification of


sandstones is most convenient using ternary
(triangular) diagrams that categorize sandstone
according to grain (quartz, feldspar, rock
fragment) composition. A fourth member, clay
mineral, has now been incorporated in the
classification scheme (Fig. 6.1). Two commonly
used classifications are McBride (1963) and Folk
(1974). The Dott (1964) classification is the most
applicable to hand specimen work. Folk and
McBride are more useful with thin section work.
Mineralogical
composition
and
textural
characteristics of sandstones can be used as
maturity indices (see Fig. 5.4, p. 12).
Arenite: A sandstone with a relatively low matrix
content. A quartz arenite is composed of greater
than 95% (90% in Dott's classification) quartz
grains.
Wacke: A sandstone with a relatively high matrix
content. A graywacke is a sandstone largely
composed of quartz and feldspar grains with a large
volume of clay matrix.
Arkose: A feldspathic
sandstone referred to as a feldspathic arenite in
Dott's classification.

16

17

18

19

20
.

available oxygen will tend to combine with carbon in


organic matter to form CO2.

MUDROCKS
Terrigenous mudrocks are the most common
sedimentary rocks, making up 50-80% of Earth's total
sedimentary rocks. Their main component is clay,
followed by silt-sized particles (of mainly quartz).
They are difficult to classify because of their fine

2+

Black or dark gray color reduced iron (Fe )


sulfide, microcrystalline FeS2 tends to be black.
Sulfur comes from the organic matter. The origin
of black shales is contentious, although most
geologists believe they are indicative of either

Figure 6.1. Sandstone classification of Dott (1964).

grain sizes and apparent homogeneity. By definition


shales are composed of 66.67% or more clay
minerals and 33.33% other (usually silt sized) clastic
minerals. In contrast, siltstones are composed of
>33.33% silt sized clastic minerals. Mudstone is
indurated mud in a mixture of silt with between
onethird and two-thirds clay. Shale is a mudrock with
fissility or lamination or both. Argillite is a mudrock
that has been subjected to low-grade metamorphism.
Clastic particle sizes are controlled by water energy
(currents and wave action). The higher the energy of
the depositional environment the coarser the grain
size of the sediment because the finer material will be
held in suspension. Sedimentary structures such as
bedding, ripples, and cross bedding are also related to
currents and wave action in depositional environment.
Fissility in shale (thin bedding partitions) are most
likely due to reorientation of clay particles during
compaction and diagenesis. Clays commonly are
deposited as flocculates or "randomly oriented globs
or clumps" and are further disturbed by burrowing
organisms soon after deposition. Therefore, fissility is
not a primary sedimentary structure.
Color in shales generally relates to the iron and
carbon content and oxidation state of the shale. The
oxidation state may either relate to the depositional
environment, diagenetic conditions or both. A high
rate of water circulation during sedimentation usually
results in more oxic conditions. Stagnant water results
in anoxic conditions. Large volume of organic matter
deposited with clastic material will result in anoxic
(reducing) conditions during diagenesis because

anaerobic or dysaerobic conditions. They can be


highly fossiliferous, and have yielded some of the
best well-preserved fossils of reptiles, insects,
trilobites, etc.
Green to gray-green color reducing conditions with
low sulfur (organic) content. Iron generally is
still present but is incorporated into carbonates
such as siderite, ankerite, or ferroan dolomite.

Red to brown color indicates oxidizing conditions. Iron


is present in the form of hematite, Fe2O3, or
limonite, FeO(OH).
It does not take much iron sulfide or iron oxide to color a
rock black or red as the case may be.
How are shales studied? Thin section petrology is
practically useless!! Clays are usually studied using Xray diffraction, SEM, and other geochemical techniques.

Mineralogy
Clays are phyllosilicates (minerals with tightly bonded
sheets of silicate tetrahedra) attached to octahedral sheets)
deposited in modern sedimentary basins:
Smectite weathered especially from mafic volcanic and
plutonic terrain (from weathering of plagioclase and
Fe-Mg minerals).

21
Illite-smectite (I/S) mixed layer very common,
comprises the bulk of clays deposited in modern
basins, weathered from igneous and sedimentary
terrain.
Illite "cryptocrystalline mica" micas weathered from
granitic and sedimentary terrain.
Kaolinite less common, sourced from tropical areas as
an alteration product of illite resulting from lateritic
weathering.
Chlorite Occasionally occurs as a component in mixed
layer clays.
In ancient mudrocks the clays are dominantly illite with
increasing chlorite after deep burial diagenesis (see
section 7).

Compaction
Clay-Rich mudrocks are typically ~60% water at the
time of deposition and undergo a great deal of
compaction (water is squeezed out). Quartz sandstone
us relatively uncompressible, minor compaction does
occur as sand grains reorient themselves into tighter
packing arrangements during burial. This results in
some porosity loss. Lithic fragments tend to deform
under pressure, therefore litharenites are somewhat more
compactable than quartz or feldspathic arenites.
Litharenites and wackes can be compacted to the
point where lithic grains and matrix deforms creating
interlocking relationships. This lithifies or binds the
grains together and makes the sediment into rock. In
quartz- and feldspar-rich sandstones, lithification is
largely a cementation process.

Engineering uses and problems:


Mudrocks tend to be incompetent and prone to slides and
other mass movement on slopes, especially if water is
added to increase the instability. Therefore ground
underlain by shale may make unsuitable sites for building.
Mudrocks, however, may provide
excellent sites for landfills or hazardous waste
containment because they tend to be impermeable. The
engineering properties of mudrock depend on the type of
clays involved. Bentonites (altered volcanic ash beds) are
largely composed of smectites and make very unstable
foundations, even on flat ground. Bentonites, because of
their relative impermeabilities and high absorbencies,
make very good barriers to contaminant flow.

SECTION 7

Cementation
In quartz and most feldspathic sandstones grains are
held together by cement. (Mineral matter precipitated
between grains, after deposition, by ground water.)
Poorly cemented sandstones tend to be friable, in other
words they crumble easily.

Types of cement
Quartz (and other silica) usually (not always) confined to
quartz arenites.
Carbonate calcite (very common), dolomite, and ankerite
(less common) can be detected using the acid test. These
rocks should not be confused with carbonate rocks.
Hematite (sometimes magnetite) gives rock a red stain
(need only about 1% for red color).

SILICICLASTIC DIAGENESIS

Limonite iron hydroxide, gives sandstone a brown color.

Introduction

Clay minerals may be authigenic and precipitated by


ground water. This is different from clastically deposited
clay, which is part of the matrix. The difference can only
be determined using petrographic methods (especially
SEM).

The term "diagenesis" refers to all the physical and


chemical changes that affect sediment after deposition
and burial but before metamorphism, melting, uplift and
erosion. The exact line between where diagenesis ends
and metamorphism begins depends on the geologist
doing the work. Some diagenetic phenomena are given
below, and each may represent a pre-burial, an early
burial or a late burial stage. Diagenetic processes can
alter or obscure the original sedimentary rock texture,
composition, color, and sedimentary structures, thus
making it impossible to know what such properties were
like originally (Prothero and Schwab, 2014).

Commonly sandstones will contain several types of


cement, for instance a combination of quartz and
carbonate cements is not uncommon.
What other materials can you think of that might act as
cement in sandstone?

22
Pressure solution in sandstone

grains). Many ancient sandstones have porosity reduced to


less than 10% by diagenetic processes.

Pressure solution may occur at points of contact between


sand grains (Fig. 7.1). Pressure concentrated at this point
increases the solubility of quartz in much the same way that
pressure on an ice-skate blade causes the ice to melt at the
point of contact. Silica that is removed by solution may be
redeposited adjacent to the dissolved area, increasing the
effect of lithification or it may be removed completely by
ground water. Pressure solution may also dissolve feldspar
grains. Lithic fragments are more likely to undergo
deformation rather that dissolve at the point of contact.

Mineralogival Changes Authigenesis:

Recrystallization:

Mineralogical Changes During Diagenesis

Sand grains begin


to disolve due to
pressure (shaded
arrows) at point of
contact.

A volume of silica equal to the


shaded area is removed and
may be redeposited as cement.
Resulting grain contact is
represented by dashed line.
Figure 7.1. Schematic representation of pressure solution.

Mineralogical changes may occur in sandstone during


diagenesis, especially at elevated temperature and pressure
after burial. Clay minerals in matrix and precipitated as early
cement are especially susceptible to mineralogical change.
Any calcium rich or calcium containing plagioclase
feldspar that has survived the transport process and early
diagenesis can undergo alteration during burial. Albitization
occurs as calcic plagioclase is replaced by albite (Na
plagioclase). As a result of this process the plagioclase
content of most ancient sandstones (which is small to start
with) is almost entirely albite.

Diagenesis and porosity and permeability


Most of the changes that occur during diagenesis of
sandstone are destructive to intergranular porosity.
Compaction results in tighter grain packing that reduces
porosity, pressure solution further crowds grains and reduces
Intergranular porosity.
Cementation also reduces pore space and restricts pore throat
size, which decreases permeability. The only diagenetic
change that may improve porosity and permeability in
sandstone is fracturing which occurs during tectonic
deformation.
Sandy sediment commonly has very high porosity upon
deposition (30-40% depending on sorting and packing of the

Replacement:

In ancient mudrocks the clays are dominantly illite with


increasing chlorite after deep burial diagenesis. Why is
this? Illite is produced during the diagenetic process from
smectite (and the smectitic Interlayers). This reaction
occurs as the burial temperature approaches and passes
60C.
Smectite + K
2+

Mg

2+

Illite + Si

4+

+ Na + Ca

2+

+ Fe

2+

+ H2O + organic + many other dissolved

metallic ions

What happens to all of the products of this diagenetic


reaction? Further diagenetic reactions!

23
The water and many of the soluble cations contribute to
saline basinal brines and the organics to petroleum.
Additionally:
Si

4+

is soluble as H4SiO4 (silicic acid) and may be

reprecipitated as in the form of SiO2 (quartz cements &


chert) or as authigenic K-feldspar.
2+

Ca

reprecipitated as calcite and dolomite cements.

2+

Mg reprecipitated as dolomite and ankerite cements or


forms massive dolomite as a replacement of preexisting
limestone or may contribute to the formation of chlorite.

Figure 8.1. Diagram illustrating the major depositional environments


(from Stanley and Luczaj, 2015).

2+

Fe
contributes to ankerite, ferroan dolomite, and/or
pyrite.
All of the above products may contribute to further
diagenetic alteration of shales or neighboring sedimentary
rocks.

Concretions and Nodules: Differences; types; how they


form

ALLUVIAL FANS
Also called piedmont and pediment, alluvial fans are
deposited at the foot of mountain ranges. They are therefore
a tectonic association, which result from intense erosion (Fig.
8.2).
Alluvial fan

Chemical sources:
a) Allogenic: Meteoric and hydrothermal.
b) Authigenic: Connate water and interclastic fossils.

Horst

Playa lake

Graben

Diagenetic histories (Details in presentation) 1)


Conodont alteration color.
2) Vitrinite reflectance.
3) Transformations of clay minerals.
4) Zeolite facies.

SECTION 8
CONTINENTAL ENVIRONMENTS
Generally, depositional systems are assemblages of processrelated sedimentary facies, which are the stratigraphic
equivalents of geomorphic units. Thus, they are natural
geographic entities in which sediments accumulate. The
concept of depositional architecture is important because
migration pathways for ores and locations of petroleum
reservoirs can be established. Depositional environments
may be nonmarine
(continental), transitional or marine (Fig. 8.1).

Figure 8.2. Tectonic association of an alluvial fan.

Alluvial fans are usually small-sized and occur as fanshaped


deposits with channels, levees and inter-channel areas at the
upper reaches of fluvial discharge basins or spread as
aqueous fan deltas directly into playa lakes. They are more
common in sub-arid regions, although extensive deposits
also occur in humid climates over fault slopes; for example,
at the foothills of the Himalayas Mountains. Two main
mechanisms of formation have been deduced: torrential
discharges (sheet floods) especially in humid climates, and
poorly sorted debris flows particularly in drier climates.
Good examples of ancient alluvial fans can be found in the
Permo-Triassic of Scotland and Spain.

Characteristics of Alluvial Fans


(1) Since they fan and fine outward from the mountain,
alluvial fan deposits develop a coarsening-upward
sequence which may be thousands of feet thick.

24
(2) Some fining-upward units do occur during the decay of
the fan.

(1) Splitting channels; may or may not be detected


geologically.

(3) They are composed mainly of gravels, are poorly sorted


and do have occasional cross-bedding or crude nearhorizontal bedding.
(4) The deposits are usually
compositionally immature.

poorly

rounded

Streams

and

(5) They normally indicate unidirectional flow by showing


imbrication (Fig. 8.3).
Direction of flow

Figure 8.4. Anastomosing streams in a braided fluvial system.

(2) Very little or no mud.


Figure 8.3. General pattern of imbrication in alluvial fan
(3) Longitudinal and
deposits.

(6) They are commonly red as a result of oxidation.


(7) Few, if any, fossils and organic matter are present.

transverse
bars,
which
are represented by complex festoon-type
megaripples (trough cross-bedding) or sand dunes (Fig.
8.5).

8. They are not associated with chemical sediments or shales.

(4) Occasionally when the bars become emergent, plants


grow on them and drape mud. Usually they are
nonfossiliferous.

Characteristics of Gravels from Other Environments

(5) The general sequence always fines upward (Fig. 8.6).

Glacial deposits.

(6) Braided stream deposits commonly yield fairly consistent


paleocurrent directional data.

Beach gravels.

Submarine fan gravels.

BRAIDED FLUVIAL SYSTEMS


Braided streams are those streams that, under normal (nonflood) conditions, have a complex pattern of branching and
joining channels across their flood plains (Fig. 8.4). They
are formed as a result of (a) intermittent streams resulting
from occasional or annual floods; (b) coarse sediment load
(sand and gravel), with most mud bypassing; (c) high
gradient which is not as high as alluvial fan but is higher
than meandering streams; (d) branching may be due to
streams choked with sediment from alluvial fans and
glaciers; (e) weak banks. Characteristics of Braided
Fluvial Systems

Longitudinal
bars

Transverse
bars

Figure 8.5. Braided stream deposits represented as festoon-type


sand dunes.

The following are good examples of braided stream deposits:


Clays with roots
Plane bed - sand flat
(if emergent)
Tabular cross beds
Smaller festoon cross beds
Complex festoon (trough) cross beds
Erosional base

25

Figure 8.6. A typical braided stream sequence.

(1) Recent: Most glacially-fed rivers in the Rocky Mountains,


including (a) Saskatchewan, (b) Bow, (c) Yukon, (d) Platte,
(e) Missouri (upper reaches), (f) Powder, and (g) Arkansas.

tranquillity results in the deposition of silts and clays.


Eventually the water level goes down, and the process is
repeated during the next flood stage. Deposition is rather
variable and occurs in pulses. The overall depositional style
in a meandering fluvial system forms a classic finingupward sequence (Fig. 8.8). This sequence represents a
lateral accretion, which is due to channel avulsion. Mud is
deposited during channel abandonment.

(2) Ancient: (a) Triassic Iberian Range, Spain and (b) Prudhoe
Bayfield.

MEANDERING FLUVIAL SYSTEMS


Meandering fluvial systems occur between braided stream
systems and coastal environments. Thus, they occupy the
lower reaches of the fluvial system where gradient is less
steep than the braided system. There are five main
environments within the meandering fluvial system.
Point Bar and Channel Lag
The point bar sequence represents what is deposited at the
curve of the meandering stream, and it is the most
important depositional setting (Fig. 8.7). Caving controls
most of the load in the stream, and about 80% of sediment
picked up during caving is deposited in the next river bend
downstream, except when in flood.

Point bar

Flood basin
site of
erosion
Natural levee

Natural Levee
A natural levee is the raised bank of a river. During
flooding, water spills out of the channel and goes through
the levee into the flood basin. The water loses its velocity
rapidly during the spillover, depositing coarse material
(usually silt-size) quickly. These deposits form a raised
bank. Modern examples can be found in the Atchafalaya
and Mississippi Rivers in Louisiana. The levee is not
usually preserved, and it is the first area that is eroded by
the channel. Very rarely, it may be preserved in an
abandoned channel.

Flood Basin with Overbank Deposits


Point bar

Figure 8.7. Point bar deposition and the position of the natural levee
and flood basin.

During a big flood stage, all the subenvironments become


flooded, but the main velocity remains in the channel. This
velocity is strong enough to move the coarse lag deposits
within the channel. As the flood subsides there is gravel lag
deposition, followed by the formation of trough cross-beds,
small tabular cross- beds and ripple laminations. Some

The flood basin occupies the topographically lowest portion


of the flood plain. Its characteristics include poor drainage,
slow rates of accumulation, and fine, organic sediments,
such as coal, black shale and dark-gray shales. Marshes,
swamps and lakes typically occupy the flood basin.

Crevasse Splay
This localized sub-environment is formed as a fan delta,
when the river flood breaks through the levee wall into the
flood basin, lagoon or lake on the flood plain. The deposits
are characteristically coarser than those on the natural levee

26
and are mainly sand-sized. They fine outward, coarsenupward and have climbing ripple lamination. The deposition
of a crevasse splay may be a single event accumulation, but
in some cases, it may be reactivated during multiple flood
conditions.

Abandoned Channels
Channel abandonment is accompanied:
Avulsion. This results in the formation of either a totally
new channel or two channels, e.g., Atchafalaya River,
Louisiana.
Chute cut-off. Chutes are formed as trough-shaped scour
channels on the upper point bar surface, when streams try
to shorten their courses by straightening the meanders.
Neck cut-off. When a meander loop of a river is cut off, an
ox-bow lake is left behind in the abandoned channel. If
abandonment is slow, the lake will fill up with sand, silt
and clay. During an abrupt abandonment, clays and
organics will predominate. Because abandoned channels
fill up with mud and form clay plugs, they can form both
excellent and devastating permeability barriers.

predominates, and if there is excessive evaporation (in arid,


shallow lakes), evaporites form. Carbonates are deposited
where there is limited evaporation. Sometimes a lake may
be more saline than seawater (hypersaline). Lake deposits
are important sources of oil shale, uranium and coal. They
may be fossiliferous and the presence of freshwater fossils
is diagnostic. An ancient example is the Green River
Formation in Utah, Colorado and Wyoming. Modern
examples include the Great Salt Lake, Utah; Dead, Sea,
Israel; and the Great Lakes of North America.

PR
OT

LACUSTRINE SYSTEMS
A lake is a landlocked body of standing, nonmarine water,
which may vary greatly in size, depth and salinity. They are
circular or elongate in plan view and lenticular in cross
section. Size ranges from a few meters to 100,000 square
kilometers, and are usually thin (<200 meters). The study
of lake deposits is called limnology. Gilbert (1885) made
the first description of a delta in the Pleistocene Lake
Bonneville, Utah (the remnant of which is the present Great
Salt Lake). This gave rise to the Gilbert delta, which
represents the simplest type of a delta system.
Depth classification results in two major types of lakes (Fig.
8.9):
(1) Shallow lakes: These lakes are muddy, and they have a
Figure 8.9. A, B, Depth classification in a lake; C typical
delta plain and a Gilbert delta on the side. Ox-bow lakes,
distribution in a shallow lake.
sinkholes and tectonic lakes (basin-and-range grabens) may
be classified here.
(2) Deep lakes: These include (a) those that turn over during
spring and fall (associated with varves) and (b) those that
do not turn over.
Summary of Diagnostic Features:
Generally, the epilimnium is characteristically shallow,
warm, agitated, oxygen-rich, has low pH, and any iron and
organic deposits are oxidized. The hypolimnium is deep, * Setting
cold, still, oxygen-poor, dense, has reducing conditions, and
its organics are preserved.
A lake may have periods of turn over before and after
freezing. With a maximum density of water at 4C,
sediments settle out when freezing occurs. The overall net * Geometry
effect is the formation of laminations called varves. In a
typical lacustrine setting, the sequence coarsens upward.
Where clastic input is limited, chemical sedimentation

27
Figure 8.10. A, Deposition of dune sands; B, internal morphology
of dune sands.

* Sequence

In order to correctly interpret dune deposits, the top of the


sequence and the wind current direction are important.
Dunes tend to be negatively (coarse) skewed since most of
the fine materials are removed by wind erosion. Where there
is no negative skew, a bimodal distribution in which faceted
boulders and cobbles are overlain by sands and silts may
occur.

* Sedimentology

Dune Types

* Fossils

The following are the common types of dunes, some of


which are illustrated in Figure 8.11.

EOLIAN SYSTEMS
Most deserts form in geographic areas of corresponding to
meteorological areas of descending air. The exceptions are
those deserts that form at the lee sides of mountain ranges.
The areas of descending air are found between latitudes 10
and 30 north and south of the equator (e.g., Sahara,
western U.S.A. and China, Atacama in Peru, southern
Africa and Australia), and the polar ice caps, which form
the world's largest deserts. Unlike ascending air, which
expand, cools and drops moisture, descending air is dry,
which is why there are very few plants in the arid desert
environment. Therefore, prevailing winds are capable of
transporting sand grains and concentrating them into wellsorted deposits called dunes (or loess if silt-size). These are
the cross-bedded sandstones that typify eolian deposition.
Their foresets dip 25 to 30. Rare vertebrate footprints,
root casts and burrows are typical of ancient deposits.
Intermittent streams may be present (forming wadis or
arroyos), and evaporite conditions can cause the
development of playa lakes, inland sabkhas and saline
lakes. One of the bestknown examples of eolian deposits is
the Navajo Sandstone in Utah and Arizona.
Thick wind deposits are controlled by the velocity of winds
and are not limited by depth, as in water. They are formed
as in Figure 8.10A and preserved as in Figure 8.10B.

Erosion occurs here


A
Wind
current

Tangential
truncation

(1) Barchans: Crescent-shaped dunes, which occur in areas


of starved sand, and on hard surfaces. True barchans are
rare.
(2) Parabolic: U-shaped, lingoid dunes, which are rare.
(3) Transverse dunes: Identical to transverse bars in braided
stream systems.
(4) Longitudinal and seif dunes.
(5) Dome-shaped dunes.
(6) Ergs: Sand seas, i.e. dunes forming waves.
(7) Draas: Oversized dunes.
(8) Rhourds: Star-shaped mountain of sand. which are larger
than draas.

28
(1)
(2)

(3)
(4)
(5)

Glaciations are due to cyclic fluctuations in the quantity of


solar energy received (especially at high latitudes) as a
result of changes in the inclination of the earth's axis.
These are called Milankovitch cycles.
Main Glacial Environments

Figure 8.11. Some common types of dunes.

Surface structures in dunes:

Large glacial masses form mainly in valleys, at the foot of


mountain ranges, as inland ice and in ice shelves (Fig. 8.12).
Therefore, active supply of ice comes mainly from upland
areas, and deposition results from physical weathering,
which produces rock fragments, boulders and fine dust. The
sediments often reflect provenance, and the constituents are
mainly angular, poorly sorted, frequently striated, grooved
and faceted by force of friction. They also may show
imbrication.

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.

Figure 8.12. Main glacial environments (from Allen, 1977).

GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS
Glaciers presently cover 10% of the earth's surface in
contrast to 30% during the maximum episode of glaciation
in the Pleistocene. Records of at least five major glacial
periods in the geologic past are preserved in the
stratigraphic record:

__

Modes of Transportation and Deposition (Fig. 8.13)


Moraines or tills (morainite or tillite if ancient) are the terms
used for these processes. They are as follows:

29
(1) Basal or ground moraines: Layers of variable thicknesses,
which are nonstratified, consist of boulders in a
sedimentary matrix, and show imbriccation.
(2) Lateral moraines: Developed along the sides of a glacier.
(3) Medial moraines: Confluence of individual glaciers.
(4) Terminal moraines: Those that are pushed down in the
flow direction.

SECTION 9
COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS
DELTAS
A delta is a deposit which is partly subaerial, and is built by a
river into or against a permanent body of water (Barrel,
1912). The term delta (D) was first used by the Greek
philosopher Herodotus (490 BC) to describe the sediment at
the mouth of the Nile River in Egypt. Deltas are the most
complex of all depositional systems, with dozens of
subenvironments. Ancient systems are of great economic
importance, being the primary sources of fossil fuels (coal,
oil and gas). Distribution of Deltas

Figure 8.13. Diagram illustrating various modes of transport of


glacial material and various types of sediment load (from
Collinson and Thompson, 1989).

__
(5) Supraglacial or summit moraines: Result from block falls
on to the top of the ice.
Ancient glacial sequences typically fine-upward, beginning
with a basal erosional surface. This surface is overlain by
the basal tillite or morainite that is contemporaneous with
the advance of the glacier. It is successively overlain by a
tillite or morainite, which in turn is overlain by the surface
moraine or periglacial deposits. These uppermost deposits
are indicative of ice retreat.

Deltas will form when more sediment is supplied at the


river mouth than can be removed by tides, waves and
longshore currents. Their distribution worldwide is affected
mainly by tectonics, and less so by climate and geomorphic
constraints. Landmasses that are covered by ice sheets lack
major deltas, while many deltas form in coastal plains of
passive margins (e.g., Niger), or in broadly downwarping
cratonic basins (e.g., GangesBrahmaputra). Collision coasts
lack wide, shallow shelves and have very few significant
deltas (e.g., Ebro, Po in Italy, Colorado).
Processes
Various processes control delta development and
maintenance. These processes may operate in the delta,
adjacent to the delta, or may be geographically remote from
the delta. They include:

30
Waves and tides are important in classifying deltas (see
below). Waves are caused by wind and residual swell which
lead to simple oscillating currents in the open sea, without
defined transport direction of water particles. On the other
hand, tides are deformation of water masses under the
influence of gravitational pull exerted by (a) the moon on its
course around the earth, and (b) the sun on the moon and
earth on their joint passage around the center of the planetary
system.
Three types of deltaic accumulations often result:
(1) Homopycnal flow: Formed where the incoming water has
an equal density with the standing body of water (Fig.
9.1A). It forms the simplest type of deltas, called Gilbert
delta, with bottomset, foreset and topset beds.
(2) Hyperpycnal flow: Formed where water of greater density
(e.g., turbidity current) enters a less dense medium (Fig.
9.1B).
(3) Hypopycnal flow: Formed where freshwater flows into salt
water (Fig. 9.1C). It is the most common type of
accumulation.

Figure 9.1. Types of flows at the mouth of a river, A, Homopycnal.


B, Hyperpycnal. C, Hypopycnal (from Bates in Galloway and
Hobday, 1983).

Classification of Deltas
Classification is based on the interrelationship
betweensediment supply and the major processes operating
in the dynamic environment. The primary effects that are
normally considered are riverine processes and their
sediment load, wave energy and tidal energy influx. Four
basic delta morphologies occur (Fig. 9.2). Elongate deltas
are river-dominated and constructive with large volumes of
sediment, as in the Mississippi Delta. Lobate deltas are
intermediate to fluvially dominated. They have smooth
outlines and
a well-developed network of distributaries (e.g., Ebro)

31

destructive, and contain linear sand bodies, which are


parallel to tidal flow but perpendicular to the coastline
(e.g., Ganges-Brahmaputra). Using riverine processes,
Cuspate or arcuate deltas are dominated by waves and
wave energy and tidal energy as end members of a
longshore currents, and are also destructive in nature.
ternary diagram, the world's major deltas have been
They have well-developed sand beaches, which are
classified according to their shapes (Fig. 9.3). Table9.1
parallel to the delta outline (e.g., Sao Francisco in
summarized the characteristics of deltaic depositional
Brazil). Irregular deltas are tide-dominated,
systems.
Figure 9.2. Various delta types. A Lobate (intermediate to fluvial-dominated); B, elongate (fluvial-dominated); C, irregular
(tide-dominated); D, arcuate or cuspate (wave-dominated) (from Reading, 1986).

26

32

Figure 9.3. Classification of deltas based on processes and morphologic response (from Galloway, 1975).

Fluvial-dominated

Wave-dominated

Tide-dominated

Geometry

Elongate to lobate

Arcuate

Estuarine to irregular

Channel type

Straight to sinuous
Distributaries

Meandering
distributaries

Flaring straight to
sinouous distributaries

Bulk composition

Muddy to mixed

Sandy

Variable

Framework facies

Distributary mouth bar


and channel fill sands,
delta margin sand sheet

Coastal barrier and


beach ridge sands

Estuary fill and tidal


sand ridges

Framework orientation

Parallels depositional
slope

Parallels depositional
strike

Parallels depositional
slope

Table 9.1. Characteristics of deltaic depositional systems (from Galloway, 1975).


27
Depositional Sub-environments
Deltaic sub-environments range from the fluvial delta
plain to the marine prodelta (Fig. 9.4). The overall
sequence usually coarsens upward.

Delta Plain. This consists of subaerial and subaqueous


subenvironments, some of which are intertidal. These
can further be subdivided into:

33
(1) Distributary channels and associated point bars and
levees: The
channels
deposits are
characteristically
fining-upward sequences,
with cross-bedded sands oriented downstream and
herringbone bedding in tide-dominated situations.
Channel abandonment causes in-filling of channels with
silts, clays and organics.
(2) Interdistributary bays and marshes: These correspond to
the lowest velocity subenvironments in the flood basin.
They are usually filled with water and experience
deposition of silts, clays, plant debris and shell debris.
Where small tidal ranges occur, large open bays with
marshes at their margins develop. If high tidal ranges
persist, broad, unvegetated tidal flats are well
developed. Lagoons are often associated with this
system. Sand can be deposited as crevasse splays or
lagoonal deltas, and flood-tidal deltas. Peat and coal can
form in the delta plain.
Delta Front. The delta front is <10 meters deep with high
wave energy, longshore current and tidal influence, and
sand deposition. The subenvironments include the beachbarrier island complex and the distributary mouth bar. The
sediments are mainly cross-bedded and often well sorted
with grain size decreasing seaward.
Prodelta. This is the most homogeneous of all the
Sub-environments in the delta system. It is dominated by
silts and clays. Marine shells may be present and the
muds may be bioturbated.

Figure 9.4. Typical cross section across the Niger Delta and adja
and distribution (from Allen, 1970).

34
VIDEO on the Mississippi Delta
(32 minutes long)
Emphasis on the following:
(1) Shapes of three the common types of deltas.

(2) Formation of lobes in the delta.

(3) Characteristics of depocenters (alluvial plain, distributary


mouth bar, prodelta).

Beaches represent littoral zones that are exposed directly to


dominant actions of waves, accompanied by tides of
different amplitudes. They occur as dune sands in the
terrestrial zone where there is regular accumulation of sands
without much tidal influence, i.e., along microtidal coasts.
Barriers develop as elongate sandy islands or peninsulas
along microtidal coasts. They are less elongate and
frequently breached by tidal channels along mesotidal
coasts. Macrotidal coasts have few or no barriers. Barrier
complexes develop along passive tectonic margins or in
broad cratonic seaways (i.e., stable coastal plains). The
profile of three of the four main sub-environments is shown
in Figure 9.6.

(4) Sedimentation in the interdistributary bay (distributary


mouth bar, delta front, prodelta).

(5) Effluent plume in the subaqueous delta environmen t


(distributary mouth bar, delta front, prodelta).

LITTORAL ENVIRONMENTS
Littoral environments extend from coastal plains as dunes
and cliffs to the sea at a depth of several tens of meters.
Deposition is controlled by the actions of waves and tides
(Fig. 9.5).

Figure 9.6 Typical morphological units in section of a sandy beach


(after Walker, 1984).

Back Barrier.
This is the vast area that is subjected
predominantly to tidal action behind barriers, and along
meso- and macrotidal coastlines. It is represented by lagoons
and tidal flats, which contain mudstones and fine-grained
sands. The lagoons are stagnant, organicrich, occasionally
forming coal and peat swamps, and their deposits are often
indistinguishable from those of tidal flats. When conditions
are hypersaline, as in arid climates, evaporites do form in the
back barrier.
Characteristics:

Figure 9.5. Diagram showing the various subenvironments in a


barrier-island system (from Walker, 1984).

Beach-Barrier Complex

The main difference between back barrier lagoons and tidal


flats and those in the peritidal environment is that they
contain beds of fine-grained sands. These sands sometimes
show effects of nearby beaches, in which case they are
considered washover deposits, or effects of distributary
channels. Flood-tidal deltas and lagoonal deltas may

35
develop as a result of flooding from tidal inlets and
distributary channels respectively (see Fig. 9.5).

Backshore. This supratidal region with its dunes is usually


inundated by storms and exceptionally high tides. It has a
sandy terrace called the berm, whose crest is just above
the water level. In this subenvironment, wind action is
more important than wave

36
action. Washover deposits may occur when the dunes
themselves experience excessive storm action, and the
beach sands are eroded into the back barrier lagoons.
Characteristics of beach sands:

Foreshore. The foreshore is intertidal (see Fig. 9.6), and


its sand deposits are coarser than offshore sands. They
commonly have planar cross-bedding (dips of 2 to 10),
some trough cross-bedding and sub-parallel bedding.
Ebb-tidal deltas occur in the foreshore. Gray coloration
in some foreshore sediments is due to the presence of
organic matter.
Shoreface. This is the region at the lower reaches of wave
action, where tide levels also vary. The upper shoreface
marks the wave base (10 to 20 m), is mainly sandy with
trough and planar cross-bedding, some swaley crossstratification and hummocky crossstratification. They are
occasionally bioturbated. The
lower shoreface is also affected by offshore currents, is
less sandy and may be interbedded with mud. The sands
have hummocky cross-stratification, a lot of burrows and
are bioturbated. They also have diverse and abundant
shelly invertebrate faunas.
READING ASSIGNMENT:

SECTION 10
CLASTIC MARINE AND PELAGIC
ENVIRONMENTS
SHELF DEPOSITION
The continental shelf is that marine region that is <200
meters deep (Fig. 10.1). Clastic sedimentation occurs where
(a)

(b)

Seventy percent of continental shelves today are covered


with relict sediments called palimpsest sediments. What
are these sediments?

Example of an ancient littoral setting: Ordovician


shoreline sequences of South Africa; p. 187-191 in
the textbook.
*Tectonic setting:

*Lithofacies: List the four formations (in sequential


order from oldest to youngest), their facies,
thicknesses, sedimentary structures, and age (of the
two formations discussed in detail).
Figure 10.1. Zonation of continental shelf and dominant
hydrodynamic processes (from Galloway and Hobday, 1983).

However, the effects of currents affect the type of sediment


deposited: it is commonly muddy on shelves and there are
storm-induced sand layers nearshore.
Furthermore, the sediments show a definite relationship to
climate and current systems (Fig. 14.2). Detrital sediments

37

are laid down by water, wind and ice in polar regions,


whereas biogenic sediments (with carbonate shells and
tests) occur mainly around the warm equator. Authigenic
sediments commonly contain phosphorite and glauconite.

Sand deposition
Sand Ribbons. Sand ribbons are linear bedforms that form
on sandy and gravely shelf bottoms, and they
Figure 10.2. Idealized distribution of various classes of
sediment on continental shelves, where sediments are in
equilibrium with their environment. White arrows-warm
water; dotted arrowsupwelling water; black arrow-cold
water (from Reineck, 1968).

wavelengths up to 500 m over sandy outer shelves with


strong tidal currents. Their shapes could be symmetrical
or asymmetrical. The internal structures are dominated
by large scale cross-beds, but the sands sometimes have
a smaller stratification oriented in the opposite direction
that is superimposed on the upstream flank. Hummocky
crossstratification may be associated with the sands,
while lenticular bedding, flaser bedding and wave ripples
can also form. The Cretaceous Green (glauconitic) Sands
in England are good examples of tidal sand waves.
Differences Between Marine and Eolian Sand Waves.
(1)

(2)

(3)
may also develop on sandy bottoms with strong tidal
currents. They run parallel to the direction of tidal
flow. Sand ribbons are only of several decimeters
thickness, which locally extend to 20 km in length
and 0.2 km width. They develop well in the eastern
section of the English Channel.
Tidal Sand Ridges. These are elongate bars or banks
that are parallel to the direction of tidal current (Fig.
14.3, next page). They occur in groups up to 40 m
high, 2 km wide and 60 km long, and are spaced at
intervals of 5 km to 12 km. Tidal sand ridges are very
common in the North Sea and English Channel where
they consist of mediumgrained, well sorted sands.
Sand ribbons are smaller versions of tidal sand ridges
because both are asymmetrical in transverse profile
and show cross-stratification.
Tidal Sand Waves. Tidal sand waves are dune-shaped
bedforms that are 3 m to 15 m high and mainly
perpendicular to tidal flow (Fig. 10.3). They have

Mud Deposition
Mud deposition occurs off coasts with weak tidal and wave
processes, and is common on the outer shelf; e.g., SW Gulf
of Mexico, Bering Sea and Bay of Biscaye. The deposits
include heavily bioturbated terrigenous coastal mud to open
marine hemipelagic deposits. Differential settling of clays
occurs, with calm conditions favoring smectite deposition as
opposed to illite and kaolinite.

38

Figure 14.3. Main tidal sand ridges and sand waves in the
southern North Sea (from Galloway and Hobday, 1983).

Sedimentary Sequences
The types of sedimentary sequences formed depend on
the changes in relative sea level and hydrodynamic
processes on the shelf, i.e., storm and tidal processes (Fig.
10.4). Transgressive sequences show an upward decrease
in grain size, which is due to onlap. Regressive sequences
increase in grain size as a result of offlap. A variable
profile results from
aggradation
or
balanced accumulation. Shelf deposits are of economic
importance because (a) stratigraphic traps of
hydrocarbons are formed by sands within impermeable
shales; and (b) the shales are source rocks for
hydrocarbons.

Figure 10.4. Four characteristic stratigraphic profiles of


marine shelf sequences due to variations in relative sea level
change, and storm or tide activity. A, Prograding
(regressive) stormdominated shelf; B, transgressive stormdominated shelf; C, transgressive tide-dominated shelf; D,
balanced accumulation, storm- and tide-dominated (from
Galloway and Hobday, 1983).

CONTINENTAL SLOPE AND RISE


The continental slope and rise environments extend
from the outer edge of the shelf (with abrupt
boundary) to the deep sea. Sedimentation is controlled
by submarine relief, movement of water masses,
climate, biologic productivity, sources of sediments,
etc.

Continental Slope
This environment is narrow and extends from between
150-200 m to 1,500-2,000 m, sloping at 4 to 6. It is

39
frequently dissected by submarine canyons which
were formed as a result of subaerial erosion by
rivers during the Plio-Pleistocene regressions; e.g.,
off the Rhne, Mississippi and Niger Deltas.
The sediments are usually under gravitational
influence and do not remain on the slope. The
characteristic features are gravity-transported (Fig.
10.5): (a) Olistoliths, which are large, exotic slide
blocks), (b) slumped and deformed shales; (c)
olistostromes, which constitute a chaotic
assemblage of exotic brecciated blocks, and (d)
turbidites.

1,500 m to 4,000 m deep and 300 km to 400 km wide.


Accumulations of sediments as cones or lobes are due to
either (a) deposition by gravity current transportation at
right angle to the coast, or (b) deposition by contour current
transportation parallel to the coast. Contour currents are
products of normal oceanic circulation, as water masses of
different densities move relative to one another. Continental
rise sequences contain sediments brought in by sliding and
hemipelagic shale.
Turbidites. These sediments are produced by turbidity
currents, the most important transport process in the
environment. A complete turbidite form is referred to as a
classic Bouma sequence (Fig. 15.2), which has five
distinctive units (A-E). These units are distinguished from
one another by their grain sizes and sedimentary structure,
with graded bedding at the lowermost unit. A complete
Bouma sequence is not always present.

Figure 10.6. The classic Bouma turbidite sequence, showing


trends of sedimentary structures, grain sizes, and depositional
conditions (from Bouma, 1962).

Figure 10.5. Processes of mass-gravity transport and their


deposits (from Reading, 1986).

Continental Rise
The continental rise occurs on passive margins, and is

Submarine Fans. Submarine fans are built by spreading


sheets and lobes of turbidite sequences. They are similar
in some aspects to subaerial fans, such as crevasse
splays and overbank deposits. The main difference
between them and the other fan deposits is that they are
well bedded and interbedded with marine sediments.
They are divided into three portions: inner, middle and
outer fan (Fig. 10.6 on the next page). The coarsest
materials occur in the inner fan, which is near the top of
the continental rise and submarine canyons. The middle
part of the fan contains the classic turbidites, and is
characterized by sedimentary lobes. Thin-bedded

40
turbidites that are dominated by sand, silt and clay
occur on the outer or distal fan. Consequently, the
overall fan sequence coarsens upward. Submarine
fan sequences can be very thick in deep water
tectonic basins. Episodes of fan deposition can now
be correlated with low sea level stands in some areas
(Mutti, 1985). Sedimentary structures include sole
marks (flute and groove casts), load casts and trace
fossils. Pelagic organisms such as foraminifera are
the most diagnostic fossils in the sediments. Because
turbidite sands are fairly coarse and interbedded with
shales, they can be important hydrocarbon reservoir
rocks, as in the offshore section of the Niger Delta.
The Late Cretaceous Book Cliffs, Utah also have
well-exposed outcrops of turbidites.

(1972) (from Lewis, 1984)

PELAGIC SEDIMENTATION

The study of pelagic sediments was pioneered by the


voyages of the British ship HMS Challenger, from 1872
to 1876. In recent years, the deep sea drilling project
(DSDP) and ocean drilling program (ODP) have focused
solely on abyssal and hadal environments) where
pelagic sedimentation takes place (i.e. sediments settling
out of the overlying water column). Such sediments are
composed mainly of terrigenous clays, skeletal materials
and minor amounts of authigenic components. They
maySetting
also contain volcanic ash layers, eolian dusts or
Example: Tertiary turbitides of the Northern Apennines.. *Tectonic
tektites. Deep-sea deposits can be exposed in subduction
Assignment); p. 206-208 in the textbook.
zones, and the associated igneous and metamorphic
*Lithofacies
deep-sea rocks are called flysch deposits.
The pattern of sedimentation is as follows (Fig. 10.7):
(1) Siliceous oozes:

Upwelling:

Figure 10.6. Geometry of submarine fans and the associations of facies, according to Mutti and Ricci Lucchi

(2) Calcareous oozes:

(3) Terrigenous clays:

(4) Glacial deposits:

(5) Authigenic components.


Carbonate Oozes. The CCD is very important for the
accummulation of carbonate oozes because it is the
critical level at which the rate of calcite supply is
balanced by the rate of dissolution. Therefore, it
represents the depth below which all calcium
carbonate will dissolve, and is commonly between 4
km and 5 km in depth. Carbonate oozes are formed
mainly by foraminifera and coccolithophores where
their accumulation is not overwhelmed by *
terrigenous material. These oozes form chalk and
limestones when they become very coherent.

34
Deep Sea Clays. Figure 10.8 (on the next page)
illustrates the general distribution of terrigenous
clays in the deep sea. Kaolinite can be found in
abundance at low latitudes where they are deposited
at the mouths of tropical rivers. Illite is abundant in
the midlatitudes, whereas chlorite occurs mainly at
high latitudes. Montmorrilonite (or smectite) is
deposited around midoceanic ridges and near island
arcs, and is derived from the weathering of these
submarine volcanic features.
Authigenic Materials. The authigenic components in
the deep sea include zeolites, manganese oxides and
hydroxides.

Example: Western Interior of North America


Setting:

Siliceous Oozes. These are formed by radiolarians,


silicoflagellates, diatoms and possibly sponge
spicules. All these organisms release opalline silica * Sequence:
for chert formation. Unlike carbonaceous oozes, they
are formed only where oceanic upwelling recycles
silica from the ocean bottom since seawater is
undersaturated with respect to silica. They form
diatomites and radiolarites.
* Sedimentology and facies:

*Fossils:

35

Figure 10.7. The global pattern of deep-sea sediments. Calcareous oozes are restricted to low latitudes. Most
siliceous oozes lie close to the poles, although some occur in the equatorial Pacific and Indian Oceans. The
areas of low productivity in the center of oceanic gyres have mostly pelagic clays (from Riley and Chester,
1976).

Figure 10.8. Dominant clay minerals on the ocean floor (modified from Berger, 1974).

SECTION 11

O balance exists in three states, which are


represented in Figure 11. 1:
+

2-

(1) CO2+H2O H2CO3 H + HCO3 2H +CO3


2+

Ca +2HCO3 CaCO3+H2O+CO2(seawater

pH)
2+

(3) Ca +CO3

2-

CaCO3

(b)
(c)
(d)

Frequency
Conc.
(ppm
)

Carbonates are mostly autotochnous sediments


(mostly intrabasinal) resulting from biological and
biochemical processes within the basin of deposition.
Their deposition is controlled by several factors,
including:
(a)

(2)

CARBONATE ROCKS

(e)
(f)
(g)
These factors are met on shallow shelves between 0
and 30 north and south of the equator, where it is
warm with normal salinity, no large influx of clastics
to choke carbonate-secreting organisms. Normally, C

8.3
pH
Figure 11.1. Stability states of carbonate ions.

Carbonate rocks make up 15-20% of the total


volume of sedimentary rocks. Other authors put
this figure lower. This probably is because many
geologists classify marls as mudrocks. Marls are

more correctly described as argillaceous (clay


rich) limestones and/or dolomites and thus are
carbonate rocks. They are primarily made up of 3
minerals:
Calcite a CaCO3 polymorph with hexagonal
(rhombohedral) structure. A major variation of
calcite common in marine sediments and Cenozoic
sedimentary rocks is high magnesium calcite
(HMC) which contains anywhere between 5 and
2+

30% Mg

substituted for Ca

2+

in the calcite crystal

lattice. Ancient (pre-Cenozoic limestones contain


very little HMC because magnesium is lost during
diagenesis. Calcite containing <4% is commonly
referred to as low magnesium calcite (LMC).
Aragonite a CaCO3 polymorph with orthorhombic
structure. Common in modern marine sediments and
Cenozoic carbonates it becomes increasingly rare in
older sediments, just as HMC. Both Aragonite and
HMC are unstable and are replaced by LMC or
dolomite during diagenesis.
Dolomite is the name used for both the mineral
CaMg(CO3)2 and the rock that is composed largely
of the mineral dolomite.
The term dolostone
occasionally is incorrectly applied to the rock
dolomite
COMPOSITION OF LIMESTONES
The constituent parts of a limestone can be divided
into: grains (allochems), mud (micrite), and cement
(spar).
Grains or allochems include skeletal fragments
(or fossils), chemically and biologically

precipitated carbonate grains such as pellets and


ooids, and broken pieces of previously existing
limestone (intraclasts).
Skeletal fragments of fossils include various
invertebrates and microfossils (see handout).
Coated Grains
Ooids (ooliths) are spherical structures ranging in
size up to 2 mm are made up of concentric
laminations or coats of aragonite and/or HMC.
Ooids generally are produced in water with some
wave or current action. Carbonate material are
added during the rolling action in the current much
as laminations of ice are added to a hale stone.
Pisolites are similar in structure and origin to
ooids but larger than 2 mm. Oncolites are
subspherical structures made up of nonconcentric,
overlapping layers of carbonate material. They
commonly are larger than pisolites, up to several
cm, and are formed in intertidal or caliche
environments.
Pellets are carbonate fecal material produced by
burrowing organisms. Peloids are pellet-like
allochems, which may be either a true pellet or a
skeletal fragment or other allochem that has
undergone mechanical or biological degradation to
the point that it looks like a pellet. (Consider the
degradation that you go through during some
heavy partying; the next morning you look
and feel like a pellet only you use another word for
it!)
Lime Mud (micrite) is microcrystalline (clay size
particles) calcite or aragonite. This includes micron
size

45
crystals (generally <4m) of aragonite and or HMC
produced by the breakdown of larger allochems (grains)
by mechanical and especially bacterial action. In some
cases clay size crystals of calcite and aragonite may be
directly precipitated by seawater.
Cement (spar)

Cement is carbonate mineral precipitated in the pore


spaces of carbonate sediments and sedimentary
rocks. In other words cement is deposited during the
diagenetic process just as it is in clastic rocks. In the
case of carbonate rocks cementation can begin very
early; almost immediately upon deposition.
In the marine environment cement is either aragonite
or HMC.
In the freshwater aquifers cement is usually LMC.
Dolomite cements commonly precipitate in the deep
burial environment, in aquifers saturated with
evaporated seawater shallow environments, or in
other specialized diagenetic environments.
Some classification systems categorize all of the
carbonate components (grains, mud, and cement) as
orthochemical. This is not a good term because it
implies that the carbonate sediment formed "in
place" which is not always true. Carbonate grains
and mud can be transported some distance from the
place where it is formed to where it is finally
deposited. The only one of the above components
that is truly orthochemical is cement, which is
formed in place. This is true, of course, of cements
in clastic sedimentary rocks as well.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Limestones: There are two classification systems in
common use for limestones, Folk (1959, modified in
1962) and Dunham (1962) (Fig. 11.2). Both of the
classification systems are based on texture
(fundamental properties of grain size, shape,
orientation and packing) and enable the geologist to
make inferences on the origin of the limestone.
Folk's classification system is primarily used for
thin section petrography and is rather difficult (but
not impossible) to use in hand specimen or on
outcrop. Dunham's classification is more easily
applied to hand specimen or fieldwork (Fig. 11.3).
The primary usefulness of both Folk's and
Dunham's classifications is that an estimate can be
made as to relative energy of the depositional
environment which created the limestone. In general,
the more lime mud that the limestone contains the
quieter the water in which it was deposited.

Use Dunham's classification system in lab to


categorize the specimens but also try to pigeonhole
them into Folk's classification system. Try to make an
estimate of the depositional energy (high, medium, low)
in which the limestone was deposited based on the mud
(micrite) component of the rock.
Dolomite: Folk classified dolomite as dolosparite and
Dunham as crystalline carbonate, which is not very
useful if you want to learn anything about the rock. It is
useful for categorizing the original limestone lithology
of the rock prior to dolomitization. The method tells you
nothing about the dolomitization process.
Very
commonly the original limestone texture has been
obliterated by dolomitization and all of the above
classification methods are pretty much useless.
Two dolomite classification systems are now in
common use based on the fundamental properties of
crystal shape and size. These classification systems are
Friedman (1965), which does not carry much genetic
information and Sibley and Gregg (1987; based on
earlier work of Gregg and Sibley, 1984), which carries
considerable information as to the origin of the
dolomite. (It should be pointed out that Sibley and
Gregg used Friedman's original work as a starting
point.).
Both of the above classification systems require
thin section microscopy for application. About the best
that can be done in hand specimen is to categorize
dolomite on the basis of crystal size:
Coarse crystalline
Medium crystalline
Fine crystalline

>0.5 mm
0.25 0.5 mm
0.125 0.25 mm

Coarse crystalline dolomite is rare in Cenozoic


dolomite rocks and suggests dolomitization or
recrystallization of previously existing dolomite after
burial. The observation of "saddle dolomite" or curved
dolomite crystals as open space filling cement is
generally thought to indicate dolomitization by warm
(>60C) fluids in the burial environment.
Porosity in carbonate rocks is classified using a system
proposed by Choquette and Pray (1970). Since porosity
is a very complex and important characteristic of
limestone it should always be examined and described
in detail. Choquette's and Pray's classification is very
easy to apply in hand specimen.

46

47
Figure 11.2. Top, Folks classification of limestones. Bottom, Textural maturity classification proposed by Folk.

Figure 11.3. Classification of limestones proposed by Dunham (1962). A, Dunhams original scheme. B, Modification
of Dunhams classification by Embry and Klovan
<5% porosity. What happens to all of the porosity?
(1972).
It is filled by cement.

Carbonate Diagenesis
Carbonate sediments begin to undergo lithification
almost instantly upon sedimentation. In contrast to
sandstones the character of carbonate rocks can
change radically during diagenesis.
Cementation and porosity reduction Holocene
and Pleistocene carbonates average about 40%
porosity. Even after burial and compaction such
limestones average 20 to 30% porosity. Ancient
carbonates usually have <10% porosity, most are

Environments of carbonate cementation (Fig.


11.4) Vadose is the zone of aeration, above the water
table. Water is moving downward or is held by
surface tension in pore throats and between grains.

48

Figure 11.4.
Main
carbonate cementation.

environments

of
___

Phreatic is the zone of saturation below the water table.


Cements:
Marine aragonite and HMC.
Fresh LMC (aragonite speleothems in karsted
areas).
Deep burial phreatic (saline formation waters and
basinal fluids) LMC, dolomite, & ankerite
cements.
Most carbonate rocks eventually are exposed to fresh
water diagenetic environments. Because aragonite and
HMC are unstable in fresh water (they form in and are
metastable in sea water due to kinetic reasons) they
undergo neomorphic recrystallization to LMC or in
some cases aragonite grains simply dissolve and leave a
hole (mold) that later may be filled by LMC cement.
Such porosity is common in geologically young
carbonate rocks and is classified by Choquette and Pray
as moldic porosity.

minerals, silt and some sand sized siliciclastic grains,


and authigenic chalcedony and chert accumulate along
the solution seam, commonly forming subhorizontal
laminations of insoluble material up to several mm thick.
Stylolites are large amplitude solution seams that
possibly develop along boundaries where relative
solubility along the length of the boundary differ slightly
from one side to the other.
An estimate can be made as to how much carbonate
has been removed by dissolution by taking the ration
between the amount of insoluble material in the
carbonate rock as a whole and the amount found in the
seam. Another way to make an estimate is to measure
the maximum amplitude of the stylolites. This amplitude
will be equivalent to the minimum amount of rock
dissolved to form the stylolite. As much as 40% of the
original rock has been found removed by pressure
solution in many ancient carbonate sections. Much of
this likely was reprecipitated as cement, thus reducing

porosity.

Solution Seam

Stylolite

amplitude

Figure 11.5. Features formed by pressure solution in


carbonate rocks.

Pressure solution or dissolution


Initial compaction mostly affects lime mud rich
sediment as water is squeezed out of the sediment.
Pressure solution occurs in carbonate rocks just as it
does in sandstones although it may be more extensive
and may begin very soon after deposition at relatively
shallow depths. The results of pressure solution in
carbonate rocks are solution seams and stylolites (Fig.
11.5).
Solution seams occur along horizontal boundaries
that may correspond to diastems or short periods of nondeposition. Such boundaries may contain an abundance
of clay minerals, which may catalyze carbonate
dissolution. As the carbonate minerals dissolve insoluble
minerals such as organic residue, clay and sulfide

DOLOMITIZATION
Dolomite is not believed to be the result of primary
precipitation except in rare instances in some playa
lake settings. Almost all dolomite forms as a result of
diagenetic dolomitization of limestone involving
magnesium rich groundwater. Questions of the exact
make-up of this groundwater and the timing of
dolomitization has plagued sedimentary petrologists for
years because of a lack of understanding of the kinetics
of the chemical reaction. Dolomite is in
thermodynamic equilibrium with seawater as well as
many other natural waters. Dolomite should precipitate

49
directly from seawater, but it does not. In fact no one
has been successful in synthesizing dolomite in the
laboratory using fluids of seawater composition at near
surface temperatures (60C).
The dolomitization reaction is as follows:
2CaCO3 + Mg

2+

CaMg(CO3)2 + Ca

2+

The reaction is shown as reversible because calcite can


replace dolomite if chemical conditions change
(dedolomitization). The major requirements for
dolomite formation is a source of magnesium and a
hydrogeologic system to bring Mg

2+

to the site of
2+

dolomitization and carry excess Ca


away. The
dolomitization reaction as shown above results in a
12% volume decrease.
Why would a 12% volume decrease during
dolomitization be of interest for petroleum exploration?

Dolomitization Models (Fig. 11.6)


Reflux refers to groundwater returning to the sea.
Themodel is also called evaporitic reflux, seepage reflux
or evaporitic pumping in the literature. The model
requires rather special conditions, such as brine
precipitation, because dolomitized limestones usually
occur immediately below evaporites. This happens
underneath
supratidal
and
intertidal
regions). Seasonality between arid and humid
conditions, and tectonic stability are very important
factors.

2+

Seawater is a good source of Mg {seawater model).


Seawater, of normal salinity, circulating through the
marine phreatic zone may dolomitize CaCO3 sediments,
especially at depth where pressure is increased by the
hydrostatic head (thus increasing the solubility of HMC
and Aragonite). Seawater has been suggested as the
dolomitizing agent for subsurface sediments at Enewetak
Atoll and on peritidal flats on the coast of Belize.
Evaporated seawater may be a good dolomitizing fluid
2+

because evaporation tends to concentrate Mg . If the


seawater is evaporated to the point of gypsum
(CaSO42H2O) precipitation the ratio of Mg to Ca is
increased, further favoring the formation of dolomite.
Dolomite is commonly associated with depositional

environments where evaporation of seawater may have


occurred and evaporites have formed. Dolomite has been
observed in modern carbonate sediments, associated
with evaporation and evaporite minerals, in places such
as the Persian Gulf and the Coorong Lagoon of
Australia.
Mixed fresh and seawater (mixed water or DORAG
model) may also facilitate the dolomitization reaction.
In the phreatic mixing zone water composition will
commonly be undersaturated with respect to calcite
and aragonite but supersaturated with respect to
dolomite. Dolomite should theoretically replace
limestone under such
thermodynamic conditions. This mechanism was
advocated for some ancient dolomite formations as well
as dolomite thought to be forming in Cenozoic age
limestones in the Yucatan region of Mexico. A major
problem with this model is that dolomite has not been
observed unequivocally forming in modern mixing zone
environments. This model has pretty much been
abandoned in favor of dolomitization by seawater!
Basinal brines have been suggested as fluids
capable of dolomitizing limestones after burial.
Advantages of this model are: higher temperatures
in the burial environment are kinetically favorable
to dolomitization; and limestones are exposed to
basinal fluids for long geological times which
would facilitate overcoming kinetic barriers to
dolomitization. Indeed, it would appear that the
older the carbonate rock formation is, the more
likely it is a dolomite! Problems include a good
source of Mg2+ which is commonly lacking in the
deep diagenetic environment. Never-the-less
evidence is very strong that at least some dolomite
is formed in the burial environment.
The fact that approximately 25% of the worlds
petroleum reserves are found in dolomite means
that scientists will continue to be interested in the
origin of this rock. That considerable disagreement
and debate continue, with regard to the origin of
dolomite, is a sign of the robust nature and health
of the geological sciences. Why would
understanding the origin of dolomite be important
for successful petroleum exploration?

50

of ground water further increases porosity in these areas


until, in some cases, cavern sized open spaces form. Any
region underlain by carbonate rocks of any age is subject
to karst development. This is especially true of Missouri
where nearly the whole state is underlain, at some depth,
by carbonate rocks. The karst features of Missouri have
played a colorful role in our state's history (e.g., Jesse

Human and animal waste products may


contaminate water supplies distant from the

Figure 11.6. Schematic representation of various dolomite models (from Boggs, 2012).

Karst is created by the dissolution of carbonate rock


(limestone and dolomite) by ground water. This most
commonly occurs involving fresh water charged with
atmospheric CO2 in the following reaction:
Karst

James cavernous hide-out near Sullivan, MO) and


literature (e.g., in Mark Twain's The Adventures of Tom
Sawyer).
Karst terrain presents a large variety of problems to
engineering and environmental geologists:
(1) Water moves very rapidly in a karst ground water
system. Unlike a "classic" porous medium, such as
sandstone, where porosity is measured in millidarcies,
water in a cars system can flow as underwater rivers.
Pollution entering at one point, such as a
sinkhole, can affect a large region very rapidly.
In many cases it is difficult to predict the
pathways of contaminants in such systems.

rain water atmospheric


carbon dioxide

carbonic acid

Acidic water dissolves carbonate rock, especially along


fractures and other previously existing porosity where
the flux of ground water is greatest. This increased flow
H2O + CO2

H + HCO3

51

SECTION 12
CARBONATE ENVIRONMENTS
REQUIREMENTS FOR DEPOSITION

source off pollution because rapid flow does not


allow for natural biological "purification" to take
place.
(2) Karst systems present problems for building
foundations and in other construction projects. A
primary example of this is the list that everyone living
in TJ Hall must put up with because that structure was
built over a sinkhole. Dr. Gerald Rupert, emeritus

professor of geophysics at Missouri S&T has been


involved with subsurface mapping of dissolution
features under the Arch in St. Louis using
groundpenetrating radar. A large amount of money is
being spent reinforcing the foundation of the Arch,
money that would have been saved if proper site
investigations had been made during the planning
stages of construction.
Because of the likelihood of karst development in
areas underlain by carbonate rocks it is important to
understand the origin and nature of porosity systems
of those rocks. In most karst regions this can only be
done using careful observation and mapping of the
underlying rocks.

The most basic requirements for carbonate production


and deposition (summary of factors in Section 11) are as
follow:
(1) Lack of or low amount of clastic input, e.g., the only
siliciclastic material in the Bahamas is wind blown silt
and clay particles from North Africa. Clastic material is
usually detrimental to the organisms that produce
carbonates.

(2)Warm tropical or subtropical conditions. Temperature


affects carbonate solubility. CaCO3 and MgCO3 are less
soluble in warm water than in cold because of a) the high
2+

2+

hydrating energy of Ca and Mg and b) CO2 is less


soluble in warm water than cold, therefore there is less
H2CO3 (carbonic acid) in warm water the water is
therefore less acid and can hold less carbonate. Note
that warm oceans do not necessarily have more life than
cold oceans, which are very biologically productive.
The reason for carbonate productivity in warm oceans
has to do with carbonate chemistry as discussed here.

(3) Light. Carbonate productivity is virtually 100%


within the photic zone, and almost all of this within
the top 40m of the ocean. (In fact most marine life
exits in the photic zone or the depth to which light
can penetrate). Carbonate organisms require
photosynthesis or require for food photosynthetic
organisms.
Scleractinian corals (modern reef
building corals) contain single cell photosynthetic
organisms as symbionts within their tissue that are

52
called zooxanthellae. Without these symbionts the
corals will die.

Uplifted oceanic block, modern example: Bahamas


Platform.
Shallow inland sea, modern example: Persian Gulf

DEPOSITIONAL
MODEL
(CARBONATE FACTORY)

The carbonate depositional model has well defined


facies belts (Fig. 12.1). A facies is a distinct lithology
that
is
deposited
under specific
depositional conditions. Therefore a particular limestone
may be made up of several distinct depositional facies
that were deposited under different conditions.

Shelf margin platform (on the edge of a continent),


modern examples: Florida Keys
Yucatan (Belize & Mexico)
Eastern Australia (the Great Barrier Reef)
The energy of the depositional environment is a major
control on the limestone lithology or facies that is
undergoing deposition. For instance in the lagoon lime
muds are deposited in areas of quiet water and patch
reefs, oolitic and skeletal grainstones are deposited in (1) Surf: This is a transgressive sequence, which deposits
calcarenite or carbonate sand. Transgression is
areas of moderate to strong currents or wave energy.
necessary to get into a shallow marine condition.
The basic carbonate model is useful in understanding
The
surf may not be present.
and predicting the distribution of distinct carbonate
lithologies. It should be understood, however, that all
of components of the model will not always be present (2) Subtidal: Either (a) Lagoonal, where low-energy
conditions prevail (with carbonate mud, bioturbation,
or in the cross sectional package as shown in Figure
fossils, pellets, oyster banks, washover fans, tidal
12.1. The model can be observed throughout the
channels), or (b) Open marine or shoal, if a highenergy
geological record even though the organisms involved
environment (with oolite bank or reef, and may have
continue to evolve. Today the wave resistant barrier
characteristics similar to lagoonal deposits).
reef framework is primarily Scleractinian coral, which
did not evolve until the early Mesozoic. Figure 12.2
shows the vertical representation of the depositional (3) Intertidal: This environment contains stromatolites,
wavy cyanobacterial or blue-green algal beds, bird's
model. The characteristics of the subdivisions, which
produce a generally coarsening-upward (or shoalingupward) sequence, are as follows:

eye structures, channels and mudcracks; mangroves


may form in humid regions.
(4) Supratidal: Alternating storm deposits (flat pebble
conglomerates) and algal mats with evaporites when
hypersaline, no evaporites if humid.
(5) Terrestrial: This environment has organic buildups,
soils, redbeds if arid and coal if humid.

REEFS
A reef is a buildup found in the wave zone that is
characterized by a wave-resistant framework (marine
biologists' definition of a true reef). In essence, a
buildup is a carbonate rock with topographic relief
above the surrounding environment. A bioherm is an in
situ accumulation of organisms, whether or not they are
topographically high or wave-resistant. In modern reefs
the framework is mainly composed of hermatypic
scleractinian corals in living position. However, the
Figure 12.2. Hypothetical shallowing-upward sequence on a low-energy
carbonate
(from
1984). by many
presence or
absence shelf
of a reef
beltJames,
is controlled

53
factors, particularly turbidity, upwelling and steepness
of slope.
Reef Development
Four stages of reef development are recognized (Table
12.1)
Pioneer or stabilization stage. The shoal area is
composed of skeletal fragments. It is an organic bank
which experiences strong currents that prevent vertical
growth of organisms.
Colonization stage. This is the first true reef growth.
Several centers attach themselves to the stabilized base,
start to grow up and coalesce with other centers to form
a true reef.
Diversification stage. The fixed, growing reef creates a
multitude of microenvironments where all sorts of
animals flourish. The main vertical reef growth has
well-developed lateral facies, including the forereef,
backreef and lagoon (see Fig. 12.1).
Domination stage. Certain species tend to take over and
dominate the environment, with the net result that the
total number of different species diminish. This
situation arises probably when (a) the reef reaches the
sea level, and/ or (b) high-energy wave environment is
harsh.

Patch Reef. Isolated more or less circular area of


organic frame-constructed buildups. In modern seas
they are mainly on platforms, and rise into wave base
and close to sea level.
Type of Limestone

Domination

Bindstone to framestone

High

Colonization
Bafflestone to floatstone
(bindstone) with a mudstone
to wackestone matrix

Low

Stabilization

Low

Grainstone to rudstone
(packestone to wackestone)

Table 12.1. Stages of reef growth (modified from James, 1984).

Pinnacle (Table) Reef. Conical or steep-sided, upwardtapering reef.


Mounds. Isolated structures built by smaller, usually
delicate and/or solitary organisms in tranquil settings in
either shallow or deep water.

Atoll. Ring-shaped organic accumulation in offshore or


oceanic position surrounding a lagoon.
Faro. Ring-shaped
organic accumulation
with shallow central lagoon located shelfward of barrier
reef trend.
Barrier Reef. Curvilinear belt of organic accumulation
somewhat offshore and separated from the coast by a
lagoon.
Fringe Reef. Curvilinear belt of organic accumulation
built directly out from the coast.

TYPES OF REEFS (Fig. 12.3)

Stage

Diversification Framestone, mudstone to


wackestone matrix

Species Diversity

Low to moderate

See Figure 12.14, page 264 in the textbook for the


Phanerozoic evolution of bioherms and reefs.
Reading
Variation
textbook).

Assignment:
Circular
in Carbonates (p. 272-274 in the

54

Figure 12.3. Sketch the types of reefs in the space above.

VIDEO on Modern

Carbonate

The Persian Gulf: Setting; climate; characteristics of the

Environments

(17 minutes) three zones (supratidal, intertidal, subtidal)


(1 Location of modern carbonates versus location of
Devonian carbonates: what's the lesson here?
(2) Three basic settings:

Setting for hydrocarbons:

The Bahamas: Setting; climate; characteristics of the


three zones (supratidal, intertidal, subtidal)

SECTION 13
OTHER SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
CHERTS
Chert is
composed
largely or
entirely of cryptocrystalline
(or
microcrystalline) quartz. Several varieties occur,
e.g., jasper (stained red by hematite), and flint (stained
gray-black by organic matter). Volumetrically
significant cherts exist in two forms, as nodules in
carbonate rocks, and as bedded cherts. The latter are
more commonly Precambrian in age. Arguments about
their origin has centered largely around two points:
(1) Shallow water vs. deep water, and
(2) Primary chert vs. secondary chert.
Figure 13.1 shows that silica precipitates in acidic
and neutral conditions in the subsurface. Silica
dissolves above pH of 10. Its precipitation is
governed by the following equation, and it is
sourced by fresh silicates and organic siliceous tests.
2+

CaCO3+H2O+CO2+H4SiO4 SiO2+Ca +HCO3 + 2H2O

Bedded Cherts
Bedded (or primary) cherts occur as individual bands,
layers or laminae that range in thickness from a few
millimeters up to several meters. The thicknesses of
individual layers are often laterally or vertically
uniform (ribbon cherts), but they can vary. Internal

46
structures are rare. Two categories are recognized based
on the presence or absence of fossils.
Bedded fossiliferous cherts contain remains of
siliceous organisms such as diatoms (Triassic to
Recent age, account for 80%); radiolarians
(Cambrian to Recent, 19%), and sponge spicules
(Cambrian to Recent). Silicoflagellates and sponge
spicules together account for 1%. They are obviously
biogenic and form when siliceous oozes crystallize.
Examples occur in the Miocene Monterey Formation
and Jurassic-Cretaceous Franciscan Formation of the
California Coast Ranges.

Nonfossiliferous bedded cherts contain no visible


skeletal remains. Most are probably siliceous oozes
so extensively altered that all fossils have been
destroyed. When these so-called nonfossiliferous
cherts are etched with hydrofluoric acid, fossils are
invariably seen, so few if any bedded cherts are truly
inorganic in origin. What about Precambrian bedded
cherts? How did they form since siliceous fossils did
not evolve until much later? Their origin is uncertain,
but the belief is that, prior to the organisms'
evolution, seawater was saturated with respect to
silica. Given the right conditions (probably low pH in
a closed basin), silica precipitated inorganically.
However, Prothero and Schwab (2004) believe that
Precambrian cherts are probably recrystallized from
organically produced siliceous oozes, although others
may be produced by replacement. They postulate that
some of the small (micron-sized) spherical and
subspherical structures seen in these cherts on SEM
appear to be fossils of Precambrian silica-secreting
organisms.

Nodular Cherts
Nodular (also called secondary or replacement) cherts
occur as fist-shaped, spherical, subspherical, and
ovoidal masses of opal, chalcedony, and quartz
disseminated mainly in shallow water limestone and
dolomite. Nodules vary in size from a few millimeters
to a few centimeters. Individual nodules are often

Knauth (1979) suggested a chert replacement model


for nodular chert, which is similar to the DORAG
model of dolomitization. By mixing sea water with
freshwater, the resultant solution is oversaturated with
respect to silica and undersaturated with respect to
calcium carbonate. Therefore, silica should replace
calcite or aragonite but not dolomite during early
diagenesis. Knauth explained this by using a
prograding carbonate sequence, with cherts appearing
to be in zones that were once porous or just above

Figure 13.1. Stability fields for silica. Seawater pH = 8.3, which is slightly basic.

linked together, forming roughly planar bands and


creating anastomosing networks and lenses of chert.
Variations in color from white to black probably
reflect carbon and water content. Patterns of internal
concentric lamination and color zoning are common.
The sedimentary structures developed in surrounding
carbonate rocks often continue right through the
nodules. Some fossil remains also occur.

impermeable zones. The problem with this proposal is


that prograding carbonate shoreline sequences are
unusual, and there appears to be no such cherts
forming anywhere in the world today!
What are the sources of silica in the marine environment?
Write below:

General Occurrences of Cherts


From stratigraphic relationships most cherts appear to
be marine in origin. For example, many bedded cherts
are associated with ophiolites, thereby supporting the
theory of accumulation of siliceous tests in the deep
sea. Nodular chert is interpreted as secondary because
these masses are clearly of diagenetic origin. They
form when silica originally deposited in one place
dissolves, migrates, and precipitates elsewhere,
replacing older material. The dissolved silica is
derived from a variety of sources: detrital quartz
grains that the wind transported onto carbonate banks,
sponge spicules, and microplankton skeleton. Cherts
can also occur in nonmarine situations when brines
associated with volcanic activity exceed a pH of 10,
and corrode silicate minerals for a source of silica.
This terrestrially formed chert is often volumetrically
insignificant and it fits the shallow model of origin.

EVAPORITES
Three general models have been proposed for the
formation of evaporites: (1) Restricted oceanic basin:

(2) Coastal playa (sabkha):

(3) Land-locked lakes:

There are good modern examples for models #2 and #3


but not for #1, because there is no where in the world
today where massive evaporites are being deposited in
an oceanic basin. Perhaps the closest example would be
the Mediterranean Sea.
Evaporite minerals are precipitated from reconstructed
brines, which are formed as follows.
Rain waterdissolved salts goes into lakelake
dries upbrine.
What is brine?
Brine is a general term used to describe waters in or
from the marine environment, which have been
chemically changed by evaporation, solution, or mixing
with fresh water.
Brine is different from seawater because it has
different minerals. How are they different?
(1)

(2)

One of the major puzzles facing geologists is how to


explain the existences of such thick sequences of salt as
follow:
(a) the Permian Basin (800'-1,200' thick),
(b) Prairie Evaporites (Devonian) of Alberta, British
Columbia and Saskatchewan (800'-1,000' thick), (c)
Zechstein Salt (Permian) of Germany (6,000' thick),
(d) Louann (Triassic-Jurassic) of Gulf Coast
(>3,000' thick), and
(e) Messinian
Evaporites
(Miocene)
in
the
Mediterranean (6,000' thick).
What is the significance of the Messinian evaporites?

These thick sequences were almost certainly not due to


periodic influxes. Keeping in mind that there are no
modern analogs for thick sequences, it is possible that
they were formed by density currents and reef
associations. What is considered important and common
(as happened in the Permian Basin) is the marginal
marine hypothesis, i.e., that the basin is open to the
ocean over some barrier (similar to the Mediterranean)
(Fig. 13.2).
Evaporation

(3)
Open
ocean

(4)

Reef

Density layer
Euxinic basin

(5)

Major evaporite deposits appear to have two tectonic


associations:
(1) Carbonate shelf and starved basins: Classically called
miogeosynclineal basins, these are relatively stable
platforms that sometimes have minor block faulting.
Examples include the Devonian Elkpoint of Canada, and
the Permian Basin of West Texas and eastern New
Mexico.
(2) Redbed and rift association: The presence of redbeds
confirms that continental arid conditions existed at the
time of formation.
Note the differences between marine and nonmarine
evaporites, and different textures.

Figure 13.2. Marginal marine hypothesis for evaporite


formation.

In order to get much gypsum (and so little halite), the


system had to be open to the ocean such that the
seawater never got concentrated enough to precipitate
halite. The basin eventually dried up completely for
gypsum deposition to take place. The net result is a
theoretical asymmetry of deposits in the basin (Fig.
13.3). Evaporites form good traps for oil and gas, as in
West Texas, and they also form excellent glide planes
for thrust faults because the minerals are very ductile.

Open
ocean

Carbonate
Rock

Ocean water

Reef

Carbonate
Rock

Gypsum

Halite

Evaporation

Gypsum

Halite

Figure 13.3. Theoretical asymmetry of evaporites and carbonate


rock deposition in a marginal marine setting.

Genesis. Early stratigraphers believed in supernatural


forces and the earth not being older than 6,000 years.
May believed up to the 18th century that the earth's
surficial geology was accounted for by floods (Noachian
deluge in Genesis, chapter 7). An exception was
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 to 1519), a talented artist and
engineer, who contested that the fossil shells found high
up in the Apennine Mountains in Italy could not be a
result of a universal flood. He suggested that layers of
fossil shells in the rocks were formed when such
organisms on sea shores or sea bottoms were covered by
mud, subsequently petrified, and finally uplifted!
In general two schools of thought existed on the origin of
stratified rocks. The neptunists, led by Abraham
Werner, believed that most rocks precipitated out of
floodwaters. On the other hand, the plutonists believed in
the important role of the earth's heat in the formation of
crystalline rocks.
Who were Neptunists and Plutonists named after?

Gypsum-Anhydrite Cycle
Anhydrite does not precipitate out of seawater. However,
once gypsum is formed, it can very quickly be converted
to anhydrite, especially in the subsurface. Therefore, at
depths below 2,000 feet, anhydrite is almost invariably
found rather than gypsum. Much of the gypsum
precipitated in the supratidal environment form anhydrite
nodules (see equation below), and most of the
sedimentary structures are destroyed.

Important Contributors to Stratigraphy


Nicolaus Steno. Danish medical doctor (1638 to 1686),
neptunist, interpreted fossil tonguestones as shark teeth.
He formulated three principles, which are defined below:
(1) Superposition:

CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4+2H2O
In the subsurface where there is low porosity, the expelled

(2) Original horizontality:

water commonly cause unusually high pore pressures on


the surrounding rocks. Other diagenetic effects include:

Reading assignments: Ch. 13 and 14 in the textbook


Phosphorites (p. 279-282) Organic-rich sediments:
Coal, Petroleum, Oil Shales and Solid Hydrocarbons
(p. 282-293) Iron-rich sedimentary rocks (p. 300304)
Note that these sections will be tested in one exam.

(3) Original lateral continuity:

SECTION 14

Anthonio Lazarro Morro. Italian (1687 to 1764), first


plutonist, recognized two major classes of mountains and
rocks:
(1) Older mountains with non-stratified, massive rocks.

PRINCIPLES AND HISTORY OF


STRATIGRAHY
Early views on the earth's history centered largely around
the church's interpretation based on the bible chapter of

John Woodward.
English naturalist (1665 to 1728),
neptunist, recognized the stratified nature of terrestrial
rocks, which are divided by parallel fissures and contain
shells and other organisms.

(2) Younger mountains with either stratified rocks or


stratified rocks overlying non-stratified rocks.
Morro also postulated that stratification was due to
volcanic eruptions of liquid rocks, which spread
horizontally and could enclose fossils.

Giovanni Arduino. Italian (1713 to 1795), recognized


three basic divisions of rock:
(1) Primary or primitive:

William "Strata" Smith. English surveyor (1769 to


1839), a Surveyor and civil engineer; considered the
father of stratigraphy; discovered:

(2) Secondary:

(1) The principle of faunal and floral succession:


define!

(3) Tertiary:

Johann Lehmann. German (1719 to 1767), neptunist,


recognized three categories of mountains which
paralleled those of Arduino:
(1) Primitive (Urgebirge
ganggebirge):
Non
fossiliferous crystalline rocks

James Hutton. Scottish farmer (1727 to 1797), credited


for recognizing the following: (1) vastness of geologic
time,
(2)
unconformities, (3)
uniformitarianism, (4) and developed the concept of rock
cycling (erosion, deposition, etc.). Hutton also recognized
the effect of heat on the formation of igneous rocks.

or

(2) Secondary (Flotzgebirge): Layered mountains


formed from eroded primary mountains;
fossiliferous.
(3) Tertiary (Aufgeschwemmptegebirge): Alluvial
sands and gravels, and some volcanic rocks; these
are deposits of earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic
eruptions.
Abraham Werner. German (1750 to 1817), neptunist,
built upon Lehmann's work. His classification is as
follows:
(1) Primitive (Urgebirge): Predominantly crystalline and
unfossiliferous rocks; he believed they were the first
chemical precipitates from water during the earth's
formation.
(2) Transition (Ubergansgebirge): Transitional series with
few fossils; e.g., graywacke, limestone. He believed
these were mostly chemically precipated but included
some materials that were deposited by receding seas.
(3) Stratified (Flotzgebirge): Layered fossiliferous rocks;
e.g., limestone, shale, sandstone, coal, which Werner
interpreted as being deposited by the receding seas.
(4) Alluvial (Aufgeschwemmte): Poorly consolidated
alluvial sand, gravel and clay (deposited by running
water since the retreat of the seas).
(5) Volcanic rocks of Recent origin, due to local natural
burning of coal seams.

(2) Found that a single formation that is lithologically


homogeneous can be subdivided on the basis of
fossil
distribution within it; and
(3) Realized the importance of looking beyond the
superficial similarities of fossils from similar facies
but of different ages.
Charles Lyell. British lawyer-turned-geologist (1795
to 1875), popularized stratigraphy with his
threevolume book "Principles of Stratigraphy", based
on William Smith's ideas. He dated Tertiary rocks on
the basis of their fossil content, i.e., any period of time
is characterized by a particular combination of unique
and recognizable species. He also used statistical
methods of determining relative ages of rocks to arrive
at a Tertiary classification.
Note: This list is not exhaustive. Read about Brongniart,
Cuvier, Fchsel, Desmerest and
Playfair (see Prothero, 1990).

DEVELOPMENT OF THE GEOLOGIC TIME


SCALE
Many of the major subdivisions in the stratigraphic
column (periods and higher) were developed primarily
in Europe between the late 18th century and the early
19th century. The time scale was originally based on
distinct suites of rocks and contained fossils, rather than
on the time that the rocks were formed. For example,
white chalk is now known to be equivalent to the
Upper Cretaceous. Therefore, most of the systems (or
periods) as we know them today were names for
different localities in Europe where they form the type
sections. Several divisions were named by two British

men: Adam Sedgwick (1785 to 1873), a Cambridge


professor, and Roderick Murchison (1792 to 1871).
Both men respectively named the Cambrian and Silurian
in Wales, and jointly recognized the Devonian in SW
England. Their recognition of the Late Cambrian and
Early Silurian led to a bitter feud between them. These
units were later named Ordovician by Charles
Lapworth (1842 to 1920). The eras were identified by
the mass extinctions that changed the world's biota. A
summary of the development of the time scale (Fig. 14.1
on page 52) is given below.
Cryptozoic Eonothem (Eon): C.H. Chadwick, 1930;
means "hidden life", prior to the beginning of the
Cambrian. Also called Precambrian; divided into
Hadean, from 4.6 billion years to 3.8 billion years;
Archean, from 3.8 to 22.5 billion years, and
Proterozoic, from 2.5 by to Cambrian (Stanley and
Luczaj, 2015).

Triassic System: F. von Alberti, 1834; three-part (Trias)


"subdivision" or super group of Bunter Sandstone,
Muschelk Group and Keuper Group of Germany;
includes the Upper New Red Sandstone.

Phanerozoic Eonothem: C.H. Chadwick, 1930; means


"evident life," introduced for the Paleozoic, Mesozoic
and Cenozoic Erathems.

Paleogene Subsystem: M. Hoernes, 1856; Paleocene,


Eocene and Oligocene.

Paleozoic Erathem (Era): Sedgwick, 1838 and J.


Phillips, 1840 to 1841; means "ancient life."

Paleocene Series (Epoch): W. P. Schimper, 1874; means


"ancient recent" and covers intermediate rocks between
Cretaceous and Eocene rocks in France with distinctive
mammalian fauna.

Cambrian System (Period): Sedgwick, 1835; based on


graywacke or slate series of England and Wales.
Ordovician: C. Lapworth, 1879; named for intermediate
rocks between Cambrian and Silurian.
Silurian: Murchison, 1835; deposits of Wales.
Devonian: Sedgwick and Murchison, 1839; old
graywacke
of
Devonshire,
SW
England,
which correlates with the Old Red
Sandstone.
Carboniferous: W. D. Conybeare and W. Phillips, 1822;
named after the coal measures of England, with type
locality in the English Pennines.
Mississippian Subsystem: A. Winchell, 1870; proposed
for the Carboniferous limestones of the USA, which are
typically found in the valley of the Mississippi River.
Pennsylvanian Subsystem: H. S.
synonym of the Carboniferous
welldeveloped in Pennsylvania.

Williams, 1891;
coal measures,

Permian: Murchison, 1841; based on exposures adjacent


to the Ural Mountains, Russia, in the province of Perm;
includes the Lower New Red Sandstone.
Mesozoic Erathem: J.Phillips, 1840; means "middle life".

Jurassic: A. van Humboldt, 1799; exposures in the Jura


Mountains of France and Switzerland.
Cretaceous: d'Halloy, 1822; "chalk" from Latin "creta,"
exposures in France, corresponding to the White Cliffs of
Dover, SE England.
Cenozoic Erathem: J. Phillips, 1840; means "recent
life."
Tertiary System: Arduino, 1760; oldest term in stratiphic
nomenclature; covers Paleocene to
Pliocene.

Eocene: C. Lyell. 1833; means "dawn recent."


Oligocene: E. Beyrich, 1854; means " small or little
recent" and proposed to cover Lyell's (and other workers')
Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene.
Neogene Subsystem: M. Hoernes, 1856; includes the
Miocene and Pliocene.
Miocene Series: C. Lyell, 1833; means "less recent."
Pliocene: C. Lyell, 1833; means "more recent."
Quaternary System: J. Desnoyers, 1829; derives its name
from tripartite division of pre-Quaternary time (primary,
secondary and Tertiary) in France; includes the
Pleistocene and Recent.
Pleistocene Series: C. Lyell, 1839; formerly named
Newer Pliocene by Lyell in 1833, means "most recent"
and covers the last glaciation.
Recent or Holocene: C. Lyell, 1833; all post
Pleistocene or post-Tertiary rocks.

Numerical and Relative Dating

Relative dating is carried out by means of fossils,


sedimentation rates, physical and chemical processes
(e.g., Milankovitch cycles), growth rates of organisms
and plants, tree rings and biblical accounts. Examples:
(1) Archbishop Ussher of Ireland (1581 to 1665) traced the
origin of the earth from biblical accounts to the evening
of October 22, 4004 BC.
(2) Charles Lyell used the rate of molluscan evolution to
estimate that 240 million years have passed since the
Ordovician.
(3) John Joly in 1899 estimated 90 million years for the age
of the earth from changes in chemical composition of
oceans.
(4) Estimates from the maximum thicknesses of sedimentary
rocks by several authors vary from 3 to 1,584 million
years (Table 14.1).
(5) Lord Kelvin (1824 to 1907) estimated an age <100
million years from the rate of cooling of the earth.

The discovery of radioactivity by the French


man Henri Becquerel in 1896 led to
radiometric dating early in the 20th century.
This is the basis of absolute dating. Radiometric
dating is substantiated by magnetostratigraphy,
and the dates are based on several methods, notably
U-Pb and K-Ar dating. They were used to date the origin
of the earth as 4.6 billion years.
a

Based on estimates of max.


thicknesses of sedimentary
rocks.

Spread evenly over the land areas.

Rate of denudation.

Table 14.1. Estimates of the age of the earth (from Prothero,


1990, based on Holmes, 1913).

Who actually discovered radioactive decay?

52

EON
Phanerozoic

Date
Author
1860 Phillips
1869 Huxley
1871 Haughton
1878 Haughton
1883 Winchell
1889 Croll
1890 de Lapparent
1892 Wallace
1892 Geikie
1893 McGee
1893 Upham
1893 Walcott
1893 Reade
1895 Sollas
1897 Sederholm
1899 Geikie
1900 Sollas
1908 Joly
1909 Sollas

ERA

PERIOD

Cenozoic

Quaternary

Rate of

Age

Max.

Deposit

Neogene
(millions

Thickness (ft)
72,000
100,000
177,000
177,200

(yrs/1 ft)
1332
1000
8616
?

6000
600Meozoic

ofPaleogene
years)
96
100
1526
200
3
72
Cretaceous
90

12,000
150,000
177,200
100,000
264,000
264,000

31,680
164,000

265,000
265,000
335,000

158
730-6800
6000
316

3000
100

Paleozoic
100
300
100

28
73-680
Jurassic
1584
100
45-70
95
Triassic
17
35-40
Permian
100
26.5
80
Pennsylvanian
80
Carboniferous
Mississippian

EPOCH
Holocene
Pleistocene

DATE
1.8
m.y.

COMMENTS
Modern man
Stone age man

Pliocene
Miocene

23
m.y.

Mammals dominate;
many flowers
1st dogs and bears

Oligocene

1st pigs and apes

Eocene
Paleocene

1st elephants
65.5
m.y.

145
m.y.

200
m.y.
251
m.y.
299
m.y.

1st horses
End of ammonites & dinosaurs
First flowers
Dinosaurs on land;
ammonites in seas
1st mamals
Redbeds & evaporites
Breakup of Pangea
Rise of reptiles
1st reptiles
Coal forests
Many amphibians

318 m.y.
Devonian

359 m.y.

Silurian

Many fishes
1st land plants
1st coral reefs

416 m.y.
Ordovician
444 m.y.
Cambrian
n
ai
rb
m
a
c
e
r
P
r
o
ci
o
z
o
r
p
yr

488 m.y.

542 m.y.
700+ my
Proterozoic

1st fishes
Rise of invertebrates;
many trilobites
1st hard parts

1.5 b.y.

Worms & algae


1st sexual repoduction
1st double-walled organisms
Many stromatolites
1st free oxygen

2.0 b.y.
2.5 b.y.
Archaean

3.1 b.y.
3.8 b.y.

Hadean
C

4.38 b.y.
4.6 b.y.

1st recorded organisms


1st granitic crust
Origin of the Earth

Figure 14.1. The geologic time scale.

SECTION 15
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
FACIES
The term "facies" is generally credited to the Swiss
geologist Amanz Gressly who first proposed the
concept in 1838. A facies is a body of rock with
specified characteristics. It is defined on the basis of
color, bedding, composition, texture, fossils and
sedimentary structures. Facies are usually applied to
denote consistent characteristics in rocks. For
example, lithofacies places emphasis on physical and
chemical characteristics (i.e., lithology), whereas
biofacies refers to a situation where primary
consideration is given to the biologic or paleontologic
content. Log facies and seismic facies have now been
added to facies usage with increasing use of
subsurface data in environmental analysis. In strict
sense a facies should be a distinctive rock formed
under certain conditions of sedimentation, which
reflect a particular process or environment.

Walther's Law
The importance of facies in sedimentology and
stratigraphy was recognized by Johannes Walther,

who introduced the law of the correlation of facies in


1894. This law states that "facies that occur in
conformable vertical successions of strata were
formed in laterally adjacent environments." By using
this law it is possible to make a logical interpretation of
stratigraphic successions; e.g., a lagoon should separate a
barrier from the coastal plain, while the shoreface and
shelf are seaward of a barrier. In unconformable
successions a break may represent the passage of any
number of environments whose products were
subsequently removed. Therefore, the preservation
potential of environments and their constituents,
especially in subaerial and subaqueous environments, is
very important in the application of Walther's law. Of
more importance is the rate of burial. Environments that
accumulate thick sequences rapidly (e.g., deltas) have a
good preservation potential while dunes accumulating
above sea level are very vulnerable to erosion.

Facies relationships
When interpreting facies sequences, stratigraphers must
look out for certain relationships that include the
following:
Contacts. Three main types of contacts exist, namely,
gradational, sharp and erosional (Fig. 15.1). In sharp
contacts where erosion cannot be demonstrated, the
facies were probably formed in depositional
environments that are widely separated in space.

Synsedimentary burrows sometimes result in mixed


or inverted contacts.

(migration of rivers, progradation), and/or (b) external


controls (sea level oscillations, climatic changes, tectonic
movements, etc.).

FACTORS
CONTROLLING
DISTRIBUTION
Gradational

Sharp

Erosional

Figure 15.1. Common types of contacts between facies.

Cycles.
These are repeated patterns of facies or
cyclic sedimentation, which are called cyclothems or
rhythms (Fig. 15.2). Cyclic sedimentation takes place
as a result of (a) repeated subsidence, (b) uplift, (c)
changes in sea level, and (d) oscillating sediment
supply. Interpretations of cyclothems can be very
subjective.

FACIES

Several factors affect the distribution of facies. Their


relative importance varies between different
environments and they are usually interrelated with
one another. The following discussion is based on
views by Reading (1986), Schoch (1989), Davis
(1992), Boggs (2012) and Prothero and Schwab
(2014).
Sedimentary Processes. These are all the processes
that are responsible for sedimentation in any given
environment. They include: tidal influence, sediment
instability or slumping, synsedimentary movements,
water velocity, and catastrophic events.
What are the settings of these processes?

Cycle 2

Cycle 1

Figure 15.2. A hypothetical succession showing two


cyclothems.

Associations and Sequences. Facies that occur


together are called associations, and they are
considered to be genetically or environmentally
related. Successions of facies within associations may
be random or in preferred order; e.g., thick-bedded
turbiditic sandstones may be interbedded with
conglomerates, slump deposits and mudstones, while
thin-bedded forms may be interbedded with
mudstones alone.
A facies sequence is a series of facies that pass
gradually from one into the other, and they are
usually bounded by sharp or erosive bases and tops.
Such sequences may occur alone or may be cyclic. In
clastics, two types of sequences are recognized:
coarseningupward and fining-upward sequences.
They may reflect (a) local sedimentological controls

Sediment Supply. The type of sediment available is


fundamental to facies formation, and so does the amount
of sediment supply control the thickness of depositional
facies. Sediment supply comes from two sources:
(a) Extrabasinal or terrigenous:

(b) Intrabasinal or biochemical:

Therefore, within any environment, effect of sediment


supply depends mainly on sediment availability,
subsidence and sea level changes.
Sea level Changes. These changes may be eustatic or
local. Eustatic sea level fluctuations are due to changes in
the volume of ocean water or ocean basins as a result of
tectonics (sea floor spreading) and possibly glaciations.
Local changes are due to sediment input, sediment
loading of the crust, vertical tectonic movement, and
isostatic depression and rebound. Two basic situations
result from sea level changes: transgression and
regression (progradation).

Water Chemistry. Variations in the salinity, pH, and


composition of sea and lake waters affect facies
formation. Water chemistry is influenced by climate and
oceanic circulations. It governs the formation of
carbonates, phosphates and other chemical precipitates.
Local accumulations of oozes (e.g., diatomites) result
from upwelling of nutrient-rich waters, which is tied to
oceanic circulation.

Transgression:
This
situation
(also
called
retrogression) arises when subsidence and rise in sea
level are more important than the supply of
terrigenous sediments. The environment deepens and
there is an increase in chemically and biologically
formed (intrabasinal) sediments. Erosion, reworking
and diagenesis of sediments are also common
features. Transgressive sequences have fining-upward
profiles. Why would sea level rise not be
accompanied by transgession?

Volcanism.
Volcanism
provides
local
sources of sediments and ions in solution. The
existence of volcanic hills and islands (e.g., in the ocean)
cause rapid changes in
the
environment,
especially
water depth.
UNCONFORMITIES

Regression: This occurs when the supply of


terrigenous sediments is more important than
subsidence and rise in sea level. The net effects are
progradation and increase in the proportion of
continental facies, resulting in coarsening-upward
profiles.

Climate. Temperature and rainfall are the main


climatic factors that affect facies formation, although
wind levels may be locally important in eolian facies.
Seasonal extremes and sporadic fluctuations of
climatic factors are particularly important.
Temperature indicators in the stratigraphic record
include:

Rainfall indicators:

The concept of unconformities is fundamental to


stratigraphic studies. It was first recognized by James
Hutton in the Isle of Arran, Scotland, in 1787.
Unconformity is a rock term which represents any of the
following:
any significant break in time within a stratigraphic
olumn; or
any important stratigraphic discontinuity; or an interval
representing missing time which leaves no tangible
stratigraphic record.
Thus, an unconformity represents either a surface of
non-deposition, a surface of erosion, or a combination of
the two. Diastem is a term used to describe a short break
marking a period of nondeposition, e.g., a bedding plane.
In a more general sense a lacuna denotes a considerable
time span missing from the rock record, and is composed
of a degradational vacuity (a break due to erosion), and
a hiatus (a time interval when strata where never
deposited).

Types of unconformities (Fig. 15.3)


Therefore, climate is a measure of paleolatitude and is
a universal facies factor.
Tectonics. This is another universal factor, which
governs the broad distribution of highlands, basins,
geographical framework of sediment supply, and
climate. Tectonics can cause local facies changes
across fault lines.
Biological Activity. Organic sedimentation results
from the actions of living and dead plants and
animals, such as accumulation of thick plant debris to
form coal, formation of reefs, diatomites, etc.
Organisms are closely associated with chemical
precipitates, which have strong effects on the pH and
Eh of sediment pore waters.

Angular Unconformity. This represents an angular


discordance separating two units of stratified rocks. It
normally results from large-scale diastrophism, and
should not be confused with horizontal bedding
overlying large-scale cross-bedding.
Nonconformity. This is recognized where stratified rocks
succeed nonstratified rocks, i.e., igneous and
metamorphic rocks. The unconformable surface is
usually erosive.
Disconformity. In this type of unconformity, an erosional
surface of appreciable relief separates parallel bedded
sedimentary rocks.
Paraconformity. The bedding of the rocks above and
below a paraconformity are parallel, and the

unconformable surface is a normal bedding plane.


Biostratigraphic evidence is used to recognize such
obscure unconformities.

Figure 15.3 Four major types of unconformities (from Boggs,


2012).

Criteria Used for Recognition of Unconformities


(1)

(7)

(2)

(8)

(3)

(9)

(4)

Example: The Grand Canyon (Fig. 15.10, p. 336 in


the
textbook)

(5)
(6)

66
LITHOLOGIC CORRELATION
Lithologic correlation primarily involves the
correlation of geographically separated parts of a
single lithostratigraphic unit. Because of lateral
facies changes, most sedimentologists do not refer
to lithologic correlation as time equivalence.

Physical and chemical criteria of correlation


Each of the following methods has serious pitfalls,
which make the task of the stratigrapher rather
difficult.
Physical Continuity. This method involves tracing of
individual beds from one section to another. It is,
theoretically at least, one of the most reliable methods
of correlation, and is based on the assumption that
deposition of a thin, traceable bed took a relatively
short time span. The method has several limitations:
(1)

(2)

(3)

Lithologic Similarities. Rocks in different areas may


resemble one another in various respects, e.g.,
composition,
textures,
color,
topographic expressions and weathering
characteristics. The greater the number of characters
that can be matched, the better the correlation. The
occurrence of a key bed, e.g. coal, in an area is useful
if the key bed is not repeated in the sequence. The
main limitation of this correlation method is that
similarity in lithologic characters may be a reflection
of similar environments of deposition and similar
source areas, and not of time. Hence environmental
correlation should be distinguished from time
correlation. Geophysical well logs are used for
subsurface correlation.

Stratigraphic Position. Each lithologic unit occupies a


unique position with respect to other subadjacent and
superadjacent strata in the same area. Once the
stratigraphic succession is established in one area,
recognition of an identical succession in an equivalent
stratigraphic horizon in another area strongly suggests
correlation.
Unconformities. Unconformities can
be
obvious markers on a regional scale, and are good tie
points between stratigraphic
sections.
However, unconformities do complicate the process
of correlation in certain instances. One of the main
limitations of this method is that the rocks above and
below an unconformity may not correlate because the
lacuna above and below an unconformity can increase in
size over distance.
Radiometric Dating. Age determination based on the
decay of radioactive minerals furnish precise criteria for
correlation. The common methods used are U-Pb, K-Ar
and Rb-Sr. Again, there are limitations. For example,
more precise dates are achieved from U-Pb which occur
mostly in igneous and metamorphic rocks, and
radioactive minerals have spotty occurrences in
sedimentary
rocks. There is
also
unsatisfactory precision of most radiometric dates
because of addition or loss of elements through geologic
time.
Reading Assignment: Time Correlation (p. 342-345 in
the textbook)

STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
Four major categories of units are used for stratigraphic
classification:
(1) Lithostratigraphy or rock units: classification on the
basis of lithologic characters.
(2) Biostratigraphy: stratigraphic distribution of fossils,
used for defining biozones.
(3) Geochronology or geologic time units: abstract concept
marked by changes in radioactive decay, fossil faunas,
etc.
(4) Chronostratigraphy or time-rock units: sum total of
rocks formed worldwide during a specified increment of

67
geologic time. Boundaries are generally established
by biostratigraphy and radiometric data.

The hierarchy of the units can be shown as follows:

Time!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!
Time-Rock

Rock

Note that the subdivisions of periods usually begin


with upper case letters, as in Lower or Early, Middle,
Upper or Late Cambrian. Early and late relate to
time.

THE STRATIGRAPHIC CODE


Stratigraphic
nomenclature
is
extensive
and
comprehensive, and is governed by formal codes, such
as the North American Commission on Stratigraphic
Nomenclature (2005; reprinted in Appendix A in the
textbook) and the international stratigraphic guide edited
by Salvador (1994). In order to formally designate a
stratigraphic unit, the intent and description must

be published in a recognizable scientific medium,


following the rule of priority. The statement of
intention should be made known right at the
beginning of the exercise. The author should state if
a new unit is being proposed or an existing formal or
informal unit is being modified. The following steps
are normally adhered to when naming or revising
units. (Important: Always include the title of
every step in any discussion)

(1) Name and rank of unit: State whether it is


lithostratigraphic
(group,
formation,
member),
chronostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, etc.

(2) Locations of type (stratotype) and reference sections,


including a map or air photograph.

Rock Units
Rock units have a hierarchy but they do not have a
time connotation. The fundamental unit of
lithostratigraphy is the formation. This must have
identifiable and distinct characteristics, and must be
mappable on the earth's surface or traceable in the
subsurface. A formation is named after the geographic
feature (e.g., town, river) near which it is well
developed, and must start with an upper case letter
(e.g., Gasconade Formation, Bonneterre Dolomite).
In informal usage it should not be so, e.g., the
sandstone formations in Missouri. Formations can be
either lumped into groups or subdivided into
members.

(3) Detailed description of the unit in the stratotype: Include


information on the character and height of the section or
well depth of contacts.

(4) Local and regional aspects: Comment on geographic


extent, variations in thickness, composition, etc.

(5) Graphic log of the unit: Include geophysical logs of


subsurface units

68
Types of Fossils
(6) Location of curated
university, museum.

reference

material,

e.g.,
Three major categories of fossils occur:
(1) Body fossils: Actual remains of plants and animals,
such as bones and shells.

(7) Correlation with other units: Comment on temporal,


spatial or any other relationship to contemporaneous
units in adjacent areas. Any information on age and
the basis for assignment should be discussed.

(2) Trace fossils: Evidence of activities by organisms;


e.g. footprints, tracks, and burrows.
(3) Chemical fossils: Organic remains that are extracted
from rocks, such as spores and pollen.

SECTION 16
Index Fossils

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
Biostratigraphy is the use of fossils for dating and
stratigraphic correlation. It is the basis for
chronostratigraphy or rock-time units. The
distribution of fossils in the rock record is controlled
by the following factors:
(1) Evolution: This refers to the progressive changes in
species through time. Its use is based on the
sequential, non-repeating appearance of fossils called
irreversibility of evolution. The presence of a single
fossil can be used very accurately for dating and
correlation, unlike lithology, magnetic polarity,
isotopic composition, etc.

Not all fossils are useful for dating rocks. Only a handful
can be used to define a particular time. These are
referred to as index or guide fossils. Their characteristics
include but are not limited to the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

(2) Paleoecology: This is the study of the factors that


govern the distribution and abundance of plants and
animals in natural environments. Because many
organisms are facies-controlled, they can not be
found everywhere and used for correlation. Very
often organisms migrate with their environments over
time and may not change evolutionally, e.g., the
inarticulate brachiopod Lingula.
(3) Migration: Where there are no geographical barriers,
immigrations and emigrations of organisms take
place, making them widespread for correlation.
(4) Preservation and discovery: These are favored by the
presence of hard parts, marine depositional
environments, reducing conditions, rock preservation
(no recrystallization or metamorphism) and luck.
Both evolution and paleoecology are the most
important factors and they tend to be conflicting
sometimes.

(g)

Well known index fossils include trilobites (used for


zoning the Cambrian period), graptolites (Ordovician
and Silurian), ammonites (Jurassic and Cretaceous),
coccolithophores
or
calcareous
nannofossils (Cretaceous and
Cenozoic)
and
foraminifera (Cenozoic). Land organisms
present special problems because hard parts oxidize and
break down easily, and the probability of preservation is
<1%. Also, several barriers can hamper migration over
land.
Zonation
The vertical stratigraphic distribution of a fossil is called
a range, and a compilation of ranges is termed zonation.
Therefore, a zone is marked by a species' or group of
species' first and last appearances. The various classes of
biostratigraphic zones are called biozones, and they are

69
controlled mainly by evolution, extinction,
immigration, emigration and environment. Four
types of biozones are generally used, some of which
are illustrated in Figure 16.1.

range zone is that with overlapping stratigraphic ranges.


Range zones have a more general application. Four
methods are used in recognizing concurrent range zones
(see Fig. 16.2).

Assemblage zones. Also called oppel zones, these are


natural associations of three or more fossil taxa. They
are usually locally- and environmentally- controlled,
and they have vague boundaries.

Abundance zones. Also called peak or acme zones, they


are marked by the maximum abundance of a particular
species, and therefore not the total range.

Range zones. These give the total range of useful


elements in the fauna. A taxon range zone is named
after one particular species, while a concurrent

Interval zones. These are intervals between two distinct


biostratigraphic horizons, and they may lack fossils.

59

Figure 16.1. Classes of interval zones. (A) Concurrent range zones, defined by the first and last appearance of two or
more taxa with overlapping ranges. (B) Taxon range zone, defined by the first and last appearance of a single taxon.
(C) Lineage zones, or phytozones, defined by the evolutionary first appearance of successive taxa in a lineage. (D)
Interval zones, defined by two successive first or last occurrences of partially overlapping ranges (from Hedberg,
1976).

70
____

Figure 16.2. Four methods of recognizing concurrent range zones in a single section. Widths of lines indicate relative
abundance of specimens. Note that each method gives a slightly different zonation (from Eicher, 1976).

60
Biological Criteria for Correlation
The use of paleontological criteria in correlation
assumed primary importance after William Smith's
recognition of the principle of faunal succession.
This success has been enhanced by the irreversibility
of evolution. The major criteria used for correlation
are:
(1) Index fossils: When used, it is assumed that the strata
in which index fossils occur were deposited during
the life span of the fossils.
(2) Faunal or
floral similarity:
Statistical comparison of common species
between two local sequences, the age of one of
which is known. This method is used in the absence
of index fossils. Care should also be exercised not to
use ecologically controlled organisms.
(3) Stage of evolution: Genera that exhibit progressive
evolutionary advancement can be used for
correlation. If the general evolutionary sequence is
established in one area, strata in other areas can be
correlated with this on the basis of the evolutionary
advancement of the contained fossils.

Problems in Correlation
(1) Presence of breaks in the stratigraphic record.
(2) physical and biological facies change.
(3) Reworking of fossil faunas and floras.
(4) Migration of faunas with their environments.
(5) Strong ecological control of floras and faunas.
(6) Incompleteness of the fossil record.

Reading Assignment: North American Land Mammal


Ages and Biochronology (p. 375-376 in the
textbook)

71

Quantitative Biostratigraphy
Graphic Correlation. Introduced by A.B. Shaw (1964),
graphic correlation is very popular. It can be used for
correlating two local sections and on a regional basis. It
involves plotting the first and last appearance of species
in two sections on two axes, to produce a line of
correlation. If the rates of accumulation in the two
sections are equal, then a straight-line correlation is
produced (Fig. 16.3). If the species ranges have the same
spacing but the sections have different rates of
accumulation, a straight line will still be obtained.
However, the correlation line will be deflected toward
the axis with a higher accumulation rate (Fig. 16.4) For
two sections that have different rates of accumulation, a
change in slope will form a "dogleg" kink (Fig. 16.5).
When two sections have the same taxa but one section
has an unconformity or a fault, a "step" or "plateau" is
produced (Fig. 16.6).
Probabilistic Stratigraphy. This was invented by
William Hay in 1972. The method does not require the
measured thicknesses that are essential to graphic

Prothero and Schwab, 2014

correlation. Instead, the database consists of the order of


appearance of biostratigraphic events in multiple parallel
sections. The biostratigrapher is concerned with the
probability of such event, and the probabilistic
calculation is handled by the computer.
Multivariate Methods. Multivariate methods detect
similarities between data sets, and again, and they are
handled by the computer. Cluster analysis (Fig. 16.7),
principal correlation components analysis, principal
coordinates analysis, and correspondence analysis are
some of the methods used for assessment of similarity.
For more information, read Edwards (1982) and
Prothero (1990).
Rational Strategies.
This approach analyzes the
relationships between the ranges of all the taxa two at a
time (say A and B). Three possible relationships exist:
the range of species A is totally below that of B, totally
above it, or overlaps it. By extending this rational
procedure pair-wise through the entire data set, the
computer can generate an order of occurrence of all the
taxa in the data set.

72

Prothero and Schwab, 2014

73

Prothero and Schwab, 2014

Prothero and Schwab, 2014

74

Figure 16.7. Multivariate cluster analysis method of correlation. (A) Lithostratigraphy and position of the trilobite
samples from upper Franconia Sandstone (Upper Cambrian) of southern Minnesota. (B) Q-mode dendrogram
resulting from comparison of 65 samples containing 2 trilobite species. (C) Summary of the larger dendrogram,
showing four major clusters. (D) Biostratigraphic interpretation of results. (E) Principal components analysis of the
trilobite data, projected on the first and third eigenvectors (from Hazel, 1977).

75

SECTION 17
WELL LOGGING
Subsurface information is used for interpretation in
places where outcrops are limited. Such geophysical
techniques as well logging and reflection seismology
are used for correlation purposes. Information on
lithology, porosity, etc. can be derived from
recovered subsurface materials, i.e., conventional
cores, (most reliable) sidewall cores, and ditch
cuttings (least reliable). In drilled boreholes, the
drilling mud helps to lubricate the drilling area and
keep the subsurface pressure down. Well logging has

Resistivity Logs
Resistivity logs were used along with the SP log until
the development of more advanced techniques. They
measure the resisitivity of fluids in surrounding rocks
to an applied electrical current. There are three types:
16-inch (40-cm/ short normal) log, 64-inch (160-cm/
long normal) log, and 18'8" laterolog. Resistivity
increases with decreasing pore space, and the curves
are usually displayed alongside SP/gamma-ray logs
(Fig. 17.2). Note that salt water infiltrated by drilling
mud shows high resisitivity and can be mistaken for
oil. If spacing is increased, it will shift to the left.
Note: The greater the spacing, the more accurate the
reading.

been undertaken extensively by the international


firm, called SCHLUMBERGER. There are several
types of logs, each of which measures different
properties.
Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log
The SP log measures the electrical potential (movement of ions) in the borehole, and is therefore a
measure of permeability (it does not assign a
permeability value). Shales are impermeable, hence
their reading is near zero or positive (shale base line,
Fig. 17.1). Sandstones are permeable with near
negative readings. If a formation fluid is better
conducting than the drilling mud (e.g., salt water), the
SP curve will deflect to the left. If the formation fluid
is fresh water or oil, it will deflect to the right.
However, if the SP detects high porosity and
permeability, such a formation would deflect to the
left.

(-)
50mV

(+)

Shale base line

Figure 17.1. A hypothetical SP log showing reflections for shale,


sandstone and limestone.

SP logs are used to (a) detect permeable beds; (b) locate


their
boundaries,
thereby permitting correlation
and the interpretation of depositional environments; (c)
determine the values for formation water resistivity; and
(d) give qualitative indication of bed shaliness.
GR/SP

Resistivity

76

Gamma-Ray Log
This type of log measures the natural gamma radiation of
40

Low

rocks, from the g decay of K to argon in potassium


feldspar, micas, clays and organic matter. It is not
surprising therefore that shales, which are rich in the above
Low resistivity or
minerals, have the highest gamma-ray values. The log
high conductivity
( salt water
)
response is similar to SP but is measured in API units (Fig.
17.3) and is used for determining depositional
environments, and for correlation.
High

API

150

Could be due to:


(1) gas, (2) oil,
(3) freshwater (no SP),
(4) dense rock (e.g. limestone)
or calcite cement in
sandstone

Figure 17.2. Possible responses of resistivity log and GR/SP


logs.
Figure 17.3. A typical gamma-ray log response.

77

Density

GR/SP

Marine

Neutron

Along with SP log, GR shapes depict certain


depositional
environments
and
sea
level fluctuations.
For
example,
a
large-scale coarsening-upward sequence
(Fig. 17.4A) often depicts progradation, and
individual coarseningupward units may represent
coastal barrier and shoreface sequences. A finingupward sequence (Fig. 17.4B) often indicates
transgression on a large scale, while individual units
may be distributary channel-fills or point bar
sequences.

Tight

Shallow
offshore

Gas

Oil

Transgressive
Water

Coastal plain

Coastal barrier

Marine shale
sand
A

Figure 17.5. Responses of gamma-ray/SP, formation


density and neutron logs, with an example from a reservoir
sandstone.
GR/SP

Figure 17.4. Gamma-ray log shapes. A, Coarsening-upward


sequence depicting progradation; B, Fining-upward
sequence representing transgression.

Sonic

High

High

Low

Salt water

Porosity Logs
Three main types of porosity logs are used:
(1) Formation density log: Measures the density of
rocks as a function of porosity (Fig. 17.5).
(2) Neutron log: Measures the amount of hydrogen
present in rocks, which reflects the amount of
fluid-filled porosity (Fig. 17.5).
(3) Sonic log: Measures sound wave velocity
(interval transit time), which is dependent on
porosity. It is quite useful for correlation (Fig.
17.6).

Dual laterolog
Low

Tight sandstone
or limestone
Probably
oil,
may be gas

Gas

Figure 17.6. Responses of gamma-ray/SP logs, dual


laterolog and sonic log.

Dipmeter Logs
Often referred to as the geologist's log, dipmeter is
especially useful in petroleum exploration. Its
primary aim is the measurement of the magnitude
and direction of slope of sedimentary features, such

78
as bedding. For example, a bedding surface cutting
across a borehole at some angle will cause
microresistivity changes to be recorded on the
dipmeter curve, which is recorded with four-tool pad
electrodes. Dip measurements are mathematically
digitized to give arrow plots.
Dip trends. Dip trends can be used to interpret or
recognize structural features (faults, folds) and
stratigraphic features (depositional environments).
Different trends in magnitude and aximuth can
increase with depth, decrease, remain constant, or can
be erratic/chaotic (Figure 17.7). For ease of reference
oil company workers use colors to designate the
trends.
1) Constant or zero dip: This trend is generated by flat,
horizontal bedding (Fig. 17.7A), or tilted, horizontal
beds caused by large-scale tectonism (Fig.
17.7B). Oil company color is green.

Folds. Depending on the type of fold, the dip pattern


is variable (Fig. 17.10). For example, an asymmetric
syncline shows a decrease and then progressively
increases with depth (Fig. 17.10D).
Sedimentary environments. The dip pattern depends
on the type of environment (Fig. 17.11). Comments
about some of these environments can be found in the
section below.
Comments About Dipmeters and Some Rules of
Thumb
(1) Dipmeter will not give good data in rugose
(washed out) holes.

2) Dip increases with depth: Thickening of beds in


down-dip direction (Figs. 17.7C, D); also produced
by folds and faults and by differential compaction.
Red color.
3) Dip decreases with depth: Indicative of crossbedding,
and down-dip thinning possibly due to differential
compaction beneath a denser overlying deposit (Figs.
17.7E, F). Blue color.
4) Erratic dip: May show up blank on dipmeter plot, and
can form in the breccia zone of a fault (Fig. 17.7G).
Faults. Faults will only show up if one of the
following situations exist:
a zone of breccia. (FIG. 17.7G)
a series of parallel fault planes which are quite
closely spaced, and the beds between them are not
broken (Fig. 17.8A).
a change of dip from one block to the other (Fig.
17.8B).
a zone of progressive distortion on one or both
sides of the fault (Figs. 17.8C, D).
From the above situations, it can be seen that faults
may be red or blue.
Unconformities. Disconformities may go undetected
because there is no dip change (Fig. 17.9A). Angular
unconformities show changes in dip direction, and
this is similar to the case with faults. However, rocks
below unconformities dip more steeply because they
are older (Fig. 17.9B).
Therefore, unconformities are normally red.

(2) Dipmeters do not work well in deviated holes


drilled down-dip because of simple geometry
problems.
(3) Red pattern = decrease in dip upwards. Blue
pattern = increase in dip upwards.
Green pattern = no change in dip.
(4) Faults can be red or blue.
(5) Unconformities are normally red.
(6) Current bedding is normally blue or chaotic
within sandstones.
(7) Channel sands: Normally red with dips toward the
axis of the channel. Some blues (cross beds)
intermixed, but overall pattern is red. Channel
sands should be fining upward on gamma ray and
SP logs.

79
(8) Barrier island: Red with dips away from the axis
of the barrier island. Some blues (cross beds)
intermixed. Should be coarsening upward on
gamma
ray and SP logs
(9) Reefs: Core of the reef will be chaotic dips.
Drape over the crest will be red with dips away
from the crest. If the reef has foundered,
underlying beds will be blue and dip towards the
reef.
(10) Distributary mouth bar sands will give blue
patterns that theoretically dip seaward at about
10. Should be coarsening upward on gamma ray
and SP logs.

(11) According to Schlumberger (1986), water depths


can be identified by whether dips are chaotic
(shallow water, high energy) or regular (deep
water, turbidites) (see Fig. 17.12).
(12) Prograding submarine fans are supposed to give
blue patterns, and submarine channels should
again be red with dips toward the axes of the
channels.

80

Figure 17.7 Dip trends. A, No dip, horizontal bedding; B, Constant dip, tilted bedding; C, Dip increasing with
depth, down-dip thickening; D, Dip increasing with depth,, drape and channel filling; E, Dip decreasing with
depth, cross-bedded strata; F, Dip decreasing with depth, differential compaction beneath a sand lens; G,
Erratic dips, breccia zone of a fault (from Schlumberger, 1986).

81

Figure 17.8. Dip patterns in faulted horizons. A, Series of parallel fault planes; B, Change in dip across fault
plane; C, Drag along the fault plane, upper block; D, drag along the fault plane, upper and lower blocks (from
Schlumberger, 1986).

Figure 17.9. Dipmeter results from some unconformities.


A, Disconformity;
B, Angular unconformity.

82

83
Figure 17.10. Variable dipmeter patterns in folded structures. A, Symmetric fold, anticline; B, Symmetric
fold, syncline; C, Overturned anticline; D, Asymmetric fold, anticline; E, Asymmetric fold, Syncline; F,
Recumbent anticline; G, Plunging anticline.

Figure 17.11. Dipmeter results from different depositional environments. A, Distributary channel sand,
Louisiana; B, Dipmeter log of a well drilled southeast of a reef; C and D, Dipmeter data from wells drilled in
a turbidite environment.

84
Figure 17.12. Depositional depths estimated from dipmeter data.

SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY
Reflection seismology is primarily concerned with
compressional or longitudinal waves, which are
elastic body waves in which the particle motion is in
the direction of propagation. Geologists and
geophysicists have now begun considering shear or
transverse waves and surface waves more seriously in
seismic reflection studies.

Principles
Reflection is a process of convolution and it is
produced by abrupt changes in seismic velocity,
which usually denote a sharp contrast in density.
Reflection coefficient f() = 22 11
22 + 11 where = density, and = velocity.
Figure 17.13 illustrates the basic principle of seismic
reflection. For example, a very dense medium will
have high velocity whereas less dense medium (e.g..
gas) will record low velocity. Three-dimensional and
4-dimensional seismic reflection seismology are now
being widely employed by geophysical companies,
instead of the conventional 2-D method.

waves two-way travel time down to a reflecting layer and back. B,


Moving the shot point and geophone generates a series of
reflections of the layer. C, These reflections show up as the wiggly
trace on the seismic record, which can be correlated across the
profile (from Anstey, 1982).

Seismic Profiles
The vertical scale of seismic profiles is the twoway travel time, which may or may not be
linearly related to actual lithologic thicknesses.
Profiles are produced by changes in density (e.g.,
bedding) and they are used to identify large-scale
underground structures and unconformities. Most
times, only the most prominent lithologic breaks
appear on the seismic record. Unlayered
structures are characterized by a random scatter of
reflections, such as the core of a reef, and a salt
dome (Fig. 17.14).

Figure 17.14. The reflection-free interior of a salt dome


(from Anstey, 1984).

Seismic profiles are used for facies analysis, and


distinctive features give clues to depositional
environments. For example, three-dimensional
seismic shows meandering stream systems and
fan systems; and reefs and salt domes show up as
mounds. In general, nonmarine beds have jagged
reflections with many discontinuous horizons,
but quiet marine beds have smooth, continuous
and homogeneous reflections.

Relations of Strata to Surfaces of Unconformities

Figure 17.13. The basic principle of seismic reflection. A, When a


layer of seismic wave is generated, the geophone picks up the

The six patterns discussed below are illustrated in


Figure 17.15.

85
Erosional truncation. Strata at the top of a given
sequence terminate against the upper boundary,
mainly as a result of erosion; e.g., tilted strata
terminating against a horizontal erosional
surface.

Seismic reflections have revolutionized sequencee


stratigraphy in the last 25 years. They were used to
develop the Vail curves, which interpret the
fluctuations in sea levels throughout geologic time.
These were based on the recognition of unconformity
surfaces discussed above.

Toplap. Initially inclined strata at the top of a


sequence terminate against the upper boundary
as a result of non-deposition.
Downlap. At the base of a sequence, initially inclined
strata terminate down-dip against initially horizontal
or inclined strata.
Onlap. At the base of a sequence, initially horizontal
strata terminate progressively against initially
inclined surface; or initially inclined strata terminate
progressively against a surface of greater inclination.
Concordance. Relationship in which strata at the top
and base of a sequence do not terminate against
the
upper and
lower boundaries,
respectively. Synonymous with paraconformity.
Overstep or overlap. Relationship between beds
overlying
and
underlying
an
angular unconformity. This is usually recognized on a
regional scale.

SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Fluctuations in sea level are important driving
mechanisms
for
shifting
depositional
environments in space. Consequently, some
strata are buried and preserved in the
stratigraphic record according to Walther's law.
Others may be eroded and represented by
unconformities. Sloss (1963) was one of the first
stratigraphers to recognize extensive, large scale
cycles in the stratigraphic record of North
America. These unconformity-bounded cycles or
sequences are thicker near the continental
margins (geosynclines) and thinner in the
cratonic interior (Fig. 17.16). Each typically
starts with thick quartz sandstone at the base,
which is overlain by carbonate rocks and
increasing shales toward the cratonic edge. Some
of the boundaries may be marked by tectonic
events,
e.g.
Sauk-Tippecanoe
boundary
experienced Taconic orogeny in eastern U.S.A.
These unconformities can be matched up
between some continents.
Stratigraphic Cycles and Their Causes

Figure 17.15. Relations of strata to surfaces of


unconformities.

Vail Curves

Using seismic and other data from passive


margins of several continents in the 1970's,
Peter. R. Vail (now at Rice University, Houston,
Texas) and his colleagues at Exxon Oil Company
recognized packages of sediments that are
bounded by unconformities. These sequences
appear to be correlative all over the world, and
occur on a much smaller scale "time-wise" than
the North American sequences recognized by
Sloss (1963) This led to the development of the
Vail curves which describe sea level changes
through geologic time. Vail and others (Vail et al.
1977, Haq et al, 1987, 1988) described four types
of cycles which represent small, medium and
large scale sea level cycles of onlap and offlap.
They used seismic reflection techniques to
recognize the cycles, and then tied their data to

86
surface outcrop studies for recognition of
unconformities.
The unconformable surfaces were formed
during falls in sea level. Several higher-order
cycles (up to seventh-order) are recognized in
many sequences, such as the Late Cretaceous
Book Cliffs in Utah. The term sequence
stratigraphy is used to denote the integration of
all aspects of seismic reflections and rock
sequences in the interpretation of sea level

changes and chronostratigraphy.


Hence,
sequence stratigraphy is the study of
genetically related facies within a framework
of
chronostratigraphically
significant
surfaces.

Figure 17.16. Sloss' diagram of the time-stratigraphic relationships of unconformity-bounded


sequences in North America. Dark areas represent large gaps in the stratigraphic record, which
become smaller toward the continental margins. Light areas represent strata (from Sloss, 1963).
__

87
First-Order Cycles Similar to the super-cycles of
Fischer (1981, 1982), these cycles have durations
of 200 to 400 million years (Fig. 17.17). They
have been related to major plate movements,
which resulted in the formation and breakup of
the supercontinent Pangaea.
Second-Order Cycles. These are eustatic cycles
caused by changes in oceanic ridge volume and
sea floor spreading rates. For example, rapid
periods of seafloor spreading increased ridge
volume, causing a rise in sea level. They are 10 to
100 million years in duration (Fig. 17.17) and
correspond to Sloss' sequences in North America.
Recently, some workers (e.g., Hubbard, 1988)
have related these cycle boundaries to local
tectonic activity, suggesting that the second-order
cycles may not be on a global scale. However,
their formation is probably a combination of
worldwide sea level changes with tectonics
accounting for differences between basins at
different places on the globe.

Third-Order Cycles. These cycles are similar to the


mesothems of Ramsbottom (1979) and 1 to 10
million years in duration. They were probably
produced by ridge changes and/or continental ice
growth and decay (see Fig. 17.18). They are
especially recognizable in the epochs of the Tertiary
period.
Fourth-Order Cycles. The fourth-order cycles have a
duration of 0.1 to 1.0 million years and are easily
recognized during the Quaternary and Pennsylvanian
periods (Fig. 17.18). Related to the cyclothems of
Wanless and Weller (1932), they were formed by
rapid fluctuations in sea level during glacial advance
and retreat, and during the growth and abandonment
of deltas. They are now called Milankovitch cycles
because their periodicity is affected by variations in
the earth's orbital geometry and axis.
Note: Because cycles that have global eustatic
controls have time significance, Ager (1981) called
such correlation event stratigraphy. (See p. 351-352
in the textbook.)

Figure 17.17. First- and second-order cycles during the Phanerozoic (from Vail et al., 1977).

88

Figure 17.18. Cenozoic time scale, showing third-and fourth-order cycles (from Haq et al., 1987).
Systems Tracts. A complete cycle has three
components: lowstand systems tract (LST) or
shelf margin systems tract (SMST),
transgressive systems tract (TST) and highstand
(2)
systems tract (HST) (see handout). According
to Van
Waggoner et al. (1988, 1991), the cycle starts
(3)
with a fall in sea level, LST, during which
incised valleys are formed on the continental
shelf, and fluvial deposits prograde onto the
shelf edge. If there is no significant drop in
GEOLOGICALLY
relative sea level, SMST stage is formed
instead of LST.
INSTANTANEOUS EVENTS
When sea level starts to rise, TST stage
begins and marine deposits are laid down.
In the absence of radiometric dates, markers can be
Eventually, a highstand is reached (HST)
delineated by their widespread and distinctive nature.
during which deltas can form and result in the
Such events are usually of a few years' duration and are
deposition of floodplain and shallow marine
considered instantaneous with respect to geologic time.
sediments. The erosional base of the cycle is
Examples of geologically instantaneous deposits
called a sequence boundary, and it could be a
include:
type 1 (with LST) of a type 2 (with SMST).
Smaller subdivisions are called parasequences
(1) Diagenetically altered volcanic ash layers, called
and parasequence sets.
bentonites. Their use is called tephostratigraphy or
tephochronology.
Important points:
(1)

(2) Turbidites.

89
(3) Debris flows.
(4) Tektites, which are formed by the impact of
meteorites.

VIDEO on Seismic
Stratigraphy (46 minutes)

as magnetite and hematite. In cooling


igneous rocks these minerals only lock into
a permanent magnetic remnants when they
cool to a temperature called Curie point
(650C and 578C for hematite and
magnetite respectively). The Curie point is a
critical point for magnetization to take
place. There are three types of remanent
magnetization:
(1) Thermal remanent magnetization (TRM):

(1) Seismic reflections vs. lithofacies.


(2) Definitions of reflection patterns (shown in
Fig. 17.15 of class notes: toplap, downlap,
onlap, truncation, etc.).

(2) Detrital remanent magnetization (DRM):

(3) Variables that affect sequence stratigraphy.


(4) Systems tracts: Take notes on the following:

The explanations given for the role of


accommodation
potential
and
changes in sea level in the
depositional patterns in the LST, TST,
and HST.

Types of sediments deposited in each


systems tract, and their seismic
reflection patterns.

The recognition of the two types of


sequence boundaries.

Lithofacies of the systems tract in the


Guadalupe
Mountains
(Delaware/Permian Basin), which is
the basis of the video.

MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY
Magnetic polarity stratigraphy or
magnetostratigraphy
deals
primarily with surface outcrops. It
must be used with other
geochronologic method to achieve
a high precision.
Concepts
Most rocks contain naturally
occurring magnetic minerals, such

(3) Chemical remanent magnetization (CRM):

Sampling, Measurement, and Analysis


Usually, the sample is drilled with respect to the true
north and then taken to the laboratory for measurement
with a magnetometer (a devise that measures both the
intensity and the direction of the magnetic vector of a
sample). Samples that are strongly magnetized can be
measured with a spinner magnetometer. However, most
samples are too weakly magnetized or too poorly
cemented together to be measured by a spinner
magnetometer. Such specimens are measured with a
cryogenic magnetometer.
When a sample is first measured in the laboratory, all
the magnetization it has acquired since it was first
formed is still present. This initial magnetization is
called the natural remanent magnetization (NRM).
Often, the primary magnetization of the sample is
overprinted by a younger magnetization direction that
was picked up from the earth's present magnetic field
(Prothero and Schwab, 2014). To get rid of the younger
overprinting, each sample must be partially
demagnetized, or "cleaned," until only the primary
component remains. Demagnetization can be done in
two ways, and sometimes both are used on the same
sample: alternating field demagnetization and
thermal demagnetization. Demagnetization can be a

90
complicated, tedious procedure,
sometimes leads to erroneous results.

which
(b)

Field Reversals and the Polarity Time Scale


The results of all this sampling, cleaning, and
measurement is a series of rock samples that
show the direction and approximate intensity of
the earth's magnetic field at the time they were
lithified. In 1906, the French physicist Bernard
Brunhes was the first person to note reversed
polarity in some volcanic rocks (180 from the
normal direction). This observation was not
followed up until the early 1960s when groups
of researchers at the U.S. Geological Survey
and Australian National University began to
study the magnetization of ancient rocks
systematically. It is now believed that rocks of
the same age have the same magnetic polarity.
This belief led to the
development of the magnetic
polarity time scale (Fig.
17.19). The application of this
time scale is based on two
major findings, namely:
(a)

(b)

During periods of mixed or rapidly


changing polarities, such as the
Latest Cretaceous and Cenozoic
(Fig. 17.19), data are much more
suitable for magnetostratigraphy. In
summary, magnetostratigra-phy is
based on the recognition of a
pattern of fluctuations between two
stable states: normal and reversed
polarities. Limitations include:
(a)

(c)

Magnetostratigraphy has been incorporated


into the new North American Stratigraphic
Code. In the early days of magnetic
stratigraphy, polarity events were called
epochs and were named after great scientists
associated with magnetisms (Brunhes,
Matuyama, Gauss, etc.), while shorter
changes in polarity within the epochs were
called events and were named after the place
they were found (e.g., Olduvai Gorge of
Tanzania, and Jaramillo Creek in New
Mexico). Events were called magnetic
polarity chrons to prevent confusion with the
epochs of geochronology. In the new
stratigraphic code, chrons can be subdivided
into subchrons or lumped into superchrons.
Like other formal stratigraphy units, the
magnetic polarity units require a type section
and adhere to the other recommended
procedures of formal designation and
publication.

91

Figure 17.19. The large scale pattern of the earth's polarity history, (A) Time scale according
to Cox (1982). Mixed polarity predominates except during the long Cretaceous normal and
the Permo-Carboniferous reversed episodes. The pre-Carboniferous polarity was poorly known at
the time. (B) Time scale according to Molostovsky et al. (1976), based on data
from the Siberian
Platform. This time scale goes back to the Cambrian, though the relative
lengths of zones and the
dating are not as well constrained as for the Mesozoic-Cenozoic
time scale (taken from
Prothero and Schwab, 2014).

Oxygen Isotopes. The common isotopes

CHEMOSTRATIGRAPHY
Some stable isotopes (those which do not decay
with time) can become more or less abundant
with respect to others during oceanographic
and climatic changes. These isotopes exist in
welldefined ratios in the ocean and atmosphere
as a result of fractionation by their differences
in atomic weight, and it is now used for
stratigraphic interpretation. Stable isotope
stratigraphy is not independent but needs
another time control, such as biostratigraphy, in
order to be efficient. All the methods in current
use carry out measurements on exclusively
marine organisms.

of oxygen are

16

O (which accounts for

18

99.756%) and O (which is heavier, and


is usually present in the ocean). On
examining foraminifera in 1947, Harold
Urey and Cesare Emiliani found out that
18

16

oxygen isotopic ratio (d O/ O)


fluctuated with changes in temperatures
caused by ice ages. Further studies (e.g.,
Urey, 1951) have revealed that
fluctuations in oxygen isotopic ratio are
due to both temperature and ice volume
effects. Figure 17.20 illustrates oxygen
fractionation during glacial-interglacial
cycles, and how the seawater becomes
18

enriched in O during glacial intervals.


Oxygen isotopes are measured with

92
respect
to
an
arbitrary
laboratory standard called PDB
(= Pee Dee Belemnite), since
calcite from belemnite is used
to
calibrate
the
mass
spectrometer. The ratio is
calculated using the following
equation:

match a pattern to the global oxygen isotope record.


Biostratigraphic control is needed to determine
which part of the total pattern is being matched. Like
magnetic stratigraphy, isotope stratigraphy is not
independent but depends on another method of
determining time. Unlike magnetic stratigraphy,
however, oxygen isotope stratigraphy is dependent on
lithology since marine shells are used.
Carbon Isotopes The two stable isotopes of
carbon are

12

C (which accounts for 98.89%)

13

and C (1.11%). These carbon isotopes


circulate through the ocean and are
incorporated into the calcite of organisms
13

shells and tests. C is measured in the


18

same way as O. However, the carbon


system is not controlled by ice volume and
temperature, but by oceanic circulation.
13

Organic materials tend to be low in C, so


when they decay, they release not only
12

13

13

excess C but less C; therefore, C


decreases in water, and deep oceans are
13

depleted in C. As changes in oceanic


circulation cause exchange between bottom
and surface waters, the former release their
Figure 17.20. Oxygen isotope fractionation
during glacial-interglacial cycles. A, Water

12

16

carrying the lighter isotope O is preferentially


evaporated to form clouds. As the clouds move
landward and rain out, they become even further
depleted in

18

O. During interglacials, however,

18

this O-poor water returns to the sea, and there


is no net change. B, During glacials, the
18

Odepleted water is trapped in the ice caps,

which have

18

16

16

18

18

oceanographic and climatic changes, which


are good time markers because they are
instantaneous and occur on a global scale.
Carbon isotopes are dependent on the nature
of marine organisms, and need another time
control (e.g., biostratigraphy).

18

O = --------------------------------------------x 100
18

18

Positive O values are enriched in O


indicating increased ice volume and
cooling; negative

Carbon isotopes are now being used to study continental


materials.
Strontium Isotopes. This relatively new
technique uses two stable isotopes of

16

( O/ O) standard
18

Note:

16

[( O/ O) sample - ( O/ O) standard]

16

of

O/ O ratios of -30. The ocean,

as a consequence, is relatively enriched in


(+1.6) (from Matthews, 1984).

18

13

C, which drives C more negative.


This whole process is a reflection

18

O values are enriched in

O indicating decreased ice volume and


warming. A series of samples is needed to

strontium: the more common


less common
87

87

86

Sr and the

Sr. The normal ratio of

86

Sr/ Sr
in
modern
oceans
is
approximately 0.7090, but this ratio
fluctuates as more

87

Sr is produced by the

93
87

radioactive decay of Rubidium.


This process has produced an
almost linear increase since the
Jurassic. Recent work has shown
that the rate of change is
continuous and linear since the
Late Eocene (Fig. 17.35, p. 414 in
the textbook). Its use is also limited
to normal marine organisms, with
87

reducing the atomic number by 1.


g-particle

40

K+e

40

Ar +

Another kind of emmision in the radioactive decay


process is called gamma radiation. It consists of a form
of invisible electomagnetic waves having even shorter
wavelengths than Xrays. The underlying basic principle
is that a radioactive "parent" element decays into a
stable "daughter" element at a constant rate. Therefore,
the rate of decay or lambda (l) is given as the fraction of
the initial number of parent element atoms. which decay
in unit time (per year). The half-life period (T) is the
time necessary for onehalf of the number of parent
element atoms to decay. The relationship between T and
l is:

86

the measurement of the Sr/ Sr


ratio of calcite in marine
organisms. It can be used to date
single samples, unlike other stable
isotopes methods.

T = 0.693/l
The decay of the parent to daughter may take place in
one step or in a series of steps, and T and l should be
accurately known for precise dating. In general, the
most reliable rates are derived from igneous rocks
because the moment of crystallization of a mineral
yields a sharp starting point. For metamorphic rocks,
the minerals yield a date for the last metamorphic event.
Table 18.1 lists some of the radiometric dating
techniques and the minerals that are used.

SECTION 18
GEOCHRONOLOGY
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is used for measuring the
absolute or numerical ages of rocks and events.
Called radiometric dating, it was pioneered
early in the 20th century. Its use depends on the
observation that the rate of decay of radioactive
elements is constant. It may involve the loss of
protons and/ or neutrons. There are three types
of decay, all of which take place entirely within
the nucleus.
(1) Alpha decay: Loss of protons and neutrons.
238

234

(2) Beta decay: Increase in atomic number by


1, from uncharged neutron emitted by the
parent atom changing into a positively40

40

Ca + e

U/Th/Pb

Pb/Pb

Fission track

Th + He (a-particle)

charged proton. Example:


(b-particle)

Dating Method Materials and rocks used

K/Ar

(3) Capture of beta particle: Electron capture


turns proton into a neutron, thereby

Ar/Ar

Zircon, uranite, sphene, apatite,


pyrochlore, monazite, pitchblende,
allanite, U or Th minerals
(mainly intrusive igneous rocks)
Galena, K-feldspar, tellurides,
carbonates in carbonatites
(mainly intrusive igneous rocks)
Zircon, sphene, apatite, garnet,
epidote, muscovite, volcanic glass
(mainly volcanic igneous rocks)
Muscovite, biotite, hornblende,
feldspars, glauconite, whole rock
volcanics, some glasses
(intrusive and volcanic igneous
rocks, come metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks)
Muscovite, biotite, K-feldspar.
glauconite

94
(same rocks as for K/Ar)
Muscovite, biotite, K-feldspar,
glauconite, apatite, sphene
(metamorphic, igneous and
some sedimentary rocks)
Organic materials, such as charcoal,
wood, cloth, paper, twigs, peat,
ivory, bones, shells, and pottery
(sedimentary rocks only)

Rb/Sr

C/N

Table 18.1. Common materials used for


geochronology

232

Th

40

40

40

11% K yields Ar, the remaining 89% yielding Ca.


These decays give off d and b particles, respectively,
and have half-life values of 11,850 m.y. and 1,470 m.y.
Because of the presence of two constants, the standard
equation for age determination is very complex. The

the possibility of leaking

40

Ar because of its inert

40

nature, and the fact that Ar from the atmosphere can


contaminate samples. For K/Ar method to be reliable,
certain criteria must be met:
(a)

206

235

Potassium/Argon. This is the most commonly used


method of radiometric dating. It is based on the fact that

40

Uranium/Thorium/Lead.
This is
the oldest technique in use. It is
also the most reliable for dating
igneous rocks because of the
abundance of uranium in some
rocks. Two isotopes of uranium can
be used, and lead can be derived
from thorium as follows:
U

The method has several requirements, and usually


produces large errors. However, it has been used
effectively for young Tertiary and Quaternary volcanics,
and for determining the provenance of zircon.

method yields very good results since Ar is formed


only by radioactive decay. Furthermore, potassium is
very abundant in rocks.
The main problems associated with the techniques are

Dating Techniques

238

material can be derived from counting the tracks.


Minerals used:

Pb + 8He (a-particle)

207

(b)

Pb + 7He

208

Pb + 6He

(c)

These decay patterns normally yield


erratic results. All three can be used
on concordia plots for cross
checking. The half-life values for
them respectively are 4,498 m.y.,
713 m.y. and 13,900 m.y.
Lead/Lead.

Because

207

Pb

Micas, hornblende, potassium feldspar and glauconite


can be used for measurement.
40

accumulates
206

approximately six times as fast as Pb, an age


can be obtained if the material used was free
initially from the two isotopes. Based on the
206

207

assumption that
Pb and
Pb are always
radiogenic, it is possible to obtain an estimate
of the earth's age since the crust crystallized.
This is done by comparing the isotopic ratios of
lead ores of differing geological ages.
Fission-Track Dating. This dating technique
deals with "tracks" left behind by the
238

spontaneous radioactive fission of


U. The
number of tracks is a function of the original
amount of radioactive parent, and the age of the

39

Argon/Argon. In recent years, the ratio of Ar/ Ar has


been used for dating rocks. The method involves the
bombardment of neutrons in a nuclear reactor to convert
39

39

39

39

K to Ar. Ar is very unstable, decays back to K


(b decay), and the argon can be extracted from the
sample after irradiation. The half-life is 269 years. By
irradiating a standard known age along with the sample,
40

and using stable Ar to correct for atmospheric and


other interferences, an age can be calculated once the
39

39

conversion rate of K to Ar is known. The age can be


obtained either by slowly heating a crystal and
measuring its argon, or by melting the crystal by laser
fusion. The advantages of this method include the
following:
(a)
(b)

95
Its main limitation is that the system can absorb
atmospheric argon.
Rubidium/Strontium. The b-decay
87

87

of Rb to Sr takes place in one


single step, with a half-life of
approximately 50,000 m.y. This
technique is more suitable for
dating Precambrian rocks. Since
neither element is common,
contamination and/or loss from the
system are usually unlikely. The
age formula has a correction factor
built in to correct for inherited
rubidium in the rock. It is very
unreliable in younger rocks because
a large error margin is usually
recorded since there is not enough
radiogenic strontium in the
samples. The method is useful in
dating
both
igneous
and
metamorphic rocks.
Carbon-14 Dating.
This dating
technique was commonly used in
archaeology during its early days of
development in the 1940s. The
decay process is shown as follows:
14

N+neutron (g-decay)

It is very good for dating wood, peat, coal,


bones, cloth, paper and shells, all of which
were once living materials. This is why it
can only be used to date sedimentary rocks.
14

Recently,
C dating has been proving
useful in dating the Pleistocene ice age
events.

CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY
Chronostratigraphy
attempts
an
integrated correlation
of
biostratigraphy,
geochronology, magnetostratigraphy and other dating
techniques (Fig. 18.2). It is called time-rock stratigraphy
because it establishes time relationships among geologic
units. Often times, two data sources may not agree or tie
in, and discrepancies can occur in data
collection,
as
in
radiometric
dating.
Chronostratigraphic
methods
fall
into
two categories:
(1) Unidirectional: Biostratigraphy and radiometric
dating.
2) Cyclical: Magnetostratigraphy, lithostratigraphy,
sequence stratigraphy, stable isotopes (except strontium
isotopes which are unidirectional).

14

C+H, decays to

14

N+b

The decay process has a half-life of


5,730 years, which makes it useful
for dating recent materials. Certain
assumptions are made, including (a)
14

the rate of C production in the


upper atmosphere is constant; and
14

(b) the rate of assimilation of C


by organisms is rapid, relative to its
rate of decay. Both assumptions
appear to be valid.
This procedure is very different
from other dating methods, and is
measured with a Geiger counter
instead of a mass spectrometer. The
main limitation in geological work
is its short half-life, and the fact
that it is not reliable for marine
shells. Why?

Figure 18.2. Flow chart of the procedures of stratigraphy and


their relationships, with chronostratigraphy at the central
repository (after Dineley, 1984).

Two things, namely precision and resolution, are


important in chronostratigraphic interpretations.
Precision is the inherent error of a system, which

96
indicates how repeatable measurements are,
while resolution is the ability of a system to
discriminate between two closely spaced events
in geologic time. For example, reworking, poor
preservation, etc. limit biostratigraphic
precision, whereas resolution is limited by the
rate of evolution. The following discussions
from Prothero (1990, Chapter 13, page 300317) show how chronostratigraphy is used on
local, continental and global scales. Prothero
and Schwab
(2014) also
discuss
the
global
Eocene/Oligocene boundary on pages 445-452.
Local Scale: Plio-Pleistocene of East Africa
Setting. Olduvai Gorge (northern
Tanzania) around Lake Turkana
(northern Kenya), Omo River
drainage (southern Ethiopia), and
Afar Triangle (Eritrea, Ethiopia and
Djibouti). This region is important
for hominid fossils, being the home
of our oldest hominid relative,
Ardipithecus
ramidus
(4.3-4.5
million years old). One of the most
famous specimens from the region is
a nearly complete skeleton of a
female nicknamed "Lucy," which
belongs
to
Australopithecus
afarensis More recent findings of
bones in the Sahara Desert, though
contentious, indicate an age of 6.07.0
million
years
for
Sahelanthropus, an intermediate
between apes and true hominids.
Dating.
There is a very reliable
biostratigraphic control, but it is not
correlatable with other continents.
Tephochronology has improved
correlation within the Turkana
Basin. However, it is not useful
outside areas of volcanic ash falls.
Magnetostratigraphy gives the finest
resolution of time and best
correlation with other parts of the
world. It is defined within a
framework of biostratigraphy and
radiometric dates.

Continental Scale: Western Interior


Cretaceous of North America

Setting. This region extends from the Gulf of


Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, through
Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Iowa,
Idaho, Wyoming, Nebraska, Montana,
Saskatechewan, etc. The region extended
north to south for about 5,000 km during the
maximum transgression.
The shallow
marine sediments include pelagic shales,
chalk, limestone and sandstone.
Some
nonmarine sediments that were deposited
during regression are coal, shale and
sandstone. The Zuni transgression was
responsible for much of the deposition
during the Late Cretaceous.
Dating.
There is an excellent
biostratigraphic control by ammonites,
bivalves,
gastropods
and
benthic
foraminifera. A good correlation also exists
between bentonite beds and limestone-shale
cycles. There is, however, limited use of
magnetostratigraphy in the Late Cretaceous
because there were no reversals, and
geochronology is not as good as other
methods. Geochemical correlation, using
13

18

C, O and organic carbon levels, is


now being attempted. The western interior
seaway is an exceptional example of
integrated correlation, which can be traced
for thousands of kilometers across central
North America. The sediments span about
40 million years.

Global Scale: Eocene/Oligocene boundary


When Charles Lyell named most of the Tertiary
epochs in the 19th century, he did not recognize the
Oligocene, which was later named by von Beyrich.
Lyell did not recognize the Oligocene because (a)
his type areas were local and time-transgressive,
thus making correlation difficult; and (b) most of the
faunas were endemic, shallow marine molluscs,
such as oysters. These limitations have now been
overcome by DSDP and ODP legs, which have
dredged very thick sequences of rocks. The
occurrence of planktonic foraminifera, calcareous
nannoplankton, diatoms and radiolarians within
these sequences permits global correlation.

97
agreements with microfossil zonation.
Recently, Ar/Ar dating of volcanic ash
yielded 33.5-34.0 m.y., and this is closer to
the biostratigraphic zonation boundary.

The absolute dates for the


Eocene/Oligocene boundary have
been obtained mainly from
glauconite, which could be
unreliable for older rocks (but fine
for younger sequences), and there
is
a
good
control
with
magnetostratigraphy.
This
is
because rapid sea floor spreading
and cooling recorded numerous
magnetic
reversals.
Several
workers have dated this boundary,
resulting in an age ranging from 32
m.y. to 36 m.y. and there are no

98

SECTION 19
Textural Characteristics. Assumptions:

BASIN ANALYSIS
Basin analysis is simply the application of
stratigraphy and sedimentology to analysis of
the geologic history of a basin. It also includes
aspects of paleontology, paleoecology and
paleogeography. The following are the general
approaches used toward achieving this goal.

Sediment Body Architecture


As a first step, all the sedimentological and
structural characteristics of the rock (e.g.,
lithologies, their thicknesses and relationship to
one another) are considered. This entails the
use of cross sections, and stratigraphic maps
such as facies, isopach and isolith. The
recognition of the sand body architecture is
usually a first step toward establishing a
depositional
system.
Sediment
body
architectures
could
be
wedge-shaped,
anastomosing, linear, and tabular, among
others.

Provenance
Provenance involves using petrographic data to
reconstruct the origin of sediments. The
following sets of data are particularly useful:
Heavy Minerals. Heavy minerals are generally
used for reconstructing provenance because
every assemblage is diagnostic of the source
area.
Examples:

(1)

(2)
Paleocurrent
Analysis.
Sedimentary
structures, such as cross beds and ripple
marks, are used for interpreting the direction
of current transport. Such results are
normally represented as Rose Diagrams.
Because paleocurrent directions can vary in
different
environments,
hundreds
of
measurements are usually required for
analysis.

Interpretation of Depositional Environments


Depositional environments can be reconstructed
from physical, chemical and biological
parameters. Physical criteria include lithologies
and their sedimentary structures. The
geochemical data used include those derived
from stable isotope studies, fluid inclusion
studies and clay mineralogy. Fossil faunas and
floras constitute the biological parameters. Data
can be derived from vertebrate bones,
macroscopic shells of invertebrates, as well as
microscopic fossils. The nature of the fossil
assemblage is important for taphonomic
interpretation, whether they are in situ (in their
life
position)
or
have
been
transported (fragmented). By
integrating
sediment
body
architecture, provenance and environmental data,
it is often possible to develop a depositional
model within any basin under consideration.

(1)

STRATIGRAPHIC
DIAGRAMS AND MAPS
(2)
Data Gathering in the Field
(3)

Accurate
measurement
and
precise
description of field data are important in
establishing spatial relationship of rocks
over geographic areas. Such data may be

99
from outcrops or from the
subsurface, with the latter being
obtained by drilling and remote
geophysical methods, such as
seismography. Important field
characteristics, which should be
recorded in words, sketches and
photographs, include:
(1) General lithologic characters, sequences
and relationships of lithologies, e.g., types
of contacts.

pinch
out

Figure 19.1. A hypothetical stratigraphic cross section.

(2) Coloration: Note whether rock is wet or dry.


(3) Bedding characteristics, bedding scale,
presence or absence of concretions.
(4) Textural features:

(5) Weathering characteristics:


(6) Fossils: Make accurate identification:

(7) Measure the thicknesses of the lithologies


and stratigraphic units, using a Jacob's staff,
measuring tape, etc.
(8) Measure structural features:

(9) Take sizable samples of rock units to the


laboratory for back up analysis.

Data Interpretation
The information derived from field and
laboratory studies can be synthesized and
represented in graphic form. Examples are
given below:
Stratigraphic
Cross
Section.
Twodimensional representation of a series of
stratigraphic sections. Unlike a geological
cross section, it contains no topographic
information. It however gives one a clear
idea about the geologic history of an area
(Figs. 19.1 and 19.2).

Figure 19.2. Schematic illustration of the Jacobs-staff


technique for measuring stratigraphic units (from Bogg,
2012).

Fence Diagram. Three-dimensional cross


section on an isometric base map (Fig.
19.2).

100
Figure 19.2. Schematic illustration of a fence
diagram (from Boggs, 2012).

Structure Contour Map. A stratigraphic map


used to represent three-dimensional
surfaces of
an underground rock bed. It
usually requires contouring between many
data points on a map base, and shows

positions of folds and faults (Fig. 19.3).


Figure 19.3. Top. Structure contour
map, showing the relation of structure
contours to outcrop patterns. Bottom.
The projection of the contours on the
Morrill Limestone beyond its outcrop
edge through the use of lower marker
beds and known intervals between them
(from Krumbein and Sloss, 1963).

Isopach Map. Contours of points of


equal thickness of a rock unit (Fig.
19.4). Where it dips, the apparent
thickness is shown by an isochore
map (Fig. 19.5).

Figure 19.4. Isopach contours of sediments in the Rocky


Mountain foreland basin of Alberta, Saskatchewan and
Montana, with thicknesses increasing southwestward (from
Porter et al., 1982).

Both isopach and isochore maps are usually


constructed from well data. They can be used to
locate boundaries between thick basin deposits and
thin shelf deposits.

101

Isopach
Isochore
Figure 19.5. The difference between isopach and isochore.

Facies map. Aerial variation of some aspect


of a stratigraphic unit. There are different
types of facies maps. For example:
Lithofacies Map: This shows variations in
lithologic aspects.
Biofacies Map: A map that shows variations in
faunal aspects.
Ratio Map: This shows more than one
component (e.g., sand/shale ratio), thereby
giving one an idea of where various
environments are found (Fig.
19.6A).
Isolith Map: Isopach map of a single rock
component in a unit (Fig. 19.6B).
Triangle Facies Map: Shows the ratios of three
components (Fig. 19.7).

Figure 19.6. Two examples of facies maps of


barrier-bar and bay-lagoon systems in the Wilcox
Group (Eocene) of the Texas Gulf Coastal Plain.
A, Sandstone/shale ration map. B, Sand isolith
map (isolith interval = 30 meters) showing
thicknesses of sands through the unit (from
Lofton and Adams, 1971).

Figure 19.7. Triangle facies map of the


Cretaceous Trinity Group. Relative percentages
of the three components (sand, shale and
nonclastics) are shown by the different patterns,

102
as explained in the three-component
triangle (from Krumbein and Sloss,
1963).

Paleogeographic Map Shows the distribution of


ancient environments at a given point in geologic
history (Miall, 1984; Fig. 19.8). It is usually
derived from lithofacies distribution and other
inferences. Block diagrams are very useful devices
for summarizing paleogeographic interpretations
(Fig. 19.9).

Figure 19.8. Paleogeographic map for Somerset Island


and eastern Prince of Wales Island during the
earliest Devonian, showing the detrital apron
flanking Boothia Uplift (from Miall and Gibling,
1978).

Paleogeologic Map. Also called a subcrop


map, it shows the units outcropping at an
unconformity surface. It can only be
reconstructed from extensive outcrop or
subsurface data, and may reveal the extent of
tectonic deformation and erosion that
occurred
before
the
deposition
of
postunconformity strata. The distribution of
units which onlap an unconformity results in
a supercrop or worm's eye map. The main
use of paleogeologic maps is in illustrating
the pattern of basin fill, shifting shorelines or
gradual burial of a preexisting erosional
topography.

Figure 19.9. Use of sequential block diagrams to


indicate evolution of depositional environments
through time, Umkondo Group (about 1800 Ma),
southeast Zimbabwe (from Tankard et al., 1982).

TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION


Accumulation of sedimentary sequences is controlled
mainly by tectonics, and in the last three decades, the

103
plate tectonic model has been used to
interpret
sedimentary
sequences.
Accumulation occurs in the stable interiors of
continents (cratons), and the margins of
continents
(geosynclines).
The
term
geosyncline was introduced by James Dana
in 1873.

Cratonic Sedimentation
The center of a continent is composed of the
Precambrian shield or dome, and sediments
are added by lateral accretion, especially on
the sides of the dome (Fig. 19.10). As a
result, sediments are thinner toward the
dome, and they are mainly composed of
shallow marine sandstones, limestones and
shales, with occasional fluvial and deltaic
sequences. Such was the mode of deposition
of Sloss' sequences of North America.
Cratonic sedimentation was more common
during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras, and
the
sequences
are
bounded
by
unconformities. They are much thinner in
comparison with geosynclinal sediments.
Good examples of cratonic basins can be
found in Africa (Chad, Iullemmeden) and the
United
States
(Illinois,
Michigan).
Continental margins have thick piles of
sediment accumulation (averaging 7 miles or
35,000 ft) in deeply subsiding basins. The
sediments are usually deformed.

(1) Miogeosynclines: Shallow marine (shelf)


sandstone and limestone deposits.
(2) Eugeosynclines: Deep marine shales,
sandstones (turbidites), volcanic rocks and
cherts. Hall (1859) attributed the formation
of geosynclines to subsidence caused by the
weight of accumulated sediments. Dana
(1873) attributed their formation to
subsidence and subsequent deformation due
to lateral compression, and not sediment
loading.

Figure 19.11. Classic profile of a geosyncline, based


on the Ordovician of the Appalachians (adapted
from Kay, 1951).

104
Geosynclines are associated with

4)

Figure 19.10. Idealized section of a dome and basin in the


craton, showing thinning of all units away from the basin
and toward the dome. This results partly from deposition
of a greater thickness of each unit in the basin and partly
from truncation and overlap along unconformities (from
Prothero and Schwab, 2014).

sediments (Alps Mountains) as being of geosynclinal


origin. They recognized the following facies:
1) Flysch:

2) Molasse:

Plate Tectonics
The similarity between the boundaries of continents

was first noted as far back as 1620 by Sir Charles

Bacon. Then in 1912, Alfred Wegener (a German


Geosynclines

meteorologist) published his idea that continents have


drifted apart since their formation.
This concept of continental drift remained controversial until the Geosynclines can be subdivided into two
parts 1960s when its application to tectonic studies was
(Fig. 19.11):
mountain building (orogeny), and
European workers were the first to
recognize this. They interpreted
alpine What were the earliest
evidences for continental drift?
1)
2)
3)

revived.
By 1970, it became clear that (a) the crust was and is
still being formed at spreading centers (ridges) and
(b) continents are consumed at sites of collision
called subduction zones. The model of plate tectonic
became much clearer once it was recognized that
crustal plates had a core of silica continental crust
and a thinner but denser fringe of basaltic oceanic
crust. Three types of plate margins have been
recognized:
Divergent Margins

105
Divergent margins occur in the following
settings:
1) Oceanic: Spreading centers where oceanic
rifting occurs, e.g., mid-oceanic ridges.
Nothing happens sedimentologically in the
spreading center, but some deposition
occurs at the continental edge (i.e., at the
passive margin basin). An example is the
Baltimore Canyon Trough in the U.S.A.
2) Spreading center under a continent: The
crust breaks as a result of uplift and
extension, forming rift valleys. Block
faulting creates horsts and grabens in which
redbeds and alluvial fan deposits are laid
down. Such rifts arise at isolated points to
form triple junctions, which are very
common around the Atlantic; e.g., Benue
Trough, Nigeria. An aulacogen forms when
one of the three rifts fails and stops
spreading. This depression eventually
becomes oceanic and fills up with sediment.
Sketch below.

2) Ocean-continent collision: The oceanic


crust dives under the continental crust at the
edge of the continent, forming a subduction
zone, such as occurs along the west coast of
South America. This type of collision
results in mountain building (e.g., Andes
Mountains), and deep-sea trenches are
common.
3) Continent-continent collision: When two
continents collide, high mountains are
formed. For example, the collision between
the Indian and Eurasian plates produced the
Himalayas Mountains on the one hand,
while the Alps were formed as a result of
the Eurasia colliding with Africa. Collision
boundaries like this are always active.
Sketch below:

Transform Margins
Convergent Margins
Convergent margins can result from three
situations:
1) Ocean-ocean collision: Subduction
occurs when one of the oceanic
crusts dives under the other. Island
arcs form on the overriding plate.
There are no granites but basalts or
pillow lavas, oozes, turbidites,
graywackes and
shales are
commonly deposited in deep sea
trenches.

This is common among minor plates, where


two plates slide past one another. The
dominant motion is neither compressional
nor extensional but strike-slip (i.e., the
primary motion is parallel to the fault trace);
e.g. San Andreas Fault, California. Because
of irregularities in sliding there are usually
local compressions and extensions that form
pull-apart basins. The pull-apart tectonics
result in sausage-like strings of deposition
patterns.
Transform faults terminate either at a spreading
ridge or at a subduction zone. They can occur on
the continent (as in San Andreas) or in the ocean.
The most important sedimentary features include:
(a) extreme lateral facies changes,

106
(b) very great thicknesses of rapidly deposited
sediment, and
(c) abundant sediment supply from multiple
sources.

Tectonics and Sandstone Petrology


Ancient plate configurations can be inferred
from the types of sediments preserved. The
overall geometry and lithology of a
stratigraphic sequence are the most
diagnostic features. Rock associations, such
as melanges and ophiolites are diagnostic of
their tectonic settings (subduction zones).
However, in a few instances, a single
mineral, such as glaucophane, is diagnostic
of a particular tectonic regime, namely
blueschist metamorphism and a subduction
zone.
In recent years, triangle plots with distinct
end members have been used for interpreting
sandstones. The end members used are QFL
(quartz, feldspar, lithic fragments) and
QmFLt (monocrystalline quartz, feldspar,
polycrystalline lithic fragments, including
polycrystalline quartz). Cratonic interior
sandstones are usually very mature, pure
monocrystalline quartz, so they plot close to
the Q or Qm pole. Basement uplifts are rich
in arkosic sandstones that plot close to the F
pole (Dickinson et al., 1983). Climate can
also influence sandstone composition, as
shown in
Figure 19.12.

Figure 19.12. First-cycle sand from a modern


river with known sources is plotted on a QFL
diagram. Metamorphic and plutonic sources gave
very different clusters on the plot, depending on
whether they came from a humid region with
active chemical weathering, or an arid region
with limited chemical weathering and breakdown
of feldspars and lithic fragments (from Suttner et
al, 1981).

Metamorphic source terrains in humid


climates produce weathered quartz-rich
sandstones while plutonic igneous source
humid terrains produce feldspar-rich
sandstones. Arid climates preserve lithic
fragments from metamorphic terrains, and
lithics and feldspars from plutonic terrains.
This method is not fool proof, and it should
be used with other data.

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