Environment Conscious Manufacturing

Assignment on
Alternative Fuels

Submitted to-

Dr. Anju Singh

Submitted by-

Abhijeet Sinha
Roll No.-149
PGDM (Operations)

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Introduction to alternate fuels

Alternative fuels, also known as non-conventional or advanced fuels, are any materials or
substances that can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include:
fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), and nuclear materials such as
uranium.

Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel, bioalcohol (methanol, ethanol, butanol),
chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, non-fossil methane, non-fossil
natural gas, vegetable oil and other biomass sources.

The various types of alternative fuels available are –

• Ethanol: Ethanol is an alcohol fuel that's derived mainly from grain.

• Methanol: Methanol is an alcohol fuel that's derived primarily from coal.
• Blends: A transitional fuel, blends are mixtures of traditional and alternative fuels, such
as E85 and B20.
• Natural Gas: A by-product of oil drilling and coal mining, natural gas can also be
harvested from natural gas fields.
• Propane: Also known as liquefied petroleum gas, propane is a by-product of natural gas
and crude oil refining.
• Hydrogen: Most commercial hydrogen is refined from petroleum, but can also be made
by passing electricity through water (electrolysis).
• Electricity: Electricity is considered an alternative since it is used to power the motors in
electric vehicles.
• Biodiesel: A diesel fuel replacement or additive, biodiesel is made from vegetable oil or
animal fat.
• Biomass: Derived from biological material, predominantly vegetation, biomass includes
biofuels such as biodiesel and ethanol.

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Why to use alternative fuels?

There is growing perceived economic and political need for the development of alternative fuel
sources. This is due to general environmental, economic, and geopolitical concerns of
sustainability. The major environmental concern, according to an IPCC report, is that "Most of
the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is due to the
observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations". Since burning fossil fuels is
known to increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, they are a likely contributor
to global warming.

Other concerns which have fuelled demand revolve around the concept of peak oil, which
predicts rising fuel costs as production rates of petroleum enter a terminal decline. According to
the Hubbert peak theory, when the production levels peak, demand for oil will exceed supply and
without proper mitigation this gap will continue to grow as production drops, which could cause
a major energy crisis.

Lastly, the majority of the known petroleum reserves are located in the Middle East. There is
general concern that worldwide fuel shortages could intensify the unrest that exists in the region,
leading to further conflict and war. The production of alternative fuels can have widespread
effects. For example, the production of corn-based ethanol has created an increased demand for
the feed stock, causing rising prices in almost everything made from corn. However, in a
competitive free market, an increased supply of ethanol reduces the demand for conventional
fuels, and thus lowers fuel prices. The ethanol industry enables agricultural surpluses to be used
to mitigate fuel shortages.

Various categories of alternative fuels

Biofuels: Biofuels are also considered renewable if their source is sustainable. Although
renewable energy is used mostly to generate electricity, it is often assumed that some form of
renewable energy or at least sustainable energy is used to create alternative fuels. Several
alternative fuels, however, such as nuclear fuel and alternative fossil fuels, are made from non-

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sustainable sources, and fuels for Hydrogen fuel cells and air engines can be created by non-
sustainable means as well. Such non-sustainable fuels are offered as alternatives usually because
they cause less pollution at the point of use.

Biomass: Biomass in the energy production industry is living and recently dead biological
material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production. Biomass is grown from several
plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sugarcane, oil palm (palm
oil), and algae oil.

Most commonly, biomass is plant matter grown for use as biofuel, but it also includes plant or
animal matter used for production of fibres, chemicals or heat. Biomass may also include
biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. It excludes organic material which has been
transformed by geological processes into substances such as coal or petroleum.

Alcohol fuels: Methanol and ethanol are typically not primary sources of energy; however, they
are convenient fuels for storing and transporting energy. These alcohols can be used in internal
combustion engines such as flexible fuel vehicles with minor modifications.

Methanol can be produced from a wide variety of sources including fossil fuels, but also
agricultural products and municipal waste, wood and varied biomass. More importantly, it can
also be made from chemical recycling of carbon dioxide (such as from the CO2 rich flue gases of
fossil fuel burning power plants or exhaust of cement and other factories, of even atmospheric
CO2). Ethanol can be mass-produced by fermentation of the starch or sugar in a wide variety of
crops (bio-ethanol), or by hydration of ethylene from petroleum and other sources.

Hydrogen: Hydrogen as a fuel has been suggested to have the capability to create a hydrogen
economy. However, there is no accessible natural reserve of un-combined hydrogen, since what
little there is resides in Earth's outer atmosphere. Therefore, hydrogen for use as fuel must first
be produced using another energy source, making it a means to transport energy, rather than an
energy source, similar to a rechargeable battery. One existing method of hydrogen production is
steam methane reformation; however, this method requires methane (most commonly available
as natural gas), which raises sustainability concerns. Another method of hydrogen production is
through electrolysis of water, in which electricity generated from any source can be used. Photo-

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electrolysis, bio-hydrogen, and biomass or coal gasification have also been proposed as means to
produce hydrogen.

Compressed air: The air engine is an emission-free piston engine using compressed air as fuel.
Unlike hydrogen, compressed air is about one-tenth as expensive as fossil oil, making it an
economically attractive alternative (hydrogen is about 10 times more expensive than oil or 100
times more expensive than compressed air). The air engine has also broken most barriers
(storage of the energy, range, etc). Models exist which can achieve speeds over 35 mph with air
alone, but at least one company claims it will produce an "Air Car" hybrid by 2010 which will be
able to achieve over 100 mpg with a top speed of 96 mph.

Alternative fossil fuels: Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a cleaner burning alternative to
conventional petroleum automobile fuels. The energy efficiency is generally equal to that of
gasoline engines, but lower compared with modern diesel engines. CNG vehicles require a
greater amount of space for fuel storage than conventional gasoline power vehicles because CNG
takes up more space for each GGE (Gallon of Gas Equivalent). Almost any existing gasoline car
can be turned into a bi-fuel (gasoline/CNG) car. However, natural gas is a finite resource like all
fossil fuels, and production is expected to peak soon after oil does.

Nuclear power: Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy from
atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions. The most common method today is through
nuclear fission, though other methods include nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. All current
methods involve heating a working fluid such as water, which is then converted into mechanical
work for the purpose of generating electricity or propulsion. Today, more than 15% of the
world's electricity comes from nuclear power, over 150 nuclear-powered naval vessels have been
built, and a few radioisotope rockets have been produced.

Fission reactors use the U-235 isotope of uranium for fuel. While uranium is a fairly common
element, the U-235 isotope is relatively rare. Using current reactor technology and current usage
levels, and assuming an economical price of extraction, there is approximately 50 years of viable
uranium available. Alternative reactor technologies exist which can use the much more common

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U-238 isotope, but these breeder reactors have technical issues (resulting from the higher levels
of heat and radiation produced) to overcome before they can be employed economically.

Since automobiles and trucks consume a great deal of the total energy budget of developed
countries, widespread electric vehicles technology would be required to convert the energy
generated from nuclear power to transportation.

The long-term radioactive waste storage problems of nuclear power have not been solved,
although on-site spent fuel storage in casks has allowed power plants to make room in their spent
fuel pools. Today, the only industrial solution lies with storage in underground repositories.
There are widespread public concerns about the health risks, security risks and radioactive waste
disposal problems of nuclear materials.

Hydrogen fuel cells

Hydrogen is a versatile energy carrier that can be used to power nearly every end-use energy
need. The fuel cell — an energy conversion device that can efficiently capture and use the power
of hydrogen — is the key to making it happen.

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Stationary fuel cells can be used for backup power, power for remote locations, distributed
power generation, and cogeneration (in which excess heat released during electricity generation
is used for other applications). Fuel cells can power almost any portable application that typically
uses batteries, from hand-held devices to portable generators. Fuel cells can also power our
transportation, including personal vehicles, trucks, buses, and marine vessels, as well as provide
auxiliary power to traditional transportation technologies. Hydrogen can play a particularly
important role in the future by replacing the imported petroleum we currently use in our cars and
trucks.

Why fuel cells?

Fuel cells directly convert the chemical energy in hydrogen to electricity, with pure water and
potentially useful heat as the only by-products.

Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are not only pollution-free, but also can have more than two times
the efficiency of traditional combustion technologies. A conventional combustion-based power
plant typically generates electricity at efficiencies of 33 to 35 percent, while fuel cell systems can
generate electricity at efficiencies up to 60 percent (and even higher with cogeneration).

The gasoline engine in a conventional car is less than 20% efficient in converting the chemical
energy in gasoline into power that moves the vehicle, under normal driving conditions.
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, which use electric motors, are much more energy efficient and use
40-60 percent of the fuel’s energy — corresponding to more than a 50% reduction in fuel
consumption, compared to a conventional vehicle with a gasoline internal combustion engine.

In addition, fuel cells operate quietly, have fewer moving parts, and are well suited to a variety
of applications.

Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies

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In general, all fuel cells have the same basic configuration — an electrolyte and two electrodes.
But there are different types of fuel cells, classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte used. The
electrolyte determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place in the fuel cell, the
temperature range of operation, and other factors that determine its most suitable applications.

Bio-diesels

Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. It is produced from oils or fats using
transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to fossil/mineral diesel. Its chemical
name is fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) ester (FAME). Oils are mixed with sodium hydroxide and
methanol (or ethanol) and the chemical reaction produces biodiesel (FAME) and glycerol. One
part glycerol is produced for every 10 parts biodiesel. Feedstock for biodiesel include animal
fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, jatropha, mahua, mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp,
field pennycress, pongamia pinnata and algae. Pure biodiesel (B100) is by far the lowest

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emission diesel fuel. Although liquefied petroleum gas and hydrogen have cleaner combustion,
they are used to fuel much less efficient petrol engines and are not as widely available.

Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine when mixed with mineral diesel. The majority of
vehicle manufacturers limit their recommendations to 15% biodiesel blended with mineral
diesel. In some countries manufacturers cover their diesel engines under warranty for B100 use,
although Volkswagen of Germany, for example, asks drivers to check by telephone with the VW
environmental services department before switching to B100. B100 may become more viscous at
lower temperatures, depending on the feedstock used, and requiring vehicles to have fuel line
heaters. In most cases, biodiesel is compatible with diesel engines from 1994 onwards, which use
'Viton' (by DuPont) synthetic rubber in their mechanical injection systems. Electronically
controlled 'common rail' and 'pump duse' type systems from the late 1990s onwards may only
use biodiesel blended with conventional diesel fuel. These engines have finely metered and
atomized multi-stage injection systems are very sensitive to the viscosity of the fuel. Many
current generation diesel engines are made so that they can run on B100 without altering the
engine itself, although this depends on the fuel rail design. NExBTL is suitable for all diesel
engines in the world since it over performs DIN EN 590 standards.

Since biodiesel is an effective solvent and cleans residues deposited by mineral diesel, engine
filters may need to be replaced more often, as the biofuel dissolves old deposits in the fuel tank
and pipes. It also effectively cleans the engine combustion chamber of carbon deposits, helping
to maintain efficiency. In many European countries, a 5% biodiesel blend is widely used and is
available at thousands of gas stations. Biodiesel is also an oxygenated fuel, meaning that it
contains a reduced amount of carbon and higher hydrogen and oxygen content than fossil diesel.
This improves the combustion of fossil diesel and reduces the particulate emissions from un-
burnt carbon.

Biodiesel is safe to handle and transport because it is as biodegradable as sugar, 10 times less
toxic than table salt, and has a high flashpoint of about 300 F (148 C) compared to petroleum
diesel fuel, which has a flash point of 125 F (52 C).

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What Will The Biodiesel Market Look Like 2020?

Based on the findings of the report Biodiesel 2020: A Global Market Survey, it is clear that the
period of 2010 to 2015 will experience significant growth in the United States, Europe, China,
and Brazil for this fuel. Another key observation: Most of the biofuels targeted by the United
States, Brazil, and India are for blending purposes and not strictly for B100 use (B100 refers to
fuels that are 100% composed of renewable fuel, as opposed to petroleum and biofuel blends). It
seems unlikely that most of the world will use B100 as a first choice for biodiesel fuel for autos.
Instead, most nations are now following the blending model used by the United States and
France for B2, B5, and B20. Brazil, China, and India are also following this route forward and
are starting their National Biodiesel Plans with blending targets first.

By 2015, as energy demands for soybean, canola, and jatropha oil surpass the available land to
plant these energy-rich crops, alternative feedstock such as palm oil and algae-based biodiesel
will help to meet growing demands. The U.S. National Renewable Energy Lab forecasts that
soybean and canola based biodiesel will only be able to supply 10% of the total market for
energy needs in the United States.

However, new feedstock such as algae-based biodiesel will go into mass production in the
United States and could provide 30% or more of all transportation energy needs from biodiesel
by 2020. Algae are one of the most promising alternative biodiesel feedstock and could produce
more than 10 times more oil per acre than soybeans or canola.

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By 2020, if Europe, the United States, Brazil, China, and India are able to replace between 5%
and 10% of automotive fuels on the road with biofuels, the need for alternative biodiesel
feedstock will emerge. It is likely that algae-based biodiesel and other new feedstock will help to
meet future biodiesel growth needs at significantly lower production costs. By 2020, use of
biodiesel and ethanol technologies combined can replace 20% or more of transportation fuel
needs in these major markets.

Most experts and forecasters agree that biodiesel and biofuels will play one part in a bigger
picture of multiple alternative fuels, including future fuels from coal-to-gas technology,
hydrogen fuel technology, and hybrid-electric technologies. For the next 10 years, soy oil in the
United States, canola oil in Europe, and palm oil in China as primary feedstock are likely to

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remain the fastest-growing automotive fuel segments in each country’s emerging biodiesel
markets.

If governments continue to aggressively pursue targets, enact investor-friendly tax incentives for
production and blending, and help to promote research and development in new biodiesel
feedstock such as algae biodiesel, the prospects for biodiesel will be realized faster than
anticipated. Biodiesel 2020: A Global Market Survey finds that each of these variables will be
essential to the eventual success of these targets.

References

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel
• www.globalwarming.org.in/alternative-fuels.php
• www.alternatefuels.com/
• http://proquest.umi.com/
• Satish G Kandlikar, Jacqueline Sergi, Jacob LaManna, Michael Daino, Hydrogen
horizon, Mechanical Engineering. New York: May 2009. Vol. 131, Iss. 5.

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 • Alan S Brown. Mechanical Engineering, Fuel cells down the road, New York: Oct 2007.
Vol. 129, Iss. 10.
• Will Thurmond. The Futurist, Biodiesel’s Bright Future, Washington: Jul/Aug 2007. Vol.
41.

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