Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fluid Mechanics-I
Kannan Iyer
Kiyer@me.iitb.ac.in
- Aircrafts, Rockets
- Pumps, Irrigation networks
Chemical
Civil
Elect/CS
- Reactors, Distillation
- Dams, Rivers, Canals
- Packaging for cooling
Mechanical
Metallurgy
Pharmacy
Power
TURBULENT JET
Dam construction in
order to hold large
body of water
GEAR PUMP
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
PELTON TURBINE
What is a Fluid
Matter can be divided into Solid and Fluid
Solid
Fluid
Resists Deformation
Deforms Easily
Retains Shape
How to Study
Liquid
Gas
Retains volume
What is continuum?
Validity of Continuum
Molecular mean free path small
It can be expressed in terms of Knudsen Number
Knudsen Number, Kn =
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/menfre.html#c1
Concept of a fluid particle
Kn 0.01
Consequences of Continuum
Analysis by Continuum
Can be very detailed
u
2u
x 2
( x, y, z) x + 2 ( x, y, z)
+ ...
x
x
2
u ( x + x, y, z) = u ( x, y, z) +
uv ( x + x , y, z) = uv ( x , y, z ) +
uv
uv
x
( x , y, z)x +
( x , y, z)
+ ...
x
x 2
2
Lagrangian vs Eulerian
Lagrangian
This is control mass analysis
The equation are generated for the
fixed mass
When mass moves, then you move
with the mass
Can be overall
Eulerian
This is control volume analysis
The equations are generated for the
volume
The volume may or may not move
We shall follow this approach
SI (kg, m, s, K)
FLtT
British Gravitational (lbf, ft, s, oR)
FMLtT
English Engineering (lbf, lbm, ft, s, oR)
Principle of Dimensional
Homogenity
All additive terms in a physical equation must
have same dimensions
V(ft / s)
[R (ft )]2 3
= 1.49
2
V 2
p+
+ gH = cons tan t
2
V = 1.49 R
Principle of Dimensional
Homogenity
Velocity
Velocity
is a vectorField
quantity-
Velocity Field - II
In stationary Eulerian context, Steady state
implies that local velocity does not change
with time or V (x,y,z)
Mathematically
V
=0
t
In general V (x,y,z,t)
Dimensionality of a problem
The number of dimensions required to
specify the variations of properties of a
system is the dimensionality
The dimensionality can be reduced by
intelligently choosing a coordinate system
Examples to be discussed
Property Review
Density( ) =
dM
d d0
Velocity(V) =
Pressure(p) =
dS
dt dt 0
p
where, T (K), R = Ru/M
RT
R = cp - cv
Ru = 8314 J/k-mol-K (Universal Gas Constant)
Force
Area
cp
p
where, T (K), R = Ru/M
RT
Concept of Distortion - I
cv
= 1.67
= 1.4
Concept of Distortion - II
Fluid Distortion
t1
Tan =
to
Strain Rate
t2
FLUID
t2 > t1 > to
a
b
a = U t
=
& =
U t
b
Lt
t 0
& =
Newtonian Fluid
or
du
dy
U du
=
b
dy
Non-Newtonian Fluids
&
du
dy
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Special fluids (e.g., most biological fluids,
toothpaste, some paints, etc.)
Non-linear fluids
Dynamic Viscosity
SI Unit
: Pa-s or N-s/m2
Behavior of Fluids
Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity = =
Surface Tension -I
Free surface
SI Unit
: m2/s
CGS Unit :
cm2/s
C
(called Stoke) = 0.0001
m2/s
Liquid
A
p = pi pe =
2
R
pi > pe
R 2 hg = 2R cos
h=
Contact Angle
Gives indication of
Wettability (ability to
stick to surfaces)
Fully-wetting
=0
Absolutely Non- = 180
wetting
2 cos
gR
Error Analysis
F = ma
F = F(m, a )
2
2
F
F
F =
m + a
a
m
1/ 2
Hydrostatics
Study of Fluids at rest
Nature of Forces
Body Force
Dams
Gravity force
Centrifugal Force
Inertial Force
Rotating cylinders
Electromagnetic force
Nature of Forces
Surface Force
Pascals Law - I
The pressure at a point in a shear stress free
fluid is independent
of direction
z
ps x s
py x z
y
pz x y
x y z
g
2
Pascals Law - II
Vertical Force Balance
x y z
2
gz
As s cos = y, p z = p s +
2
Horizontal Force Balance
p z x y = ps x s cos + g
p y x z = p s x s sin
p + z + HoT x y
z
x y zg z
p x z
As s sin = z, p y = p s
When we shrink the element to a point, z tends to zero,
Hence pz = py = ps
p
p + y + HoT x z
y
z
y
p y z
x
x
p x y
p + x + HoT y z
p x y p + z + HoT z 2+ x y x y zg = 0
z
+ g + HoT(z + ) xy z = 0
p
+ g = 0
z
Some Observations
1. The weight acts downwards, whereas positive z is
upwards, so we can write g = -gz
2. The final equations were force per unit volume = 0
3. In general, we can write the three equations as
p
+ g x = 0
x
p
p
=0
= 0 and
y
x
p
+ g y = 0
y
p
+ g z = 0
z
r
p + g = 0
Manometry
1. In a constant density fluid, pressure at a given
elevation from datum is same
2. This is exploited in measurement of pressure
using manometers
r
p + g = 0
p z
z
g
p
+ (g) = 0
z
p
or
prerf zref
pref
If is constant
then
dp = gdz
zref
= g
Toricilli Barometer
U-Tube Manometer
U-Tube Manometer
p 3 = p ref + 2 h 2
p 2 = p3
p A = p 2 1h1
Pref = 0
p A = p ref + 2 h 2 1h1
p A + 1h 1 2 h 2 3 h 3 = p B
Pressure Gauges
p A + 1 h 1 2 l 2 sin 3 h 3 = p B
Magnification is
1
sin
Inclination up to 10o Ok
Hydraulic press
dp
=
dz
z2
z2
z1
z1
dp = g dz =
p1
RT g dz
z2
ln
F2 = (A2/A1)F1
If T = cons tan t = T0
ln
p2
g dz
=
p1
R z1 T
In general T = T (z)
Isothermal condition
g (z 2 z1 )
p2
= exp
p1
R To
p2
g (z 2 z1 )
=
p1
R To
T = 150 C (288.15 K)
ln
Airplanes
In Troposphere T
varies Linearly
T = To m z
= 0.0065 K / m
p2
g z 2 dz
=
p1
R z1 T
ln
ln
p2
g z2
dz
=
p1
R z1 To m z
p2
g 1 (T m z 2 )
= ln o
p1
R m (To m z1 )
g
T m z2
p
ln 2 = ln o
p1
To m z1
mR
T m z2
p2
= o
p1
To m z1
mR
O - origin
A
yC
yR
dF
FR
FR = p dA = (p o + h ) dA = p o A + y sin dA
hc h
= p o A + sin y dA = p o A + sin y c A
A
1
y dA y-coordinate of centroid
AA
Note
yc =
As
h c = y c sin
FR = p o A + A h c
dA
xR
Centroid, c
Location of resultant force
(center of pressure, CP)
xC
FR y R = y dF = y [ h dA ]=
A
y [ y sin dA ]
= sin y dA = sin I xx
= sin I xx c + Ayc
sin I xx c
FR
xR = xc +
sin I xy c
FR
Summary
MAGNITUDE OF THE RESULTANT FORCE
FR = A h c
LOCATION OF THE RESULTANT FORCE
yR = yc +
The values of second
moment of area for
some shapes. The
nomenclature is a bit
different but easy to
grasp
xR = xc +
sin I xx c
FR
sin I xy c
FR
Buoyancy Force
FV = F1 + W
Buoyancy Force - II
A simple case
FB = (P2 P1 )(l b )
p2
p1
z1
z2
z2
But P2 P1 = dp = dz
P1
z1
FB = (l b ) dz = (l b ) dz
z
z
1
2
z2
z1
P2
g dm fluid = m fluid g
domain
Buoyancy Force - IV
Archimedes Principle holds good
for bodies of any general shape
for both gases and liquids
does not require density to be constant
Liquid (f)
Principle of Hydrometer
Hydrometer is used to
find the specific gravity
of liquids
Vs
( Vs m A h )
A
Ah
1 m
Vs
Ah
Vs
Stem can be
calibrated to read SG
A
Original
level
Vs
Water (water)
Vs
Other liquid
z
ay
g
p
= 0,
x
y
x
ax = az = gx = gy = 0, ay = a, gz = -g
p
= a
y
p
= g
z
p
= (g z a z )
z
y
x
p
= (g y a y )
y
p
= a p = ay + f (z) + c
y
p
= g p = gz + f ( y) + c p = (gz + ay) + c
similarly
z
p = (gz + ay) + c = C
(gz + ay) = C
z = C
a
y
g
Choosing the origin such that the free surface left hand
side is the origin, then C = 0 for the free surface
Therefore, the equation of the free surface is
z=
a
y
g
1 p
= (g a )
r
p
= (g z a z )
z
p
= 2 r
r
p
= 2 r
r
similarly
1 p
=0
r
p=
p
= g
z
p is only a function of r
and z
2 r 2
+ f (z) + c
2
2
p
= g p = gz + f (r ) + c p = (gz + r ) + c
z
2
a = az = gr = g = 0,
ar = -2r, gz = -g
r 2
r 2
r 2
) + c = C (gz
) = C z = C+
2
2g
2
r 2
2g
Conservation of Mass
dM sys
= 0;
dt
where M sys =
dm =
d
sys
M sys
dt
dt
= T;
= F;
where Psys =
Vdm =
Vd
e dm =
M sys
V2
+ gz
2
kinetic
Shaft
Torque
sys
Internal
Due to body
forces
where E sys =
e=u+
r g dm + Texternal
Due to
surface forces
sys
= Q W;
r Vd
sys
M sys
dt
r Vdm =
M sys
T = r Fs +
M sys
dE sys
where H sys =
dPsys
dH sys
potential
dSsys
dt
Q
+ Sp
T
where Ssys =
s dm =
N sys =
dm =
M sys
d
sys
s d
sys
M sys
Conservation
Mass
M 1
Lin. Mom
P V
Ang. Mom
I-law-Thermo
E e
II-law-Thermo
S s
r V
M sys ( t ) = M CV ( t )
M CV
m in + m out
t
d + V.dA + V.dA
t CV
CSin
CSout
in
mout
M sys ( t + t ) = M CV ( t + t ) m in + m out
dM sys
M ( t + t ) M CV ( t ) m in + m out
M CV ( t + t ) m in + m out M CV ( t )
= CV
t
t
t 0
min
M sys ( t + t ) M sys ( t )
t
=
t 0
M CV ( t + t ) m in + m out M CV ( t )
t
t 0
dt
d + V.dA
t CV
CS
Conservation of Mass
dM sys
A
V
d + V.dA
t CV
CS
dt
d = V.dA = 0
t CV
CS
Rate of increase of mass
in control volume
Application-I
Seawater flows steadily through a simple conical-shaped nozzle at
the end of a fire hose as illustrated in Fig. If the nozzle exit velocity
must be at least 20 m/s. determine the minimum pumping capacity
required in m3/s.
d + V.dA = 0
t CV
CS
=0
Application-II
dV + V.dA = 0
t cv
cs
V.dA = m 2 m1 = 0
cs
If Density is constant Q1 - Q2 = 0
Or, Q1 = Q2 = Q = V2A2
Q = 20
40 10 3
4
= 0.0251 m 3 / s
Application-III
Application-IV
Moist air (a mixture of dry air and water vapor) enters a dehumidifier at the
rate of 324 kg/hr. Liquid water drains out of the dehumidifier at a rate of 7.3
kg/hr Determine the mass flow rate of the dry air and the water vapor leaving
the dehumidifier. A simplified sketch of the process is provided in Fig.
dV + V.dA = 0
t cv
cs
Zero flow is
steady
m3 = ?
m 1 = 324 kg / hr
V.dA = m1 + m 2 + m 3 = 0
cs
m1 m 2 m 3 + m 4 m 5 = 0
m 4 = m5
m 3 = 7.3 kg / hr
Conservation of Momentum
Newtons Second Law
Generalization
dN sys
dt
d + V.dA
t CV
CS
dPsys
dt
Conservation
Mass
M 1
Lin. Mom
P V
Ang. Mom
I-law-Thermo
E e
II-law-Thermo
S s
= F;
V d + V V.dA = F
t CV
CS
r V
Application-V
FA
Wn
p1A1
w1
Application-VI
FA anchoring force that holds the
nozzle in place
Wn weight of the nozzle
Ww weight of the water in the nozzle
P1 gage pressure at section (1)
A1 cross section area at section (1)
P2 gage pressure at section (2)
A2 cross section area at section (2)
Ww
p2A2
w2
Application-VII
Application-VIII
V d + V V.dA = F
t CV
CS
V V.dA = ( w 1 )(m1 ) + ( w 2 )m 2
Zero flow is
steady
CS
F = FS + FB = FA p1A1 + p 2 A 2 Wn Ww
m1w 1 m 2 w 2 = FA p1A1 + p 2 A 2 Wn Ww
Conservation of mass
0
2
A 2 = (D 2 ) = (5 10 3 ) = 1.964 10 5 m 2
4
4
dV + V.dA = 0
t cv
cs
m1 m 2 = 0 or m1 = m 2 = m
Application-IX
h 2
Ww = Vw g =
D1 + D 22 + D1 D 2 g
12
W1 =
Q
0.6 10 3
=
= 2.98 m / s
A1 2.011 10 4
W2 =
Q
0.6 10 3
=
= 30.6 m / s
A 2 1.964 10 5
(0.03)
(0.016)2 + (0.004)2 + (0.016)(0.004) 9.81 = 0.0278 N
Ww = 1000
12
Atmospheric pressure
dN sys
dt
p2 = 0
FA = m (w 1 w 2 ) + p1A1 p 2 A 2 + Wn + Ww
A1 =
d + Vrel .dA = 0
t CV
CS
Mass Balance
d + Vrel .dA
t CV
CS
Momentum Balance
FA = 77.75 N
Application-X
An airplane moves forward at a speed of 971 kmph as shown in Fig. The
frontal intake area of the jet engine is 0.8m2 and the entering air density
is 0.736 kg/m3. A stationary observer determines that relative to the
earth, the jet engine exhaust gases move away from the engine with a
speed of 1050 kmph. The engine exhaust area is 0.558 m2 and the
exhaust gas density is 0.515kg/m3. Estimate the mass flow rate of fuel
into the engine.
Application-XI
d + Vrel .dA = 0
t CV
CS
0
CS
m fuel in = 2 A 2 W2 1A1W1
x-direction
z-direction
Application-XII
A1 = 5.6 10-4 m2
CS
Rz
Conservation of mass;
0.3 m
Rx
dH sys
R x = 119.6 N
dt
T = r Fs +
1.65
Due to
surface forces
= 67.6
Due to body
forces
Shaft
Torque
R
290.3
= Tan 1 z = Tan 1
= 2.43
Rx
119.6
r g dm + Texternal
M sys
R z = 290.3 N
R=
r V d + r V V.dA = T
t CV
CS
= T;
(15.12)(+ 27 Cos45) = R z
m rel 1 = m rel 2 = m
Application-I
Application-II
y
Neglect
tip length
d + Vrel .dA = 0
t CV
CS
CS
Q water in
moving CV
= Q water out
moving CV
Application-III
Application-IV
Note that at inlet, the volume flow rate for moving control volume
is same as that for fixed control volume, which is known
Q water in
Vrel =
moving CV
= Q water out
moving CV
= Q water in
T = r Fs +
stationary CV
r g dm + Texternal
M sys
Q
2A jet
r Fs = 0
1.
2.
r g dm = 0
r V d + r V V.dA = T
t CV
CS
M sys
T = Texternal = Tfriction = Tk
Application-V
Computation of transient term
r V d
t CV
Application-VI
CV
R 3
A k
3
Conservation of Momentum in
Accelerating Frame-I
dPsys
dt
= F;
R
V
Re l
i
r = ( R cos i + R sin j )
R A
r V d =
k =0
t CV
t
3
3
CS
r = ( r cos i + r sin j)
r V d = r 2Adr k =
r V V.dA
= ( Vrel R )Rk
V.dA = Q
A
Even if friction is 0,
maximum = Vrel/R
T = (Vrel R )R kQ
Conservation of Momentum in
Accelerating Frame-II
In the discussion XYZ frame is inertial frame and
PQR would be non inertial
d VXYZ d
sys
dt
d ( VPQR + VRe l )d
= FXYZ =
sys
dt
d VRe l d
d VPQR d
sys
dt
sys
dt
Conservation of Momentum in
Accelerating Frame-III
d VRe l d
FPQR
sys
dt
d VPQR d
=
sys
dt
d VPQR d
FPQR
FPQR
a Re ld =
sys
a Re ld =
sys
sys
dt
Application
Given
Initial Mass = 400 kg
Fuel consumption rate = 5 kg/s
Exhaust Velocity = 3500 m/s
Find
Initial acceleration
Ve
-400 X 9.81
400 X ay
FS PQR + FB PQR a Re ld =
sys
-3500 X 5
Differential Analysis
Conservation of Mass-I
Conservation of Mass-II
(w )
w +
z xy
z
r r
dV + V.dA = 0
t cv
cs
u y z
v
v +
y x z
y
(xyz )
dV
t
t cv
v x z
z
y
Conservation of Mass-III
r r
V.dA = uyz + ( vxy) + ( wxz) +
(u )
(v )
uy z +
xy z + v x z +
xy z +
x
y
(w )
w x y +
x y z
z
r r
dV + V.dA = 0
t cv
cs
(u ) (v ) (w )
xyz = 0
xyz +
+
+
t
y
z
x
(u ) (v ) (w )
+
+
+
=0
t
x
y
z
CS
w xy
x y z
u +
x
Conservation of Mass-IV
(u ) (v ) (w )
+
+
+
= 0 Can be written in vectorial form as
t
x
y
z
+ . V = 0
t
( )
r
.V = 0
r
. V = 0
( )
Vector operation
r r r
= ex
+ ey
+ ez
z
x
y
Translation
r r
r
r
V = ex u + e y v + ez w
r u v w
.V =
+ +
x y z
In Cylindrical coordinate system
r
r
r
r
V = Vr e r + V e + Vz e z
r r 1 r
= er + e
+ ez
r
z
r
r 1 (rVr ) 1 V Vz
.V =
+
+
r r
r
z
Consider 1-D
For 3-D
u v w
+ +
x y z
u v w
+ +
=0
x y z
The left edge moves less and the right
moves more
u
Stretching = x t
x
u
x
oA =
Lim
t 0 t
(v x ) x t = v t
Tan =
oA =
v
t v
x
=x
t
Lim
t 0
- counterclockwise
- positive
oB =
Lim
t 0 t
oB
u t
y u
=
= Lim
t
y
t 0
1 v u
Note the negative sign
u y t
y
u
Tan =
=
t
y
y
x =
- clockwise
- negative
y =
1u w
2 z
x
r
r
r
= x i + y j + z k
Fluid acceleration-I
1w v
2 y
z
1
1
curl V = V
2
2
r
r dV
a=
dt
r
Applying chain rule as V( x, y, z, t ) we can write
r
r
r
r
r V
V
V
V
dV =
dt +
dx +
dy +
dz
t
x
y
z
r
r
r
r
r
dV V V dx V dy V dz
=
+
+
+
dt
t x dt y dt z dt
dx
dy
dz
By definition
= u,
= v, and
=w
dt
dt
dt
Fluid acceleration-II
r
r
r
r
r
dV V V
V
V
=
+
u+
v+
w
dt
t x
y
z
r
r
r
r
r
dV V
V
V
V
or
=
+u
+v
+w
dt
t
x
y
z
Fluid acceleration-III
& in = m
& out 1A1V1 = 2 A 2 V2
m
As 1 = 2 A1V1 = A 2 V2
Fluid acceleration-IV
Fluid acceleration-IV
r r r
= ex
+ ey
+ ez
x
y
z
dX X
X
X
X
=
+u
+v
+w
dt
t
x
y
z
or
Velocity is given by
Hence
r r
r
r
V = ex u + ey v + ez w
d( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
=
+u
+v
+w
dt
t
x
y
z
V. = u
+v u
y z
x
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) r
+u
+v
+w
=
+ V.( )
t
x
y
z
t
D( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
=
+u
+v
+w
Dt
t
x
y
z
or
Conservation of Momentum-I
operator
(uw )
uw +
z xy
z
uu y z
r r
t cv
cs
uv x z
z
y
x
uw xy
Conservation of Momentum-III
r r
uV.dA = uuyz + ( uvxy) + ( uwxz) +
(uu )
(uv )
xy z + v x z +
xy z +
x
y
(uw )
uw x y +
x y z
z
(uu ) (uv) (uw )
xyz
=
+
+
y
z
x
uuy z +
()
(u )
(u )
(v )
(u )
+u
+u
+ u
+u
+
t
t
x
x
y
=
(w )
(u )
(u )
v y + u z + w z
xyz
r r
u dV + uV.dA
t cv
cs
uv
uv +
y x z
y
(uxyz)
u dV
t cv
t
CS
( )
Conservation of Momentum-II
r r r
r
r
V dV + VV.dA = F
t cv
cs
D( ) ( ) r
=
+ V. ( )
Dt
t
uu
x y z
uu +
x
Conservation of Momentum-IV
(u )
(u )
(u )
(u )
+ u
+ v
+ w
+
t
x
y
z
=
(u )
(v )
(w )
( )
u t + u x + u y + u z
xyz
(u )
(u )
(u )
(u )
xyz
=
+ u
+ v
+ w
x
y
z
t
(u )
(u )
(u )
(u )
xyz
=
+u
+v
+w
x
y
z
t
r r
(u ) r
+ V. ( u ) xyz
u dV + uV.dA =
t
t cv
cs
( )
Conservation of Momentum-V
Similar exercise in y and z directions will give
r r
(v ) r
v dV + vV.dA =
+ V. ( v) xyz
t cv
cs
t
( )
r r
(w ) r
w dV + wV.dA = t + V. (w ) xyz
t cv
cs
( )
Forces-I
zz
zy
yz
zx
yy
In general
y yx
r
r r r
r
r
V
r
V
d
V
V
V
.
d
A
t + V. ( V) xyz
t cv
cs
( ) ( )
x
x
Forces-II
Forces-III
zx + zx z x y
z
yx + yx y x z
y
yx x z
xx y z
zx x y
xx + xx x y z
x
Conservation of Momentum-VI
r r
( xx ) ( yx ) ( zx )
+ V. (u ) xyz = g x +
xyz
+
+
x
y
z
( )
(u ) r
( xx ) ( yx ) ( zx )
+
+
+ V. ( u ) = g x +
x
y
z
t
+ V. ( v) = g y +
+
+
x
y
z
( )
( )
(w ) r
( xz ) ( yz ) ( zz )
+ V. ( w ) = g z +
+
+
x
y
z
t
( )
x
x
FBx = g x xyz
Constitutive Equations-I
Till now we have derived two equations
The mass balance equation is a scalar equation
It is also called Continuity Equation
(u ) (v ) (w )
+
+
+
=0
t
x
y
z
Constitutive Equations-II
Constitutive Equations-III
(V. ) (u )
r
( xx )
= g x +
+
x
( xy )
= g y +
+
x
V. ( v)
(w ) r
( xz )
+ V. ( w ) = g z +
+
x
( )
( )
( yx )
(zx )
z
( yy ) ( zy )
+
y
z
( yz ) ( zz )
+
y
z
y
Stress-Strain relations
r
u 2
.V
x 3
r
v 2
yy = p + 2
.V
y 3
r
w 2
zz = p + 2
.V
z
3
xx = p + 2
Navier-Stokes Equations-I
Substitution of stresses in the momentum balance
equation gives the following
( )
( )
Normal stresses
( )
u v
xy = yx = +
y x
v w
yz = zy = +
z y
w u
zx = xz =
+
x z
r u v
Du
p u 2
u w
=
+
2
.V +
+ g x
+ +
+
Dt
x x x 3
y y x z z x
( )
yx
xx
u u u
p
u v w
+ 2 + 2 + 2 +
+
+
x
y
z x x y z
x
2
Shear stresses
zx
r
2
.V + g x
3
( )
2u 2 u 2 u
Du
p
r
=
+ 2 + 2 + 2 +
.V + g x
Dt
x
y
z x 3
( )
Navier-Stokes Equations-II
Navier-Stokes Equations-III
2v 2v 2v
Dv
p
r
=
+ 2 + 2 + 2 +
.V + g y
Dt
y
y 3
( )
2w 2w 2w
Dw
p
r
=
+ 2 +
+
+
.V + g z
2
2
Dt
z
z 3
( )
r
r
r
r
DV
= P + 2 V + .V + g
Dt
3
The only assumption is the equation for stresses,
which is the generalized law for Newtonian Fluids
( )
2u 2u 2u
u
u
u
u
p
+ u
+ v + w =
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + g x
x
y
z
x
2v 2v 2v
v
v
v
v
p
+ u
+ v + w =
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + g y
x
y
z
y
y
z
t
x
2w 2w 2w
w
w
w
w
p
=
+u
+v
+w
+ 2 +
+
+ g z
z
y 2
z 2
In Vector form we
can write as
r
r
r
r
V
r
+ ( V. )V = p + 2 V + g
Continuity Eq.
u v
+
=0
x y
gc
o s
gs
Therefore, v = 0 everywhere.
Assumption-1
Application-III
gs
in
2v 2v
v
v
v
p
+ u
+ v =
+ 2 + 2 + g y
x
y
y
y
t
x
p
p
=
gy
cos
+ C( x )
or
0 =
+ ( g cos )
y
in
gc
o s
Application-II
Application-I
C(x ) = gh cos
p
=0
x
Navier-Stokes Equations-IV
For incompressible liquids in cylindrical coordinates
X-momentum Eq.
2 u 2u
u
u
u
p
+ u
+ v =
+ 2 + 2 + g x
x
y
x
y
t
x
d 2 u gSin
d 2u
=
+ gSin
2
dy 2
dy
gSin y 2
u=
+ c1y + c 2
r-component
0=
Continuity
r 1 (rVr ) 1 V Vz
.V =
+
+
=0
r r
r
z
Note u = u(y)
du
= 0 at y = h (free shear boundary Condition)
dy
gSin
y2
hy
u=
2
Navier-Stokes Equations-V
-component
V V V Vr V
V
V
+ Vr +
+
+ Vz =
r
r
r
z
t
1 (rV ) 1 2 V 2 V 2 V
1 p
g
+
+
+
+ 2
2
z 2 r 2
r
r r r r
z-component
V V Vz
V
V
z + Vr z +
+ Vz z =
r
r
z
t
1 rVz 1 2 Vz 2 Vz
p
g z +
+
+ 2
2
z
z 2
r r r r
2
V
V V Vr V
V
r + Vr r +
+ Vz r =
r
r
r
z
t
1 (rVr ) 1 2 Vr 2 Vr 2 V
p
g r +
+
+ 2
2
r
z 2 r 2
r r r r
Euler Equations
If viscosity can be neglected, or for inviscid flows, the
viscous term drops out of momentum equations and
the resulting equations are called Euler Equations
u
u
u
u
p
+ u
+ v + w =
+ g x
x
y
z
x
t
v
v
v
v
p
+ u
+ v + w =
+ g y
x
y
z
y
t
w
w
w
w
p
=
+u
+v
+w
+ g z
x
y
z
z
t
r
r
r
r
DV
= P + 2 V + .V + g
Dt
3
( )
Note that
incompressible
assumption is
not invoked.
Hence valid for
compressible
flows
= u,
=v
y
x
udy vdx = 0
dy
dx = 0 d = 0
y
x
u v
, +
= 0
+
=
x y x y
y x
Continuity
automatically
satisfied
= 2
= 1
y
r r
dy dx
dQ = (V.n )dA = ( u i + v j). i
ds
ds
r r
dy dx
= (V.n )dA = (u i + v j). i
ds
ds
j ds(1)
dA = ds(1)
ds
= d
xV = 0
r
n
In 2-d flow
dx
dy dx
dy
= u
v ds =
ds
ds
ds
y ds x ds
r
V
+ d
j ds
xV =
v u
=0
x y x x y y
2 = 0
Hence proved
Assumptions
Flow is axi-symmetric and steady
r r
dV + V.dA = 0
t cv
cs
Flow in = Flow out
0
Control
Volume
Continuity Equation
1 (rVr ) 1 V Vz
+
+
=0
r r
r
z
0
V
1 ( rVr )
1 r 2 V0
1 rV
V
= 0= 0
z =
=
z
r r
r r 2h
r h
h
Vz
V
Vz
= 0 Vz = 0 + f ( r )
z
h
h
r 2 V0 = 2rhVr
Vz = V0
ar =
az =
p
= g s
stream line
V
p Subscript r changed to s to
Vs s = g s
s
s indicate stream direction
z
r
in
s
s
g
g g co
Bernoullis Equation-III
The conditions that have been used in deriving
Bernoullis Equation are:
1. Steady flow
s 2
Bernoullis Equation-I
Steady
Bernoullis Equation-II
Vs
s 2
V0 z
h
2
V
V V Vr V
V
p
r + Vr r +
+ Vz r = g r
r
r
z
r
Vz
V V Vz
V
+ Vr z +
+ Vz z
t
r
r
z
0
0
0
2
z V V z
a z = V0 1 0 = 0 1
h h h h
Vz ( z = h ) = 0 0 = V0 + f (r ) f ( r ) = V0
Boundary condition
V0
rV
0 = Vr
2h
p
Vs
H p
= g sin
or
2 = g s s
H
2
V
= sin
Note
p + s + gH = 0
s
s
2
3. Density is constant
4. Valid along a stream line
V 2
+ gH = cons tan t
2
Bernoullis Equation
The term
V
2
V 2
is called dynamic pressure
2
Pitot Tube
For liquids
V2
h=
2g
For gases
P3 = P1 +
This can be done by using Pitot-static tube
P4 = P1
1
V 2
2
Air Flow
2
Hg
h = 30 mm
60 cm
Hg
(=13600 kg/m3)
h = 15 cm
Dimensional Analysis-I
Horizontal Elbow
p= ?
d
However, the costs of these complex systems can be very high and
so costly mistakes have to be avoided
We shall see a highly simplified picture to get a feel for the subject
patm
Given: D, V, d, patm,
To find: p
Dimensional Analysis-II
Dimensional Analysis-III
P
= f (D, , , V )
L
Dimensional Analysis-IV
P
Dimensional Analysis-V
P
= c1D n1 n 2 n 3 V n 4
L
This is the best outcome we would have come out and the resulting
equation is our design equation for estimating pressure drop
Let us say that using the same experiments (four graphs) the
graduate student got curious (He was actually forced by his
professor to come out with more interesting result with the data) and
he plotted all kinds of combinations till he got a stunning result
Dimensional Analysis-VI
Dimensional Analysis-VII
Such a thing reveals that there are only two combination of system
variables that are important and so experiments can be cut short and
so costs can be reduced
P D
V 2 L
Buckingham PI Theorem-Steps
1. List all the variables that are involved in the problem.
2. Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions
(MLtT)
3. Select a set of r repeating variables that includes all
dimensions
4. Form a term by multiplying one of the non-repeating
variables by the product of repeating variables each raised to
an exponent that will make the combination dimensionless.
and repeat it for each of the remaining non-repeating
variables
5. Get the final non-dimensional functional form
Application-I
Step 1: List all the variables that are involved in the problem
P = f (L, D, , , V )
N=6
P ML1t 2
L L
D L
ML3
ML1t 1
V Lt 1
Application-II
Application-III
Only has M
2 = L a V b D c
a = 0, b = 0, c = -1
This would
L
2 =
have come by
D
inspection
r=3
Only V has t
Step 4: Formation of Pi groups
1 = P a V b D c
Number of = N r = 6 3 = 3
a = -1, b = -2, c = 0
1 =
P
V 2
M 0 L0 t 0 = (L )(ML3 ) a (Lt 1 ) b Lc
3 = a V b D c
a = -1, b = -1, c = -1
3 =
VD
Application-IV
Application-IV
L
P
= f ,
V 2
D VD
P
V 2
2 =
L
D
n1
VD
n1
Euler Number
Non-dimensional length
VD
1
=
3
Reynolds Number
u v
+
=0
x y
u
u
u
+ u
+v
x
y
t
v
v
v
+u
+v
x
y
t
2u 2u
P
=
+ 2 + 2
x
y
2v 2v
P
=
+ 2 + 2
y
y
x * y *
t
;y = ;t =
L
H
L/V
u* =
u * v *
p
;v = ;p =
V
V
V 2
Vu * Vv*
+
=0
L x * H y*
Vu *
Vu *
Vu *
+ Vu*
+ Vv*
*
*
(
L
/
V
)
t
L
x
Hy*
V 2 u *
V 2 P
V 2 u *
=
+
+
*
2
2
*2
L
x
H 2 y*
L x
u *
u * L u *
p *
H 2u* L 2u*
+
+ u * * + v* * = * +
*
t
x
H y
x VH L x *2 H y*2
+u
+v
x
y
t
2v 2v
P
=
+ 2 + 2
y
y
Vv*
V 2v V 2v
V v*
V v*
V 2 p*
=
+ Vu *
+ Vv*
+ 2 2 + 2 2
*
*
*
(
L
/
V
)
t
L
x
H
y
H
y
H y
L x
v *
v* L v*
L p *
H 2 v* L 2 v*
+ u * * + v*
=
+
+
*
*
t
x
y
H
H y VH L x * 2 H y*2
*
t
x
H y
x VH L x * 2 H y* 2
v*
v* L v*
L p*
H 2 v* L 2 v*
+ u * * + v*
=
+
+
*
*
t
x
H
y
H y VH L x * 2 H y*2
H
L
We have come to the same conclusion that the nondimensional pressure drop is only a function of Inverse of
Reynolds number
and non-dimensional length L
VH
H
,
H VH
If
L
is same, i.e., the geometry is similar, and
is same
VH
H
p
V 2
=
mod el
p
V 2
For same
prototype
and L
VH
H
The method also gives physical interpretation for the nondimensional group
Vv*
V v*
V v*
+ Vu *
+ Vv*
*
L x *
H y
(L / V)t
V 2v V 2v
V 2 p*
=
+ 2 2 + 2 2
H y*
H y
L x
Inertia force/volume
Viscous force/volume
2
Re ynolds Number =
V / L VL
Inertia Force
=
=
V / L2
Viscous Force
Kinematic Similarity
Velocities at corresponding points on model and prototype
differ only by a constant scale factor
Dynamic Similarity
then
FPr ototype
FModel
[V D ]
[V D ]
2
prototype
2
mod el
F
V 2 L2
= V
FrP = FrM
Lg
Lg
P
M
VP
=
VM
LP
LM
VL
VL
Re P = Re M
=
P M
F = f (L, V, , , g )
Froude Number
VL V
= f (Re, Fr)
= f
,
Lg
M L M VM L M
=
=
P
L P VP L P
3/ 2
M
For typical LM/Lp = 1/100 = 1000
P
1. Froude Number
matched
No Fluid Available
1. Wave Resistance
estimated from
model study as a
function of
Froude Number
2. Total Resistance
obtained
3. Viscous
Resistance
Estimated
Theoretically
2. Viscous
Resistance
Estimated
theoretically
4. Hence Wave
resistance
obtained as a
function of
Froude Number
by subtraction
3. Hence total
resistance
obtained by
adding the two
Multiple parameters
If
then
Negligible
effect
Head Coefficient
Power Coefficient
u
=0
x
u v
+
=0
x y
Y-momentum Eq.
f(x)
v v
v
v
v
p
+ u
+ v =
+ 2 + 2 + g y
x
y
y
y
t
x
p dp
p
=
p is a function of x only
=0
x dx
y
2
X-momentum Eq.
2 u 2u
u
u
u
p
+ u
+ v =
+ 2 + 2
x
y
x
y
t
x
f(y)
1 dp y 2
+ C1 y + C 2
dx 2
a
Boundary conditions
u = 0 at y =
2
2
2
1 dp a
a
1 dp a
a
0=
+ C1 + C 2 and 0 =
C1 + C 2
dx 8
2
dx 8
2
1 dp a 2
C1 = 0 and C 2 =
dx 8
On integration with y
u=
2
a 2 dp y
1
8 d x a / 2
Parabolic Distribution
u avg =
U=umax at y = 0
a /2
a 2 dp
8 d x
y 2
u = u max 1
a / 2
u max =
Or
u max
1 a /2
udy = a
a a / 2
u max
a
u
y 4y
= max
2
a
3
a
a / 2
y2
dy
1
(a / 2)2
a / 2
a/2
a a 4
2
2 2 3a
a 3 a 3
8 8
u max
8a 2
a
= u max
a
3 8 3
u avg =
2
u max
3
Or
Pressure Drop
1.5u avg 8
dp
=
dx
a2
p =
12u avgL
a2
dp
u 8
= max2
and
dx
a
Shear Stress
u v
4
du
= u max 2 2 y
xy = yx = + =
a
dy
y x
Constant
It is zero on centerline
w =
f=
a/2
Note u = u max 1
4u max
a
Couette Flow-I
We had seen flow between parallel plates when both the
plates were at zero velocity and fluid was flowing in
between
The characteristics were:
6u avg
4u max
From previous slide w =
=
a
a
6u avg
12
12
f =
=
=
2
0.5u avg a u avg a Re
f=
12
Re
Couette Flow-III
Couette Flow-II
The first few steps are identical
dp
d 2u
= 2
dx
dy
f(x)
f(y)
u=
U
or
u=U
u=
On integration with y
1 dp y 2
+ C1 y + C 2
dx 2
Boundary conditions
u = 0 at y = 0
u = U at y = a
and
1 dp y 2 U 1 dp a
y
+
d x 2 a d x 2
U 1 dp a
1 dp a 2
0 = C 2 and U =
= C1
+ C1a or
a dx 2
dx 2
y 1 dp y 2 ay
+
a dx
2
Couette Flow-IV
Couette Flow-IV
a dp
2 U dx
2
Rearranging
or
u * = y* +
u y
a 2 dp y y
= +
1
U a 2 U dx a a
a 2 dp *
*
*
*
*
*
y 1 y or u = y + y (1 y )
2U dx
Average Velocity
u avg =
y*
1a
U a y
y
y2
udy = + 2 dy
a0
a 0 a
a
a
U y 2 y 2 y 3
+
2
a 2a
2a
3a
u avg
u
Shear Stress
du
= 1 + 1(1 y* ) + y* ( 1)
dy*
+1
2
a 2 dp
2 U dx
u v
du U du *
U
xy = yx = + =
=
=
1 + (1 2 y* )
dy
a dy*
a
y x
U
a 2 dp
y U a dp
y
1 +
+ (1 2 )
(1 2 ) =
a 2 U dx
a a
2 dx
a
1 + 1(1 y* ) + y* (1) = 1 + (1 2 y* ) = 0
y* =
Couette Flow-VI
du
du *
At point of maximum velocity
=0 * =0
dy
dy
U a a a
U 1
= +
=
a +
3
a 2 6
a 2 2
1
=U +
2 6
Couette Flow-V
u * = y * + y* 1 y*
y
y y
u = U + 1
a a
a
u * = y* + y* (1 y* )
yx =
U dp 1 y
+ a
a
dx 2 a
1 ( rVr ) Vz
+
=0
r r
z
rVr is independent of r
Since Vr at r = R is 0, Vr is 0 everywhere
Hence there is only Vz = Vz (r)
1 (rVr )
V
V
p
2V
V
r + Vr r + + Vz r = +
+ + 2 r
r
r
r
z
p is only a function of z
1 Vz 2 Vz
V
V
p
V
z + Vr z + + Vz z = +
r
+
2
r
z
z
t
r r r z
p dp
=
z dz
p
1 Vz
=
r
z
r r r
f(z)
f(r)
dVz 1 dp r
=
dr dz 2
Integrating with r
1 dp r 2
+ C 2
Vz =
dz 4
dV 1 dp r 2
r z =
+ C1
dr dz 2
dVz 1 dp r 2
=
+ C1
dr dz 2
dp
1 d dVz
=
r
= Cons tan t
dz
r dr dr
C1 = 0
dVz 1 dp r 2
=
dr dz 2
1 dp 2 2 R 2 dp
r2
1 dp R 2
Vz =
C 2 =
(R r ) =
1 2
4
dz
4
dz
R
dz
4
Vz =
R 2 dp
r2
1
4 dz R 2
1 R
2 R
2 R
v 2r dr
v r dr = 2 v z r dr
2 z
2 z
R 0
R 0
R 0
2Vz (max) R
r2
2Vz (max) R
r3
Vz =
1 R 2 r dr = R 2 r R 2 dr
R2
0
0
2V (max) R 2 R 4
Vz = z 2
2
R
2 4R
Vz =
Vz = Vz (max) at r = 0
Vz (max) =
R 2 dp
4 dz
r2
Vz = Vz (max)1 2
R
Vz =
r2
Vz = Vz (max)1 2
R
Shear Stress
v
v
2r
rz = rz = z + r = Vz (max) 2
Friction Factor
R 2 dp 2 r
R 2 dp
Q Vz (max) =
4 dz R 2
4 dz
r dp
= Direction is Negative as dp/dz is negative
2 dz
f=
Force Balance
dz
p+dp
8 dz
R dp
From previous slide
2 dz
(R / 2) /(dp / dz) = 8 = 16 = 16
0.5Vz R 2 / 8 (dp / dz ) Vz R Vz D Re
w =
w = r =R =
f =
Pressure Drop
2
Further Vz = R dp
and
r dp
2rdz + r dp = 0 =
2 dz
Note the answer is same, as direction of
p
2
w
0.5Vz
R dp
2 dz
VA
) (
2
2
2
4
4 0.5Vz f
4 Vz f
4Vz 16
dp 2
= w = w =
=
=
R
D
D
2D
2D Vz D
dz
32Vz
=
D2
32Vz L
p =
Linear dependence with velocity
D2
Vavg
Reynolds Experiment
u = u + u
u
u
u+ =
; where u * = w and y + =
/ u*
u*
Shear velocity
Viscous layer
or Wall layer
u + = y + ; for y + < 5
Outer layer
u
y
Rr
= 2.5 ln
+ 5 or u = u * 2.5 ln
+ 5
u*
/ u*
/
u
u* R
R r
V=
2.5 ln / u + 5 2rdr Integrate by parts
R 2 0
*
R
= u * 2.5 ln
+ 1.25
/
u
*
Vz
= w
2
dp Vz f
=
2D
dz
u* =
w f Vz
=
4 2
u * = Vz
f
8
Darcy-Weisbach
friction factor
V=
R
f
V 2.5 ln
8
f
V + 1.25
1 2.5 Re f 1.25
+
=
ln
f 8 2 8
8
On simplifying, we get
Re f
1
= 0.88 ln
f
5.66
+ 0.44
1
= 2.05 log Re f log 5.66 + 0.44
f
1
= 2.0 log Re f 0.8
f
1
/ D 2.51
= 2.0 log
+
f
3.7 Re f
Moodys Chart
Riveted steel
0.99.0
Concrete
0.33.0
Wood stave
0.180.9
Cast iron
0.26
Galvanized iron
0.15
0.045
Drawn tubing
0.0015
Plastic, glass
0.0 (smooth)
f=
64
Re
/ D 1.11 6.9
1
= 1.8 log
+
3.7
f
Re
r n
Re =
Vz (max)D
Vz
2n 2
=
Vz (max) (n + 1)(2n + 1)
p1 V1
p
V
+
+ gH1 = 2 + 2 + gH 2 + gH loss
p1 1V1
p
V
+
+ gH1 = 2 + 2 2 + gH 2 + gH loss
p1 V12
p
V2
+
+ H1 = 2 + 2 + H 2 + H loss + (H gain )
g 2g
g 2g
1
V 3dA
& V 2 A
m
2
dp Vz f
=
dz
2
D
Or
p =
2
p fL Vz
=
= H loss
g
D 2g
Vz 2 fL
2 D
= 1.8 log
+
3.7
f
Re
Dh =
4 Area
Wetted Perimeter
L
B
L
5 rods of radius = R
Dh =
4LB
2(L + B)
Dh =
4 L2 5R 2
4L + 5(2R )
Valves-I
V2
HL = KL
2g
These are listed in text books, hand books, etc.
Valves-II
Loss
Coefficients
Gate Valve
Manufaturers specify
this, which is used to
select valves
64
Re
fLVz 2
2gD
Component
Le/D
f=
Gate Valve
Globe Valve
340
90o
elbow
30
/ D
1
= 1.8 log
3.7
f
45o
elbow
16
H Loss min or = K L
V2
2g
6.9
Re
Or
Moodys
Chart
KL empirically obtained
Flow Measurement-I
1
1
V12 = P2 + V22
2
2
P1 +
Types of Problems
A1V1 = A 2 V2
Can be directly
solved
Q th = A 2
Iterations
Required
2 ( P1P2 )
2
A
1 2
A1
Q act < Q th
Discharge C = Q act
Coefficient d
Q th
Flow Measurement-II
Q act = C d A t
2 (P1P2 )
= Cd A t
2
A t
1
Ap
2 (P1P2 )
4
where, =
(1 )
Flow Measurement-II
Dt
Dp
Cd is a function of Re,
Empirical correlations exist for Cd to aid the design of
orifices
+u
+ v =
+ 2 + 2
t
x
y
x
y
x
U
p
=
x
x
+ g x
p
=0
x
Some Definitions
y + *
udy = udy
At x = 0
(u U + U)dy
At x = x
Uy =
y+
*
(u U)dy + U ( y + )
U* =
Streamline if plate
not present
Boundary Layer
y + *
Uy =
Streamline with
plate present
Displacement Thickness
U
<0
x
U
=0
x
U
>0
x
y + *
y + *
(u U)dy
0
u
u
(1 )dy (1 )dy
U
U
0
Momentum Thickness
u
u
(1 )dy
U
U
0
x
1
r r
d + V.dA = 0
t CV
CS
steady
d
udy x
dx
0
0
d
& 12 m
& 34 = udy x
=m
dx 0
& 34 = udy +
m
& 23
m
r r
u V.dA = FSx + FBx
FSx = M12 + M 23 + M 34
= uudy = u 2 dy
d 2
d
u dy x U udy x
=
dx 0
dx
p
x
x
4
1
w x
p
1 p
x )d F34 = (p +
x )( + d) F14 = w x
x
2 x
p
p
1 p
F12 = p
d
u 2 dy x Sign positive by
our convention
dx 0
From
d
udy x
& 23 U = U
=m
previous
dx
slide
0
= u 2 dy +
p+
p
1
Evaluation of FSx
Sign negative by
our convention
CS
Momentum Equation
r r r r
r
V d + V V.dA = F
t CV
CS
& 12 = m
& 23 + m
& 34
m
& 12 = udy
m
Continuity Equation
(M12)
Control Volume
is sketched as
1234
F23 = (p +
FSx =
p
1 p
x
xd w x
x
2 x
p
1 p
d 2
d
u dy x U udy x
x
xd w x =
x
2 x
dx 0
dx
p
1 p
d 2
d
u dy x U udy x
x
xd w x =
x
2 x
dx 0
dx 0
p
1 p
d 2
d
u dy U udy
d w =
x
2 x
dx 0
dx 0
p
d 2
d
u dy U
w =
udy
x
dx 0
dx
w = U
d 2
d
udy
dx u dy
dx 0
d
u ( U u )dy
w =
dx 0
d u
u
(1 )dy
dx 0 U
U
w
1
U 2
2
=2
d u
u
(1 )dy = C f
dx 0 U
U
u = 2U
u
= 2 2
U
du
U
= 2
Further w =
dy y =0
U
d u
u
(1 )dy
= U 2
dx 0 U
U
2 U
d
2
2 1 2 2 d
U 2 dx 0
5.48
=
x
Re x
exact solution is
2 =
5.00
=
x
Re x
Re x
2U /
4
4 x
4
Cf =
=
=
=
=
1
1
U Ux Re x 5.48
2
2
U
U
2
2
w
Cf =
w = U 2
d u
u
(1 )dy
dx 0 U
U
y
d = dy
d 5
4
3
2
+4
5
+2
dx 5
4
3
2
15
dx
U
Or
2 15
=
dx
2
U
Integration leads to
u
y y2
=2 2
U
Or
2 15
=
x+C
2
U
Using the condition = 0 at x = 0 C = 0
)]
d 1
4 + 43 5 2 + 2 d
dx 0
at y =
2 U 2 d
=
U 2 15 dx
d =
w = 2
at y =
u
y y2
=2 2
U
)[ (
u=U
du
=0
dy
y
y2
U 2
We shall use
at y = 0
u=0
0.73
Re x
0.664
The exact solution for this case is C f =
Re x
30
x =
U
30
x =
U
x
30
Ux
=
x
30
Re x
Note
Re x =
Ux
u
y
= 2.5 ln
+5
u*
/ u*
Eventually we arrived at
1
/ D 2.51
= 2.0 log
+
f
3.7 Re f
f=
0.316
0.316
=
Re 0.25 VD 0.25
2
w = 0.0233Vmax
1
Vmax R
V
= 0.817
Vmax
f =
w
1
(0.817Vmax ) 2
8
w = 0.0233U 2
0.316
(0.817Vmax )2R
0.25
0.25
1
U
0.25
u y
= =
U
0.25d = 0.240
1
7
d u
u
(1 )dy
w = U 2
dx 0 U
U
We get
1
7 d
0.0233 0.25
d 1/ 7
(1 1/ 7 )d =
=
72 dx
(U )0.25 dx 0
1
2
w
= C Re x n
U 2
0.25
dx 0.25 d = 0.240
U
0
0
1.25
= 0.240
1.25
U
0.25
dx
1
5
0.25
4/5
x
= 0.382
U
= 0.382
x
Ux
0.382
=
x Re1x/ 5
0.0594
Cf = 1 w 2 =
Re 0x.2
2 U
1
2
1
2
U 2 LCU n L n 1
C
= 2 U 2 L
Re Ln
n (1 n )
1 n
FD
C
= CD =
Re Ln
U 2 L
1 n
y
x
dx
n
Ux
= 12 U 2 C
L
2 n
2 n
n +1 L
U C n
U Cx
U 2 n CL n +1
FD = 12
x dx = 12 n
=1
n 0
( n + 1) 0 2 n (n + 1)
dFD = w dx = 12 U 2 C f
Differential Analysis-I
u
v
+
=0
x
y
2u
(u )
(u )
2u
=
u
+v
x 2 + y 2
x
y
0.0742 1740
Re 0L.2
Re L
0.455
1610
CD =
(log Re L ) 2.58 Re L
CD =
Differential Analysis-II
Differential Analysis-III
Now a similarity variable is defined as
u
df
d 2f
d 2f
u
= u
=
= u
2 y
y
y
d
d
d 2
u
d 2f
=
u
y
y 2
d 2
u
= u
x
v =
=
x
df
+ f
u x
d 2 x
u x
u
1
=
x
2 x
df
u x
dn y
=
y
u d f
x d3
df
+ f
d x
u 1
1
=
x
2
2
v =
u
x
= u df
dn
u
x
u df
f
x d
1
2
u
u d f
= u
x
x d3
1
u
2 x
u
x
df
u x
dn
Differential Analysis-V
df
d 2 f
d 2f
u
= u
= u
d
d 2 x
d 2 2 x
u
x
= f ( ) u x
Differential Analysis-IV
=
y
=
x
x
u 1 3/ 2
1 y
=
x
2
2 x
= y
x
u
v
+
=
= 0
x
y
xy xy
u
x
= y
v =
x
u =
y
df
f
d
df
d 2f
u
u
dn d 2 2 x
1
+
2
u
x
u
x
df
d
d 2f
f u
d
2
v
y
v
= u
Collecting
terms
u d 3f
x d 3
u
df d f
2 x d d 2
2
u
x
u
+
2x
df
d f
f
2
d
d
2
u
=
x
2u
y 2
d f
d3
Differential Analysis-VI
u 2 d 3f
d 2f u 2
f
=
2 2x
x d3
d
d 2f
+2
d 3f
d
= 0
v =
f
d
u = u , at y =
u = u , at x = 0
+2
= 0
d 3
df
= 0 , f = 0 at = 0
d
u = 0 , v = 0 at y = 0
d 2
df
= 1, at =
d
u = u
df
dn
df
= y2,
d
dy 1
= y2
d
dy 2
= y3
d
d 2f
d 2
= y3
y1 (0 ) = 0
y 2 (0 ) = 0
dy 3
y y
= 1 3
d
2
y 2 ( ) = 1
y 2 ( ) = y 2 (0) + y 3 (0)
Now if we apply it to the third equation
dy
y( + d) y() +
y1 (0 + ) y1 (0) +
dy 2
= y3
d
dy1
y1 () = y1 (0) + y 2 (0)
d 0
dy 3
y y
= 1 3
d
2
y1 (0) y 3 (0)
2
From the boundary conditions y1(0), y2(0) are known, But
y3(0) is not known, but y2() is what is known
y 3 ( ) = y 3 (0)
w =
Cf
u
y
= u
y =0
w
0.5u 2
d 2f
d 2
u
u
= 0.332u
x
x
( = 0 )
u
x
0.332u
=
0.5u 2
C f ==
= 0.664
ux
0.664
Re x
Separation-II
Separation-I
The problem is more complex to obtain analytical
solution
Can be explained through qualitative arguments
Consider x momentum equation all along the wall
2u 2u
u
u
u
p
+ u
+ v =
+ 2 + 2 + g x
x
y
x
y
t
x
p
2u
= 2
x
y
u
y
Separation-III
There will be no separation when
For separation to occur
p
>0
x
p
<0
x
For
For
p
<0,
x
p
>0,
x
2u
<0
y 2
u
<0
y 2
2u
>0
y 2
pdA
FD =
plate surface
FD = C D
1
V 2 A projected
2
Taken from
ONERA's Science Pictures
Vortex Shedding
Vortices are shed alternately from each side of a
cylinder
The separation point and thus the resultant drag
force oscillate
Dimensionless frequency of shedding given by
Strouhal number S = fD/V
S is approximately 0.2 over a wide range of
Reynolds numbers (100 - 1,000,000)
Streamlining
Used to Reduce Wake and hence Pressure Drag
Note that as c is increased for a given t, the pressure
drag decreases
However there is an optimum c
Lift
FL = C L
1
V 2 A p
2
Conclusion
There are many more complex issues for finite
wings
These are not important for a first level study
However one should know how to use data
available in books
This will be given in home work with sufficient
hints as they are straight forward
Conservation of Mass - I
A
s
s
u
u + s
s
+ s
s
&
m
& +
m
s
s
A+
A Area (m2)
u Velocity (m/s)
Density (kg/m3)
& Mass flow rate (kg/s)
m
Rate of
accumulation of =
mass in CV
Mass flow _
rate into CV
Rate of
Mass flow rate +/- Mass
out of CV
generated /
destructed in
CV
& g)
(m
= g
s
t
& l)
liquid (l A l ) + (m
= l
s
t
+
Conservation of Momentum - I
g = l
Conservation of Momentum - II
&u+
m
p Pressure (N/m2)
pA
( g A g )
Gas
A
p
s
s
& g)
(m
(As)
& m
& +
=m
s s
t
s
&
(
m
)
(A)
g
=
+
1
t
s
H Elevation (m)
&
m
Conservation of Mass - II
P Perimeter (m)
A,
u,
&u
m
&u
m
s
s
Rate of
accumulation of =
momentum in
CV
Momentum _
rate into CV
Momentum
+
rate out of CV
g
pA
pA +
s
s
Term-1
Asu
Term-2
Sum of all
forces in
positive
direction
acting on
CV
4
&u
m
Term-3
&u+
m
&u
m
s
s
Term-4
+ Gravity force
pA
A
s + p
s
Pressure force = pA pA +
s
s
p
= A
s
s
Shear force
w Ps
Gravity force
AsgSin ()
Conservation of Momentum - V
u
A
u
Au
p
+u
+ Au + u
= A w P AgSin
t
t
s
s
s
u
u
p
+ Au
= A w P AgSin
t
s
s
(Au ) (Au 2 )
p
+
= A w P AgSin
t
s
s
&)
& u)
(m
(m
p
=
A w P AgSin
t
s
s
& u)
(Aus)
(m
p
& u m
&u+
=m
A s w Ps AsgSin
t
s
s
Conservation of Momentum - IV
u
u
p
+ Au 2
= uA u w P uAgSin 5
t
s
s
2
2
u
u
2 + Au
2 = uA p u P uAg H
A
w
t
s
s
s
Au
Au
p + u
+ gH
2
=0
s
2
p + u
+ gH = Cons tan t
2
2 + Au p + uA (gH ) = 0
s
s
I-Law of Thermodynamics
Definitions
Specific Flow Energy
e=h+u
Bernoullis Equation
+ gH
Specific Energy
2
i = h p + u + gZ
Internal energy
I-Law - III
I-Law - II
qaxial
s
s
+
qaxial
E& CV
Work
q''axial
& e+
m
&e
m
q''surface
T
= k
qaxial
s
qsurface
= U (T T )
&e
m
s
s
e p
(Asi )
=
= As
t
t
& e)
(m
& inlet e inlet m
& exit e exit = m
& e m
&e+
m
s
s
& W
& +m
& inlet e inlet m
& exit e exit
E& CV = Q
& e)
(m
s
s
I-Law - V
I-Law - IV
We can write
& = Psu + W s
W
w
CV
A)
& = q Ps + q A q A + (qaxial
Q
s
surface
axial
axial
A)
(qaxial
P s
= qsurface
s
s
A)
(Ae) (Aue)
p
(qaxial
P w Pu
+
= A + qsurface
WCV
t
s
t
s
Conservative form
A)
e
e
p
(qaxial
+ Au = A + qP w Pu
WCV
t
s
t
s
A + qsurace
WCV
t
s
I-Law - VI
Mass Balance
&)
(A ) (m
+
=0
t
s
Momentum Balance
A)
(h )
(h )
p
p
(qaxial
P
A
+ Au
= uA + A + qsurface
W
t
s
s
t
s
10
& ) 1 (Au 2 )
p 1 (m
P
H
=
+
+ w + g
s A t
A
s
A
s
Energy Balance
A)
(h )
(h )
p
p
(qaxial
P
+ Au
= uA + A + qsurface
W
t
s
s
t
s
Solution Strategy-I
independent
Illustrative Application
dependent
A, H, P, t , s , u, m
& , p, w , h, qsurface
, qaxial
Variables
Equations
Closing relations
= (p, h )
u, p, h
chosen as primary
dependent variables
(specified / u , properties)
qsurface
= qsurface
= negligible
qaxial
& = Au
m
w = w (, geometry, u , vis cos ity )
Cooler
Sec.
Flow
Heater
Pump
Application-I
Application-II
Momentum Balance
Mass Balance
Pressure term
&)
(A ) (m
+
=0
t
s
Transient term
Acceleration term
Friction term
Gravitation term
& ) 1 (Au 2 )
p 1 (m
P
H
=
+
+ w + g
s A t
s
s
A
A
11
p
ds = 0
s
loop
Transient term
Application-III
Acceleration
term
Application-IV
&2
m
2
A
1 (Au 2 )
ds
ds =
s
s
all links A
all links
1
1
A 2 A 2=0
all links
i +1
i
&2
P
u 2
4
4m
1 f i L i K i
ds
=
f
ds
=
+
w
loop A loop 2 d hyd
2 i =all links A i 2 d hyd i 4
=
&2
m
where, f = 16
Friction term
Re
&)
&
&
1 (m
dm
ds dm
L
ds =
=
Ai
A
t
dt
A
dt
all links
i
loop
loop
Re < 1189.4
Gravitation
term
For pump link
g s ds = g (H
loop
exit i
H inlet i ) = 0
all links
p pump = gH pump
&
dm
L i 4m& 2
1 f i L i K i gH
+
+
pump = 0
2
2
d
4
A
dt all links A i
i =all links
i hyd i
Application-V
Application-VI
&
The integrated momentum equation has only one unknown viz., m
Energy Balance
A)
(h )
(h )
p
p
(qaxial
P
+ Au
= uA + A + qsurface
W + w Pu
t
s
s
t
s
Pump
Curve
&
m
(h )
(h )
p
P W + w Pu
+ Au
= uA + qsurface
t
s
s
small
For non-pump links
Linear variation for constant
dT
heat flux case and exponential
&
mc p
= q surface P
for constant U and Tamb case.
ds
A